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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Charles%20Alexander%20of%20Lorraine
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Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine
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Prince Charles Alexander Emanuel of Lorraine (; ; 12 December 1712 in Lunéville – 4 July 1780 in Tervuren) was a Lorraine-born Austrian general and soldier, field marshal of the Imperial Army, and governor of the Austrian Netherlands.
Early life
Charles was the son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans. When his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Lorraine, married the Archduchess Maria Theresa, daughter of Emperor Charles VI, Charles Alexander entered the Imperial service in 1737.
When his brother Francis traded the duchy to the ex-Polish king Stanisław Leszczyński in exchange for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany as one of the terms ending the War of the Polish Succession in November 1738, the ducal title to Lorraine and Bar passed beyond Charles to King Louis XV of France upon Leszczynski's death in 1766, though Francis and his successors retained the right to style themselves as dukes of Lorraine and Bar.
On 7 January 1744 he married Maria Theresa's only sister, Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria, thus making him doubly Maria Theresa's brother-in-law. The couple were jointly made Governors of the Austrian Netherlands.
Although Maria Anna died later the same year after marriage, Charles' popularity and lack of clear replacement allowed him to continue as governor and de facto sovereign until his own death in 1780. Charles also became Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in 1761.
During the War of the Austrian Succession, he was one of the principal Austrian military commanders. He was most notable for his defeats by better trained and superior forces under Frederick the Great. At the Battle of Chotusitz in 1742, his forces lost the battle but were able to inflict greater loss of life and retreat in good order. However, he lost more decisively to Frederick at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg and the Battle of Soor in 1745. He was also defeated by Maurice de Saxe at the Battle of Rocoux in 1746.
Seven Years' War
Despite his record of defeats, he was able to retain his position. He was able to attain command ahead of the more popular Marshal Browne because of the support of his brother who had significant influence over military appointments. During Austria's Third Silesian War against Prussia (part of the wider Seven Years' War), he commanded the army of the Roman-German Emperor at the Battle of Prague, where he was again defeated by Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, but was able to inflict heavy casualties on the larger Prussian forces. He subsequently defeated a much smaller Prussian army in 1757 at the Battle of Breslau before being completely routed by Frederick the Great at the Battle of Leuthen, which is considered one of Frederick's most brilliant victories. During the battle, he was commander of the Imperial Army as appointed by Maria Theresa.
At Leuthen, the Austrians were overwhelmingly defeated by an army half their size, with fewer guns, and tired after a long march over 12 days. Charles and his second in command, Count Leopold Joseph von Daun , sank "in the depths of despondency", and the Prince could not fathom what had happened. Charles had a mixed record against Frederick in past encounters but had never fared so badly as at Leuthen. After this crushing defeat, Maria Theresa replaced him with Daun; Charles retired from military service and subsequently served as the governor of the Austrian Netherlands. Though an unsuccessful military leader, Charles proved to be a competent administrator, well-liked by the population. Under him, the Austrian Netherlands flourished, and he was deeply involved in the cultural life of his province.
Family and private life
Because Charles ruled by right of his marriage to Maria Anna of Austria, Maria Anna's death very shortly after marriage created a situation on which his mistress Elisabeth de Vaux and his children, were kept under strict privacy and not made public. Indeed, his children were to present themselves only under the surnames of their mothers in public if they were in the Netherlands.
Though there is obscurity about his private affairs after the death of Maria Anna, it is known that from his mistress Elisabeth de Vaux, Charles had a son, Charles Alexandre Guillaume Joseph, and a grandson through the same; a stillborn daughter by an unnamed mistress; a son, Charles Frédéric, by an unnamed mistress; a son, Jean Nicholas, and a daughter, Anne Françoise, by an unnamed mistress. With his mistress Regina Elisabeth Bartholotti von Porthenfeld (b.1725) he had a daughter Maria Regina Johanna von Merey, later Baroness von Hackelberg-Landau (1744-1779). Some of his children were known to have lived in Dutch-speaking parts of Belgium temporarily or permanently, including his first son Charles Alexandre Guillaume Joseph, who was later known to have returned to Lunéville in Lorraine, to have claimed a substantially bountiful inheritance, to have had a son Gustav Auguste in 1788, and to have died in Nancy.
Ancestry
References
1712 births
1780 deaths
People from Lunéville
Military personnel of the Austrian Netherlands
18th-century French people
Austrian military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Austrian military personnel of the Seven Years' War
Burials at the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula
Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order
Nobility of the Austrian Netherlands
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Princes of Lorraine
Generals of the Holy Roman Empire
People of the Silesian Wars
Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
Politicians of the Austrian Netherlands
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200882
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Award%20for%20Technical%20Achievement
|
Academy Award for Technical Achievement
|
The Technical Achievement Award is one of three Scientific and Technical Awards given from time to time by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. (The other two awards are the Scientific and Engineering Award and the Academy Award of Merit.) The Technical Achievement Award is an honorary award that is given annually to those whose particular technical accomplishments have contributed to the progress of the motion picture industry. The award is a certificate, which describes the achievement and lists the names of those being honored for the particular contribution. These awards are usually given at a dinner ceremony held weeks prior to the Academy Awards broadcast and a brief excerpt is shown in the Oscars telecast.
Winners
See :Category:Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners.
References
External links
"Technical Achievement Award" – Description and photograph of this Academy Award on the official website of the Academy Awards (oscars.org). Lefthand menu links to these other related Honorary Awards; top menu includes links to home page and searchable Official Academy Award Database, with information about the winners of these awards and their official Academy Award citations.
Technical Achievement
American science and technology awards
|
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] |
200884
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20banned%20films
|
List of banned films
|
For nearly the entire history of film production, certain films have been banned by film censorship or review organizations for political or moral reasons or for controversial content, such as racism. Censorship standards vary widely by country, and can vary within an individual country over time due to political or moral change.
Many countries have government-appointed or private commissions to censor and rate productions for film and television exhibition. While it is common for films to be edited to fall into certain rating classifications, this list includes only films that have been explicitly prohibited from public screening. In some countries, films are banned on a wide scale; these are not listed in this table.
Afghanistan
List of films banned in Afghanistan
Albania
Arab League
Argentina
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Belgium
Brazil
Bulgaria
Cambodia
Canada
Chile
China
Czechoslovakia
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Denmark
Egypt
Fiji
Finland
France
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Jordan
Kenya
Kuwait
Lebanon
Malaysia
Mexico
Myanmar
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nigeria
North Korea
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Paraguay
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Romania
Russia
Samoa
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Singapore
Solomon Islands
South Africa
South Korea
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Taiwan
Thailand
Trinidad and Tobago
Turkey
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yugoslavia
Zimbabwe
See also
List of books banned by governments
List of banned video games
Streisand effect
Notes
References
External links
A complete list of Finland's banned films until 1997
Complete List of movies banned in Germany
List of banned films
History of film
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation%20Todt
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Organisation Todt
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Organisation Todt (OT; ) was a civil and military engineering organisation in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, named for its founder, Fritz Todt, an engineer and senior Nazi. The organisation was responsible for a huge range of engineering projects both in Nazi Germany and in occupied territories from France to the Soviet Union during World War II. It became notorious for using forced labour. From 1943 until 1945 during the late phase of the Third Reich, OT administered all constructions of concentration camps to supply forced labour to industry.
Overview
The history of the organisation can be divided into three phases. From 1933 to 1938, before the organisation existed, Fritz Todt's primary post was that of the General Inspector of German Roadways (Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen) and his primary responsibility, the construction of the Autobahn network. He was able to draw on "conscripted" (i.e., compulsory) labour, from within Germany, through the Reich Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst, RAD).
The second period lasted from 1938, when the Organisation Todt group proper was created, until February 1942, when Todt died in an aeroplane crash. After the invasion of Poland, Todt was named the Minister for Armaments and Munitions in 1940 (Reichminister für Bewaffnung und Munition), and the projects of the OT became almost exclusively military. The huge increase in the demand for labour created by the various military and paramilitary projects was satisfied by a series of expansions of the laws concerning compulsory service, which ultimately obligated all Germans to arbitrarily determined (i.e., effectively unlimited) compulsory labour for the state: Zwangsarbeit. From 1938 to 1940, more than 1.75 million Germans were conscripted into labour service. From 1940 to 1942, Organisation Todt began its reliance on Gastarbeitnehmer ('guest workers'), Militärinternierte ('military internees'), Zivilarbeiter ('civilian workers'), Ostarbeiter ('Eastern workers'), and Hilfswillige ('volunteer') POW workers.
The third period lasted from 1942 until the end of the war in 1945, when Albert Speer succeeded Todt in office and the OT was absorbed into the renamed and expanded Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production. Approximately 1.4 million labourers were in the service of the organisation. One per cent were Germans rejected from military service and 1.5% were concentration camp prisoners; the rest were prisoners of war and forced labourers from occupied countries. All were effectively treated as slaves and existed in the complete and arbitrary service of the totalitarian state. Many did not survive the work or the war.
Autobahn construction, 1933–1938
The autobahn concept had its beginnings in the efforts of a private consortium, the HaFraBa (Verein zur Vorbereitung der Autostraße Hansestädte-Frankfurt-Basel), initiated during 1926 for the purpose of building a high-speed highway between northern Germany and Basel, in Switzerland. While the idea did not originate with the Nazis, Adolf Hitler issued a decree establishing a Reichsautobahnen project for an entire network of highways, issued on 27 June 1933. He made it a vastly more ambitious public project and the responsibility was given to Fritz Todt as the newly named Inspector General of German Roadways.
By 1934, Todt had succeeded in elevating his office to near cabinet rank. Todt was an extremely capable administrator, and by 1938 the organisation had built more than of the roadway. The Autobahn project became one of the show pieces of the Nazi regime. In that period, Todt had also put together the administrative framework of what would become the Organisation Todt.
Initially, the Autobahn project relied on the open labour market as a source of workers. Germany was at this time still recovering from the effects of the Great Depression and there was no shortage of available labour. As the economy recovered and the supply of labour became a more serious issue, the OT was able to draw on conscripted (i.e., compulsory) workers, from within Germany through the Reich Labour Service (RAD) from 1935. As per the law of 26 June 1935, all male Germans between the ages of 18 and 25 were required to perform six months of state service. During this period, the work was compensated, at a rate slightly greater than that of unemployment assistance. The working conditions of the labour force would change drastically for the worse over the course of the following ten years.
Organisation "Todt", 1938–1942
The OT was not given an official name until Hitler bestowed one soon after coming to power during 1933. During 1938 Todt initiated the Organisation Todt proper as a consortium of the administrative offices, which Todt had established in the course of the Autobahn project, private companies as subcontractors and the primary source of technical engineering expertise, and the Labour Service as the source of manpower. He was appointed by Hitler as a plenipotentiary for labour for the second four-year plan, decreasing Göring's role. Investment in civil engineering work was reduced greatly.
Between 1939 and 1943, in contrast to the period from 1933 to 1938, fewer than of roadway were added to the Autobahn network. Emphasis was shifted to military efforts, the first major project being the Westwall (known in English as the Siegfried Line) built opposite the French Maginot Line and serving a similar purpose. Correspondingly, Todt himself was named Reich Minister of Armaments and Munitions in 1940. In 1941 Todt and his organisation were further charged with a project even larger, the construction of the Atlantic Wall, to be built on the coasts of occupied France, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Included with this project were the fortification of the British Channel Islands, which were occupied by Nazi Germany from 30 June 1940 to 9 May 1945. The only camps on British soil operated by the OT were in the Channel Islands; two of these OT camps were given to the management of the SS from March 1943 converting them into the Alderney concentration camps.
Fritz Todt died in an aeroplane crash on 8 February 1942, soon after a meeting with Hitler in East Prussia. Todt had become convinced that the war on the eastern front could not be won and thought himself independent enough to say as much to Hitler. As a result, there has been some speculation that Todt's death was a covert assassination, but this has never been substantiated.
Under Albert Speer, 1942–1945
Todt was succeeded by Albert Speer as Minister of Armaments and Munitions, and de facto manager of the Organisation Todt. Despite Todt's death, the OT continued to exist as an engineering organisation and was given more assignments. At the beginning of 1943, in addition to its continuing work on the Atlantic Wall, the organisation also undertook the construction of launch platforms in northern France for the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket. During the summer of that year, German war efforts became increasingly defensive, and the organisation was directed to construct air-raid shelters, repair bombed buildings in German urban areas, and construct underground refineries and armaments factories, also termed Project Riese.
During 1943, the organisation was administratively incorporated into Albert Speer's Ministry of Armaments and War Production. Speer's concerns, in the context of an increasingly desperate Germany, in which all production had been severely affected by materials and manpower shortages and by Allied bombing, ranged over almost the whole of the German war-time economy. Speer managed to increase production significantly, at the cost of a vastly increased reliance on compulsory labour. This applied as well to the labour force of the OT.
OT contractors
The OT was a co-operative effort of the German government and the German construction industry; the former supplied the manpower and the material, the latter supplied the technical know-how in the form of individual contractors (OT-Firmen) with their staff and equipment. Up to about 1942, the construction companies dominated the OT, but after Speer became its director, the governments control of the organisation increased through standardised contracts and uniform pay scales. The volunteer contracts with the OT were later augmented with compulsory contracts, forcing construction companies to work for the OT. The construction company contracted became a self-contained unit within the OT, composed of technical and administrative staff with the skill and equipment necessary to execute the construction tasks assigned to it. Smaller companies were hence combined to form an Arbeitsgemeinschaft. The organisation of OT contractors was standardised through instructions issued by Wirtschaftsgruppe Bauindustrie, the German construction industry association. Among the OT contractors were also construction companies in occupied Europe. French, Danish, and Norwegian companies contracted with German companies as sub-contractors for OT building projects.
There were several kinds of contracts between OT and the OT contractors. The most important were:
Cost reimbursement contract, where the materiel and labour was supplied by the company. It allowed a commission of 4½% as the profit of the contractor.
Efficiency output contracts, where the materiel and labour was supplied by the OT. The profit was computed on the basis of the wages paid to the contractor's own staff. This was the dominant type of contract from late 1942.
Organisation
Central organisation
During 1942 a centralised organisation of the OT was created when Speer became Reichsminister. A new HQ in Berlin, Amt OTZ, was created with Ministerialdirigent Franz Xaver Dorsch as chief of staff. It merged during 1944 with Amt Bau-OT to form Amt Bau-OT Zentrale directed by Speer, and with Dorsch as chief, representative of Speer as minister, and as general plenipotentiary for construction.
Amt Bau-OT Zentrale
Planning and construction
Supply
Manpower and social policy
Chief Engineer
Motor Vehicles
Administration and personnel
Front area personnel
Medical services
Communications
Central committee for construction
Source:
Administrative units
Area control staffs Army Group level
Einsatzgruppen
Construction
Technical
Supply
Administration and personnel
Front line personnel
Medical services
German (national) and foreign
OT-Einsatzgruppe Italien
OT-Einsatzgruppe Ost (Kiev)
OT-Einsatzgruppe Reich (Berlin)
OT-Einsatzgruppe Südost (Belgrade)
OT-Einsatzgruppe West (Paris)
OT-Einsatzgruppe Wiking (Oslo)
OT-Einsatzgruppe Russland Nord (Tallinn)
Area control staffs Army level
Einsatz
Basic construction sector
Oberbauleitung under Oberbauleiter.
Sub-sector
Bauleitung
Local control
Abschnittsbauleitung
Construction site
Baustelle
Intra German
Deutschland I ("Tannenberg") (Rastenburg)
Deutschland II (Berlin)
Deutschland III ("Hansa") (Essen)
Deutschland IV ("Kyffhäuser") (Weimar)
Deutschland V (Heidelberg)
Deutschland VI (Munich)
Deutschland VII (Prague)
Deutschland VIII ("Alpen") (Villach)
Sources:Handbook of Organisation Todt (1945). London: MIRS, vol. 1., p. 9.
Schutzkommando
The Schutzkommando was the security guards of the OT, whose mission was to maintain discipline and order among the foreign workers, as well as guarding the OT construction camps, buildings, and other property against enemy activities and theft. During marches the SK guarded the foreign workers in order to prevent escapes; the ratio of one SK-man per twenty foreign workers was used normally.
Organisation
SK-Kameradschaft (squad of 8-12 men)
SK-Zug (platoon of 35-60 men)
SK-Bereitschaft (company of 120-150 men)
SK-Abteilung (battalion); one or more per Einsatzgruppe.
Auxiliary field gendarmery
Two special organisations existed within the SK:
Ordnungskommando, stationary auxiliaries to the Feldgendarmerie.
Streifendienst, mobile Auxiliaries to the Feldgendarmerie
Source:
Auxiliary organisations
The NSKK supplied the motor vehicle transportation for the OT until 1944. The role of the NSKK began in 1938, with the NSKK-Transportbrigade Todt in charge of motor transportation for the construction of the Siegfried Line. In 1939, NSKK-Transportbrigade Speer was organised and put in charge of the motor transportation for the air base constructions under Baustab Speer within the OT. Foreign drivers were, however, recruited into the Legion Speer, since they – as aliens – could not be members of the NSKK, which was a sub-organisation of the Nazi Party. In 1942, Transportbrigade Todt, Transportbrigade Speer, and Legion Speer, was subsumed into an umbrella organisation, Transportgruppe Todt, which in 1944 was made into an organisation independent of the NSKK, the Transportkorps Speer. Inland waterways transportation was since 1937 the scope of the Transportflotte Speer, the Speer river fleet.
Forced labour
Organisation Todt was notorious for using forced labour. Most of the so-called "volunteer" Soviet POW workers were assigned to the Organisation Todt. The history of the forced labour by Nazi Germany has three main phases:
Organisation Todt was preceded by the office of General Inspector of German Roadways (Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen), operating between 1933 and 1938, responsible primarily for the construction of the German Autobahn network. The organisation was able to use "conscripted" (i.e. compulsory) labour from within Germany through the Reich Labour Service (RAD).
The period from 1938 until 1942, after Operation Barbarossa, when the Organisation Todt proper was initiated and utilised on the Eastern front. The huge increase in the demand for labour created by the various military and paramilitary projects was satisfied by a series of expansions of the laws on compulsory service, which ultimately obligated all Germans to arbitrarily determined (i.e. effectively unlimited) compulsory labour for the state: Zwangsarbeit. From 1938 to 1940, over 1.75 million Germans were conscripted into labour service. From 1940 to 1942, Organization Todt began its reliance on Gastarbeitnehmer (guest workers), Militärinternierte (military internees), civilian workers, Eastern workers, and "volunteer" POW workers.
The period from 1942 until the end of the war, with approximately 1.4 million labourers in the service of the Organisation Todt. Overall, 1% were Germans rejected from military service and 1.5% were concentration camp prisoners; the rest were prisoners of war and compulsory labourers from occupied countries. All were effectively treated as slaves and existed in the complete and arbitrary service of a totalitarian state. Many did not survive the work or the war. By the end of the war, the Reichsarbeitsdienst service for Germans had been reduced to six weeks of perfunctory military training and all available conscript German manpower diverted to military units and direct military support organisations. From the beginning of 1942 at the latest, their place was increasingly taken by prisoners of war and compulsory labourers from occupied countries. Foreign nationals and POWs were often, somewhat euphemistically, referred to as "foreign workers" (Fremdarbeiter). During 1943 and 1944, these were further augmented by concentration camp and other prisoners. Beginning in the autumn of 1944, between 10,000 and 20,000 half-Jews (Mischlinge) and persons related to Jews by marriage were recruited into special units.
Personnel structure
All members of the Organisation Todt, even forced labourers, with the exception of Jews, were regarded as Wehrmachtsgefolge, that is combatants by the law of war. Of these, only the German personnel were regarded as being Wehrmacht Auxiliaries (i.e. belonging to the Wehrmachtgefolgschaft). The Frontarbeiter (front workers) were German, Volksdeutsche, or Nordic members of the OT. They swore an oath of fidelity to Hitler, wore uniforms, and were armed. The mean age of this group was about 45-50 years. An Einssatzarbeiter was a foreign worker that swore an oath of allegiance, wore a uniform, but were not normally armed. They could not include Czechs, Poles, Jews, or Communists. At the end of the war, their designation became OT-Legionäre. OT-Eigenes Personal was the organic personnel of the OT, as opposed to the OT-Firmenangehörige, employees of the contractors working for the OT.
At wars end, all Org Todt members received blanket amnesty from the Western Allies. Many went on to serve in the post-war British and U.S. Labor Services in occupied Germany before emigrating to Britain, Australia, Canada and the United States. The U.S. Labor Service was considered the forerunner of the new German army. The Organisation Todt itself was found not guilty of war crimes at Nuremberg, although its leader Albert Speer served 20 years in Spandau Prison after admitting his crimes against humanity.
Categories
OT-Eigenes Personal consisted of administrative, supervisory, and clerical staff, recruited through voluntary employment of German citizens, or through conscription of Germans and Volksdeutsche, as well as French citizens working for OT in France, and also included Frontarbeiter and Einsatzarbeiter.
OT-Firmenangehörige consisted of the German permanent employees of the contractors. as well as conscripts serving with the contracted companies. These employees received uniforms, were given a rank, and were supposed to be given a briefer period of military training. They also included Frontarbeiter and Einsatzarbeiter.
Foreign workers, who were either Hilfswillige, East European volunteers, or forced Labourers of many nationalities.
Classification of personnel according to nationality
Germans and Volksdeutsche. Frontarbeiter in OT uniform.
Nordics (English, Norwegians, Swedes, Finns, Dutch, Danes, Flemings, Swiss). Frontarbeiter in OT uniform if volunteers. Civilian clothing for local workers in Scandinavia. Hilfsarbeiter if conscripted.
Latins and Slovaks. Einsatzarbeiter or Hilfsarbeiter in local uniforms.
Baltics and Balkans. Hilfsarbeiter.
Russians, Poles, Czech. Hilfswilliger or Zwangsarbeiter.
Jews. Zwangsarbeiter.
Stateless German Speakers. "Auslander".Frontarbeiter in OT uniform.
Ranks
Crimes against humanity and prosecution
During the construction of the Blood Road in Norway, more than 10,000 slave labourers from eastern Europe and some hundred German political prisoners were worked to death as part of the "vernichtung durch arbeit" ("annihilation by labour"). Several SS guards and local collaborators were sentenced to prison and death after the war in trials in Belgrade and Oslo. The head of the responsible OT unit for Scandinavia, Willi Henne, was extradited to the Soviet Union and served 10 years as a prisoner of war before returning to Hessen in West Germany.
While building the main military road for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, the so-called "Durchgangsstrasse IV" or Road of the SS from Lemberg to Donetsk, approximately 20,000 Jews were worked to death or shot dead in Nazi-occupied Poland and 25,000 in German-occupied Ukraine, as well approximately 50,000 Soviet prisoners of war. The road was issued by the SS that also rented slave labour and half-free labour to OT. OT subcontracted to German building companies and German engineers oversaw work of the more than 2000 km road.
The survivor Arnold Daghani published his memoirs in 1960 in German translation, accusing companies like Dohrmann and others to have assisted SS, SD and auxiliary troops in the deliberate killing of slave workers. A two-decade-long process against the main culprits with 1,500 witnesses interviewed resulted in not a single conviction, leading Daghani to call the process "merely a farce, a meaningless gesture."
None of the OT personnel were sentenced to prison in the Nuremberg Trials or other postwar trials in Germany. Despite a British Secret Service report stating that "Supervisory assignments in OT were generally reserved for Old Party Fighters, Party members with influential connections, and more recently for older SS members in rapidly increasing numbers. [...] The result is that [...] in proportion it harbours at least in its permanent administrative staff, possibly more ardent Nazis than a regular formation of the Party.
See also
Battery Moltke
Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke (DAW) defence contractor owned and operated by the Schutzstaffel (SS)
Forced labour under German rule during World War II
References
Notes
Bibliography
Herf, Jeffrey. "The Engineer as Ideologue: Reactionary Modernists in Weimar and Nazi Germany." Journal of Contemporary History (1984): 631–648.
Heyl, John D. "The Construction of the Westwall, 1938: An Exemplar for National Socialist Policymaking." Central European History (1981) 14#1 pp: 63–78. 0
Kroener, Bernhard R., Rolf-Dieter Muller, and Hans Umbreit, eds. Germany and the Second World War: Volume 5: Organization and Mobilization of the German Sphere of Power. Part I: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources, 1939–1941 (Oxford University Press, 2000)
Overy, Richard J. "Mobilization for Total War in Germany 1939–1941." English Historical Review (1988): 613–639.
Overy, Richard J. "Cars, roads, and economic recovery in Germany, 1932–8." The Economic History Review (1975) 28#3 pp: 466–483.
Seidler, Franz W. "Die Organisation Todt. Bauen für Staat und Wehrmacht 1938-1945." 301 pp.
Shand, James D. "The Reichsautobahn: Symbol for the Third Reich." Journal of Contemporary History (1984): 189–200.
Taylor, Blaine. Hitler's Engineers: Fritz Todt and Albert Speer-Master Builders of the Third Reich (Casemate Publishers, 2010)
Zeller, Thomas. Driving Germany: the landscape of the German autobahn, 1930–1970 (Berghahn Books, 2007)
External links
Ralf Blank Einsatz der Organisation Todt 2013 (Historisches Centrum Hagen)
Fritz Todt (Deutsches Historisches Museum)
Der Reichsarbeitsdienst (Deutsches Historisches Museum)
Organization Todt histclo.com
U.S. War Department, "The Todt Organization and Affiliated Services" Tactical and Technical Trends No. 30 (July 29, 1943).
Monochrome wartime image
Small-scale model of an Organisation Todt security guard, uniform as in autumn 1942 at the rear of the front in Russia
Todt, Organisation
Todt, Organisation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Todt
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Fritz Todt
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Fritz Todt (; 4 September 1891 – 8 February 1942) was a German construction engineer and senior Nazi who rose from the position of Inspector General for German Roadways, in which he directed the construction of the German autobahns (Reichsautobahnen), to become the Reich Minister for Armaments and Ammunition. From that position, he directed the entire German wartime military economy.
Before the beginning of World War II, he initiated what Hitler called Organisation Todt, a military-engineering company that supplied industry with forced labour and administered construction of the Nazi concentration camps in the late phase of Nazi Germany.
Todt died in an aircraft crash in 1942.
Early life and education
Todt was born in Pforzheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden (now in Baden-Württemberg) to Emil Todt (1861–1909) and his wife, Elise, née Unterecker (1869–1935). His father owned a small ring factory.
In 1910, he volunteered for one-year military service. From 1911 to 1914, Todt studied engineering at Technical Hochschule of Munich and Karlsruhe, graduating with a Diplom degree in construction engineering from the latter.
During World War I, he served initially with the infantry and then as front line reconnaissance observer within the Luftstreitkräfte (the German Air Forces – DLSK), winning the Iron Cross. After the war he resumed his studies and graduated in 1920.
Career
In 1921, he initially worked on waterpower stations for the Grün & Bilfinger AG, Mannheim company and the same year for the civil engineering company where he worked until 1933. In January 1922, he joined the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), or Nazi Party. In 1931, he joined the Sturmabteilung (SA), which was then commanded by Ernst Röhm. He rose steadily through its ranks, attaining the rank of SA-Obergruppenführer in September 1938. In 1932, Todt completed his thesis at Technical Hochschule of Munich Fehlerquellen beim Bau von Landstraßendecken aus Teer und Asphalt ("Sources of defects in the construction of tarmac and asphalt road surfaces") and became a Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.).
On 5 July 1933, five months after Adolf Hitler became Reichskanzler, Todt was appointed Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen (Inspector General for German Roadways). In November, this public authority was raised to the status of a "Supreme Reich Authority" (Oberste Reichsbehörde) outside the hierarchy of Reich Ministries; Todt was subordinated directly to Hitler. Alan S. Milward characterized this phase as follows:
"His personal views on business questions and, what was more important, the success of the motorway project kept Todt in the inner circle of the Führer. At the same time, his deliberate pose as a technical expert, as a man without interest in internal power struggles, saved him from the adversaries of the more important party leaders for a long time".
He was given the task of organizing a new construction company for the motorways (Reichsautobahnen). He edited the journal Die Strasse, which was a publication of his agency from 1934 to 1942.
For his work on the autobahnen, Todt was recognized with the German National Prize for Art and Science by Hitler, next to Ernst Heinkel, Ferdinand Porsche and Willy Messerschmitt. Hitler donated the award during 1937, devised as a replacement for the Nobel Prize, which Hitler forbade Germans from accepting starting during 1936.
In December 1936, he became Leiter des Hauptamts für Technik in der Reichsleitung der NSDAP (Director of the Head Office for Engineering in the National Directorate of the NSDAP) and, in December 1938, Generalbevollmächtigter für die Regelung der Bauwirtschaft (General Plenipotentiary for the Regulation of the Construction Industry) in the Four Year Plan. At the beginning of World War II in Europe, he was also appointed to the rank of Generalmajor of the Luftwaffe. In May 1938, he initiated the Organisation Todt (OT), joining government firms, private companies and the Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service). OT used up to 800,000 forced labourers (Zwangsarbeiter) from countries that Germany occupied during World War II. Todt was responsible for the construction of the "West Wall" (commonly named the "Siegfried Line" in English-speaking countries) to defend the Reich territory.
On 17 March 1940, Todt was appointed Reichsminister für Bewaffnung und Munition (Minister for Armaments and Munitions) which meant he managed the entire military economy.
After the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Todt was appointed to manage the restoration of the infrastructure there. In late July 1941, he was named Generalinspekteur für Wasser und Energie (Inspector General for Water and Energy). During that year, he became increasingly distant from the commanders of the Wehrmacht, in particular from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe (Commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe). After an inspection tour of the Eastern Front, Todt complained to Hitler that without better equipment and supplies for the armed forces, it would be better to end the war against the Soviet Union. Hitler rejected such an assessment and continued the offensive against the Soviets.
Personal life
Todt was married and had three daughters and one son.
On the occasion of his 50th birthday in 1941, he founded the Dr. Fritz Todt Foundation. The goal of the organisation was to promote young talents of technicians, especially young people from poor families by a training subsidy.
Death
On 8 February 1942, soon after take-off from the Wolfsschanze ("Wolf's Lair") airfield near Rastenburg, in East Prussia, Todt's aircraft crashed and he was killed. He was buried in the Invalids' Cemetery in the Scharnhorst-Strasse in Berlin. Posthumously, he became the first recipient of the newly created Deutscher Orden ("German Order"), the highest award that the Nazi Party could bestow on a person for "duties of the highest order to the state and party".
It has been suggested that Todt had been the victim of an assassination orchestrated by Hitler, but that has never been confirmed. A possible motive for killing Todt was that he had flown to the Wolf's Lair to recommend that Hitler sue for peace with Russia. Todt's production figures suggested that the German economy was not able to support the defeat of Russia and, by February, it was apparent Hitler's plan to rapidly subdue Russia in a Blitzkrieg was not succeeding.
Todt's successor as Reichsminister was Albert Speer, whom Hitler awarded an Org.Todt ring during May 1943. In his autobiography, Speer mentioned a Reich Air Ministry inquiry into the airplane accident, which he said ended with the sentence: "The possibility of sabotage is ruled out. Further measures are therefore neither requisite nor intended". Speer, who was present but had declined to travel on the same flight because he had been kept up late the night before, talking with Hitler, thought that the wording was "curious".
Legacy
On 8 February 1944, the second anniversary of Todt's death, Hitler awarded the Dr.-Fritz-Todt-Preis as a Badge of Honor of the Nazi Party for "Innovative accomplishments, which are of great importance for the Volk community because of the improvement of their weapons, ammunition and military equipment, and the saving of labor, raw materials and energy". The Badge of Honor came with a material prize and a certificate, was awarded as a medal made of gold, silver, or steel. The Golden Award of Honor was presented by Hitler in person upon proposal by the responsible Gauleiter, upon the joint proposal of Robert Ley, the director of the corresponding Deutsche Arbeitsfront and NSDAP leaders, and the director of the "Main office for Technology in the NSDAP", Albert Speer.
Major awards
1918 Iron Cross
1937 Werner-von-Siemens-Ring
1938 Deutscher Nationalpreis für Kunst und Wissenschaft
1939 Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
1942 Deutscher Orden.
See also
Economy of Nazi Germany
Forced labour under German rule during World War II
Nazi architecture
References
Further reading
, Rolf-Dieter Muller, and Hans Umbreit, eds. Germany and the Second World War: Volume 5: Organization and Mobilization of the German Sphere of Power. Part I: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources, 1939-1941 Oxford University Press, (2000)
Taylor, Blaine. Hitler's Engineers: Fritz Todt and Albert Speer-Master Builders of the Third Reich (Casemate Publishers, 2010)
Busch, Andreas: Die Geschichte des Autobahnbaus in Deutschland bis 1945. Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza 2002, .
: Fritz Todt, der Mensch, der Ingenieur, der Nationalsozialist. Ein Bericht über Leben und Werk. Gerhard Stalling, Oldenburg 1943.
, Eckhard Gruber: Mythos Reichsautobahn. 2. Auflage. Links, Berlin 2000, .
Franz W. Seidler: Fritz Todt. Baumeister des Dritten Reiches. Ullstein, Frankfurt am Main/Berlin 1988, .419 pp.
Adam Tooze: Ökonomie der Zerstörung. Die Geschichte der Wirtschaft im Nationalsozialismus. Siedler, München 2006 (German 2007), . New edition: Schriftenreihe der Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, vol. 663, . Wieder: Pantheon, München 2008, .
External links
Tribute to Fritz Todt. Story RG-60.3910, Film ID: 2691. Deutsche Wochenschau, February 1942 (in German). Duration 8:35 min. Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive, USHMM. Funeral of Fritz Todt at 01:05:12.
1891 births
1942 deaths
People from Pforzheim
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
20th-century German architects
German civil engineers
Luftstreitkräfte personnel
Sturmabteilung officers
Holocaust perpetrators
Architects in the Nazi Party
Nazi Germany ministers
Nazi Party officials
Major generals of the Luftwaffe
Burials at the Invalids' Cemetery
Technical University of Munich alumni
Prussian Army personnel
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914)
Recipients of the German Order (decoration)
Engineers from Baden-Württemberg
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1942
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Poland
Werner von Siemens Ring laureates
German military personnel of World War I
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200895
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miramichi%20River
|
Miramichi River
|
The Miramichi River is a river located in the east-central part of New Brunswick, Canada. The river drains into Miramichi Bay in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The name may have been derived from the Montagnais words "Maissimeu Assi" (meaning Mi'kmaq Land), and it is today the namesake of the Miramichi Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
Geography
The Miramichi River watershed drains a territory comprising one-quarter of New Brunswick's territory, measuring approximately 13,000 km² of which 300 km² is an estuarine environment on the inner part of Miramichi Bay. The watershed roughly corresponds to Northumberland County, but also includes sections of Victoria County, Carleton County, and York County and smaller parts of Gloucester County and Sunbury County.
The Miramichi River meander length measures approximately 250 km and comprises two important branches, the Southwest Miramichi River and the Northwest Miramichi River, each having their respective tributaries. Nearly every bend in the river, from Push and Be Damned Rapids to the Turnip Patch has a distinctive name, reflecting the importance of the river to fishermen, canoeists, and lumbermen. Tides reach upriver in the Miramichi system to Sunny Corner on the Northwest Miramichi and to Renous-Quarryville on the Southwest Miramichi — a distance of approximately 70 km inland from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The two branches combine at Newcastle where the river becomes navigable to ocean-going vessels.
The estuarine portion of the Miramichi River downriver from Newcastle in the city of Miramichi flows through a drowned river valley. Sea level rise in Miramichi Bay has flooded the mouth of the Miramichi River with saltwater. The estuary comprises the inner portion of Miramichi Bay and is protected from ocean storms in the Gulf of St. Lawrence by barrier islands. The estuary is significant in that it is a highly productive ecosystem, despite its relatively small size. The estuary receives the freshwater discharge from the Miramichi River and its tributaries, mixing with organic materials from the surrounding shorelines and the saltwater inundation from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, itself an estuary and the largest on the planet.
The estuary is a highly dynamic environment, ranging from the high outflows of freshwater during the spring freshet, to the low outflow and rising saltwater content during the summer period, to fall ocean storms and nor'easters that reshape the barrier islands and the old river channel that forms the navigation channel for ocean-going ships heading to ports at Chatham and Newcastle, to the winter covering of sea ice that encases the entire estuary. The inner bay measures only 4 m deep on average, with the navigation channel measuring only 6–10 m, resulting in significant warming of estuarine waters during the summer months. The diurnal tide cycle ranges only 1 m on average.
Tributaries
Important tributaries include:
Miramichi River
Bartibog River
Napan River
Bay du Vin River
Black River
Northwest Miramichi River
Sevogle River
Little Southwest Miramichi River
North-Pole River
Tomogonops River
Portage River
Little River
Southwest Miramichi River
Barnaby River
Renous River
Dungarvon River
Cains River
Bartholomew River
Taxis River
Geology
Rising in the Silurian and Ordovician rocks of the Miramichi Highlands, an extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the tributaries of the Miramichi River flow eastward into the New Brunswick Lowland, which dominates the eastern and central part of the province along the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Erosion has created the "Miramichi River valley" (also shortened to just "Miramichi Valley"), through which the Northwest and Southwest Miramichi rivers flow. Throughout the course of both branches to Newcastle, New Brunswick, they are framed by heavily forested low hills. The highest peaks in the Miramichi River watershed, include Big Bald Mountain and the Christmas Mountains, extending to 750 m above sea level.
Soils in the Miramichi River watershed are typically acidic with shallow topsoil, lending to poor suitability for agriculture. The shorelines of the estuarine portion of the Miramichi River exposes newer rocks belonging to the Carboniferous period and underlay the sandy topsoil, however some coastal land is low lying and suffers poor drainage. Sandstone rocks are visible along the river banks.
Fisheries
The Miramichi River and its tributaries originally supported one of the largest populations of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in North America. The Atlantic salmon is an anadromous fish, that is, one that is hatched and grows briefly in freshwater and then migrates to salt water while immature to grow to maturity, before returning to fresh water to spawn and complete their life cycle. The Miramichi River still maintains a reasonably healthy, self-sustaining run of Atlantic salmon, as well as lesser runs of other anadromous fish such as American Shad, smelt, herring and sea-run brook trout. About one-half of the sport catch of Atlantic salmon in North America are landed on the Miramichi River and its tributaries currently.
Atlantic salmon fishing is restricted to fly fishing only and all large salmon caught must be released alive to protect the spawning population. Since this fishery is highly regulated, all anglers should contact the New Brunswick Dept. of Natural Resources to obtain the specific rules and regulations for each river and tributary in the Province of New Brunswick prior to fishing, as special licences, salmon "tags" and permits are required, and certain sections of tributaries and the main river are closed to fishing from time to time to protect salmon brood stocks.
The annual salmon runs start in mid-June and continue through late October, when spawning commences in earnest. It is believed that distinct runs of salmon destined for specific tributaries occur at different times of the year, with those fish headed for the upper reaches of the watershed entering the river earlier than those that spawn in the lower tributaries.
Popular salmon flies on the Miramichi River include the Black Bear series, the Cosseboom series, Butterfly, Oriole, and the Blackville Special. Deerhair flies such as the "Buck Bug" or the "Green Machine" are also quite successful. Major portions of the Miramichi River salmon fishing waters are controlled by private clubs and outfitters, with "public water" that is available to all very limited. Further, all non-resident anglers must hire a registered guide to fish for Atlantic salmon in New Brunswick. Guides can be inquired for in the village of Doaktown and through Dept. of Natural Resources offices.
Environmental history
The Miramichi River has a significant environmental history which has brought negative attention to the province of New Brunswick. Known as one of the greatest salmon streams in North America, this waterway is frequented for both recreational and subsistence fishing. In the early 1950s the Miramichi area began having a spruce budworm problem which was affecting the trees purposed for the local pulp and paper industry. To combat the issue, a solution of the chemical DDT was sprayed aerially over the Miramichi area. Assuming the DDT would only harm the budworms, planes kept their spraying jets on over the entire region including over the major waterways. This chemical spraying project adversely affected the river as well as the living things within it, particularly the wild salmon. Soon after the spraying project, mass quantities of dead salmon washed up onto the riverbeds of the Miramichi River. Approximately only 1/3rd of the hatchlings and 1/6th of the already established salmon population survived. The spraying affected the salmon indirectly as well by eliminating the insect population which the fish depended on as a food source. Combating the spruce budworm problem by spraying DDT ultimately altered the entire ecosystem of the Miramichi River. This event was documented in a famous environmental text, Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, in 1962. Silent Spring had a huge influence on the 20th century environmental movement and shed light on issues in small areas such as Miramichi, New Brunswick. The emergence of the environmental movement in New Brunswick catalyzed involvement from a variety of different social groups to target the issue. Local media outlets, scientists, outdoors enthusiasts and members of the general public got involved. Eventually the federal government placed restrictions on DDT spraying in the province. This series of events ultimately demonstrated that industrial development has negative impacts on the environment.
See also
List of New Brunswick rivers
Dungarvon Whooper
Chatham, New Brunswick
Miramichi, New Brunswick
Newcastle, New Brunswick
Doaktown, New Brunswick
Blackville, New Brunswick
Boiestown, New Brunswick
Escuminac, New Brunswick
References
Rivers of New Brunswick
Landforms of Northumberland County, New Brunswick
|
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200899
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20Keyes
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Geoffrey Keyes
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Lieutenant General Geoffrey Keyes (October 30, 1888 – September 17, 1967) was a highly decorated senior United States Army officer who served with distinction in Sicily and Italy during World War II.
Early life
Keyes was born on October 30, 1888, in Fort Bayard, New Mexico, the son of Captain Alexander S. B. Keyes, a United States Army officer, and his wife, Virginia Maxwell Keyes. Like his father, Geoffrey enrolled as a cadet at the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York, on March 2, 1908, and graduated on June 12, 1913, being commissioned as a second lieutenant, into the Cavalry Branch of the United States Army. Among his fellow graduates were Charles H. Corlett, William R. Schmidt, Carlos Brewer, Robert L. Spragins, , Alexander Patch, Louis A. Craig, Henry Balding Lewis, Lunsford E. Oliver, and Willis D. Crittenberger. His first assignment was with the 6th Cavalry Regiment, where he served until October 1916 and participated in the Pancho Villa Expedition.
Military career
Keyes' next assignment was at the USMA, where he served as an instructor of French language. He was also head football coach for one season in 1917, compiling a record of 7–1.
Keyes' interwar service included duty with the Panama Canal Division as an Assistant Chief of Staff (G-3), instructor at the USMA and the United States Army Cavalry School at Fort Riley, Kansas, and Chief of Supply of Supply Division within War Department. He also graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff School in 1926 and the United States Army War College in 1937.
World War II
In 1940, during World War II, Keyes was chief of staff of the 2nd Armored Division, which was then commanded by Major General George S. Patton who, like Keyes, was a fellow cavalryman who had served with distinction in World War I and had taken a significant interest in armored warfare. Patton was to think highly of Keyes, later stating that he "had the best tactical mind of any officer I know."
In January 1942, a month after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the subsequent German declaration of war on the United States, on December 11, Keyes, now promoted to the one-star general officer rank of brigadier general, assumed command of Combat Command 'B' (CCB) of the 3rd Armored Division. In July, now a two-star major general, he raised the 9th Armored Division and, in September, relinquished command of the division to Major General John W. Leonard, before going to North Africa as Deputy Commander of the I Armored Corps, commanded by Patton, which was later redesignated the Seventh United States Army for the Allied invasion of Sicily.
Keyes was originally serving as deputy commander of the Seventh Army during the campaign, once again serving under Patton, in July 1943. During Operation Husky, when Patton split the Seventh Army in half, Keyes was given command of the Provisional Corps, composed of the 2nd Armored Division, the 3rd Infantry Division and the 82nd Airborne Division, along with two United States Army Ranger battalions, and supporting units. Advancing 125 miles in five days, through difficult mountainous terrain, the corps captured most of Western Sicily, including Palermo, the Sicilian capital, along with some 53,000 Axis soldiers, mainly Italians, along with nearly 600 vehicles, in exchange for less than 300 casualties. The corps then settled down for garrison duties and the administration of western Sicily until it was disbanded on August 20, three days after the end of the campaign. For his actions in the brief Sicilian campaign Keyes was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) wrote to General George Marshall, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, noting that his "reports on Keyes as an acting Corps Commander in the Sicilian affair was most favorable".
In September 1943 Keyes assumed command of the II Corps from Major General John P. Lucas and commanded it throughout the Italian Campaign, landing in Italy in mid-November and serving under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark's United States Fifth Army. Clark, who was eight years younger than Keyes, had been a fellow student at the United States Army War College in the late 1930s. His first major battle was the Battle of San Pietro Infine and later, with Major General Fred L. Walker's 36th Infantry Division under command, his corps took part in the controversial Battle of Rapido River, part of the first Battle of Monte Cassino. The corps sustained heavy losses in the battle. The corps was then involved in Operation Diadem, the fighting on the Gothic Line and the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, which ended the fighting in Italy.
Postwar
After the war Keyes commanded the Seventh Army from 1945 to 1946. In December 1945 he was by his friend George S. Patton's side when the latter died. This was followed by command of the United States Third Army, Patton's former command, from 1946 to 1947. In 1947, Keyes was appointed United States High Commissioner on the Allied Council for Austria. He served as Director, Weapons Systems Evaluation Group (WSEG) from 1951 to 1954.
Keyes retired from the army in 1954, after 41 years of service. He died on September 17, 1967, at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., just a few weeks short of his 79th birthday. He is interred at West Point Cemetery.
Decorations
Lieutenant General Keyes's ribbon bar:
Head coaching record
Bibliography
References
External links
Generals of World War II
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|-
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1888 births
1967 deaths
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
Army Black Knights football coaches
Burials at West Point Cemetery
People from Grant County, New Mexico
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
United States Army War College alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
Recipients of the Czechoslovak War Cross
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy faculty
Military personnel from New Mexico
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] |
200901
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II%20Corps%20%28United%20States%29
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II Corps (United States)
|
The II Corps was a corps-sized formation of the United States Army that was active in both World War I and World War II. It was originally formed and fought on the Western Front during World War I and was also the first American formation of any size to see combat in North Africa or Europe during World War II.
History
World War I
II Corps was organized on 24 February 1918.
Initially it consisted of the 27th, 30th, 33rd, 78th and 80th Divisions.
In June 1918, the individual divisions of II Corps, which was commanded by Major General George W. Read, were assigned to British and Australian corps for familiarization training. On the 4th of July, when elements of the 33rd Division (Major General George Bell Jr.) took part in the Battle of Hamel, while attached to the Australian Corps. (The Australian commander, General Sir John Monash, was said to have deliberately chosen the date as a gesture and motivator to the American infantry attached to his corps.) Individual platoons, from four companies of the 131st Infantry and 132nd Infantry, were distributed among Australian battalions, to gain combat experience. This, however, occurred without official approval as there was controversy regarding the battlefield command of US troops by junior officers from other countries. Thus, while Hamel was a relatively minor battle by the standards of World War I, it was historically significant as the first major offensive operation during the war to involve US infantry, the first occasion on which US units fought alongside British Empire forces, and a demonstration that the previously inexperienced American troops could play an effective role in the war. The battle was also historically significant for the use of innovative assault tactics, devised by the Australian general John Monash, were demonstrated. As a result of Pershing's dissatisfaction with the use of US troops the 78th, and 80th Divisions were reassigned and on 23 August 1918 the 33rd Division was moved to the Toul sector. This left just the 27th and 30th Divisions in II US Corps assigned to support the British Expeditionary Force if required. The Divisional artillery brigades of these divisions were also removed and on operations these divisions were supported by Australian or British artillery.
It first saw significant action in Europe in August 1918, in the Hundred Days Offensive, as part of the British Third Army.
The 33rd Division was in reserve behind the British 4th Army at the opening of the August offensive. With the British III Corps attack stalling on the Chipilly Spur feature the 131st Regiment of the 33rd Division was sent to assist on 9 August, which it did with distinction. The following day the Regiment was attached to the 4th Australian Division and remained there until 12 August. From 12 August until 20 August it was combined with the 13th Australian Brigade in what was called the Liaison Force commanded by Brigadier General E A Wisdom. This was designed to hold the front from the Somme to the Bray-Sur-Somme-Corbie road to relieve the 4th Australian Division from the operation. After this it returned to the 33rd US Division.
Advances made during a secondary assault by the Australian Corps (Battle of Albert) on 21–23 August, were exploited by the Allies in the Second Battle of the Somme. This pushed the German 2nd Army back along a front line. British and US units advanced on Arras. On 29 August, Bapaume fell to the New Zealand Division and other elements of the British IV Corps. This allowed the Australian Corps to cross the Somme River on 31 August and break the German lines in the Battle of Mont St. Quentin.
During late September 1918, with two Army National Guard Divisions (27th and 30th, less their artillery) under command, II Corps was attached to the Australian Corps as part of British Fourth Army. The Corps was involved in the Battle of St Quentin Canal, during which it suffered heavy losses.
The II Corps HQ took over the front from 6 October 1918 relieving the Australian Corps. It in turn was relieved in the line on 20 October by the IX British Corps.
Its Organisation for this phase was:
27th Division,
30th Division,
301 US Tank Battalion (Mk V tanks)
Attached troops
3 Squadron Australian Flying Corps,
VII Corps RA (British),
VII Corps HA (British),
4th Tank Bde (British),
1st Tank Bn (Mark V Star),
4th Tank Bn (Mark V).
The 301 US Tank battalion remained in support of the British 1st and 6th Divisions until 25 October.
II Corps was demobilized 1 February 1919.
Interwar years
As part of the National Defense Act of 1920, II Corps was constituted as a unit of the National Guard on 29 Jul 1921. On 15 August 1927 with a subsequent reorganization of the Army, the corps was constituted as a corps in the Regular Army. In preparation for the expansion of the Army, it was activated at Fort Jay, New York as a fully functioning combat unit on 1 August 1940.
World War II
Six months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the American entry into World War II, II Corps was sent to England in June 1942, under the command of Major General Mark W. Clark. In November, now under Major General Lloyd Fredendall, II Corps landed in Oran as part of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa. After initially making good headway against German forces during the Tunisia Campaign, II Corps was defeated by German troops under Hans-Jürgen von Arnim at the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid. II Corps was again decisively defeated in February 1943 during the Battle of Kasserine Pass by veteran troops under Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel. The defeats were compounded by American inexperience, poor senior leadership, and lack of armor comparable to that in the German panzer forces, as well as the highly effective German high-velocity 88 mm anti-tank guns, which were used in screening tactics to destroy American tanks lured into pursuit of German armored forces
In March 1943, after a change of command to Major General George Patton, II Corps recovered its cohesion and fought well for the rest of the Tunisia Campaign, winning the Battle of El Guettar. II Corps held the southern flank of the British First Army during the destruction of the remaining Axis forces in North Africa. The war in North Africa ended in May 1943 with almost 250,000 Axis soldiers surrendering, to become prisoners of war.
On 10 July 1943, II Corps, commanded now by Major General Omar Bradley, took part in the amphibious invasion of Sicily (codenamed Operation Husky) under command of the U.S. Seventh Army. It played a key part in the liberation of the western part of the island. The corps consisted of the 1st Infantry Division (United States), 3rd, 9th, and 45th Infantry Divisions. The Allied campaign in Sicily came to an end after 38 days.
Now under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, II Corps was sent to the Italian Front, arriving in mid-November as part of the U.S. Fifth Army, where it was to serve for the rest of the conflict, participating in grueling mountain warfare and often experienced fighting in terrible weather conditions. Soon after arrival, II Corps took the 3rd and 36th Infantry Divisions under command. In late January 1944 II Corps, now with the 1st Armored Division under command, took part in the Battle of Rapido River, part of the first Battle of Monte Cassino, to distract German attention away from the Anzio landings. The operation failed with heavy losses in the 36th Division. During the fourth and final battle of Cassino in May, II Corps consisted of the 85th and 88th Infantry Divisions. For the assault of the German Gothic Line, II Corps consisted of the 34th, 88th and 91st Infantry Divisions. The corps moved up the western side of Italy, and fought in the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, where it ended up on the right flank of the Fifth Army in May 1945.
II Corps was inactivated in Austria on 10 October 1945, following Germany's surrender.
Cold War
In March 1958, Camp Kilmer, New Jersey, became Headquarters for the reactivated II Corps as the controlling headquarters for United States Army Reserve units across the northeast. It also assigned personnel to active duty during the Vietnam war when its headquarters was moved to Fort Wadsworth, New York.
Inactivation
The corps was inactivated on 5 June 1970.
Commanders
MG Henry C. Pratt 26 November 1940 – 20 August 1941
MG Mark W. Clark 1 July 1942 – 10 October 1942
MG Lloyd Fredendall 10 October 1942 – 5 March 1943
MG George S. Patton, Jr. 5 March 1943 – 16 April 1943
MG Omar N. Bradley 16 April 1943 – 9 September 1943
MG John P. Lucas 9 September 1943 – 19 September 1943
MG Geoffrey Keyes 19 September 1943 – 10 October 1945
Notes
References
Gregory Blaxland, Amiens: 1918, London: Frederick Muller, 1968/Star, 1981, .
Center of Military History. To Bizerte with the II Corps, 23 April - 13 May 1943. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1990.
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds & Lt-Col R. Maxwell-Hyslop, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol V, 26th September–11th November, The Advance to Victory, London: HM Stationery Office, 1947/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, .
Major General Sir Archibald Montgomery, The Story of the Fourth Army in the Battles of the Hundred Days August 8th to November 11th 1918, Hodder and Stoughton, 1919.
John B. Wilson, 'Armies, Corps, Divisions, and Separate Brigades'
Mitchell A. Yockelson, Borrowed Soldiers: Americans under British Command, 1918, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, .
1918 establishments in the United States
Military units and formations established in 1918
Military units and formations disestablished in 1970
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] |
200903
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kite%20%28bird%29
|
Kite (bird)
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Kite is the common name for certain birds of prey in the family Accipitridae, particularly in subfamilies Milvinae, Elaninae, and Perninae.
Some authors use the terms "hovering kite" and "soaring kite" to distinguish between Elanus and the milvine kites, respectively. The group may also be differentiated by size, referring to milvine kites as "large kites", and elanine kites as "small kites".
Species
Subfamily Elaninae
Genus Elanus
Black-winged kite, Elanus caeruleus
Black-shouldered kite, Elanus axillaris
White-tailed kite, Elanus leucurus
Letter-winged kite, Elanus scriptus
Genus Chelictinia
Scissor-tailed kite, Chelictinia riocourii
Genus Gampsonyx
Pearl kite, Gampsonyx swainsonii
Subfamily Harpiinae
Genus Machaerhamphus
Bat hawk, Machaerhamphus alcinus – traditionally Elaninae or Falconinae
Subfamily Elaninae or Perninae
Genus Elanoides – often classified in Perninae
Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus
Subfamily Milvinae
Genus Haliastur
Whistling kite, Haliastur sphenurus
Brahminy kite, Haliastur indus
Genus Milvus
Red kite, Milvus milvus
Cape Verde kite, Milvus (milvus) fasciicauda – extinct (2000)
Black kite, Milvus migrans
Black-eared kite, Milvus (migrans) lineatus
Yellow-billed kite, Milvus (migrans) aegyptius
Subfamily Milvinae or Buteoninae, or tribe Harpagini
Genus Harpagus
Double-toothed kite, Harpagus bidentatus
Rufous-thighed kite, Harpagus diodon
Subfamily Milvinae or Buteoninae
Genus Ictinia
Mississippi kite, Ictinia mississippiensis
Plumbeous kite, Ictinia plumbea
Genus Rostrhamus
Snail kite, Rostrhamus sociabilis
Genus Helicolestes
Slender-billed kite, Helicolestes hamatus – formerly in Rostrhamus
Subfamily Milvinae or Perninae
Genus Lophoictinia
Square-tailed kite, Lophoictinia isura
Genus Hamirostra
Black-breasted buzzard, Hamirostra melanosternon
A few of the traditional Perninae are also called kites.
Genus Leptodon
Grey-headed kite, Leptodon cayanensis
White-collared kite, Leptodon forbesi
Genus Chondrohierax
Hook-billed kite, Chondrohierax uncinatus
Cuban kite, Chondrohierax (uncinatus) wilsonii
Taxonomy and systematics
19th century
In 1824, Vigors proposed five divisions or stirpes of the family Falconidae: Aquilina (eagles), Accipitrina (hawks), Falconina (falcons), Buteonina (buzzards) and Milvina (kites, containing two genera Elanus and Milvus). He characterized the kites as having weaker bill and feebler talons than the buzzards, tail more or less forked, and wings longer than the tail.
In Elanus, he grouped the black-winged kite (now several Elanus spp.), scissor-tailed kite (now Chelictinia), and swallow-tailed kite (now Elanoides). These species all have pointed wings with the second primary the longest. The pattern of scales on the legs (acrotarsi) is reticulated, and the toes are separated. But Vigors noted that only the black-winged kite had rounded undersides on the nails of its talons, a trait found in the osprey but not in any other raptors, and thus suggested a separation of Elanus into two sections. A year later, he established a separate genus Nauclerus for the scissor- and swallow-tailed kites.
Milvus contained the familiar red and black kites. The fourth primary feather is the longest, leg scales are scutellated, and the exterior toe is united to the middle toe by a membrane.
Vigors placed Ictinia – "the Milan Cresserelle of M. Vieillot" and "the Mississippi Kite of Mr. Wilson" – into Buteonina. Though noting that "the wings are of considerable length, extending far beyond the tail, a character which has induced M. Vieillot and others to place this bird near the Kites", he wrote that the strong affinity in characteristics and manners warranted it to be placed closer to the falcons.
20th century
Swann's 1922 synopsis grouped all the kites together with the "cuckoo-falcons" and honey buzzards into a large Milvinæ subfamily. His order was: Elanoides, Chelictinia, Milvus, Lophoictinia, Rostrhamus, Helicolestes, Chondrohierax, Odontriorchis, Gypoictinia (=Hamirostra), Elanus, Gampsonyx, Ictinia, Harpagus, Baza, Aviceda, Henicopernis, Machærhamphus, Pernis.
In contrast, Peters grouped the large kites into subfamily Milvinae and most small kites into Elaninae, with a few small kites joining the honey-buzzards and bazas in Perninae. His arrangement of kite genera was as follows:
Elaninae: Elanus, Chelictinia, Machaerhamphus.
Perninae: Elanoïdes, (Aviceda, Henicopernis, Pernis, Odontotriorchis), Chondrohierax.
Milvinae: Harpagus, Ictinia, Rostrhamus, Helicolestes, Milvus, Lophoictinia, Hamirostra, Haliastur.
Polyhieracinae: Gampsonyx
The pearl kite Gampsonyx had variously been placed with the accipiters, forest-falcons, or elanine kites. It was not until the 1960s that a similar molt schedule established its affinity to Elanus.
21st century
By 2015, genetic research showed that many of the kite genera are related to honey-buzzards, and that the tiny bat hawk (Machaerhamphus or Macheirhamphus) is actually related to the huge harpy eagles. Several of the large kites are related more closely to the Buteo hawks (buzzards) than to the group of "true" kites and sea-eagles.
Boyd places the "true" milvine kites (Milvus and Haliastur) with the sea-eagles in tribe Milvini within Buteoninae. This results in the following arrangement (genera in parentheses are not generally called kites):
Elaninae: Gampsonyx, Chelictinia, Elanus.
Perninae: Chondrohierax, Leptodon, Elanoides, (Pernis), Hamirostra, Lophoictinia, (Henicopernis).
Buteoninae
Harpagini: Harpagus.
Milvini: Haliastur, Milvus, (Haliaeetus, Icthyophaga).
Buteonini: many genera, including the kites Ictinia, Rostrhamus, and Helicolestes.
Ictinia is near-basal, after the Old-World genus Butastur. Rostrhamus and Helicolestes form a clade with the black-collared hawk (Busarellus) and the crane hawk (Geranospiza).
As early as 1882, Anton Reichenow had also placed Section Milvinæ alongside Section Buteoninæ in Subfamily Buteoninæ.
In mythology
Isis is said in ancient Egyptian mythology to have taken the form of a kite in various situations in order to resurrect the dead.
It also figures in several fables by Aesop which underline its character as a predator: The Sick Kite, The Kite and the Doves and a variant of The Crow and the Snake.
References
External links
Weekly Radio Segments from With the Wild Things: Kites
Kite videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Bird common names
Birds of prey
Vultures
|
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] |
200904
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36th%20Division
|
36th Division
|
36th Division or 36th Infantry Division may refer to:
Infantry divisions
36th Division (German Empire)
36th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)
36th Infantry Division Forlì, Italy
36th Infantry Division (Poland)
36th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)
36th Guards Rifle Division, Soviet Union, fought in the Battle of Stalingrad
36th (Ulster) Division, British Army, World War I
36th Infantry Division (United Kingdom), World War II
36th Infantry Division (United States)
36th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
Cavalry divisions
36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), Republic of China
Armoured divisions
36th Division (Israel)
36th Tank Division (Soviet Union), with 17th Mechanized Corps, June 1941
See also
36th Brigade (disambiguation)
36th Regiment (disambiguation)
36 Squadron (disambiguation)
|
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] |
200907
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert
|
Inert
|
Inert may refer to:
Chemically inert, not chemically reactive
Inert gas
Noble gas, historically called inert gas
Inert knowledge, information which one can express but not use
Inert waste, waste which is neither chemically nor biologically reactive and will not decompose
Inert ingredient, a component of the excipient of a pharmaceutical drug
Inert matter, a matter that is not alive. See Life#Range of tolerance
Inert prime, a type of behaviour of a prime under an algebraic extension
Inert munition, a dummy round that does not contain any energetic material
See also
Inertia (disambiguation)
|
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200918
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20Beatty%20Library
|
Chester Beatty Library
|
The Chester Beatty Library, now known as the Chester Beatty, is a museum and library in Dublin. It was established in Ireland in 1950, to house the collections of mining magnate, Sir Alfred Chester Beatty. The present museum, on the grounds of Dublin Castle, opened on 7 February 2000, the 125th anniversary of Beatty's birth and was named European Museum of the Year in 2002.
The museum's collections are displayed in two galleries: "Sacred Traditions" and "Arts of the Book". Both displays exhibit manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and some decorative arts from the Persian, Islamic, East Asian and Western Collections. The Chester Beatty is one of the premier sources for scholarship in both the Old and New Testaments and is home to one of the most significant collections of Western, Islamic and East & South East Asian artefacts. The museum also offers numerous temporary exhibitions, many of which include works of art on loan from foreign institutions and collections. The museum contains a number of priceless objects, including one of the surviving volumes of the first illustrated Life of the Prophet and the Gospel of Mani believed to be the last remaining artefact from Manichaeism.
Collections
Western Collections
The Western Collection houses many illuminated manuscripts, rare books and Old Master prints and drawings. With biblical texts written in Armenian, Church Slavonic, Coptic, Ge’ez, Greek, Latin and Syriac, the collection’s Christian material comes from diverse cultural and geographical backgrounds. The papyrus codices in the Chester Beatty include Papyrus 45 and Papyrus 46 among others which are some of the earliest surviving Christian artefacts in the world. In addition, a significant proportion of the rare printed books and prints are also Christian in focus. The collection of papyri is one of the most extensive in the world and includes almost the entire corpus of Ancient Egyptian Love Songs.
Islamic Collections
The Islamic Collection is divided between the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Qur'an and Mughal-Era Indian Collections. The Arabic texts include treatises on religion, history, jurisprudence, medicine, geography, mathematics, astronomy and linguistics. Some of the finest miniatures from imperial Mughal albums, called Muraqqa', are housed in the Chester Beatty Library, with important paintings from the Late Shah Jahan Album and the Minto Album. The albums were the subject of an exhibition and publication by the Islamic curator, Dr Elaine Wright, Muraqqa': Imperial Albums of the Chester Beatty Library. Often on display is the Ibn al-Bawwab Qur'an, copied by one of the greatest medieval Islamic calligraphers.
Persian Collection
The Persian collection contains various miniatures and manuscripts of classical Persian poets such as Ferdowsi and Nizami.
East Asian Collections
The East Asian Collection has one of the most extensive collections of carved snuff bottles, many of which were included in the catalogue, The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin: Chinese Snuff Bottles. It also has Japanese art, including a pair of long picture-scrolls painted in the 17th century by Kanō Sansetsu.
Collection highlights
Arabic collection
Armenian collection
Biblical papyri collection
Burmese collection
Chinese collection
Coptic collection
Egyptian Papyrus collection
Ethiopian collection
Indian collection
Indian (non-Mughal) collection
Islamic collection
Japanese collection
Papyrus collection
Persian collection
Thai collection
Turkish collection
Western collection
Western Miscellaneous collection
Western Prints and Drawings collection
Others
References
External links
Meeting at the Chester Beatty, read by Catherine Ann Cullen
Archives in the Republic of Ireland
Libraries in Dublin (city)
Decorative arts museums in Ireland
Literary museums in Ireland
Museums in Dublin (city)
Art museums and galleries in the Republic of Ireland
Asian art museums
Libraries established in 1950
Library buildings completed in 2000
1950 establishments in Ireland
|
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200919
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift%20velocity
|
Drift velocity
|
In physics, a drift velocity is the average velocity attained by charged particles, such as electrons, in a material due to an electric field. In general, an electron in a conductor will propagate randomly at the Fermi velocity, resulting in an average velocity of zero. Applying an electric field adds to this random motion a small net flow in one direction; this is the drift.
Drift velocity is proportional to current. In a resistive material, it is also proportional to the magnitude of an external electric field. Thus Ohm's law can be explained in terms of drift velocity. The law's most elementary expression is:
where is drift velocity, is the material's electron mobility, and is the electric field. In the MKS system, these quantities' units are m/s, m2/(V·s), and V/m, respectively.
When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, free electrons gain velocity in the direction opposite to the electric field between successive collisions (and lose velocity when traveling in the direction of the field), thus acquiring a velocity component in that direction in addition to its random thermal velocity. As a result, there is a definite small drift velocity of electrons, which is superimposed on the random motion of free electrons. Due to this drift velocity, there is a net flow of electrons opposite to the direction of the field.
Experimental measure
The formula for evaluating the drift velocity of charge carriers in a material of constant cross-sectional area is given by:
where is the drift velocity of electrons, is the current density flowing through the material, is the charge-carrier number density, and is the charge on the charge-carrier.
This can also be written as:
But the current density and drift velocity, j and u, are in fact vectors, so this relationship is often written as:
where
is the charge density (SI unit: coulombs per cubic metre).
In terms of the basic properties of the right-cylindrical current-carrying metallic ohmic conductor, where the charge-carriers are electrons, this expression can be rewritten as:
where
is again the drift velocity of the electrons, in m⋅s−1
is the molecular mass of the metal, in kg
is the electric conductivity of the medium at the temperature considered, in S/m.
is the voltage applied across the conductor, in V
is the density (mass per unit volume) of the conductor, in kg⋅m−3
is the elementary charge, in C
is the number of free electrons per atom
is the length of the conductor, in m
Numerical example
Electricity is most commonly conducted through copper wires. Copper has a density of and an atomic weight of , so there are . In one mole of any element, there are atoms (the Avogadro number). Therefore, in of copper, there are about atoms (). Copper has one free electron per atom, so is equal to electrons per cubic metre.
Assume a current , and a wire of diameter (radius = ). This wire has a cross sectional area of π × ()2 = = . The charge of one electron is . The drift velocity therefore can be calculated:
Dimensional analysis:
Therefore, in this wire, the electrons are flowing at the rate of . At 60Hz alternating current, this means that, within half a cycle, the electrons drift less than 0.2 μm. In other words, electrons flowing across the contact point in a switch will never actually leave the switch.
By comparison, the Fermi flow velocity of these electrons (which, at room temperature, can be thought of as their approximate velocity in the absence of electric current) is around .
See also
Flow velocity
Electron mobility
Speed of electricity
Drift chamber
Guiding center
References
External links
Ohm's Law: Microscopic View at Hyperphysics
Condensed matter physics
|
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200920
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20von%20Vietinghoff
|
Heinrich von Vietinghoff
|
Heinrich Gottfried Otto Richard von Vietinghoff genannt Scheel (6 December 1887 – 23 February 1952) was a German general (Generaloberst) of the Wehrmacht during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. Vietinghoff commanded the German troops in German-occupied Italy in 1945.
Military career
On 24 November 1938, Vietinghoff was appointed commander of the 5th Panzer Division and took part in the invasion of Poland under Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb. He was promoted to General in June 1940 after which he led the German XLVI Panzer Corps in the invasion of Yugoslavia.
During Operation Barbarossa, his Corps was part of Army Group Centre under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock. As all commanders of the German corps on the Eastern Front during the invasion, Vietinghoff implemented the criminal Commissar Order. Vietinghoff also later served with General Heinz Guderian in the 2nd Panzer Army.
From December 1941 to August 1943, he was Commander-in-Chief of the German Fifteenth Army in France. In Italy from August 1943 he commanded German Tenth Army, which was responsible for the delaying actions through the successive defensive lines built across Italy. Notable in this context were the defences on the Winter Line from November 1943 to May 1944 and the fighting in the autumn of 1944 on the Gothic Line.
In October 1944, he was temporarily raised to overall command in Italy (Army Group C) when Field Marshal Albert Kesselring was seriously injured in a car crash. In January 1945, on Kesselring's return, he left Italy to command Army Group Courland in East Prussia. When Kesselring was moved in March 1945 to command German Army Command West (OB West) in France, Vietinghoff returned as the supreme German commander in Italy.
At the end of April 1945, he made contact with the Allied forces and on 29 April, his representative General Karl Wolff signed on his behalf at the Royal Palace in Caserta the instrument of surrender on 2 May 1945 at noon. Afterwards he spent two and a half years in British captivity at Bridgend Island Farm (Special Camp XI) among high-ranking German prisoners. He was released in September 1947.
After the war Vietinghoff was a member of the expert group dealing with the question of German rearmament. In October 1950 he wrote the Himmerod memorandum, named after the Himmerod Abbey where it was written, on behalf of the Adenauer government, on West German contributions to European defence. He died on 23 February 1952 in Pfronten.
Military awards
Prussian Iron Cross (1914) 1st Class (23 April 1915) & 2nd Class (13 September 1914)
Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939) 1st Class (28 September 1939) & 2nd Class (21 September 1939)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight's Cross on 24 June 1940 as General der Panzertruppe and commanding general of XIII. Armeekorps
456th Oak Leaves on 16 April 1944 as Generaloberst and commander-in-chief of the 10. Armee
German Cross in Gold - 22 April 1942 as General der Panzertruppe and commanding general of the XXXXVI Panzerkorps
References
Citations
Bibliography
1887 births
1952 deaths
People from Mainz
Military personnel from Mainz
People from Rhenish Hesse
Generals of the German Army (Wehrmacht)
Colonel generals of the German Army (Wehrmacht)
Prussian Army personnel
German military personnel of World War I
German military personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Recipients of the Hanseatic Cross (Lübeck)
Officers of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria)
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom
Recipients of the clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st class
Himmerod meeting participants
Reichswehr personnel
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid%20Theatre%20Company
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Druid Theatre Company
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The Druid Theatre Company, referred to as Druid, is an Irish theatre company, based in Galway, Ireland.
As well as touring extensively across Ireland, the company's productions have played internationally to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA. Druid has been a "pioneer" in the development of Irish theatre and is credited (alongside Macnas and the Galway Arts Festival) with making Galway one of the primary cultural centres in Ireland.
History
In 1975, the company was founded by Garry Hynes, Marie Mullen and Mick Lally - all of whom first met and worked together as members of University College Galway dramatic society, commonly known as NUIG Dramasoc. It was the first Irish professional theatre company to be established outside Dublin.
Since 1979, Druid has owned a theatre building in Galway City Centre. The former tea storehouse was originally owned by the McDonaghs, one of Galway's wealthy merchant families. In the late 1970s, the company negotiated a peppercorn rent with the owners which enabled the company to renovate and install its own venue and rehearsal space - which the McDonagh family later donated to Druid. In 2011, following refurbishment, what was originally known as the Druid Theatre was renamed The Mick Lally Theatre in memory of Druid co-founder, the late Mick Lally. The theatre serves as a dedicated workspace for the company and has also established itself as a cultural facility for the promotion and the development of the arts in Galway. The lane on which the theatre is situated has gone by numerous names; including Red Earls' Lane, Chapel Lane, Courthouse Lane, and since 1996, Druid Lane, when Galway City Council renamed it in celebration of the company’s 21st birthday.
In 1996, Druid premiered Martin McDonagh's debut play The Beauty Queen of Leenane''', in a co-production with the Royal Court Theatre, London. Following an opening in Galway, the production played across Ireland, in London, Sydney, and New York. During its Broadway run, the production won four Tony Awards, including Best Director for Garry Hynes - the first woman to win an award for directing in the history of the awards ceremony. In 2005, the company presented DruidSynge, an production of all six plays of John Millington Synge as a day-long theatrical event, at the Galway Arts Festival to critical acclaim. Several years later, Druid revived a trilogy of Tom Murphy's plays (Conversations on a Homecoming, A Whistle in the Dark and Famine) entitled DruidMurphy; this production later won several Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards in 2014. Druid continued to present large-scale ensemble productions in 2015 with DruidShakespeare - William Shakespeare’s Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V in a new adaptation by Mark O'Rowe - which toured Ireland, the UK and the prestigious Lincoln Center Festival.
As of 2013, a permanent Druid Ensemble existed to work alongside artistic director Garry Hynes to further the artistic programme of the company and to "investigate new creative possibilities." This ensemble is composed of Marie Mullen, Marty Rea, Rory Nolan, Aaron Monaghan, Aisling O’Sullivan, Garrett Lombard and Derbhle Crotty.
Key productions
This is extensive list of the key productions which have been produced and performed by the Druid Theatre Company over the span of forty four years. However, some productions have been omitted.
Conversations on a Homecoming, by Tom Murphy. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Paul Brennan, Jane Brennan and Marie Mullan. (1985).
Bailegangaire, by Tom Murphy. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Siobhán McKenna, Marie Mullan, Mary McEvoy (1985).
At the Black Pig's Dyke, by Vincent Woods. World premiere (1992).
The Beauty Queen of Leenane, by Martin McDonagh. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Anna Manahan, Marie Mullen, Tom Murphy and Brian F. O'Byrne (1996).
The Lonesome West, by Martin McDonagh. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Brian F. O'Byrne, Dawn Bradfield (1997).
A Skull in Connemara, by Martin McDonagh. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Mick Lally, Anna Manahan, Brian F. O'Byrne (1997).
[[On Raftery’s Hill]], by Marina Carr. World premiere (2000).
Sive, by John B. Keane. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Anna Manahan, Derbhle Crotty, Ruth Bradley, Eamon Morrissey (2002).
The Playboy of the Western World, by John Millington Synge. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Cillian Murphy, Anne-Marie Duff, Aisling O'Sullivan, Eamon Morrissey (2004).
DruidSynge, plays by John Millington Synge. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aaron Monaghan, Marie Mullen, Catherine Walsh, Eamon Morrissey (2005).
The Walworth Farce, by Enda Walsh. World premiere, directed by Mikel Murfi and starring Aaron Monaghan, Garrett Lombard, Denis Conway (2007).
My Brilliant Divorce, by Geraldine Aron. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Deirdre O’Kane (2007).
The Cripple of Innismaan, by Martin McDonagh. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aaron Monaghan and Marie Mullen (2008).
The Gigli Concert, by Tom Murphy. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Denis Conway, Eileen Walsh (2009).
The New Electric Ballroom, by Enda Walsh. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Rosaleen Linehan, Catherine Walsh, Mikel Murfi (2009).
Penelope, by Enda Walsh. World premiere, directed by Mikel Murfi and starring Aaron Monaghan, Denis Conway, Karl Shiels, Niall Buggy (2010).
The Silver Tassie, by Sean O'Casey. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aaron Monaghan, Derbhle Crotty, John Olohan, Eamon Morrissey (2010).
Big Maggie, by John B. Keane. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aisling O'Sullivan, Keith Duffy, John Olohan, Charlie Murphy, Sarah Greene. (2011).
DruidMurphy: Conversations on a Homecoming, A Whistle in the Dark, Famine; by Tom Murphy. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aaron Monaghan, Marty Rea, Marie Mullen, Garrett Lombard, Rory Nolan, John Olohan, Eileen Walsh, Niall Buggy, Sarah Greene, Gavin Drea (2012).
The Colleen Bawn, by Dion Boucicault. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Aaron Monaghan, Marie Mullen, Marty Rea, Aisling O'Sullivan, Rory Nolan (2013).
Be Infants in Evil, by Brian Martin. World premiere presented as part of a double bill with Bailegangaire, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marty Rea (2014).
Brigit, by Tom Murphy. World premiere, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marie Mullen, Catherine Walsh, Aisling O'Sullivan, Marty rea, Jane Brennan, (2014).
DruidShakespeare: Richard II, Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV Part 2, Henry V, by William Shakespeare, adapted by Mark O'Rowe (2015). Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marty Rea, Marie Mullen, Aisling O'Sullivan, Derbhle Crotty, Aaron Monaghan, Rory Nolan, Garrett Lombard, John Olohan, Gavin Drea.
Helen and I, by Meadhbh McHugh. World premiere, directed by Annabelle Comyn and starring Cathy Belton and Rebecca O'Mara.
The Beauty Queen of Leenane, by Martin McDonagh. Twentieth anniversary revival, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marie Mullen, Aisling O'Sullivan, Marty Rea, Aaron Monaghan (2016)
Waiting for Godot, by Samuel Beckett, directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marty Rea, Aaron Monaghan, Rory Nolan and Garrett Lombard.
Crestfall, by Mark O'Rowe. Directed by Annabelle Comyn and starring Siobhán Cullen, Kate Stanley Brennan and Amy McElhatton (2017).
King of the Castle, by Eugene McCabe. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marty Rea, John Olohan, Seán McGinley (2017).
Sive, by John B. Keane. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marie Mullen, Tommy Tiernan (2018).
Furniture, by Sonya Kelly. World premiere, directed by Cathal Cleary and starring Aisling O'Sullivan, Rebecca O'Mara, Garrett Lombard, Niall Buggy (2018).
Shelter, by Cristín Kehoe. World premiere, directed by Oonagh Murphy and starring Aaron Monaghan, Rory Nolan (2018).
DruidShakespeare: Richard III, by William Shakespeare. Directed by Garry Hynes and starring Marty Rea, Aaron Monaghan, Garrett Lombard, Jane Brennan, Rory Nolan (2018).
Beauty Queen of Leenane
Garry Hynes returned to the Druid Theatre Company as its artistic director in 1995, after stepping down from the Abbey Theatre (Artistic Director, 1991-1994). It was during this time that Hynes and her colleague Anne Butler read The Beauty Queen of Leenane - a script submitted by an unknown writer named Martin McDonagh. Several months later, on 1 February 1996, McDonagh's play received its world premiere at the newly refurbished Town Hall Theatre, Galway, in a co-production between Druid and the Royal Court Theatre, London. Directed by Hynes, the cast consisted of four actors: Druid founding member Marie Mullen as Maureen Foley; Anna Manahan as her elderly mother Mag; Brian F. O'Byrne as Ray Dooley; and Tom Murphy as Pato Dooley. The response, from both audiences and critics alike, was immediate and overwhelmingly positive. As noted in the Sunday Times on 10 March 1996, The Beauty Queen of Leenane was "one of the most exhilarating debuts in years".
The production then toured Ireland before transferring to the Royal Court Theatre, London, on 24 Feb 1996. Following this critically acclaimed run, the production moved to Ireland where it embarked on an extensive national tour before returning again to London's West End where it played at the Duke of York's Theatre for several months, beginning on 29 November 1996. It was later nominated at the 1996 Olivier Awards for Play of the Year. In February 1998, the production received its American Off-Broadway premiere at the Linda Gross Theater, in a co-production with the Atlantic Theater Company, before it transferred to Broadway's Walter Kerr Theatre on 23 April 1998.
Later that year, The Beauty Queen of Leenane received six nominations at the 52nd Tony Awards - Best Play, Best Direction of a Play, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, as well as two nominations for Best Supporting Actor. At the ceremony on 7 June, the production won four awards: Best Actress (Marie Mullen); Best Supporting Actress (Anna Manahan); Best Supporting Actor (Tom Murphy); and Best Director for Garry Hynes - a historical win as Hynes became the first female recipient of a Tony Award for Direction.
In addition, the original Druid Theatre production received the 1998 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play; the Drama League Award for Best Play; the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Broadway Play; and the Lucille Lortel Awards for Outstanding Play and Outstanding Director. The Beauty Queen of Leenane has since gone on to be staged across the world in several languages, but Druid's original version remains, for many, the definitive production.
In 2016, to mark the 20th anniversary of the iconic production, Druid revived The Beauty Queen of Leenane with Marie Mullen. Having originated the role of Maureen, Mullen now played the role of Mag. The production also starred Druid ensemble members Aisling O'Sullivan (Maureen), Marty Rea and Aaron Monaghan. At that year's Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards, Hynes won the Award for Best Director while both Mullen and O'Sullivan received separate nominations for Best Actress.
DruidSynge
In the summer of 2005, Druid presented the first ever staging of John Millington Synge's entire theatrical canon - Riders to the Sea; The Tinker's Wedding; The Well of the Saints'; In the Shadow of the Glen; The Playboy of the Western World; and Deirdre of the Sorrows which was unfinished at the time of Synge's death. Described by the Irish Times as "one of the greatest achievements in the history of Irish theatre", this collective presentation of all six plays was performed as a series of double bills over two or three days.
DruidSynge premiered at the 2005 Galway Arts Festival, opening at the Town Hall Theatre on Saturday 16 July, followed by performances in Dublin's Olympia Theatre and the Edinburgh International Festival before concluding its 2005 run with a week of performances on the Aran Island of Inis Meain in a range of locations including an open-air setting at Dun Chonchur (a large circular walled fortress).
DruidMurphy
Since 1890, there existed a strong working relationship between Druid and the Irish playwright Tom Murphy. In 1985, Druid presented the world premieres of Conversations on a Homecoming and Bailegangaire - considered to be two of Murphy’s greatest plays.
In November 2011, Garry Hynes announced the company’s next large-scale ensemble project would be entitled DruidMurphy - three plays by Tom Murphy presented as a trilogy. This theatrical event was co-produced by Druid, NUI Galway, the Galway Arts Festival, Lincoln Center Festival in New York City and the Quinnipiac University in Hamden, Connecticut where the world’s largest collection of art, artifacts and printed materials relating to the Great Irish Famine resides. Although Murphy did not expressly write the plays Conversations on a Homecoming (1985), A Whistle in the Dark (1961) and Famine (1968) as a trilogy, Druid’s presentation of the three plays sought to connect them thematically in order to provide an illuminating and "unflinching look at the impact of emigration on the Irish psyche over a hundred year period". As Garry Hynes noted: "Murphy writes an inner history of Ireland, a nation that has now - under the pressure of a debt crisis that has become an identity crisis - come to re-examine the materials and rhetorical strategies out of which it makes itself."DruidMurphy received its premiere at the Galway Arts Festival 2012. Following the festival, the trilogy conducted an extensive national tour of Ireland - playing in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Tuam, Dublin, Inis Mor and Inis Meain of the Aran Islands, before transferring to the Oxford Playhouse, followed by the Hampstead Theatre in London, the Lincoln Center Festival in New York City, and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington D.C. All three plays were directed by Garry Hynes with a repertoire cast consisting of sixteen actors including recurring Druid performers Marie Mullen, Aaron Monaghan, Garrett Lombard, Rory Nolan, Marty Rea, Gavin Drea, Eileen Walsh and John Olohan. Depending on the venue, the trilogy could be viewed individually over three consecutive evenings or experienced as a day-long cycle which lasted over nine hours.
The theatrical event won Best Production at the 2012 Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards and received widespread critical acclaim, being hailed by The New York Times as "epic theatre making". DruidMurphy dominated the acting categories with a further six nominations. Marty Rea, Gavin Drea and Eileen Walsh were nominated for Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor and Best Actress respectively for their performances in A Whistle in the Dark. Garrett Lombard, Aaron Monaghan and Marie Mullen received nominations for Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress respectively.
DruidShakespeare
In 2014, to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Druid Theatre Company’s founding, Garry Hynes announced her intention direct four of William Shakespeare’s history plays, often referred to collectively as The Henriad: Richard II; Henry IV, Part 1; Henry IV, Part 2; and Henry V. To adapt these history plays, Hynes approached the Irish writer Mark O'Rowe whom she had previously worked with when directing the world premiere of his play Crestfall at the Gate Theatre in 2003.
At the March 2015 press launch for DruidShakespeare, Hynes voiced her opinion that "acting is, first and foremost, an act of imagination. That imagination transcends nationality, character, geography, background; and we see no reason why it shouldn’t transcend gender either." With Druid’s decision to utilise gender-blind casting, the roles of King Richard II, King Henry IV and Hal/King Henry V were performed by one male actor and two female actors: Druid Ensemble members Marty Rea, Derbhle Crotty and Aisling O’Sullivan respectively.DruidShakespeare premiered at Druid’s own Mick Lally Theatre, rather than Galway’s Town Hall Theatre - a first for Druid’s major productions. Described as an "enthralling marathon production" by The New York Times, the production ran for over six hours and was viewed as either a day-long presentation or divided into two halves across consecutive evenings, with an ensemble of thirteen actors - consisting of primarily Druid recurring performers - playing more than fifty characters across the four plays. It later toured across Ireland before transferring to the Gerald W. Lynch Theatre in New York City, after which it returned to Ireland where it played as the closing production for the Kilkenny Arts Festival 2015.
The production was critically acclaimed, with Peter Crawley of The Irish Times stating that "[t[here is nothing quite as beautiful, or as torturous, as the crown of England we see in Druid’s remarkable staging". DruidShakespeare dominated the Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards 2015 where it won Best Production, Best Director, Best Actress (Derbhle Crotty), Best Actor (Marty Rea), Best Costume Design while also acquiring nominations for Best Actress (Aisling O’Sullivan), Best Supporting Actor (Rory Nolan), Best Set Design, Best Sound Design, and a Judge’s Special Award nomination for the way in which the company had assembled and enabled a group of actors to work as a true ensemble, "the pinnacle of this rare achievement being DruidShakespeare."
Druid presented DruidShakespeare: Richard III'' in 2018, a follow-up to their Henriad Cycle which was co-produced with the Abbey Theatre, Dublin. It premiered on 22 September at the Town Hall Theatre, Galway before moving to the Abbey Theatre where it ran from 3–27 October. In January 2019, the Irish Times Irish Theatre Awards shortlist announced that the Druid production of Richard III had been recognised for Best Production, Best Director (Garry Hynes), Best Actor (Aaron Monaghan), Best Set Design, and Best Costume Design. The winners will be announced on 31 March.
References
External links
Druid Theatre Company website
Culture in Galway (city)
NUI Galway
Theatre companies in the Republic of Ireland
Tourist attractions in Galway (city)
1975 establishments in Ireland
|
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] |
200924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home%20education%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
|
Home education in the United Kingdom
|
Home education in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is often termed "elective home education" ("EHE") to signify the independent nature of practice from state provisions such as education for children with ill-health provided by the local authority in the family home. EHE is a collective term used in the UK to describe education provided other than through the schooling system. Parents have a duty to ensure their children are educated but the education legislation in England and Wales does not differentiate between school attendance or education otherwise than at school. Scots education legislation on the other hand differentiates between public (state) school provision and education "by other means", which includes both private schooling and home education. The numbers of families retaining direct responsibility for the education of their children has steadily increased since the late 1970s. This increase has coincided with the formation of support groups such as Education Otherwise. Home education may involve an informal style of education described as unschooling, informal learning, natural or autonomous learning. Others prefer to retain a structured school at home approach sometimes referred to as homeschooling (a term more popular in the US) although the terms are often interchanged.
In 2016/17, 48,000 children were being homeschooled in the United Kingdom, up from 34,000 in 2014/15. This number rose to 57,132 in 2018. The number of homeschoolers in the United Kingdom rose by 130 per cent between 2013 and 2018, with the increase varying widely between communities. Barnsley recorded the biggest five-year increase with 772 per cent. East Sussex recorded the highest proportion of homeschoolers among its school-age population, at 1.68 per cent (or approximately 1 in 60 children).
England and Wales
History
With the Elementary Education Act 1870 came attempts to formalise and regulate what had been an ad-hoc schooling system. Campaigners to establish a school system such as the National Education League had argued that schools were for children "not otherwise receiving education" and the 1870 act specified "a reasonable excuse for non-attendance at school : 1. That the child is under efficient instruction in some other manner".
In England and Wales, the law states that all children between the ages of 5 and 16 must receive a full-time suitable education as per their age, ability and aptitude and any special needs they may have must be met, either by regular attendance at school or otherwise.
With the growth of the schooling system came fresh theories and philosophies of education such as those of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi who would influence the likes of Herbert Spencer who in his essays on education (1854 and 1859) argued against the traditional authoritative classical form of education that disregarded the natural wishes, tendencies, and motives of the child. In turn there were many further pioneers such as Charlotte Mason, Caroline Southwood Hill and Susan Sutherland Isaacs.
Correspondence colleges, latterly online course providers began to make an appearance with Wolsey Hall, Oxford established in 1894 being the oldest.
The twentieth century saw the opening of schools such as Summerhill and Dartington and the establishment of The Peckham Experiment. The government had set up consultative committees chaired by William Henry Hadow. The Hadow reports (1923–1933) with their suggestions such that "a good school 'is not a place of compulsory instruction, but a community of old and young, engaged in learning by cooperative experiment'. laid the foundations for the 1944 Education act which required that each child be educated according to their individual aptitude and ability either at school or otherwise. The plans for a liberal communal based education system incorporating schools, village halls and community centres floundered against local bureaucracy and finance and offered little more than a tripartite school system which itself would be abandoned as ineffectual in favour of comprehensive schools later to be dismissed as "bog standard".
During the early 1950s Joy Baker became one of the first parents to abandon the school based education system in favour of the otherwise path. She would spend ten years battling with the authorities who insisted her children should attend school. During the early 1970s Dartington school ran a scheme, known as The Terrace, with Yorkshire County Council overseen by Alec Clegg to provide education to pupils who were required to stay on at school due to the raising of the leaving age. The scheme was run by Dick Kitto who had been working at Dartington. Kitto set up an informal democratic system and was impressed by how well the pupils responded to such opportunities. Kitto planned to expand his ideas to cover more schools but he discovered that some parents had already moved beyond his ideas and had decided to abandon schooling for their children altogether. A meeting for these families was organised in the late 70's/early eighties (check date) which would lead to the establishment of Education Otherwise. The meeting included Iris and Geoff Harrison whose fight with the authorities to home educate their five dyslexic children was widely publicised in the media at that time. Education Otherwise is now a charity and organisation that helps families and children with queries relating to home education and resource-related issues. Other organisations such as AHED also exist.
Badman Review
In 2009, Ed Balls, the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, commissioned Graham Badman, the former Director of Children's Services at Kent County Council, to review current practice of local authorities in relation to home educators, and to investigate if home education was used as a cover for some forms of child abuse.
When published in June 2009, the response was mixed. Balls himself accepted much of the review's recommendations in relation to safeguarding, however many home educators were extremely angry at the recommendation to force all to register. The Children, Schools and Families Select Committee announced its own inquiry into the handling of the Badman Review. It criticised both the Department and the Badman Review and made a number of recommendations against the thrust of the original report.
Although the Department framed legislation to implement much of the review, due to a lack of cross-party support and intense campaigning by home education advocacy groups it was dropped by the Labour administration in the run-up to the 2010 General Election.
Roles and responsibilities of parents and local authorities
The government recognises that education is a fundamental right for every child and that parents have the right to choose to educate their child at home rather than at school. The roles and responsibilities of parents and local authorities in this regard are covered by a document called Elective Home Education: Guidelines For Local Authorities and is published by the Department for Education. These guidelines have statutory standing and following these guidelines is obligatory on local authorities.
The guidelines quote section 7 of The Education Act 1996:
"The parent of every child of compulsory school age shall cause him to receive efficient full-time education suitable
(a) to his age, ability and aptitude, and
(b) to any special educational needs he may have,
either by regular attendance at school or otherwise."
The mention of "otherwise" is what covers education outside of state schools, including home education. The guidelines go on to explain that an efficient education is one that achieves what it sets out to achieve. It needs to prepare the child for adult life in the community of which the child is a member. Emphasis is placed (section 2.3) on the fact that the education does not need to prepare the child for life in the country as a whole but for life in the community of which the child is a member.
There is no definition of what constitutes a full-time education, but the guidelines accept that education at home may not follow the rigid hours of the school structure and it is difficult to impossible to measure exact hours devoted to it.
Home educating parents are not required to teach the National Curriculum; provide a broad and balanced education; have a timetable; have premises equipped to any particular standard; set hours during which education will take place; have any specific qualifications; make detailed plans in advance; observe school hours, days or terms; give formal lessons; mark work done by their child; formally assess progress or set development objectives; reproduce school type peer group socialisation or match school-based, age-specific standards (section 3.13).
Local authorities have no duty to monitor the quality of home education (section 2.7), have no right to enter the homes of home educators or otherwise see children for the purpose of monitoring their education (section 2.14 - 2.16) and are required to leave home educators to just get on with the job (various sections) unless the LA already has information that the parents are not delivering a suitable education (section 3.4).
Except where the child is registered at a school for children with special needs no permission is required from the school or local authority to deregister the child (section 2.4). Parents can deregister a child from the school system by the simple means of notifying the school in writing (section 3.8). There is no action, notification or deregistration process for those children who have never been to school. When a child reaches the age of five parents can choose to register the child at a school or continue to educate the child at home as they have been doing since the child's birth.
Regulation and monitoring
The law on education otherwise i.e. outside of school, taken together with the "Elective Home Education: Guidelines For Local Authorities" gives local authorities no responsibility, rights or control over home educators. Local authorities cannot require home educators to register, cannot demand regular inspection of the provision or access to the children and cannot seek to control or approve the education provided by parents at home. The only exceptions to some of the above are certain cases of children with special needs where the local authority is charged with providing support.
While local authorities have very little authority over home educators they do have a responsibility to identify children in their locality who are not receiving an education. Many local authorities find this a frustrating conflict and have often complained about their lack of power over home educators. They have done so in their feedback to the Graham Badman review of home education, in their submissions to the All Party Parliamentary Group for Home Education and in other surveys and inquiries. Many claim that unless they can require all home educators to register, and regularly inspect the provision of every home educator, they are unable to effectively deliver on the identification of children not receiving an adequate education. Local authorities sometimes attempt to circumvent the law and force compulsory registration on to home educators and/or otherwise deprive home educators of their legal rights under the pretext of identifying children missing education, according to the Education Select Committee's Fifth Report to Parliament. On numerous occasions, as with Kent County Council, home educators have had to fight back to avoid local authority interference.
Home educators respond to local authority frustrations on identifying children missing an education by pointing to the fact that the law and guidelines give local authorities the option to intervene only when it has already come to the attention of the local authority that a child is not receiving an adequate education, that it was not the intention of the legislators to give local authorities the power to go on "fishing trips" that would impose on all home educators, that any regime of regular inspection of home educators would be hugely expensive while delivering very little value and that local authorities would achieve far more using their resources to improve schools that are not delivering an adequate education. Further, as local authority funding is related to the number of children in school local authorities have a perverse incentive to force home educated children into schools. That local authorities often act outside the law when dealing with home educators and given that the "large majority" of local authorities (all except 30) provide misleading information on their websites in relation to home education (page 23 of The Education Committee's report to Parliament), home educators remain wary of and opposed to any additional powers being awarded to local authorities who many see as anti-home education.
Qualifications, higher education, college
Just as school is not compulsory, exams and qualifications are not compulsory either. Home educated children often go directly into higher education or vocational courses without first passing through GCSEs and A levels. However, many institutions require proof of secondary level or pre-university level qualifications before admitting a student or providing employment. To meet those requirements home educated children take GCSE or iGCSE exams privately. This option is also available for A levels. While some GCSE subjects require "controlled assessment" at a school, others do not. There is no controlled assessment for iGCSE or A level qualifications.
Organisations and events
Across the UK, including in Scotland and Northern Ireland, local groups of home educating parents run regular meets, events, trips, picnics and camps. At the national level there are organisations and charities such as Education Otherwise and the Schoolhouse Home Education Association advising on matters related to home education.
There are other meets such as the annual AEFES (Alternative Education Festival) which is based in East Sussex UK and is organised by HE children and families. There is also HEFF (Home Educating Families Festival).
Scotland
The situation in Scotland is slightly different in that if a child is already in school the parent needs to get permission from the local authority to deregister the child, which permission should be granted fairly quickly. No such permission is needed if the child has never attended school. Home education in Scotland is governed by the Scottish Government's Statutory Guidance.
Northern Ireland
Elective Home Education is legal in Northern Ireland under Section 45 of the Education and Libraries Northern Ireland Order 1986 SI 1986/594 which models English legislation in requiring the education of children of school age "by regular attendance at school or otherwise." There are approximately 500-1000 home educated children in Northern Ireland, but exact numbers are difficult to determine due to the lack of registration. Currently there is no legal requirement for parents to register their children with the Education Board, but a consultation by the Department of Education that started in April 2014 has proposed mandatory registration, home visits, inspection of premises & approval of curriculum. This draft policy by the Department of Education has alarmed home educators by requiring what the law does not, therefore creating the potential for confusion. The consultation is due to end on 27 June 2014. The largest Home Education group in Northern Ireland, HEDNI is actively involved in opposing this change in policy.
See also
Education in the United Kingdom
Schoolhouse Home Education Association
Anti-schooling activism
Unschooling
Deschooling
References
External links
Home Education UK
UK government guide: Educating your child at home
Fully searchable UK school guide independent and state
DMOZ Home education listing
Guidance to parents and local authorities on home education in Scotland
Education Otherwise
Wolsey Hall Oxford
Home Education Northern Ireland (HEDNI)
Education in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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] |
200926
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honguedo%20Strait
|
Honguedo Strait
|
The Honguedo Strait (French: Détroit d'Honguedo) is a strait in eastern Quebec, Canada, flowing between Anticosti Island and the Gaspé Peninsula. It is one of the two outlets of the Saint Lawrence River into its estuary, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The other is the Jacques Cartier Strait on the north side of Anticosti Island.
The Honguedo Strait is approximately wide at its narrowest point.
The name Honguedo first appeared in the reports of Jacques Cartier of 1535–1536. In the 16th century, it was known as the Saint-Pierre Strait, especially on maps by Gerardus Mercator (1569) and Cornelius Wytfliet (1597). Only by the 20th century, Honguedo came into use, and in 1934, the Geographic Board of Quebec officially adopted it to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Jacques Cartier's arrival in North America. Yet, the origin of the name is uncertain; it may derive from the Mi'kmaq word for "gathering place", or from the Iroquois word hehonguesto, meaning "one's own nose".
References
Straits of Quebec
Landforms of Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
|
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] |
200932
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Cartier%20Strait
|
Jacques Cartier Strait
|
The Jacques Cartier Strait (French: Détroit de Jacques-Cartier) is a strait in eastern Quebec, Canada, flowing between Anticosti Island and the Labrador Peninsula. It is one of the two outlets of the Saint Lawrence River into its estuary, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The other is the Honguedo Strait on the south side of Anticosti Island.
The Jacques Cartier Strait is approximately wide at its narrowest point.
Jacques Cartier Strait was officially named for the French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1934 by the Geographic Board of Quebec to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his arrival in North America. Prior to this, it was also known as Détroit Saint-Pierre (by Cartier himself on August 1, 1534, the day of St. Peter), Labrador Channel (until 1815), and Mingan Passage.
References
Straits of Quebec
Landforms of Côte-Nord
|
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200935
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/USQ-20
|
AN/USQ-20
|
The AN/USQ-20, or CP-642 or Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS), was designed as a more reliable replacement for the Seymour Cray-designed AN/USQ-17 with the same instruction set. The first batch of 17 computers were delivered to the Navy starting in early 1961. A version of the AN/USQ-20 for use by the other military services and NASA was designated the UNIVAC 1206. Another version, designated the G-40, replaced the vacuum tube UNIVAC 1104 in the BOMARC Missile Program.
The machine was the size and shape of an old-fashioned double-door refrigerator, about six feet tall (roughly 1.80 meters).
Instructions were represented as 30-bit words in the following format:
f 6 bits function code
j 3 bits jump condition designator
k 3 bits partial word designator
b 3 bits which index register to use
y 15 bits operand address in memory
Numbers were represented as 30-bit words. This allowed for five 6-bit alphanumeric characters per word.
The main memory was 32,768 words of core memory.
The available processor registers were:
one 30-bit arithmetic (A) register.
a contiguous 30-bit Q register (total of 60 bits for the result of multiplication or the dividend in division).
seven 15-bit index (B) registers (note: register B0 is always zero).
See also
CMS-2
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware
Military computers
References
External links
UNIVAC-NTDS: UNIVAC 1206, AN/USQ-20 – From the Antique Computer website
UNIVAC hardware
Transistorized computers
Military computers
Avionics computers
Military electronics of the United States
|
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200942
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20kite
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Red kite
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The red kite (Milvus milvus) is a medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards, and harriers. The species currently breeds in the Western Palearctic region of Europe and northwest Africa, though it formerly also occurred in northern Iran. It is resident in the milder parts of its range in western Europe and northwest Africa, but birds from northeastern and Central Europe winter further south and west, reaching south to Turkey. Vagrants have reached north to Finland and south to Israel, Libya and Gambia.
Taxonomy
The red kite was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco milvus. The word milvus was the Latin name for the bird. In 1799 the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède moved the species to the genus Milvus creating the tautonym.
Two subspecies are recognised:
M. m. milvus (Linnaeus, 1758) – Europe and northwest Africa to the Middle East
M. m. fasciicauda Hartert, 1914 – Cape Verde Islands
The subspecies M. m. fasciicauda is almost certainly extinct.
The genus Milvus contains two other species: the black kite (M. migrans) and the yellow-billed kite (M. aegyptius). The red kite has been known to successfully hybridize with the black kite in captivity where both species were kept together, and in the wild on the Cape Verde Islands and infrequently in other places. The red kites on the Cape Verde Islands are (or rather were) quite distinct in morphology, being somewhat intermediate with black kites. The question whether the Cape Verde kite should be considered a distinct species (Milvus fasciicauda) or a red kite subspecies has not been settled. A mitochondrial DNA study on museum specimens suggested that Cape Verde birds did not form a monophyletic lineage among or next to red kites. This interpretation is problematic: mtDNA analysis is susceptible to hybridization events, the evolutionary history of the Cape Verde population is not known, and the genetic relationship of red kites is confusing, with geographical proximity being no indicator of genetic relatedness and the overall genetic similarity high, perhaps indicating a relict species. Given the morphological distinctness of the Cape Verde birds and that the Cape Verde population was isolated from other populations of red kites, it cannot be conclusively resolved as to whether the Cape Verde population was not a distinct subspecies (as M. migrans fasciicauda) or even species that frequently absorbed stragglers from the migrating European populations into its gene pool. The Cape Verde population became effectively extinct since 2000, all surviving birds being hybrids with black kites.
The English word "kite" is from the Old English cyta which is of unknown origin. A kite is mentioned by Geoffrey Chaucer's in his Knight's Tale. The early fifteenth century Hengwrt manuscript contains the lines: "Ther cam a kyte, whil þt they were so wrothe That bar awey the boon bitwix hem bothe." The first recorded use of the word "kite" for a toy that is attached to a length of string and flown in the air dates from the seventeenth century.
Description
Red kites are long with a wingspan; males weigh , and females . It is an elegant bird, soaring on long wings held at a dihedral, and long forked tail, twisting as it changes direction. The body, upper tail and wing coverts are rufous. The white primary flight feathers contrast with the black wing tips and dark secondaries. Apart from the weight difference, the sexes are similar, but juveniles have a buff breast and belly. Its call is a thin piping sound, similar to but less mewling than the common buzzard. There is a rare white leucistic form accounting for approximately 1% of hatchlings in the Welsh population, but this variation confers a disadvantage in the survival stakes.
Differences between adults and juveniles
Adults differ from juveniles in a number of characteristics:
Adults are overall more deeply rufous, compared with the more washed out colour of juveniles;
Adults have black breast-streaks whereas on juveniles these are pale;
Juveniles have a less deeply forked tail, with a dark subterminal band;
Juveniles have pale tips to all of the greater-coverts (secondary and primary) on both the upper- and under-wings, forming a long narrow pale line; adults have pale fringes to upperwing secondary-coverts only.
These differences hold throughout most of the first year of a bird's life.
Behaviour
Breeding
Usually red kites first breed when they are two years old, although exceptionally they can successfully breed when they are only one year old. They are monogamous and the pair-bond in populations is probably maintained during the winter, particularly when the pair remain on their breeding territory. For migrant populations the fidelity to a particular nesting site means that the pair-bond is likely to be renewed each breeding season. The nest is normally placed in a fork of a large hardwood tree at a height of between above the ground. A pair will sometimes use a nest from the previous year and can occasionally occupy an old nest of the common buzzard. The nest is built by both sexes. The male brings dead twigs in length which are placed by the female. The nest is lined with grass and sometimes also with sheep's wool. Unlike the black kite, no greenery is added to the nest. Both sexes continue to add material to the nest during the incubation and nestling periods. Nests vary greatly in size and can become large when the same nest is occupied for several seasons.
The eggs are laid at three-day intervals. The clutch is usually between one and three eggs but four and even five eggs have occasionally been recorded. The eggs are non-glossy with a white ground and red-brown spots. The average size is with a calculated weight of . In Britain and central Europe, laying begins at the end of March but in the Mediterranean area laying begins in early March. The eggs are mainly incubated by the female, but the male will relieve her for short periods while she feeds. The male will also bring food for the female. Incubation starts as soon as the first egg is laid. Each egg hatches after 31 to 32 days but as they hatch asynchronously a clutch of three eggs requires 38 days of incubation. The chicks are cared for by both parents. The female them for the first 14 days while the male brings food to the nest which the female feeds to the chicks. Later both parents bring items of food which are placed in the nest to allow the chicks to feed themselves. The nestlings begin climbing onto branches around their nest from 45 days but they rarely before 48–50 days and sometimes not until they are 60–70 days of age. The young spend a further 15–20 days in the neighbourhood of the nest being fed by their parents. Only a single brood is raised each year but if the eggs are lost the female will relay.
The maximum age recorded is 25 years and 8 months for a ringed bird in Germany. The longevity record for Britain and Ireland is 23 years and 10 months for a bird found dead in Wales in 2012.
Food and feeding
The red kite's diet consists mainly of small mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, young hares and rabbits. It feeds on a wide variety of carrion including sheep carcasses and dead game birds. Live birds are also taken and occasionally reptiles and amphibians. Earthworms form an important part of the diet, especially in spring. In some parts of the United Kingdom, red kites are also deliberately fed in domestic gardens, explaining the presence of red kites in urban areas. Here, up to 5% of householders have provided supplementary food for red kites, with chicken the predominant meat provided.
As scavengers, red kites are particularly susceptible to poisoning. Illegal poison baits set for foxes or crows are indiscriminate and kill protected birds and other animals. There have also been a number of incidents of red kites and other raptors being targeted by wildlife criminals.
In the United Kingdom, there have been several unusual instances of red kites stealing food from people in a similar manner to gulls. One such occurrence took place in Marlow, Buckinghamshire (a town near a major reintroduction site for the species in the UK in the nearby village of Stokenchurch), in which Red Kites swooped down to steal sandwiches from people in one of the town's parks.
Distribution and status
Red kites inhabit broadleaf woodlands, valleys and wetland edges, to . They are native to the western Palearctic, with the European population of 19,000–25,000 pairs encompassing 95% of its global breeding range. It breeds from Spain and Portugal east into central Europe and Ukraine, north to southern Sweden, Latvia and the UK, and south to southern Italy. There is a population in northern Morocco. Northern birds move south in winter, mostly staying in the west of the breeding range, but also to eastern Turkey, northern Tunisia and Algeria. The three largest populations (in Germany, France and Spain, which together hold more than 75% of the global population) declined between 1990 and 2000, and overall the species declined by almost 20% over the ten years. The main threats to red kites are poisoning, through illegal direct poisoning and indirect poisoning from pesticides, particularly in the wintering ranges in France and Spain, and changes in agricultural practices causing a reduction in food resources. Other threats include electrocution, hunting and trapping, deforestation, egg-collection (on a local scale) and possibly competition with the generally more successful black kite M. migrans.
Continental Europe
German populations declined by 25%–30% between 1991 and 1997, but have remained stable since. The populations of the northern foothills of the Harz Mountains (the most densely populated part of its range) suffered an estimated 50% decline from 1991 to 2001. In Spain, the species showed an overall decline in breeding population of up to 43% for the period 1994 to 2001–02, and surveys of wintering birds in 2003–04 suggest a similarly large decline in core wintering areas. The Balearic Islands population has declined from 41 to 47 breeding pairs in 1993 to just 10 in 2003. In France, breeding populations have decreased in the northeast, but seem to be stable in southwest and central France and Corsica. Populations elsewhere are stable or undergoing increases. In Sweden, the species has increased from 30 to 50 pairs in the 1970s to 1,200 breeding pairs in 2003. In Switzerland, populations increased during the 1990s, and have stabilised. According to a report by the Welsh Kite Trust, the UK is the only country in which the red kite population is increasing. Red kites are decreasing in their strongholds of Spain, France and Germany.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, red kites were ubiquitous scavengers that lived on carrion and rubbish. Shakespeare's King Lear describes his daughter Goneril as a detested kite, and he wrote "when the kite builds, look to your lesser linen" in reference to them stealing washing hung out to dry in the nesting season. In the mid-15th century, King James II of Scotland decreed that they should be "killed wherever possible", but they remained protected in England and Wales for the next 100 years as they kept the streets free of carrion and rotting food. Under Tudor "vermin laws" many creatures were seen as competitors for the produce of the countryside and bounties were paid by the parish for their carcasses.
By the 20th century, the breeding population was restricted to a handful of pairs in South Wales, but recently the Welsh population has been supplemented by re-introductions in England and Scotland. In 2004, from 375 occupied territories identified, at least 216 pairs were thought to have hatched eggs and 200 pairs reared at least 286 young. In 1989, six Swedish birds were released at a site in north Scotland and four Swedish and one Welsh bird in Buckinghamshire. Altogether, 93 birds of Swedish and Spanish origin were released at each of the sites. In the second stage of reintroduction in 1995 and 1996, further birds were brought from Germany to populate areas of Dumfries and Galloway. Between 2004 and 2006, 94 birds were brought from the Chilterns and introduced into the Derwent Valley in north East England. In Northern Ireland, 80 birds from wild stock in Wales were released between 2008 and 2010, and the first successful breeding was recorded in 2010. The reintroductions in the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty have been a success. Between 1989 and 1993, 90 birds were released there and by 2002, 139 pairs were breeding. They can commonly be seen taking advantage of thermals from the M40 motorway. Another successful reintroduction has been in Northamptonshire, which has become a stronghold for the red kite. Thirty Spanish birds were introduced into Rockingham Forest near Corby in 2000, and by 2010, the RSPB estimated that over 200 chicks had been reared from the initial release. So successful has the reintroduction been that 30 chicks have been transported from Rockingham Forest for release in Cumbria. From the Chilterns they have spread as far east as Essex and can be seen over Harlow. To the west they have recently (2021) spread along the M4 as far as the Cotswold Edge overlooking the Severn near Bristol.
A sighting of the first red kite in London for 150 years was reported in The Independent newspaper in January 2006 and in June of that year, the UK-based Northern Kites Project reported that kites had bred in the Derwent Valley in and around Rowlands Gill, Tyne and Wear for the first time since the re-introduction.
In 1999, the red kite was named 'Bird of the Century' by the British Trust for Ornithology. According to the Welsh Kite Trust, it has been voted "Wales's favourite bird".
In June 2010, the Forestry Commission North West England announced a three-year project to release 90 red kites in Grizedale Forest, Cumbria under a special licence issued by Natural England. The Grizedale programme was the ninth reintroduction of red kites into different regions of the UK and the final re-introduction phase in England.
The stated aims of the Grizedale project were:
To establish a viable population of red kites in Grizedale, South Cumbria by 2015.
To increase the rate of red kite expansion into North West England and link up with existing populations in Wales, Yorkshire, North East England and South West Scotland and so increase the chances of a continuous geographical range.
To develop community involvement and create educational opportunities arising from the project.
As of July 2011, non-breeding birds are regularly seen in all parts of Britain, and the number of breeding pairs is too large for the RSPB to continue to survey them on an annual basis.
Ireland
Red kites were extinct in Ireland by the middle nineteenth century, due to persecution, poisoning and woodland clearance. In May 2007, Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government Dick Roche announced an agreement to bring at least 100 birds from Wales to restock the population as part of a 5-year programme in the Wicklow Mountains, similar to the earlier golden eagle reintroduction programme. On 19 July 2007, the first thirty red kites were released in County Wicklow. On 22 May 2010, 2 newly hatched red kite chicks were discovered in the Wicklow mountains, bringing the number of chicks hatched since reintroduction to 7.
Sweden
Sweden is one location where the red kite seems to be increasing, with around 2,000 pairs in 2009, some of which are overwintering and some flying south to the Mediterranean for the winter. They return around March–April. The red kite is the landscape bird of Scania, and the coat of arms of the municipality of Tomelilla. The kite is often seen along the roadsides and roaming the open colourful wheat and rapeseed fields of Scania.
Populations and trends by country
The following figures (mostly estimates) have been collated from various sources. They cover most of the countries in which red kites are believed to have bred.
Observation
One of the best places to see the red kite in Scandinavia is Scania in southern Sweden. It may be observed in one of its breeding locations such as the Kullaberg Nature Preserve near Mölle. In Switzerland, they are a common sight in all rural areas, excluding the Alps and its foothills.
Some of the best places to see them in the United Kingdom are Gigrin Farm near Rhayader, mid Wales, where hundreds are fed by the local farmer as a tourist attraction, a Red Kite Feeding Station at Llanddeusant in the Brecon Beacons, visited daily by over 50 birds, and the Bwlch Nant yr Arian forest visitor centre in Ceredigion where the rare leucistic variant can be seen. In the UK, the Oxfordshire part of the Chilterns has many red kites, especially near Henley-on-Thames and Watlington, where they were introduced on John Paul Getty's estate. Red Kites are also becoming common in Buckinghamshire, often being seen near Stokenchurch, where a population was released in the 1990s, and Flackwell Heath near High Wycombe. They can also be seen around Harewood near Leeds where they were re-introduced in 1999. In Ireland they can be best observed at Redcross, near Avoca, County Wicklow.
See also
Shite-hawk
Beheading the Kite
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Friends of Red Kites - Details about the reintroduced kites in the Derwent Valley, Gateshead
BBC Wales Nature - Red Kite footage
BBC Report about this bird's redemption in UK culture from a hated shithawk to a beloved bird
The Welsh Kite Trust - includes UK breeding reports
About Red Kites - includes latest figures available in UK
Details Red Kites in the Chilterns - about the reintroduced kites in the Chilterns
Red Kites in Yorkshire
Red Kites in Berkshire (Berkshire Ornithological Club) - 2006/2007 Survey
Adult and juvenile Red Kite wing identification images (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
red kite
Falconry
red kite
Birds described in 1758
Birds of prey of Africa
Birds of Cape Verde
Birds of Europe
red kite
|
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200945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arses%20of%20Persia
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Arses of Persia
|
Arses (; ), also known by his regnal name Artaxerxes IV (; ; ), was the twelfth Achaemenid King of Kings from 338 to 336 BC.
Arses ascended the throne, after his father Artaxerxes III—who had caused a resurgence of the Persian Empire—was poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas. The latter put Arses on the throne with the expectation of being able to control him. With the weakening of the Achaemenid Empire from the assassination of Artaxerxes III and the succession of Arses, the Greek league sent troops into Asia in 336.
Arses, in an attempt to free himself from Bagoas' influences, tried to have the eunuch poisoned; but did not succeed, instead succumbing to poison himself at the orders of Bagoas. Bagoas put Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne after him.
Name
He is known as in Greek sources and that seems to have been his real name, but the Xanthus trilingue and potsherds from Samaria report that he took the royal name of Artaxerxes IV, following his father and grandfather.
is the Greek form of the Old Persian , which is also attested in the Avestan form and is used in multiple Old Persian compound-names, such as , , and . The term is linguistically related to Greek , meaning "male, manly".
Biography
Arses was the youngest son of Artaxerxes III and his wife Atossa. Arses had several brothers, only one whose name is attested, a certain Bisthanes. Persia was experiencing a resurgence under Artaxerxes III, who reorganized his empire, and suppressed revolts throughout the country. However, the fortunes of Persia came to an abrupt end in autumn of 338, when Artaxerxes III was murdered by the ambitious eunuch and chiliarch Bagoas, who had the king poisoned. Artaxerxes III's early death proved to be a problematic issue for Persia, and may have played a role in the weakening of the country. The majority of Artaxerxes III's sons, with the exception of Arses and Bisthanes, were also murdered by Bagoas. Bagoas, who wanted to be kingmaker, put the young Arses on the throne.
On his ascension to the throne, Arses most likely assumed the regnal name of Artaxerxes IV. He was put on the throne by Bagoas due to his youth, which the latter sought to take advantage of in order to control him. Around the same period, most of the Greek city-states had joined the Greek league under the leadership of the Macedonian king Philip II, who took advantage of the events in Persia by demanding compensation from the country for helping the town of Perinthus during the reign of Artaxerxes III. Arses declined, and as a result, a Greek expedition was started with Philip II as general, who sent 10,000 Macedonian soldiers into Asia in 336 BC. At the same time, however, Arses was determined on trying to free himself from Bagoas' authority and influence; he made an unsuccessful effort to have the latter poisoned, only to be poisoned himself along with the rest of his family by Bagoas, who put Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne. Macedonian propaganda, made in order to legitimize the conquests of Alexander the Great a few years later, accused Darius III of playing a key role in the murder of Arses, who was portrayed as the last king of the Achaemenid royal house.
Coinage
There is no dynastic coinage of Artaxerxes IV, but it is thought he may be depicted as a young ruler wearing the Pharaonic crown on the reverse of some of the contemporary coinage of satrap Mazaios in Cilicia, while his father Artaxerxes III appears seated, also in Pharaonic dress, on the obverse.
References
Bibliography
Ancient works
Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander.
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica.
Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus.
Modern works
4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire
4th-century BC Pharaohs
4th-century BC Babylonian kings
Kings of the Achaemenid Empire
Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
336 BC deaths
4th-century BC murdered monarchs
Murdered Persian monarchs
Deaths by poisoning
Year of birth unknown
4th-century BC Iranian people
4th-century BC rulers
|
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] |
200947
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film%20memory
|
Thin-film memory
|
Thin-film memory is a high-speed alternative to core memory developed by Sperry Rand in a government-funded research project.
Instead of threading individual ferrite cores on wires, thin-film memory consisted of 4-micrometre thick dots of permalloy, an iron–nickel alloy, deposited on small glass plates by vacuum evaporation techniques and a mask. The drive and sense lines were then added using printed circuit wiring over the alloy dots. This provided very fast access times in the range of 670 nanoseconds, but was very expensive to produce.
In 1962, the UNIVAC 1107, intended for the civilian marketplace, used thin-film memory only for its 128-word general register stack. Military computers, where cost was less of a concern, used larger amounts of thin-film memory. Thin film was also used in a number of high-speed computer projects, including the high-end of the IBM System/360 line, but general advances in core tended to keep pace.
External links
Computer memory
Non-volatile memory
Thin films
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody%20Woodpecker
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Woody Woodpecker
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Woody Woodpecker is an animated character that appeared in theatrical short films produced by the Walter Lantz Studio and distributed by Universal Studios between 1940 and 1972.
Woody, an anthropomorphic woodpecker, was created in 1940 by Lantz and storyboard artist Ben "Bugs" Hardaway, who had previously laid the groundwork for two other screwball characters, Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck, at the Warner Bros. cartoon studio in the late 1930s. Woody's character and design evolved over the years, from an insane bird with an unusually garish design to a more refined looking and acting character in the vein of the later Chuck Jones version of Bugs Bunny. Woody was originally voiced by prolific voice actor Mel Blanc, who was succeeded in the shorts by Danny Webb, Kent Rogers, Ben Hardaway, and, finally, Grace Stafford (wife of Walter Lantz).
Woody Woodpecker cartoons were first broadcast on television in 1957 under the title The Woody Woodpecker Show, which featured Lantz cartoons bookended by new footage of Woody and live-action footage of Lantz. Lantz produced theatrical cartoons longer than most of his contemporaries, and Woody Woodpecker remained a staple of Universal's release schedule until 1972, when Lantz finally closed down his studio. The character has been revived since then for special productions and occasions, as well as for The New Woody Woodpecker Show, a Saturday-morning cartoon television series featuring prolific voice actor Billy West as Woody that aired from 1999 to 2002. In 2017, a live-action/CGI hybrid feature film, titled simply Woody Woodpecker was released theatrically in Latin America, while released direct-to-video in other territories. That was followed by a new series of shorts released via YouTube beginning in 2018.
Woody has a motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7000 Hollywood Boulevard. He also made a cameo appearance alongside many other famous cartoon characters in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Woody Woodpecker is the official mascot of Universal Studios. Woody and his friends are also icons at the Universal Studios Theme Parks worldwide, as well as the PortAventura Park in the Salou, Spain, where they still remain despite Universal no longer having a financial stake in the park.
Origin
The inspiration for the character came during producer Walter Lantz's honeymoon with his wife, Grace, in June Lake, California in 1940. A noisy acorn woodpecker outside their cabin kept the couple awake at night, and when a heavy rain started, they learned that the bird had bored holes in their cabin's roof. As both Walter and Gracie told Dallas attorney Rod Phelps during a visit, Walter wanted to shoot the bird, but Gracie suggested that her husband make a cartoon about the bird, and thus Woody was born. Woody shares many characteristics in common with the pileated woodpecker in terms of both physical appearance as well as his characteristic laugh, which resembles the call of the pileated woodpecker. These similarities are apparently the result of the artistic license of the creators, and have caused much confusion within the birding community among those who have attempted to classify Woody's species.
In the episode Dumb Like a Fox (of 1964), a museum offers a 25 dollar reward to anyone who captures a Campephilus principalis, which is Woody Woodpecker himself.
History
Early years
Woody Woodpecker first appeared in the short Knock Knock on November 25, 1940. The cartoon ostensibly stars Andy Panda and his father, Papa Panda, but it is Woody who dominates. The woodpecker constantly pesters the two pandas, apparently just for the fun of it. Andy, meanwhile, tries to sprinkle salt on Woody's tail in the belief that this will somehow capture the bird. To Woody's surprise, Andy's attempts prevail, and Woody is taken away to the psychiatric hospital— but not before his captors prove to be crazier than he is.
The Woody of Knock Knock was designed by animator Alex Lovy. Woody's original voice actor, Mel Blanc, stopped performing the character after the first three cartoons to work exclusively for Leon Schlesinger Productions (later renamed Warner Bros. Cartoons), producer of Warner Bros.' Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies after signing a loyalty contract. At Leon Schlesinger's, Blanc had already established the voices of two other famous "screwball" characters who preceded Woody, Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny. Ironically, Blanc's characterization of the Woody Woodpecker laugh had originally been applied to Happy Rabbit, a Bugs Bunny predecessor, in shorts such as the aforementioned Elmer's Candid Camera and was later transferred to Woody. Blanc's regular speaking voice for Woody was much like the early Daffy Duck, minus the lisp. Once Warner Bros. signed Blanc to an exclusive contract, Woody's voice-over work was taken over by Danny Webb, followed by Kent Rogers, Dick Nelson and Ben Hardaway later became Woody's voice after Rogers was sent to the army during World War II, and would voice the woodpecker for the rest of the decade. This makes Woody Woodpecker one of the very few cartoon characters originally voiced by Mel Blanc to be voiced by someone else during Blanc's lifetime. Despite this, Blanc continued to voice Woody on a Mutual Network radio show and in recordings for Capitol Records from 1948 until 1955, while his laugh would continue to be used in the shorts until 1951.
Audiences reacted well to Knock Knock, and Lantz realized he had finally hit upon a star to replace the waning Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. Woody starred in a number of films. With his brash demeanor, the character was a natural hit during World War II. His image appeared on US aircraft as nose art, and on mess halls, and audiences on the homefront watched Woody cope with familiar problems such as food shortages. The 1943 Woody cartoon The Dizzy Acrobat was nominated for the 1943 Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons), which it lost to the MGM Tom and Jerry cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse. Woody Woodpecker's debut also marked a change in directing style for Walter Lantz studio, since the character was heavily inspired by Tex Avery-created Looney Tunes character Daffy Duck at Warner Bros, and thus Woody's cartoons tended to have a hint of Tex Avery's style and influence in terms of humor, and that's what gave Walter Lantz studio its fame. Curiously enough, Avery himself never directed a Woody Woodpecker short while at the Walter Lantz studio.
Animator Emery Hawkins and layout artist Art Heinemann streamlined Woody's appearance for the 1944 film The Barber of Seville, directed by James "Shamus" Culhane. The bird became rounder, cuter, and less demented. He also sported a simplified color scheme and a brighter smile, making him much more like his counterparts at Warner Bros. and MGM. Nevertheless, Culhane continued to use Woody as an aggressive lunatic, not a domesticated straight man or defensive homebody, as many other studios' characters had become. The follow-up to The Barber of Seville, The Beach Nut, introduced Woody's original chief nemesis, Wally Walrus.
Woody's wild days were numbered, however. In 1946, Lantz hired Disney veteran Dick Lundy to direct Woody's cartoons. Lundy rejected Culhane's take on the series and made Woody more defensive; no longer did the bird go insane without a legitimate reason. Lundy also paid more attention to the animation, making Woody's new films more Disney-esque in their design, style, animation, and timing. Lundy's last film for Disney was the Donald Duck short Flying Jalopy. This cartoon is played much like a Woody Woodpecker short, down to the laugh in the end. It also features a bad guy named "Ben Buzzard" who bears a strong resemblance to Buzz Buzzard, a Lantz character introduced in Wet Blanket Policy (1948), who eventually succeeded Wally Walrus as Woody's primary antagonist.
In 1947, contract renewal negotiations between Lantz and Universal (now Universal-International) fell through, and Lantz began distributing his cartoons through United Artists. The UA-distributed Lantz cartoons featured higher-quality animation, the influence of Dick Lundy (the films' budgets remained the same). Former Disney animators such as Fred Moore and Ed Love began working at Lantz, and assisted Lundy in adding touches of the Disney style to Woody's cartoons. Despite the Disney style added for the later cartoons, Woody's cartoons still try to maintain a good dose of slapstick and madcap humor from the pre-Lundy cartoons.
"The Woody Woodpecker Song"
In 1947, Woody got his own theme song when musicians George Tibbles and Ramey Idriss wrote "The Woody Woodpecker Song", making ample use of the character's famous laugh. Kay Kyser's 1948 recording of the song, with Harry Babbitt's laugh interrupting vocalist Gloria Wood, became one of the biggest hit singles of 1948. Other artists did covers, including Woody's original voice actor, Mel Blanc. Lantz first used "The Woody Woodpecker Song" in Wet Blanket Policy (1948), and it became the first and only song from an animated short subject to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1948 but it lost out to “Buttons and Bows”. Lantz soon adopted the song as Woody's theme music, and due to the song's popularity, Woody Woodpecker fan clubs sprang up, theaters held "Woody" matinées, and boys got the "Woody Woodpecker" haircut.
"The Woody Woodpecker Song" and the Woody Woodpecker cartoons made extensive use of Woody's famous laugh, upsetting the man who created it, Mel Blanc. (He first used the laugh, in a different recording, for the seminal pre-Bugs Bunny character in 1938's Porky's Hare Hunt.) Although Blanc had only recorded three shorts as the voice of Woody, his laugh had been recorded as a stock sound effect and used in every subsequent Woody Woodpecker short up until this point. Blanc sued Lantz and lost, but Lantz settled out of court when Blanc filed an appeal. Although Lantz stopped using Blanc's Woody Woodpecker laugh as a stock effect in the early 1950s, Blanc's voice was still heard saying "Guess who?" at the beginning of every cartoon for the duration of the Woody Woodpecker series.
Financial impasse/hiatus
Financial problems at United Artists during the aftermath of the Paramount case—which forced movie distributors to end the practice of block booking, or selling shorts and features to theaters in packages—affected Lantz. The revenues Lantz received from UA's distribution of his cartoons were much lower than his returns had been from Universal, and once the Lantz studio hit its loan debt cap of $250,000 at the Bank of America, Lantz was forced to shut the studio down. He began a series of staggered layoffs in December 1948 until work on the final 1940s Lantz short, the Woody cartoon Drooler's Delight, was finished at the otherwise shuttered studio in early 1949.
Walter Lantz Productions remained closed for a full calendar year. During this time, Walter Lantz and his wife, actress Grace Stafford, toured Europe, in order to spend money impounded there after World War II and also to entertain the European Universal exchanges still distributing the Universal era Lantz cartoons. By keeping the studio closed while the Universal and United Artists Woody Woodpecker cartoons were still in distribution, Lantz was able to amass enough income to pay off the studio's debts and upgrade the studio, after which time the studio finally reopened with a reduced staff.
Later films
The revived Lantz studio's first new project was an animated segment of the feature film Destination Moon (1950), produced by Lantz's friend George Pál. In the segment, astronauts are shown an animated educational film featuring Woody Woodpecker explaining rocket propulsion.
Beginning with Destination Moon, Woody's voice was assumed by Grace Stafford. According to the Lantzes, Stafford slipped a recording of herself into a stack of audition tapes, and her husband chose her without knowing her identity. Lantz also began having Stafford supply Woody's laugh, due to the court settlement with Mel Blanc. Stafford was not credited at her own request until Misguided Missile (1958), as she felt audiences might reject a woman performing Woody's voice. Stafford also did her best to tone down the character through her voice work, to appease Universal's complaints about Woody's raucousness.
Lantz signed again with Universal (now Universal-International) in 1950, and began production on two entries that director Dick Lundy and storymen Ben Hardaway and Heck Allen had begun before the 1948 layoff. These shorts have no director's credit, as Lantz claimed to have directed them himself. Puny Express (1951) was the first to be released, followed by Sleep Happy. These shorts marked a departure from past dialogue-driven shorts. Though Stafford now voiced Woody, her job was limited, as Woody (and other characters) rarely spoke in the first dozen or so shorts. It was because of these entries that Woody became popular outside the English-speaking world, thanks to the lack of a language barrier. (The Pink Panther shorts of the 1960s and 1970s also enjoyed worldwide popularity due to this pantomime luxury.)
Nine more Lantz-directed Woody cartoons followed, before Don Patterson became Woody's new director in 1952. The bird was redesigned again, this time by animator LaVerne Harding. Harding made Woody smaller, cuter, and moved his crest forward from its original backwards position. (The small Lantz Studios logo seen at the start of every cartoon — Woody as an armored knight on horseback carrying a lance — continued for a while to display Woody with his former topknot.) For 1955's The Tree Medic, one last makeover was given to the woodpecker, making Woody's eye a simple black dot and taking away the green/hazel iris he had had since his beginnings. However, Woody's eyes were not changed in the cartoon's intros, and they remained green for the rest of the shorts' production run. During this time, the intro was changed as well. Instead of having Woody's name on-screen and Woody pecking a hole in the screen to introduce himself, Woody now pecked his way onto the screen, greeting the audience with his iconic "Guess who?", then carved out his name on either a brown or gray wood background and jumped around the screen while laughing.
By 1955, Paul J. Smith had taken over as primary director of Woody's shorts, with periodic fill-in shorts directed by Alex Lovy and Jack Hannah, among others. With Smith on board, the shorts maintained a healthy dose of frenetic energy, while the animation itself was simplified, due to budget constraints.
In addition to Lantz's wife Grace Stafford providing Woody's voice, which returned the cartoon to being more dialogue-driven again, voice talents during this period were generally split between Dal McKennon and Daws Butler. Several of Woody's recurring costars were also introduced during this era, such as Gabby Gator (voiced by Daws Butler in an Ozarks voice, a slightly different southern dialect than he used for Huckleberry Hound). Gabby first appeared in Everglade Raid (as "Al I. Gator"). Other films paired Woody with a girlfriend, Winnie Woodpecker (voiced by Grace Stafford), and a niece and nephew, Splinter and Knothead (both voiced by June Foray). Other antagonists that Woody has dealt with were Ms. Meany (voiced by Grace Stafford) and Dapper Denver Dooley (voiced by Dallas McKennon).
Woody in the television era
As Lantz was struggling financially, Woody's longevity was secured when he made the jump to television in The Woody Woodpecker Show on ABC. The half-hour program consisted of three theatrical Woody shorts followed by a brief look at cartoon creation hosted by Lantz. It ran from 1957 to 1958 then entered syndication until 1966. NBC revived the show in 1970 and 1976. In addition, the woodpecker was no longer dishing out abuse to his foils, but was instead on the receiving end. The first significant short to feature Woody as a serious, put-upon character was 1961's Franken-Stymied. Woody's popularity had been based on his manic craziness, but by 1961, this had all but been eliminated in favor of a more serious Woody, a straight man trying to do good. This was due in part to Woody's large presence on television, which meant Lantz had to meet the stringent rules against violence for children's television. Though production continued until 1972, the cartoons were a definite notch lower than in the 1940s and 1950s.
Woody appeared in new theatrical shorts until 1972, when Lantz closed his studio due to rising production costs. His cartoons returned to syndication in the late 1970s. Lantz sold his library of Woody shorts to MCA/Universal in 1985. Universal repackaged the cartoons for another syndicated Woody Woodpecker Show in 1987. A year later, Woody made a cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, voiced by Cherry Davis, near the end of the film.
Woody Woodpecker reappeared in the Fox Kids series The New Woody Woodpecker Show, which ran on Saturday mornings from 1999 to 2002, voiced by Billy West. For this series, Woody was redesigned more like his mid-1940s look (1944 to 1949), pushing back his crest and making his eyes green again. Winnie Woodpecker, who had debuted in Real Gone Woody (1954), became a semi-regular character as Woody's primary love interest. Like Woody, Winnie was redesigned to look almost exactly like Woody did from 1950 until 1972, the obvious differences being that she was a female woodpecker and had blue eyes. Woody's primary antagonist was Wally Walrus, who became Woody's neighbor (Woody lived in a tree house in Mrs. Meany's front yard, and Wally lived next door). Buzz Buzzard often appeared, as did Mrs. Meany and several other older characters.
In 2018, Universal Animation Studios announced a new series of Woody Woodpecker cartoons exclusively for YouTube. The result, titled simply Woody Woodpecker, began strraming on December 3, 2018.
Reception
The Woody Woodpecker Show was named the 88th best animated series by IGN.
Legacy
Walter Lantz and movie pioneer George Pal were good friends. Woody Woodpecker cameos in nearly every film that Pal produced or directed—for example, during the 1966 sequence in The Time Machine (1960), a little girl drops her Woody Woodpecker doll as she goes into an air raid shelter. In Doc Savage: The Man of Bronze (1975), Grace Stafford cameos, carrying a Woody Woodpecker doll.
In the Baltimora song, Woody Boogie. The song uses the laughter of Woody Woodpecker throughout the song.
Woody was number 46 on TV Guide'''s list of the 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time in 2002 and 2003. He came in at number 25 on Animal Planet's list of The 50 Greatest Movie Animals in 2004. The character has been referenced and spoofed on many later television programs, among them The Simpsons, American Dad!, South Park, The Fairly OddParents, Family Guy, Seinfeld, Robot Chicken, Three's Company, and Flash Toons.
Woody Woodpecker is the official mascot of Universal Studios. In 1998 and 1999, Woody appeared on the nose of the Williams Formula One Team, and in 2000, he became the official team mascot of the Honda Motorcycle Racing Team. A Woody Woodpecker balloon had been a staple of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade from 1982 until 1996.
In Brazil the character is a hugely popular and iconic cartoon character.
Home media
A handful of non-comprehensive Woody Woodpecker VHS tapes were issued by Universal in the 1980s and 1990s, usually including Andy Panda and Chilly Willy cartoons as bonuses. A few were widely released on VHS in the mid-1980s by Kid Pics Video, an American company of dubious legality, which packaged the Woody cartoons with bootlegged Disney cartoons. In the early 2000s, a series of mail-order Woody Woodpecker Show VHS tapes and DVDs were made available by mail order through Columbia House.
In 2007, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released The Woody Woodpecker and Friends Classic Cartoon Collection, a three-disc DVD boxed set compilation of Walter Lantz "Cartunes". The first forty-five Woody Woodpecker shorts from Knock Knock to The Great Who-Dood-It were presented in the box set in chronological order of release, with various Chilly Willy, Andy Panda, Swing Symphonies, and other Lantz shorts also included. The Woody Woodpecker and Friends Classic Cartoon Collection: Volume 2, including the next forty-five Woody cartoons—Termites from Mars through Jittery Jester—was released in 2008. A plain-vanilla best-of release, titled Woody Woodpecker Favorites, was released in 2009, which contained no new-to-DVD material.Woody Woodpecker shorts have been released for the first time on Blu-ray; labeled as the "Screwball Collection", the set was released on September 7, 2021.
Voice actors
United States
Mel Blanc (cartoons: 1940–1941; Capitol Records: 1948–1955)
Danny Webb (1941)
Kent Rogers (1942–1943)
Ben Hardaway (1944–1949)
Lee Sweetland (singing voice in The Barber of Seville, The Beach Nut, Ski for Two, The Dippy Diplomat and Smoked Hams)"Woody Woodpecker in “Ski For Two” (1944)". Retrieved October 14, 2020.
Theodore von Eltz (Sally in Hollywoodland [unaired radio pilot])
Grace Stafford (1950–1991)
Dallas McKennon (1951–1954; vocal effects)
Cherry Davis (1988; Who Framed Roger Rabbit)
Dave Spafford (1991; 63rd Academy Awards)
Billy West (1999–2002)
Eric Kelso (2001; Universal Studios Japan, Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure)
Seth Green (2014; Robot Chicken)
Eric Bauza (2017–present)
Other countries
Katsue Miwa and Kumiko Watanabe (Japan)
Olney Cazarré (Brazil) 1960s / 1980s
Garcia Júnior (Brazil) 1970s
Marco Antônio Costa (Brazil) 1990s / 2000s
Sérgio Stern (Brazil) 2017–2018
Natalia Gurzo (Russia) 1996–1998/2000s
Jorge Arvizu (Mexico)
Stavros Mavridis (Greece) 2005–2007
Dimitris Marizas (Greece) 2007–2009
Dieter Kursawe (Germany)
Mića Tatić (Yugoslavia/Serbia)
Blanc originated the voice, in a characterization similar to his Daffy Duck, minus the lisp, with the recording slightly sped up to give a higher-pitched tone to the voice. He stated that the laugh originated from a type of laugh he used to do at school and he just added the pecking sounds to the laugh. That practice continued with other voice artists.
Filmography
Theatrical cartoons See Woody Woodpecker filmography TV series
Public Service Let's All Recycle with Woody Woodpecker (1991 – PSA Video)
Other appearances Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988, cameo)Kids for Character (1996)
Film
In the early 2010s, Universal Studios and Illumination Entertainment planned a Woody Woodpecker feature film. John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky (King of the Hill) were in talks to develop a story, but the project was canceled. In October 2013, Bill Kopp announced that Universal Pictures had hired him to direct an animated feature film with three interwoven stories.
On July 13, 2016, Cartoon Brew reported that Universal 1440 Entertainment was filming a live-action/CGI hybrid film based on Woody Woodpecker in Canada. The film is being directed by Alex Zamm and stars Timothy Omundson of Galavant and Psych fame and Brazilian actress Thaila Ayala. Filming began in June 2016, and ended later in July of that year. The film was released theatrically in Brazil on October 5, 2017, and was scheduled for release on April 1, 2018, worldwide. The film had a straight-to-video release in the United States on February 6, 2018.
Comics
Woody was the star of a number of comic book series published in the U.S. and around the world. The main title, Walter Lantz Woody Woodpecker, ran from 1952 to 1983.
Woody first appeared as a comic book character in 1942, appearing alongside Andy Panda and Oswald the Rabbit in Dell Comics' New Funnies, an anthology comic that featured a number of other Lantz characters. Eventually, Woody became the star of New Funnies, leading to Woody Woodpecker solo comics appearing as part of Dell Comics' Four Color Comics one-shot series, beginning in 1947.Walter Lantz Woody Woodpecker became an independent comic book (starting with issue #16 to reflect the earlier appearances in Four Color) in Dec. 1952-Jan. 1953. It ran for 201 issues, published by Dell and then Western Publishing (Whitman/Gold Key), lasting until 1983.
Woody's niece and nephew Splinter and Knothead first made their appearances in the comics, later appearing in the cartoons.
Notable creators involved with the Woody Woodpecker comic included Carl Fallberg, Paul Murry, Tony Strobl, Frank Thomas, and in the European comics, Freddy Milton.
Woody also starred in a short-lived comic strip, syndicated by Consolidated News Features, in the early 1950s.
Foreign-language versions of the Woody Woodpecker comic were published in many European countries, most actively in Sweden ("Hacke Hackspett"), the Netherlands, France, and Italy ("Picchiarello").
Video games
Several Woody Woodpecker video games were released for Mega Drive/Genesis, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PC, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, and iOS (iPad and iPhone).Woody Woodpecker #1, Woody Woodpecker #2, and Woody Woodpecker #3 (1994) for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer.Férias Frustradas do Pica-Pau (translation: Woody Woodpecker Frustrated Vacation) (1996) for Mega Drive/Genesis and Sega Master System (made by Tectoy, sold only in Brazil).Woody Woodpecker Racing (2000) for PlayStation, PC and GBC.Woody Woodpecker: Escape from Buzz Buzzard Park (2001) for GBC, PC and PS2.Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure (2001) for Nintendo GameCube.Woody Woodpecker in Crazy Castle 5 (2002) for GBA.Woody Woodpecker: Wacky Challenge (2010) for mobile phone.Woody Woodpecker In Waterfools (2010) for mobile phone.Woody Woodpecker (App)'' (2012) for iOS.
Mattel purchased the rights for a Woody Woodpecker Intellivision game, and Grace Stafford recorded new dialog for the game, but it was not completed.
Maruhon has released a series of pachinko games in Japan.
See also
List of Walter Lantz cartoons
List of Walter Lantz cartoon characters
References
External links
Official Universal Pictures Woody Woodpecker site
Woody Woodpecker at Don Markstein's Toonopedia
Woody Woodpecker profile at the Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia
Watch Woody Woodpecker in the public domain Pantry Panic (1941)
Woody Woodpecker on the Internet Movie Database
Animated characters
Comedy film characters
Comedy television characters
Animated film series
Corporate mascots
Universal Pictures cartoons and characters
Film characters introduced in 1940
Film series introduced in 1940
Anthropomorphic birds
Fictional birds
Fictional tricksters
Male characters in animation
Male characters in comics
Walter Lantz
Bird mascots
Film studio mascots
Mascots introduced in 1940
Woodpeckers
Walter Lantz Productions cartoons and characters
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200954
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Rank-Broadley
|
Ian Rank-Broadley
|
Ian Rank-Broadley FRBS (born 1952) is a British sculptor who has produced many acclaimed works, among which are several designs for British coinage and the memorial statue of Princess Diana at Kensington Palace in London unveiled in July 2021.
Biography
Born in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, Rank-Broadley was educated at Epsom School of Art (1970–74) tutored by Bruce McLean, and Slade School of Fine Art, UCL (1974–76) with Reg Butler as his Director of Studies, Michael Kenny and John Davies as tutors, where he was awarded the Boise Travelling Scholarship. He then continued his studies at the British School at Rome. On his return to the U.K. he started as a professional sculptor specialising in low relief sculpture. He has assisted the sculptors Reg Butler and Ralph Brown RA.
A member of the Royal British Society of Sculptors (Associate 1989, Fellow 1994), and a Brother of the Art Workers Guild (1995), he was made a Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths in 1996 and granted the Freedom of the City of London. He was elevated to the Livery in 2009. In 2010 he was appointed as Trustee to The Prince's School of Traditional Arts. His works are in the permanent collections of the British Museum, London's National Portrait Gallery, the Ashmolean Museum, Fitzwilliam Museum Cambridge, St Paul's Cathedral, the Rijksmuseum, and several others.
He lives and works in Gloucestershire.
Sculptor
In 1996 he won the Prize for his bronze maquette for Dante’s Gates of Hell, at XI Biennale Dantesca, Ravenna, Italy.
In 2007, the Armed Forces Memorial at the National Memorial Arboretum was dedicated, containing two large figure groups, comprising fourteen figures, each one and a quarter times life size, by Rank-Broadley as part of its centre piece. For this work he received the 2008 Marsh Award for Excellence in Public Sculpture.
In 2010 he executed a memorial to Dean Colet, founder of St Paul's School, London, which can be seen in St Paul's Cathedral in London.
Other major works are St Matthew at St Matthew's Church, Northampton, H M Queen in Garter robes at the Supreme Court, Charles James Fox at Chertsey, the Royal Anglian Regiment's memorial, Imperial War Museum Duxford.
A major patron was the publisher Felix Dennis for whom Rank-Broadley has sculpted the figures of Josephine Baker, Billie Holiday and "Lord Rochester, his Whore and a Monkey" for his Garden of Heroes and Villains.
In 2018, Rank-Broadley completed a portrait bust of the Welsh poet RJ Arkhipov. Arkhipov's experience with the sculptor inspired his poem "The Sculptor".
0n 10 December 2017 it was announced that Rank-Broadley had been commissioned by the sons of Diana, Princess of Wales to execute a statue in her memory. Its completion was initially expected in 2019 but its unveiling in the Sunken Garden at Kensington Palace was delayed until 1 July 2021. In his review, Jonathan Jones noted its "aesthetic awfulness ... Flat, cautious realism softened by a vague attempt to be intimate make this a spiritless and characterless hunk of nonsense."
Coins and medals
In 1997 he won the Royal Mint competition for a new effigy of Elizabeth II to appear on the obverse of circulated British and some Commonwealth coinage from 1998 onward. Later that year, he also won a Royal Mint competition for his design of the Queen Mother Centennial crown coin. In 2002 his design of the reverse of a British Five Pound coin was issued. He also designed the conjoint portrait of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip on the 2007 crown coin, celebrating their sixtieth wedding anniversary. It is the third time Rank-Broadley has designed both the obverse and reverse of a single coin. More recently he has been commissioned to design and model the gold kilo coin celebrating the Queen's Diamond Jubilee.
In 2012 he was recognized with a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Vicenza Numismatica.
References
External links
Ian Rank-Broadley's website
Armed Forces Memorial Sculpture website
1952 births
Living people
20th-century British sculptors
British male sculptors
People from Walton-on-Thames
British currency designers
Fellows of the Royal British Society of Sculptors
Coin designers
21st-century British sculptors
21st-century male artists
|
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200956
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitable%20Boy
|
Excitable Boy
|
Excitable Boy is the third studio album by American musician Warren Zevon. The album was released on January 18, 1978, by Asylum Records. It includes the single "Werewolves of London", which reached No. 21 and remained in the American Top 40 for six weeks. The album brought Zevon to commercial attention and remains the best-selling album of his career, having been certified platinum by the RIAA and reaching the top ten on the US Billboard 200. A remastered and expanded edition was released in 2007.
Music and lyrics
"Excitable Boy" and "Werewolves of London" were considered macabrely humorous by some critics. The historical "Veracruz" dramatizes the United States occupation of Veracruz; likewise, "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner" is a fictionalized account of former mercenary David Lindell's experiences in Africa. "Lawyers, Guns and Money" is a tongue-in-cheek tale of a young American man's adventures in Cold War-era Latin America. In addition, there are two ballads about life and relationships ("Accidentally Like a Martyr" and "Tenderness on the Block"), as well as the funk/disco-inspired "Nighttime in the Switching Yard".
Critical reception
Reviewing in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau wrote:
Track listing
Personnel
Warren Zevon – lead, harmony and backing vocals, piano, organ, synthesizer
Jorge Calderón – harmony and backing vocals, Spanish vocals on "Veracruz"
Danny Kortchmar - guitar, percussion
Russ Kunkel – drums
Additional personnel
Karla Bonoff – harmony vocals on "Accidentally Like a Martyr"
Jackson Browne – guitar, harmony and backing vocals
Luis Damian – jarana on "Veracruz"
Kenny Edwards – bass guitar on "Veracruz", "Tenderness on the Block" and "Lawyers, Guns and Money"
John McVie - bass on "Werewolves of London"
Mick Fleetwood – drums on "Werewolves of London"
The Gentlemen Boys (Jackson Browne, Jorge Calderón, Kenny Edwards, J. D. Souther and Waddy Wachtel) – backing and harmony vocals
Arthur Gerst – Mexican harp
Bob Glaub – bass guitar on "Roland the Headless Gunner", "Excitable Boy" and "Nighttime in the Switching Yard"
Jim Horn – recorder on "Veracruz"; saxophone on "Excitable Boy"
Greg Ladanyi – bells on "Nighttime in the Switching Yard"
Rick Marotta – drums on "Veracruz" and "Lawyers, Guns and Money"
Jeff Porcaro – drums and percussion on "Nighttime in the Switching Yard"
Linda Ronstadt – backing and harmony vocals on "Excitable Boy"
Leland Sklar – bass guitar on "Johnny Strikes Up The Band" and "Accidentally Like a Martyr"
J.D. Souther – backing and harmony vocals
Manuel Vasquez – requinto on "Veracruz"
Waddy Wachtel – guitar, synthesizer, harmony and backing vocals
Jennifer Warnes – harmony vocals on "Excitable Boy"
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Warren Zevon albums
1978 albums
Albums produced by Waddy Wachtel
Albums with cover art by Jimmy Wachtel
Asylum Records albums
|
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] |
200958
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100%20Greatest%20Britons
|
100 Greatest Britons
|
100 Greatest Britons is a television series that was broadcast by the BBC in 2002. It was based on a television poll conducted to determine who the British people at that time considered the greatest Britons in history. The series included individual programmes featuring the top ten, with viewers having further opportunity to vote after each programme. It concluded with a debate and final determination of the ranking of the top ten. Although many living people were included among the top 100, all of the top ten were deceased.
Poll
The poll resulted in nominees including Guy Fawkes, who was executed because of his role in the plot to blow up the Parliament of England; Oliver Cromwell, who created a republican British state (the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland); Richard III, suspected of murdering his nephews; James Connolly, an Irish nationalist and socialist who was executed by the Crown due to his part in the 1916 Easter Rising; Thomas Paine, who wrote against the British crown before and during the American Revolution; and a surprisingly high ranking of 17th for actor and singer Michael Crawford (the second-highest-ranked entertainer, after John Lennon). Diana, Princess of Wales, was judged to be a greater historical figure than Isaac Newton, William Shakespeare, and Charles Darwin by BBC respondents to the survey.
One of the more controversial figures to be included on the list was the occultist Aleister Crowley. His works had a direct influence on the rise in popular occultism and some forms of Neopaganism in the 20th century. In addition to the Britons, some notable non-British entrants were listed, including two Irish nationals, the philanthropic musicians Bono and Bob Geldof. The top 19 entries were people of English origin (though Sir Ernest Shackleton and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, were both born into Anglo-Irish families in what is now the Republic of Ireland when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom). The highest-placed Scottish entry was Alexander Fleming in 20th place, and the highest Welsh entry was Owain Glyndŵr in 23rd place. Sixty had lived in the 20th century. The highest-ranked living person was Margaret Thatcher, placed 16th. Ringo Starr was the only member of the Beatles not on the list. Isambard Kingdom Brunel occupied the top spot in the polls for some time thanks largely to "students from Brunel University who have been campaigning vigorously for the engineer for weeks." However, a late surge in the final week of voting put Churchill into first place. Of the top 100, only 13 were women, and only one entry, was from the BAME community (Freddie Mercury.)
Reaction of black Britons
There were no black Britons voted on the list, prompting consternation from members of the black British community that their contribution and history in the United Kingdom were not being sufficiently recognised. A separate three-month survey was conducted among the public, resulting in the publication of 100 Great Black Britons, a list of the 100 greatest black Britons as judged by the British public. In 2004, two years after the 100 Greatest Britons list was voted on, social campaigner Patrick Vernon created a similar poll exclusively voted upon by members of the black British community, with Mary Seacole being named the greatest black Briton for her actions during the Crimean War with Russia.
2012 Summer Olympics
The opening and closing ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics featured the two greatest Britons, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Winston Churchill as main characters, played by Kenneth Branagh and Timothy Spall, each of them reading a monologue from William Shakespeare's The Tempest. The ceremony also included a personal appearance by Tim Berners-Lee, who was placed 99th on the list.
Top 10
Full list
Sir Winston Churchill
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Diana, Princess of Wales
Charles Darwin
William Shakespeare
Sir Isaac Newton
Elizabeth I
John Lennon
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson
Oliver Cromwell
Sir Ernest Shackleton, explorer. Made important contributions to the exploration of Antarctica.
Captain James Cook, explorer. Made maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.
Robert Baden-Powell, soldier and activist. Founder of Scouting.
Alfred the Great, king of Wessex (871–899). Successfully stopped the Viking advance in England, encouraged education, proposing that primary education be taught in English, and improved his kingdom's legal system, military structure and people's quality of life.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, general during the Napoleonic Wars (defeated Napoleon at Waterloo) and Prime Minister (1828–1830, 1834).
Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister (1979–1990). First woman to have held the office.
Michael Crawford, TV, film and theatre actor (Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em on television, and originated the title role in The Phantom of the Opera on the West End).
Queen Victoria, queen (1837–1901). Her reign is known as the Victorian era.
Sir Paul McCartney, musician (The Beatles).
Sir Alexander Fleming, physician and chemist. Discovered penicillin. Received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945.
Alan Turing, mathematician and pioneering computer scientist. Invented the Turing Test and devised cryptanalytical techniques, including those which cracked the Enigma machine.
Michael Faraday, physicist. Discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.
Owain Glyndŵr, Welsh ruler, the last native "prince of Wales"
Elizabeth II, reigning monarch (1952–present).
Stephen Hawking, astrophysicist. Achieved groundbreaking work in the field of quantum gravity and theoretical cosmology. Author of A Brief History of Time.
William Tyndale, scholar. Translated the Bible into English.
Emmeline Pankhurst, activist for women's rights. Helped achieve women's right to vote in the United Kingdom.
William Wilberforce, politician and activist. Led the anti-slavery movement.
David Bowie, musician (Space Oddity, Ziggy Stardust, Heroes, Let's Dance)
Guy Fawkes, member of the Catholic Gunpowder Plot. Tried but failed to blow up the English Parliament. The event is the origin of the annual Bonfire Night.
Leonard Cheshire, military pilot and philanthropist.
Eric Morecambe, comedian and actor (Morecambe and Wise).
David Beckham, association football player.
Thomas Paine, philosopher (The Age of Reason).
Boudica, Celtic queen of the Iceni. Led resistance against the Roman army.
Sir Steve Redgrave, rower. Won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games (1984–2000).
Sir Thomas More, author and philosopher (Utopia).
William Blake, poet and painter (Songs of Innocence and Experience, Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion, Milton: A Poem in Two Books).
John Harrison, inventor of the marine chronometer.
Henry VIII, king (1509–1547).
Charles Dickens, novelist (Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, Great Expectations, David Copperfield).
Sir Frank Whittle, engineer and inventor. Invented the turbojet engine.
John Peel, radio presenter.
John Logie Baird, engineer and inventor. Invented the television.
Aneurin Bevan, politician. Minister of Health (1945–1951). Spearheaded the establishment of the National Health Service, providing medical care to all UK citizens regardless of wealth.
Boy George, androgynous pop singer (Culture Club).
Sir Douglas Bader, military aviator.
Sir William Wallace, knight and resistance leader during the Wars of Scottish Independence.
Sir Francis Drake, explorer and captain. Helped defeat the Spanish Armada under Lord Howard.
John Wesley, religious activist. Founder of Methodism.
King Arthur, legendary king.
Florence Nightingale, humanitarian activist and founder of modern nursing. Nursed wounded soldiers during the Crimean War.
T. E. Lawrence, better known as "Lawrence of Arabia", soldier and author of Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
Robert Falcon Scott, explorer. Failed to reach the South Pole before Roald Amundsen and died on the way back. Became a national hero to the British because of his perseverance.
Enoch Powell, politician, linguist, soldier, philologist and poet.
Sir Cliff Richard, pop singer.
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor. Attributed with the invention of the telephone although this title is disputed with Antonio Meucci.
Freddie Mercury, rock singer (Queen) Born in Zanzibar of Indian Parsi descent.
Dame Julie Andrews, film actress (Mary Poppins, The Sound of Music).
Sir Edward Elgar, composer (Pomp and Circumstance Marches).
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, queen during WWII.
George Harrison, rock guitarist (The Beatles).
Sir David Attenborough, biologist and TV documentary presenter.
James Connolly, activist, politician, Socialist and Irish nationalist.
George Stephenson, civil engineer. "Father of the Railways". Invented the first practical steam locomotive and built the first public railway.
Sir Charlie Chaplin, comedian, actor and film director (The Kid, The Gold Rush, City Lights, The Great Dictator, Modern Times)
Tony Blair, Prime Minister (1997–2007).
William Caxton, printer. Introduced the printing press in England.
Bobby Moore, association football player. Captain of the England team that won the 1966 World Cup
Jane Austen, novelist (Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility).
William Booth, humanitarian activist. Founder of the Salvation Army.
Henry V, king (1413–1422). Against all odds defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt.
Aleister Crowley, poet, novelist and occultist. Founded religion Thelema.
Robert the Bruce, king of the Scots (1306–1329).
Bob Geldof, pop singer (The Boomtown Rats) and humanitarian activist (Live Aid, Live 8).
The Unknown Warrior, soldier whose remains are buried at Westminster Abbey.
Robbie Williams, pop singer (Take That).
Edward Jenner, physician. Inventor of the smallpox vaccine.
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor, Prime Minister (1916–1922).
Charles Babbage, mathematician, philosopher, mechanical engineer and inventor. Invented the first programmable mechanical computer.
Geoffrey Chaucer, poet (The Canterbury Tales).
Richard III, king (1483–1485).
J. K. Rowling, novelist (Harry Potter).
James Watt, inventor. Improved the steam engine, making it economical for use in factories, which was fundamental to the Industrial Revolution which originated in Great Britain
Sir Richard Branson, businessman (Virgin).
Bono, rock singer (U2). Born in Dublin, Ireland, and is not British.
John Lydon (Johnny Rotten), rock/punk singer (The Sex Pistols, Public Image Ltd.)
Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein ('Monty'), WWII general.
Donald Campbell, speed record breaker. Only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964).
Henry II, king (1154–1189). Born in Le Mans, France. Although King of England (as well as many other titles), not actually British.
James Clerk Maxwell, physicist. Developed the theory of electromagnetic radiation.
J. R. R. Tolkien, novelist (The Hobbit, Lord of the Rings).
Sir Walter Raleigh, Explorer. Explored in Central America and sent expeditions to North America.
Edward I, king (1272–1307). The "Hammer of the Scots". Edward turned the longbow into England's most deadly weapon against the Scottish and French with devastating results, most notably at the Battle of Falkirk.
Sir Barnes Wallis, engineer and inventor. Invented the bouncing bomb, earthquake bomb and geodetic airframe.
Richard Burton, theatre and film actor.
Tony Benn, politician, and diarist.
David Livingstone, explorer. Discovered the origins of the Nile.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee, computer scientist. Inventor of the World Wide Web.
Marie Stopes, eugenicist and campaigner for women's rights. Pioneer in the field of birth control.
Although the BBC's original ranked list has been removed from their web server and what remains is only an alphabetical list of the Top 100, several other sources have preserved the original ranked list.
There was some question as to whether the Richard Burton listed at No. 96 was the actor or the explorer. A BBC press release makes clear that the actor was intended.
See also
Greatest Britons spin-offs
Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
100 Great Black Britons
References
External links
Churchill memorial press release
BBC Great Britons press release
BBC Great Britons book and links at National Portrait Gallery
The Top 100 Great Britons – places 11 to 100 by rank — BBC (via web archive)
2002 British television series debuts
2002 British television series endings
BBC Television shows
Britain
Documentaries about historical events
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] |
200959
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/UYK-8
|
AN/UYK-8
|
The AN/UYK-8 was a UNIVAC computer.
It used the same 30-bit words and instruction set as the AN/USQ-17 and AN/USQ-20 Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS) computers, built with "first generation integrated circuits" which made it about one quarter of the volume of the AN/USQ-20 and two processors instead of just one.
Instructions were represented as 30-bit words, in the following format:
f 6 bits function code
j 3 bits jump condition designator
k 3 bits partial word designator
b 3 bits which seven index register to use (B0=non used)
s 2 bits which S (5bits) register to use S0,S1,S2,S3(P(17-13))
y 13 bits operand address in memory
memory address=Bb+Ss+y=18bit(262144Words)
Numbers were represented as full 30-bit words, this allowed for five 6-bit alphanumeric characters per word.
The main memory was increased to 262,144 words (256K words) of magnetic core memory.
The available processor registers were:
one 30-bit arithmetic (A) register.
a contiguous 30-bit Q register (total of 60 bits for the result of multiplication or the dividend in division).
seven 30-bit index (B) registers.
Development
On April 28, 1967 UNIVAC received a contract from the U.S. Navy for design, development, testing and delivery of the AN/UYK-8 microelectronics computer for use with the AN/TYA-20.
The AN/UYK-8 was built to replace the CP-808 (Marine Corps air cooled AN/USQ-20 variant) in the Beach Relay Link-11 communication system, the AN/TYQ-3 in a AN/TYA-20
See also
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware
References
UNIVAC hardware
Military computers
Military electronics of the United States
|
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200960
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau%20d%27If
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Château d'If
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The Château d'If () is a fortress and former prison located on the Île d'If, the smallest island in the Frioul archipelago, situated about offshore from Marseille in southeastern France. It is famous for being one of the settings of Alexandre Dumas's adventure novel The Count of Monte Cristo.
Island
The Île d'If measures and is located west of the Old Port of Marseille. The entire island is heavily fortified; high ramparts with gun platforms surmount the cliffs, which rise steeply from the surrounding ocean. Apart from the fortress, the island is uninhabited.
Fortress
The "château" is a square, three-story building long on each side, flanked by three towers with large gun embrasures. It was built in 1524–31 on the orders of King Francis I, who, during a visit in 1516, saw the island as a strategically important location for defending the coastline from sea-based attacks.
The castle's principal military value was as a deterrent; it never had to fight off an actual attack. The closest that it came to a genuine test of strength was in July 1531, when Holy Roman Emperor Charles V made preparations to attack Marseille. However, he abandoned the invasion plan.
In 1701, the military engineer Vauban questioned its suitability to defend against an actual attack: "The fortifications look like the rock, they are fully rendered, but very roughly and carelessly, with many imperfections. The whole having been very badly built and with little care... All the buildings, very crudely done, are ill made."
The embalmed body of general Jean Baptiste Kléber was repatriated to France after his assassination in Cairo in 1800. Napoleon, fearing that his tomb would become a symbol to Republicanism, ordered that the body stay at the château. It remained there for 18 years until Louis XVIII granted Kléber a proper burial in his native Strasbourg.
Prison
The isolated location and dangerous offshore currents of the Château d'If made it an ideal escape-proof prison, very much like the island of Alcatraz in California in more recent times. Its use as a dumping ground for political and religious detainees soon made it one of the most feared and notorious jails in France. Over 3,500 Huguenots (French Calvinists/identifying Christians) were sent to Château d'If, as was Gaston Crémieux, a leader of the Paris Commune, who was shot there in 1871.
The island became internationally famous in the 19th century when Alexandre Dumas used it as a setting for The Count of Monte Cristo, published to widespread acclaim in 1844. In the novel, the main character Edmond Dantès (a commoner who later purchases the noble title of Count) and his mentor, Abbé Faria, were both imprisoned in it. After fourteen years, Dantès makes a daring escape from the castle, becoming the first person ever to do so and survive. In reality, no one is known to have done this. The modern Château d'If maintains a roughly hewn dungeon in honour of Dantès as a tourist attraction.
As was common practice in those days, prisoners were treated differently according to their class and wealth. The poorest were placed at the bottom, being confined perhaps twenty or more to a cell in windowless dungeons under the castle. However, the wealthiest inmates were able to pay for their own private cells (or pistoles) higher up, with windows, a garderobe and a fireplace.
The château today
The château's use as a prison ceased at the end of the 19th century. It was demilitarized and opened to the public on 23 September 1890. It can be reached by boat from Marseille's old port. Its fame comes from the setting for Dumas' novel, The Count of Monte Cristo. This fame has made the prison a popular tourist destination.
Mark Twain visited the château in July 1867 during a months-long pleasure excursion. He recounts his visit in his book, The Innocents Abroad. He says a guide took his party into the prison, which was not yet open to the public, and inside the cells, one of which he says housed the "Iron Mask". There is a sign at the château that says "Prison dite de l'Homme au Masque de Fer" ("Said to be the prison of the Man in the Iron Mask"), but this is likely only legend since the famed Man in the Iron Mask was never held at the Château d'If.
The Château d'If is listed as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture.
In fictional works
The Château d'If is famous for being one of the settings of Alexandre Dumas' adventure novel The Count of Monte Cristo. However, other locations have been used to represent Château d'If in film adaptations of the work. In the 2002 adaptation starring Jim Caviezel, the château was represented by Saint Mary's Tower on Comino, the smallest inhabited Maltese island. The cliff-top watchtower can be seen from the ferry crossing between Malta and Gozo.
Chateau d'If is the title of a 1949 short story written by Jack Vance (previously published as New Bodies For Old).
The fortress was used as the location where Alain Charnier a.k.a. Frog One (Fernando Rey) meets Devereaux (Frédéric de Pasquale) to finalize the drugs shipment to the United States in the 1971 crime film The French Connection.
In the 1956 "Tales of Old Dartmoor" episode of The Goon Show radio comedy series, Grytpype-Thynne has Dartmoor Prison put to sea to visit the Château d'If, as part of a plan to find the treasure of the Count of Monte Cristo.
In the Clive Cussler novel Spartan Gold, the main characters visit the Château d'If as part of their quest for hidden treasure.
In the collection of short stories Carolina Grau by Mexican author Carlos Fuentes.
Notable prisoners
Élie Neau, Huguenot
Philippe, Chevalier de Lorraine, lover of Philippe de France
, accused of bringing the plague to Marseille (c. 1720 – c. 1723)
Honoré Mirabeau, writer, popular orator and statesman (1774–1775)
Abbé Faria (1797–?); his stay at the château is disputed
Michel Mathieu Lecointe-Puyraveau, politician (1815)
Gaston Crémieux, a leader of the Paris Commune (1871)
Contrary to common belief, the Marquis de Sade was not a prisoner at the château.
See also
Alcatraz Island
References
External links
Château d'If Tour—Sign about Man in the Iron Mask is at 1:30 into video
1531 establishments in France
7th arrondissement of Marseille
Buildings and structures in Marseille
Castles in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
The Count of Monte Cristo
Defunct prisons in France
Frioul archipelago
Historic house museums in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Infrastructure completed in 1531
Islands of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Monuments historiques of Marseille
Museums in Marseille
Prison islands
Tourist attractions in Marseille
Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
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200962
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstory
|
Backstory
|
A backstory, background story, back-story, or background is a set of events invented for a plot, presented as preceding and leading up to that plot. It is a literary device of a narrative history all chronologically earlier than the narrative of primary interest.
In acting, it is the history of the character before the drama begins, and is created during the actor's preparation.
It is the history of characters and other elements that underlie the situation existing at the main narrative's start. Even a purely historical work selectively reveals backstory to the audience.
Usage
As a literary device, backstory is often employed to lend depth or believability to the main story. The usefulness of having a dramatic revelation was recognized by Aristotle, in Poetics.
Backstories are usually revealed, partially or in full, chronologically or otherwise, as the main narrative unfolds. However, a story creator may also create portions of a backstory or even an entire backstory that is solely for their own use.
Backstory may be revealed by various means, including flashbacks, dialogue, direct narration, summary, recollection, and exposition. The original Star Wars film and its first two sequels are examples of a work with a preconceived backstory, which was later released as the "prequel" second set of three films.
Recollection
Recollection is the fiction-writing mode whereby a character calls something to mind, or remembers it. A character's memory plays a role for conveying backstory, as it allows a fiction-writer to bring forth information from earlier in the story or from before the beginning of the story. Although recollection is not widely recognized as a distinct fiction-writing mode, recollection is commonly used by authors of fiction.
For example, Orson Scott Card observes that "If it's a memory the character could have called to mind at any point, having her think about it just in time to make a key decision may seem like an implausible coincidence . . . ." Furthermore, "If the memory is going to prompt a present decision, then the memory in turn must have been prompted by a recent event."
Shared universe
In a shared universe more than one author may shape the same backstory. The later creation of a backstory that conflicts with a previously written main story may require the adjustment device known as retroactive continuity, informally known as "retcon".
Acting
Actors may create their own backstories for characters, going beyond the sometimes meager information in a script. Filling in details helps an actor interpret the script and create fully imagined characters.
See also
Characterization
Flashback (narrative)
Origin story
Prequel
References
Continuity (fiction)
Narrative techniques
Plot (narrative)
Acting
|
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200964
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform%20movement
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Reform movement
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A reform movement is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements which reject those old ideals, in that the ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist (specifically, social democratic) or religious concepts. Some rely on personal transformation; others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhi's spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put things back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement(s) enjoyed, or to prevent any such successes.
Great Britain
After two decades of intensely conservative rule, the logjam broke in the late 1820s with the repeal of obsolete restrictions on Nonconformists, followed by the dramatic removal of severe limitations on Catholics in Britain.
The Radical movement campaigned for electoral reform, against child labour, for a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, prison reform, and public sanitation. Originally this movement sought to replace the exclusive political power of the aristocracy with a more democratic system empowering urban areas and the middle and working classes. The energy of reform emerged from the religious fervour of the evangelical element in the established Church of England, and Evangelical workers in the Nonconformist churches, especially the Methodists.
Reformers also used the scientific methodology of Jeremy Bentham and the utilitarians to design specific reforms, and especially to provide for government inspection to guarantee their successful operation. The greatest success of the Reformers was the Reform Act 1832. It gave the rising urban middle classes more political power, while sharply reducing the power of the low-population districts controlled by rich families. Despite determined resistance from the House of Lords to the Bill, this Act gave more parliamentary power to the liberals, while reducing the political force of the working class, leaving them detached from the main body of middle class support on which they had relied. Having achieved the Reform Act of 1832, the Radical alliance was broken until the Liberal-Labour alliance of the Edwardian period.
Chartist movement
The Chartist movement in nineteenth-century Britain sought universal suffrage. A historian of the Chartist movement observed that "The Chartist movement was essentially an economic movement with a purely political programme." A period of bad trade and high food prices set in, and the drastic restrictions on Poor Law relief were a source of acute distress. The London Working Men's Association, under the guidance of Francis Place, found itself in the midst of a great unrest. In the northern textile districts the Chartists, led by Feargus O'Connor, a follower of Daniel O'Connell, denounced the inadequate Poor Laws. This was basically a hunger revolt, springing from unemployment and despair. In Birmingham, the older Birmingham Political Union sprang to life under the leadership of Thomas Attwood. The Chartist movement demanded basic economic reforms, higher wages and better conditions of work, and a repeal of the obnoxious Poor Law Act.
The idea of universal male suffrage, an initial goal of the Chartist movement, was to include all males as voters regardless of their social standing. This later evolved into a campaign for universal suffrage. This movement sought to redraw the parliamentary districts within Great Britain and create a salary system for elected officials so workers could afford to represent their constituents without a burden on their families.
Women's rights movement
Many consider Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) to be the source of the reformers' long-running campaign for feminist inclusion and the origin of the Women's Suffrage movement. Harriet Taylor was a significant influence on John Stuart Mill's work and ideas, reinforcing Mill's advocacy of women's rights. Her essay, "Enfranchisement of Women," appeared in the Westminster Review in 1851 in response to a speech by Lucy Stone given at the first National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850, and it was reprinted in the United States. Mill cites Taylor's influence in his final revision of On Liberty, (1859) which was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in Mill's The Subjection of Women.
A militant campaign to include women in the electorate originated in Victorian times. Emmeline Pankhurst's husband, Richard Pankhurst, was a supporter of the women's suffrage movement and had been the author of the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1882. In 1889, Pankhurst founded the unsuccessful Women's Franchise League, and in October 1903 she founded the better-known Women's Social and Political Union (later dubbed 'suffragettes' by the Daily Mail), an organization famous for its militancy. Led by Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, the campaign culminated in 1918, when the British Parliament the Representation of the People Act 1918 granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who were householders, the wives of householders, occupiers of the property with an annual rent of £5, and graduates of British universities. There was also Warner's suffrage movement.
Reform in Parliament
Earl Grey, Lord Melbourne and Robert Peel were leaders of Parliament during the earlier years of the British reform movement. Grey and Melbourne were of the Whig party, and their governments saw parliamentary reform, the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire, and Poor Law reform. Peel was a Conservative, whose Ministry took an important step in the direction of tariff reform with the abolition of the Corn Laws.
William Ewart Gladstone was a reformer. Among the reforms he helped Parliament pass was a system of public education in the Elementary Education Act 1870. In 1872, he saw the institution of a secret ballot to prevent voter coercion, trickery and bribery. By 1885, Gladstone had readjusted the parliamentary district lines by making each district equal in population, preventing one MP from having greater influence than another.
United States: 1840s–1930s
The Progressive Era from 1896-1916 was a major American reform movement, which was led by middle-class citizens and politicians who targeted political machines, corruption, monopolies, and poor health and regulation standards. Reforms during this time include increased direct democracy, regulation of monopolies through trustbusting and antitrust laws, and the creation of new government agencies, such as the FDA. Theodore Roosevelt is often associated with this reform movement.
Religion – the Evangelical pietistic Protestant churches were active in numerous reforms in the mid-19th century, including temperance and the abolition of slavery. See Second Great Awakening
Art – The Hudson River School defined a distinctive American style of art, depicting romantic landscapes via the Transcendentalist perspective on nature.
Literature – founding of the Transcendentalist movement, which supported numerous reforms.
Utopian experiments:
New Harmony, Indiana (founder: Robert Owen) – practiced economic communism, although it proved to be socially flawed and thus unable to sustain itself.
Oneida Commune (founder: John Noyes), practiced eugenics, complex marriage, and communal living. The commune was supported through the manufacture of silverware, and the corporation still exists today, producing spoons and forks for households of the world. The commune sold its assets when Noyes was jailed on numerous charges.
Shakers – (founder: Mother Ann Lee) Stressed living and worship through dance, supported themselves through manufacture of furniture. The furniture is still popular today.
Brook Farm (founder: George Ripley), an agriculture-based commune that also ran schools.
Educational reform – (founder: Horace Mann); goals were a more relevant curriculum and more accessible education. Noah Webster's dictionary standardized English spelling and language; William McGuffey's hugely successful children's books taught reading in incremental stages.
Moral reform – Female movement that began in the 1830s to end prostitution and the sexual double standard. Groups, such as the New York Female Moral Reform Society, were organized by women in the Northeast. These moral reform societies published magazines and journals to spread their message. By 1841 there were about 50,000 women in 616 local moral reform societies in the North.
Women's rights movement – Founded by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton who organized the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and published a Declaration of Sentiments calling for the social and legal equality of women. Carried forward by Lucy Stone who began speaking out for women's rights in 1847, and organized a series of national conventions. Susan B. Anthony joined the cause in 1851 and worked ceaselessly for women's suffrage.
American labor movement – The campaign against excessive hours of work (and for the eight-hour day) was a central issue for the labor movement during the 19th century. The Knights of Labor, organized among the skilled trades in 1869 and led by Uriah Stephens, Terence Powderly and Mother Jones, was succeeded by the American Federation of Labor, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (combined now as the AFL–CIO), and the Industrial Workers of the World.
Child labor reform – Lewis Hine used his camera as a tool for social reform. His photographs were instrumental in changing child labor laws in the United States.
Abolition movement – The addition of Mexico's former territories in 1848 at the conclusion of the Mexican–American War reopened the possibility of the expansion of race-based chattel slavery; the adaptation of the slave system to industrial-style cotton production resulted in increasing dehumanization of black workers and a backlash against slavery in the northern states; key figures included William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
Know-Nothing movement, also anti-Catholic, anti-Masonic, and nativist (1845–1856)
Prohibition or Temperance movement – Characterized by Frances Willard's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, which stressed education (formed 1881, declined in 1940s) and Carrie Nation's Anti-Saloon League (established nationally by Howard Hyde Russell), which promoted a confrontational approach towards bars and saloons. Other significant organizations include the Prohibition Party and Lincoln-Lee Legion.
Mexico: La Reforma, 1850s
The Mexican Liberal Party, led by Benito Juárez and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, guided the emergence of Mexico, as a nation state, from colonialism. It envisioned a modern civil society and capitalist economy. All citizens were equal before the law, and Mexico's 1829 abolition of slavery was reaffirmed. The Liberal program, documented in the 1857 Constitution of Mexico, was based on:
Abolition of the fueros which had granted civil immunity to members of the church and military
Liquidation of traditional ejido communal land holdings and distribution of freehold titles to the peasantry (the Ley Lerdo)
Expropriation and sale of concentrated church property holdings (beyond the clergy's religious needs)
Curtailment of exorbitant fees by the church for administering the sacraments
Abolition of separate military and religious courts (the Ley Juárez)
Freedom of religion and guarantees of many civil and political liberties
Secular public education
Civil registry for births, marriages and deaths
Elimination of all forms of cruel and unusual punishment, including the death penalty
Elimination of debtor's prisons and all forms of personal servitude
Ottoman Empire: 1840s–1870s
The Tanzimat, meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The Tanzimat reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements and aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire. The reforms attempted to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout the Empire. Peasants often opposed the reforms because they upset traditional relationships.
Russia 1860s
The Russian Empire in the 19th century was characterized by very conservative and reactionary policies issued by the autocratic tsars. The great exception came during the reign of Alexander II (1855–1881), especially the 1860s. By far the greatest and most unexpected was the abolition of serfdom, which affected 23 million of the Empire's population of 74 million. They belonged to the state, to monasteries and to 104,000 rich gentry landowners. `
Emancipation of the serfs 1861
The emancipation reform of 1861 that freed the 23 million serfs was the single most important event in 19th-century Russian history, and the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labour to the cities, stimulating industry, and allowed the middle class to grow in number and influence. The freed peasants did not receive any free land. They had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. All the property turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the mir, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavourable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions. Revolutionaries believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into wage slavery in the onset of the industrial revolution, and that the bourgeoisie had effectively replaced landowners.
Judicial reforms
The judicial reforms were among the most successful and consistent of all his reforms. A completely new court system and order of legal proceedings were established. The main results were the introduction of a unified judicial system instead of a cumbersome set of estates of the realm courts, and fundamental changes in criminal trials. The latter included the establishment of the principle of equality of the parties involved, the introduction of public hearings, the jury trial, and a professional advocate that had never existed in Russia. However, there were also problems, as certain obsolete institutions were not covered by the reform. Also, the reform was hindered by extrajudicial punishment, introduced on a widespread scale during the reigns of his successors – Alexander III and Nicholas II. One of the most important results of the reform was wide introduction of jury trials. The jury trial included three professional judges and twelve jurors. A juror had to possess real estate of a certain value. Unlike in modern jury trials, jurors not only could decide whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty but also could decide that the defendant was guilty but not to be punished, as Alexander II believed that justice without morality is wrong. The sentence was rendered by professional judges.
Additional reforms
A host of new reforms followed in diverse areas. The tsar appointed Dmitry Milyutin to carry out significant reforms in the Russian armed forces. Further important changes were made concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of limited liability companies. Plans were formed for building a great network of railways, partly to develop the natural resources of the country, and partly to increase its power for defense and attack.
Military reforms included universal conscription, introduced for all social classes on 1 January 1874.
A new judicial administration (1864), based on the French model, introduced security of tenure. A new penal code and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure also came into operation. Reorganisation of the judiciary occurred to include trial in open court, with judges appointed for life, a jury system and the creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at local level. Legal historian Sir Henry Maine credited Alexander II with the first great attempt since the time of Grotius to codify and humanise the usages of war.
Alexander's bureaucracy instituted an elaborate scheme of local self-government (zemstvo) for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of the Minister of the Interior.
The Alaska colony was losing money, and would be impossible to defend and wartime against Britain, so in 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million (equivalent to roughly $200 million in current dollars). The Russian administrators, soldiers, settlers, and some of the priests returned home. Others stayed to minister to their native parishioners, who remain members of the Russian Orthodox Church into the 21st century.
Turkey: 1920s–1930s
Atatürk's Reforms were a series of significant political, legal, cultural, social and economic changes that were implemented under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 1920s and 1930s in the new Republic of Turkey
In the years between 1919 and 1923 Mustafa Kemal was at the forefront of the Turkish War of Independence and involved with the eradication of the antiquated institutions of the Osmanic Empire and in laying the foundations of the new Turkish State. He approached the National Congresses of Erzurum and Sivas to organise and lift the morale of the people in its determined opposition to the Forces of the Entente who were occupying Anatolia. By the end of these conventions he had managed to convey the message that the idea and the ideals of outdated imperialism ought be dropped so that people within the national boundaries could make decisions in accordance with the principles and general guidelines of an effective national policy. After the occupation of Istanbul by the Forces of the Entente he laid the foundations for the new Turkish State when in 1920 he united the Great National Assembly in Ankara. With the government of the Great National Assembly, of which he was president, Mustafa Kemal fought the Forces of the Entente and the Sultan's army which had remained there in collaboration with the occupying forces. Finally, on 9 September 1922 he succeeded in driving the Allied Forces back to Izmir, along with the other forces which had managed to penetrate the heartland of Anatolia. By this action he saved the country from invasion by foreign forces.
See also
1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children
Hindu reform movements
Lebensreform
Macquarie science reform movement
Reform Judaism
Revitalization movement, socio-cultural transformation movements
The Venus Project
Big tent
Structural fix
References
External links
History of social movements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh
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Tecumseh
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Tecumseh (English: ; 1768 – October 5, 1813) was a Shawnee chief and warrior who promoted resistance to the expansion of the United States onto Native American lands. A persuasive orator, Tecumseh traveled widely, forming a Native American confederacy and promoting intertribal unity. Although his efforts to unite Native Americans ended with his death in the War of 1812, he became an iconic folk hero in American, Indigenous, and Canadian popular history.
Tecumseh was born in what is now Ohio, at a time when the far-flung Shawnees were reuniting in their Ohio Country homeland. During his childhood, the Shawnees lost territory to the expanding American colonies in a series of border conflicts. Tecumseh's father was killed in battle against American colonists in 1774. Tecumseh was thereafter mentored by his older brother Cheeseekau, a noted war chief who died fighting Americans in 1792. As a young war leader, Tecumseh joined Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket's armed struggle against further American encroachment, which ended in defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 and with the loss of most of Ohio in the 1795 Treaty of Greenville.
In 1805, Tecumseh's younger brother Tenskwatawa, who came to be known as the Shawnee Prophet, founded a religious movement that called upon Native Americans to reject European influences and return to a more traditional lifestyle. In 1808, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa established Prophetstown, a village in present-day Indiana, that grew into a large, multi-tribal community. Tecumseh traveled constantly, spreading the Prophet's message and eclipsing his brother in prominence. Tecumseh proclaimed that Native Americans owned their lands in common and urged tribes not to cede more territory unless all agreed. His message alarmed American leaders as well as Native leaders who sought accommodation with the United States. In 1811, when Tecumseh was in the South recruiting allies, Americans under William Henry Harrison defeated Tenskwatawa at the Battle of Tippecanoe and destroyed Prophetstown.
In the War of 1812, Tecumseh joined his cause with the British, recruited warriors, and helped capture Detroit in August 1812. The following year he led an unsuccessful campaign against the United States in Ohio and Indiana. When U.S. naval forces took control of Lake Erie in 1813, Tecumseh reluctantly retreated with the British into Upper Canada, where American forces engaged them at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed. His death caused his confederacy to collapse. The lands he had fought to defend were eventually ceded to the U.S. government. His legacy as one of the most celebrated Native Americans in history grew in the years after his death, although details of his life have often been obscured by mythology.
Early life
Tecumseh was born in Shawnee territory in what is now Ohio between 1764 and 1771. The best evidence suggests a birthdate of around March 1768.
The Shawnee pronunciation of his name has traditionally been rendered by non-Shawnee sources as "Tecumthé". He was born into the Panther clan of the Kispoko division of the Shawnee tribe. Like most Shawnees, his name indicated his clan: translations of his name from the Shawnee language include "I Cross the Way", and "Shooting Star", references to a meteor associated with the Panther clan.
Later stories claimed that Tecumseh was named after a shooting star that appeared at his birth, although his father and most of his siblings, as members of the Panther clan, were named after the same meteor.
Tecumseh was likely born in the Shawnee town of Chillicothe, in the Scioto River valley, near present-day Chillicothe, Ohio, or in a nearby Kispoko village. Tecumseh's father, Puckeshinwau, was a Shawnee war chief of the Kispoko division. Tecumseh's mother, Methoataaskee, probably belonged to the Pekowi division and the Turtle clan, although some traditions maintain that she was Muscogee. His mother may have been a blood relative of William Weatherford. Tecumseh was the fifth of eight children. His parents met and married in what is now Alabama, where many Shawnees had settled after being driven out of the Ohio Country by the Iroquois in the 17th-century Beaver Wars. Around 1759, Puckeshinwau and Methoataaskee moved to the Ohio Country as part of a Shawnee effort to reunite in their traditional homeland.
In 1763, the British Empire laid claim to the Ohio Country following its victory in the French and Indian War. That year, Puckeshinwau took part in Pontiac's War, a pan-tribal effort to counter British control of the region. Tecumseh was born in the peaceful decade after Pontiac's War, a time when Puckeshinwau likely became the chief of the Kispoko town on the Scioto. In a 1768 treaty, the Iroquois ceded land south of the Ohio River (including present-day Kentucky) to the British, a region the Shawnee and other tribes used for hunting. Shawnees attempted to organize further resistance against colonial occupation of the region, culminating in the 1774 Battle of Point Pleasant, in which Puckeshinwau was killed. After the battle, Shawnees ceded Kentucky to the colonists.
When the American Revolutionary War between the British and their American colonies began in 1775, many Shawnees allied themselves with the British, raiding into Kentucky aiming to drive out American settlers. Tecumseh, too young to fight, was among those forced to relocate in the face of American counterraids. In 1777, his family moved from the Scioto River to a Kispoko town on the Mad River, near present-day Springfield, Ohio. General George Rogers Clark, commander of the Kentucky militia, led a major expedition into Shawnee territory in 1780. Tecumseh may have witnessed the ensuing Battle of Piqua on August 8. After the Shawnees retreated, Clark burned their villages and crops. The Shawnees relocated to the northwest, along the Great Miami River, but Clark returned in 1782 and destroyed those villages as well, forcing the Shawnees to retreat further north, near present-day Bellefontaine, Ohio.
From warrior to chief
After the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783, the United States claimed the lands north of the Ohio River by right of conquest; Britain had renounced its claims to the area in the Treaty of Paris. In response, Indians convened a great intertribal conference at Lower Sandusky in the summer of 1783. Speakers, most notably Joseph Brant (Mohawk), argued that Indians must unite to hold onto their lands. They put forth a doctrine that Indian lands were held in common by all tribes, and so no further land should be ceded to the United States without the consent of all the tribes. This idea made a strong impression on Tecumseh, just fifteen years old when he attended the conference. As an adult, he would become such a well-known advocate of this policy that some mistakenly thought it had originated with him. The United States, however, insisted on dealing with the tribes individually, getting each to sign separate land treaties. In January 1786, Moluntha, civil chief of the Mekoche Shawnee division, signed the Treaty of Fort Finney, surrendering most of Ohio to the Americans. Later that year, Moluntha was murdered by a Kentucky militiaman, initiating a new border war.
Tecumseh, now about eighteen years old, became a warrior under the tutelage of his older brother Cheeseekau, who emerged as a noted war chief. Tecumseh participated in attacks on flatboats traveling down the Ohio River, carrying waves of immigrants into lands the Shawnees had lost. He was disturbed by the sight of prisoners being cruelly treated by the Shawnees, an early indication of his lifelong aversion to torture and cruelty for which he would later be celebrated. In 1788, Tecumseh, Cheeseekau and their family moved westward, relocating near Cape Girardeau, Missouri. They hoped to be free of American settlers, only to find colonists moving there as well, so they did not stay long.
In late 1789 or early 1790, Tecumseh traveled south with Cheeseekau to live with the Chickamauga Cherokees near Lookout Mountain in what is now Tennessee. Some Shawnees already lived among the Chickamaugas, who were fierce opponents of U.S. expansion. Cheeseekau led about forty Shawnees in raids against colonists; Tecumseh was presumably among them. During his nearly two years among the Chickamaugas, Tecumseh probably had a daughter with a Cherokee woman; the relationship was brief, and the child remained with her mother.
In 1791, Tecumseh returned to the Ohio Country to take part in the Northwest Indian War as a minor leader. The Native confederacy that had been formed to fight the war was led by the Shawnee Blue Jacket, and would provide a model for the confederacy Tecumseh created years later. He led a band of eight followers, including his younger brother Lalawéthika, later known as Tenskwatawa. Tecumseh missed fighting in a major Indian victory (St. Clair's defeat) on November 4 because he was hunting or scouting at the time. The following year he participated in other skirmishes before rejoining Cheeseekau in Tennessee. Tecumseh was with Cheeseekau when he was killed in an unsuccessful attack on Buchanan's Station near Nashville in 1792. Tecumseh probably sought revenge for his brother's death, but the details are unknown.
Tecumseh returned to the Ohio Country at the end of 1792 and fought in several more skirmishes. In 1794, he fought in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, a bitter defeat for the Indians. The Native confederacy fell apart, especially after Blue Jacket agreed to make peace with the Americans. Tecumseh did not attend the signing of the Treaty of Greenville (1795), in which about two-thirds of Ohio and portions of present-day Indiana were ceded to the United States.
By 1796, Tecumseh was both the civil and war chief of a Kispoko band of about 50 warriors and 250 people. His sister Tecumapease was the band's principal female chief. Tecumseh took a wife, Mamate, and had a son, Paukeesaa, born about 1796. Their marriage did not last, and Tecumapease raised Paukeesaa from the age of seven or eight. Tecumseh's band moved to various locations before settling in 1798 close to Delaware Indians, along the White River near present-day Anderson, Indiana, where he lived for the next eight years. He married twice more during this time. His third marriage, to White Wing, lasted until 1807.
Rise of the Prophet
While Tecumseh lived along the White River, Native Americans in the region were troubled by sickness, alcoholism, poverty, the loss of land, depopulation, and the decline of their traditional way of life. Several religious prophets emerged, each offering explanations and remedies for the crisis. Among these was Tecumseh's younger brother Lalawéthika, a healer in Tecumseh's village. Until this time, Lalawéthika had been regarded as a misfit with little promise. In 1805, he began preaching, drawing upon ideas espoused by earlier prophets, particularly the Delaware prophet Neolin. Lalawéthika urged listeners to reject European influences, stop drinking alcohol, and discard their traditional medicine bags. Tecumseh followed his brother's teachings by eating only Native food, wearing traditional Shawnee clothing, and not drinking alcohol.
In 1806, Tecumseh and Lalawéthika, now known as the Shawnee Prophet, established a new town near the ruins of Fort Greenville (present-day Greenville, Ohio), where the 1795 Treaty of Greenville had been signed. The Prophet's message spread widely, attracting visitors and converts from multiple tribes. The brothers hoped to reunite the scattered Shawnees at Greenville, but they were opposed by Black Hoof, a Mekoche chief regarded by Americans as the "principal chief" of the Shawnees. Black Hoof and other leaders around the Shawnee town of Wapakoneta urged Shawnees to accommodate the United States by adopting some American customs, with the goal of creating a Shawnee homeland with secure borders in northern Ohio. The Prophet's movement represented a challenge to the Shawnee chiefs who sat on the tribal council at Wapakoneta. Most Ohio Shawnees followed Black Hoof's path and rejected the Prophet's movement. Important converts who joined the movement at Greenville were Blue Jacket, the famed Shawnee war leader, and Roundhead, who became Tecumseh's close friend and ally.
American settlers grew uneasy as Indians flocked to Greenville. In 1806 and 1807, Tecumseh and Blue Jacket traveled to Chillicothe, the capital of the new U.S. state of Ohio, to reassure the governor that Greenville posed no threat. Rumors of war between the United States and Great Britain followed the Chesapeake incident of June 1807. To escape the rising tensions, Tecumseh and the Prophet decided to move west to a more secure location, farther from American forts and closer to potential western Indian allies.
In 1808, Tecumseh and the Prophet established a village Americans would call Prophetstown, north of present-day Lafayette, Indiana. The Prophet adopted a new name, Tenskwatawa ("The Open Door"), meaning he was the door through which followers could reach salvation. Like Greenville, Prophetstown attracted numerous followers, comprising Shawnees, Potawatomis, Kickapoos, Winnebagos, Sauks, Ottawas, Wyandots, and Iowas, an unprecedented variety of Natives living together. Perhaps 6,000 people settled in the area, making it larger than any American city in the region. Jortner (2011) argues that Prophetstown was effectively an independent city-state.
At Prophetstown, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa initially worked to maintain a peaceful coexistence with the United States. A major turning point came in September 1809, when William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne, purchasing of land in what is present-day Indiana and Illinois. Although many Indian leaders signed the treaty, others who used the land were deliberately excluded from the negotiations. The treaty created widespread outrage among Indians, and, according to historian John Sugden, "put Tecumseh on the road to war" with the United States.
Forming a confederacy
Before the Treaty of Fort Wayne, Tecumseh was relatively unknown to outsiders, who usually referred to him as "the Prophet's brother." Afterwards he emerged as a prominent figure as he built an intertribal confederacy to counter U.S. expansion. In August 1810, Tecumseh met with William Henry Harrison at Vincennes, capital of the Indiana Territory, a standoff that became legendary. Tecumseh demanded that Harrison rescind the Fort Wayne cession, and said he would oppose American settlement on the disputed lands. He said the chiefs who had signed the treaty would be punished, and that he was uniting the tribes to prevent further cessions. Harrison insisted the land had been purchased fairly and that Tecumseh had no right to object because Native Americans did not own land in common. Harrison said he would send Tecumseh's demands to President James Madison, but did not expect the president to accept them. As the meeting concluded, Tecumseh said that if Madison did not rescind the Fort Wayne treaty, "you and I will have to fight it out."
After the confrontation with Harrison, Tecumseh traveled widely to build his confederacy. He went westward to recruit allies among the Potawatomis, Winnebagos, Sauks, Foxes, Kickapoos, and Missouri Shawnees. In November 1810, he visited Fort Malden in Upper Canada to ask British officials for assistance in the coming war, but the British were noncommittal, urging restraint. In May 1811, Tecumseh visited Ohio to recruit warriors among the Shawnees, Wyandots, and Senecas. After returning to Prophetstown, he sent a delegation to the Iroquois in New York.
In July 1811, Tecumseh again met Harrison at Vincennes. He told the governor he had amassed a confederacy of northern tribes and was heading south to do the same. For the next six months, Tecumseh traveled some in the south and west to recruit allies. The documentary evidence of this journey is fragmentary, and was exaggerated in folklore, but he probably met with Chickasaws, Choctaws, Muscogee, Osages, western Shawnees and Delawares, Iowas, Sauks, Foxes, Sioux, Kickapoos, and Potawatomis. He was aided in his efforts by two extraordinary events: the Great Comet of 1811 and the New Madrid earthquake, which he and other Native Americans interpreted as omens that his confederacy should be supported. Many rejected his overtures, especially in the south; his most receptive southern listeners were among the Muscogee. A faction among the Muscogee, who became known as the Red Sticks, responded to Tecumseh's call to arms, contributing to the coming of the Creek War.
According to Sugden (1997), Tecumseh had made a "serious mistake" by informing Harrison he would be absent from Prophetstown for an extended time. Harrison wrote that Tecumseh's absence "affords a most favorable opportunity for breaking up his Confederacy." In September 1811, Harrison marched toward Prophetstown with about 1,000 men. In the pre-dawn hours on November 7, warriors from Prophetstown launched a surprise attack on Harrison's camp, initiating the Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison's men held their ground, after which the Prophet's warriors withdrew and evacuated Prophetstown. The Americans burned the village the following day and returned to Vincennes.
Historians have traditionally viewed the Battle of Tippecanoe as a devastating blow to Tecumseh's confederacy. According to a story recorded by Benjamin Drake ten years after the battle, Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa after the battle and threatened to kill him. Afterwards, it was said, the Prophet played little part in the confederacy's leadership. Modern scholarship has cast doubt on this interpretation. Dowd (1992), Cave (2002), and Jortner (2011) argued that stories of Tenskwatawa's disgrace originated with Harrison's allies and are not supported by other sources. According to this view, the battle was a setback for Tenskwatawa, but he continued to serve as the confederacy's spiritual leader, with Tecumseh as its diplomat and military leader.
Harrison hoped his preemptive strike would subdue Tecumseh's confederacy, but a wave of frontier violence erupted after the battle. Native Americans, many who had fought at Tippecanoe, sought revenge, killing as many as 46 Americans. Tecumseh sought to restrain warriors from premature action while preparing the confederacy for future hostilities. By the time the United States declared war on Great Britain in June 1812, as many as 800 warriors had gathered around the rebuilt Prophetstown. Tecumseh's Native American allies throughout the Northwest Territory numbered around 3,500 warriors.
War of 1812
In June 1812, Tecumseh arrived at Fort Malden in Amherstburg to join his cause with the British in the War of 1812. The British had few troops and scant resources in the west, so Native allies were essential to the defense of Upper Canada. The British quickly recognized Tecumseh as the most influential of their Indian allies and relied upon him to direct the Native forces. He and his warriors scouted and probed enemy positions as American General William Hull crossed into Canada and threatened to take Fort Malden. On July 25, Tecumseh's warriors skirmished with Americans north of Amherstburg, inflicting the first American fatalities of the war.
Tecumseh turned his attention to cutting off Hull's supply and communication lines on the U.S. side of the border, south of Detroit. On August 5, he led 25 warriors in two successive ambushes, scattering a far superior force. Tecumseh captured Hull's outgoing mail, which revealed that the general was fearful of being cut off. On August 9, Tecumseh joined with British soldiers at the Battle of Maguaga, successfully thwarting Hull's attempt to reopen his line of communications. Two days later, Hull pulled the last of his men from Amherstburg, ending his attempt to invade Canada.
Brock and Detroit
On August 14, Major-General Isaac Brock, British commander of Upper Canada, arrived at Fort Malden and began preparations for attacking Hull at Fort Detroit. Tecumseh, upon hearing of Brock's plans, reportedly turned to his companions and said, "This is a man!" Tecumseh and Brock "formed an immediate friendship that served to cement the alliance." Brock's high esteem for Tecumseh likely contributed to a popular belief that Tecumseh was appointed a brigadier general in the British Army, though this is a myth.
Tecumseh led about 530 warriors in the Siege of Detroit. According to one account, Tecumseh had his men repeatedly pass through an opening in the woods to create the impression that thousands of Native Americans were outside the fort, a story that may be apocryphal. To almost everyone's astonishment, Hull decided to surrender on August 16.
Afterwards, Brock wrote of Tecumseh:He who attracted most of my attention was a Shawnee chief, Tecumset [sic], brother to the Prophet, who for the last two years has carried on, contrary to our remonstrances, an active warfare against the United States. A more sagacious or a more gallant warrior does not I believe exist. He was the admiration of every one who conversed with him.
Brock likely assured Tecumseh that the British would support Native American land claims. He wrote his superiors that restoration of land "fraudulently usurped" from the Native Americans should be considered in any peace treaty. News of Detroit's capture revived British discussion of creating of an Indian barrier state to ensure the security of Upper Canada. After his short stay in the area, Brock returned to the Niagara frontier, where he was killed in action several weeks later. Meanwhile, the British had negotiated a temporary armistice and called off further offensives. Tecumseh was frustrated by the unexpected British-American armistice, which came at a time when his confederacy was attacking other American forts and needed British support. In September 1812, he and Roundhead led 600 warriors to assist in an attack on Fort Wayne, but the siege failed before they arrived. Another siege against Fort Harrison also failed. Tecumseh stayed in the Prophetstown region for the remainder of 1812, coordinating Native American war efforts.
Fort Meigs
Tecumseh returned to Amherstburg in April 1813. Meanwhile, the Americans, having suffered defeat at the Battle of Frenchtown in January 1813, were pushing back toward Detroit under the command of William Henry Harrison. Tecumseh and Roundhead led about 1,200 warriors to Fort Meigs, a recently constructed American fort along the Maumee River in Ohio. The Indians initially saw little action while British forces under General Henry Procter laid siege to the fort. Fighting outside the fort began on May 5 after the arrival of American reinforcements, who attacked the British gun batteries. Tecumseh led an attack on an American sortie from the fort, then crossed the river to help defeat a regiment of Kentucky militia. The British and Native Americans had inflicted heavy casualties on the Americans outside the fort, but failed to capture it. Procter's Canadian militia and many of Tecumseh's warriors left after the battle, so Procter was compelled to lift the siege.
One of the most famous incidents in Tecumseh's life occurred after the battle. American prisoners had been taken to the nearby ruins of Fort Miami. When a group of Indians began killing prisoners, Tecumseh rushed in and stopped the slaughter. According to Sugden (1997), "Tecumseh's defense of the American prisoners became a cornerstone of his legend, the ultimate proof of his inherent nobility." Some accounts said Tecumseh rebuked General Procter for failing to protect the prisoners, though this might not have happened.
Tecumseh and Procter returned to Fort Meigs in July 1813, Tecumseh with 2,500 warriors, the largest contingent he would ever lead. They had little hope of taking the strongly defended fort, but Tecumseh sought to draw the Americans into open battle. He staged a mock battle within earshot of the fort, hoping the Americans would ride out to assist. The ruse failed and the second siege of Fort Meigs was lifted. Procter then led a detachment to attack Fort Stephenson on the Sandusky River, while Tecumseh went west to intercept potential American advances. Procter's attack failed and the expedition returned to Amherstburg.
Death and aftermath
Tecumseh hoped further offensives were forthcoming, but after the American naval victory in the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813, Procter decided to retreat from Amherstburg. Tecumseh pleaded with Procter to stay and fight: "Our lives are in the hands of the Great Spirit. We are determined to defend our lands, and if it is his will, we wish to leave our bones upon them." Procter insisted the defense of Amherstburg was untenable now that the Americans controlled Lake Erie, but he promised to make a stand at Chatham, along the Thames River. Tecumseh reluctantly agreed. The British burned Fort Malden and public buildings in Amherstburg, then began the retreat, with William Henry Harrison's army in pursuit.
Tecumseh arrived at Chatham to find that Procter had retreated even further upriver. Procter sent word that he had chosen to make a stand near Moraviantown. Tecumseh was angered by the change in plans, but he led a rearguard action at Chatham to slow the American advance, and was slightly wounded in the arm. Many of Tecumseh's despairing allies deserted during the retreat, leaving him 500 warriors. Procter and Tecumseh, outnumbered more than three-to-one, faced the Americans at the Battle of the Thames on October 5. Tecumseh positioned his men in a line of trees along the right, hoping to flank the Americans. The left, commanded by Procter, collapsed almost immediately, and Procter fled the battlefield. Colonel Richard Mentor Johnson led the American charge against the Indians. Tecumseh was killed in the fierce fighting, and the Indians dispersed. The Americans had won a decisive victory.
After the battle, American soldiers stripped and scalped Tecumseh's body. The next day, when Tecumseh's body had been positively identified, others peeled off some skin as souvenirs. The location of his remains are unknown. The earliest account stated that his body had been taken by Canadians and buried at Sandwich. Later stories said he was buried at the battlefield, or that his body was secretly removed and buried elsewhere. According to another tradition, an Ojibwe named Oshahwahnoo, who had fought at Moraviantown, exhumed Tecumseh's body in the 1860s and buried him on St. Anne Island on the St. Clair River. In 1931, these bones were examined. Tecumseh had broken a thighbone in a riding accident as a youth and thereafter walked with a limp, but neither thigh of this skeleton had been broken. Nevertheless, in 1941 the remains were buried on nearby Walpole Island in a ceremony honoring Tecumseh. St-Denis (2005), in a book-length investigation of the topic, concluded that Tecumseh was likely buried on the battlefield and his remains have been lost.
Initial published accounts identified Richard Mentor Johnson as having killed Tecumseh. In 1816, another account claimed a different soldier had fired the fatal shot. The matter became controversial in the 1830s when Johnson was a candidate for Vice President of the United States to Martin Van Buren. Johnson's supporters promoted him as Tecumseh's killer, employing slogans such as "Rumpsey dumpsey, rumpsey dumpsey, Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh." Johnson's opponents collected testimony contradicting this claim; numerous other possibilities were named. Sugden (1985) presented the evidence and argued that Johnson's claim was the strongest, though not conclusive. Johnson became Vice President in 1837, his fame largely based on his claim to have killed Tecumseh.
Tecumseh's death led to the collapse of his confederacy; except in the southern Creek War, most of his followers did little more fighting. In the negotiations that ended the War of 1812, the British attempted to honor promises made to Tecumseh by insisting upon the creation of a Native American barrier state in the Old Northwest. The Americans refused and the matter was dropped. The Treaty of Ghent (1814) called for Native American lands to be restored to their 1811 boundaries, something the United States had no intention of doing. By the end of the 1830s, the U.S. government had compelled Shawnees still living in Ohio to sign removal treaties and move west of the Mississippi River.
Legacy
Tecumseh was widely admired in his lifetime, even by Americans who had fought against him. His primary American foe, William Henry Harrison, described Tecumseh as "one of those uncommon geniuses, which spring up occasionally to produce revolutions and overturn the established order of things." After his death, he became an iconic folk hero in American, Indigenous, and Canadian history. For many Native Americans in the United States and First Nations people in Canada, he became a hero who transcends tribal identity. Tecumseh's stature grew over the decades after his death, often at the expense of Tenskwatawa, whose religious views white writers found alien and unappealing. White writers tended to turn Tecumseh into a "secular" leader who only used his brother's religious movement for political reasons. For many Europeans and white North Americans, he became the foremost example of the "noble savage" stereotype.
Tecumseh is honored in Canada as a hero who played a major role in Canada's defense in the War of 1812, joining Sir Isaac Brock and Laura Secord as the best-remembered people of that war. John Richardson, an important early Canadian novelist, had served with Tecumseh and idolized him. His 1828 epic poem "Tecumseh; or, The Warrior of the West" was intended to "preserve the memory of one of the noblest and most gallant spirits" in history. Canadian writers such as Charles Mair (Tecumseh: A Drama, 1886) celebrated Tecumseh as a Canadian patriot, an idea reflected in numerous subsequent biographies written for Canadian school children. The portrayal of Tecumseh as a Canadian patriot has been criticized for obscuring his true aim of protecting Native homelands outside of Canada. Among the many things named for Tecumseh in Canada are the naval reserve unit HMCS Tecumseh and Tecumseh, Ontario. In 1931, the Canadian government designated Tecumseh as a person of national historic significance.
Tecumseh has long been admired in Germany, especially due to popular novels by Fritz Steuben, beginning with The Flying Arrow (1930). Steuben used Tecumseh to promote Nazi ideology, though later editions of his novels removed the Nazi elements. An East German film, Tecumseh, was released in 1972.
In the United States, Tecumseh became a legendary figure, the historical details of his life shrouded in mythology. According to Edmunds (2007), "the real Tecumseh has been overshadowed by a folk hero whose exploits combine the best of fact and fiction." Only in the late 20th century did academic historians begin to unravel fact from fiction. The fictional Tecumseh has been featured in numerous poems, plays, and novels, as well as several movies and outdoor dramas. Examples include George Jones's Tecumseh; or, The prophet of the West (1844 play), Mary Catherine Crowley's Love Thrives in War (1903 novel), Brave Warrior (1952 film), and Allan W. Eckert's A Sorrow in Our Hearts: The Life of Tecumseh (1992 novel). James Alexander Thom's 1989 novel Panther in the Sky was made into a TV movie, Tecumseh: The Last Warrior (1995). The outdoor drama Tecumseh! has been performed near Chillicothe, Ohio, since 1973. Written by Allan Eckert, the story features a fictional, doomed romance between Tecumseh and a white settler woman, an example of the "vanishing Indian" scenario popular with white Americans.
William Tecumseh Sherman, a Union general during the American Civil War, was named after Tecumseh.
See also
Curse of Tippecanoe
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1768 births
1813 deaths
Indigenous leaders in Ontario
Military personnel killed in the War of 1812
Native American leaders
Native American temperance activists
Native Americans in Indiana
Native Americans in the War of 1812
Native Americans of the Northwest Indian War
People from Indiana in the War of 1812
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Prophets
Shawnee people
|
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200971
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20kite
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Black kite
|
The black kite (Milvus migrans) is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have experienced dramatic declines or fluctuations. Current global population estimates run up to 6 million individuals.
Unlike others of the group, black kites are opportunistic hunters and are more likely to scavenge. They spend much time soaring and gliding in thermals in search of food. Their angled wing and distinctive forked tail make them easy to identify. They are also vociferous with a shrill whinnying call.
The black kite is widely distributed through the temperate and tropical parts of Eurasia and parts of Australasia and Oceania, with the temperate region populations tending to be migratory. Several subspecies are recognized and formerly had their own English names. The European populations are small, but the South Asian population is very large.
Systematics and taxonomy
The black kite was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux in 1770. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Falco migrans in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées. The type locality is France. The current genus Milvus was erected by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. Milvus is the Latin word for a red kite; the specific migrans means "migrating" from the Latin migrare "to migrate".
The red kite has been known to hybridize with the black kite (in captivity where both species were kept together, and in the wild on the Cape Verde Islands).
Recent DNA studies suggest that the yellow-billed African races parasitus and aegyptius differ significantly from black kites in the Eurasian clade, and should be considered a separate allopatric species: yellow-billed kite, M. aegyptius. They occur throughout Africa except for the Congo Basin and the Sahara Desert. There have been some suggestions that the black-eared kite (M. m. lineatus) should be elevated to full species status as M. lineatus, but this is not well supported.
Subspecies
M. m. migrans – (Boddaert, 1783): European black kite
Breeds central, southern and eastern Europe, as well as the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa, to Tien Shan and south to northwest Pakistan. Winters in Sub-Saharan Africa. The head is whitish.
M. m. lineatus – (J. E. Gray, 1831): black-eared kite
Siberia to Amurland S around Himalaya to N India, N Indochina and S China; Japan. Northern inland birds migrate to E Persian Gulf coast and S Asia in winter. This has a larger pale carpal patch.
M. m. govinda – Sykes, 1832: small Indian kite (formerly pariah kite)
Eastern Pakistan east through tropical India and Sri Lanka to Indochina and Malay Peninsula. Resident. A dark brown kite found throughout the subcontinent. Can be seen circling and soaring in urban areas. Easily distinguished by the shallow forked tail. The name pariah originates from the Indian caste system and usage of this name is deprecated.
M. m. affinis – Gould, 1838: fork-tailed kite
Sulawesi and possibly Lesser Sunda Islands; Papua New Guinea except mountains; NE and E Australia.
M. m. formosanus – Kuroda, 1920: Taiwan kite
Taiwan and Hainan; resident.
Description
Black kites can be distinguished from red kites by the slightly smaller size, less forked tail (visible in flight), and generally dark plumage without any rufous. The sexes are alike though the male is a little smaller and less aggressive (this is the case in most birds of prey). The upper plumage is brown but the head and neck tend to be paler. The patch behind the eye appears darker. The outer flight feathers are black and the feathers have dark cross bars and are mottled at the base. The lower parts of the body are pale brown, becoming lighter towards the chin. The body feathers have dark shafts giving it a streaked appearance. The cere and gape are yellow, but the bill is black (unlike that of the yellow-billed kite). The legs are yellow and the claws are black. They have a distinctive shrill whistle followed by a rapid whinnying call. Males and females have the same plumage but females are longer than male and have a little larger wingspan. Their wingspan is around 150 cm.
Distribution
The species is found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The temperate populations of this kite tend to be migratory while the tropical ones are resident. European and central Asian birds (subspecies M. m. migrans and black-eared kite M. m. lineatus, respectively) are migratory, moving to the tropics in winter, but races in warmer regions such as the Indian M. m. govinda (small Indian/pariah kite), or the Australasian M. m. affinis (fork-tailed kite), are resident. In some areas such as in the United Kingdom, the black kite occurs only as a wanderer on migration. These birds are usually of the nominate race, but in November 2006 a juvenile of the eastern lineatus, not previously recorded in western Europe, was found in Lincolnshire.
The species is not found in the Indonesian archipelago between the South East Asian mainland and the Wallace Line. Vagrants, most likely of the black-eared kite, on occasion range far into the Pacific, out to the Hawaiian islands.
In India, the population of M. m. govinda is particularly large especially in areas of high human population. Here the birds avoid heavily forested regions. A survey in 1967 in the 150 square kilometres of the city of New Delhi produced an estimate of about 2200 pairs or roughly 15 per square kilometre. Another survey in 2013 estimated 150 pairs for every 10 square kilometres.
Vagrants from Australia occasionally reach New Zealand, however, only one individual has persisted there (currently ~21 years old).
Behaviour and ecology
Food and foraging
Black kites are most often seen gliding and soaring on thermals as they search for food. Their flight is buoyant and the bird glides effortlessly, changing directions easily. They will swoop down with their legs lowered to snatch small live prey, fish, household refuse and carrion, for which behaviour they are known in British military slang as the shite-hawk. They are opportunist hunters and have been known to take birds, bats, and rodents. They are attracted to smoke and fires, where they seek escaping prey. Kites are also known to spread fires by picking and dropping burning twigs so as to flush prey, leading to them being known in some circles as "firehawks". The Indian populations are well adapted to living in cities and are found in densely populated areas. Large numbers may be seen soaring in thermals over cities. In some places, they will readily swoop and snatch food held by humans. Black kites in Spain prey on nestling waterfowl especially during summer to feed their young. Predation of nests of other pairs of black kites has also been noted. Kites have also been seen to tear and carry away the nests of baya weavers in an attempt to obtain eggs or chicks.
Flocking and roosting
In winter, kites form large communal roosts. Flocks may fly about before settling at the roost. When migrating, the black kite has a greater propensity to form large flocks than other migratory raptors, particularly prior to making a crossing across water. In India, the subspecies govinda shows large seasonal fluctuations with the highest numbers seen from July to October, after the monsoons, and it has been suggested that they make local movements in response to high rainfall.
Breeding
The breeding season of the black kite in India begins in winter (mainly January and February), the young birds fledging before the monsoons. The nest is a rough platform of twigs and sticks placed in a tree. Nest sites may be reused in subsequent years. European birds breed in summer. Birds in the Italian Alps tended to build their nest close to water in steep cliffs or tall trees. Nest orientation may be related to wind and rainfall. The nests may sometimes be decorated with bright materials such as white plastic and a study in Spain suggests that they may have a role in signalling to keep away other kites.
After pairing, the male frequently copulates with the female. Unguarded females may be approached by other males, and extra pair copulations are frequent. Males returning from a foraging trip will frequently copulate on return, as this increases the chances of his sperm fertilizing the eggs rather than a different male. Both the male and female take part in nest building, incubation and care of chicks.
The typical clutch size is 2 or sometimes 3 eggs. The incubation period varies from 30 to 34 days. Chicks of the Indian population stay at the nest for nearly two months. Chicks hatched later in European populations appear to fledge faster. The care of young by the parents also rapidly decreased with the need for adults to migrate. Siblings show aggression to each other and often the weaker chick may be killed, but parent birds were found to preferentially feed the smaller chicks in experimentally altered nests.
Newly hatched young have down (prepennae) which are sepia on the back and black around the eye and buff on the head, neck and underparts. This is replaced by brownish-gray second down (preplumulae). After 9–12 days, the second down appears on the whole body except the top of the head. Body feathers begin to appear after 18 to 22 days. The feathers on the head become noticeable from the 24th to 29th day. The nestlings initially feed on food fallen at the bottom of the nest and begin to tear flesh after 33–39 days. They are able to stand on their legs after 17–19 days and begin flapping their wings after 27–31 days. After 50 days, they begin to move to branches next to the nest. Birds are able to breed after their second year. Parent birds guard their nest and will dive aggressively at intruders. Humans who intrude the nest appear to be recognized by birds and singled out for dive attacks.
Mortality factors
Black-eared kites in Japan were found to accumulate nearly 70% of mercury accumulated from polluted food in the feathers, thus excreting it in the moult process. Black kites often perch on electric wires and are frequent victims of electrocution. Their habit of swooping to pick up dead rodents or other roadkill leads to collisions with vehicles. Instances of mass poisoning as a result of feeding on poisoned voles in agricultural fields have been noted. They are also a major nuisance at some airports, where their size makes them a significant birdstrike hazard.
As a large raptorial bird, the black kite has few natural predators. However, they do have a single serious predator: the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo). The eagle-owl freely picks off kites of any age and were noted to precipitously decrease kite breeding success when nesting within kilometres of the kites in the Italian Alps. Like most bird species, they have parasites, several species of endoparasitic trematodes are known and some Digenea species that are transmitted via fishes.
Birds with abnormal development of a secondary upper mandible have been recorded in govinda and lineatus.
References
Further reading
External links
Black Kite species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
black kite
black kite
Birds of prey of Africa
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Japan
Birds of Cape Verde
Birds of the Gulf of Guinea
Diurnal raptors of Australia
Articles containing video clips
black kite
black kite
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200977
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20objectification
|
Sexual objectification
|
Sexual objectification is the act of treating a person solely as an object of sexual desire. Objectification more broadly means treating a person as a commodity or an object without regard to their personality or dignity. Objectification is most commonly examined at the level of a society, but can also refer to the behavior of individuals and is a type of dehumanization.
Although both men and women can be sexually objectified, the concept is mainly associated with the objectification of women, and is an important idea in many feminist theories and psychological theories derived from them. Many feminists argue that sexual objectification of girls and women contributes to gender inequality, and many psychologists associate objectification with a range of physical and mental health risks in women. Research suggests that the psychological effects of objectification of men are similar to those of women, leading to negative body image among men.
Sexual objectification of women
General
The sexual objectification of women involves them being viewed primarily as an object of male sexual desire, rather than as a whole person. Although opinions differ as to which situations are objectionable, many see the objectification of women taking place in the sexually oriented depictions of women in advertising, art and media, pornography, the occupations of stripping and prostitution, and women being brazenly evaluated or judged sexually or aesthetically in public spaces and events, such as beauty contests.
Some feminists and psychologists argue that sexual objectification can lead to negative psychological effects including eating disorders, depression and sexual dysfunction, and can give women negative self-images because of the belief that their intelligence and competence are currently not being, nor will ever be, acknowledged by society. Sexual objectification of women has also been found to negatively affect women's performance, confidence, and level of position in the workplace. How objectification has affected women and society in general is a topic of academic debate, with some saying girls' understanding of the importance of appearance in society may contribute to feelings of fear, shame, and disgust during the transition to womanhood, and others saying that young women are especially susceptible to objectification, as they are often taught that power, respect, and wealth can be derived from one's outward appearance.
Pro-feminist cultural critics such as Robert Jensen and Sut Jhally accuse mass media and advertising of promoting the objectification of women to help promote goods and services, and the television and film industries are commonly accused of normalizing the sexual objectification of women.
The objection to the objectification of women is not a recent phenomenon. In the French Enlightenment, for example, there was a debate as to whether a woman's breasts were merely a sensual enticement or rather a natural gift. In Alexandre Guillaume Mouslier de Moissy's 1771 play The True Mother (La Vraie Mère), the title character rebukes her husband for treating her as merely an object for his sexual gratification: "Are your senses so gross as to look on these breasts – the respectable treasures of nature – as merely an embellishment, destined to ornament the chest of women?"
The issues concerning sexual objectification became first problemized during the 1970s by feminist groups. Since then, it has been argued that the phenomenon of female sexual objectification has increased drastically since its problematization in all levels of life, and has resulted in negative consequences for women, especially in the political sphere. However, a rising form of new third-waver feminist groups have also taken the increased objectification of women as an opportunity to use the female body as a mode of power.
Some have argued that the feminist movement itself has contributed to the problem of the sexual objectification of women by promoting "free" love (i.e. men and women choosing to have non-reproductive sex outside of marriage and for their own pleasure). One study found that men exposed to media content in which women were objectified were more likely to accept those behaviors than men who were exposed to content where women were not objectified.
Female self-objectification
Ariel Levy contends that Western women who exploit their sexuality by, for example, wearing revealing clothing and engaging in lewd behavior, engage in female self-objectification, meaning they objectify themselves. While some women see such behaviour as a form of empowerment, Levy contends that it has led to greater emphasis on a physical criterion or sexualization for women's perceived self-worth, which Levy calls "raunch culture". In a study conducted by the State University of New York, it is found that women self-objectify when trying to fit the "perfect" female standard according to the male gaze.
Levy discusses this phenomenon in Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture. Levy followed the camera crew from the Girls Gone Wild video series, and argues that contemporary America's sexualized culture not only objectifies women, it encourages women to objectify themselves. In today's culture, Levy writes, the idea of a woman participating in a wet T-shirt contest or being comfortable watching explicit pornography has become a symbol of feminist strength.
Jordan Peterson has asked why women need to wear make-up or high-heels in the workplace, that a double standard exists for sexual harassment and females who self-objectify themselves in society.
Latina women
Latina women face a particular form of sexual objectification based on stereotypes relating to Latina women. American media often portrays Latina women as being sexually promiscuous and curvaceous, having large breasts and buttocks, being melodramatic, or having a feisty attitude. Keller identifies three main stereotypes that contribute to the objectification of Latinas. (Cantina Girl, Suffering Senorita, and Vamp). The “Cantina Girl” is characterized as being an alluring sexual presence. The “Suffering Senorita” is the Latina who goes “bad” due to her love of the (usually Anglo) love interest. Lastly, the “Vamp” is seen as beautiful but devious, and a psychological threat for her wit or charm. All three of these categorizations stem from the sexual objectification of Latina women’s bodies and identities.
Such sexual objectifications hold real world consequences for Latina women. For instance, the prevalence of negative Latina stereotypes (such as hypersexualization) has led to a decrease in positive in-group attitudes among the Latina community.
Sexual objectification of men
General
Male sexual objectification involves a man being viewed primarily as an object of sexual desire, rather than as a whole person. Psychologist Harold Lyon suggests that men's liberation is a necessary step toward woman's liberation.
Instances where men may be viewed as sex objects by women include advertisements, music videos, films, television shows, beefcake calendars, women's magazines, male strip shows, and clothed female/nude male (CFNM) events. Women also purchase and consume pornography.
Within gay male communities, men are often objectified by other men. In 2007 a study found discussing negative effects of objectification was met with considerable resistance in the community. The sexual objectification of men of color may force them to play specific roles in sexual encounters that are not necessarily of their own choosing.
Research suggests that the psychological effects of objectification on men are similar to those of women, leading to negative body image among men.
Media
Men's bodies have become more objectified than they previously were, though because of society's established gaze on the objectification of women, the newfound objectification of men is not as widespread. Even with this increase of male objectification, males are still seen as the dominant figures and so the focus is still primarily on women.
Male sexual objectification has been found in 37% of advertisements featuring men's body parts to showcase a product. Similar to the issues of sexual objectification in women, it is common for said objectification to lead men to body shaming, eating disorders, and a drive for perfection. The continued exposure of these "ideal" men subject society to expect all men to fit this role.
Male actors featured in TV shows and movies are oftentimes in excellent shape and have the "ideal" bodies. These men often fill the leading roles. When society is subjected to men who do not have ideal bodies, we typically see them as the comic relief. It is rare to see an out of shape man have a leading role. Leanne Dawson writes that "There are temporal, cultural and geographical ‘norms’ of gender and other aspects of identity, which are often incorrectly considered to be inherent or natural."
In the media, the ideal version of a man is seen as a strong, toned man. The idealized version of a woman is thin. Body evaluation is more commonly used to criticize women than men, and it can take different forms for men. For example, body evaluation is often directed at men's nonverbal cues. By contrast, women more often are subject to body evaluation in the form of sexual, sometimes offensive, verbal remarks. Men tend to experience this from other men, whereas women experience it from both sexes. The Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale (ISOS) is a scale that shows sexual objectification of respondents, both men and women. While experiencing sexual objectification it creates the need to constantly maintain and critique one's physical appearance. This leads to other things like eating disorders, body shaming, and anxiety. The ISOS scale can be related to objectification theory and sexism. Self-objectification, which is the way in which people evaluate themselves, is concentrated more on women. Men typically experience it through media display. To the extent that men do experience self-objectification, studies have shown that men typically do not experience its negative effects to the extent that women do.
In the media, sexual objectification has been used as a way to sell products to the general public. Sexual objectification has been used as a marketing strategy for many decades according to the Journal of Advertising. This specific strategy targets the public in selling products that will make them look and feel desirable and attractive. It is stated that this strategy sells well by grabbing the attention of the public. The journal states that explicit advertisements do better in marketing than other non-explicit ads.
Views on sexual objectification
While the concept of sexual objectification is important within feminist theory, ideas vary widely on what constitutes sexual objectification and what are the ethical implications of such objectification. Some feminists such as Naomi Wolf find the concept of physical attractiveness itself to be problematic, with some radical feminists being opposed to any evaluation of another person's sexual attractiveness based on physical characteristics. John Stoltenberg goes so far as to condemn as wrongfully objectifying any sexual fantasy that involves the visualization of a woman.
Radical feminists view objectification as playing a central role in reducing women to what they refer to as the "oppressed sex class". While some feminists view mass media in societies that they argue are patriarchal to be objectifying, they often focus on pornography as playing an egregious role in habituating men to objectify women.
Some social conservatives have taken up aspects of the feminist critique of sexual objectification. In their view however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one of the negative legacies of the sexual revolution. These critics, notably Wendy Shalit, advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution standards of sexual morality, which Shalit refers to as a "return to modesty", as an antidote to sexual objectification.
Others contest feminist claims about the objectification of women. Camille Paglia holds that "[t]urning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and aesthetics. Individualist feminist Wendy McElroy says, given that 'objectification' of women means to make women into sexual objects; it is meaningless because, 'sexual objects', taken literally, means nothing because inanimate objects do not have sexuality. She continues that women are their bodies as well as their minds and souls, and so focusing on a single aspect should not be "degrading".
Objectification theory
Objectification theory is a framework for understanding the experiences of women in cultures that sexually objectify them, proposed by Barbara Fredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberts in 1997. Within this framework, Fredrickson and Roberts draw conclusions about women's experiences. This theory states that, because of sexual objectification, women learn to internalize an outsider's view of their bodies as the primary view of themselves. Women, they explain, begin to view their bodies as objects separate from their person. This internalization has been termed self-objectification. This theory does not seek to prove the existence of sexual objectification; the theory assumes its existence in culture. This self-objectification then, according to objectification theory, leads to increased habitual body monitoring. With this framework in mind, Fredrickson and Roberts suggest explanations for consequences they believe are the result of sexual objectification. The consequences suggested are: increased feelings of shame, increased feelings of anxiety, decreased peak motivational state, and decreased awareness of internal bodily states.
Sexual objectification has been studied based on the proposition that girls and women develop their primary view of their physical selves from observing others. These observations can take place in the media or through personal experience. Through a blend of expected and actual exposure, women are socialized to objectify their own physical characteristics from a third-person perception, which is identified as self-objectification. Women and girls develop an expected physical appearance for themselves, based on observations of others; and are aware that others are likely to observe as well. The sexual objectification and self-objectification of women is believed to influence social gender roles and inequalities between the sexes.
Self-objectification
Self-objectification can increase in situations which heighten the awareness of an individual's physical appearance. Here, the presence of a third-person observer is enhanced. Therefore, when individuals know others are looking at them, or will be looking at them, they are more likely to care about their physical appearance. Examples of the enhanced presence of an observer include the presence of an audience, camera, or other known observer.
Women, girls, and self-objectification
Primarily, objectification theory describes how women and girls are influenced as a result of expected social and gender roles. Research indicates not all women are influenced equally, due to the anatomical, hormonal, and genetic differences of the female body; however, women's bodies are often objectified and evaluated more frequently. Self-objectification in girls tends to stem from two main causes: the internalization of traditional beauty standards as translated through media as well as any instances of sexual objectification that they might encounter in their daily lives. It is not uncommon for women to translate their anxieties over their constant sense of objectification into obsessive self-surveillance. This, in turn, can lead to many serious problems in women and girls, including "body shame, anxiety, negative attitudes toward menstruation, a disrupted flow of consciousness, diminished awareness of internal bodily states, depression, sexual dysfunction, and disordered eating."
Sexual objectification occurs when a person is identified by their sexual body parts or sexual function. In essence, an individual loses their identity, and is recognized solely by the physical characteristics of their body. The purpose of this recognition is to bring enjoyment to others, or to serve as a sexual object for society. Sexual objectification can occur as a social construct among individuals.
Sexual objectification has been around and present in society for many but has increased with the introduction of social media according to “Objectification, Sexualization, and Misrepresentation: Social Media and the College Experience - Stefanie E Davis, 2018” This journal shows a clear explanation for how young girls are influenced by social media to be sexually objectified. The platform is meant to share a glimpse into a person’s life through photos to share with friends, family and mutuals. For many individuals, social media applications like Instagram, Snapchat and Twitter are used to glamorize and romanticize certain lifestyles. Examples of this can be young women using their platform (however big it may be) to pose as an older age by uploading provocative photos. This behavior promotes sexual objectification of young girls that participate on social media.
Psychological consequences
Objectification theory suggests both direct and indirect consequences of objectification to women. Indirect consequences include self consciousness in terms that a woman is consistently checking or rearranging her clothes or appearance to ensure that she is presentable. More direct consequences are related to sexual victimization. Rape and sexual harassment are examples of this. Doob (2012) states that sexual harassment is one of the challenges faced by women in workplace. This may constitute sexual jokes or comments, most of which are degrading. Research indicates that objectification theory is valuable to understanding how repeated visual images in the media are socialized and translated into mental health problems, including psychological consequences on the individual and societal level. These include increased self-consciousness, increased body anxiety, heightened mental health threats (depression, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and sexual dysfunction), and increased body shame. Therefore, the theory has been used to explore an array of dependent variables including disordered eating, mental health, depression, motor performance, body image, idealized body type, stereotype formation, sexual perception and sexual typing. Body shame is a byproduct of the concept of an idealized body type adopted by most Western cultures that depicts a thin, model-type figure. Thus, women will engage in actions meant to change their body such as dieting, exercise, eating disorders, cosmetic surgery, etc. Effects of objectification theory are identified on both the individual and societal levels.
Causes of depression
Learned helplessness theory posits that because human bodies are only alterable to a certain point, people develop a sense of body shame and anxiety from which they create a feeling of helplessness in relation to correcting their physical appearance and helplessness in being able to control the way in which others perceive their appearance. This lack of control often results in depression. In relating to a lack of motivation, objectification theory states that women have less control in relationships and the work environment because they have to depend on the evaluation of another who is typically basing their evaluation on physical appearance. Since the dependence on another's evaluation limits a woman's ability to create her own positive experiences and motivation, it adversely increases her likelihood for depression. Furthermore, sexual victimization may be a cause. Specifically, victimization within the workplace degrades women. Harassment experienced every day wears on a woman, and sometimes this results in a state of depression.
See also
Dehumanization
Exploitation of women in mass media
Human furniture
Male gaze
Pornographication
Rape culture
Sex in advertising
Sexuality in music videos
Sex in film
References
Further reading
(BBC), , (pbk).
Preview. [Link Broken]
(conference paper)
Mario Perniola, The Sex-appeal of the inorganic, translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-New York, Continuum, 2004.
External links
Papadaki, Evangelia (March 10, 2010), "Feminist perspectives on objectification", in
Shrage, Laurie (July 13, 2007), "Feminist perspectives on sex markets: 1.3 sexual objectification", in
– Sex-positive feminist perspective on sexual objectification.
Interview with Janet Anderson.
Davis, Stefanie E (July 13, 2018) "Objectification, Sexualization and Misrepresentation: Social Media and the College Experience" Sage Journals
Bello, D. C., Pitts, R. E., & Etzel, M. J. (1983). The communication effects of controversial sexual content in television programs and commercials. Journal of Advertising, 12(3), 32-42.
Hill, M. S., & Fischer, A. R. (2008). Examining objectification theory: Lesbian and heterosexual women's experiences with sexual-and self-objectification. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(5), 745-776. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000007301669
User generated content
Sexualization
Sexuality and society
Feminist terminology
Feminist theory
Philosophy of sexuality
Postmodern theory
Sexual attraction
Human sexuality
Sexual fetishism
Sexual ethics
Pornography
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] |
200980
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Berlin (disambiguation)
|
Berlin is the capital and largest city of Germany.
Berlin may also refer to:
Places
Canada
Berlin, former name of Kitchener, Ontario
Berlin to Kitchener name change
Germany
East Berlin, former de facto capital of the German Democratic Republic, 1949–90
West Berlin, former western enclave of Berlin during the cold war, 1949–90
Berlin, district of Klein Bennebek, Schleswig-Holstein
Berlin (Seedorf), district of Seedorf, Schleswig-Holstein
United States
Berlin, California, former name of Genevra, California, unincorporated community
Berlin, Connecticut, town
Berlin, Georgia, town
Berlin, Illinois, village
Berlin, Indiana, former town
Berlin, Kansas, unincorporated community
Berlin, Kentucky, unincorporated community
Berlin, Maryland, town
Berlin, Massachusetts, town
Berlin, Michigan (disambiguation), multiple locations in Michigan
Berlin, Nebraska, a former name of Otoe, Nebraska, village
Berlin, Nevada, ghost town
Berlin, New Hampshire, city
Berlin, New Jersey, township
Berlin, New York, town
Berlin, North Dakota, city
Berlin, Ohio (disambiguation), multiple locations in Ohio
Berlin, Pennsylvania, borough
Berlin, Tennessee, unincorporated community
Berlin, Texas, unincorporated community
Berlin, Vermont, town
Berlin, West Virginia, unincorporated community
Berlin, Wisconsin (disambiguation), multiple municipalities in Wisconsin
Berlin Historic District (disambiguation), multiple places with the name
Berlin Township (disambiguation), multiple townships
Rest of the world
Berlín, Usulután, El Salvador
Berlin, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia
Berlin, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Mount Berlin, a mountain in Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica
People
Berlin (surname)
Berlin, former stage name for professional wrestler Alex Wright
Berlin Ndebe-Nlome (born 1987), Cameroonian football player
Bertie "Berlin" Marshall, member of early UK punk fan faction the Bromley Contingent, later an author
The Berlin Painter (active c. 490s – c. 460s BC), conventional name given to an Attic Greek vase-painter
Arts, entertainment, and media
Film and television
"Berlin" (The Blacklist), a 2014 episode
Berlin (TV series), a 2009 BBC/Open University documentary series written and presented by Matt Frei
Berlin (Money Heist), a character in the television series
Berlin 36, 2009 German film on the fate of Jewish athlete Gretel Bergmann at the 1936 Olympics
Berlin Station (TV series), an American drama television series
Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis, a 1927 German film
Literature
Berlin (play), a 2009 play by David Hare
The Berlin Noir trilogy, three novels by Philip Kerr
The Berlin Stories, two novellas by Christopher Isherwood
Music
Groups
Berlin (band), American new wave band
James Freud and Berlin, Australian new wave band
Albums and EPs
Berlin (Art Zoyd album), 1987
Berlin (EP), 2013 EP by RY X
Berlin (Kadavar album), 2015
Berlin (Lou Reed album), 1973
Berlin - A Concert for the People, a 1982 live album by Barclay James Harvest
Berlin Trilogy, three albums by David Bowie
The Berlin Tapes (album), also released as Berlin, by Icehouse, 1995
Songs
"Berlin" (Lou Reed song), title track from the 1973 album
"Berlin", by Black Rebel Motorcycle Club from the 2007 album Baby 81
"Berlin", by Udo Lindenberg, 1981
"Berlin", by Marillion from the 1989 album Seasons End
"Berlin", by Nina Hagen from the 1993 album Revolution Ballroom
"Berlin", by Janis Ian from the 1995 album Revenge
"Berlin", by Amanda Palmer & the Grand Theft Orchestra from the album Theatre Is Evil
"Berlin", by RY X from his EP Berlin
"Berlin", by Snow Patrol from the 2011 album Fallen Empires
"Berlin" (Tokio Hotel song), featuring VVAVES
"Berlín", by Aitana
Other
Berlin (comic), series of comic books by Jason Lutes depicting life in Berlin from 1928 to 1933
Berlin (musical), a musical written by Erik Orton
Berlin (sculpture), a 1987 piece of art in west Berlin
Berlin '85, board game
Berlin Defence (disambiguation), in chess
Computing and technology
.berlin, a top level domain
FuG 224 Berlin A, airborne radar system of World War II
FuG 240 Berlin, airborne radar system of late World War II
Transportation
Air
Berlin Airport (disambiguation), multiple airports with the name
Rail
Berlin Station (disambiguation), multiple stations with the name
Berlin, former name of station Liège (Paris Métro), Paris, France
Berlin, former LIRR station on the Atlantic Branch, Richmond Hill, Queens, New York
Berlin, former name of Dunton station at Van Wyck Avenue, 1871–76
Berlín, a Medellín Metro station
Berlin Junction, former LIRR station on the Atlantic Branch, Richmond Hill, Queens, New York
Ships
Berlin A1411, lead ship of the s of the German Navy
MS Berlin, an ocean liner built in 1924 as MS Gripsholm
, cruiser of the Imperial German Navy built in 1902
SS Berlin, multiple ships with the name
, a British passenger steamship of 1875
Birlinn or Berlin, a type of Scottish longship
Other
Berlin (carriage), a type of coach or chariot
IWL SR 59 Berlin, an East German motor scooter
Other uses
Berliner (doughnut), a pastry known in Chile as berlín
Berlin Mills Company, a former company of Berlin, New Hampshire
Berlin Raceway, a paved, oval track in Marne, Michigan
Berlin wool work, a type of embroidery on canvas
See also
Berlin-Brandenburg (disambiguation)
Berolina, personification of the city of Berlin
Berliner (disambiguation)
Berlino, mascot for the 2009 World Championships in athletics
East Berlin (disambiguation)
List of songs about Berlin
New Berlin (disambiguation)
West Berlin (disambiguation)
|
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200987
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20War%20of%20Independence
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Greek War of Independence
|
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution of 1821 or Greek Revolution (, Elliniki Epanastasi; referred to by Greeks in the 19th century as simply the Αγώνας, Agonas, "Struggle"; Ottoman: يونان عصيانى, Yunan İsyanı, "Greek Rebellion"), was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. The Greeks were later assisted by the British Empire, France, and Russia, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals, particularly the eyalet of Egypt. The war led to the formation of modern Greece. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March.
Greece came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century, in the decades before and after the fall of Constantinople. During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. In 1814, a secret organization called Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by the revolutionary fervor gripping Europe in that period. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities, and Constantinople itself. The insurrection was planned for 25 March 1821 (in the Julian Calendar), the Orthodox Christian Feast of the Annunciation. However, the plans of Filiki Eteria were discovered by the Ottoman authorities, forcing the revolution to start earlier. The first revolt began on 6 March/21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north urged the Greeks in the Peloponnese (Morea) into action and on 17 March 1821, the Maniots were first to declare war. In September 1821, the Greeks under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis captured Tripolitsa. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. Meanwhile, makeshift Greek fleets achieved success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.
Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. The Ottoman Sultan called in his vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and brought most of the peninsula under Egyptian control by the end of that year. The town of Missolonghi fell in April 1826 after a year-long siege by the Turks. Despite a failed invasion of Mani, Athens also fell and the revolution looked all but lost.
At that point, the three Great powers—Russia, Britain, and France—decided to intervene, sending their naval squadrons to Greece in 1827. Following news that the combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied European fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy at Navarino. After a tense week-long standoff, the Battle of Navarino led to the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet and turned the tide in favor of the revolutionaries. In 1828 the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure of a French expeditionary force. The Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese surrendered, and the Greek revolutionaries proceeded to retake central Greece. Russia invaded the Ottoman Empire and forced it to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). After nine years of war, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. Further negotiations in 1832 led to the London Conference and the Treaty of Constantinople; these defined the final borders of the new state and established Prince Otto of Bavaria as the first king of Greece.
Background
Ottoman rule
The Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 and the subsequent fall of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire marked the end of Byzantine sovereignty. After that, the Ottoman Empire ruled the Balkans and Anatolia (Asia Minor), with some exceptions. Orthodox Christians were granted some political rights under Ottoman rule, but they were considered inferior subjects. The majority of Greeks were called Rayah by the Turks, a name that referred to the large mass of non-Muslim subjects under the Ottoman ruling class.
Meanwhile, Greek intellectuals and humanists, who had migrated west before or during the Ottoman invasions, such as Demetrios Chalkokondyles and Leonardos Philaras, began to call for the liberation of their homeland. Demetrius Chalcondyles called on Venice and "all of the Latins" to aid the Greeks against "the abominable, monstrous, and impious barbarian Turks". However, Greece was to remain under Ottoman rule for several more centuries.
The Greek Revolution was not an isolated event; numerous failed attempts at regaining independence took place throughout the history of the Ottoman era. Throughout the 17th century there was great resistance to the Ottomans in the Morea and elsewhere, as evidenced by revolts led by Dionysius the Philosopher. After the Morean War, the Peloponnese came under Venetian rule for 30 years, and remained in turmoil from then on and throughout the 17th century, as the bands of klephts multiplied.
The first great uprising was the Russian-sponsored Orlov Revolt of the 1770s, which was crushed by the Ottomans after having limited success. After the crushing of the uprising, Muslim Albanians ravaged many regions in mainland Greece. However, the Maniots continually resisted Ottoman rule, and defeated several Ottoman incursions into their region, the most famous of which was the invasion of 1770. During the Second Russo-Turkish War, the Greek community of Trieste financed a small fleet under Lambros Katsonis, which was a nuisance for the Ottoman navy; during the war klephts and armatoloi (guerilla fighters in mountainous areas) rose once again.
At the same time, a number of Greeks enjoyed a privileged position in the Ottoman state as members of the Ottoman bureaucracy. Greeks controlled the affairs of the Orthodox Church through the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, as the higher clergy of the Orthodox Church was mostly of Greek origin. Thus, as a result of the Ottoman millet system, the predominantly Greek hierarchy of the Patriarchate enjoyed control over the Empire's Orthodox subjects (the Rum milleti).
The Greek Orthodox Church played a pivotal role in the preservation of national identity, the development of Greek society and the resurgence of Greek nationalism. From the early 18th century and onwards, members of prominent Greek families in Constantinople, known as Phanariotes (after the Phanar district of the city), gained considerable control over Ottoman foreign policy and eventually over the bureaucracy as a whole.
Klephts and armatoloi
In times of militarily weak central authority, the Balkan countryside became infested by groups of bandits called "klephts" () (the Greek equivalent of the hajduks) that struck at Muslims and Christians alike. Defying Ottoman rule, the klephts were highly admired and held a significant place in popular lore.
Responding to the klephts' attacks, the Ottomans recruited the ablest amongst these groups, contracting Christian militias, known as "armatoloi" (), to secure endangered areas, especially mountain passes. The area under their control was called an "armatolik", the oldest known being established in Agrafa during the reign of Murad II (r. 1421–1451). The distinction between klephts and armatoloi was not clear, as the latter would often turn into klephts to extort more benefits from the authorities, while, conversely, another klepht group would be appointed to the armatolik to confront their predecessors.
Nevertheless, klephts and armatoloi formed a provincial elite, though not a social class, whose members would muster under a common goal. As the armatoloi'''s position gradually turned into a hereditary one, some captains took care of their armatolik as their personal property. A great deal of power was placed in their hands and they integrated in the network of clientelist relationships that formed the Ottoman administration. Some managed to establish exclusive control in their armatolik, forcing the Porte to try repeatedly, though unsuccessfully, to eliminate them.
By the time of the War of Independence powerful armatoloi could be traced in Rumeli, Thessaly, Epirus and southern Macedonia. To the revolutionary leader and writer Yannis Makriyannis, klephts and armatoloi—being the only available major military force on the side of the Greeks—played such a crucial role in the Greek revolution that he referred to them as the "yeast of liberty".
Enlightenment and the Greek national movement
Due to economic developments within and outside the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century, Greek merchants and sailors became affluent and generated the wealth necessary to found schools and libraries, and to pay for young Greeks to study at the universities of Western Europe. There they came into contact with the radical ideas of the European Enlightenment, the French Revolution and romantic nationalism. Educated and influential members of the large Greek diaspora, such as Adamantios Korais and Anthimos Gazis, tried to transmit these ideas back to the Greeks, with the double aim of raising their educational level and simultaneously strengthening their national identity. This was achieved through the dissemination of books, pamphlets and other writings in Greek, in a process that has been described as the modern Greek Enlightenment ().
Crucial for the development of the Greek national idea were the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century. Peter the Great had envisaged a disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the re-institution of a new Byzantine Empire with an Orthodox emperor. His Pruth River Campaign of 1711 set a precedent for the Greeks, when Peter appealed to Orthodox Christians to join the Russians and rise against the Turks to fight for "faith and homeland". The Russo-Turkish wars of Catherine II (1762-1796) made the Greeks consider their emancipation with the aid of Russia. An independence movement in Peloponnesus (Morea) was incited by Russian agents in 1769, and a Greek flotilla under Lambros Katsonis assisted the Russian fleet in the war of 1788–1792. The Greek revolts of the 18th century were unsuccessful but far larger than the revolts of previous centuries, and they announced the initiative for a national revolution.
Revolutionary nationalism grew across Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries (including in the Balkans), due to the influence of the French Revolution. As the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, Greek nationalism began to assert itself. The most influential of the Greek writers and intellectuals was Rigas Feraios. Deeply influenced by the French Revolution, Rigas was the first to conceive and organize a comprehensive national movement aiming at the liberation of all Balkan nations—including the Turks of the region—and the creation of a "Balkan Republic". Arrested by Austrian officials in Trieste in 1797, he was handed over to Ottoman officials and transported to Belgrade along with his co-conspirators. All of them were strangled to death in June 1798 and their bodies were dumped in the Danube. The death of Rigas fanned the flames of Greek nationalism; his nationalist poem, the "Thourios" (war-song), was translated into a number of Western European and later Balkan languages and served as a rallying cry for Greeks against Ottoman rule.
Another influential Greek writer and intellectual was Adamantios Korais who witnessed the French Revolution. Korais' primary intellectual inspiration was from the Enlightenment, and he borrowed ideas from Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. When Korais was a young adult he moved to Paris to continue his studies. He eventually graduated from the Montpellier School of Medicine and spent the remainder of his life in Paris. He would often have political and philosophical debates with Thomas Jefferson. While in Paris he was a witness to the French Revolution and saw the democracy that came out of it. He spent a lot of his time convincing wealthy Greeks to build schools and libraries to further the education of Greeks. He believed that a furthering in education would be necessary for the general welfare and prosperity of the people of Greece, as well as the country. Korais' ultimate goal was a democratic Greece much like the Golden Age of Pericles.
The connection of the Greek Revolution with the Enlightenment and the French Revolution has been questioned by several Greek authors, who considered this theory mechanistic and false. The relation between the Greek and the French Revolution has also been challenged by other scholars, such as professor of history Nikolaos Vlachos (he also doubts that the French Revolution was a "revolution" in the real sense), prof. Ioannis Theodorakopoulos, the historian of the Revolution Dionysios Kokkinos, prof. of history Emmanuel Protopsaltes, prof. Konstantinos Despotopoulos and others According to Th. Proussis, the main external factor that contributed to the progress to the Revolution was Russia. Since the era of Peter the Great, Russia envisioned a Christian battle against the Turks under his leadership. Greece has been involved in the Russian plans since the revolution of 1770.
The Greek cause began to draw support not only from the large Greek merchant diaspora in both Western Europe and Russia, but also from Western European Philhellenes. This Greek movement for independence was not only the first movement of national character in Eastern Europe, but also the first one in a non-Christian environment, like the Ottoman Empire.
Filiki Eteria
Feraios' martyrdom was to inspire three young Greek merchants: Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuil Xanthos, and Athanasios Tsakalov. Influenced by the Italian Carbonari and profiting from their own experience as members of Freemasonic organizations, they founded in 1814 the secret Filiki Eteria ("Friendly Society") in Odessa, an important center of the Greek mercantile diaspora in Russia. With the support of wealthy Greek exile communities in Britain and the United States and with the aid of sympathizers in Western Europe, they planned the rebellion.
The society's basic objective was a revival of the Byzantine Empire, with Constantinople as the capital, not the formation of a national state. In early 1820, Ioannis Kapodistrias, an official from the Ionian Islands who had become the joint foreign minister of Tsar Alexander I, was approached by the Society in order to be named leader but declined the offer; the Filikoi (members of Filiki Eteria) then turned to Alexander Ypsilantis, a Phanariote serving in the Russian army as general and adjutant to Alexander, who accepted.
The Filiki Eteria expanded rapidly and was soon able to recruit members in all areas of the Greek world and among all elements of the Greek society. In 1821, the Ottoman Empire mainly faced war against Persia and more particularly the revolt by Ali Pasha in Epirus, which had forced the vali (governor) of the Morea, Hursid Pasha, and other local pashas to leave their provinces and campaign against the rebel force. At the same time, the Great Powers, allied in the "Concert of Europe" in opposition to revolutions in the aftermath of Napoleon I of France, were preoccupied with revolts in Italy and Spain. It was in this context that the Greeks judged the time ripe for their own revolt. The plan originally involved uprisings in three places, the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople.
Philhellenism
Because of the Greek origin of so much of the West's classical heritage, there was tremendous sympathy for the Greek cause throughout Europe. Some wealthy Americans and Western European aristocrats, such as the renowned poet Lord Byron and later the American physician Samuel Howe, took up arms to join the Greek revolutionaries. In Britain there was strong support led by the Philosophical Radicals, the Whigs, and the Evangelicals. Many helped to finance the revolution. The London Philhellenic Committee helped insurgent Greece to float two loans in 1824 (£800,000) and 1825 (£2,000,000).Wynne William H., (1951), State insolvency and foreign bondholders, New Haven, Yale University Press, vol. 2, p. 284 The Scottish philhellene Thomas Gordon took part in the revolutionary struggle and later wrote the first histories of the Greek revolution in English.
In Europe, the Greek revolt aroused widespread sympathy among the public, although at first it was met with lukewarm and negative reception from the Great Powers. Some historians argue that Ottoman atrocities were given wide coverage in Europe, while Greek atrocities tended to be suppressed or played down. The Ottoman massacres at Chios in 1822 inspired Eugène Delacroix's famous painting Massacre of Chios; other philhellenic works by Delacroix were inspired by various Byron poems. Byron, the most celebrated philhellene of all, lent his name, prestige and wealth to the cause.
Byron organized funds and supplies (including the provision of several ships), but died from fever at Missolonghi in 1824. Byron's death helped to create an even stronger European sympathy for the Greek cause. His poetry, along with Delacroix's art, helped arouse European public opinion in favor of the Greek revolutionaries to the point of no return, and led Western powers to intervene directly.
Philhellenism made a notable contribution to romanticism, enabling the younger generation of artistic and literary intellectuals to expand the classical repertoire by treating modern Greek history as an extension of ancient history; the idea of a regeneration of the spirit of ancient Greece permeated the rhetoric of the Greek cause's supporters. Classicists and romantics of that period envisioned the casting out of the Turks as the prelude to the revival of the Golden Age.
Outbreak of the revolution
Danubian principalities
Alexander Ypsilantis was elected as the head of the Filiki Eteria in April 1820 and took upon himself the task of planning the insurrection. His intention was to raise all the Christians of the Balkans in rebellion and perhaps force Russia to intervene on their behalf. On 22 February , he crossed the river Prut with his followers, entering the Danubian Principalities. In order to encourage the local Romanian Christians to join him, he announced that he had "the support of a Great Power", implying Russia. Two days after crossing the Prut, at Three Holy Hierarchs Monastery in Iași (Jassy), the capital of Moldavia, Ypsilantis issued a proclamation calling all Greeks and Christians to rise up against the Ottomans:Hitchins, The Romanians, 149–150Iaşul istoric 1821 – Iaşi, Starting point of the Eteria
Michael Soutzos, then Prince of Moldavia and a member of Filiki Etaireia, set his guard at Ypsilantis' disposal. In the meanwhile, Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople and the Synod had anathematized and excommunicated both Ypsilantis and Soutzos issuing many encyclicals, an explicit denunciation of the Revolution in line with the Orthodox Church's policy.
Instead of directly advancing on Brăila, where he arguably could have prevented Ottoman armies from entering the Principalities, and where he might have forced Russia to accept a fait accompli, Ypsilantis remained in Iaşi and ordered the executions of several pro-Ottoman Moldavians. In Bucharest, where he arrived in early April after some weeks delay, he decided that he could not rely on the Wallachian Pandurs to continue their Oltenian-based revolt and assist the Greek cause. The Pandur leader was Tudor Vladimirescu, who had already reached the outskirts of Bucharest on 16 March . In Bucharest, the relations of the two men deteriorated dramatically; Vladimirescu's first priority was to assert his authority against the newly appointed prince Scarlat Callimachi, trying to maintain relations with both Russia and the Ottomans.
At that point, Kapodistrias, the foreign minister of Russia, was ordered by Alexander I to send Ypsilantis a letter upbraiding him for misusing the mandate received from the Tsar; Kapodistrias announced to Ypsilantis that his name had been struck off the army list and that he was commanded to lay down arms. Ypsilantis tried to ignore the letter, but Vladimirescu took this as the end of his alliance with the Eteria. A conflict erupted inside the camp and Vladimirescu was tried was put to death by the Eteria on 26 May . The loss of their Romanian allies, followed by an Ottoman intervention on Wallachian soil, sealed defeat for the Greek exiles and culminated in the disastrous Battle of Dragashani and the destruction of the Sacred Band on 7 June .
Alexander Ypsilantis, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant of his followers, retreated to Râmnicu Vâlcea, where he spent some days negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to cross the frontier. Fearing that his followers might surrender him to the Turks, he gave out that Austria had declared war on Turkey, caused a Te Deum to be sung in Cozia Monastery, and on pretext of arranging measures with the Austrian commander-in-chief, he crossed the frontier. However, the reactionary policies of the Holy Alliance were enforced by Francis II and the country refused to give asylum for leaders of revolts in neighboring countries. Ypsilantis was kept in close confinement for seven years. In Moldavia, the struggle continued for a while, under Giorgakis Olympios and Yiannis Pharmakis, but by the end of the year the provinces had been pacified by the Ottomans.
The outbreak of the war was met by mass executions, pogrom-style attacks, the destruction of churches, and looting of Greek properties throughout the Empire. The most severe atrocities occurred in Constantinople, in what became known as the Constantinople Massacre of 1821. The Orthodox Patriarch Gregory V was executed on 22 April 1821 on the orders of the Sultan despite his opposition to the revolt, which caused outrage throughout Europe and resulted in increased support for the Greek rebels.
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, with its long tradition of resistance to the Ottomans, was to become the heartland of the revolt. In the early months of 1821, with the absence of the Ottoman governor of the Morea (Mora valesi) Hursid Pasha and many of his troops, the situation was favourable for the Greeks to rise against Ottoman occupation. The crucial meeting was held at Vostitsa (modern Aigion), where chieftains and prelates from all over the Peloponnese assembled on 26 January. There, Papaflessas, a pro-revolution priest who presented himself as representative of Filiki Eteria, clashed with most of the civil leaders and members of the senior clergy, such as Metropolitan Germanos of Patras, who were sceptical and demanded guarantees about a Russian intervention.
As news came of Ypsilantis' march into the Danubian Principalities, the atmosphere in the Peloponnese was tense, and by mid-March, sporadic incidents against Muslims occurred, heralding the start of the uprising. According to oral tradition, the Revolution was declared on 25 March 1821 (N.S. 6 April) by Metropolitan Germanos of Patras, who raised the banner with the cross in the Monastery of Agia Lavra (near Kalavryta, Achaea) although some historians question the historicity of the event. Some claim that the story first appears in 1824 in a book written by a French diplomat François Pouqueville, whose book is full of inventions. Historian David Brewer noted that Pouqueville was an Anglophobe, and in his account of the speech by Germanos in his book, Pouqueville has the Metropolitan express Anglophobic sentiments similar to those commonly expressed in France, and has him praise France as Greece's one true friend in the world, which led Brewer to conclude that Pouqueville had made the entire story up. However, a study on the archive of Hugues Pouqueville (François Pouqueville's brother) claims that François' account was accurate, without making any reference to the purported Anglophobia or Francophilia of Germanos. Also, some European newspapers of June and July 1821 published the news of declaration of revolution by Germanos either in Patras on 6 April/25 March 1821 or in the "Monastery of Velia Mountain" (Agia Lavra) on a non-specified date.
On 17 March 1821, war was declared on the Turks by the Maniots in Areopoli. The same day, a force of 2,000 Maniots under the command of Petros Mavromichalis advanced on the Messenian town of Kalamata, where they united with troops under Theodoros Kolokotronis, Nikitaras and Papaflessas; Kalamata fell to the Greeks on 23 March. In Achaia, the town of Kalavryta was besieged on 21 March, and in Patras conflicts lasted for many days. The Ottomans launched sporadic attacks towards the city while the revolutionaries, led by Panagiotis Karatzas, drove them back to the fortress.
By the end of March, the Greeks effectively controlled the countryside, while the Turks were confined to the fortresses, most notably those of Patras (recaptured by the Turks on 3 April by Yussuf Pasha), Rio, Acrocorinth, Monemvasia, Nafplion and the provincial capital, Tripolitsa, where many Muslims had fled with their families at the beginning of the uprising. All these were loosely besieged by local irregular forces under their own captains, since the Greeks lacked artillery. With the exception of Tripolitsa, all sites had access to the sea and could be resupplied and reinforced by the Ottoman fleet. Since May, Kolokotronis organized the siege of Tripolitsa, and, in the meantime, Greek forces twice defeated the Turks, who unsuccessfully tried to repulse the besiegers. Finally, Tripolitsa was seized by the Greeks on 23 September , and the city was given over to the mob for two days. After lengthy negotiations, the Turkish forces surrendered Acrocorinth on 14 January 1822.
Central Greece
The first regions to revolt in Central Greece were Phocis (24 March) and Salona (27 March). In Boeotia, Livadeia was captured by Athanasios Diakos on 31 March, followed by Thebes two days later. When the revolution began, most of the Christian population of Athens fled to Salamis. Missolonghi revolted on 25 May, and the revolution soon spread to other cities of western Central Greece. The Ottoman commander in the Roumeli was the Albanian general Omer Vrioni who become infamous for his "Greek hunts" in Attica, which was described thus: "One of his favourite amusements was a 'Greek hunt' as the Turks called it. They would go out in parties of fifty to a hundred, mounted on fleet horses, and scour the open country in search of Greek peasantry, who might from necessity or hardihood have ventured down upon the plains. After capturing some, they would give the poor creatures a certain distance to start ahead, hoping to escape, and then try the speed of their horses in overtaking them, the accuracy of their pistols in firing at them as they ran, or the keenness of their sabres' edge in cutting off their heads". Those not cut down or shot down during the "Greek hunts" were impaled afterwards when captured.
The initial Greek successes were soon put in peril after two subsequent defeats at the battles of Alamana and Eleftherohori against the army of Omer Vrioni. Another significant loss for the Greeks was the death of Diakos, a promising military leader, who was captured in Alamana and executed by the Turks when he refused to declare allegiance to the Sultan. The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the Battle of Gravia under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos, who, with a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. After his defeat and the successful retreat of Androutsos' force, Omer Vrioni postponed his advance towards Peloponnese awaiting reinforcements; instead, he invaded Livadeia, which he captured on 10 June, and Athens, where he lifted the siege of the Acropolis. After a Greek force of 2,000 men managed to destroy at Vassilika a Turkish relief army on its way to Vrioni, the latter abandoned Attica in September and retreated to Ioannina. By the end of 1821, the revolutionaries had managed to temporarily secure their positions in Central Greece.
The Ottoman reaction
The news that the Greeks had revolted sparked murderous fury all over the Ottoman Empire. In Constantinople, on Easter Sunday, the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged although he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan in his sermons. Since the revolution began in March, the Sublime Porte had executed at random various prominent Greeks living in Constantinople, such as the serving Dragoman of the Porte and two retired dragomans, a number of wealthy bankers and merchants, including a member of the ultra-rich Mavrocordatos family, three monks and a priest of the Orthodox church, and three ordinary Greeks accused of planning to poison the city's water supply. In the city of Smyrna (modern İzmir, Turkey), which until 1922 was a mostly Greek city, Ottoman soldiers drawn from the interior of Anatolia on their way to fight in either Greece or Moldavia/Wallachia, staged a pogrom in June 1821 against the Greeks, leading Gordon to write: "3,000 ruffians assailed the Greek quarter, plundered the houses and slaughtered the people; Smyrna resembled a place taken by assault, neither age or sex being respected". When a local mullah was asked to give a fatwa justifying the murder of Christians by Muslims and refused, he too was promptly killed.
International reaction
The news of the revolution was greeted with dismay by the conservative leaders of Europe, committed to upholding the system established at the Congress of Vienna, but was greeted with enthusiasm by many ordinary people across Europe. After the execution of the Patriarch Gregory V, the Russian Emperor Alexander I broke off diplomatic relations with the Sublime Porte after his foreign minister Count Ioannis Kapodistrias sent an ultimatum demanding promises from the Ottomans to stop executing Orthodox priests, which the Porte did not see fit to answer. In the summer of 1821, various young men from all Europe began to gather in the French port of Marseilles to book a passage to Greece and join the revolution. The French philhellene Jean-François-Maxime Raybaud wrote when he heard of the revolution in March 1821, "I learnt with a thrill that Greece was shaking off her chains" and in July 1821 boarded a ship going to Greece. Between the summer of 1821 and end of 1822, when the French started to inspect ships leaving Marseilles for philhellenes, some 360 volunteers travelled to Greece. From the United States came the doctor Samuel Gridley Howe and the soldier George Jarvis to fight with the Greeks. The largest contingents came from the German states, France and the Italian states.
In Nafplio, a monument to honor the philhellenes who died fighting in the war listed 274 names, of which 100 are from Germany, forty each from France and Italy, and the rest from Britain, Spain, Hungary, Sweden, Portugal and Denmark.
In Germany, Italy and France many clergyman and university professors gave speeches saying all of Europe owed a huge debt to ancient Greece, that the modern Greeks were entitled to call upon the classical heritage as a reason for support, and that Greece would only achieve progress with freedom from the Ottoman Empire. A young medical student in Mannheim wrote that hearing his professor lecture on the need for Greek freedom went through him like an electric shock, inspiring him to drop his studies and head to Greece, while a Danish student wrote: "How could a man inclined to fight for freedom and justice find a better place than next to the oppressed Greeks?". In France, Britain, Spain, Russia, the United States and many other places "Greek committees" were established to raise funds and supplies for the revolution.
The classicist Edward Everett, a professor of Greek at Harvard, was active in championing the Greek cause in the United States and in November 1821 published an appeal from Adhamantios Korais reading "To the Citizens of the United States, it is your land that Liberty has fixed her abode, so you will not assuredly imitate the culpable indifference or rather the long ingratitude of the Europeans", going on to call for American intervention, in several American newspapers. In 1821, the Greek committee in Charleston, South Carolina sent the Greeks 50 barrels of salted meat while the Greek Committee in Springfield, Massachusetts sent supplies of salted meat, sugar, fish and flour. Newspapers in the United States gave the war much coverage and were overwhelmingly pro-Greek in their stance, which explains why American public opinion was so supportive. In New York City, one ball put on by the Greek committee raised $8,000 (~$180,000 in 2021). In Russia, the St. Petersburg Greek committee under Prince Alexander Golitsyn had raised 973, 500 roubles by August 1822. By the end of the war, millions of roubles had been fund-raised in Russia for the relief of refugees and to buy Greeks enslaved freedom (though the government forbade buying arms for the Greeks), but no Russian is known to have gone to fight with the Greeks.
Haiti was the first government of an independent state to recognise the Greek independence. Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, following a Greek request for assistance, addressed a letter on 15 January 1822. In the letter sent to Greek expatriates living in France, Adamantios Korais, Christodoulos Klonaris, Konstantinos Polychroniades and A. Bogorides, who had assembled themselves into a Committee which was seeking international support for the ongoing Greek revolution, Boyer expressed his support for the Greek Revolution and compared the struggle underfoot across the Atlantic to the struggle for independence in his own land. He apologized for being unable to support the Revolution in Greece financially, though he hoped he might be able to in the future. But he articulated his moral and political support for the revolution, notably by filling his letter with references to classical Greek history, demonstrating a detailed knowledge of this history and powerfully evoking the contemporary revolutionaries as the rightful heirs of their ancestors. Some historians claim that Boyer also sent to the Greeks 25 tons of Haitian coffee that could be sold and the proceeds used to purchase weapons, but not enough evidence exists to support this or the other claim that one hundred Haitian volunteers set off to fight in the Greek Revolution. Allegedly, their ship was boarded by pirates somewhere in the Mediterranean and these fighters purportedly never reached their destination.
First administrative and political institutions
After the fall of Kalamata, the Messenian Senate, the first of the Greeks' local governing councils, held its inaugural session. At almost the same time, the Achean Directorate was summoned in Patras, but its members were soon forced to flee to Kalavryta. With the initiative of the Messenian Senate, a Peloponnesian assembly convened, and elected a Senate on 26 May. Most of the members of the Peloponnesian Senate were local notables (lay and ecclesiastical) or persons controlled by them.
The three major social groups that provided the leadership of the revolution were the primates (wealthy landowners who controlled about a third of the arable land in the Peloponnese), the captains drawn from the klephts and/or armatolos (klepts and armatolos tended to alternate), and the wealthy merchants, who were the most Westernised elements in Greek society. One of the more prominent leaders of the merchants and a "Westerniser" was the Phanariot Alexandros Mavrokordatos who was living with the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley in Pisa when the revolution began, and upon hearing of the revolution, purchased supplies and a ship in Marseilles and then set sail for Greece. Mavrokordhatos's wealth, education (he was fluent in seven languages) and his experience as an Ottoman official ruling Wallachia led many to look towards him as a leader.
When Demetrios Ypsilantis arrived in Peloponnese as official representative of Filiki Eteria, he tried to assume control of the Revolution's affairs, and he thus proposed a new system of electing the members of the Senate, which was supported by the military leaders, but opposed by the notables. Assemblies convened also in Central Greece (November 1821) under the leadership of two Phanariots: Alexandros Mavrokordatos in the western part, and Theodoros Negris in the eastern part. These assemblies adopted two local statutes, the Charter of Western Continental Greece and the Legal Order of Eastern Continental Greece, drafted mainly by Mavrokordatos and Negris respectively. The statutes provided for the creation of two local administrative organs in Central Greece, an Areopagus in the east, and a Senate in the west. The three local statutes were recognized by the First National Assembly, but the respective administrative institutions were turned into administrative branches of the central government. They were later dissolved by the Second National Assembly.
Revolutionary activity in Crete, Macedonia and Cyprus
Crete
Cretan participation in the revolution was extensive, but it failed to achieve liberation from Turkish rule because of Egyptian intervention. Crete had a long history of resisting Turkish rule, exemplified by the folk hero Daskalogiannis, who was killed while fighting the Turks. In 1821, an uprising by Christians was met with a fierce response from the Ottoman authorities and the execution of several bishops, regarded as ringleaders.
Despite the Turkish reaction the rebellion persisted, and thus Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) was forced to seek the aid of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, trying to lure him with the pashalik of Crete. On 28 May 1822, an Egyptian fleet of 30 warships and 84 transports arrived at Souda Bay led by Hasan Pasha, Muhammad Ali's son-in-law; he was tasked with ending the rebellion and did not waste any time in the burning of villages throughout Crete.
After Hasan's accidental death in February 1823, another son-in-law of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Hussein Bey, led a well-organised and well-armed joint Turkish-Egyptian force of 12,000 soldiers with the support of artillery and cavalry. On 22 June 1823, Emmanouil Tombazis, appointed Commissioner of Crete by the Greek revolutionary government, held the Convention of Arcoudaina in an attempt to reconcile the factions of local captains and unite them against the common threat. He then gathered 3,000 men in Gergeri to face Hussein, but the Cretans were defeated by the much larger and better-organised force, and lost 300 men at the battle of Amourgelles on 20 August 1823. By the spring of 1824, Hussein had managed to limit the Cretan resistance to just a few mountain enclaves.
Towards the summer of 1825, a body of three to four hundred Cretans, who had fought with other Greeks in the Peloponnese, arrived in Crete and revitalized the Cretan insurgency (the so-called "Gramvousa period"). On 9 August 1825, led by Dimitrios Kallergis and Emmanouil Antoniadis, this group of Cretans captured the fort at Gramvousa and other insurgents captured the fort at Kissamos, and attempted to spread the insurgency further afield.
Although the Ottomans did not manage to retake the forts, they were successful in blocking the spread of the insurgency to the island's western provinces. The insurgents were besieged in Gramvousa for more than two years and they had to resort to piracy to survive. Gramvousa became a hive of piratical activity that greatly affected Turkish–Egyptian and European shipping in the region. During that period the population of Gramvousa became organised and built a school and a church dedicated to the Panagia i Kleftrina ("Our Lady the piratess")—St Mary as the patron of the klephts.
In January 1828, the Epirote Hatzimichalis Dalianis landed in Crete with 700 men and in the following March took possession of Frangokastello, a castle in the Sfakia region. Soon the local Ottoman ruler, Mustafa Naili Pasha, attacked Frangokastello with an army of 8,000 men. The castle's defence was doomed after a seven-day siege and Dalianis perished along with 385 men. During 1828, Kapodistrias sent Mavrocordatos with British and French fleets to Crete to deal with the klephts and the pirates. This expedition resulted in the destruction of all pirate ships at Gramvousa and the fort came under British command.
Macedonia
The economic ascent of Thessaloniki and of the other urban centres of Macedonia coincided with the cultural and political renaissance of the Greeks. The ideals and patriotic songs of Rigas Feraios and others had made a profound impression upon the Thessalonians. Α few years later, the revolutionary fervour of the southern Greeks was to spread to these parts, and the seeds of Filiki Eteria were speedily to take root. The leader and coordinator of the revolution in Macedonia was Emmanouel Pappas from the village of Dobista, Serres, who was initiated into the Filiki Eteria in 1819. Pappas had considerable influence over the local Ottoman authorities, especially the local governor, Ismail Bey, and offered much of his personal wealth for the cause.
Following the instructions of Alexander Ypsilantis, that is to prepare the ground and to rouse the inhabitants of Macedonia to rebellion, Pappas loaded arms and munitions from Constantinople on a ship on 23 March and proceeded to Mount Athos, considering that this would be the most suitable spring-board for starting the insurrection. As Vacalopoulos notes, however, "adequate preparations for rebellion had not been made, nor were revolutionary ideals to be reconciled with the ideological world of the monks within the Athonite regime". On 8 May, the Turks, infuriated by the landing of sailors from Psara at Tsayezi, by the capture of Turkish merchants and the seizure of their goods, rampaged through the streets of Serres, searched the houses of the notables for arms, imprisoned the Metropolitan and 150 merchants, and seized their goods as a reprisal for the plundering by the Psarians.
In Thessaloniki, governor Yusuf Bey (the son of Ismail Bey) imprisoned in his headquarters more than 400 hostages, of whom more than 100 were monks from the monastic estates. He also wished to seize the powerful notables of Polygyros, who got wind of his intentions and fled. On 17 May, the Greeks of Polygyros took up arms, killed the local governor and 14 of his men, and wounded three others; they also repulsed two Turkish detachments. On 18 May, when Yusuf learned of the incidents at Polygyros and the spreading of the insurrection to the villages of Chalkidiki, he ordered half of his hostages to be slaughtered before his eyes. The Mulla of Thessalonica, Hayrıülah, gives the following description of Yusuf's retaliations:
It would take until the end of the century for the city's Greek community to recover. The revolt, however, gained momentum in Mount Athos and Kassandra, and the island of Thasos joined it. Meanwhile, the revolt in Chalkidiki was progressing slowly and unsystematically. In June 1821 the insurgents tried to cut communications between Thrace and the south, attempting to prevent the serasker Haji Muhammad Bayram Pasha from transferring forces from Asia Minor to southern Greece. Even though the rebels delayed him, they were ultimately defeated at the pass of Rentina.
The insurrection in Chalkidiki was, from then on, confined to the peninsulas of Mount Athos and Kassandra. On 30 October 1821, an offensive led by the new Pasha of Thessaloniki, Muhammad Emin Abulubud, resulted in a decisive Ottoman victory at Kassandra. The survivors, among them Pappas, were rescued by the Psarian fleet, which took them mainly to Skiathos, Skopelos and Skyros. However, Pappas died en route to join the revolution at Hydra. Sithonia, Mount Athos and Thasos subsequently surrendered on terms.
Nevertheless, the revolt spread from Central to Western Macedonia, from Olympus to Pieria and Vermion. In the autumn of 1821, Nikolaos Kasomoulis was sent to southern Greece as the "representative of South-East Macedonia", and met Demetrius Ypsilantis. He then wrote to Papas from Hydra, asking him to visit Olympus to meet the captains there and to "fire them with the required patriotic enthusiasm". At the beginning of 1822, Anastasios Karatasos and Aggelis Gatsos arranged a meeting with other armatoloi; they decided that the insurrection should be based on three towns: Naoussa, Kastania, and Siatista.
In March 1822, Mehmed Emin secured decisive victories at Kolindros and Kastania. Further north, in the vicinity of Naousa, Zafeirakis Theodosiou, Karatasos and Gatsos organized the city's defense, and the first clashes resulted in a victory for the Greeks. Mehmed Emin then appeared before the town with 10,000 regular troops and 10,600 irregulars. Failing to get the insurgents to surrender, Mehmed Emin launched a number of attacks pushing them further back and finally captured Naousa in April, helped by the enemies of Zafeirakis, who had revealed an unguarded spot, the "Alonia". Reprisals and executions ensued, and women are reported to have flung themselves over the Arapitsa waterfall to avoid dishonor and being sold in slavery. Those who broke through the siege of Naousa fell back in Kozani, Siatista and Aspropotamos River, or were carried by the Psarian fleet to the northern Aegean islands.
Cyprus
On 9 June 1821 3 ships sailed to Cyprus with Konstantinos Kanaris. They landed at Asprovrisi of Lapithou. Kanaris brought with him papers from the Filiki Etaireia and the ships were welcomed with rapturous applause and patriotic cries from the local Greeks of the area, who helped Kanaris and the soldiers from Cyprus as much as they could.
Kanaris brought with him to mainland Greece, Cypriots who created the "Column of Cypriots" («Φάλαγγα των Κυπρίων»), led by General Chatzipetros, which fought with extraordinary heroism in Greece. In total, over 1000 Cypriots fought in the War of Independence, many of whom died. At Missolonghi many were killed, and at the Battle of Athens in 1827, around 130 were killed. General Chatzipetros, showing military decorations declared "These were given to me by the heroism and braveness of the Column of Cypriots". In the National Library, there is a list of 580 names of Cypriots who fought in the War between 1821 and 1829.
The Cypriot battalion brought with them their own distinctive war banner, consisting of a white flag with a large blue cross, and the words GREEK FLAG OF THE MOTHERLAND CYPRUS emblazoned in the top left corner. The flag was hoisted on a wooden mast, carved and pointed at the end to act as a lance in battle. The legendary battle flag is currently stored at the National Historical Museum of Athens.
Throughout the War of Independence, supplies were brought from Cyprus by the Filiki Etairia to aid the Greek struggle. The Greeks of Cyprus underwent great risk to provide these supplies, and secretly load them onto boats arriving at intervals from Greece, as the Ottoman rulers in Cyprus at the time were very wary of Cypriot insurgency and sentenced to death any Greek Cypriots found aiding the Greek cause. Incidences of these secret loading trips from Cyprus were recorded by the French consul to Cyprus, Mechain.
Back in Cyprus during the war, the local population suffered greatly at the hands of the Ottoman rulers of the islands, who were quick to act with great severity at any act of patriotism and sympathy of the Greeks of Cyprus to the Revolution, fearing a similar uprising in Cyprus. The religious leader of the Greeks of the island at the time, Archbishop Kyprianos was initiated into the Filiki Etairia in 1818 and had promised to aid the cause of the Greek Helladites with food and money.
In early July 1821, the Cypriot Archimandrite Theofylaktos Thiseas arrived in Larnaca as a messenger of the Filiki Etairia, bringing orders to Kyprianos, while proclamations were distributed in every corner of the island. However, the local pasha, Küçük Pasha, intercepted these messages and reacted with fury, calling in reinforcements, confiscating weapons and arresting several prominent Cypriots. Archbishop Kyprianos was urged (by his friends) to leave the island as the situation worsened, but refused to do so.
On 9 July 1821 Küçük Pasha had the gates to the walled city of Nicosia closed and executed, by beheading or hanging, 470 important Cypriots amongst them Chrysanthos (bishop of Paphos), Meletios (bishop of Kition) and Lavrentios (bishop of Kyrenia). The next day, all abbots and monks of monasteries in Cyprus were executed. In addition, the Ottomans arrested all the Greek leaders of the villages and imprisoned them before executing them, as they were suspected of inspiring patriotism in their local population.
In total, it is estimated that over 2,000 Greeks of Cyprus were slaughtered as an act of revenge for participating in the revolution. This was a very significant proportion of the total population of the island at the time. Küçük pasha had declared "I have in my mind to slaughter the Greeks in Cyprus, to hang them, to not leave a soul..." before undertaking these massacres. From 9 to 14 July, the Ottomans killed all prisoners on the list of the pasha, and in the next 30 days, looting and massacres spread throughout Cyprus as 4,000 Turkish soldiers from Syria arrived on the island.
Archbishop Kyprianos was defiant in his death. He was aware of his fate and impending death, yet stood by the Greek cause. He is revered throughout Cyprus as a noble patriot and defender of the Orthodox faith and Hellenic cause. An English explorer by the name of Carne spoke to the Archbishop before the events of 9 July, who was quoted as saying: "My death is not far away. I know they [the Ottoman] are waiting for an opportunity to kill me". Kyprianos chose to stay, despite these fears, and provide protection and counsel for the people of Cyprus as their leader.
He was publicly hanged from a tree opposite the former palace of the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus on 19 July 1821. The events leading up to his execution were documented in an epic poem written in the Cypriot dialect by Vassilis Michaelides.
War at sea
From the early stages of the revolution, success at sea was vital for the Greeks. When they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it was able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire's provinces, threatening to crush the rebellion; likewise the failure of the Greek fleet to break the naval blockade of Messolonghi (as it did several times earlier) in 1826 led to the fall of the city.
The Greek fleet was primarily outfitted by prosperous Aegean islanders, principally from three islands: Hydra, Spetses and Psara. Each island equipped, manned and maintained its own squadron, under its own admiral. Although they were manned by experienced crews, the Greek ships were not designed for warfare, being armed merchantmen equipped with only light guns. Against them stood the Ottoman fleet, which enjoyed several advantages: its ships and supporting craft were built for war; it was supported by the resources of the vast Ottoman Empire; command was centralized and disciplined under the Kapudan Pasha. The total Ottoman fleet size consisted of 20 three-masted ships of the line, each with about 80 guns and 7 or 8 frigates with 50 guns, 5 corvettes with about 30 guns and around 40 brigs with 20 or fewer guns, complemented by squadrons from the Maghrebi vassal states (Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis) and Egypt.
In the face of this situation, the Greeks decided to use fire ships (), which had proven themselves effective for the Psarians during the Orlov Revolt in 1770. The first test was made at Eresos on 27 May 1821, when an Ottoman frigate was successfully destroyed by a fire ship under Dimitrios Papanikolis. In the fire ships, the Greeks found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. In subsequent years, the successes of the Greek fire ships would increase their reputation, with acts such as the destruction of the Ottoman flagship by Konstantinos Kanaris at Chios, after the massacre of the island's population in June 1822, acquiring international fame.
At the same time, conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like Andreas Miaoulis distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at Patras and Spetses gave the crews confidence and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese.
Later, however, as Greece became embroiled in a civil war, the Sultan called upon his strongest subject, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, for aid. Plagued by internal strife and financial difficulties in keeping the fleet in constant readiness, the Greeks failed to prevent the capture and destruction of Kasos and Psara in 1824, or the landing of the Egyptian army at Methoni. Despite victories at Samos and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the Battle of Navarino in 1827.
1822–1824
Revolutionary activity was fragmented because of the lack of strong central leadership and guidance. However, the Greek side withstood the Turkish attacks because the Ottoman military campaigns were periodic and the Ottoman presence in the rebel areas was uncoordinated due to logistical problems. The cash-strapped Ottoman state's relations with Russia, always difficult, had been made worse by the hanging of Patriarch Grigorios, and the Sublime Porte needed to concentrate substantial forces on the Russian border in case war broke out.
From October 1820 to July 1823 the Ottomans were at war with Persia, and in March 1823 a huge fire at the Tophana military arsenal in Constantinople destroyed much of the Ottoman state's supplies of ammunition and its main cannon foundry. Short of men and money, the Ottoman state turned to hiring Albanian tribesmen to fight the Greeks, and by 1823, the bulk of the Ottoman forces in Greece were Albanian mercenaries hired for a campaigning season rather than the Ottoman Army. The Albanian tribesmen, whose style of war was very similar to the Greeks, fought only for money and were liable to go home when not paid or able to plunder in lieu of pay. The Greek military leaders preferred battlefields where they could annihilate the numerical superiority of the opponent, and, at the same time, the lack of artillery hampered Ottoman military efforts.
On 11 April 1822, the Ottoman fleet, under the Kapitan Pasha, Kara Ali, arrived on the island of Chios. The Ottoman sailors and soldiers promptly went on a rampage, killing and raping without mercy, as one contemporary recalled: "Mercy was out of the question, the victors butchering indiscriminately all who came in their way; shrieks rent the air, and the streets were strewn with the dead bodies of old men, women, and children; even the inmates of the hospital, the madhouse and deaf and dumb institution, were inhumanely slaughtered". Before Kara Ali's fleet had arrived, Chios had between 100,000 and 120,000 Greeks living there, of which some 25,000 were killed in the massacre, with another 45,000 (mostly women and children) sold into slavery.
The Chios massacre shocked all of Europe and further increased public sympathy for the Greek cause. The Greeks avenged the massacre on the night of 18 June 1822, when the Ottoman fleet were busy celebrating the end of the sacred Muslim holiday of Ramadan, which the Greek fleet under Admiral Konstantinos Kanaris and Andreas Pipinos took advantage of to launch a fire ship attack. As Kara Ali's ship was brightly lit as befitting the Kapitan Pasha, a fire ship under Kanaris was able to strike his ship, causing the Ottoman flagship to blow up. Of the 2,286 or so aboard the flagship, only 180 survived, but unfortunately many of the dead were Chians enslaved by Kara Ali, who was planning on selling them on the slave markets when he reached Constantinople.
In July 1822, the Greeks and philhellenes at the Battle of Peta under Alexandros Mavrokordatos inflicted much punishment on an Ottoman army commanded by Omer Vrioni, but reflecting the chronic factionalism and disunity that characterized the Greek war effort, were undone when one of the Greek captains, Gogos Bakolas betrayed his own side to the Ottomans, allowing Albanian infantry to advance up the ridge. The battle ended in an Ottoman victory, and with most of the philhellenes killed. The successive military campaigns of the Ottomans in Western and Eastern Greece were repulsed: in 1822, Mahmud Dramali Pasha crossed Roumeli and invaded Morea, but suffered a serious defeat in the Dervenakia. Theodoros Kolokotronis, who annihilated Dramali Pasha's army at Dervenakia, became the hero of the hour, attracting much praise all over Greece.
The Greek government had been desperately short of money since the start of the revolution, and in February 1823, the banker Andréas Louriótis arrived in London, seeking a loan from the City. Assisted by the London Greek Committee, which included several MPs and intellectuals, Louriótis began to lobby the City for a loan. British philhellene Edward Blaquiere issued a report in September 1823 which grossly exaggerated Greece's economic prosperity and claimed that once independent, Greece would easily become "one of the most opulent nations of Europe". Blaquiere further assisted the campaign by publishing two books in 1824, in which he claimed: "I should have no hesitation whatever in estimating the physical strength of regenerated Greece to be fully equal to the whole South American continent", concluding there was "no part of the world...with a more productive soil or happier climate than Greece...Of all the countries or governments who have borrowed money in London within the last ten years...Greece possesses the surest and most ample means of re-payment".
The 1823 campaign in Western Greece was led by Northern Albanian forces under Mustafa Reshit Pasha from the Pashalik of Scutari, and Southern Albanian forces under Omer Vrioni from the former Pashalik of Yanina. During the summer the Souliot Markos Botsaris was shot dead at the Battle of Karpenisi in his attempt to stop the advance of Ottoman Albanian forces; the announcement of his death in Europe generated a wave of sympathy for the Greek cause. The campaign ended after the Second Siege of Missolonghi in December 1823. In February 1824, the loan for Greece was floated in the City, attracting some £472, 000 pounds sterling (~$17.4 million in 2021), which was money that the Greeks badly needed.
Revolution in peril
Infighting
The First National Assembly was formed at Epidaurus in late December 1821, consisting almost exclusively of Peloponnesian notables. The Assembly drafted the first Greek Constitution and appointed the members of an executive and a legislative body that were to govern the liberated territories. Mavrokordatos saved the office of president of the executive for himself, while Ypsilantis, who had called for the Assembly, was elected president of the legislative body, a place of limited significance.
Military leaders and representatives of Filiki Eteria were marginalized, but gradually Kolokotronis' political influence grew, and he soon managed to control, along with the captains he influenced, the Peloponnesian Senate. The central administration tried to marginalize Kolokotronis, who also had under his control the fort of Nafplion. In November 1822, the central administration decided that the new National Assembly would take place in Nafplion, and asked Kolokotronis to return the fort to the government. Kolokotronis refused, and the Assembly was finally gathered in March 1823 in Astros. Central governance was strengthened at the expense of regional bodies, a new constitution was voted, and new members were elected for the executive and the legislative bodies.
Trying to coax the military leaders, the central administration proposed to Kolokotronis that he participate in the executive body as vice-president. Kolokotronis accepted, but he caused a serious crisis when he prevented Mavrokordatos, who had been elected president of the legislative body, from assuming his position. His attitude towards Mavrokordatos caused outrage amongst the members of the legislative body.
The crisis culminated when the legislature, which was controlled by the Roumeliotes and the Hydriots, overturned the executive, and fired its president, Petros Mavromichalis. Kolokotronis and most of the Peloponnesian notables and captains supported Mavromichalis, who remained president of his executive in Tripolitsa. However, a second executive, supported by the islanders, the Roumeliotes, and some Achaean notables—Andreas Zaimis and Andreas Londos were the most prominent—was formed at Kranidi with Kountouriotis as president.
In March 1824, the forces of the new executive besieged Nafplion and Tripolitsa. After one month of fighting and negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kolokotronis, from one side, and Londos and Zaimis, from the other side. On 22 May, the first phase of the civil war officially ended, but most of the members of the new executive were displeased by the moderate terms of the agreement that Londos and Zaimis brokered.
During this period, the two first installments of the English loan had arrived, and the position of the government was strengthened; but the infighting was not yet over. Zaimis and the other Peloponnesians who supported Kountouriotis came into conflict with the executive body, and allied with Kolokotronis, who roused the residents of Tripolitsa against the local tax collectors of the government. Papaflessas and Makriyannis failed to suppress the rebellion, but Kolokotronis remained inactive for some period, overwhelmed by the death of his son, Panos.
The government regrouped its armies, which now consisted mainly of Roumeliotes and Souliotes, led by Ioannis Kolettis, who wanted a complete victory. Under Kolettis' orders, two bodies of Roumeliotes and Souliotes invaded the Peloponnese: the first under Gouras occupied Corinth and raided the province; the second under Karaiskakis, Kitsos Tzavelas and others, attacked in Achaea, Lindos and "Zaimis". In January 1825, a Roumeliote force, led by Kolettis himself, arrested Kolokotronis, Deligiannis' family and others. In May 1825, under the pressure of the Egyptian intervention, those imprisoned were released and granted amnesty.
Egypt intervenes to assist the Ottomans
On 19 July 1824, the largest fleet seen in the Mediterranean since Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798 set sail from Alexandria, consisting of 54 warships and 400 transports carrying 14,000 French-trained infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 500 artillerymen, with some 150 cannons. Egyptian intervention was initially limited to Crete and Cyprus. However, the success of Muhammad Ali's troops in both places settled the Turks on the horns of a very difficult dilemma, since they were afraid of their wāli's expansionist ambitions. Muhammad Ali finally agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece in exchange not only for Crete and Cyprus, but for the Peloponnese and Syria as well.
On 7 February 1825, a second loan to Greece was floated in the City of London. Although the Greek government had squandered the money from the first loan, the second loan was oversubscribed and raised some £1.1 million (~$404 million in 2021). Unlike the first loan, the second loan from the City was to be managed by a Board of Control in London, consisting of the banker Samson Ricardo, two MPs, Edward Ellice and Sir Francis Burdett and John Cam Hobhouse of the London Greek Committee, who were to use the money to buy warships and other supplies, which would then be handed over to the Greeks. After the Greek government had wasted most of the money from the first loan, the City did not trust them to spend the money from the second loan wisely. The Board of Control used the money to hire the naval hero, Lord Cochrane, to command the Greek Navy and to buy steamships. One of the British philhellenes, Frank Abney Hastings believed that the use of mechanised warships powered by steam and using red-hot shot would allow the Greeks to overpower the Ottoman navy, powered as it was by sail. Hastings persuaded the Board of Control to invest in the revolutionary technology of the steamship, making the first use of a mechanised warship in a war. The two loans from the City caused significant financial difficulties for the young nation, and in 1878 a deal was struck between the creditors and the Greek government to reduce the loans, now worth £10 million, with unpaid interest down to 1.5 million pounds sterling.
Ibrahim Pasha landed at Methoni on 24 February 1825, and a month later he was joined by his army of 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. The Greeks had not expected Ibrahim Pasha to land during the stormy winter weather, and were taken by surprise. The Greeks initially laughed at the Egyptian soldiers, who were short, skinny fallāḥīn (peasant) conscripts, many of them blind in one eye owing to the prevalence of parasitic worms that attacked the eye in the Nile, wearing cheap red uniforms comprising a jacket, trousers and a skull-cap. However, the Greeks soon learned that the Egyptians, who were trained by French officers recruited by Mohammed Ali, were tough and hardy soldiers who, unlike the Turkish and Albanian units that the Greeks had been fighting until then, stood their ground in combat. Ibrahim proceeded to defeat the Greek garrison on the small island of Sphacteria off the coast of Messenia. With the Greeks in disarray, Ibrahim ravaged the Western Peloponnese and killed Papaflessas at the Battle of Maniaki. To try to stop Ibrahim, Kanaris led the raid on Alexandria, an attempt to destroy the Egyptian fleet that failed due to a sudden change of the wind. The British traveller and Church of England minister, Reverend Charles Swan, reported Ibrahim Pasha as saying to him that he "would burn and destroy the whole Morea". Popular opinion in both Greece and the rest of Europe, soon credited Ibrahim Pasha with the so-called "barbarisation project", where it was alleged that Ibrahim planned to deport the entire Christian Greek population to Egypt as slaves and replace them with Egyptian peasants. It is not clear even today if the "barbarisation project" was a real plan or not, but the possibility that it was created strong demands for humanitarian intervention in Europe. The Porte and Mohammed Ali both denied having plans for the "barbarisation project", but pointedly refused to put their denials into writing. Russia warned that if the "barbarisation project" was a real plan, then such an egregious violation of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, under which Russia had a vague claim to be the protector of all the Orthodox peoples of the Ottoman Empire, would lead to Russia going to war against the Ottomans. In turn, the British Foreign Secretary George Canning wrote, rather than run the risk of Russia defeating the Ottomans alone, Britain would have to intervene to stop the "barbarisation project" as the British did not wish to see the Russians conquer the Ottoman Empire. While diplomats and statesmen debated what to do in London and St. Petersburg, the Egyptian advance continued in Greece. The Greek government, in an attempt to stop the Egyptians, released Kolokotronis from captivity, but he too was unsuccessful. By the end of June, Ibrahim had captured the city of Argos and was within striking distance of Nafplion. The city was saved by Makriyannis and Dimitrios Ypsilantis who successfully defended Miloi at the outskirts of Nafplion, making the mills outside the town a fortress causing damage to Ibrahim's far superior forces who were unable to take the position and eventually left for Tripolitsa. Makriyannis was wounded and was taken aboard by Europeans who were overseeing the battle. Among them was De Rigny, who had an argument with Makriyannis and advised him to quit his weak position but Makriyannis ignored him. Commodore Gawen Hamilton of the Royal Navy, placed his ships in a position which looked like he would assist in the defence of the city.
At the same time, the Turkish armies in Central Greece were besieging the city of Missolonghi for the third time. The siege had begun on 15 April 1825, the day on which Navarino had fallen to Ibrahim. In early autumn, the Greek navy, under the command of Miaoulis forced the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Corinth to retreat, after attacking it with fire ships. The Turks were joined by Ibrahim in mid-winter, but his army had no more luck in penetrating Missolonghi's defences.
In the spring of 1826, Ibrahim managed to capture the marshes around the city, although not without heavy losses. He thus cut the Greeks off from the sea and blocked off their supply route. Although the Egyptians and the Turks offered them terms to stop the attacks, the Greeks refused, and continued to fight. On 22 April, the Greeks decided to sail from the city during the night, with 3,000 men, to cut a path through the Egyptian lines and allow 6,000 women, children and non-combatants to follow. However, a Bulgarian deserter informed Ibrahim of the Greeks' intention, and he had his entire army deployed; only 1,800 Greeks managed to cut their way through the Egyptian lines. Between 3,000 and 4,000 women and children were enslaved and many of the people who remained behind decided to blow themselves up with gunpowder rather than be enslaved. The news that the Third Siege of Missolonghi had ended in an Ottoman victory sparked horror all over Greece; at the National Assembly, Kolokotronis was giving a speech when the news of Missolonghi's fall reached him, leaving him to remember: "the news came to us that Missolonghi was lost. We were all plunged into great grief; for half an hour there was so complete a silence that no one would have thought there was a living soul present; each of us was revolving in his mind how great was our misfortune". The American philhellene Samuel Gridley Howe, serving as a doctor with the Greeks, wrote back to America: "I write you with an almost breaking heart. Missolonghi has fallen!", which he called "damning proof of the selfish indifference of the Christian world. You may talk to me of national policy and the necessity of neutrality, but I say, a curse upon such a policy!". The news of Missolonghi's fall had a huge impact on the rest of Europe, sparking a vast outpouring of songs, poems, essays, sermons and plays in Britain, France, Germany and Switzerland, with the recurring image of Missolonghi's fall being the murder of a sweet and innocent young Greek woman at the hands of the Turks as a symbol of the unwillingness of the Christian powers of the world to do anything for the Greeks. In May 1826, Hastings arrived in Greece with a British-built steamship, the Karteria (Perseverance), which astonished the Greeks to see a ship powered by steam and did not move either via sail or oars. The Karteria suffered from constant engine breakdowns, but Hastings was able to use the ship successfully twice over the course of the next two years, at Volos and in the Gulf of Corinth.
Ibrahim sent an envoy to the Maniots demanding that they surrender or else he would ravage their land as he had done to the rest of the Peloponnese. Instead of surrendering, the Maniots simply replied:
Ibrahim tried to enter Mani from the north-east near Almiro on 21 June 1826, but he was forced to stop at the fortifications at Vergas in northern Mani. His army of 7,000 men was held off by an army of 2,000 Maniots and 500 refugees from other parts of Greece until Kolokotronis attacked the Egyptians from the rear and forced them to retreat. The Maniots pursued the Egyptians all the way to Kalamata before returning to Vergas. Simultaneously, Ibrahim sent his fleet further down the Maniot coast in order to outflank the Greek defenders and attack them from the rear. However, when his force landed at Pyrgos Dirou, they were confronted by a group of Maniot women and repelled. Ibrahim again attempted to enter Mani from central Laconia, but again the Maniots defeated the Turkish and Egyptian forces at Polytsaravo. The Maniot victory dealt the death blow to Ibrahim's hope of occupying Mani.
The losses Ibrahim Pasha had taken at Missolonghi had greatly reduced his army, and he spent the rest of 1826 chasing the Greek guerillas up and down the mountains. In late June 1826, Reshid Pasha had arrived outside of Athens and laid siege to the city, marking the beginning of the siege of the Acropolis. By the middle of August, only the Acropolis still held out under Yannis Gouras. To break the siege, an attack was launched on Reshid Pasha on 18 August 1826 led by the guerrilla leader Georgios Karaiskakis and the French philhellene Colonel Charles Nicolas Fabvier but were driven off with the loss of some 300 dead. On 13 October 1826, Gouras was killed by an Ottoman sniper and a week later, Yannis Makriyannis was wounded three times in a single day. In December, Febvier was able to infiltrate a force of some 500 men into the Akropolis, bringing in much needed supplies of gunpowder, through he was much offended when Makriyannis had his men start firing to wake up the Turks, trapping Fabvier and his men. In the summer of 1826, the Greek government gave command of its army to the British General Sir Richard Church. The British historian George Finlay wrote: "Church was of a small, well-made, active frame, and of a healthy constitution. His manner was agreeable and easy, with the polish of a great social experience, and the goodness of his disposition was admitted by his enemies, but the strength of his mind was not the quality of which his friends boasted...Both Church and the Greeks misunderstood one another. The Greeks expected Church to prove a Wellington, with a military chest well supplied from the British treasury. Church expected the irregulars of Greece to execute his strategy like regiments of guards". Church landed in Greece in March 1827, and was welcomed by his old friend Kolokotronis. A week later, Lord Cochrane arrived to take command of the Greek Navy and refused to leave his yacht until the Greeks agreed to form a united government. On 31 March 1827 the Trizina Assembly began its work, drafting a new constitution and offered the presidency of Greece to the former Russian foreign minister, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias. In the meantime, the siege of Athens continued. On 5 February 1827, a force of 2,300 Greeks under the command of Colonel Thomas Gordon landed at Piraeus, and laid siege to the monastery of Ayios Spiridhon, held by Turkish and Albanian troops. In April 1827, Church and Cochrane arrived at Athens and immediately clashed over strategy. When the Ottoman garrison at Ayios Spiridhon surrendered, they were promised safe conduct, but as they were marching out, a shot went off and most of the Ottoman soldiers were killed. Cochrane insisted on a bold but risky plan to stage a night attack across the open plains to break the siege. An operation which launched on 5 May 1827 ended in disaster, as the Greek forces got lost and scattered as the captains quarrelled with one another. This led to a devastating Ottoman cavalry charge in the morning, with Ottomans hunting the scattered Greek forces almost at leisure. On 5 June 1827, the Acropolis surrendered in the last Ottoman victory of the war.
Kapodistrias arrived in Greece to become the Governor on 28 January 1828. The first task of Greece's new leader was to create a state and a civil society, which the workaholic Kapodistrias toiled at mightily, working from 5 am until 10 pm every night. Kapodistrias alienated many with his haughty, high-handed manner and his open contempt for most of the Greek elite, but he attracted support from several of the captains, such as Theodoros Kolokotronis and Yannis Makriyannis who provided the necessary military force to back up Kapodistrias's decisions. As a former Russian foreign minister, Kapodistrias was well connected to the European elite and he attempted to use his connections to secure loans for the new Greek state and to achieve the most favorable borders for Greece, which was being debated by Russian, French and British diplomats.
Foreign intervention against the Ottomans
Initial hostility
When the news of the Greek Revolution was first received, the reaction of the European powers was uniformly hostile. They recognized the degeneration of the Ottoman Empire, but they did not know how to handle this situation (a problem known as the "Eastern Question"). Afraid of the complications the partition of the empire might raise, the British foreign minister Viscount Castlereagh, Austrian foreign minister Prince Metternich, and the Tsar of Russia Alexander I shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo and the peace of Europe. They also pleaded that they maintain the Concert of Europe.
Metternich also tried to undermine the Russian foreign minister, Ioannis Kapodistrias, who was of Greek origin. Kapodistrias demanded that Alexander declare war on the Ottomans in order to liberate Greece and increase the greatness of Russia. Metternich persuaded Alexander that Kapodistrias was in league with the Italian Carbonari (an Italian revolutionary group), leading Alexander to disavow him. As a result of the Russian reaction to Alexander Ypsilantis, Kapodistrias resigned as foreign minister and moved to Switzerland.
Nevertheless, Alexander's position was ambivalent, since he regarded himself as the protector of the Orthodox Church, and his subjects were deeply moved by the hanging of the Patriarch. These factors explain why, after denouncing the Greek Revolution, Alexander dispatched an ultimatum to Constantinople on 27 July 1821, after the Greek massacres in the city and the hanging of the Patriarch.
However, the danger of war passed temporarily, after Metternich and Castlereagh persuaded the Sultan to make some concessions to the Tsar. On 14 December 1822, the Holy Alliance denounced the Greek Revolution, considering it audacious.
Change of stance
In August 1822, George Canning was appointed by the British government as Foreign Secretary, succeeding Castlereagh. Canning was influenced by the mounting popular agitation against the Ottomans, and believed that a settlement could no longer be postponed. He also feared that Russia might undertake unilateral action against the Ottoman Empire.
In March 1823, Canning declared that "when a whole nation revolts against its conqueror, the nation cannot be considered as piratical but as a nation in a state of war". In February 1823 he notified the Ottoman Empire that Britain would maintain friendly relations with the Turks only under the condition that the latter respected the Christian subjects of the Empire. The Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, which were a British colony, was ordered to consider the Greeks in a state of war and give them the right to cut off certain areas from which the Turks could get provisions.
These measures led to the increase of British influence. This influence was reinforced by the issuing of two loans that the Greeks managed to conclude with British fund-holders in 1824 and 1825. These loans, which, in effect, made the City of London the financier of the revolution, inspired the creation of the "British" political party in Greece, whose opinion was that the revolution could only end in success with the help of Britain. At the same time, parties affiliated to Russia and France made their appearance. These parties would later strive for power during king Otto's reign.
When Tsar Nicholas I succeeded Alexander in December 1825, Canning decided to act immediately: he sent the Duke of Wellington to Russia, and the outcome was the Protocol of St Petersburg of 4 April 1826. According to the protocol, the two powers agreed to mediate between the Ottomans and the Greeks on the basis of complete autonomy of Greece under Turkish sovereignty. The Anglo-Russian protocol that Wellington negotiated with Nicholas in St. Petersburg attracted much scorn from Metternich, who was consistently the most pro-Ottoman and anti-Greek European statesmen. Metternich dismissively wrote, "If the Irish were to revolt against the British Crown, and the King of France were to offer to mediate," leading him to ask: "Is England then ready to regard as a Power equal to rights to that of the [British] King the first Irish Club which declares itself the Insurgent Government of Ireland? To regard as justified the French Power which would accept the office of mediator, by reason of the sole fact that the invitation had been addressed to it by the Irish Government?...Whither does this absurdity not lead us?". Prussia, whose king Frederich Wilhelm was close to Metternich, chose to follow the Austrian lead. Before he met with Wellington, the Tsar had already sent an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding that the principalities be evacuated immediately, and that plenipotentiaries be sent to Russia to settle outstanding issues. The Sultan agreed to send the plenipotentiaries, and on 7 October 1826 signed the Akkerman Convention, in which Russian demands concerning Serbia and the principalities were accepted.
The Greeks formally applied for the mediation provided in the Petersburg Protocol, while the Turks and the Egyptians showed no willingness to stop fighting. France, which initially backed its client Muhammad Ali the Great with weapons and officers to train his army, changed its stance, partly because of the pro-Greek feelings of the French people, and partly because King Charles X saw the offer to impose mediation as a way of assuring French influence in Greece. Since Britain and Russia were going ahead with their plans to impose mediation with or without France, if the French declined the offer to impose mediation, Greece would be in the Anglo-Russian sphere of influence, while if the French did take part, then Greece would also be in the French sphere of influence. Canning therefore prepared for action by negotiating the Treaty of London (6 July 1827) with France and Russia. This provided that the Allies should again offer negotiations, and if the Sultan rejected it, they would exert all the means which circumstances would allow to force the cessation of hostilities. Meanwhile, news reached Greece in late July 1827 that Muhammad Ali's new fleet was completed in Alexandria and sailing towards Navarino to join the rest of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. The aim of this fleet was to attack Hydra and knock the island's fleet out of the war. On 29 August, the Porte formally rejected the Treaty of London's stipulations, and, subsequently, the commanders-in-chief of the British and French Mediterranean fleets, Admiral Edward Codrington and Admiral Henri de Rigny, sailed into the Gulf of Argos and requested to meet with Greek representatives on board .
Battle of Navarino (1827)
After the Greek delegation, led by Mavrocordatos, accepted the terms of the treaty, the Allies prepared to insist upon the armistice, and their fleets were instructed to intercept supplies destined for Ibrahim's forces. When Muhammad Ali's fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria and joined other Ottoman/Egyptian units at Navarino on 8 September, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on 12 September. On 13 October, Codrington was joined, off Navarino, by his allied support, a French squadron under De Rigny and a Russian squadron under Login Geiden.
Upon their arrival at Navarino, Codgrinton and de Rigny tried to negotiate with Ibrahim, but Ibrahim insisted that by the Sultan's order he must destroy Hydra. Codrington responded by saying that if Ibrahim's fleets attempted to go anywhere but home, he would have to destroy them. Ibrahim agreed to write to the Sultan to see if he would change his orders, but he also complained about the Greeks being able to continue their attacks. Codrington promised that he would stop the Greeks and Philhellenes from attacking the Turks and Egyptians. After doing this, he disbanded most of his fleet, which returned to Malta, while the French went to the Aegean.
However, when Frank Hastings, a Philhellene, destroyed a Turkish naval squadron during a raid off Itea, Ibrahim sent a detachment of his fleet out of Navarino in order to defeat Hastings. Codrington had not heard of Hastings's actions and thought that Ibrahim was breaking his agreement. Codrington intercepted the force and made them retreat and did so again on the following day when Ibrahim led the fleet in person. Codrington assembled his fleet once more, with the British returning from Malta and the French from the Aegean. They were also joined by the Russian contingent led by Count Login Geiden. Ibrahim now began a campaign to annihilate the Greeks of the Peloponnese as he thought the Allies had reneged on their agreement.
On 20 October 1827, as the weather got worse, the British, Russian and French fleets entered the Bay of Navarino in peaceful formation to shelter themselves and to make sure that the Egyptian-Turkish fleet did not slip off and attack Hydra. When a British frigate sent a boat to request the Egyptians to move their fire ships, the officer on board was shot by the Egyptians. The frigate responded with musket fire in retaliation and an Egyptian ship fired a cannon shot at the French flagship, the Sirene, which returned fire. A full engagement was begun which ended in a complete victory for the Allies and in the annihilation of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. Of the 89 Egyptian-Turkish ships that took part in the battle, only 14 made it back to Alexandria and their dead amounted to over 8,000. The Allies did not lose a ship and suffered only 181 deaths. The Porte demanded compensation from the Allies for the ships, but his demand was refused on the grounds that the Turks had acted as the aggressors. The three countries' ambassadors also left Constantinople.
In Britain, the battle received a mixed reception. The British public, many of them Philhellenes, were overjoyed at the outcome of the battle which all but confirmed the independence of Greece. But in Whitehall, senior naval and diplomatic echelons were appalled by the outcome of his campaign. It was considered that Codrington had grossly exceeded his instructions by provoking a showdown with the Ottoman fleet, and that his actions had gravely compromised the Ottoman ability to resist Russian encroachment. At a social event, King George IV was reported as referring to the battle as "this untoward event". In France, the news of the battle was greeted with great enthusiasm and the government had an unexpected surge in popularity. Russia formally took the opportunity to declare war on the Turks (April 1828).
In October 1828, the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government under Kapodistrias. Kapodistrias took advantage of the Russo-Turkish war and sent troops of the reorganised Hellenic Army to Central Greece. They advanced to seize as much territory as possible, including Athens and Thebes, before the Western powers imposed a ceasefire. These Greek victories were proved decisive for the including of more territories in the future State. As far as the Peloponnese was concerned, Britain and Russia accepted the offer of France to send an army to expel Ibrahim's forces. Nicolas Joseph Maison, who was given command of a French expeditionary Corps of 15,000 men, landed on 30 August 1828 at Petalidi and helped the Greeks evacuate the Peloponnese from all the hostile troops by 30 October. Maison thus implemented the convention Codrington had negotiated and signed in Alexandria with Muhammad Ali, which provided for the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese. The French troops, whose military engineers also helped rebuild the Peloponnese, were accompanied by seventeen distinguished scientists of the scientific expedition of Morea (botany, zoology, geology, geography, archaeology, architecture and sculpture), whose work was of major importance for the building of the new independent State. The French troops definitely left Greece after five years, in 1833.
The final major engagement of the war was the Battle of Petra, which occurred north of Attica. Greek forces under Demetrius Ypsilantis, for the first time trained to fight as a regular European army rather than as guerrilla bands, advanced against Aslan Bey's forces and defeated them. The Turks surrendered all lands from Livadeia to the Spercheios River in exchange for safe passage out of Central Greece. As George Finlay stresses: "Thus Prince Demetrios Ypsilantis had the honor of terminating the war which his brother had commenced on the banks of the Pruth."
From autonomy to independence
In September 1828, the Conference of Poros opened to discuss what should be the borders of Greece. On 21 December 1828, the ambassadors of Britain, Russia, and France met on the island of Poros and prepared a protocol, which provided for the creation of an autonomous state ruled by a monarch, whose authority should be confirmed by a firman of the Sultan. The proposed borderline ran from Arta to Volos, and, despite Kapodistrias' efforts, the new state would include only the islands of the Cyclades, the Sporades, Samos, and maybe Crete. The Sublime Porte, which had rejected the call for an armistice in 1827, now rejected the conclusions of the Poros conference, with the Sultan Mahmud II saying he would never grant Greece independence, and the war would go on until he reconquered all of Greece. Based on the Protocol of Poros, the London Conference agreed on the protocol of 22 March 1829, which accepted most of the ambassadors' proposals but drew the borders farther south than the initial proposal and did not include Samos and Crete in the new state.
Under pressure from Russia, the Porte finally agreed on the terms of the Treaty of London of 6 July 1827 and of the Protocol of 22 March 1829. Soon afterward, Britain and France conceived the idea of an independent Greek state, trying to limit the influence of Russia on the new state. Russia disliked the idea but could not reject it, and consequently the three powers finally agreed to create an independent Greek state under their joint protection, concluding the protocols of 3 February 1830.
By one of the protocols, the Greek throne was initially offered to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and the future King of Belgium. Discouraged by the gloomy picture painted by Kapodistrias, and unsatisfied with the Aspropotamos-Zitouni borderline, which replaced the more favorable line running from Arta to Volos considered by the Great Powers earlier, he refused. Negotiations temporarily stalled after Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831 in Nafplion by the Mavromichalis clan, after having demanded that they unconditionally submit to his authority. When they refused, Kapodistrias put Petrobey in jail, sparking vows of vengeance from his clan.
The withdrawal of Leopold as a candidate for the throne of Greece and the July Revolution in France further delayed the final settlement of the new kingdom's frontiers until a new government was formed in Britain. Lord Palmerston, who took over as British Foreign Secretary, agreed to the Arta–Volos borderline. However, the secret note on Crete, which the Bavarian plenipotentiary communicated to Britain, France and Russia, bore no fruit.
In May 1832, Palmerston convened the London Conference. The three Great Powers, Britain, France and Russia, offered the throne to the Bavarian prince, Otto of Wittelsbach; meanwhile, the Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion had approved the choice of Otto, and passed the Constitution of 1832 (which would come to be known as the "Hegemonic Constitution"). As co-guarantors of the monarchy, the Great Powers also agreed to guarantee a loan of 60 million francs to the new king, empowering their ambassadors in the Ottoman capital to secure the end of the war. Under the protocol signed on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting powers, Greece was defined as a "monarchical and independent state" but was to pay an indemnity to the Porte. The protocol outlined the way in which the Regency was to be managed until Otto reached his majority, while also concluding the second Greek loan for a sum of £2.4 million.
On 21 July 1832, British Ambassador to the Sublime Porte Sir Stratford Canning and the other representatives of the Great Powers signed the Treaty of Constantinople, which defined the boundaries of the new Greek Kingdom at the Arta–Volos line. The borders of the kingdom were reiterated in the London Protocol of 30 August 1832, also signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the terms of the Constantinople arrangement.
Massacres
Almost as soon as the revolution began, there were large scale massacres of civilians by both Greek revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities. Greek revolutionaries massacred Jews, Muslims, and Christians suspected of Ottoman sympathies alike, mainly in the Peloponnese and Attica where Greek forces were dominant. The Turks massacred Greeks identified with the revolution, especially in Anatolia, Crete, Constantinople, Cyprus, Macedonia and the Aegean islands. They also massacred unarmed Greeks in places which did not revolt, as in Smyrna and Constantinople.
Some of the more infamous atrocities include the Chios Massacre, the Constantinople Massacre, the Destruction of Psara, Massacre of Samothrace (1821), Kasos Massacre, Naousa massacre, Third siege of Missolonghi, the massacres following the Tripolitsa Massacre, and the Navarino Massacre. There is debate among scholars over whether the massacres committed by the Greeks should be regarded as a response to prior events (such as the massacre of the Greeks of Tripoli, after the failed Orlov Revolt of 1770 and the destruction of the Sacred Band) or as separate atrocities, which started simultaneously with the outbreak of the revolt.
During the war, tens of thousands of Greek civilians were killed, left to die or taken into slavery. Most of the Greeks in the Greek quarter of Constantinople were massacred. A large number of Christian clergymen were also killed, including the Ecumenical Patriarch Gregory V.
Sometimes marked as allies of the Turks in the Peloponnese, Jewish settlements were also massacred by Greek revolutionaries; Steve Bowman argues that the tragedy may have been more a side-effect of the butchering of the Turks of Tripolis, the last Ottoman stronghold in the South, where the Jews had taken refuge from the fighting, than a specific action against Jews as such. Many Jews around Greece and throughout Europe were supporters of the Greek revolt, using their resources to loan substantial amounts to the newly formed Greek government. In turn, the success of the Greek Revolution was to stimulate the incipient stirrings of Jewish nationalism, later called Zionism.
Aftermath
The consequences of the Greek revolution were somewhat ambiguous in the immediate aftermath. An independent Greek state had been established, but with Britain, Russia and France having significant influence in Greek politics, an imported Bavarian dynast as ruler, and a mercenary army. The country had been ravaged by ten years of fighting and was full of displaced refugees and empty Turkish estates, necessitating a series of land reforms over several decades.
The population of the new state numbered 800,000, representing less than one-third of the 2.5 million Greek inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. During a great part of the next century, the Greek state sought the liberation of the "unredeemed" Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Megali Idea, i.e., the goal of uniting all Greeks in one country.
As a people, the Greeks no longer provided the princes for the Danubian Principalities, and were regarded within the Ottoman Empire, especially by the Muslim population, as traitors. Phanariotes, who had until then held high office within the Ottoman Empire, were thenceforth regarded as suspect, and lost their special, privileged status. In Constantinople and the rest of the Ottoman Empire where Greek banking and merchant presence had been dominant, Armenians mostly replaced Greeks in banking, and Jewish merchants gained importance.
In the long-term historical perspective, this marked a seminal event in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, despite the small size and the impoverishment of the new Greek state. For the first time, a Christian subject people had achieved independence from Ottoman rule and established a fully independent state, recognized by Europe. Whereas previously, only large nations (such as the Prussians or Austrians) were judged worthy of national self-determination by the Great Powers of Europe, the Greek Revolt legitimized the concept of small, ethnically-based nation-states, and emboldened nationalist movements among other subject peoples of the Ottoman Empire. The Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Romanians and Armenians all subsequently fought for and won their independence.
Shortly after the war ended, the people of the Russian-dependent Poland, encouraged by the Greek victory, started the November Uprising, hoping to regain their independence. The uprising, however, failed, and Polish independence had to wait until 1918 at Versailles. The newly established Greek state would become a catalyst for further expansion and, over the course of a century, parts of Macedonia, Crete, Epirus, many Aegean Islands, the Ionian Islands and other Greek-speaking territories would unite with the new Greek state. The Greek rebels won the sympathy of even the conservative powers of Europe.
Revolutionary flags
Legacy
Music inspired by the Greek War of Independence
In 1971, the Municipality of Thessaloniki commissioned a symphonic work for the 150th anniversary of the Greek Revolution. Nicolas Astrinidis' choral Symphony "1821" was premiered on 27 October 1971 at the 6th "Demetria".
After nearly four hundred years of foreign rule, Greeks often used music and poetry as a means of empowerment in the war. Rigas Feraios (1757 – 1798) was a very prominent poet and intellectual of the Greek independence movement. Many of his poems urged the people of Greece to leave the cities, head to the mountains where they would have more freedom, and unite to gain their independence.
Dionysios Solomos (1798 – 1857) was another national poet inspired by the Greek War of Independence. Solomos wrote the Hymn to Liberty, now the national anthem, in 1823, two years after the Greeks started the war against the Ottoman Empire. The poem itself is 158 stanzas, but officially only the first two are the anthem. It is the national anthem not only of Greece but also of Cyprus, which adopted it in 1966.
To this day, many songs are sung by Greeks worldwide on 25 March to celebrate their liberation and showcase their respect for the lives that were lost during the four hundred years of Ottoman rule.
See also
Greek National Awakening
History of Greece
Phoenix (currency)
Propylaea (Munich)
Morea Expedition (1828–1833)
Evzones
Notes
Citations
Sources
Απομνημονεύματα Μακρυγιάννη - εκδοση Γιάννη Βλαχογιάννη 1908.
See the sources listed and the discussion of the revolution in Gallant, Thomas W. (2015). The Edinburgh History of the Greeks: The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913. The Long Nineteenth Century (Vol. 9). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. .
Secondary sources
Dakin, Douglas. "The Origins of the Greek Revolution of 1821." History 37.131 (1952): 228–235. online
Marriott, J. A. R. The Eastern Question An Historical Study In European Diplomacy (1940) pp 193–225. online
Michalopoulos, Dimitris, America, Russia and the Birth of Modern Greece, Washington-London: Academica Press, 2020,
Miller, Marion S. "A 'Liberal International'? Perspectives on Comparative Approaches to the Revolutions in Spain, Italy, and Greece in the 1820s." Mediterranean Studies 2 (1990): 61–67. online
Papageorgiou, Stephanos P. "The First Year of Freedom". pp. 53–72.
Theodoridis, Georgios K. "A Modern State". pp. 125–142.
Tzakis, Dionysis "The Military Events (1822–1824)". pp. 73–102.
Phillips, W. Alison. The war of Greek independence, 1821 to 1833'' (1897) online
Zelepos, Ioannis (2018), Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 17, 2021 (pdf).
Further reading
External links
Greek War of Independence
The Question of Greek Independence: A Study of British Policy in the Near East, 1821–1833
1820s conflicts
1820s in Greece
1820s in the Ottoman Empire
19th-century rebellions
19th-century revolutions
March observances
Greek culture
Greek society
Wars involving Greece
Wars involving the Ottoman Empire
Wars involving France
Wars involving Russia
Wars involving the United Kingdom
History of Ayvalık
Mahmud II
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] |
200989
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkpoint%20Charlie
|
Checkpoint Charlie
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Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991), as named by the Western Allies.
East German leader Walter Ulbricht agitated and maneuvered to get the Soviet Union's permission to construct the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop emigration and defection westward through the Border system, preventing escape across the city sector border from East Berlin into West Berlin. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West. Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. On June 26, 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited Checkpoint Charlie and looked from a platform onto the Berlin Wall and into East Berlin.
After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany, the building at Checkpoint Charlie became a tourist attraction. It is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin.
Background
Emigration restrictions, the Inner German border and Berlin
By the early 1950s, the Soviet method of restricting emigration was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany. However, in occupied Germany, until 1952, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones remained easily crossed in most places. Subsequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed and a barbed-wire fence erected.
Even after closing of the inner German border officially in 1952, the city sector border in between East Berlin and West Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West. Hence the Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape.
The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. The emigrants tended to be young and well educated. The loss was disproportionately great among professionals — engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers.
Berlin Wall constructed
The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the resecuring of the Soviet imperial frontier was imperative. Between 1949 and 1961, over 2½ million East Germans fled to the West. The numbers increased during the three years before the Berlin Wall was erected, with 144,000 in 1959, 199,000 in 1960 and 207,000 in the first seven months of 1961 alone. The East German economy suffered accordingly.
On 13 August 1961, a barbed-wire barrier that would become the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin was erected by the East Germans. Two days later, police and army engineers began to construct a more permanent concrete wall. Along with the wall, the 830-mile (1336 km) zonal border became 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide on its East German side in some parts of Germany with a tall steel-mesh fence running along a "death strip" bordered by mines, as well as channels of ploughed earth, to slow escapees and more easily reveal their footprints.
Checkpoint
Checkpoint Charlie was a crossing point in the Berlin Wall located at the junction of with and (which for older historical reasons coincidentally means 'Wall Street'). It is in the Friedrichstadt neighborhood. Checkpoint Charlie was designated as the single crossing point (on foot or by car) for foreigners and members of the Allied forces. (Members of the Allied forces were not allowed to use the other sector crossing point designated for use by foreigners, the Friedrichstraße railway station).
The name Charlie came from the letter C in the NATO phonetic alphabet; similarly for other Allied checkpoints on the Autobahn from the West: Checkpoint Alpha at and its counterpart Checkpoint Bravo at Dreilinden, Wannsee in the south-west corner of Berlin. The Soviets simply called it the Crossing Point (, ). The East Germans referred officially to Checkpoint Charlie as the ("Border Crossing Point") .
As the most visible Berlin Wall checkpoint, Checkpoint Charlie was featured in movies and books. A famous cafe and viewing place for Allied officials, armed forces and visitors alike, ("Eagle Café"), was situated right on the checkpoint.
The development of the infrastructure around the checkpoint was largely asymmetrical, reflecting the contrary priorities of East German and Western border authorities. During its 28-year active life, the infrastructure on the Eastern side was expanded to include not only the wall, watchtower and zig-zag barriers, but a multi-lane shed where cars and their occupants were checked. However, the Allied authority never erected any permanent buildings. A wooden shed was replaced during the 1980s by a larger metal structure, now displayed at the Allied Museum in western Berlin. Their reasoning was that they did not consider the inner Berlin sector boundary an international border and did not treat it as such.
Related incidents
Stand-off between Soviet and U.S. tanks in October 1961
Soon after the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961, a stand-off occurred between US and Soviet tanks on either side of Checkpoint Charlie. It began on 22 October as a dispute over whether East German border guards were authorized to examine the travel documents of a US diplomat based in West Berlin named Allan Lightner heading to East Berlin to watch an opera show there, since according to the agreement between all four Allied powers occupying Germany, there was to be free movement for Allied forces in Berlin and that no German military forces from either West Germany or East Germany were to be based in the city, and moreover the Western Allies did not (initially) recognise the East German state and its right to remain in its self-declared capital of East Berlin. Instead, Allied forces only recognised the authority of the Soviets over East Berlin rather than their East German allies. By 27 October, ten Soviet and an equal number of American tanks stood 100 yards apart on either side of the checkpoint. This stand-off ended peacefully on 28 October following a US-Soviet understanding to withdraw tanks and reduce tensions. Discussions between US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and KGB spy Georgi Bolshakov played a vital role in realizing this tacit agreement.
Early escapes
The Berlin Wall was erected with great speed by the East German government in 1961, but there were initially many means of escape that had not been anticipated. For example, Checkpoint Charlie was initially blocked only by a gate, and a citizen of the GDR (East Germany) smashed a car through it to escape, so a strong pole was erected. Another escapee approached the barrier in a convertible, the windscreen removed prior to the event, and slipped under the barrier. This was repeated two weeks later, so the East Germans duly lowered the barrier and added uprights.
Death of Peter Fechter
On 17 August 1962, a teenaged East German, Peter Fechter, was shot in the pelvis by East German guards while trying to escape from East Berlin. His body lay tangled in a barbed wire fence as he bled to death in full view of the world's media. He could not be rescued from West Berlin because he was a few metres inside the Soviet sector. East German border guards were reluctant to approach him for fear of provoking Western soldiers, one of whom had shot an East German border guard just days earlier. More than an hour later, Fechter's body was removed by the East German guards. A spontaneous demonstration formed on the American side of the checkpoint, protesting against the action of the East and the inaction of the West.
A few days later, a crowd threw stones at Soviet buses driving towards the Soviet War Memorial, located in the Tiergarten in the British sector; the Soviets tried to escort the buses with armoured personnel carriers (APCs). Thereafter, the Soviets were only allowed to cross via the Sandkrug Bridge crossing (which was the nearest to Tiergarten) and were prohibited from bringing APCs. Western units were deployed in the middle of the night in early September with live armaments and vehicles, in order to enforce the ban.
Today: Tourist and memorial site
Although the wall was opened in November 1989 and the checkpoint booth removed on 22 June 1990, the checkpoint remained an official crossing for foreigners and diplomats until German reunification in October 1990.
Checkpoint Charlie has since become one of Berlin's primary tourist attractions, where some original remnants of the border crossing blend with reconstructed parts, memorial and tourist facilities.
The guard house on the American side was removed in 1990; it is now on display in the open-air museum of the Allied Museum in Berlin-Zehlendorf. A copy of the guard house and the sign that once marked the border crossing was reconstructed later on roughly the same site. It resembles the first guard house erected during 1961, behind a sandbag barrier toward the border. Over the years this was replaced several times by guard houses of different sizes and layouts (see photographs). The one removed in 1990 was considerably larger than the first one and did not have sandbags. Tourists used to be able to have their photographs taken for a fee with actors dressed as allied military policemen standing in front of the guard house but Berlin authorities banned the practice in November 2019 stating the actors had been exploiting tourists by demanding money for photos at the attraction.
The course of the former wall and border is now marked in the street with a line of cobblestones. An open-air exhibit was opened during the summer of 2006. Gallery walls along Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße give information about escape attempts, how the checkpoint was expanded, and its significance during the Cold War, in particular the confrontation of Soviet and American tanks in 1961. Also an overview of other important memorial sites and museums about the division of Germany and the wall is presented.
Developers demolished the East German checkpoint watchtower in 2000, to make way for offices and shops. The watchtower was the last surviving major original Checkpoint Charlie structure. The city tried to save the tower but failed, as it was not classified as a historic landmark. Yet, that development project was never realised. To this day, the area between Zimmerstraße and Mauerstraße/Schützenstraße (the East German side of the border crossing) remains vacant, providing space for a number of temporary tourist and memorial uses. New plans since 2017 for a hotel on the site stirred a professional and political debate about appropriate development of the area. After the final listing of the site as a protected heritage area in 2018, plans were changed towards a more heritage-friendly approach.
BlackBox Cold War Exhibition
The “BlackBox Cold War” exhibition has illuminated the division of Germany and Berlin since 2012. The free open-air exhibit offers original Berlin Wall segments and information about the historic site. However, the indoor exhibit illustrates Berlin's contemporary history with 16 media stations, a movie theatre and original objects and documents (entrance fee required). It is run by the NGO Berliner Forum fuer Geschichte und Gegenwart e.V..
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
Near the location of the guard house is the Haus am Checkpoint Charlie. The "Mauermuseum - Museum Haus am Checkpoint Charlie" was opened on 14 June 1963 in the immediate vicinity of the Berlin Wall. It shows photographs and fragments related to the separation of Germany. The border fortifications and the "assistance of the protecting powers" are illustrated. In addition to photos and documentation of successful escape attempts, the exhibition also showcases escape devices including a hot-air balloon, escape cars, chair lifts, and a mini-submarine.
From October 2004 until July 2005, the Freedom Memorial, consisting of original wall segments and 1,067 commemorative crosses, stood on a leased site.
The museum is operated by the Arbeitsgemeinschaft 13. August e. V., a registered association founded by Dr. Rainer Hildebrandt. The director is Alexandra Hildebrandt, the founder's widow. The museum is housed in part in the "House at Checkpoint Charlie" building by architect Peter Eisenman.
With 850,000 visitors in 2007, the Wall Museum is one of the most visited museums in Berlin and in Germany.
In popular culture
Checkpoint Charlie figures in numerous Cold War-era espionage and political novels and films. Some examples:
James Bond (played by Roger Moore) passed through Checkpoint Charlie in the film Octopussy (1983) from West to East.
Checkpoint Charlie is featured in the opening scene of the 1965 film The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (starring Richard Burton and Claire Bloom), based on the John le Carré novel of the same name.
In the feature film Bridge of Spies, imprisoned American student Frederic Pryor is released at Checkpoint Charlie as part of a deal to trade Pryor and U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers for convicted Soviet spy Rudolf Abel. Pryor's release happens offscreen while the trade of Powers for Abel takes place at the Glienicke Bridge.
It was depicted in the opening scene of the film The Man from U.N.C.L.E (2015).
The 1985 film Gotcha! includes a scene where the protagonist (Anthony Edwards) transits through Checkpoint Charlie into West Berlin.
References
Sources
Daum, Andreas, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, .
External links
Museum Haus am Checkpoint Charlie
Berlin Wall
1990 disestablishments in West Germany
Berlin border crossings
Allied occupation of Germany
Checkpoints
Cold War sites in Germany
Buildings and structures in Mitte
Buildings and structures in Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg
1961 establishments in East Germany
Rebuilt buildings and structures in Berlin
Tourist attractions in Berlin
1990 disestablishments in East Germany
1961 establishments in West Germany
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200992
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous%20serial%20communication
|
Asynchronous serial communication
|
Asynchronous serial communication is a form of serial communication in which the communicating endpoints' interfaces are not continuously synchronized by a common clock signal. Instead of a common synchronization signal, the data stream contains synchronization information in form of start and stop signals, before and after each unit of transmission, respectively. The start signal prepares the receiver for arrival of data and the stop signal resets its state to enable triggering of a new sequence.
A common kind of start-stop transmission is ASCII over RS-232, for example for use in teletypewriter operation.
Origin
Mechanical teleprinters using 5-bit codes (see Baudot code) typically used a stop period of 1.5 bit times. Very early electromechanical teletypewriters (pre-1930) could require 2 stop bits to allow mechanical impression without buffering. Hardware which does not support fractional stop bits can communicate with a device that uses 1.5 bit times if it is configured to send 2 stop bits when transmitting and requiring 1 stop bit when receiving.
The format is derived directly from the design of the teletypewriter, which was designed this way because the electromechanical technology of its day was not precise enough for synchronous operation: thus the systems needed to be re-synchronized at the start of each character. Having been re-synchronized, the technology of the day was good enough to preserve bit-sync for the remainder of the character. The stop bits gave the system time to recover before the next start bit. Early teleprinter systems used five data bits, typically with some variant of the Baudot code.
Very early experimental printing telegraph devices used only a start bit and required manual adjustment of the receiver mechanism speed to reliably decode characters. Automatic synchronization was required to keep the transmitting and receiving units "in step". This was finally achieved by Howard Krum, who patented the start-stop method of synchronization (, granted September 19, 1916, then , granted December 3, 1918). Shortly afterward a practical teleprinter was patented (, granted July 3, 1917).
Operation
Before signalling will work, the sender and receiver must agree on the signalling parameters:
Full or half-duplex operation
The number of bits per character -- currently almost always 8-bit characters, but historically some transmitters have used a five-bit character code, six-bit character code, or a 7-bit ASCII.
Endianness: the order in which the bits are sent
The speed or bits per second of the line (equal to the Baud rate when each symbol represents one bit). Some systems use automatic speed detection, also called automatic baud rate detection.
Whether to use or not use parity
Odd or even parity, if used
The number of stop bits sent must be chosen (the number sent must be at least what the receiver needs)
Mark and space symbols (current directions in early telegraphy, later voltage polarities in EIA RS-232 and so on, frequency-shift polarities in frequency-shift keying and so on)
Asynchronous start-stop signalling was widely used for dial-up modem access to time-sharing computers and BBS systems. These systems used either seven or eight data bits, transmitted least-significant bit first, in accordance with the ASCII standard.
Between computers, the most common configuration used was "8N1": eight-bit characters, with one start bit, one stop bit, and no parity bit. Thus 10 Baud times are used to send a single character, and so dividing the signalling bit-rate by ten results in the overall transmission speed in characters per second.
Asynchronous start-stop is the lower data-link layer used to connect computers to modems for many dial-up Internet access applications, using a second (encapsulating) data link framing protocol such as PPP to create packets made up out of asynchronous serial characters. The most common physical layer interface used is RS-232D. The performance loss relative to synchronous access is negligible, as most modern modems will use a private synchronous protocol to send the data between themselves, and the asynchronous links at each end are operated faster than this data link, with flow control being used to throttle the data rate to prevent overrun.
See also
Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling
Degree of start-stop distortion
Synchronous serial communication
Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART)
References
Further reading
Nelson, R. A. and Lovitt, K. M. History of Teletypewriter Development (October 1963), Teletype Corporation, retrieved April 14, 2005
Hobbs, Allan G. (1999) Five-unit codes, accessed 20 December 2007
Edward E. Kleinschmidt. Printing Telegraphy ... A New Era Begins, 1967, released Nov. 9, 2016 by Project Gutenberg.
External links
Synchronization
Data transmission
Digital electronics
Physical layer protocols
Broadcast engineering
|
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200995
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisterna%20di%20Latina
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Cisterna di Latina
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Cisterna di Latina is a town and comune in the province of Latina in Lazio, of central Italy. It was the scene of the Battle of Cisterna in January 1944.
The Garden of Ninfa is located in the commune's territory.
The town, then known as Tres Tabernae ("The Three Taverns") is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as one of the towns where Saint Paul stopped on his way to Rome.
History
At Finocchione, in the territory of Cisterna, traces of prehistoric human presence have been discovered. In historic times, the Volsci founded here their still unidentified centre called Ulubrae, although the lost city of Suessa Pometia could also have been located nearby. Ulubrae is mentioned by Horace, Pliny the Elder, Suetonius, Cicero and Juvenal, referring to the numerous patrician villas built here. According to Suetonius, Augustus lived here in his family villa until the age of eighteen.
A village, called Tres Tabernae, originated starting from 312 BC as a post station on the Via Appia, its name stemming from the presence of three taverns. The site is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as the place where St. Paul stopped during his journey to Rome, and was housed by the local Christian community. Around the 3rd century AD, the area was invaded by marshes, and the inhabitants of Ulubrae likely moved to Tres Tabernae, which grew in importance and became a Christian bishopric site with a Palaeo-Christian cathedral dedicated to St. Paul. In 307, emperor Flavius Severus was assassinated here by Heraclius, by order of rival usurper Maxentius. The barbarian invasions in Italy caused further expansions of the marshes, and Tres Tabernae declined until, in 592, pope Gregory I united its diocese to that of Velletri. Later in the high Middle Ages, Tres Tabernae was ravaged several times by the Saracens, until it was completely destroyed in 868.
The inhabitants moved to a small hill nearby, which is mentioned for the first time around 1000 AD as Terra di Cisterna, which, according to tradition, stemmed from Cisterna Neronis ("Nero's Cistern). An ancient cistern still exits today under the Palazzo Caetani at the top of the hill. Cisterna housed a Benedictine abbey dedicated to St. Eleutherius (later abandoned) and was a fief of the Counts of Tusculum, who ceded it to the Frangipani in 1146. The latter reinforced it with a line of walls and a rocca (castle). In 1159 Pope Alexander III fled here to escape emperor Frederick Barbarossa who, in retaliation, destroyed the borough, which was later rebuilt by the Frangipani. In 1328 it was again besieged and ravaged by emperor Louis IV.
In 1504 Pope Julius II assigned Cisterna to the Caetani. Their member Bonifacio Caetani renewed the city and, after demolishing it, rebuilt the castle as a patrician palace which still exists.
In the early 19th century, a land reclamation project for the area was launched by Pope Pius VI, but this was halted by the arrival of French troops in the course of the French Revolutionary Wars. Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen stopped here in 1840. The town, after a plebiscite, changed its name into Cisterna di Roma. A new reclamation project started under the Fascist Government in 1929, at a time in which swamps and marshes occupied much of the communal territory; this led to the creation of the nearby major center of Littoria (modern Latina); the town was re-christened Cisterna di Littoria as part of the newly created province of Latina.
During World War II, Cisterna was the site of a battle between the Germans and the Allies in 1944. 96% of the city's buildings was destroyed until the area was conquered by the Allies on March 25, 1944. The city was later rebuilt, in particular in the 1970s, after numerous industries were founded in the area with the support of the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno: Cisterna's inhabitants grew from some 7,000 in the 1940s to c. 30,000 in the 1980s. In the 1970s it became a major production center of kiwifruits. After the abolition of the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the industrial sector gradually lost importance and unemployement increased substantially in the territory.
Main sights
Gardens of Ninfa
Palazzo Caetani, built in 1560-1574 by cardinal Bonifazio Caetani under design of Francesco da Volterra, above the remains of the Frangipani castle. Damaged during World War II by allied bombings, it houses frescoes by Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta, Federico Zuccari and Taddeo Zuccari. A museum in the interior is dedicated to the horse and its shepherding in the area, with works by Aligi Sassu and others. The grottoes beneath it, traditionally the cisterns whence the city's name came though more likely ancient quarries of tuff and pozzolan later used as catacombs, are still partially unexplored.
Church of Santa Maria Assunta in Cielo
Convent of Convento di Sant'Antonio Abate, now abandoned. It also houses frescoes by Girolamo and by the Zuccari brothers. The cloister has frescoes with episodes of St. Francis' life.
Archaeological area of Tres Tabernae (closed)
Volscian archaeological area of Caprifico di Torrecchia, including a temple of Minerva
Natural monument of Tenuta di Torrecchia Vecchia, a private garden and residential area designed by Gae Aulenti and others
Twin towns – sister cities
Fort Smith, Arkansas, United States, since 1984
Grombalia, Tunisia, since 2003
References
External links
Official website
Cities and towns in Lazio
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201000
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland%20Strait
|
Northumberland Strait
|
The Northumberland Strait (French: détroit de Northumberland) is a strait in the southern part of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in eastern Canada. The strait is formed by Prince Edward Island and the gulf's eastern, southern, and western shores.
Boundaries
The western boundary of the strait is delineated by a line running between North Cape, Prince Edward Island and Point Escuminac, New Brunswick while the eastern boundary is delineated by a line running between East Point, Prince Edward Island and Inverness, Nova Scotia.
Hydrography
The Northumberland Strait varies in depth between 17 and 65 metres, with the deepest waters at either end. The tidal patterns are complex; the eastern end has the usual two tides per day, with a tidal range of 1.2 to 1.8 metres, while the western end effectively has only one tide per day.
The strait's shallow depths lend to warm water temperatures in summer months, with some areas reaching 25°C, or 77°F. Consequently, the strait is reportedly home to the warmest ocean water temperatures in Canada, and some of the warmest ocean water temperatures on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia.
There are many sandy beaches along both the northern and southern coasts of the strait. These beaches, found in New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, are very popular with tourists.
During the winter months between December and April, sea ice covers the entire strait and Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Geomorphology
While the western shores of Cape Breton Island and northeastern shores of the Nova Scotia peninsula are dominated by granite, sedimentary rocks along the central and western parts of the strait, as well as the entire south shore of Prince Edward Island, consist of sandstone, lending to beautiful sandy beaches with minimal coastal development. The largest island in the strait is Pictou Island.
Settlements
Major communities on the strait include the cities of Charlottetown and Summerside, Prince Edward Island as well as the towns of Souris, Prince Edward Island, Pictou, Nova Scotia, and Shediac, New Brunswick.
Transportation
Shipping
The Northumberland Strait is a minor shipping route, with ports such as Pugwash shipping salt, Summerside, Charlottetown, Georgetown and Souris shipping agricultural products and receiving petroleum and aggregate, and Pictou shipping forestry products and general cargo. Shipping has declined in recent decades with the decline of rail service to ports and the increased capacity of highways to larger ports outside of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which freezes in the winter.
Cruise ships regularly visit Charlottetown during summer and fall, and since 2012 a few smaller cruise ships have been visiting Pictou, NS.
Confederation Bridge
The narrowest part of the strait, the 13-kilometre (7–nautical mile) wide Abegweit Passage in the western part of the strait between Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island and Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick, is now spanned by the Confederation Bridge.
Ferries
The strait hosts three seasonal ferry services:
Northumberland Ferries Limited operates a passenger/vehicle service between Caribou, Nova Scotia and Wood Islands, Prince Edward Island.
A passenger-only ferry service operates from Caribou, Nova Scotia to Pictou Island.
Groupe CTMA operates a passenger/vehicle service between Souris, Prince Edward Island and Cap-aux-Meules, Quebec.
All three ferry services are located in the eastern end of the strait and operate during the ice-free months from May - December.
There was a year-round ferry service that operated in the central/western part of the strait across Abegweit Passage between Port Borden, Prince Edward Island and Cape Tormentine, New Brunswick. This service operated from October 1917 until May 1997. Owned by the Government of Canada, it was one of Canada's busiest ferry services and was operated by various federal Crown corporations (Canadian National Railways, CN Marine, Marine Atlantic). The ferry service was replaced by the Confederation Bridge when it opened on 31 May 1997.
Undersea cables
Electrical
Maritime Electric supplies electricity to customers in Prince Edward Island. Although the utility does have some electrical generation facilities, since the mid-1970s the majority of Prince Edward Island's electricity has been purchased from NB Power and supplied via an interprovincial electrical interconnection. This interconnection consisted of two 138 kilovolt oil-filled submarine transmission cables installed 1975-78 under the Northumberland Strait at the western end of the Abegweit Passage between Murray Corner, New Brunswick and Fernwood, Prince Edward Island. Since the Northumberland Strait freezes in winter, the cables were designed to be protected from ice scouring and were copied from a Swedish design that was originally used to supply the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. They were replaced in 2017 by two new cables providing a capacity of 300 MW.
Pictou Island, in Nova Scotia receives no electricity from that province's utility, Nova Scotia Power. Residents must generate their own electricity from off-grid sources.
Telecommunications
Bell Aliant has two fibre optic telecommunications cables spanning Northumberland Strait to serve Prince Edward Island. The first is a submarine cable running from Caribou, Nova Scotia to Wood Islands, Prince Edward Island. The other runs through the Confederation Bridge; this cable replaced a submarine cable that used to run from Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island to Cape Tormentine, New Brunswick.
Eastlink has a fibre optic telecommunications cable connecting Gaspereau, Prince Edward Island with Port Hood, Nova Scotia.
Swim crossings
Swim-related details about crossings, tides, currents, marine life, and navigation can be found at OpenWaterPedia's Northumberland Strait page.
There have been several documented unassisted swim crossings of the strait, although there is no official body to verify these claims. All documented single and double crossings except one have been at the western end of the strait across the Abegweit Passage.
The first documented single crossing of Abegweit Passage (approximately ) with assistance was made by Evelyn Henry of Keppoch, PEI on July 15, 1951, when she swam from Cape Tormentine, NB to Borden, PEI in 8 hours, 47 minutes.
There have been two documented single-day double crossings of Abegweit Passage (approximately ) with assistance to date:
Jennifer Alexander of Halifax, NS, swam a double crossing on July 26, 2007, in 19 hours, 17 minutes from Cape Jourimain, NB to Borden, PEI.
Kristin Roe of Halifax, NS, swam a double crossing on July 26, 2008, in 15 hours, 40 minutes from Cape Jourimain, NB to Borden, PEI.
The first, and to date only, documented single crossing with assistance across the eastern end of the strait (approximately was made by Jill Leon of Charlottetown, PEI on July 31, 2013, when she swam from Caribou, NS to Wood Islands, PEI in 9 hours, 48 minutes.
Cultural significance
The strait is famous in folklore circles for regular sightings of the Ghost Ship of Northumberland Strait, a flaming vessel which appears in the middle of the strait. The strait is also notable for the ice boats, small oared boats which made regular dangerous crossings of the strait in winter carrying mail and passengers before the era of ice breaking ferries.
References
External links
Natural History of Nova Scotia - Northumberland Strait (Nova Scotia Museum)
DFO Gulf Region Working Group on the Northumberland Strait
CBC.CA 2007-02-21 "Northumberland Strait ecosystem in trouble"
Northumberland Strait Ecosystem Overview and Assessment Report
Bodies of water of Prince Edward Island
Bodies of water of New Brunswick
Straits of Nova Scotia
Straits of Canada
Borders of New Brunswick
Borders of Nova Scotia
Borders of Prince Edward Island
|
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201002
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetostriction
|
Magnetostriction
|
Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a property of magnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive strain until reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when observing a sample of iron.
This effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores.
The effect is also responsible for the low-pitched humming sound that can be heard coming from transformers, where oscillating AC currents produce a changing magnetic field.
Explanation
Internally, ferromagnetic materials have a structure that is divided into domains, each of which is a region of uniform magnetization. When a magnetic field is applied, the boundaries between the domains shift and the domains rotate; both of these effects cause a change in the material's dimensions. The reason that a change in the magnetic domains of a material results in a change in the material's dimensions is a consequence of magnetocrystalline anisotropy; it takes more energy to magnetize a crystalline material in one direction than in another. If a magnetic field is applied to the material at an angle to an easy axis of magnetization, the material will tend to rearrange its structure so that an easy axis is aligned with the field to minimize the free energy of the system. Since different crystal directions are associated with different lengths, this effect induces a strain in the material.
The reciprocal effect, the change of the magnetic susceptibility (response to an applied field) of a material when subjected to a mechanical stress, is called the Villari effect. Two other effects are related to magnetostriction: the Matteucci effect is the creation of a helical anisotropy of the susceptibility of a magnetostrictive material when subjected to a torque and the Wiedemann effect is the twisting of these materials when a helical magnetic field is applied to them.
The Villari reversal is the change in sign of the magnetostriction of iron from positive to negative when exposed to magnetic fields of approximately 40 kA/m.
On magnetization, a magnetic material undergoes changes in volume which are small: of the order 10−6.
Magnetostrictive hysteresis loop
Like flux density, the magnetostriction also exhibits hysteresis versus the strength of the magnetizing field. The shape of this hysteresis loop (called "dragonfly loop") can be reproduced using the Jiles-Atherton model.
Magnetostrictive materials
Magnetostrictive materials can convert magnetic energy into kinetic energy, or the reverse, and are used to build actuators and sensors. The property can be quantified by the magnetostrictive coefficient, λ, which may be positive or negative and is defined as the fractional change in length as the magnetization of the material increases from zero to the saturation value. The effect is responsible for the familiar "electric hum" () which can be heard near transformers and high power electrical devices.
Cobalt exhibits the largest room-temperature magnetostriction of a pure element at 60 microstrains. Among alloys, the highest known magnetostriction is exhibited by Terfenol-D, (Ter for terbium, Fe for iron, NOL for Naval Ordnance Laboratory, and D for dysprosium). Terfenol-D, , exhibits about 2,000 microstrains in a field of 160 kA/m (2 kOe) at room temperature and is the most commonly used engineering magnetostrictive material. Galfenol, , and Alfer, , are newer alloys that exhibit 200-400 microstrains at lower applied fields (~200 Oe) and have enhanced mechanical properties from the brittle Terfenol-D. Both of these alloys have <100> easy axes for magnetostriction and demonstrate sufficient ductility for sensor and actuator applications.
Another very common magnetostrictive composite is the amorphous alloy with its trade name Metglas 2605SC. Favourable properties of this material are its high saturation-magnetostriction constant, λ, of about 20 microstrains and more, coupled with a low magnetic-anisotropy field strength, HA, of less than 1 kA/m (to reach magnetic saturation). Metglas 2605SC also exhibits a very strong ΔE-effect with reductions in the effective Young's modulus up to about 80% in bulk. This helps build energy-efficient magnetic MEMS.
Cobalt ferrite, (CoO·Fe2O3), is also mainly used for its magnetostrictive applications like sensors and actuators, thanks to its high saturation magnetostriction (~200 parts per million). In the absence of rare-earth elements, it is a good substitute for Terfenol-D. Moreover, its magnetostrictive properties can be tuned by inducing a magnetic uniaxial anisotropy. This can be done by magnetic annealing, magnetic field assisted compaction, or reaction under uniaxial pressure. This last solution has the advantage of being ultrafast (20 min), thanks to the use of spark plasma sintering.
In early sonar transducers during World War II, nickel was used as a magnetostrictive material. To alleviate the shortage of nickel, the Japanese navy used an iron-aluminium alloy from the Alperm family.
Mechanical behaviors of magnetostrictive alloys
Effect of microstructure on elastic strain
Single crystal alloys exhibit superior microstrain, but are vulnerable to yielding due to the anisotropic mechanical properties of most metals. It has been observed that for polycrystalline alloys with a high area coverage of preferential grains for microstrain, the mechanical properties (ductility) of magnetostrictive alloys can be significantly improved. Targeted metallurgical processing steps promote abnormal grain growth of {011} grains in galfenol and alfenol thin sheets, which contain two easy axes for magnetic domain alignment during magnetostriction. This can be accomplished by adding particles such as boride species and niobium carbide () during initial chill casting of the ingot.
For a polycrystalline alloy, an established formula for the magnetostriction, λ, from known directional microstrain measurements is:
λs = 1/5(2λ100+3λ111)
During subsequent hot rolling and recrystallization steps, particle strengthening occurs in which the particles introduce a “pinning” force at grain boundaries that hinders normal (stochastic) grain growth in an annealing step assisted by a atmosphere. Thus, single-crystal-like texture (~90% {011} grain coverage) is attainable, reducing the interference with magnetic domain alignment and increasing microstrain attainable for polycrystalline alloys as measured by semiconducting strain gauges. These surface textures can be visualized using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) or related diffraction techniques.
Compressive stress to induce domain alignment
For actuator applications, maximum rotation of magnetic moments leads to the highest possible magnetostriction output. This can be achieved by processing techniques such as stress annealing and field annealing. However, mechanical pre-stresses can also be applied to thin sheets to induce alignment perpendicular to actuation as long as the stress is below the buckling limit. For example, it has been demonstrated that applied compressive pre-stress of up to ~50 MPa can result in an increase of magnetostriction by ~90%. This is hypothesized to be due to a "jump" in initial alignment of domains perpendicular to applied stress and improved final alignment parallel to applied stress.
Constitutive behavior of magnetostrictive materials
These materials generally show non-linear behavior with a change in applied magnetic field or stress. For small magnetic fields, linear piezomagnetic constitutive behavior is enough. Non-linear magnetic behavior is captured using a classical macroscopic model such as the Preisach model and Jiles-Atherton model. For capturing magneto-mechanical behavior, Armstrong proposed an "energy average" approach. More recently, Wahi et al. have proposed a computationally efficient constitutive model wherein constitutive behavior is captured using a "locally linearizing" scheme.
See also
Electromagnetically induced acoustic noise and vibration
Inverse magnetostrictive effect
Wiedemann effect a torsional force caused by magnetostriction
Magnetomechanical effects for a collection of similar effects
Magnetocaloric effect
Electrostriction
Piezoelectricity
Piezomagnetism
SoundBug
FeONIC—developer of audio products using magnetostriction
Terfenol-D
Galfenol
Electronic article surveillance – using magnetostriction to prevent shoplifting
References
External links
Magnetostriction
Invisible Speakers from Feonic that use Magnetostriction
Magnetostrictive alloy maker: REMA-CN
Magnetic ordering
|
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201006
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaza
|
Zaza
|
Zaza may refer to:
Ethnic group
Zazas, a group of people in eastern Anatolia (southeastern Turkey)
Zaza language, spoken by the Zazas
People
Given name
Zaza Sor. Aree (born 1993), Thai kickboxer
Zaza Burchuladze (born 1973), Georgian novelist and dramatist
Zaza Chelidze (born 1987), Georgian football player
Zaza Chkhaidze (born 1974), Georgian major general
Zaza Eloshvili (1964–2001), Georgian footballer
Zaza Enden (born 1976), Turkish professional wrestler
Zaza Gogava (born 1971), Georgian Major General
Zaza Gorozia (born 1975), Georgian politician
Zaza Harvey (1879–1954), American baseball player
Zaza Janashia (born 1976), Georgian footballer
Zaza Kedelashvili (born 1985), Georgian judoka
Zaza Kolelishvili (born 1957), Georgian actor, film director and artist
Zaza Korinteli (aka Zumba; born 1973), Georgian rock musician, folklorist and civic activist
Zaza Koshkadze (born 1982), Georgian poet and translator
ZaZa Maree (born 1997), American singer-songwriter
Zaza Nadiradze (born 1993), Georgian canoeist
Zaza Navrozashvili (born 1992), Georgian rugby player
Zaza Okuashvili (born 1963), Georgian businessman, politician and philanthropist
Zaza Pachulia (born 1984), Georgian NBA basketball player
Zaza Panaskerteli-Tsitsishvili (fl. 15th-century), Georgian prince, politician, and intellectual
Zaza Revishvili (born 1968), Georgian footballer
Zaza Rusadze (born 1977), Georgian filmmaker
Zaza Sikharulidze (born 1960), Georgian politician
Zaza Tavadze (born 1975), Georgian politician
Zaza Tkeshelashvili (born 1965), Georgian freestyle wrestler
Zaza Tsotniashvili (born 1971), Georgian rector of Gori University
Zaza Turmanidze (born 1965), Georgian wrestler
Zaza Tuschmalischvili (born 1960), Georgian painter
Zaza Urushadze (1965–2019), Georgian filmmaker
Zaza Zazirov (born 1972), Ukrainian Olympic athlete
Zaza Zirakishvili (born 1975), Georgian football player
Surname
Hend Zaza (born 2009), Syrian Olympic table tennis player
Karim Zaza (born 1975), Moroccan goalkeeper
Michele Zaza (born 1945–1994), Italian businessman
Neil Zaza, American guitar player
Paul Zaza (1952), Canadian songwriter
Shane Zaza, British actor
Simone Zaza (born 1991), Italian footballer
Welington Zaza (born 1995), Liberian athlete
Places
Alto Zaza, a commune in Angola
Zaza Reservoir, a reservoir in Cuba
Zaza, Rwanda, a community in Rwanda
Other uses
A name that appears in the Bible, in the first of the Books of Chronicles 2:33, meaning "belonging to all" or "plenty"
Zaza (play), written by French playwrights Pierre Berton and Charles Simon
Zaza (1915 film), a 1915 film directed by Edwin S. Porter
Zaza (1923 film), a 1923 film directed by Allan Dwan
Zaza (1939 film), a 1939 film directed by George Cukor
Za-Za, an album by the BulletBoys
Zazà, a 1900 opera by Ruggero Leoncavallo
"Zaza", alias of the character Albin in La Cage aux Folles and its derivative works
Zaza Candy, a brand of kosher candy
"Zaza", a song by 6ix9ine
See also
Zsa Zsa, Hungarian name
Zazie (disambiguation)
Zazi
Language and nationality disambiguation pages
Georgian masculine given names
|
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201008
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation%20Bridge
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Confederation Bridge
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The Confederation Bridge () is a box girder bridge carrying the Trans-Canada Highway across the Abegweit Passage of the Northumberland Strait, linking the province of Prince Edward Island with the province of New Brunswick on the mainland. Opened May 31, 1997, the bridge is Canada's longest bridge and the world's longest bridge over ice-covered water.
Construction took place from October 1993 to May 1997 and cost C$1.3 billion. Before its official naming, Prince Edward Islanders often referred to the bridge as the "Fixed Link". It officially opened to traffic on May 31, 1997.
Structure
The bridge is a two-lane toll bridge that carries the Trans-Canada Highway between Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island (at Route 1) and Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick (at Route 16).
It is a multi-span balanced cantilever bridge with a post-tensioned concrete box girder structure. Most of the curved bridge is above water with a navigation span for ship traffic. The bridge rests on 62 piers, of which the 44 main piers are apart. The bridge is wide.
The speed limit on the bridge is but can vary with wind and weather conditions. When travelling at the speed limit, it takes about 12 minutes to cross the bridge.
Tolls
Tolls apply only when leaving Prince Edward Island (when travelling westbound). The toll rates are $50.25 for a two-axle automobile and $8.50 for each additional axle. Motorcycles are charged $20.00.
While pedestrians and cyclists are not permitted to cross the bridge, a shuttle service is available. Before 2006, the shuttle was free and since January 1, 2022, the service has charged $4.75 per pedestrian or $9.50 per cyclist when leaving Prince Edward Island. Baggage is charged at a rate of $4.25 per bag after the first bag.
The other major Northumberland Strait crossing, Wood Islands Ferry from Wood Islands, Prince Edward Island to Caribou, Nova Scotia, charges when leaving Prince Edward Island. Other ferry fares include $20.00 per adult pedestrian, $40.00 per motorcycle, and $20.00 per bicycle. Travellers, whether entering the island by bridge and leaving by ferry or vice versa pay for leaving the island only.
History
Various proposals for a fixed link across the Northumberland Strait can be traced as far back as the 1870s when the provinces' railway systems were developed. Subsequent proposals arose during federal elections in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The ebb and flow of public support for a fixed link was indirectly tied to the varying levels of federal investment in ferry and steamship connections to the province over the years, finally culminating in a proposal in the mid-1980s which resulted in the construction of the current bridge.
Water transportation links
As a part of Prince Edward Island's admission into the Dominion of Canada in 1873, the Canadian government was obligated to provide...
"efficient steam service for the conveyance of mails and passengers to be established and maintained between the Island and the mainland of the Dominion, winter and summer, thus placing the Island in continuous communication with the Intercolonial Railway and the railway system of the Dominion..."
Following Confederation, early steamship services across Northumberland Strait connected the Island ports of Charlottetown and Georgetown with railway facilities at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Similar services operated from Summerside connected with railway facilities at Shediac, New Brunswick.
The most direct route across the Northumberland Strait, however, was at the wide Abegweit Passage. Infrequent winter service provided by underpowered steamships incapable of breaking sea ice ensured the survival of a passenger and mail service across Abegweit Passage using iceboats until a permanent ferry service was established in the 1910s.
The unsatisfactory winter steamship service and reliance upon primitive iceboats provoked complaints from the Island government until the federal government decided to implement a railcar ferry service across Abegweit Passage between new ports at Port Borden and Cape Tormentine.
In 1912, the federal government promised to open a car ferry between the "Capes" (Cape Traverse, PEI to Cape Tormentine, NB). The privately owned New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island Railway from Sackville, New Brunswick to Cape Tormentine was purchased by the federal government and an order was made with a shipyard in England for an icebreaking railcar ferry, to be called the Prince Edward Island. Ports were developed at Carleton Point, several kilometres west of Cape Traverse, and the existing harbour at Cape Tormentine; the new port at Carleton Point would be named Borden in honour of Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden.
The new ferry entered service in 1915 and operated on the former steamship routes until port facilities were opened in October 1917. Automobile service was added in 1938 and other vessels followed as the ferry service expanded in the post-war years.
This ferry service was initially the responsibility of Canadian Government Railways (1917–1918) and later Canadian National Railway (1918–1983), then a CNR subsidiary CN Marine (1977–1986). In 1986, CN Marine was renamed when all federal government ferry services in Atlantic Canada were transferred to the new Crown corporation Marine Atlantic.
Ferry service years
Scotia I (various years 1917–1957)
Scotia II (various years 1937–1968)
Charlottetown (1931–1941)
Abegweit (1947–1982), renamed Abby (1983–1986)
Confederation (1962–1976)
John Hamilton Gray (1968–1997)
Lucy Maud Montgomery (1969–1973)
Holiday Island (1971–1997)
Vacationland (1971–1997)
Abegweit (1982–1997)
Early proposals
Discussion of a fixed link can be traced to George Howlan, who called for construction of a railway tunnel beneath Abegweit Passage at the same time as the Prince Edward Island Railway was being built across the province in the 1870s. Howlan also raised the issue as a member of the provincial Legislative Assembly, and in 1891, as a Senator and member of a delegation to meetings on the subject, conducted at the British Parliament. The idea lost favour following his death in 1901.
Talk of a fixed link was revived in the 1950s and 1960s, coinciding with federal election campaigns. The topic was raised in 1957, only two years following the opening of the Canso Causeway, and at the same time as another mega-project, the St. Lawrence Seaway was being constructed. A rockfill causeway was proposed to cross Abegweit Passage, with a bridge/tunnel to accommodate shipping. This plan was rejected for navigational reasons but was raised again in 1962, and in 1965, the federal government, ignoring concerns of the shipping industry, called for tenders for a $148 million fixed link featuring a tunnel/causeway/bridge. Approach roads and railway lines were constructed at Borden and Jourimain Island but the project was formally abandoned in 1969 upon scientific recommendation in favour of improved ferry services.
Due to the extremely complex tidal regime in the Northumberland Strait consisting of diurnal and semi-diurnal cycles, any attempt to close Abegweit Passage would be next to impossible since the tidal cycles on each side of a causeway would be placed at opposites to each other. It is estimated by tidal experts at the Canadian Hydrographic Service, that tidal currents through a gap in such a causeway would be in excess of , powerful enough to counter most commercial ships and to sweep away boulders the size of houses.
1988 plebiscite
Consideration of a fixed link was renewed in the 1980s by an unsolicited proposal from a Nova Scotia businessman. The federal government favoured the construction of a fixed link chiefly because of the rising costs of providing ferry service (a constitutional requirement dating from PEI's accession to Confederation) and the increasing deficits being incurred by the railway system on PEI (run as part of Canadian National, then a Crown corporation). The federal government proposed to provide a fixed subsidy for the construction and operation of a fixed link, in return for the province agreeing to the abandonment of the ferry service and the railway system.
Following the election of the Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney, with its agenda for regional development through so-called "mega-projects," Public Works Canada called for formal proposals in 1987 and received three offers. These proposals included a tunnel, a bridge, and a combined tunnel-causeway-bridge.
These developments sparked an extremely divisive debate on the Island, and Premier Joe Ghiz promised a plebiscite to gauge public support, which was held on January 18, 1988.
During the plebiscite debate, the anti-link group Friends of the Island cited potential ecological damage from the construction, as well as concerns about the impact on Prince Edward Island's lifestyle in general, and noted that the "mega-project" model has had limited success in other areas of the world, and rarely enriched the local population. The Friends of the Island believed that a fixed link was being pressured by a federal government not willing to shoulder the cost of constitutional obligations for funding an efficient ferry service, and that a link would be built largely for the benefit of mainland tourists and businesses waiting to exploit the Island.
The pro-link group Islanders for a Better Tomorrow noted transportation reliability would result in improvements for exporters and the tourism industry.
The result was 59.4% (in total percentage) in favour of the fixed link.
Bridge development
The debate did not end with the 1988 plebiscite and the federal government faced numerous legal challenges and a lengthy environmental impact assessment for the project. The developer of the single bridge proposal, Strait Crossing Development Inc., was selected and an announcement that the Northumberland Strait Crossing Project would be built was finally made on December 2, 1992; the developer being required to privately finance all construction through bond markets.
Shareholders of Strait Crossing Development Inc. include:
OMERS, an Ontario public servant pension fund (under the OMERS subsidiary BPC Maritime Corporation)
VINCI Concessions Canada Inc., Montreal, Quebec
Strait Crossing Inc., Calgary, Alberta (at one time part of the W. A. Stephenson / Stephenson Construction International (SCI) Engineers & Constructors Group of Companies)
Constitutional amendment
As mentioned, the Schedule to the Prince Edward Island Terms of Union in the Constitution of Canada required steamship service to connect the Island's railway system with that of mainland North America. A dedicated ferry service replaced the steamships in 1917, but no changes were made to the constitution. The fixed crossing, however, required a constitutional amendment (see Amendments to the Constitution of Canada).
The Constitution Amendment Proclamation, 1993 (Prince Edward Island) dealt with this issue, as well as the issue of tolls on the crossing. It made clear that the government (or a private body) could charge a toll (an essential part of the government's financing plans) for the crossing without violating the terms of union:
"That a fixed crossing joining the Island to the mainland may be substituted for the steam service referred to in this Schedule... That, for greater certainty, nothing in this Schedule prevents the imposition of tolls for the use of such a fixed crossing between the Island and the mainland, or the private operation of such a crossing;"
Construction
The construction, which was carried out by a construction joint venture of Ballast Nedam, GTMI (Canada), Northern Construction and Strait Crossing Inc., started in the fall of 1993, beginning with preparation of staging facilities. Bridge components were built year-round from 1994 to the summer of 1996, and placement of components began in the fall of 1994 until the fall of 1996. Approach roads, toll plazas, and final work on the structure continued until the spring of 1997, at an estimated total cost of $1 billion.
All bridge components were constructed on land, in purpose-built staging yards located on the shoreline at Amherst Head, fronting on Borden Harbour just east of the town and ferry docks, and an inland facility located at Bayfield, New Brunswick, about west of Cape Tormentine. The Amherst Head staging facility was where all large components were built, including the pier bases, ice shields, main spans, and drop-in spans. The Bayfield facility was used to construct components for the near-shore bridges which were linked using a launching truss extending over shallow waters almost from the New Brunswick shore, and from the Prince Edward Island shore.
Extremely durable high-grade concrete and reinforcing steel were used throughout construction of the pre-cast components, with the estimated lifespan of the bridge being in excess of 100 years. The reinforced concrete structure was also designed to withstand iceberg impacts, as a deflection cone encircles each pillar at the point when it meets the water surface that would cause an iceberg to bounce off. Their sheer size and weight required strengthening of the soil base during the design and preparation work for the Amherst Head staging facility, as well as the use of a crawler transport system to move pieces from fabrication to storage, and onto a nearby pier. These crawler transports, using specially designed teflon-coated concrete rails, earned the nickname lobsters from workers.
All major components were lifted from the Amherst Head staging facility, transported, and placed in Abegweit Passage using the HLV Svanen, a Dutch-built heavy lift catamaran, which during the construction of the fixed link was reportedly the tallest man-made structure in the province. HLV Svanen was custom-built for use on the Great Belt Bridge in the early 1990s, Denmark's largest construction project, and was modified at a French shipyard before working on the Northumberland Strait Crossing Project. Following the placement of the final major component and completion of the bridge structure in Abegweit Passage on November 19, 1996, HLV Svanen returned to Denmark for use in construction of the Øresund Bridge.
Construction of the fixed link required over 5,000 workers ranging from labourers and specialty trades, to engineers, surveyors, and managers. The economic impact of construction on Prince Edward Island was substantial, with the provincial GDP rising over 5% during the construction, providing a short-term economic boom for the Island.
It neared completion in April 1997.
Naming
Throughout construction, the federal government received suggestions for names. A committee was formed on May 1, 1996, chaired by former PEI Premier Alex Campbell, to choose the new name from the submissions. The committee chose the name "Abegweit Crossing", which would pay homage to the Abegweit Passage which the bridge crosses, the vessel M/V Abegweit which the bridge would replace, and to the Mi'kmaq traditional name for the island.
However, the Canadian government overruled the committee, and on September 27, 1996, the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Diane Marleau announced that the bridge's name would be "Confederation Bridge". This name is not without controversy as many Islanders feel the word "Confederation" is overused throughout the province, finding use in the name of a Northumberland Ferries Limited vessel (M/V Confederation), a performing arts centre and art gallery (Confederation Centre of the Arts), a shopping centre (Confederation Court Mall), and the province-wide rails to trails system (Confederation Trail), as well as in tourism promotions (e.g., "Birthplace of Confederation").
The President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, during a state visit to Canada in 1998, referred to the bridge as the "Span of Green Gables".
Finishing
After completing the structure on November 19, 1996, SCI worked throughout the winter, paving the bridge deck, placing bridge concrete barrier guardrails which also act as wind barriers, placing bridge deck and navigational lighting, constructing the Borden-Carleton toll plaza, and finishing the New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island approach roads. In separate construction, the federal and provincial governments built a new commercial and tourist development on the abandoned CN rail yards in Borden-Carleton, with phase I of this facility opening in spring 1997 as "Gateway Village". New Brunswick has never received similar federal support to improve the economy of Cape Tormentine, which has become a shadow of its former role in PEI transportation history, although in recent years a new eco-tourist and visitor centre was opened on Jourimain Island near the western end of the bridge.
Official opening
The official opening for the bridge took place on May 31, 1997, with the first traffic crossing at approximately 5:00 p.m. ADT following a nationally televised ceremony which aired on CBC and included a sailpast of the schooner Bluenose II and several Canadian Coast Guard ships, a flyover by the Snowbirds, and an emotional farewell to the beloved ferries which made their final crossings that evening. It is estimated that almost 75,000 people participated in a "Bridge Walk" and "Bridge Run" during the hours immediately prior to the opening for traffic.
In the days following the opening of the bridge, ferry operator Marine Atlantic disposed of its four vessels. The ferry terminals and docks in both ports were removed over the summer of 1997.
Operation
The bridge is operated by Strait Crossing Bridge Limited (SCBL), a subsidiary of the Strait Crossing Development Inc. consortium which built the structure. SCBL will privately manage, maintain, and operate the bridge until 2032, when these operations will transfer to the Government of Canada.
The Government of Canada agreed to pay about $44 million a year for 33 years to Strait Crossing Development Inc., this being the subsidy which was formerly paid to Marine Atlantic to cover operating losses of the ferry system. These payments are in effect a mortgage and are being used by the developer to pay off construction costs. In 2032, the bridge's ownership will revert to the federal government.
All tolls charged by SCBL are revenue for the consortium. Toll increases are indexed to inflation and regulated by the federal government. The consortium has rarely commented upon the profitability of the bridge, but during the structure's 10th anniversary, it was revealed that there had been a 30% cost overrun in construction ($330 million). The consortium is forced to cover this out of toll revenue since the federal government ferry subsidy is used to pay for the original tendered price ($1 billion). Operating costs for the bridge have also proven expensive, with warranty repairs for asphalt adherence and the complete replacement of all bridge deck lighting cutting into profits. Toll revenues have fallen over 30% since the bridge opened, largely because of declining tourism traffic and domestic travel and currently range from $25 to $30 million annually. After expenses in 2003, the consortium received a year-end dividend of $2.6 million.
Effect
The number of tourists visiting Prince Edward Island increased from 740,000 in 1996 (the year before the bridge opened) to 1,200,000 in 1997, but this dropped back to about 900,000 visitors annually.
As a way of further promoting the island's new accessibility, the province issued vehicle licence plates from 1999 to 2006 that featured a likeness of the Confederation Bridge between the serial number. These plates, along with four other designs, started being replaced by a single design in 2013.
See also
List of bridges
List of bridges by length
Newfoundland–Labrador fixed link, a similar proposal to connect the island of Newfoundland to the Canadian mainland
References
Further reading
External links
Confederation Bridge
Confederation Bridge (SC Infrastructure)
Bridges completed in 1997
Road bridges in New Brunswick
Road bridges in Prince Edward Island
Bridges on the Trans-Canada Highway
OMERS
Transport in Prince County, Prince Edward Island
Toll bridges in Canada
Viaducts in Canada
Transport in Westmorland County, New Brunswick
Public–private partnership projects in Canada
1997 establishments in Prince Edward Island
1997 establishments in New Brunswick
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201009
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Male%20Rock%20Vocal%20Performance
|
Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance
|
The Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance was an award presented at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards, to male recording artists for works (songs or albums) containing quality vocal performances in the rock music genre. Honors in several categories are presented at the ceremony annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position".
Originally called the Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, the award was first presented to Bob Dylan in 1980. Beginning with the 1995 ceremony, the name of the award was changed to Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. However, in 1988, 1992, 1994, and since 2005, this category was combined with the Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance and presented in a genderless category known as Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo. The solo category was later renamed to Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance beginning in 2005. This fusion has been criticized, especially when females are not nominated under the solo category. The Academy has cited a lack of eligible recordings in the female rock category as the reason for the mergers. While the award has not been presented since the category merge in 2005, an official confirmation of its retirement has not been announced.
Lenny Kravitz holds the record for the most wins in this category, with a total of four consecutive wins from 1999 to 2002. Bruce Springsteen has been presented the award three times, and two-time winners include Eric Clapton, Bob Dylan, Don Henley, and Robert Palmer. Since its inception, American artists have been presented with the award more than any other nationality, though it has been presented to musicians from the United Kingdom four times, from Australia once, and from South Africa once.
Recipients
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
Award was combined with the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance category and presented in a genderless category known as Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo.
See also
American rock
References
General
Note: User must select the "Rock" category as the genre under the search feature.
Specific
External links
Official site of the Grammy Awards
1980 establishments in the United States
2004 disestablishments in the United States
Awards disestablished in 2004
Awards established in 1980
Male Rock Vocal Performance
|
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201012
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Solo%20Rock%20Vocal%20Performance
|
Grammy Award for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance
|
The Grammy Award for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance was an award presented at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards, to recording artists for works (songs or albums) containing quality vocal performances in the rock music genre. Honors in several categories are presented at the ceremony annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position".
Originally called the Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo, the award was first presented to Bruce Springsteen in 1988 for the album Tunnel of Love. Since then, the award was presented in 1992 and 1994, and has been awarded each year since 2005. Beginning with the 2005 ceremony, the name of the award was changed to Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance. For these years, the award combined and replaced the gender-specific awards for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. This fusion has been criticized, especially when females are not nominated under the solo category. The Academy has cited a lack of eligible recordings in the female rock category as the reason for the mergers.
The award was discontinued from 2012 in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. All solo or duo/group performances in the rock category are now honored in the Best Rock Performance category. Springsteen holds the record for the most wins in this category, with five (he has also received three awards for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance). No other performing artists had received the award more than once. Neil Young holds the record for the most nominations without a win, with four.
Recipients
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
Award was separated into the gender-specific awards for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male and Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female.
See also
American rock
List of Grammy Award categories
References
General
Note: User must select the "Rock" category as the genre under the search feature.
Specific
External links
Official site of the Grammy Awards
1988 establishments in the United States
2011 disestablishments in the United States
Awards disestablished in 2011
Awards established in 1988
Solo Rock Vocal Performance
|
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201013
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20British
|
Lord British
|
Lord British, whose full name is Lord Cantabrigian British, is the name of the fictional ruler of Britannia, a kingdom in the fictional world of Sosaria, created by Richard Garriott for his computer game series Ultima. Garriott himself is also known to his fans as Lord British.
Origin of the name
Ultima series creator Richard Garriott acquired the nickname "British" as a teenager from friends at computer camp who claimed his greeting to them, "Hello", was distinct from the usual American "Hi". The Lord title was later added when he played the dungeon master in Dungeons & Dragons games.
When his first published game Akalabeth was released, the president of the publishing company suggested he use the name in the game, since it was more memorable than his real name.
Garriott released Akalabeth: World of Doom and all other Ultima games under the pseudonym, and occasionally appeared in Ultima Online playing as Lord British and meting out justice to his players. He is still known as Lord British. Garriott retained the trademark rights to the name Lord British with its associated symbols, and the character appears in his game Tabula Rasa as General British.
Origins of the character in the Ultima games
Neither the Avatar nor Lord British were born in Sosaria, but came from Earth via the moongates. The name Cantabrigian British is taken from his birthplace's name, Cambridge in the United Kingdom, given to him by his friend, Shamino, and British abandoned his old name in favor of the new one.
When British came to Sosaria, the evil wizard named Mondain was still young. They had an epic battle deep within the labyrinth of dungeons, where British, the "Champion of the White Light", was victorious, driving Mondain away from the kingdom, and receiving the title of "Lord British, Protector of Akalabeth". Mondain was seeking revenge in Ultima I. The stranger (who would become the Avatar) dealt with Mondain this time, but three-fourths of the world mysteriously disappeared for causes unknown.
Numerous plotlines and side quests in the Ultima games revolve around one of Lord British's adventures or public works projects. He had a key role in founding the Museum, Conservatory and other institutions of the Britannian society.
In the Ultima series
In the Ultima series, Lord British rules from his throne inside Castle Britannia, and continuously provides healing, resurrection and other miscellaneous help for the Avatar (the main character) and his adventuring party. In the first three Ultima games, British charged a significant sum of money for his services, but would provide them for free from Ultima IV onwards.
Throughout the Ultima series, Lord British never leaves his castle, except for Ultima V, where his absence constitutes the main storyline, and at the end of Ultima VI, when he uses a red moongate to travel to the Isle of the Avatar. Instead, he relies on heroes like the Avatar to go forth and correct the various crises that crop up in Britannia. In Ultima IX, the Guardian comments on this behavior, accusing Lord British of always hiding in his castle while his land suffers. In the climax of the same game, Lord British finally ventures outside the confines of his castle to help the Avatar in a final showdown with Lord Blackthorn.
Assassination of Lord British
One of the most famous attributes of Lord British is that he is almost invincible. In every Ultima game in which he has appeared, he is designed to be almost impervious to a player's character predations. However, there are ways for a player thinking outside the box to assassinate him.
This phenomenon is the origin of the Lord British Postulate which states: "If it exists as a living creature in an MMORPG, someone, somewhere, will try to kill it." Virtually every MMO game displays numerous instances of this, with players attempting to kill (or, in the case of friendly NPCs, cause the death of) virtually every NPC or monster, howsoever powerful, meek, friendly, or ethereal.
Lord British was killed during an in-game appearance on Ultima Online'''s beta test on August 9, 1997. A royal visit was conducted as a part of server population stress test. A player character known as Rainz cast a spell called "fire field" on Lord British that, surprisingly, killed him. According to Starr Long, the whole thing was just a human error: Lord British's character, like others, had been made invulnerable, but by design the invulnerability did not persist over several game sessions. Shortly before the incident, the server had crashed, and Richard Garriott had forgotten to set his invulnerability flag on when logging on again. Shortly afterwards, Rainz's account was banned from the beta test for previously exploiting bugs rather than reporting them (frequently used by his character Aquaman to kill many player characters, a purported griefing incident). According to Origin, he was not banned for the assassination but rather for previous complaints against his account that were brought to light as a result of this attention. After Lord British was killed, fellow Ultima Online developer Starr Long (also known in game as Lord Blackthorn) summoned some demons, who attacked innocent bystanders. This led to beta testers protesting both the indiscriminate killing, and the banning of the assassin. MMOCrunch calls it the most memorable event in MMORPG History. According to Wired magazine:
In Ultima III: Exodus, according to interviewer Shay Addams, "Garriott was less than pleased" that some players had found a way to kill Lord British. He had taken steps to safeguard his character from being attacked in the game. While no weapon a player had on them could harm him, he could be killed if chased to the docks and killed with one of the cannons there.
In Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar, a player could cast a spell to create a lava field that damaged Lord British slightly. With enough patience and shuffling back and forth, Lord British could be killed. It was also possible to damage him enough with the 'Tremor' spell that he would flee, although this required some luck (depending upon, among other things, what random number of hit points he was assigned when battle began). Lord British, unlike every other town character, was impervious to the destructive use of the Skull of Mondain.
In Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny, Lord British appears only in dream and vision sequences and in the endgame – none of which allow the input of normal commands, so that there is no way to kill him.
In Ultima VI: The False Prophet, there were at least four ways in which Lord British could be killed: (a) if a player dragged a poison trap to British's throne and detonated it, British was poisoned and slowly lost health until he eventually died; (b) while asleep, he could be killed with a glass sword; (c) filling Lord British's throne room with powder kegs, igniting one, and standing clear of the blasts was sufficient to kill him; or (d) using a pickpocket spell to steal the wand Lord British would use to instantly kill the player when attacked; the wand could also kill Lord British.
In Ultima VII, an Easter egg allows British to be killed. If the player double-clicks the gold plaque above the castle gate when British is standing directly underneath (which he invariably does at exactly noon each day), the plaque will fall on his head. The player can arrange several chairs or crates around him in such a way as to trap him underneath the plaque. This was inspired by an incident at the Origin building: a metal bar, attached to the door by a magnet, fell on Garriott's head, warranting a visit to the hospital. One of the characters says "Yancey-Hausman will pay!", which is a reference to the owner and landlord of the building. British could also be killed by The Black Sword found in the game's expansion pack, Forge of Virtue.
In Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle, Lord British can only be encountered in the dream world in Gorlab Swamp, surveying the ruins of his destroyed castle. While death in the dream world does not actually kill the individual, the player may "kill" British using the armor and Infinity Bow found in the castle. He will make a saddened comment and disappear.
Lord British does not appear in Ultima VIII.
Another Easter egg enables the player to kill British in Ultima IX: Ascension. When the game begins in the Avatar's house, it is possible for the player to cook a loaf of poison bread. If this bread is brought to Britannia and switched with Lord British's regular meal, Lord British will eventually eat it and die.
Professor Megan Winget of the University of Texas, coordinator of a project to study the best way to preserve video game history, stated in a BBC interview that the death of Lord British in the Ultima'' games is something people remember and are affected by:
References
The Official Book of Ultima by Shay Addams.
External links
CVG article about the many deaths of Lord British
Reuters article about Lord British returning as General British in Tabula Rasa
Fictional kings
Male characters in video games
Science fantasy video game characters
Ultima characters
Video game characters based on real people
Video game characters introduced in 1981
|
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201017
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budgerigar
|
Budgerigar
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The budgerigar ( ; Melopsittacus undulatus), also known as the common parakeet or shell parakeet, is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot usually nicknamed the budgie ( ), or in American English, the parakeet. Budgies are the only species in the genus Melopsittacus. Naturally, the species is green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings. Budgies are bred in captivity with colouring of blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Juveniles and chicks are monomorphic, while adults are told apart by their cere colouring, and their behaviour.
The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. First recorded in 1805, budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. They are likely the third most popular pet in the world, after the domesticated dog and cat. Budgies are nomadic flock parakeets that have been bred in captivity since the 19th century. In both captivity and the wild, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs.
It is found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia, where it has survived harsh inland conditions for over five million years. Its success can be attributed to a nomadic lifestyle and its ability to breed while on the move. The budgerigar is closely related to lories and the fig parrots.
Taxonomy and etymology
Budgerigar fossils can be dated back 50,000–70,000 years. Several possible origins for its name have been proposed. First, it may be a mispronunciation or alteration of the Gamilaraay word gidjirrigaa () or gijirragaa from the Yuwaalaraay. Second is a modification budgery or boojery (Australian English slang for "good") and gar ("cockatoo"). Alternative spellings include budgerygah and betcherrygah, the latter used by indigenous people of the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales. While many references mention "good" as part of the meaning, and a few specify "good bird", it is quite possible that reports by those local to the region are more accurate in specifying the direct translation as "good food". However, reports that this could also translate as "tasty treat", implying they were eaten by the Aboriginals, are likely to be apocryphal. The name likely derived from the species' migratory nature. With seasonal changes that left the plains barren, the budgerigar would move towards residual water that still produced the seeds they sought. By following the birds, the Aboriginals could locate water and also other game or food plants – thus, leading to "good food".
The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The genus name Melopsittacus, from Ancient Greek, means "melodious parrot". The species name undulatus is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned".
Alternative names for the budgerigar include the shell parrot, the warbling grass parakeet, the canary parrot, the zebra parrot, the flight bird, the scallop parrot. Although more applicable to members of the genus Agapornis, the name lovebird has been applied to them from their habit of mutual preening. The budgerigar was thought to be the link between the genera Neophema and Pezoporus based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini).
Description
Wild budgerigars average long, weigh , in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledglings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.
In their natural Australian habitat, Budgerigars are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue). Pet store individuals will commonly be blue, green, or yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light – a phenomenon possibly related to courtship and mate selection.
The upper half of their beaks is taller than the bottom half, covering the bottom when closed. The beak does not protrude much, due to the thick, fluffy feathers surrounding it, giving the appearance of a downward-pointing beak that lies flat against the face. The upper half acts as a long, smooth cover, while the bottom half is just about a half-sized cup-piece. These beaks allow the birds to eat plants, fruits, and vegetables.
The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being royal blue in males, pale brown to white (nonbreeding) or brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immatures of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either Albino, Lutino, Dark-eyed Clear or Recessive Pied (Danishpied or harlequin) always retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour their entire lives.
Behaviours and head shape also help indicate sex. Veterinarians can determine the sex of a bird by invasive examination or samples of blood, feather, or eggshell.
Mature males usually have a cere of light to dark blue, but in some particular colour mutations it can be purplish to pink – including Dark-eyed Clears, Danish Pieds (Recessive Pieds) and Inos, which usually display much rounder heads. The behaviour of males can distinguish them from females. Males are typically cheerful, extroverted, highly flirtatious, peacefully social, and very vocal.
Female ceres are pinkish while immature. As they age, they move from being beigish or whitish outside breeding condition into brown (often with a 'crusty' texture) in breeding condition and usually display flattened backs of heads (right above the nape). Females are more dominant and less socially tolerant. This behavior is more pronounced around other females than with males.
Budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, although all four classes of cone cells will not operate simultaneously unless under sunlight or a UV lamp. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds. While ultraviolet light is essential to the good health of caged and pet birds, inadequate darkness or rest results in over-stimulation.
Ecology
Distribution area
Budgerigars are nomadic and flocks move on from sites as environmental conditions change. Budgerigars are found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Budgerigars have two distinct flight speeds which they are capable of switching between depending on the circumstance. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex and grass, and sometimes ripening wheat.
Outside of Australia, the only long-term establishment of naturalised feral budgerigars is a large population near St. Petersburg, Florida. Increased competition for nesting sites from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be a primary cause of the Florida population declining from the 1980s. The more consistent, year-round conditions in Florida significantly reduced their nomadic behaviour.
The species has been introduced to various locations in Puerto Rico and the United States.
Budgerigars feed primarily on grass seeds. The species also opportunistically depredates growing cereal crops and lawn grass seeds. Due to the low water content of the seeds they rely on the availability of freshwater.
Behaviour
Breeding
Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18–21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching.
In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Because of this natural behaviour, budgerigars most easily breed in captivity when provided with a reasonable-sized nest box.
The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. Females normally have a whitish tan cere; however, when the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. Certain female budgies may always keep a whitish tan cere or always keep a crusty brown cere regardless of breeding condition. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternating days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 8 chicks. Depending on the clutch size and the beginning of incubation, the age difference between the first and last hatchling can be anywhere from 9 to 16 days. At times, the parents may begin eating their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.
There is evidence of same-sex sexual behaviour amongst male budgerigars. It is originally hypothesised that they did this as a form of "courtship practice" so they were better breeding partners for females, however an inverse relationship between participation in same-sex behaviour and pairing success.
Chick health
Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.
Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. Nest boxes should be cleaned between uses.
Splay leg is a relatively common problem in baby budgerigars and other birds; one of the budgerigar's legs is bent outward, which prevents it from being able to stand properly and compete with the other chicks for food, and can also lead to difficulties in reproducing in adulthood. The condition is caused by young budgerigars slipping repeatedly on the floor of a nest box. It is easily avoided by placing a small quantity of a safe bedding or wood shavings in the bottom of the nest box. Alternatively, several pieces of paper may be placed in the box for the female to chew into bedding.
Development
Eggs take about 18–20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial – blind, naked, unable to lift their head and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks. Budgerigars' closed band rings must be neither larger nor smaller than .
They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge.
Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings.
As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six and eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on the age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Although it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care.
Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed.
Relationship with humans
Aviculture
The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewinged), clearwinged, crested, dark, greywinged, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused) and violet.
"English budgerigars", more correctly called "show" or "exhibition budgerigars", are about twice as large as their wild counterparts and have puffier head feathers, giving them a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have a shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars show their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars.
Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner.
Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers.
Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. Cuttlebones also supply calcium, essential for the proper forming of eggs and bone solidity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15–20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Apart from a handful of illnesses, diseases of the species are not transmittable to humans.
Colour mutations
All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations).
Mimicry
Male specimens of budgerigars can be skilled at mimicking human speech.
Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records.
In 2001, recordings of a budgerigar called Victor got some attention from the media. Victor's owner, Ryan B. Reynolds of Canada, stated Victor was able to engage in contextual conversation and predict the future. Although some believe the animal was able to predict his own death as was claimed, further study on the subject is difficult without the bird. , the recordings still remain to be verified by scientific analysis. Critics argue Victor's speech in the recordings is not coherent enough to be determined as spoken in context.
The budgerigar "Disco" became Internet famous in 2013. , Disco had been viewed over 22,481,975 times on his YouTube channel. Some of Disco's most repeated phrases included, "I am not a crook" and "Nobody puts baby bird in a corner!". Disco died in 2017.
In popular culture
Small bathing suits for men, commonly referred to as togs or "Speedos", are informally called "budgie smugglers" in Australia. The phrase is humorously based on the appearance of the tight-fitting cloth around the male's genitals looking like a small budgie. The phrase was officially added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2016.
See also
Budgerigar colour genetics
Sparkie (budgerigar)
Talking bird
Whipper (budgerigar)
References
Bibliography
Pranty, B. 2001. The Budgerigar in Florida: Rise and fall of an exotic psittacid. North American Birds 55: 389–397.
Forshaw, Joseph M. & Cooper, William T. (1978): Parrots of the World (2nd ed). Landsdowne Editions, Melbourne Australia
Collar, N. J. (1997). Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Pg. 384 in: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. (1997). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4. Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Further reading
World Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia — Species Profiles
A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar Referenced article on budgerigars
Budgerigar genome in Ensembl
Platycercini
Birds of Australia
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Talking birds
Feral parrots
Birds described in 1805
Articles containing video clips
Extant Pliocene first appearances
Taxa named by George Shaw
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201020
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus%20sect.%20Aigeiros
|
Populus sect. Aigeiros
|
Populus section Aigeiros is a section of three species in the genus Populus, the poplars. Like some other species in the genus Populus, they are commonly known as cottonwoods. The species are native to North America, Europe, and western Asia. In the past, as many as six species were recognized, but recent trends have been to accept just three species, treating the others as subspecies of P. deltoides.
They are large, deciduous trees that are tall and diameters of , distinguished by thick, deeply fissured bark and triangular-based to diamond-shaped leaves that are green on both sides (without the whitish wax on the undersides) and without any obvious balsam scent in spring. An important feature of the leaves is the petiole, which is flattened sideways so that the leaves have a particular type of movement in the wind.
Male and female flowers are in separate catkins, appearing before the leaves in spring. The seeds are borne on cottony structures that allow them to be blown long distances in the air before settling to ground.
The cottonwoods are exceptionally tolerant of flooding, erosion, and flood deposits filling around the trunk.
Although each of the three cottonwood species has a different leaf pattern, they all have the same general diamond leaf shape.
Species
Populus deltoides
Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) is one of the largest North American hardwood trees, although the wood is rather soft. It is a riparian zone tree. It occurs throughout the eastern United States, parts of southern Canada, and northern Mexico. The leaves are alternate and simple, with coarsely toothed (crenate/serrate) edges, and subcordate at the base. The leaf shape is roughly triangular, hence the species name, deltoides. Their winter buds are enrobed in a protective, fragrant resin that coats young leaves when they unfurl from the bud.
In the typical subspecies P. d. deltoides (Vermont south to northern Florida and west to about Michigan), the leaves are broad and triangular, 7–15 cm across at the base. Further west (Minnesota south to eastern Texas), the subspecies P. d. monilifera (plains cottonwood; syn. P. sargentii) has somewhat narrower leaves, 5–10 cm wide at the base. This is also the state tree of Nebraska, Wyoming, and Kansas. In West Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado, the subspecies P. d. wislizeni (Rio Grande cottonwood; syn. P. wislizeni) occurs.
Populus fremontii
Fremont's cottonwood (P. fremontii) is native to the southwestern United States and western Mexico. In the United States, the species can be found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah. In Mexico, it can be found in the states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Mexico State, and Puebla. It differs from the eastern cottonwood mainly in the leaves having fewer, larger serrations on the edge, and small differences in the flower and seed pod structure. Some taxonomists formerly considered P. fremontii to be a subspecies of P. deltoides.
Populus nigra
Black poplar (P. nigra) is native to Europe and Western Asia, is distinct in its much smaller leaves, across, with a more rhombic (diamond) shape.
Cultivation and uses
Cottonwoods are widely grown for timber production along wet river banks, where their exceptional growth rate provides a large crop of wood within just 10–30 years. The wood is coarse and of fairly low value, used for pallet boxes, shipping crates, and similar purposes where a cheap but strong enough wood is suitable. They are also widely grown as screens and shelterbelts. Many of the cottonwoods grown commercially are the hybrid of eastern cottonwood and black poplar, Populus × canadensis (hybrid black poplar or Carolina poplar).
Cottonwood bark is often a favorite medium for artisans. The bark, which is usually harvested in the fall after a tree's death, is generally very soft and easy to carve.
Cottonwood is one of the poorest wood fuels; it does not dry well, and rots quickly. It splits poorly, because it is very fibrous. It produces a low level of energy per unit of volume of wood.
Cottonwoods serve as food for the caterpillars of several Lepidoptera.
References
External links
Minnesota DNR big tree list. The largest tree by circumference in Minnesota is a Populus deltoides at 394 inches (1,001 centimeters) measured at the trunk 4 and 1/2 feet (137 cm) above the ground. This tree is 106 feet (32.31 meters) tall.
Aegiros
Plant sections
Trees of North America
Trees of Asia
Trees of Europe
Trees of Mexico
Trees of the United States
North American desert flora
|
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] |
201021
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populous
|
Populous
|
Populous or populus may refer to:
Populous (series), video game series
Populous (video game), first video game of the series
Populous (company), an architectural firm
Populus, a genus of plants
Populus Ltd, a market research company
See also
Poplar (disambiguation)
Popular (disambiguation)
|
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201022
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20number
|
Bell number
|
In combinatorial mathematics, the Bell numbers count the possible partitions of a set. These numbers have been studied by mathematicians since the 19th century, and their roots go back to medieval Japan. In an example of Stigler's law of eponymy, they are named after Eric Temple Bell, who wrote about them in the 1930s.
The Bell numbers are denoted Bn, where n is an integer greater than or equal to zero. Starting with B0 = B1 = 1, the first few Bell numbers are
1, 1, 2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140, ... .
The Bell number Bn counts the number of different ways to partition a set that has exactly n elements, or equivalently, the number of equivalence relations on it. Bn also counts the number of different rhyme schemes for n-line poems.
As well as appearing in counting problems, these numbers have a different interpretation, as moments of probability distributions. In particular, Bn is the nth moment of a Poisson distribution with mean 1.
Counting
Set partitions
In general, Bn is the number of partitions of a set of size n. A partition of a set S is defined as a family of nonempty, pairwise disjoint subsets of S whose union is S. For example, B3 = 5 because the 3-element set {a, b, c} can be partitioned in 5 distinct ways:
{ {a}, {b}, {c} }
{ {a}, {b, c} }
{ {b}, {a, c} }
{ {c}, {a, b} }
{ {a, b, c} }.
As suggested by the set notation above, the ordering of subsets within the family is not considered; ordered partitions are counted by a different sequence of numbers, the ordered Bell numbers. B0 is 1 because there is exactly one partition of the empty set. This partition is itself the empty set; it can be interpreted as a family of subsets of the empty set, consisting of zero subsets. It is vacuously true that all of the subsets in this family are non-empty subsets of the empty set and that they are pairwise disjoint subsets of the empty set, because there are no subsets to have these unlikely properties.
The partitions of a set correspond one-to-one with its equivalence relations. These are binary relations that are reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. The equivalence relation corresponding to a partition defines two elements as being equivalent when they belong to the same partition subset as each other. Conversely, every equivalence relation corresponds to a partition into equivalence classes. Therefore, the Bell numbers also count the equivalence relations.
Factorizations
If a number N is a squarefree positive integer (meaning that it is the product of some number n of distinct prime numbers), then Bn gives the number of different multiplicative partitions of N. These are factorizations of N into numbers greater than one, treating two factorizations as the same if they have the same factors in a different order. For instance, 30 is the product of the three primes 2, 3, and 5, and has B3 = 5 factorizations:
Rhyme schemes
The Bell numbers also count the rhyme schemes of an n-line poem or stanza. A rhyme scheme describes which lines rhyme with each other, and so may be interpreted as a partition of the set of lines into rhyming subsets. Rhyme schemes are usually written as a sequence of Roman letters, one per line, with rhyming lines given the same letter as each other, and with the first lines in each rhyming set labeled in alphabetical order. Thus, the 15 possible four-line rhyme schemes are AAAA, AAAB, AABA, AABB, AABC, ABAA, ABAB, ABAC, ABBA, ABBB, ABBC, ABCA, ABCB, ABCC, and ABCD.
Permutations
The Bell numbers come up in a card shuffling problem mentioned in the addendum to . If a deck of n cards is shuffled by repeatedly removing the top card and reinserting it anywhere in the deck (including its original position at the top of the deck), with exactly n repetitions of this operation, then there are nn different shuffles that can be performed. Of these, the number that return the deck to its original sorted order is exactly Bn. Thus, the probability that the deck is in its original order after shuffling it in this way is Bn/nn, which is significantly larger than the 1/n! probability that would describe a uniformly random permutation of the deck.
Related to card shuffling are several other problems of counting special kinds of permutations that are also answered by the Bell numbers. For instance, the nth Bell number equals the number of permutations on n items in which no three values that are in sorted order have the last two of these three consecutive. In a notation for generalized permutation patterns where values that must be consecutive are written adjacent to each other, and values that can appear non-consecutively are separated by a dash, these permutations can be described as the permutations that avoid the pattern 1-23. The permutations that avoid the generalized patterns 12-3, 32-1, 3-21, 1-32, 3-12, 21-3, and 23-1 are also counted by the Bell numbers. The permutations in which every 321 pattern (without restriction on consecutive values) can be extended to a 3241 pattern are also counted by the Bell numbers. However, the Bell numbers grow too quickly to count the permutations that avoid a pattern that has not been generalized in this way: by the (now proven) Stanley–Wilf conjecture, the number of such permutations is singly exponential, and the Bell numbers have a higher asymptotic growth rate than that.
Triangle scheme for calculations
The Bell numbers can easily be calculated by creating the so-called Bell triangle, also called Aitken's array or the Peirce triangle after Alexander Aitken and Charles Sanders Peirce.
Start with the number one. Put this on a row by itself. ()
Start a new row with the rightmost element from the previous row as the leftmost number ( where r is the last element of (i-1)-th row)
Determine the numbers not on the left column by taking the sum of the number to the left and the number above the number to the left, that is, the number diagonally up and left of the number we are calculating
Repeat step three until there is a new row with one more number than the previous row (do step 3 until )
The number on the left hand side of a given row is the Bell number for that row. ()
Here are the first five rows of the triangle constructed by these rules:
1
1 2
2 3 5
5 7 10 15
15 20 27 37 52
The Bell numbers appear on both the left and right sides of the triangle.
Properties
Summation formulas
The Bell numbers satisfy a recurrence relation involving binomial coefficients:
It can be explained by observing that, from an arbitrary partition of n + 1 items, removing the set containing the first item leaves a partition of a smaller set of k items for some number k that may range from 0 to n. There are choices for the k items that remain after one set is removed, and Bk choices of how to partition them.
A different summation formula represents each Bell number as a sum of Stirling numbers of the second kind
The Stirling number is the number of ways to partition a set of cardinality n into exactly k nonempty subsets. Thus, in the equation relating the Bell numbers to the Stirling numbers, each partition counted on the left hand side of the equation is counted in exactly one of the terms of the sum on the right hand side, the one for which k is the number of sets in the partition.
has given a formula that combines both of these summations:
Generating function
The exponential generating function of the Bell numbers is
In this formula, the summation in the middle is the general form used to define the exponential generating function for any sequence of numbers, and the formula on the right is the result of performing the summation in the specific case of the Bell numbers.
One way to derive this result uses analytic combinatorics, a style of mathematical reasoning in which sets of mathematical objects are described by formulas explaining their construction from simpler objects, and then those formulas are manipulated to derive the combinatorial properties of the objects. In the language of analytic combinatorics, a set partition may be described as a set of nonempty urns into which elements labelled from 1 to n have been distributed, and the combinatorial class of all partitions (for all n) may be expressed by the notation
Here, is a combinatorial class with only a single member of size one, an element that can be placed into an urn. The inner operator describes a set or urn that contains one or more labelled elements, and the outer
describes the overall partition as a set of these urns. The exponential generating function may then be read off from this notation by translating the operator into the exponential function and the nonemptiness constraint ≥1 into subtraction by one.
An alternative method for deriving the same generating function uses the recurrence relation for the Bell numbers in terms of binomial coefficients to show that the exponential generating function satisfies the differential equation . The function itself can be found by solving this equation.
Moments of probability distributions
The Bell numbers satisfy Dobinski's formula
This formula can be derived by expanding the exponential generating function using the Taylor series for the exponential function, and then collecting terms with the same exponent.
It allows Bn to be interpreted as the nth moment of a Poisson distribution with expected value 1.
The nth Bell number is also the sum of the coefficients in the nth complete Bell polynomial, which expresses the nth moment of any probability distribution as a function of the first n cumulants.
Modular arithmetic
The Bell numbers obey Touchard's congruence: If p is any prime number then
or, generalizing
Because of Touchard's congruence, the Bell numbers are periodic modulo p, for every prime number p; for instance, for p = 2, the Bell numbers repeat the pattern odd-odd-even with period three. The period of this repetition, for an arbitrary prime number p, must be a divisor of
and for all prime p ≤ 101 and p = 113, 163, 167, or 173 it is exactly this number .
The period of the Bell numbers to modulo n are
1, 3, 13, 12, 781, 39, 137257, 24, 39, 2343, 28531167061, 156, 25239592216021, 411771, 10153, 48, 51702516367896047761, 39, 109912203092239643840221, 9372, 1784341, 85593501183, 949112181811268728834319677753, 312, 3905, 75718776648063, 117, 1647084, 91703076898614683377208150526107718802981, 30459, 568972471024107865287021434301977158534824481, 96, 370905171793, 155107549103688143283, 107197717, 156, ...
Integral representation
An application of Cauchy's integral formula to the exponential generating function yields the complex integral representation
Some asymptotic representations can then be derived by a standard application of the method of steepest descent.
Log-concavity
The Bell numbers form a logarithmically convex sequence. Dividing them by the factorials, Bn/n!, gives a logarithmically concave sequence.
Growth rate
Several asymptotic formulas for the Bell numbers are known. In the following bounds were established:
for all positive integers ;
moreover, if then for all ,
where and
The Bell numbers can also be approximated using the Lambert W function, a function with the same growth rate as the logarithm, as
established the expansion
uniformly for as , where and each and are known expressions in .
The asymptotic expression
was established by .
Bell primes
raised the question of whether infinitely many Bell numbers are also prime numbers. The first few Bell numbers that are prime are:
2, 5, 877, 27644437, 35742549198872617291353508656626642567, 359334085968622831041960188598043661065388726959079837
corresponding to the indices 2, 3, 7, 13, 42 and 55 .
The next Bell prime is B2841, which is approximately 9.30740105 × 106538. , it is the largest known prime Bell number. Ignacio Larrosa Cañestro showed it was a probable prime in 2002. After 17 months of computation with Marcel Martin's ECPP program Primo, Ignacio Larrosa Cañestro proved it to be prime in 2004. He ruled out any other possible primes below B6000, later extended to B30447 by Eric Weisstein. The search was extended to B50000 by Václav Kotěšovec (05/18/2021).
History
The Bell numbers are named after Eric Temple Bell, who wrote about them in 1938, following up a 1934 paper in which he studied the Bell polynomials. Bell did not claim to have discovered these numbers; in his 1938 paper, he wrote that the Bell numbers "have been frequently investigated" and "have been rediscovered many times". Bell cites several earlier publications on these numbers, beginning with which gives Dobiński's formula for the Bell numbers. Bell called these numbers "exponential numbers"; the name "Bell numbers" and the notation Bn for these numbers was given to them by .
The first exhaustive enumeration of set partitions appears to have occurred in medieval Japan, where (inspired by the popularity of the book The Tale of Genji) a parlor game called genji-ko sprang up,
in which guests were given five packets of incense to smell and were asked to guess which ones were the same as each other and which were different. The 52 possible solutions, counted by the Bell number B5, were recorded by 52 different diagrams, which were printed above the chapter headings in some editions of The Tale of Genji.
In Srinivasa Ramanujan's second notebook, he investigated both Bell polynomials and Bell numbers.
Early references for the Bell triangle, which has the Bell numbers on both of its sides, include and .
See also
Touchard polynomials
Catalan number
Notes
References
.
.
.
Reprinted with an addendum as "The Tinkly Temple Bells", Chapter 2 of Fractal Music, Hypercards, and more ... Mathematical Recreations from Scientific American, W. H. Freeman, 1992, pp. 24–38
.
External links
Integer sequences
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201024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tukums
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Tukums
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Tukums (; ; ) is a town in the Courland region of Latvia. Three regions of Latvia meet in the vicinity of Tukums – Vidzeme, Zemgale and Courland.
History
The historical center of Tukums developed between trade routes leading from the mouth of the Daugava River to Prussia. The oldest part is today's Talsi Street that originated at the river named Zvirgzdupite where there used to be a castle mound with a wooden castle. Since 1253 Tukums was ruled by the Livonian Order.
A masonry castle was built on the bank of the Slocene river in the end of the 13th century. The castle was surrounded by settlements of German tradesmen and craftsmen. A marketplace was formed in front of the castle and some new streets appeared later running in various directions from the marketplace.
With the development of trade in the 16th century a new straighter trade route to Prussia was built along a new street that is called Liela (large) Street today which had an important role in the life of the settlement. As a result, public buildings, major businesses, workshops and small shops were built around the street making it the unofficial high street of the area.
After the disintegration of the Livonian Order a new state, the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was established. Like many other settlements Tukums had suffered greatly the numerous feudal wars. Under the rule of Duke Jacob (1642–1682) Tukums experienced a rapid economic boom.
At the time, a new trade route was built from Tukums to Jelgava, the capital of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. It was opened along today's Jelgavas Street and another route towards today's Raudas Street.
Inhabited by only 800 people at that time, the first dam was built and a lake made near the road to Jelgava which was followed by a flour mill and copper-making furnace which was then exported to foreign countries.
The new adornment of Tukums were the lake and the church spire which were added to the skyline in 1687.
After 1795, Courland was incorporated into the Russian Empire. In November of the same year the Russian Tsaritsa Katherine signed a document to divide Courland into regions and to grant regional center rights to several urban settlements, Tukums being one of them. The town borders were marked in 1800 and the first urban map was made two years later.
The town continued growing as it became home to 6 pubs and 131 private houses with around 690 male and 832 female inhabitants.
In 1806, the first school was opened while the street pavement was introduced in 1860. In 1875, street lighting were started with more rapid developments of the town being observed after the opening of the Riga-Tukums railway line in 1877. It is one of the lines connecting Tukums with neighboring town Ventspils.
There were 24 known enterprises functioning in Tukums in 1897 including tanneries, wood-carding mills, glue plants, potteries, food production facilities and the two windmills which are thought to have brought out the uniqueness of the townscape. The town eventually grew along with the rapid growth and development of these industries.
The rich are known to have built their houses in the eastern part around Elizabetes, Pils and Baznicas Streets, but the workers settled more to the West, forming an area of small houses surrounded by gardens. These areas of Tukums were further developed during the year in 1935.
In the beginning of the 1930s, there were 8000 inhabitants and 73 functioning industrial enterprises in Tukums.
In 2019, the town becomes home to the second largest tire recycling plant in Latvia.
Places near Tukums
The Engure parish by the city was host to the Soviet Navy Tukums air base. It was converted into a civilian airport.
Jaunpils Castle is the only fortified castle of the Order of Livonia that remains in Latvia. It was built in 1301. An exhibition hall and museum are located there on the history of the district. Jaunpils Lutheran Church which was built in 1592 is located near the castle.
Jaunmoku Palace (1901), from Tukums, surrounded by the Courlands hills, hosts an exhibition on forestry. Jaunmoku Palace is a combination of Art Nouveau elements and Neo-Gothic forms and was built as the country residence of George Armitstead, mayor of Riga (1901–12).
Durbe manor house, () rebuilt in 1820, is a classical style palace, surrounded by a landscaped park. A stone bridge across the ravine and a rotunda are located near the manor house.
The Schlokenbeck estate ensemble in Milzkalne, dating from the 15th century, is the only fortified manor house in Latvia. A museum on the history of broad building techniques and an exposition of horse gear is set up there.
In Zante region there is the highest peak of Tukums district – Smiltinkalns (153m), in the center of Zante there is a Red Army tank, evidence of the battles in "Courland Pocket" in 1944–1945.
The country of Zentene and Seme has the northern landscape of Courland – hills, curved roads, objects of nature and places of culture history.
The seashore of Tukums district has a length of , where old fishermen's huts alternate with modern villas, and sandy beaches interchange with rocky shores and meadows.
Kandava was the capital of the ancient Couronian state of Vanema. In the beginning of the 13th century, German knights built their castle there, though not much has been preserved from that time. In the Middle Ages, Kandava underwent numerous wars, fires and plague epidemics.
The Kandava hills are covered with dense forests and the Abava Rapids of the Abava River. Kandava marks the beginning of the run of the Abava Valley, which is often locally referred to as "Switzerland of Courland" in as early as the 19th century. Since January 2011, the valley has been on Latvia's Tentative World Heritage List, according to World Monuments Fund.
Places in Tukums
Museums
Castle Tower of Tukums – Brivibas square 19a
Durbe Manor house – M.Parka street 7
Jaunmokas Palace Museum – Jaunmokas
Jaunpils Museum – Jaunpils
Pastariņš Museum – Bisnieki, Zentene
Šlokenbeka Manor – Milzkalne
Tukums Museum – Harmonijas street 7
Notable people
Ronalds Arājs, Latvian athlete
Kristaps Blanks, football striker, Skonto FC and Latvian national football team player
Ādolfs Bļodnieks, Prime Minister of Latvia from 1933 – 1934
Līga Kļaviņa, Latvian heptathlete
Viktor Tsoi, Soviet Rock band Kino leader died near Tukums.
Dainis Kūla, javelin thrower and 1980 Olympic champion
Jevgēņijs Kosmačovs, FK Ventspils and Latvian national football team midfielder
Joe Magidsohn, Latvian-born American football player
Jānis Roze, Latvian biologist and philosopher
James Richman, Latvian-born investor and financier known for his investments in Facebook, Uber, and Tesla
Samanta Tīna, Latvian singer of Russian descent
Mārtiņš Staķis, [Mayor] of the [Rīga]
Artis Kampars, Minister for Economics from March 2009 – October 2011
Bertrams Zariņš, Latvian-born orthopedic surgeon at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard University
Adolf Behrman, Latvian painter
Twin towns — sister cities
Tukums is twinned with:
Andrychów, Poland
Bnei Ayish, Israel
Chennevières-sur-Marne, France
Izium, Ukraine
Karelichy, Belarus
Krasnogorsk, Russia
Plungė, Lithuania
Scheeßel, Germany
Tidaholm, Sweden
Newspapers
Neatkarīgās Tukuma Ziņas
Tukuma Ziņotājs
References
External links
Tukums City Official Website
Tukums Tourist Information Center
World Monuments Fund
Towns in Latvia
1795 establishments in Europe
Castles of the Teutonic Knights
Tuckum County
18th-century establishments in Latvia
Tukums Municipality
Courland
|
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201026
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20T%C3%B6lz-Wolfratshausen
|
Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen
|
Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen (Bavarian: Bad Däiz-Woifradshausn) is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) Austria and the districts of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Weilheim-Schongau, Starnberg, Munich and Miesbach.
History
The district was established in 1972 by merging the former districts of Bad Tölz and Wolfratshausen. Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen has two castles, Castle Hohenburg and Seeburg (Münsing).
Geography
Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen is one of the alpine districts on the German-Austrian borders. The valley of the Upper Isar River separates the Bavarian Alps from the Karwendel, a portion of the Alps mainly located in Austria. The highest peak of the district is the Schafreuter (2100 m).
The Isar River enters the district in the southwest and runs northwards passing the two main towns of the district, Bad Tölz and Wolfratshausen. In the high alpine south there are several mountain lakes: Walchensee (16 km2), Kochelsee (6 km2) and Sylvensteinsee (an artificial lake in the course of the Isar River). In the northwest the district borders on Lake Starnberg (Starnberger See).
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
the heraldic lion of the medieval county of Wolfratshausen
the blue and white checked pattern of Bavaria
the staffs symbolising the famous Benediktbeuern Abbey
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
|
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] |
201043
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half%20farthing
|
Half farthing
|
The British half farthing was a coin valued at of a pound sterling, or one eighth of a penny. It was minted in copper for use in Ceylon, but in 1842 was also declared legal tender in the United Kingdom. Two different obverses were used. Like all British coinage, it bore the portrait of the monarch on the obverse.
Before Decimal Day in 1971 there were two hundred and forty pence in one pound sterling. There were four farthings in a penny. Twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. forty-two pence would be three shillings and six pence (3/6), pronounced "three and six" or "three and sixpence". Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence, e.g. eight pence would be 8d. A price with a farthing in it would be written like this: (19/), pronounced "nineteen and elevenpence farthing".
History
The coin was initially produced in 1828 for use in Ceylon, and again in 1830. The obverse of the coin bears the left-facing portrait of King George IV, with the inscription GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA date while the reverse shows a seated Britannia with shield, facing right and holding a trident, with the inscription BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. There was no indication of its value. The coin was made of copper, weighed 2.4 grams, and had a diameter of 18 millimetres.
In 1837, in the reign of King William IV, there was another issue, also of copper, 18 millimetres in diameter, but only weighing 2.3 grams. The obverse of this coin bears the right-facing portrait of William IV with the inscription GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA 1837, and the same reverse as before.
In the reign of Queen Victoria, coins were minted for circulation in 1839, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1847, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1856. Again they were made of copper, 18 millimetres in diameter, and weighed 2.4 grams (except for 1856, which was 2.3 grams). The design changed considerably from what went before—the obverse bears the left-facing portrait of Queen Victoria, with the inscription VICTORIA D G BRITANNIAR REGINA F D , while the reverse bears a crown above the words HALF FARTHING with (1839) a rose with three leaves at the bottom of the coin, or (1842 and later) a rose, thistle, and shamrock.
The change in design was because the coin was additionally made legal tender in the United Kingdom from 13 June 1842. There was much cynicism of the need for such a coin in Britain, with letters written to The Times, but the coin did indeed circulate widely in Britain and Ceylon.
The purchasing value of a penny in 1844, at 2013 purchasing power, was (at its lowest) 35p (GB pound sterling). A half-farthing, therefore (one eighth of a penny) would have had a value in 2013 of 4.375p (GB Sterling pence). Yet, as of 2014, the UK still had widely circulating coins of just 1p and 2p. The half-farthing therefore was not of so minuscule a value as (middle-class) writers of the day (1844) might imagine. Unadjusted for inflation, its conversion to modern denominations would place it at slightly more than one twentieth of a decimal penny.
The entire denomination was demonetised from 1 January 1870.
References
Half Farthing
History of British coinage
|
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] |
201049
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris%20Becker
|
Boris Becker
|
Boris Franz Becker (, ; born 22 November 1967) is a German former world No. 1 tennis player. He was successful from the start of his career, winning the first of his six Grand Slam singles titles at age 17. His Grand Slam singles titles comprise three Wimbledon Championships, two Australian Opens and one US Open. He also won three year-end championships, 13 Masters Series titles and an Olympic gold medal in doubles. In 1989, he was voted the Player of the Year by both the ATP and the ITF. He is the first male player to appear in 7 Wimbledon finals, tied with Pete Sampras and Novak Djokovic, behind Roger Federer (12).
At times Becker struggled with his early success and fame, and his personal life has been turbulent. Since his playing career ended, he has engaged in numerous ventures, including coaching Novak Djokovic for three years, and playing poker professionally and working for an online poker company.
Early life
Boris Becker was born in Leimen, a town in the German state Baden-Württemberg, the son of Elvira and Karl-Heinz Becker. He was raised as a Catholic. His father Karl-Heinz, an architect, founded a tennis centre in Leimen, where Becker learned to play tennis. He received his secondary education at Helmholtz-Gymnasium in Heidelberg. His mother Elvira Becker, née Pisch hailed from the Moravian village of Kunín (Kunewald).
Tennis career
In 1974, Becker joined TC Blau-Weiß Leimen tennis club and began training under Boris Breskvar. By 1977, he was a member of the junior team of the Baden Tennis Association. He went on to win the South German championship and the first German Youth Tennis Tournament.
In 1978, he was chosen for the German Tennis Federation's top junior team by Richard Schönborn. According to Schönborn, the funding for Becker's training was put up by the German Tennis Federation at an expense of over 1.3 million DM. In 1981, he was included in the Federation's first men's team. In 1982, he won the doubles at the Orange Bowl International Tennis Championships.
Becker turned professional in 1984, under the guidance of Romanian-born coach Günther Bosch and Romanian manager Ion Ţiriac, and won his first professional doubles title that year in Munich. As a teenager, Becker won the Tennis World Young Masters at the NEC in Birmingham in 1985, before taking his first top-level singles title in June that year at Queen's Club. Two weeks later, on 7 July, he became the first unseeded player and the first German to win the Wimbledon singles title, defeating Kevin Curren in four sets. Becker was at that time ranked 20th in ATP ranking, and was unseeded, as at that time Wimbledon did not seed players beyond the top 16. He was the youngest ever male Grand Slam singles champion at (a record later broken by Michael Chang in 1989, who won the French Open when he was ). Two months after his triumph, Becker became the youngest winner of the Cincinnati Open. Becker has since said that "the plan from my parents for me was to finish school, go to university, get a proper degree and learn something respectful. The last thing on everyone's mind was me becoming a tennis professional."
In 1986, Becker successfully defended his Wimbledon title, defeating No. 1 Ivan Lendl in straight sets in the final. In 1987 Becker, then ranked 2, lost in the second round of Wimbledon to Peter Doohan, ranked 70. In the Davis Cup that year, Becker and John McEnroe played one of the longest matches in tennis history. Becker won 4–6, 15–13, 8–10, 6–2, 6–2 (at that time, there were no tiebreaks in the Davis Cup). The match lasted 6 hours and 22 minutes.
Becker contested the Wimbledon final in 1988, where he lost in four sets to Stefan Edberg in a match that marked the start of one of Wimbledon's great rivalries. Becker also helped West Germany win its first Davis Cup in 1988. He won the year-end Masters title in New York City, defeating five-time champion Lendl in the final. The same year he also won season ending WCT Finals for the rival World Championship Tennis tour, defeating Edberg in four sets.
In 1989, Becker won two Grand Slam singles titles, the only year he won more than one. After losing to Edberg in the French Open semifinals, he defeated Edberg in the Wimbledon final, and then beat Lendl in the US Open final. He also helped West Germany retain the Davis Cup, defeating Andre Agassi in the semifinal round. As a result, Becker was named Player of The Year by the ATP Tour. The No. 1 ranking, however, still eluded him.
In 1990, Becker met Edberg for the third consecutive year in the Wimbledon final, but this time lost in a long five-set match. He failed to successfully defend his US Open title, losing to Agassi in the semifinals. Becker reached the final of the Australian Open for the first time in his career in 1991, where he defeated Lendl to claim the No. 1 ranking. Another loss to Agassi in the French Open semifinals kept him from winning the first two Grand Slam tournaments of the year. He was ranked No. 1 for 12 weeks during 1991, though he never managed to finish a year with that ranking. Becker was ranked No. 2 during Wimbledon in 1991 and reached his fourth consecutive final there. However, he lost in straight sets to fellow German and No. 7 Michael Stich. Becker and Stich developed a fierce rivalry, with the media often comparing a passionate Becker to a more stoic Stich. However, Becker and Stich teamed up in 1992 to win the men's doubles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Barcelona.
In 1992, Becker won seven tour titles including his second ATP Tour World Championships defeating Jim Courier in four sets.
By 1993, issues back home over his courtship of and marriage to Barbara Feltus, whose mother was German and father was African-American, and tax problems with the German government, had caused Becker to slide into a severe mid-career decline.
By 1995 Becker had been in continual decline for half a decade. That year he reached the Wimbledon final for the seventh time, defeating Agassi in the semifinals. In the final, however, Becker, further fatigued after gruelling baseline contests with Cédric Pioline and then with Agassi, lost in four sets to Pete Sampras. He won the year-end ATP Tour World Championships for the third and last time in Frankfurt with a straight-set win over Michael Chang in the final. Becker's sixth and final Grand Slam title came in 1996 when he defeated Chang in the final of the Australian Open. After winning the Queen's Club Championships for the fourth time, Becker was widely expected to mount a serious challenge for the Wimbledon title in 1996, but his bid ended abruptly when he damaged his right wrist during a third-round match against Neville Godwin and was forced to withdraw.
Becker defeated Sampras in October 1996 in a five-set final in Stuttgart Masters. "Becker is the best indoor player I've ever played", said Sampras after the match. Becker lost to Sampras in the final of the 1996 ATP Tour World Championships in Hanover. Becker saved two match points in the fourth set and held serve 27 consecutive times until he was broken in the penultimate game. Later that year he won the Grand Slam Cup defeating Goran Ivanisevic in the final. In 1997, Becker lost to Sampras in the quarterfinals at Wimbledon. After that match, he vowed that he would never play at Wimbledon again. However, Becker played Wimbledon one more time in 1999, this time losing in the fourth round to Patrick Rafter.
Becker was most comfortable playing on fast-playing surfaces, particularly grass courts and indoor carpet (on which he won 26 titles). He reached a few finals playing on clay courts, but never won a clay-court tournament in his professional career. His best performances at the French Open were when he reached the semifinals in 1987, 1989, and 1991. Becker was close to winning a clay-court tournament in his last final on the surface, when he led Thomas Muster by two sets to love in the 1995 Monte Carlo Open final, and double-faulted on match point in the fourth-set tiebreaker.
Over the course of his career, Becker won 49 singles titles and 15 doubles titles. Besides his six Grand Slam titles, he was also a singles winner in the year-end Masters / ATP Tour World Championships in 1988, 1992, and 1995, the WCT Finals in 1988 and at the Grand Slam Cup in 1996. He won a record-equalling four singles titles at London's Queen's Club. In Davis Cup, his career win-loss record was 54–12, including 38–3 in singles. He also won the other two major international team titles playing for Germany, the Hopman Cup (in 1995) and the World Team Cup (in 1989 and 1998). He is the first male player to appear in 7 Wimbledon finals in the Modern Era, tied with Sampras and Djokovic, and behind the record 12 Wimbledon finals appearances by Federer.
Becker won singles titles in 14 different countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Qatar, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States. In 2003, he was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. He occasionally plays on the senior tour and in World Team Tennis. He has also worked as a commentator at Wimbledon for the BBC.
Playing style
Becker's game was based on a fast and well-placed serve, that earned him the nicknames "Boom Boom", "Der Bomber" and "Baron von Slam", and great volleying skills at the net. He could supplement his pure serve-and-volley game with brilliant athleticism at the net, which included the diving volley that was considered a trademark of the young German, and which endeared him to his fans. His heavy forehand and return of serve were also very significant factors in his game.
Becker occasionally deviated from his serve-and-volley style to try to out-hit, from the baseline, opponents who normally were at their best while remaining near the baseline. Even though Becker possessed powerful shots from both wings, this strategy was often criticized by commentators.
Becker had frequent emotional outbursts on court. Whenever he considered himself to be playing badly, he often swore at himself and occasionally smashed his rackets. In 1987, he was fined $2000 following a series of outbursts during the Australian Open in Melbourne, including breaking three rackets, "twice throwing the ball in an offensive manner at the umpire, hitting the umpire's chair on one occasion, spitting water in the direction of the umpire, and hitting three balls out of the court." Becker's highly dramatic play spawned new expressions such as the Becker Blocker (his trademark early return shot), the Becker Hecht (a flying lunge), the Becker Faust ("Becker Fist"), the Becker Shuffle (the dance he sometimes performed after making important points), and Becker Säge ("Becker Saw" – referring to the way in which he pumped his fists in a sawing motion).
Becker, one of the most effective players in his era on grass courts and carpet courts, had less success on clay. He never won a top-level singles title on clay, coming closest when holding two match points against Thomas Muster in the final of the 1995 Monte Carlo Open. Becker did, however, team up with Michael Stich to win the 1992 men's doubles Olympic gold medal on clay.
Equipment
Becker played most of his career with racquets from the German company Puma. After production of this racquet was discontinued, he bought the moulds and had them produced by the American company Estusa. He now has his own personal line of racquets and apparel.
Career statistics
Singles performance timeline
Records
These records were attained in Open Era of tennis.
Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.
^ Denotes consecutive streak.
Place in history
Tennis magazine ranked Becker the 11th best male player of the 1965–2005 period.
Professional awards
ITF World Champion: 1989.
ATP Player of the Year: 1989.
ATP Most Improved Player: 1985.
Post-retirement career
In 2012, Becker described his approach to retirement. "I had won so much by 22, a number of Wimbledon titles, US Open, Davis Cup, World number one. You look for the next big thing and that isn't in tennis."
Since 2000, Becker has been the principal owner of the tennis division of Völkl Inc., a tennis racquet and clothing manufacturer.
Becker published his autobiography, Augenblick, verweile doch... (en: The Player) in 2003. In May 2009, Becker announced the launch of online media platform Boris Becker TV. The website, in English and German, features clips from his career and footage of his daily life.
Since 2002, Becker has been a commentator for the BBC at Wimbledon (apart from the period when he coached Djokovic). From October 2005 to June 2006, he was a team captain on the British TV sports quiz show They Think It's All Over. He appeared on the second episode of series 16 of the BBC's car show Top Gear as the Star in a Reasonably Priced Car. As of 2017, Becker is also an analyst on Fox Sports Australia's Wimbledon magazine program The Daily Serve.
In 2005 and in other years he repeatedly took part in various show matches and, like Michael Stich, also assessed in his own country the situation of young german players at Marc Engelhard on Osradio 104.8.
On 23 August 2017, Becker was named the head of men's tennis of the German Tennis Federation.
After his tennis career, Becker has been on the economic advisory board of Bayern Munich for ten years.
Becker is a patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation.
Tax evasion
Becker had deliberately made false statements in his tax returns in order to save DM 3.3m. At the beginning of his trial in 2002, Becker admitted that he lived in Munich between 1991 and 1993, although he was officially registered in Monaco. However, he emphasized that he could not be accused of withholding income or engaging in criminal machinations.
At the same time, Becker emphasized that he did not occasionally live in a classic apartment in Munich, but in a spartan room. He was also warned about buying the apartment, but ignored the warnings. The court assessed the fact that Becker paid around €3m for the period from 1991 to 1995 to settle his tax debt as mitigating the penalty. In addition, the process took eight years and was a heavy burden on Becker.
The Munich District Court sentenced him on 24 October 2002 for tax evasion to spend two years in prison, the execution of which was suspended. In addition, he was sentenced to pay a fine of 300,000 euros and another 200,000 euros to various charitable institutions.
Poker
Becker is a noted poker player and has appeared in the European Poker Tour and the World Poker Tour; by 2013 he had won more than €90,000 in career earnings from poker. From November 2007 to mid-May 2013, Becker was a member of the celebrity team for the online poker platform PokerStars, where he participated in professional poker tournaments. Becker made his first appearance as a poker amateur at a tournament in Monte Carlo in April 2008. In mid-April, he reached the Main Event of the World Poker Tour at the Bellagio and finished the tournament in 40th place, winning more than $40,000 in prize money. In August 2011, he came 97th at the European Poker Tour in Barcelona, winning €8,000. In April 2013 he again took part in the EPT Main Event, this time in Berlin, coming 49th with a win of €15,000. As of August 2018, Becker has made tournament earnings of over $100,000 and was ranked 132,133rd in the Global Poker Index. He has become an ambassador for the partypoker online poker platform, playing under the nickname Boris__Becker.
Coaching Novak Djokovic
In December 2013, Novak Djokovic announced on his website that Boris Becker would become his head coach for the 2014 season. As a result, Becker gave up his commentating job with the BBC. In December 2016, Djokovic and Becker parted ways. Over the three seasons they worked together, Becker contributed to Djokovic's six Grand Slam titles and 14 Masters 1000 titles. They also won the 2016 French Open, something Becker had never done himself.
Bankruptcy
On 21 June 2017, Becker was declared bankrupt by the Bankruptcy and Companies Court in London. The order arose when a 2015 debt owed to private bank Arbuthnot Latham for nearly $14 million was not paid in full before an assigned deadline, and there was no realistic expectation that it would be paid. Becker denied to the Neue Zürcher Zeitung that he is "broke" or that he owes former business adviser Hans-Dieter Cleven any money; Cleven filed suit in a Switzerland court claiming he is owed $41 million.
In June 2018, Becker's lawyers claimed their client had diplomatic immunity in the bankruptcy case due to his appointment as the Central African Republic's (CAR) "Attache for Sports/Humanitarian/Cultural Affairs in the European Union." Charles-Armel Doubane, the CAR's Foreign Minister, countered that Becker was "not an official diplomat for the Central African Republic", that the role of attaché for sports "does not exist", and that the CAR passport produced by Becker was one of a batch that had been stolen in 2014. In September 2019, the German businessman Stephan Welk who provided the passport was detained for possible fraud.
On 21 May 2019, Smith & Williamson announced that it has instructed its agent Wyles Hardy to auction Becker's trophies and memorabilia on 11 July 2019. On 24 June 2019, it was reported that Becker was forced to auction off 82 collectables from his personal collection, including a Goldene Kamera award and his trophy from the 1989 US Open, in order to pay out creditors. On 11 July 2019, an online auction was held selling off Becker's memorabilia, which raised £687,000, according to the company dealing with his bankruptcy.
On 5 November 2019, the bankruptcy restrictions were extended for an additional 12 years, until 16 October 2031, after Becker was judged to have been hiding assets and transactions worth over £4.5 million.
Personal life
Becker lives in Wimbledon, within walking distance of the championship grounds.
In addition to Munich, Monaco and Schwyz, Becker has an apartment in Wimbledon, and possibly still maintains a residence in Miami, to be near his children.
Becker is not related to fellow German professional tennis players Benjamin Becker or Richard Becker.
Relationships
After Becker lost to Peter Doohan in the second round of the 1987 Wimbledon Championships, it was rumoured that he had been too distracted by his girlfriend, Benedicte Courtin, the daughter of the Chief of Police of Monaco. As a result, the British tabloids dubbed him "Bonking Boris".
On 17 December 1993, Becker married model Barbara Feltus, then eight months pregnant, at the registry office of his hometown of Leimen. On 18 January 1994, their son Noah Gabriel, named after Becker's friends Yannick Noah and Peter Gabriel, was born. Their second child, Elias Balthasar, was born on 4 September 1999. Before the marriage, they shocked some in Germany by posing nude for the cover of Stern in a picture taken by her father.
After Becker asked Barbara for a separation in December 2000, she flew to Miami, Florida, with Noah and Elias and filed a divorce petition in Miami-Dade County Court, sidestepping their prenuptial agreement which had entitled her to a single $2.5 million payoff. Barbara left for Florida after being contacted by a woman claiming to be pregnant with Becker's child. In his autobiography, Becker stated that he admitted to his wife that he had had a one-night stand with another woman while Barbara was pregnant with their second child. He wrote that Barbara struck him during an argument that occurred after he flew to Florida to meet with her and discuss the break-up of their marriage. The pretrial hearing in January 2001 was broadcast live to Germany. When Becker testified, Barbara's lawyers, for whom he was paying, made him out to be a cad. The couple had dinner every night during the hearing. Becker was granted a divorce on 15 January 2001: Barbara received a $14.4 million settlement, their condominium on exclusive Fisher Island, Florida, and custody of their children.
In February 2001, Becker acknowledged paternity of a daughter, Anna, with Russian waitress Angela Ermakova, after media reported that he had a child as a result of a sexual encounter in 1999. The episode allegedly took place at London's Nobu restaurant. He had allegedly been drinking following his loss to Pat Rafter in the fourth round of the 1999 Wimbledon Championships. Becker initially denied paternity, claiming he only had oral sex with Ermakova. His lawyers claimed that Ermakova had stolen his sperm and used it to inseminate herself after the encounter. Subsequently, he reversed his stance and accepted fatherhood. Some time after that, a DNA test confirmed he was the father. In November 2007, he obtained joint custody of Anna after expressing concerns over how Ermakova was raising her.
Becker was briefly engaged to in 2008. Her father, Axel Meyer-Wölden, was Becker's former adviser and manager. The couple broke up in November 2008.
In February 2009, on the German ZDF TV show Wetten, dass..?, Becker announced that he and Dutch model Sharlely "Lilly" Kerssenberg were to be married on 12 June 2009 in St Moritz, Switzerland. In August, they announced that they were expecting a child. Their son, Amadeus Benedict Edley Luis Becker, was born in London on 10 February 2010. The child is named after Becker's wife's uncle Edley, and his friend, Mexican-Cuban millionaire Luis Garcia Fanjul, who is also the child's godfather. In May 2018, Lilly and Becker announced that they had separated after nine years of marriage.
Since July 2019, reports appeared that Becker is dating British model Layla Powell.
See also
Becker–Edberg rivalry
References
Further reading
External links
1967 births
Australian Open (tennis) champions
German expatriates in Monaco
German expatriates in Switzerland
German expatriates in the United Kingdom
German expatriates in the United States
German poker players
German people convicted of tax crimes
German male tennis players
German Roman Catholics
German tennis coaches
Hopman Cup competitors
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
Living people
Olympic gold medalists for Germany
Olympic medalists in tennis
Olympic tennis players of Germany
People from Leimen (Baden)
People from Wimbledon, London
Sports coaches from Miami
Tennis players from Miami
Tennis people from Baden-Württemberg
Tennis commentators
Tennis players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
US Open (tennis) champions
West German male tennis players
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles
Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Novak Djokovic coaches
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201052
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Female%20Rock%20Vocal%20Performance
|
Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance
|
The Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance was an award presented at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards, to female recording artists for works (songs or albums) containing quality vocal performances in the rock music genre. Honors in several categories are presented at the ceremony annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position".
Originally called the Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female, the award was first presented to Donna Summer in 1980. Beginning with the 1995 ceremony, the name of the award was changed to Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. However, in 1988, 1992, 1994, and since 2005, this category was combined with the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance and presented in a genderless category known as Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo. The solo category was later renamed to Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance beginning in 2005. This fusion has been criticized, especially when female performers are not nominated under the solo category. The Academy has cited a lack of eligible recordings in the female rock category as the reason for the mergers. While the award has not been presented since the category merge in 2005, an official confirmation of its retirement has not been announced.
Pat Benatar, Sheryl Crow, and Tina Turner hold the record for the most wins in this category, with four wins each. Melissa Etheridge and Alanis Morissette have been presented the award two times each. Crow's song "There Goes the Neighborhood" was nominated twice; one version from the album The Globe Sessions was nominated in 1999 (but lost to Morissette's song "Uninvited"), and a live version from the album Sheryl Crow and Friends: Live from Central Park was nominated and won in 2001. Since its inception, American artists have been presented with the award more than any other nationality, though it has been presented to vocalists from Canada three times. Stevie Nicks holds the record for the most nominations without a win, with five.
Recipients
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
Award was combined with the Best Male Rock Vocal Performance category and presented in a genderless category known as Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo.
See also
American rock
List of female rock singers
List of music awards honoring women
References
General
Note: User must select the "Rock" category as the genre under the search feature.
Specific
External links
Official site of the Grammy Awards
1980 establishments in the United States
2004 disestablishments in the United States
Awards disestablished in 2004
Awards established in 1980
Female Rock Vocal Performance
Music awards honoring women
|
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] |
201056
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideograph%20%28rhetoric%29
|
Ideograph (rhetoric)
|
An ideograph or virtue word is a word frequently used in political discourse that uses an abstract concept to develop support for political positions. Such words are usually terms that do not have a clear definition but are used to give the impression of a clear meaning. An ideograph in rhetoric often exists as a building block or simply one term or short phrase that summarizes the orientation or attitude of an ideology. Such examples notably include <liberty>, <freedom>, <democracy> and <rights>. Rhetorical critics use chevrons or angle brackets (<>) to mark off ideographs.
The term ideograph was coined by rhetorical scholar and critic Michael Calvin McGee (1980) describing the use of particular words and phrases as political language in a way that captures (as well as creates or reinforces) particular ideological positions. McGee sees the ideograph as a way of understanding of how specific, concrete instances of political discourse relate to the more abstract idea of political ideology. Robertson defines ideographs as “political slogans or labels that encapsulate ideology in political discourse.” Meanwhile, Celeste Condit and John Lucaites, influenced by McGee, explain, “Ideographs represent in condensed form the normative, collective commitments of the members of a public, and they typically appear in public argumentation as the necessary motivations or justifications for action performed in the name of the public.” Ideographs are common in advertising and political discourse.
Definition
McGee uses the term in his seminal article “The ‘Ideograph’: A Link Between Rhetoric and Ideology” which appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Speech in 1980. He begins his essay by defining the practice of ideology as practice of political language in specific contexts—actual discursive acts by individual speakers and writers. The question this raises is how does this practice of ideology create social control.
McGee’s answer to this is to say that “political language which manifests ideology seems characterized by slogans, a vocabulary of ‘ideographs’ easily mistaken for the technical terminology of political philosophy.” He goes on to offer his definition of “ideograph”: “an ideograph is an ordinary-language term found in political discourse. It is a high order abstraction representing commitment to a particular but equivocal and ill-defined normative goal.”
An ideograph, then, is not just any particular word or phrase used in political discourse, but one of a particular subset of terms that are often invoked in political discourse but which does not have a clear, univocal definition. Despite this, in their use, ideographs are often invoked precisely to give the sense of a clearly understood and shared meaning. This potency makes them the primary tools for shaping public decisions. It is in this role as the vocabulary for public values and decision-making that they are linked to ideology.
Examples
There is no absolute litmus test for what terms are or are not ideographs. Rather, this is a judgment that must be made through the study of specific examples of discourse. However, McGee (and others who have followed him) have identified several examples of ideographs or virtue words in Western liberal political discourse, such as <liberty>, <property>, <freedom of speech>, <religion>, and <equality>. In each case, the term does not have a specific referent. Rather, each term refers to an abstraction which may have many different meanings depending on its context. It is in their mutability between circumstances that give the terms such rhetorical power. If the definition of a term such as <equality> can be stretched to include a particular act or condition, then public support for that act or condition is likely to be stronger than it was previously.
By encapsulating values which are perceived to be widely shared by the community, but which are in fact highly abstract and defined in very different ways by individuals, ideographs provide a potent persuasive tool for the political speaker. McGee offers the example of Richard Nixon’s attempt to defend his decision not to turn over documents to Congress during the Watergate scandal by invoking “the principle of confidentiality.” Recognizing that his refusal to submit to Congress could be seen as a violation of the "rule of law", Nixon pitted "the principle of confidentiality” against the “rule of law,” despite the fact that these two ideographs would, in the abstract, not likely be seen as in conflict with one another. Nixon, in an attempt to expand the understanding of “the principle of confidentiality” to cover his own specific refusal to cooperate with Congress, used the abstractness of the term to his benefit, claiming that right to confidentiality was the more central term.
While the term has remained mostly in this sphere of academic rhetorical criticism, some political consultants and practitioners are becoming savvy to this art.
Ideographs appear in advertising and political campaigns regularly, and are crucial to helping the public understand what is really being asked of them. For example, “equality” is a term commonly used in political discourse and rarely defined. It can refer to a situation in which all people have the same opportunities, or a condition in which social resources are distributed uniformly to different individuals and groups. The former is the more commonly used definition in US history, according to Condit & Lucaites, although in a socialist or left-leaning political state, the term may refer foremost to the distribution of social resources. Condit and Lucaites depict the racial facet of equality as the dominant meaning in an American context of political discourse, since 1865.
Another important ideograph used specifically by U.S. presidents Barack Obama and George W. Bush after the 9/11 attacks is <terrorism>. The term does not have a clear or specific definition, but when applied to the context in the fear-stricken country after the devastating attacks in 2001, this term held significant weight and meaning to Americans all across the country. Kelly Long explores Obama’s discourse on the <War on Terror> and states that “by developing an ideological justification for the conflicts that the United States was involved in at the time, Obama remedied much of the damage done by the Bush administration”. Obama justified the <War on Terror> by addressing the nation and saying that in order to protect the <rule of law> and <democratic values>, we must fight against <terrorism>. Obama used this term to his advantage and made <terrorism> appear to be a common enemy and fighting back was the common cause. This use of the ideograph unified the country creating a sense of identity for American citizens, “defining what the nation stands for and against. The term divides those who are civilized from those who are uncivilized, those who defend economic freedom from those who would attack America’s way of life and those who support democracy from those who would disrupt it”.
Marouf Hasian discusses how key ideographs representative of a society’s commitments change over time, particularly in the name of <liberty>, <equality>, or <privacy> epitomized in eugenics. From the 1900s-1930s, Americans justified the restriction of reproductive rights based on medical, social, economic, and political considerations, but were appalled when the Nazis used some of the same arguments in their creation of the “perfect race".
While rhetorical critics identify these terms as ideographs, political leaders viewed each other’s terms as "glittering generalities,” as Lincoln first identified his opponent's words.
In addition to practitioners, corporate marketing and political consulting use key terms in this way, concentrating on the image and branding of terms. For example, Frank Luntz tests audience reaction to certain words or phrases using dial technology, a mechanism which instantaneously shows moment by moment reactions to speeches or presentations. This research has been extremely beneficial to his clients, as they can utilize ideographs as "trigger words" in an advertising campaign.
Importance
There are three primary ways in which the concept of the ideograph is important to rhetorical critics. First, it suggests a way of studying political ideology using concrete instances of language use. By showing how looking at specific uses of key words and phrases in political language reveal underlying ideological commitments, McGee offers a concrete method for understanding the highly abstract concept of ideology.
Second, the definition of the ideograph makes clear that the rhetorical study of a term is different from a legal, historical, or etymological study of a term. Unlike other perspectives that focus on how a term has changed over time, a rhetorical study of a term focuses on the forces involved in the creation of these meanings. In short, a rhetorical study of a term is the study of the use of that term in practice.
This leads to a third key aspect of what the concept of the ideograph offers to rhetorical critics. McGee notes that the study of a term must not, and should not, be limited to its use in “formal discourse.” Instead, the critic is much more likely to gain a better understanding of an ideograph by looking at how it is used and depicted in movies, plays, and songs, as well as how it is presented in educational texts aimed at children. This moves the study of ideology beyond the limits of social philosophy or even political discourse as traditionally conceived (i.e., “great speeches by great men”).
Cultural variability
"An ideograph is a culturally biased, abstract word or phrase drawn from ordinary language, which serves a constitutional value for a historically situated collectivity."
There exists a culturally-specific understanding in each culture about what an ideograph means. Ideographs in rhetoric are culturally specific but recur inter-culturally; meaning the understanding of one ideograph can be used and interpreted differently across cultures. The idea may be different from culture to culture, but this doesn’t mean some aspects won’t be the same in one or more cultures. Such as the concept of femininity that exists cross-culturally to define ideas about women, yet one can expect these ideas from culture to culture.
Critical use
At the end of his essay defining the ideograph, McGee says that
“A complete description of an ideology . . . will consist of (1) the isolation of a society’s ideographs, (2) the exposure and analysis of the diachronic structure of every ideography, and (3) characterization of synchronic relationships among all the ideographs in a particular context.”
Such an exhaustive study of any ideology has yet to materialize, but many scholars have made use of the ideograph as a tool of understanding both specific rhetorical situations as well as a broader scope of ideological history. As a teacher, McGee himself made use of the ideograph as a tool for structuring the study of the rise of liberalism in British public address, focusing on ideographs such as <property>, <patriarchy>, <religion>, <liberty>. Other scholars have made a study of specific uses of ideographs such as <family values> and <equality>. Some critics have gone beyond the idea that an ideograph must be a verbal symbol and have expanded the notion to include photographs. and objects represented in mass media.
See also
Essentially contested concept
Loaded language
References
Further reading
Pineda, R. D., & Sowards, S. K. (2007). Flag waving as visual argument: 2006 immigration demonstrations and cultural citizenship. Argumentation & Advocacy, 43(3/4), 164-174.
Potter, J. E. (2014). Brown-skinned outlaws: An ideographic analysis of "illegal(s)". Communication, Culture & Critique, 7(2), 228-245.
Rhetoric
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201062
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Rock%20Performance%20by%20a%20Duo%20or%20Group%20with%20Vocal
|
Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
|
The Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal was awarded between 1980 and 2011.
The award was discontinued after the 2011 award season in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. Beginning in 2012, all solo or duo/group performances (including instrumental performance) in the rock category were shifted to the newly formed Best Rock Performance category.
U2 holds the record for most awards with a total of seven, followed by Aerosmith with a total of four.
Recipients
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
See also
List of Grammy Award categories
References
Note: User must select the "Rock" category as the genre under the search feature.
External links
Official site of the Grammy Awards
Grammy Awards for rock music
Awards disestablished in 2011
Awards established in 1980
Music-related lists
|
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201063
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third%20farthing
|
Third farthing
|
The third farthing was a British coin ( of a penny, of a pound) which was produced in various years between 1827 and 1913.
The coin was produced in 1827 exclusively for use in Malta, but it is considered to be part of the British coinage as at that time Malta was considered more as a part of Britain than a colony and there was no indication on the coin identifying it as specifically for use in Malta. The farthing coin was already in circulation in Malta, as a 3 grani coin, and the third farthing was introduced as 1 grano (). A proclamation issued in Malta on 3 November 1827 legalised the new coins, referring to them as British Grains. The cost of living in Malta was lower than in Britain, and it was not considered appropriate to introduce them in Britain.
The obverse of the 1827 coin bears the left-facing portrait of King George IV, with the inscription GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA 1827 while the reverse shows a seated Britannia with shield, facing right and holding a trident, with the inscription BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. There was no indication of its value. The coin was made of copper, weighed 1.5 to 1.6 grams, and had a diameter of 16 millimetres.
In 1835, in the reign of King William IV there was another issue, also of copper, 16 millimetres in diameter, and weighing 1.5 to 1.6 grams. The obverse of this coin bears the right-facing portrait of William IV with the inscription GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA 1835, and the same reverse as before.
Comparatively few coins were needed for Malta in the reign of Queen Victoria, so copper third farthings were only minted in 1844, to the same physical standards as before—the obverse shows a left-facing portrait of Victoria inscribed VICTORIA DEI GRATIA 1844 and the reverse shows the seated Britannia with the inscription BRITANNIAR REG FID DEF.
By the time a further mintage of the denomination was needed, in 1866, the coins were made of bronze, and were only 15 millimetres in diameter, weighing between 0.9 and 1.0 gram. The inscription around the Queen's head this time was VICTORIA D G BRITT REG F D, while the design of the reverse contained a crown over the words ONE THIRD FARTHING date within a wreath. The issue was repeated in 1868, 1876, 1878, 1881, 1884, and 1885.
At the start of the reign of King Edward VII, in 1902 a further £100 worth of the denomination (i.e. 288,000 coins) was produced, to the same standards and reverse design as before. The obverse shown the right-facing head of King Edward VII and the inscription EDWARDVS VII D G BRITT OMN REX F D IND IMP.
In 1913 a final issue of £100 worth of coins was made, bearing the left facing head of King George V with the inscription GEORGIVS V D G BRITT OMN REX F D IND IMP on the obverse, and the same reverse design, size and weight as before.
A third-farthing's conversion to current sterling denominations would place it at slightly more than 0.13 of a decimal penny. Allowing for inflation however, the third-farthing would have a purchasing power of between 4p and 5p (£0.04 to £0.05) expressed in 2017 values.
See also
British coinage.
External links
British Coins - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum.
Coins of the United Kingdom
History of British coinage
Crown Colony of Malta
1827 establishments in Malta
1913 disestablishments in Malta
Coins of Malta
|
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201071
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarter%20farthing
|
Quarter farthing
|
The British quarter farthing (d) coin was a unit of currency equalling one sixteenth of a pre-decimal penny ( of a pound sterling). It was produced for circulation in Ceylon in various years between 1839 and 1853, with proof coins being produced in 1868. It is the smallest denomination of pound sterling coin ever minted. The coin is considered to be part of British coinage because it has no indication of what country it was minted for, being made in the same style as the contemporary half-farthing which was legal tender in Britain between 1842 and 1869.
Coins were minted in 1839, 1851, 1852, 1853, and the proof issue of 1868. The 1839–53 coins were made of copper, weighed and had a diameter of . So, £1 worth of quarter farthings weighed 10 avoirdupois pounds (). The 1868 coins were made of bronze or cupro-nickel, but weighed the same and had the same diameter.
The obverse bears the left-facing portrait of Queen Victoria, with the inscription , while the reverse bears a crown above the words with a rose with three leaves at both sides at the bottom of the coin.
A quarter-farthing's conversion to current sterling denominations would place it at slightly more than one fortieth of a decimal penny. Allowing for inflation however, the quarter farthing would have a purchasing power of between 3p and 4p (£0.03 to £0.04) expressed in 2017 values.
References
External links
British Coins – information about British coins (from 1656 to 1952)
Coins of Great Britain
Pre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom
Coins of the United Kingdom
|
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201074
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%2022%20%28Haydn%29
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Symphony No. 22 (Haydn)
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Symphony No. 22 in E major, Hoboken I/22, is a symphony written by Joseph Haydn in 1764, under the auspices of the benign Prince Nikolaus Esterházy. Its nickname is "The Philosopher" (German "Der Philosoph").
Composition and premiere
The composition date of 1764 appears on the autograph manuscript, which survives. Haydn composed the work during his tenure as Vice-Kapellmeister at the court of Prince Nicolaus Esterházy. As Vice-Kapellmeister Haydn was in charge of all but religious music in the Esterházy household; in particular he was the leader of the orchestra and was expected to compose symphonies for it to perform. This ensemble numbered about fifteen players. The intended audience (except on special occasions such as the Prince's name day) consisted only of the Prince and his guests; thus "very often Haydn's orchestra would have outnumbered the listeners." (Jones 1990:18).
Jones suggests that the first performance venue may have been what is today called the "Haydnsaal", a large hall at the family palace in Eisenstadt "having a very resonant acoustic". Other candidates were somewhat smaller halls in the other primary Esterházy palaces, at Vienna and Kittsee.
The nickname "The Philosopher"
The name ("the Philosopher") is not on the original manuscript and is unlikely to have come from Haydn himself. "Le Philosoph" appears on a manuscript copy of the symphony found in Modena dated 1790; thus the nickname dates from the composer's own lifetime. The title is thought to derive from the melody and counterpoint of the first movement (between the horns and cor anglais), which musically allude to a question followed by an answer and paralleling the disputatio system of debate. The piece's use of a muted tick-tock effect also evokes the image of a philosopher deep in thought while time passes by. As Jones notes, the nickname "becomes less appropriate as the symphony proceeds and earnestness gives way to high spirits."
Scoring
The work is scored for two cors anglais (English horns), two horns, and strings. The use of the cor anglais in place of the (related, but higher-pitched) oboe is more than unusual; indeed McVeigh (2009:386) suggests that it is "the only symphony in the entire history of the genre to use this scoring". The horns play a prominent role in all but the second movement, and Haydn's choice of E major may have been dictated by the fact that the valveless horns of the time sounded best when played as E instruments (that is, with E crooks inserted).
Form
The symphony is in four movements:
Adagio,
Presto,
Menuet e Trio,
Finale: Presto,
This slow-fast-slow-fast sequence of tempos corresponds to the sonata da chiesa of the Baroque era, although the musical language of the piece is classical. As with other early Haydn symphonies that use this tempo scheme, all of the movements are in the same key. The first, second, and fourth movements are in sonata form and the third is the customary minuet and trio in ternary form.
The first movement is the highlight of the symphony and features horns answered by cors anglais over a walking bass line. The violins play with mutes. H. C. Robbins Landon calls it "surely one of the settecento'''s supremely original concepts". Played with all the indicated repeats, it lasts about 10 minutes, almost half the duration of the symphony as a whole.
The second movement is extroverted, in very fast tempo, and features virtuosic playing from the string section. As commentators have pointed out, this movement would be too fast and light to begin a classical symphony on its own, but fits well after a slow opening movement. Later in Haydn's symphonic career, the same effect would be achieved by placing a light opening theme after a slow introduction.
As McVeigh notes, the opening theme of the third movement echoes that of the first, resembling an extended rendition of it in minuet tempo. The trio section features writing in the high register for the two horns.
The last movement is one of the earliest examples of a "hunting finale" that would later be used in symphonies such as No. 65 and No. 73 "La Chasse".
Second version
Another version of the piece, well known in Haydn's time, was published by the Venier firm in Paris. This version has three movements with the second movement of the original version coming first, followed by a different movement that is marked andante grazioso in and concluding with the same finale as in the original version. The second movement (catalogued as H. I:22bis) is thought to be spurious, and arrangement as a whole not Haydn's own. H. C. Robbins Landon suggests that this arrangement was likely made to the original composition due to the "strangely original" adagio and the existence of cors anglais, which were not available in many areas. It is precisely these elements that make this symphony so popular, so this version is seldom performed in modern times.
See also
List of symphonies by name
Notes
References
Jones, David Wyn (1990) "Joseph Haydn: Symphonies from 1764-1765". Program notes to a recording made by Christopher Hogwood and issued by Oiseau-Lyre; CD 430082-2.
Jones, David Wyn (2009) "Venier". In David Wyn Jones, ed., Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jones, David Wyn (2009) List of works. In David Wyn Jones, ed., Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McVeigh, Simon (2009) "Symphony". In David Wyn Jones, ed., Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
Symphony 022
1764 compositions
Compositions in E-flat major
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] |
201077
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StarLAN
|
StarLAN
|
StarLAN was the first IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet over twisted pair wiring. It was standardized by the standards association of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) as 802.3e in 1986, as the 1BASE5 version of Ethernet. The StarLAN Task Force was chaired by Bob Galin.
Description
An early version of StarLAN was developed by Tim Rock and Bill Aranguren at AT&T Information Systems as an experimental system in 1983.
The name StarLAN was coined by the IEEE task force based on the fact that it used a star topology from a central hub in contrast to the bus network of the shared cable 10BASE5 and 10BASE2 networks that had been based on ALOHANET.
The standard known as 1BASE5 was adopted as 802.3e in 1986 by members of the IEEE 802.3 standards committee as the Twisted Pair Medium Access Control sublayer and Physical Signalling sublayer specification in section 12.
The original StarLAN ran at a speed of 1 Mbit/s.
A major design goal in StarLAN was reduction in Ethernet installation costs by the reuse of existing telephone on-premises wiring and compatibility with analog and digital telephone signals in the same cable bundle. The signal modulation and wire pairing used by StarLAN were carefully chosen so that they would not affect or be affected by either the analog signal of a normal call, on hook and off hook transients, or the 20 Hz high-voltage analog ring signal. Reuse of existing wires was critical in many buildings where rewiring was cost prohibitive, where running new wire would disturb asbestos within the building infrastructure, and where the bus topology of coaxial bus Ethernet was not installable.
The wire positioning called T568B in the standard TIA/EIA-568 (later called ANSI/TIA-568) was originally devised for StarLAN, and pair 1 (blue) was left unused to accommodate an analog phone pair. Pairs 2 and 3 (orange and green respectively) carry the StarLAN signals. This greatly simplified the installation of combined voice and data wiring in countries that used registered jack connectors and American wiring practices for their phone service (connecting both to the same cable was a simple matter of using a pin–pin RJ45 splitter or punching down the same wires to two ports). This arrangement prevented harm to private branch exchange (PBX) equipment in the event that a StarLAN cable was plugged into the wrong device.
Since 1BASE5 reused existing wiring, maximum link distance was only approximated at 250 m; depending on cable performance up to 500 m was possible. Up to five chained hubs were allowed.
Parts of the StarLAN technology were patented by AT&T and were initially part of a wider vision from AT&T to link their UNIX-based AT&T 3B2 minicomputers to a network of MS-DOS PCs. A StarLAN card was also offered for the AT&T UNIX PC.
StarLAN 10
In 1988, AT&T released StarLAN 10 operating at 10 Mbit/s. The original StarLAN was renamed StarLAN 1, reflecting its 1 Mbit/s speed.
It was adopted by other networking vendors such as Hewlett-Packard and Ungermann-Bass.
Integrated circuits were introduced starting in 1986 that reduced the cost of the interfaces.
StarLAN 10 and SynOptics LattisNet provided the basis for the later 10 megabit per second standard 10BASE-T. The 10BASE-T task force was chaired by Pat Thaler, a member of the StarLAN task force. 10BASE-T used the basic signalling of StarLAN 10 and added link beat. Some network interface cards such as the 3Com 3C-523 could be used with either StarLAN 10 or 10BASE-T, by switching link beat on or off.
References
Ethernet
|
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] |
201078
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteucci%20effect
|
Matteucci effect
|
Matteucci effect is one of the magnetomechanical effects, which is thermodynamically inverse to Wiedemann effect. This effect was described by Carlo Matteucci in 1858. It is observable in amorphous wires with helical domain structure, which can be obtained by twisting the wire, or annealing under twist. The effect is most distinct in the so-called 'dwarven alloys' (called so because of the historical cobalt element etymology), with cobalt as main substituent.
See also
Magnetostriction
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy
References
Magnetism
Magnetic ordering
|
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] |
201080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiedemann%20effect
|
Wiedemann effect
|
The twisting of a ferromagnetic rod through which an electric current is flowing when the rod is placed in a longitudinal magnetic field. It was discovered by the German physicist Gustav Wiedemann in 1858
. The Wiedemann effect is one of the manifestations of magnetostriction in a field formed by the combination of a longitudinal magnetic field and a circular magnetic field that is created by an electric current. If the electric current (or the magnetic field) is alternating, the rod will begin torsional oscillation.
In linear approach angle of rod torsion α does not depend on its cross-section form and is defined only by current density and magnetoelastic properties of the rod:
,
where
is current density;
is magnetoelastic parameter, proportional to longitudinal magnetic field value;
is the shear modulus.
Applications
Magnetostrictive position sensors use the Wiedemann effect to excite an ultrasonic pulse. Typically a small magnet is used to mark a position along a magnetostrictive wire. The magnetic field from a short current pulse in the wire combined with that from the position magnet excites the ultrasonic pulse. The time required for this pulse to travel from the point of excitation to a pickup at the end of the wire gives the position. Reflections from the other end of the wire could lead to disturbances. In order to avoid this the wire is connected to a mechanical damper that end.
See also
Matteucci effect the inverse effect
Magnetostriction
Magnetomechanical effects for a collection of similar effects
References
Magnetism
Magnetic ordering
|
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201082
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Booth
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William Booth
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William Booth (10 April 182920 August 1912) was an English Methodist preacher who, along with his wife, Catherine, founded the Salvation Army and became its first "General" (1878–1912). The Christian movement with a quasi-military structure and government founded in 1865 has spread from London, England, to many parts of the world and is known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid. In 2002, Booth was named among the 100 Greatest Britons in a BBC poll.
Conversion and early ministry
William Booth was born in Sneinton, Nottingham, the second son of five children born to Samuel Booth and his second wife, Mary Moss. Booth's father was relatively wealthy by the standards of the time, but during William's childhood, the family descended into poverty. In 1842, Samuel Booth, who could no longer afford his son's school fees, apprenticed the 13-year-old William Booth to a pawnbroker. Samuel Booth died on 23 September 1842.
Two years into his apprenticeship Booth was converted. He then read extensively and trained himself in writing and in speech, becoming a Methodist local preacher. Booth was encouraged to be an evangelist primarily through his best friend, Will Sansom. Sansom and Booth both began in the 1840s to preach to the poor and the sinners of Nottingham, and Booth would probably have remained as Sansom's partner in his new Mission ministry, as Sansom titled it, if Sansom had not died of tuberculosis, in 1849.
When his apprenticeship ended in 1848, Booth was unemployed and spent a year looking in vain for work. In 1849, Booth reluctantly left his family and moved to London, where he again found work with a pawnbroker. Booth tried to continue lay preaching in London, but the small amount of preaching work that came his way frustrated him, and so he resigned as a lay preacher and took to open-air evangelising in the streets and on Kennington Common.
In 1851, Booth joined the Reformers (Methodist Reform Church), and on 10 April 1852, his 23rd birthday, he left pawnbroking and became a full-time preacher at their headquarters at Binfield Chapel in Clapham. William styled his preaching after the revivalist American James Caughey, who had made frequent visits to England and preached at the church in Nottingham where Booth was a member, Broad Street Chapel. Just over a month after he started full-time preaching, on 15 May 1852, William Booth became formally engaged to Catherine Mumford.
Interested in the Congregationalist approach, Booth consulted David Thomas at Stockwell about the ministry. Through Thomas, he met John Campbell and then James William Massie. The recommendation was training under Rev. John Frost; but Booth disliked Frost's school, and left shortly. In November 1853, he was invited to become the Reformers' minister at Spalding, in Lincolnshire. He married Catherine Mumford on 16 June 1855 at Stockwell Green Congregational Church in London.
Though Booth became a prominent Methodist evangelist, he was unhappy that the annual conference of the denomination kept assigning him to a pastorate, the duties of which he had to neglect to respond to the frequent requests that he do evangelistic campaigns. At the Liverpool conference in 1861, after having spent three years at Gateshead, his request to be freed for evangelism full-time was refused yet again, and Booth resigned from the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion.
Soon he was barred from campaigning in Methodist congregations, so he became an independent evangelist. His doctrine remained much the same, though; he preached that eternal punishment was the fate of those who do not believe the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the necessity of repentance from sin, and the promise of holiness. He taught that this belief would manifest itself in a life of love for God and mankind. The Ethical characteristic of William Booth's business ventures was evident in the manufacture of boxes of Salvation Army matches which bore the slogan "Lights in darkest England, Security from fire, Fair wages for fair work". His match factory on Old Ford paid 4 pence a gross, while the larger firms only paid 2 1/2 pence.
The Christian Mission
The tent was set up on an old Quaker burial ground on Mile End Waste in Whitechapel, with an initial goal to deliver the good news to all.
By 1865, Booth and his wife Catherine had opened 'The Christian Revival Society' in the East End of London, which held regular evening meetings to share the repentance that Booth believed Christian salvation could bring both the poor and marginalised. The Christian Revival Society was later renamed The Christian Mission, subsequently to become the East London Christian Mission.
The Christian Mission's slow growth was hard work for Booth; His wife writes that he would "stumble home night after night haggard with fatigue, often his clothes were torn and bloody bandages swathed his head where a stone had struck[.]"
Evening meetings were held in an old warehouse where urchins threw stones and fireworks through the window. Outposts were established throughout the city, attracting converts, but the Christian Mission remained just one of the five hundred charitable groups working in London's East End.
Booth practised various types of charity himself, such as opening "Food for the Million" (soup kitchens).
The Salvation Army
Having been founded as the East London Christian Mission in 1865, the name The Salvation Army developed from an incident in May 1878. William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, "We are a volunteer army." Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, "Volunteer, I'm no volunteer, I'm a regular!" Railton was instructed to cross out the word "volunteer" and substitute the word "salvation".(The printer's proof copy of the Missions' report for 1878 declared "The Christian Mission Is A Volunteer Army", but the corrected proof read "The Christian Mission Is ... A Salvation Army") The Salvation Army was modelled after the military, with its own flag (or colours) and its own music, often with Christian words to popular and folkloric tunes sung in the pubs. Booth and the other soldiers in "God's Army" would wear the army's own uniform, 'putting on the armour,' for meetings and ministry work. He became the "General" and his other ministers were given appropriate ranks as "officers". Other members became "soldiers".
Though the early years were lean ones, with the need of money to help the needy an ever growing issue, Booth and The Salvation Army persevered. In the early 1880s, operations were extended to other countries, notably the United States, France, Switzerland, Sweden and others, including to most of the countries of the British Empire: Australia, Canada, India, Cape Colony, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.
Often the beginnings in other countries occurred through "salvationist" activities by non-officers who had emigrated. With some initial success they would contact London to 'send officers.'
In other cases, like in Argentina, a non-salvationist told Booth that there were thousands of British people there who needed salvation. The four officers sent in 1890 found that those British were scattered all over the pampas. But the missionaries started ministry in the Spanish language and the work spread throughout the country – initially following the rail-road development, since the British in charge of building the rail-roads were usually sympathetic to the movement.
During his lifetime, William Booth established Army work in 58 countries and colonies, travelling extensively and holding, "salvation meetings."
Booth regularly published a magazine and was the author of a number of books; he also composed several songs. His book In Darkest England and the Way Out not only became a best-seller after its 1890 release, it set the foundation for the army's modern social welfare approach. It compared what was considered "civilised" England with "Darkest Africa" – a land then considered poor and backward. What Booth suggested was that much of London and greater England after the Industrial Revolution was not better off in the quality of life than those in the underdeveloped world.
He proposed a strategy to apply the Christian Gospel and work ethic to the problems. The book speaks of abolishing vice and poverty by establishing homes for the homeless, farm communities such as Hadleigh Farm where the urban poor can be trained in agriculture, training centres for prospective emigrants, homes for fallen women and released prisoners, aid for the poor, and help for drunkards. He also lays down schemes for poor men's lawyers, banks, clinics, industrial schools and even a seaside resort. He says that if the state fails to meet its social obligations it will be the task of each Christian to step into the breach. However, Booth was not departing from his spiritual convictions to set up a socialist or communist society or sub-class, supported by people forced to finance his plans; Booth's ultimate aim was to get people "saved."
Booth asserts in his introduction,
It was asserted in some circles that In Darkest England was actually written by the crusading journalist, W. T. Stead, who, in his own words, acted as a "literary hack" for the General when Mrs. Booth lay dying. However, this assumption was swiftly dismissed by Stead some years later, declaring that, "The idea of Darkest England ... was the General's own. My part, of which I had no wish to speak ... was strictly subordinate throughout."
In Darkest England and the Way Out was reprinted several times and lately in 2006.
There are also other works that have focused on the impact and significance of In Darkest England. For example, marking the 125th anniversary of the publication of In Darkest England, the book Darkness and Deliverance: 125 Years of the Darkest England Scheme contains fifteen chapters from leading and emerging authors that explore various historical aspects and future implications of the Darkest England scheme.
Opposition
During its early years The Salvation Army faced a great deal of opposition, especially from those in the alcohol-selling industry who were concerned that the activities of Booth and his followers would persuade the poorer classes to stop drinking. One group opposed to Booth and The Salvation Army was the Skeleton Army, a diffuse group, particularly in Southern England, that opposed and disrupted The Salvation Army's marches against alcohol from the early 1880s until about 1892. Clashes between the two groups lead to the deaths of several Salvationists and injuries to many others. During 1882 alone 662 Salvation Army soldiers were assaulted: 251 of them were women and 23 of them were under fifteen years of age.
Other accusations centred around the fact that Booth appointed his own children to posts for which others were better qualified, leading to claims that The Salvation Army was a Booth family-business. For example, he appointed his daughter Emma Booth as the Principal of the Officers' Training Home, The Salvation Army's first training school for women when she was just 19. While William Booth had once said to his children that "The Salvation Army does not belong to you, or to me, it belongs to the world" and was very wary of the leadership of the army becoming a dynasty, others believed that Booth was creating a dynasty, as was suggested by the fact that he insisted that his sons-in-law added 'Booth' to their own names (see Frederick Booth-Tucker and Arthur Booth-Clibborn). This was further borne out when Booth appointed his son, Bramwell Booth, as his successor as General in his will.
The press was often hostile to Booth and The Salvation Army as well because their methods and message were widely misinterpreted. The army's motto "Blood & Fire", which had deep theological meaning representing the saving "blood of Jesus" and the sanctifying "fire of the Holy Spirit", was erroneously thought to mean the blood of sinners and the fire of hell. There was also suspicion about the army's motives, with Booth often portrayed as a charlatan only out to make money.
The Church of England was at first also extremely hostile to the activities of Booth and The Salvation Army. The philanthropist, politician, and evangelist Lord Shaftesbury even went so far as to describe Booth as the "Anti-Christ". One of the main complaints against Booth was his "elevation of women to man's status". Many found him dictatorial and hard to work with. Some of his own children denounced him as their leader and turned their backs on The Salvation Army, including his daughter Kate Booth and his sons Herbert and Ballington Booth, the latter founding a separate organisation, the Volunteers of America with himself as "General". The evangelist Rodney "Gipsy" Smith left him because of his rigidity and D. L. Moody would not support him because he felt there was a threat to the local church. But no one could deny his compassion for the sufferings of his fellow man.
Later years
Opinion of The Salvation Army and William Booth eventually changed to that of favour. In his later years, he was received in audience by kings, emperors and presidents, who were among his ardent admirers. Even the mass media began to use his title of 'General' with reverence.
In 1899, Booth suffered from blindness in both eyes, but with a short rest, was able to recover his sight. In 1904 he took part in a "motorcade" when he was driven around Great Britain, stopping off in cities, towns and villages to preach to the assembled crowds from his open-top car. In 1906 Booth was made a Freeman of the City of London, and was granted an honorary degree from the University of Oxford. In 1902 he was invited to attend the coronation of King Edward VII.
He made his last visit to North America in 1907, and in 1909 he embarked on a six-month motor tour of the United Kingdom. During this tour he discovered he was blind in his right eye and the sight in his left eye was dimmed by cataracts. The rest of the tour had to be cancelled. On 21 August 1909 a surgeon at Guy's Hospital removed his right eye. Despite this setback, in 1910 Booth campaigned in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. On his return to England, he embarked on his seventh and last motor tour.
Death
William Booth died at age 83 on 20 August 1912 (or, in Salvationist parlance, was Promoted to Glory) at his home in Hadley Wood, London. His body lay in state for three days at Clapton Congress Hall where 150,000 people filed past his casket. On 27 August 1912, Booth's funeral service was held at London's Olympia where 40,000 people attended, including Queen Mary, who sat almost unrecognised far to the rear of the great hall. In a letter to Bramwell Booth, King George V wrote: "The nation has lost a great organizer and the poor a whole-hearted and sincere friend." United States President William Taft wrote "[Booth's] long life and great talents were dedicated to the noble work of helping the poor and weak and giving them another chance to attain success and happiness." Media agencies around the world reported on Booth's death, including the Daily Express in the United Kingdom, The South African in South Africa, the Globe and Mail in Canada, and the New York Times in the United States.
Booth's funeral procession began at the Salvation Army's international headquarters as 10,000 uniformed Salvationists fell in behind. Forty Salvation Army bands played the "Dead March" from Handel's Saul as the vast procession set off. He was buried with his wife Catherine Booth in the main London burial ground for 19th-century non-conformist ministers and tutors, the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in Stoke Newington.
Upon Booth's death, his son, Bramwell Booth, became the 2nd General of The Salvation Army. It was William Booth's intention to have each general choose his successor. However, Generals of the Salvation Army are now elected by the High Council of The Salvation Army.
Legacy
In Booth's honour, Vachel Lindsay wrote the poem, "General William Booth Enters into Heaven". Charles Ives, who had been Evangeline Booth's neighbour, set the poem to music. In 1990 a diesel locomotive in the British Rail fleet was named 'The William Booth'.
The William Booth rose, developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honour. The William Booth Memorial Training College in Denmark Hill, London, the College for Officer Training of The Salvation Army in the United Kingdom, is named after him, as is the William Booth Primary School in his native Nottingham and William Booth Lane in central Birmingham. Many Salvation Army training colleges, schools, orphanages hospitals and other institutions around the world bear his name.
Statues of each of the Booths by George Edward Wade were erected on Champion Hill in London, next to the Salvation Army's training college in London in 1929. Replicas of these statues stand in the Mile End Road, close to the site of the first Salvation Army meeting: that of William was unveiled in 1979, and that of Catherine in 2015.
In his honour One Mile End, a brewery from East London created a craft beer called Salvation! Pale Ale. The beer is sold in a couple of pubs including the White Hart Brewpub, only a few meters away from the statue of William Booth on Mile End Road.
Mount William Booth in Alberta, Canada was named after Booth.
William is remembered (with Catherine) in the Church of England with a commemoration on 20 August.
Children of William and Catherine Booth
William Booth and Catherine Mumford were married on 17 June 1855 at Stockwell New Chapel, at that time part of Surrey. They had eight children:
Bramwell Booth (8 March 185616 June 1929)
Ballington Booth (28 July 18575 October 1940)
Kate Booth (18 September 18589 May 1955)
Emma Booth (8 January 186028 October 1903)
Herbert Booth (26 August 186225 September 1926)
Marie Booth (4 May 18645 January 1937)
Evangeline Booth (25 December 186517 July 1950)
Lucy Booth (28 April 186818 July 1953)
Gallery
Works
Literature
In Darkest England and The Way Out Diggory Press,
Purity of Heart Diggory Press,
Boundless Salvation: The Shorter Writings of William Booth, Edited by Andrew M. Eason and Roger J. Green. New York: Peter Lang, 2012.
Sergeant-Major Do-Your-Best of Darkington No. I: Sketches of the Inner Life of a Salvation Army Corps 1906
"Founder Speaks Again" Salvation Army, 1 Dec 1960.
Music
O Boundless Salvation (1893)
Send the Fire (1894)
Bless His Name He Sets Me Free, which was set to a popular music-hall song of the time, Champagne Charlie.
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
"General Booth", a biographical portrait by John McLure Hamilton from Men I Have Painted (1921).
Yaxley, Trevor. 2003. William and Catherine: The Life and Legacy of the Booths: Founders of the Salvation Army. Bethany House.
Le Feuvre, Cathy. 2013. William and Catherine: A Love Story Told Through Their Letters. Monarch Books.
Seaman, Matthew (ed). 2016. Darkness and Deliverance: 125 Years of the Darkest England Scheme''. Salvo Publishing / Chaordic Creative
External links
Biographical Data on General William Booth
Books by William Booth
Recording of William Booth reading Please Sir, Save Me (1906) – a British Library sound recording (EU users only)
Christian Today Profile
1829 births
1912 deaths
19th-century Christian saints
19th-century English clergy
19th-century English Christian theologians
19th-century Methodist ministers
19th-century Protestant theologians
Anglican saints
British evangelicals
British humanitarians
Burials at Abney Park Cemetery
Christian revivalists
Christianity in London
Converts to Methodism from Anglicanism
English evangelicals
English Methodist ministers
English Salvationists
Methodist Church of Great Britain people
Methodist theologians
People from Sneinton
Salvation Army officers
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201083
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B4ng%20%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c%20M%E1%BA%A1nh
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Nông Đức Mạnh
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Nông Đức Mạnh (; born 11 September 1940) is a Vietnamese politician who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the most powerful position in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, from 22 April 2001 to 19 January 2011. His parents were Tày peasants. Nông Đức Mạnh was born in Cường Lợi, Na Rì District, Bắc Kạn Province. His own son is Nông Quốc Tuấn, party secretary for Bắc Giang Province.
Background
It has long been rumoured that Nông Đức Mạnh is the illegitimate son of Hồ Chí Minh (1890–1969) and Nông Thị Trưng (1921–2003), Hồ's housekeeper from 1941–42. This story may have been a factor in his selection as party leader. In a profile of Mạnh published in the official press immediately after he gained this position, Trưng was identified as his mother.
Nông Đức Mạnh's official biography gives his date of birth as 11 September 1940, born in a peasant family, he is Tày ethnic group when Hồ Chí Minh was still in China. Ho returned to Vietnam in February 1941 and met Trưng in July. Hồ wrote a four-line poem for Trưng in 1944, and gave her a notebook as "a token of my love".
This poem was later taught to elementary school students. In April 2001, shortly after Nông Đức Mạnh was named as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam , a reporter at a news conference asked him to confirm or deny the rumor. He responded, "All Vietnamese people are the children of Uncle Hồ." When asked again about the rumor in January 2002 by a Time Asia reporter, he denied he was Hồ's son and stated that his father was named Nông Văn Lại and his mother Hoàng Thị Nhị.
Early life and political career
In 1958–61, Nông Đức Mạnh attended the Hanoi Higher School. From 1962–63, he worked as a forestry supervisory technician in the Bắc Kạn Forestry Service. He joined the Communist Party on 5 July 1963 and received full membership on 10 July 1964. From 1963–65, Mạnh was the deputy chief of the Bạch Thông wood exploitation team; he later returned to his studies, learning Russian at the Hanoi Foreign Languages College (from 1965–66). He traveled to Leningrad, where he studied at the Forestry Institute until 1971. After returning to Vietnam, he became the deputy head of the Bắc Thái provincial forestry inspection board.
From 1973–74, Nông Đức Mạnh served as director of the Phú Lương State Forestry Camp in Bắc Thái province. From 1974–76, he studied at the Nguyễn Ái Quốc High-Level Party School. From 1976–80, he served as the deputy director of the provincial forestry service and director of the construction company of the provincial forestry service. Rising through the party ranks, Mạnh was a member of the Bắc Thái Provincial Party Committee from 1976–83. In 1984, he was named deputy secretary of the committee, and in November 1986, the secretary of the committee. At the 6th National Congress he was elected as an alternate member of the Central Committee. At the sixth party plenum in March 1989, he was elevated to full central committee member. Since 1991, he has been in the politburo. From 23 September 1992, he was Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam, thereby being one of the youngest when standing on the stage of honor of a Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam.
Nông Đức Mạnh was selected General Secretary of the Communist Party in April 2001. His term was renewed in April 2006. He retired on 19 January 2011 after 11th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam He is the first Vietnamese party head with a university degree. He announced his plans for Vietnam's future as an industrialised country, to be completed by 2020.
References
1939 births
People from Bắc Kạn Province
Tày people
Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National Assembly (Vietnam)
Vietnamese expatriates in the Soviet Union
Saint-Petersburg State Forestry University alumni
Living people
Communist rulers
General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam
Members of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam
Ho Chi Minh
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] |
201085
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20French-language%20authors
|
List of French-language authors
|
Chronological list of French language authors (regardless of nationality), by date of birth. For an alphabetical list of writers of French nationality (broken down by genre), see French writers category.
Middle Ages
Turold (eleventh century)
Wace (1110 – c.1180)
Chrétien de Troyes (c.1135 – c.1183)
Richard the Lionheart (Richard Coeur de Lion) (1157–1199)
Benoît de Sainte-Maure (12th-century)
Herman de Valenciennes (12th-century)
Le Châtelain de Couci (d.1203)
Jean Bodel (12th century – c.1210)
Conon de Béthune (c.1150–1220)
Geoffroi de Villehardouin (c.1160 – c.1213)
Béroul (c.1170)
Thomas d'Angleterre (c.1170)
Aimeric de Peguilhan (c.1170 -c. 1230)
Gace Brulé (c.1170)
Marie de France (c.1175)
Gautier de Coincy (1177/8–1236)
Gautier de Dargies (c.1170–after 1236)
Gautier d'Espinal († before July 1272)
Gillebert de Berneville (fl c.1255)
Gontier de Soignies (fl c.1180–1220)
Guiot de Dijon (fl c.1200–30)
Perrin d'Angicourt (fl c.1245–50)
Jean Renart (fl. late 12th-first half of 13th century)
Philippe de Rémi (c.1205–c1265)
Philippe de Beaumanoir (c.1247–c1296)
Raoul de Soissons (c.1215–1272)
Richard de Fournival (1201– c.1260)
Andrieu Contredit d'Arras († c.1248)
Jehan le Cuvelier d'Arras (fl c.1240–70)
Guillaume le Vinier (fl c.1220–45; †1245)
Audefroi le Bâtard (fl c.1200–1230)
Jehan Bretel (c.1200–1272)
Jehan Erart († c.1259)
Moniot d'Arras (fl c.1250–75)
Robert de Clari (late twelfth century)
Blondel de Nesle (late twelfth century)
Robert de Boron (twelfth–thirteenth century)
Guiot de Provins (d. after 1208)
Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late twelfth-early thirteenth century)
Guillaume de Lorris (c.1200 – c.1238)
Theobald IV of Champagne (1201–1253)
Jean de Joinville ( c.1224 – c.1317)
Rutebeuf (c.1230 – c.1285)
Adam de la Halle (c.1250 – c.1285)
Jean de Meung or Jean de Meun (1250 – c.1305) or Jean Clopinel or Chopinel
Jacques Bretel (c. 1285 – c. 1310)
Jean Le Bel (c.1290–1370)
Colin Muset (end of thirteenth century)
Guillaume de Machaut ( c.1300 – c.1377)
Nicole Oresme (1325–1382)
Philippe de Mézières (c.1327–1405)
Jean Froissart (1333 – c.1404)
Eustache Deschamps (c.1346 – c.1407)
Jean Charlier called Gerson (1363–1429
Christine de Pisan (1364–1430)
Alain Chartier (c.1385 – c.1435)
Jean Juvénal des Ursins (1388–1473)
Antoine de la Sale (1388 – c.1469)
Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c.1390 – c.1453)
Charles, duc d'Orléans (1394–1465)
Fifteenth century
Martin Le Franc (c.1410–1461)
Eustache Marcadé (1414–1440)
Georges Chastellain (1415–1475)
Olivier de la Marche (1425–1502)
Martial d'Auvergne ( c.1430–1508)
François Villon (c.1431–after 1463)
Jean Michel (c.1435–1501)
Jean Molinet (1435–1507)
Philippe de Commines (1445–1511)
Jean Marot (1450–1526)
Lefèvre d'Etaples (1455–1537)
Guillaume Crétin (Guillaume Dubois) (1460–1525)
Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1468–1505)
Guillaume Budé (1468–1540)
Jean Meschinot (active from 1450–1490)
Guillaume Alexis (active from 1450–1490)
Jean Lemaire de Belges (1473 – c.1525)
Pierre Gringore or Gringoire (c.1475–1538/1539)
François Rabelais (c.1483–1553)
Aliénor de Poitiers (fl.1484)
Mellin de Saint-Gelais (c.1491–1558)
Marguerite de Navarre (c.1492–1549)
Clément Marot (c.1496–1544)
Sixteenth century
1500–1549
Bonaventure des Périers (c.1500–1544)
Maurice Scève (c.1505 – c.1562)
Michel de l'Hospital (1505–1573)
Étienne Dolet (1509–1546)
Jean Calvin (1509–1564)
Hélisenne de Crenne (Marguerite Briet de Crenne) (c.1510–after 1552)
Pierre Viret (1511–1571)
Charles de Sainte-Marthe (1512–1555)
Thomas Sébillet (c.1512–1589)
Jacques Amyot (1513–1593)
Jacques Peletier du Mans (1517–1582)
Théodore de Bèze (1519–1605)
Pierre de Saint-Julien de Balleure (1519–1593)
Denis Sauvage (1520–1587)
Noël du Fail (1520–1591)
Pernette Du Guillet (c.1520–1545)
Jacques Yver (1520–1570)
Gilles de Gouberville (1521–1578)
Pontus de Tyard or de Thiard (1521–1605)
Joachim du Bellay (1522–1560)
Pierre de Ronsard (1524–1585)
Pierre Boaistuau (?–1566)
Louise Labé (c.1526 – c.1565)
Rémy Belleau (1528–1577)
Étienne Pasquier (1529–1615)
Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563)
Claude Fauchet (1530–1601)
Jean Bodin (1530–1596)
François de Belleforest (1530–1583)
Henri Estienne (1531–1598)
Jean Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589)
Étienne Jodelle (1532–1573)
Michel de Montaigne (Michel Eyquem, seigneur de Montaigne) (1533–1592)
Jean de la Taille (c.1533/1540 – c.1617)
Robert Garnier (1534–1590)
Nicolas Rapin (1535–1608)
Jacques Grévin (1538–1570)
Olivier de Serres (1539–1619)
Pierre Pithou (1539–1596)
Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme (1540–1614)
Pierre de Larivey (1540–1619)
Florent Chrestien (1540–1596)
Pierre Charron (1541–1603)
Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas (1544–1590)
Antoine du Verdier (1544–1600)
Philippe Desportes (1546–1606)
Pierre de L'Estoile (1546–1611)
Jean de La Ceppède (1548–1623)
Philippe Duplessis-Mornay (Philippe de Mornay, called Duplessis-Mornay) (1549–1623)
1550–1599
Benigne Poissenot (c.1550–?)
François d'Amboise (1550–1619)
Odet de Turnèbe (1552–1581)
Jean Bertaut (1552–1611)
Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné (1552–1630)
François de Malherbe (1552–1630)
Jacques Davy Du Perron (1556–1618)
François Béroalde de Verville (1556–1626)
Guillaume du Vair (1556–1621)
Jean de Sponde (1557–1595)
Maximilien de Béthune, baron de Rosny, duc de Sully (1560–1641)
Alexandre Hardy (1560/1570 – c.1632)
Nicolas de Montreux (1561–1608)
Pierre Matthieu (1563–1621)
Eustache de Refuge, seigneur de Précy et de Courcelles (1564–1617)
Saint François de Sales (1567–1622)
Honoré d'Urfé (1567–1625)
Scipion Dupleix (1569–1661)
Sylvestre de Laval (1570–1616)
Antoine de Nervèze (c.1570–after 1622)
Nicolas des Escuteaux (after 1570 – c.1628)
François du Souhait (between 1570 & 1580–1617)
Jean Ogier de Gombaud (1570–1666)
Antoine de Balinghem (1571–1630)
Mathurin Régnier (1573–1613)
Nicholas Camusat (1575–1655)
Antoine de Montchrestien (c.1575–1621)
Henri, duc de Rohan (1579–1638)
Saint Vincent de Paul (1581–1660)
Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, abbé de Saint-Cyran (1581–1643)
François Maynard (1582–1646)
Jean-Pierre Camus (1584–1652)
Francis Garasse (1585–1631)
Jean de Schelandre (c.1585–1635)
François de La Mothe-Le-Vayer (1588–1672)
Honorat de Bueil, seigneur de Racan (1589–1670)
Bertrand de Loque (1589)
Théophile de Viau (1590–1626)
Marc Gilbert de Varennes (1591–1660)
François le Métel de Boisrobert (1592–1662)
Antoine Gérard de Saint-Amant (1594–1661)
Jean Chapelain (1595–1674)
Jean Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595–1676)
René Descartes (1596–1650)
Claude de Malleville (1597–1647)
Vincent Voiture (1597–1648)
Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac (1597–1684)
Seventeenth century
1600–1649
Nicolas de Bralion (1600–1672)
Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1600–1674)
Georges de Scudéry (1601–1667)
François Tristan l'Hermite (1601–1655)
Guy Patin (1601–1672)
Jean de Bernieres-Louvigny (1602–1659)
Charles Sorel (1602–1674)
Charles Cotin (1604–1682)
Jean Mairet (1604–1686)
François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac (1604–1676)
Pierre du Ryer (1605–1658)
Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy (1605–1675)
Jean François Sarrazin (1605–1654)
Pierre Corneille (1606–1684)
Antoine Gombaud, chevalier de Méré (1607–1685)
Madeleine de Scudéry (1607–1701)
Jean Rotrou (1609–1650)
Paul Scarron (1610–1660)
François-Eudes de Mézeray (1610–1683)
Charles de Saint-Evremond (c.1610–1703)
Antoine Arnauld (1612–1694)
Isaac de Benserade (1612–1691)
Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz (1613–1679)
François de La Rochefoucauld (1613–1680)
Gauthier de Costes, seigneur de la Calprenède (1614–1663)
Georges de Brébeuf (1618–1661)
Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, called Bussy-Rabutin (1618–1693)
Cyrano de Bergerac (Hector-Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac) (1619–1655)
Antoine Furetière (1619–1688)
Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux (1619–1692)
Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695)
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) (1622–1673)
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)
Jean Renaud de Segrais (1624–1701)
Paul Pellisson (1624–1693)
Thomas Corneille (1625–1709)
Samuel Chappuzeau (1625–1701)
Madame de Sévigné (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné) (1626–1696)
Laurent Drelincourt (1626–1680)
Jacques Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704)
Gabriel-Joseph de La Vergne, comte de Guilleragues (1628–1685)
Charles Perrault (1628–1703)
Pierre Daniel Huet (1630–1721)
Louis Bourdaloue (1632–1704)
Esprit Fléchier (1632–1710)
Jacques Pradon (1632–1698)
Madame de Villedieu (Marie-Catherine-Hortence Desjardins, marquise de Villedieu) (1632–1683)
Madame de Lafayette (Marie-Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette) (1634–1693)
Pierre Thomas, sieur du Fossé (1634–1698)
Philippe Quinault (1635–1688)
Nicolas Boileau (1636–1711)
Edmé Boursault (1638–1701)
Antoinette du Ligier de la Garde Deshoulières (1638–1694)
Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715)
Jean Donneau de Visé (1638–1710)
Philippe de Courcillon, marquis de Dangeau (1638–1720)
Claude Estiennot de la Serre (1639–1699)
Guillaume Amfrye de Chaulieu (1639–1720)
César Vichard de Saint-Réal (1639–1692)
Jean Racine (1639–1699)
Claude de Fleury (1640–1723)
Louis Moréri (1643–1680)
Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras (1644–1712)
Anne de La Roche-Guilhem (1644–1707)
Jean de La Bruyère (1645–1696)
Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert ( c.1646–1714)
Antoine Galland (1646–1715)
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706)
Joseph Anthelmi (1648–1697)
1650–1699
Madame d'Aulnoy (Marie-Catherine le Jumelle de Barneville, Baronne d'Aulnoy) (1651–1705)
François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon (1651–1715)
Louis Du Four de Longuerue (1652–1733)
Charlotte-Rose de Caumont La Force (Mademoiselle de La Force) (1650–1724)
Louis Legendre (1655–1733)
Jean-François Regnard (1655–1709)
Jean Galbert de Campistron (1656–1723)
Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657–1757)
Louis (or Jean) de Mailly (1657-1724)
Henri de Boulainvilliers (1658–1712)
François Armand Gervaise (1660–1761)
Charles Rollin (1661–1741)
Florent Carton Dancourt (1661–1725)
Jean-François Foucquet (1665–1741)
Alain-René Lesage (1668–1747)
Jacques Bouillart (1669–1726)
Jean-Baptiste Rousseau (1670–1741)
Jean-Baptiste Dubos (1670–1742)
Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (Crébillon père) (1674–1762)
Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon (1675–1755)
Jean-François Boyer (1675–1755)
Philippe Néricault Destouches (1680–1754)
Claudine Alexandrine Guérin de Tencin (Madame de Tencin) (1681–1749)
Jérôme Besoigne (1686–1763)
Marivaux (Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux) (1688–1763)
Alexis Piron (1689–1773)
Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu) (1689–1755)
Louis Petit de Bachaumont (1690–1771)
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) (1694–1778)
René-Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, marquis d' Argenson (1694–1757)
Françoise de Graffigny (1695–1758)
Antoine François Prévost (Antoine Francois Prevost d'Exiles) a/k/a Abbé Prévost (1697–1763)
Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand (1697–1780)
Denis-François Camusat (1697–1732)
Eighteenth century
1700–1749
Charles Pinot Duclos (1704–1772)
Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (Crébillon, fils) (1707–1777)
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon) (1707–1788)
Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709–1751)
Gabriel Bonnot de Mably (1709–1785)
Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset (1709–1777)
Jean-Jacques Lefranc, marquis de Pompignan (1709–1784)
Charles-Simon Favart (1710–1792)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
Denis Diderot (1713–1784)
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1714–1780)
Marie Jeanne Riccoboni (Madame Riccoboni) (1714–1792)
Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771)
Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues) (1715–1747)
François-André-Adrien Pluquet (1716–1790)
Jean-François de Saint-Lambert (1716–1803)
Louis Carrogis Carmontelle (1717–1806
Jean Le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783)
Michel-Jean Sedaine (1719–1797)
Antoine Henri de Bérault-Bercastel (1720–c.1794)
Jacques Cazotte (1720–1792)
Denis Dominique Cardonne (1721–1783)
Tiphaigne de la Roche (Charles-François Tiphaigne de la Roche) (1722–1774)
Baron d'Holbach (Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d'Holbach) (1723–1789)
Jean-François Marmontel (1723–1799)
Casanova a/k/a Jacques Casanova de Seingalt (1725–1798)
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune (1727–1781)
Jean Dussaulx (1728–1799)
Nicolas Bricaire de la Dixmerie (c.1730–1791)
Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais (1732–1799)
Jacques Clinchamps de Malfilâtre (1733–1767)
Nicolas Edme Restif de La Bretonne (1734–1806)
Jean-Benjamin François de la Borde (1734–1794)
Charles Joseph, Prince de Ligne (1735–1814)
Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737–1814)
Jacques Delille (1738–1813)
Jean-François de la Harpe (1739–1803)
Marquis de Sade (Donatien Alphonse François de Sade) (1740–1814)
Isabelle de Charrière a/k/a Belle de Zuylen (1740–1805)
Pierre-Ambroise Choderlos de Laclos (1741–1803)
Condorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Caritat, marquis de Condorcet) (1744–1794)
Gabriel Brizard (c1744–1793)
André-Samuel-Michel Cantwell (1744–1802)
Étienne Pélabon (1745–1808)
Jean Antoine Roucher (1745–1794)
Jean-Sifrein Maury (Abbé Maury) (1746–1817)
Joseph-Alexandre-Victor Hupay de Fuveau (1746–1818)
Stéphanie Félicité Ducrest de St-Albin, comtesse de Genlis (Madame de Genlis) (1746–1830)
Armand Louis de Gontaut, duc de Biron, duc de Lauzun (1747–1793)
Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793)
Pierre-Louis Ginguené (1748–1815)
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau (1749–1791)
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796)
1750–1799
Georges Henri Victor Collot (1750-1805)
Nicolas Joseph Laurent Gilbert (1751–1780)
Évariste de Forges de Parny (1753–1814)
Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821)
Jean Armand Charlemagne (1753-1838)
Marie Thérèse Péroux d’Abany (1753–1821)
Joseph Joubert (1754–1824)
Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian (1754–1794)
Jacques Pierre Brissot a/k/a Jean-Pierre Brissot (1754–1793)
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (1754–1838)
Constantin François de Chasseboeuf, Comte de Volney (1757–1820)
William Vincent Barré (c.1760–1829)
Victoire Babois (1760–1839)
Adelaide Filleul, Marquise de Souza-Botelho (Madame de Souza) (1761–1836)
André Chénier (1762–1794)
Claude-François-Xavier Mercier de Compiègne (1763–1800)
Joseph Chénier (1764–1811)
Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener (Madame de Krüdener) (1764–1824)
Madame de Staël (1766–1817)
Las Cases (Emmanuel-Augustin-Dieudonné, comte de Las Cases) (1766–1842)
Benjamin Constant (Benjamin Constant de Rebecque) (1767–1830)
Joseph Fiévée (1767–1839)
François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848)
Étienne Pivert de Senancour (1770–1846)
Sophie de Renneville (1772–1822)
Charles-Jean Baptiste Bonnin (1772–1846)
Paul Louis Courier de Méré (1772–1825)
René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt (1773–1844)
Sophie Ristaud Cottin (Madame Cottin) (1773–1807)
Eugène François Vidocq (1775–1857)
Claire de Duras (Madame de Duras) (1777–1828)
Ambroise Rendu (1778–1860)
Charles Nodier (1780–1844)
Pierre-Jean de Béranger (1780–1857)
Victor de Bonald (1780–1871)
Aimé Martin (1781-1844)
Félicité Robert de Lamennais (1782–1854)
Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante (1782–1866)
Victor Henri-Joseph Brahain Ducange (1783–1833)
Stendhal (Henri Beyle) (1783–1842) (The Red and the Black, 1830)
Pierre-Antoine Lebrun (1785–1873)
Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786–1859)
Alphonse Rabbe (1786–1829)
Élise Voïart (1786–1866)
François Guizot (1787–1874)
Alexandre Guiraud (1788–1847)
Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869)
Victor Cousin (1792–1867)
Charles Paul de Kock (1793–1871)
Jean-M.-Vincent Audin (1793)
Casimir Delavigne (Jean-François Casimir Delavigne) (1793–1843)
François Stoepel (1794–1836)
Rosine de Chabaud-Latour (1794–1860)
Arthur Dinaux (1795–1864)
Amédée Pichot (1795–1877)
Modeste Gruau (1795–1883)
Augustin Thierry (1795–1856)
Zulma Carraud (1796–1889)
François Mignet (1796–1884)
Alfred de Vigny (1797–1863)
Antoinette Henriette Clémence Robert (1797–1872)
Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877)
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
Charles Dezobry (1798–1871)
Jules Michelet (1798–1874)
Sophie Rostopchine, Comtesse de Ségur (1799–1874)
Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850)
Nineteenth century
1800–1824
Pierre Alexandre Jean Mollière (1800–1850)
Victor Hugo (1802–1885) (Les Misérables, 1862)
Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870)
Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870)
Edgar Quinet (1803–1875)
Eugène Daumas (1803–1871)
Eugène Sue (1804–1857)
Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804–1869)
Jules Janin (1804–1874)
George Sand (Amandine-Lucie-Aurore Dupin, baronne Dudevant) (1804–1876)
Alexis Henri Charles de Clérel, vicomte de Tocqueville (1805–1859)
Jules-Romain Tardieu (1805–1868)
Émile de Girardin (1806–1881)
Désiré Nisard (1806–1888)
Émile Souvestre (1806–1854)
Aloysius Bertrand (1807–1841)
Gérard de Nerval (Gérard Labrunie) (1808–1855)
Jules-Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808–1889)
Jacques Claude Demogeot (1808–1894)
Lucien de la Hodde (1808–1865)
Frédéric Villot (1809–1875)
Petrus Borel (1809–1859)
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865)
Xavier Forneret (1809–1884)
Hégésippe Moreau (1810–1838)
Maurice de Guérin (1810–1839)
Alfred de Musset (1810–1857)
Joseph Bouchardy (1810–1870)
Alphonse Jolly (1810–1893)
Pier Angelo Fiorentino (1811–1864)
Armand de Pontmartin (1811–1890)
Adolphe-Philippe d'Ennery (1811–1889)
Théophile Gautier (1811–1872)
Louis Blanc (1811–1882)
Victor de Laprade (1812–1883)
Louis du Couret (1812–1867)
Eugène Bonnemère (1813–1893)
Eugène Labiche (1815–1888)
Joseph Arthur, comte Gobineau (1816–1882)
Victor Séjour (1817–1874)
Paul Féval, père (1817–1887)
Adine Riom (1818–1899)
Charles-Marie Leconte de Lisle (1818–1894)
Eugène Despois (1818–1876)
Jean Baptiste Marius Augustin Challamel (1818–1894)
Adèle Hommaire de Hell (1819–1883), travel writer
Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)
Émile Augier (1820–1889)
Antoine-Élisabeth-Cléophas Dareste de la Chavanne (1820–1882)
Jules Pizzetta (1820–1900)
Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) (Les Fleurs du mal, 1857)
Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) (Madame Bovary, 1857)
Octave Feuillet (1821–1890)
Jules-François-Félix Husson a/k/a Champfleury (1821–1889)
Edmond de Goncourt (1822–1896)
Erckmann-Chatrian (Emile Erckmann & Alexandre Chatrian) (1822–1899 & 1826–1890)
Louis-Nicolas Ménard (1822–1901)
Théodore de Banville (1823–1891)
Ernest Renan (1823–1892)
Alexandre Dumas, fils (1824–1895)
1825–1849
Sainte Suzanne Melvil-Bloncourt (1825–1880)
Jean-Félix Nourrisson (1825–1899)
Charles De Coster (1827–1879)
Clair Tisseur (Nizier du Puitspelu) (1827–1896)
Edmond About (1828–1885)
Hyppolyte Taine (1828–1893)
Jules Verne (1828–1905)
Pauline Cassin Caro (1828/34/35 - 1901)
Zénaïde Fleuriot (1829–1890)
Numa-Denis Fustel de Coulanges (1830–1889)
Jules de Goncourt (1830–1870)
Hector Malot (1830–1907)
Henri Rochefort (1830–1913)
Henri Meilhac (1831–1897)
Victorien Sardou (1831–1908)
Émile Gaboriau (1832–1873)
Jules Vallès (1832–1885)
Gaston Lavalley (1834–1922)
Claire Julie de Nanteuil (1834-1897)
Édouard Pailleron (1834–1899)
Ludovic Halévy (1834–1908)
Jean-Marie Déguignet (1834–1905)
Amélie Gex (Dian de la Jeânna) (1835–1883)
Félix Narjoux (1836–1891)
Jules Simon Troubat (1836–1914)
Constant Fouard (1837–1903)
Henry Becque (1837–1899)
Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838–1889)
Lucie Boissonnas (1839 -1877)
Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907)
Jules Lermina (1839–1913)
Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897)
Émile Zola (1840–1902)
Arvède Barine (1840–1908)
Jules Claretie (1840–1913)
Catulle Mendès (1841–1909)
Charles Cros (1842–1888)
Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898)
José María de Heredia (1842–1905)
François Coppée (1842–1908)
Albert Sorel (1842–1906)
René de Lespinasse (1843–1922)
Paul Arène (1843–1896)
Paul Verlaine (1844–1896)
Anatole France (Anatole François Thibault) (1844–1924)
Tristan Corbière (Edouard-Joachim) (1845–1875)
Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Lucien Ducasse) (1846–1870)
Léon Bloy (1846–1917)
Auguste Edgard Dietrich (1846)
Henri François Marion (1846–1896)
Geoffroi Jacques Flach (1846–1919)
Brada (writer) (1847-1938)
Émile Faguet (1847–1916)
Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848–1907)
Octave Mirbeau (1848–1917)
Georges de Peyrebrune (1848–1917)
Ferdinand Brunetière (1849–1906)
Jean Richepin (1849–1926)
Georges de Porto-Riche (1849–1930)
1850–1859
Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893)
Pierre Loti (Julien Viaud) (1850–1923)
Gyp (1850–1932)
Germain Nouveau (1851–1920)
Élémir Bourges (1852–1925)
Paul Bourget (1852–1935)
Alfred Masson-Forestier (1852–1912)
Maurice Rollinat (1853–1903)
Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891), Une Saison en Enfer
Alphonse Allais (1854–1905)
Laurent Tailhade (1854–1919)
Georges Rodenbach (1855–1898)
Jean Lorrain (1855–1906)
Émile Verhaeren (1855–1916)
Adolphe Chenevière (1855–1917)
Noël Valois (1855–1915)
Jean Moréas (Jean Papadiamantopoulos) (1856–1910)
Pierre Decourcelle (1856–1926)
Gustave Lanson (1857–1934)
Albert Samain (1858–1900)
Jules Lemaître (1858–1915)
Remy de Gourmont (1858–1915)
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Alfred Capus (1858–1922)
Georges Courteline (Georges Moineaux) (1858–1929)
Neel Doff (1858–1942)
Jean-Baptiste Chautard (1858–1935)
Henri Danoy (1859–1928)
Gustave Belot (1859–1929)
Paul Naudet (1859–1929)
Anatole Le Braz (1859–1926)
Gustave Kahn (1859–1936)
Henri Bergson (1859–1941)
1860–1869
Jules Laforgue (1860–1887)
Paul Margueritte (1860–1918)
Michel Zévaco (1860–1918)
Paul Roux a/k/a Saint-Pol-Roux le Magnifique (1861–1940)
Paul Adam (1862–1920)
Georges Darien (1862–1921)
Georges Feydeau (1862–1921)
Maurice Barrès (1862–1923)
Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)
Stuart Merrill (1863–1915)
Marguerite Audoux (1863–1937)
Jules Renard (1864–1910)
Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)
Léon Broutin (fl. 1865–77)
Maurice Leblanc (1864–1941)
Juliette Heuzey (1865-1952)
Romain Rolland (1866–1944)
Tristan Bernard (1866–1947)
Fortunat Strowski (1866–1952)
Charles de Beaupoil, comte de Saint-Aulaire (1866–1954)
Émile Lauvrière (1866–1954)
René Boylesve (René Tardivaux) (1867–1926
Jehan Rictus (Gabriel Randon) (1867–1933)
Léon Daudet (1867–1942)
Marcel Schwob (1867–1905)
Paul-Jean Toulet (1867–1920)
Romain Coolus (1868–1952)
Edmond Rostand (1868–1918)
Gaston Leroux (1868–1927) (The Phantom of the Opera, Le Mystère de la chambre jaune)
Achille Essebac (1868–1936)
Francis Jammes (1868–1938)
Émile Auguste Chartier a/k/a "Alain" (1868–1951)
Paul Claudel (1868–1955)
André Spire (1868–1966)
Gaston Arman de Caillavet (1869–1915)
Augustin Chaboseau (1868–1946)
André Gide (1869–1951)
1870–1879
Marcelle Tinayre (1870–1948)
Henri Bordeaux (1870–1963)
Pierre Louÿs (Pierre Louis) (1870–1925)
Maximilien Winter (1871–1935)
André Chéradame (1871–1948)
Albert Geouffre de Lapradelle (1871–1955)
Gaston Brière (1871–1962)
Marcel Proust (1871–1922), In Search of Lost Time
Paul Valéry (1871–1945)
Louis Madelin (1871–1956)
Henry Bataille (1872–1922)
Robert de Flers (1872–1927)
Paul Fort (1872–1960)
Alfred Jarry (1873–1907)
Charles Péguy (1873–1914)
Henri Barbusse (1873–1935)
Colette (Sidonie Gabrielle Colette) (1873–1954)
Pierre Souvestre (1874–1914)
Albert Thibaudet (1874–1936)
Tristan Klingsor (1874–1966)
Binet-Valmer (1875–1940)
Paul Watrin (1876–1950)
Anna de Noailles (Anne de Brancovan, comtesse de Noailles) (1876–1933)
Max Jacob (1876–1944)
Léon-Paul Fargue (1876–1947)
Pierre Albert-Birot (1876–1967)
Marcel Bouteron (1877–1962)
Raymond Roussel (1877–1933)
Oscar Venceslas de Lubicz-Milosz (1877–1939)
Charles Ferdinand Ramuz, dit C.F. Ramuz (1878–1947)
Victor Segalen (1878–1919)
Henry de Monfreid (1879–1974)
Francis Picabia (1879–1953)
Henri Fauconnier (1879–1973)
1880–1889
Louis Hémon (1880–1913)
Guillaume Apollinaire (Wilhelm Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky) (1880–1918)
Lucie Delarue-Mardrus (1880–1945)
Francis de Miomandre (Francis Durand) (1880–1959)
Alzir Hella (1881–1953)
Valery Larbaud (1881–1957)
Roger Martin du Gard (1881–1958)
André Salmon (1881–1969)
Jérôme Carcopino (1881–1970)
Louis Pergaud (1882–1915)
Jean Giraudoux (1882–1944)
André Billy (1882–1971)
Pierre MacOrlan (Pierre Dumarchais) (1883–1970)
Rose Combe (1883–1932)
Marie Noël (1883–1933)
Auguste Detœuf (1883–1947)
Albert Pauphilet (1884–1948)
Jules Supervielle (1884–1960
Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962)
Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)
Jacques Chardonne (Jacques Boutelleau) (1884–1968)
Jean Paulhan (1884–1968)
Alexandre Arnoux (1884–1973)
Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes (1884–1974)
René Hubert (1885–1954)
Sacha Guitry (1885–1957)
André Maurois (Emile Herzog) (1885–1967)
Fernand Crommelynck (1885–1970)
Jules Romains (Jules-Louis de Farigoule) (1885–1972)
Marthe Bibesco (1885–1973)
Alain-Fournier (Henri Fournier) (1886–1914)
Francis Carco (François Carcopino-Tusoli) (1886–1958)
Pierre Benoit (1886–1962)
Geneviève Fauconnier (1886–1969)
Roland Dorgelès (Roland Lecavelé) (1886–1973)
Jean-Charles Roman d'Amat (1887–1976)
Henri Pourrat (1887–1959)
Jean de La Varende (Jean-Balthazar Mallard, comte de La Varende) (1887–1959)
René Maran (1887-1960)
Blaise Cendrars (1887–1961)
François Mauriac (1887–1970)
Saint-John Perse (Alexis Léger) (1887–1975)
Pierre-Jean Jouve (1887–1976)
Marcel Martinet (1887–1944)
Georges Bernanos (1888–1948)
Henri Bosco (1888–1976)
Paul Morand (1888–1976)
Marcel Jouhandeau (1888–1979)
Jacques de Lacretelle (1888–1985)
Tristan Derème (1889–1941)
Pierre Reverdy (1889–1960)
Jean Cocteau (1889–1963)
Émile Henriot (1889–1961)
1890–1899
Maurice Genevoix (1890–1980)
Victor Serge (1890–1947)
Leilah Mahi (1890–1932)
Édouard Dunglas (1891–1952)
La Mazille (1891–1984)
Max Ernst (1891–1976)
Pierre Drieu La Rochelle (1893–1945)
Edmond Brazès (1893 - 1980)
Luc Benoist (1893–1980)
Paul Foulquié (1893–1983)
Claude Cahun (Lucy Schwob) (1894–1954)
Louis-Ferdinand Céline (Louis Destouches) (1894–1961) (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932)
Paul Éluard (Eugène Grindel) (1895–1952)
Jean Giono (1895–1970)
Marcel Pagnol (1895–1974)
Albert Cohen (1895–1981)
Antonin Artaud (1896–1948)
André Breton (1896–1966)
Henry de Montherlant (Henry Millon de Montherlant) (1896–1972)
Paulette Nardal (1896–1995)
Tristan Tzara (1896–1963)
Elsa Triolet (1896–1970)
Louis Aragon (1897–1982)
Georges Bataille (1897–1962)
Joë Bousquet (1897–1950)
Philippe Soupault (1897–1990)
Marcel Thiry (1897–1977)
Eugène Dabit (1898–1936)
Michel de Ghelderode (1898–1962)
Joseph Kessel (1898–1979)
Paul Vialar (1898–1996)
Louise Noëlle Malclès (1899–1977)
Roger Vitrac (1899–1952)
Pierre Virion (1899–1988)
Jacques Audiberti (1899–1965)
Marcel Achard (1899–1974)
Louis Guilloux (1899–1980)
Henri Michaux (1899–1984)
Marcel Arland (1899–1986)
Marcelle Auclair (1899–1983)
Armand Salacrou (1899–1989)
Francis Ponge (1899–1988)
Twentieth century
1900–1909
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (1900–1944)
Robert Desnos (1900–1945)
Jacques Prévert (1900–1977)
André Chamson (1900–1983)
André Dhôtel (1900–1991)
Albert Ayguesparse (1900–1996)
Julien Green (1900–1998)
Nathalie Sarraute (1900–1999)
Amadou Hampâté Bâ (1900 or 1901–1991)
Georges Limbour (1900–1970)
Marcel Sendrail (1900–1976)
Jacques Bordiot (1900–1983)
Maurice Féaudierre (1901)
Jean Meuvret (1901–1971)
Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo (1901–1937)
Jean Prévost (1901–1944)
Henri Daniel-Rops (Henri Petiot) (1901–1965)
Lanza del Vasto (1901–1981)
Charles Lecocq (1901–1922)
Michel Leiris (1901–1990)
Suzanne Lilar (1901–1992)
André Malraux (1901–1976)
Marcel Aymé (1902–1967)
Fernand Braudel (1902–1985)
Marie-Magdeleine Carbet (1902-1996)
Julien Torma (1902–1933)
Louise de Vilmorin (1902–1969)
Vercors (pseudonym for Jean Bruller) (1902–1991)
Jean Tardieu (1903–1995)
Raymond Radiguet (1903–1923)
Irène Némirovsky (1903–1942)
Jean Follain (1903–1971)
Georges Simenon (1903–1989)
Raymond Queneau (1903–1976)
Marguerite Yourcenar (Marguerite de Crayencour) (1903–1987)
René Bansard (1904–1971)
Marie-Anne Desmarest (1904–1973)
Gilbert Lely (1904–1985)
Yves Congar (1904–1995)
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)
Maurice Fombeure (1906–1981)
Charles Exbrayat (1906–1989)
Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)
René Sédillot (1906–1999)
Léopold Sédar Senghor (1906–2001)
Roger Vailland (1907–1965)
Pauline Réage (Anne Desclos) (1907–1998)
Violette Leduc (1907–1972)
Raymond Abellio (Georges Soulès) (1907–1986)
René Char (1907–1988)
Maurice Blanchot (1907–2003)
René Ménil (1907–2004)
Roger Peyrefitte (1907–2000)
Roger Gilbert-Lecomte (1907–1943)
Jacques Roumain (1907–1944)
René Daumal (1908–1944)
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986)
Paul Bénichou (1908–2001)
Robert Merle (1908–2004)
Simone Weil (1909–1943)
Stéphane Pizella (1909–1970)
Anaïs Nin (1909–1977)
Jean-Fernand Brierre (1909–1993)
Robert Brasillach (1909–1945)
André Pieyre de Mandiargues (1909–1991)
Léo Malet (1909–1996)
1910–1919
Jean Anouilh (1910–1987)
Jean-Louis Baghio'o (1910–1994)
Jean Genet (1910–1986)
Paul Guth (1910–1997)
Julien Gracq (Louis Poirier) (1910–2007)
Emil Cioran (1911–1995)
Raphaël Tardon (1911–1967)
André Hardellet (1911–1974)
René Barjavel (1911–1985)
Guy des Cars (Guy de Pérusse des Cars) (1911–1993)
Hervé Bazin (Jean Hervé-Bazin) (1911–1996)
Jean Cayrol (1911–2005)
Henri Troyat (Lev Tarassov) (1911–2007)
André Jardin (1912–1996)
Pierre Boulle (1912–1994)
Edmond Jabès (1912–1991)
Eugène Ionesco (1912–1994)
Jacques de Bourbon Busset (1912–2001)
Armand Robin (1912–1961)
Claude Simon (1913–2005)
Luc Dietrich (1913–1944)
Albert Camus (1913–1960)
Mouloud Feraoun (1913–1962)
Gilbert Cesbron (1913–1979)
Armand Lanoux (1913–1983)
Pierre Daninos (1913–2005)
Aimé Césaire (1913–2008)
Félicien Marceau (Louis Carette)(1913–2012)
Romain Gary (Romain Kacew a/k/a Romain Gary a/k/a Emile Ajar) (1914–1980)
Béatrix Beck (1914–2008)
Marguerite Duras (Marguerite Donnadieu) (1914–1996)
Ahmed Sefrioui (1915–2004)
Roland Barthes (1915–1980)
Suzanne Césaire (1915–1966)
Louis Dollot (1915–1997)
Joseph Zobel (1915–2006)
Virgil Gheorghiu (1916–1992)
Jean-Louis Curtis (Louis Laffitte) (1917–1995)
Ambroise Yxemerry (1917–2013)
Pierre Bettencourt (1917–2006)
Alain Guy (1918–1998)
Maurice Druon (1918–2009)
Michel Quoist (1918–1997)
Jean Venturini (1919–1940)
Alain Bosquet (Anatole Bisk) (1919–1998)
Jacques Laurent a/k/a Jacques Laurent-Cely or Cécil Saint-Laurent (1919–2000)
Michel Déon (1919–2016)
Robert Pinget (1919–1997)
1920–1929
Jean Dutourd (1920–2011)
Jean Lartéguy (1920–2011)
Jean Madiran (1920–2013)
Mohammed Dib (1920–2003)
Boris Vian (1920–1959)
Françoise d'Eaubonne (1920–2005)
Albert Memmi (1920–2020)
Georges Brassens (1921–1981)
Gérald Neveu (1921–1960)
André Rogerie (1921–2014)
Michel Guiomar (1921–2013)
Jean-Pierre Renouard (1922–2014)
Antoine Blondin (1922–1990)
Jean-Charles (1922–2003)
Jean-Claude Renard (1922–2002)
Stefan Wul (1922–2003)
Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922–2008)
Yves Bonnefoy (1923–2016)
Roger Foulon (1923–2008)
Georges Perros (1923–1978)
Ousmane Sembène (1923–2007)
Jean Dumont (1923–2001)
Claude Paillat (1924–2001)
André du Bouchet (1924–2003)
Salvat Etchart (1924–1985)
Michel Tournier (1924–2016)
Philippe Jaccottet (1925–2021)
Roger Nimier (1925–1962)
Jean d'Ormesson (1925–2017)
François Augiéras (1925–1971)
Alphonse Boudard (1925–2000)
Roger Giroux (1925–1973)
Frantz Fanon (1925–1961)
Jean Robieux (1925–2012)
Robert Misrahi (1926–...)
Yvon Taillandier (1926–2018)
Michel Foucault (1926–1984)
Michel Butor (1926–2016)
Jacques Dupin (1927–2012)
Gisèle Halimi (1927–2020)
François Nourissier (1927–2011)
Robert Fossier (1927–2012)
Jacques Rivette (1928–2016)
André Schwarz-Bart (1928–2006)
Édouard Glissant (1928–2011)
Kateb Yacine (1929–1989)
Nicolas Bouvier (1929–1998)
1930–1939
Jacques Lafaye (1930–...)
Maggi Lidchi-Grassi (1930–...)
Françoise Mallet-Joris (1930–2016)
Jacques Ehrmann (1931–1972)
Fernando Arrabal (1932–...)
Mongo Beti (1932–2001)
Hédi Bouraoui (1932–...)
Claude Pujade-Renaud (1932–...)
Jacques Roubaud (1932–...)
Julienne Salvat (1932–2019)
Marcelin Pleynet (1933–...)
Claude Esteban (1935–2006)
Agota Kristof (1935–2011)
Françoise Sagan (Françoise Quoirez) (1935–2004)
Daniel Zimmermann (1935–2000)
Assia Djebar (1936–2015)
Frankétienne (1936–...)
Jean-Edern Hallier (1936–1997)
Georges Perec (1936–1982)
Philippe Sollers (1936–...)
Alain Grée (1936–...)
Anne-Marie Albiach (1937–2012)
Marc Alyn (1937–...)
Pierre Billon (1937–...)
Andrée Brunin (1937–1993)
Hélène Cixous (1937–...)
Maryse Condé (1937–...)
Abdelkebir Khatibi (1938–2009)
Daniel Oster (1938–1999)
Kenizé Mourad (1939–...)
Gérard Roubichou (1939–...)
1940–1949
Annie Ernaux (1940–...)
Marie-Reine de Jaham (1940-...)
J.M.G. Le Clézio (1940–...)
Emmanuel Hocquard (1940–2019)
Charles Duchaussois (1940–1991)
Bernard Brizay (1941–...)
Louis Mélennec (1941–...)
Jean Daive (1941–...)
Julia Kristeva (1941–...)
Jean Marcel (1941–...)
François Weyergans (1941–2019)
Josaphat-Robert Large (1942–2017)
François-Xavier Guerra (1942–2002)
Wladimir Troubetzkoy (1942–2009)
Jean Bernabé (1942–2017)
Guy Olivier Faure (1943–...)
Yves Manglou (1943–...)
Eva Joly (1943–...)
René-Louis Baron (1944–...)
Noëlle Châtelet (1944–...)
Doumbi Fakoly (1944–...)
Jean-Jacques Greif (1944–...)
Sergio Kokis (1944–...)
Daniel Pennac (1944–...)
Lucien Polastron (1944–...)
Marc Filloux (1944–1974)
Alain Guillerm (1944–2005)
Françoise Chandernagor (1945–...)
Tony Duvert (1945–2008)
Pierre Michon (1945–...)
Gisèle Bienne (1946–...)
Renaud Camus (1946–...)
Djémil Kessous (1946–...)
Tahar Ben Jelloun (1947–...)
Daniel Maximin (1947-...)
Luc Perino (1947–...)
Michel Étiévent (1947–...)
Loïc Le Ribault (1947–2007)
Élisabeth Vonarburg (1947–...)
Jean-Pierre Poccioni (1948–...)
André Rouillé (1948–...)
Bertrand Le Gendre (1948–...)
Jean-Paul Goux (1948–...)
Serge Duigou (1948–...)
François Leperlier (1949–...)
Amin Maalouf (1949–...)
Didier Daeninckx (1949–...)
Pierre Bergounioux (1949–...)
Boualem Sansal (1949–...)
1950–present
Bernard Bonnejean (1950–...)
Jean-Paul Dubois (1950–...)
Moussa Konaté (1951–2013)
Salim Jay (1951–...)
Bernard Cottret (1951–2020)
Jean-Didier Urbain (1951–...)
Raphaël Confiant (1951–...)
Pierre-Henri Bunel (1952–...)
Dan Franck (1952–...)
Dany Laferrière (1953–...)
Françoise Bettencourt Meyers (1953–...)
Nancy Huston (1953–...)
Patrick Chamoiseau (1953–...)
François Bon (1953–...)
Édouard Brasey (1954–...)
Paul Dirmeikis (1954–...)
Tahar Djaout (1954–1993)
Dai Sijie (1954–...)
Pascale Roze (1954–...)
Adelina Yzac (1954–...)
Jean-Pierre Vallotton (1955–...)
Alexandra Lapierre (1955–...)
Caroline Lamarche (1955–...)
Bertrand Renard (1955–...)
Joël Henry (journalist) (1955–...)
Renaud Girard (1955–...)
Annie Pietri (1956–...)
Charles Mopsik (1956–2003)
Gisèle Pineau (1956–...)
Jean-Pierre Thiollet (1956–...)
Khal Torabully (1956–...)
Hervé Le Tellier (1957–...)
Youssef Rzouga (1957–...)
Jean-Philippe Toussaint (1957–...)
Azouz Begag (1957–...)
Didier Ottinger (1957–...)
Olivier Da Lage (1957–...)
Simon Basinger (1957–...)
Michel Houellebecq (1958–...)
Marc-Édouard Nabe (1958–...)
Olivier Weber (1958–...)
Denis Robert (1958–...)
Benjamin Sehene (1959–...)
Christine Angot (1959–...)
Frédéric-Yves Jeannet (1959–...)
Jean-Luc Bitton (1959–...)
Malek Belarbi (1959–...)
Nicolas Fiévé (1959–...)
Bruno Laurioux (1959–...)
Jacques Bonjawo (1960–...)
Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt (1960–...)
Simonetta Greggio (1961–...)
Bernard Werber (1961–...)
Charles Dantzig (1961–...)
Philippe Buc (1961–...)
Valérie Grumelin-Halimi (1961–...)
Philippe Claudel (1962–...)
Catherine Cusset (1963–...)
Beatrice Hammer (1963–...)
Kevin Bokeili (1963–2014)
Alexis Jenni (1963–...)
Bill GB Pallot (1964–...)
Ann Scott (1965–...)
Stéphane Laurent (1966–...)
Odile Benyahia-Kouider (1966–...)
Alain Mabanckou (1966–...)
Paul-Louis Roubert (1967–...)
Jonathan Littell (1967–...)
Amélie Nothomb (1967–...)
Fréderic Neyrat (1968–...)
Norbert-Bertrand Barbe (1968–...)
Kim Thúy (1968–...)
Virginie Despentes (1969–...)
Louis Emond (1969–...)
Antoine Bello (1970–...)
Christophe Honoré (1970–...)
Fabienne Kanor (1970–...)
Édouard Tétreau (1970–...)
Philippe Boisnard (1971–...)
Yannick Mireur (1971–...)
Angela Behelle (1971–...)
Nicolas Ancion (1971–...)
Luis de Miranda (1971–...)
Cristina Rodríguez (1972–...)
Kilien Stengel (1972–...)
Roland Michel Tremblay (1972–...)
Romain Sardou (1974–...)
Guillaume Musso (1974–...)
Olivier Adam (1974–...)
Benoît Bringer (1979–...)
Agnès Martin-Lugand (1979–...)
Jérémy Marie (1984–...)
Benjamin Hoffmann (1985–...)
Charles Luylier (1989–...)
Soraya Nini (1993–...)
Estelle Beauchamp (novelist since 1995)
See also
List of French women writers
French literature
Francophone literature
Lists of French language poets, French novelists, French people, authors
Quebec literature
List of Quebec authors
List of Belgian women writers
French language
Authors
|
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201086
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1938 Irish presidential election
|
The 1938 Irish presidential election was the first Irish presidential election, held to fill the new office of President of Ireland.
Procedure
The office of president was established by Article 12 of the new Constitution of Ireland, which came into force on 29 December 1937. Article 57 of the Constitution provided that the president would enter office not later than 180 days after that date. Until the inauguration of the first president, the powers and functions of the office were carried out by a Presidential Commission consisting of the Chief Justice, the President of the High Court and the Ceann Comhairle.
On 14 April 1938, Minister for Local Government and Public Health Seán T. O'Kelly made an order under section 6 of the Presidential Elections Act 1937 opening nominations, with noon on 4 May as the deadline for nominations, and 31 May set as the date for a poll (if any).
Under Article 12, candidates could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 198 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs.
All Irish citizens on the Dáil electoral register were eligible to vote.
Nomination process
The first candidate to seek a nomination was Alfie Byrne, who had been serving as Lord Mayor of Dublin since 1930, and would continue in that position until 1939.
On 21 April, representatives of the two major parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, met and agreed to nominate Douglas Hyde for the office. The following day, Labour Party leader William Norton expressed his approval in the Dáil of the nomination of Hyde, and Alfie Byrne issued a statement ending his nomination campaign.
At the close of nominations, Hyde was the only nominated candidate, with two separate nomination forms received on behalf of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael Oireachtas members. Accepting the nominations and his election to office on 4 May, Hyde said, "I accept this office willingly, but with humility. I will do my best to carry out my duties in the future".
Result
After the close of nominations on 4 May, the election scheduled for 31 May was cancelled as superfluous, and 1 June was set as the date of Hyde's inauguration as President. However, on 27 May, the 9th Dáil was dissolved and a general election called for 17 June. Since the Constitution mandates that members of the Dáil be present when the President takes his oath of office, the inauguration was postponed until 25 June.
References
1938 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential election
Presidential elections in Ireland
Uncontested elections
June 1938 events
|
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201087
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction
|
Interaction
|
Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. Closely related terms are interactivity and interconnectivity, of which the latter deals with the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences.
Physics
In physics, a fundamental interaction (depending on the nature of the interaction, it might also be called a fundamental force) is a process by which elementary particles interact with each other. An interaction is often described as a physical field, and is mediated by the exchange of gauge bosons between particles. For example, the interaction of charged particles takes place through the mediation of electromagnetic fields, whereas beta decay occurs by means of the weak interaction. An interaction is fundamental when it cannot be described in terms of other interactions. There are four known fundamental interactions in nature: The electromagnetic, strong, weak and gravitational interactions. The weak and electromagnetic interactions are unified in electroweak theory, which could in turn be unified with the strong force in a Grand Unified Theory and further with gravity in a theory of everything, but experimental results are yet to prove this.
Chemistry
Interactions between atoms and molecules:
Biochemistry
Molecular biology
In molecular biology, the knowledge on gene/protein interaction among themselves and with their metabolites is referred to as molecular pathways.
Medicine and pharmacology
In medicine, most medications can be safely used with other medicines, but particular combinations of medicines need to be monitored for interactions, often by the pharmacist. Interactions between medications fall generally into one of two main categories:
pharmacodynamic: Involving the actions of the two interacting drugs.
pharmacokinetic: Involving the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of one or both of the interacting drugs upon the other.
In terms of efficacy, there can be three types of interactions between medications: additive, synergistic, and antagonistic.
Additive interaction means the effect of two chemicals is equal to the sum of the effect of the two chemicals taken separately. This is usually due to the two chemicals acting on the body via same or similar mechanism. Examples are aspirin and motrin, alcohol and depressant, tranquilizer and painkiller.
Synergistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals taken together is greater than the sum of their separate effect at the same doses. An example is pesticide and fertilizer.
Antagonistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals is actually less than the sum of the effect of the two drugs taken independently of each other. This is because the second chemical increases the excretion of the first, or even directly blocks its toxic actions. Antagonism forms the basis for antidotes of poisonings.
Biology and genetics
Geneticists work with a number of different genetic interaction modes to characterize how the combination of two mutations affect (or does not affect) the phenotype:
noninteractive, synthetic, asynthetic, suppressive, epistatic, conditional, additive, single-nonmonotonic and double-nonmonotonic.
Further characterizations is enhancement interaction and nonadditive interaction. Biosemioticists investigate sign-mediated interactions within and between organisms that underlie syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules.
The word epistasis is also used for genetic interaction in some contexts.
Communications
Sociology
In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner(s). Social interactions can be differentiated into accidental, repeated, regular, and regulated. Social interactions form the basis of social relations.
The most common forms of social interaction are exchange, competition, conflict, cooperation, and accommodation.
Statistics
In statistics, an interaction is a term in a statistical model in which the effect of two, or more, variables is not simply additive.
Computers
See also
Financial transaction
Interaction design
Interaction frequency
Interconnectivity
Interface (communication studies)
References
External links
Communication
Sociological terminology
Emergence
|
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201088
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth
|
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth
|
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth (to distinguish it from Woolsthorpe-by-Belvoir in the same county) is a hamlet in the South Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England. It is best known as the birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton.
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth is 94 miles (150 km) north of London, northwest of the village of Colsterworth on the A1 one of the UK's primary north–south roads. The A1 is the old Great North Road, on which Colsterworth grew. Woolsthorpe is two to three miles from the county boundary with Leicestershire, and four from Rutland.
Woolsthorpe lies in rural surroundings. It sits on Lower Lincolnshire Limestone, below which are the Lower Estuarine Series and the Northampton sand of the Inferior Oolite Series of the Jurassic period. The Northampton Sand here is cemented by iron and in the 20th century the hamlet was almost surrounded by strip mining for iron ore. In 1973 the local quarries closed due to competition from imported iron ore. The same year the Great Northern Railway's High Dyke branch line closed it was opened in 1916 to carry iron ore, and lay to the north of the village. There was an unsuccessful attempt to preserve the line. The railway's bridge spanned the A1 until it was removed in 2009 during road junction improvements.
Woolsthorpe Manor, Newton's birthplace, is a typical 17th-century yeoman farmer's limestone house, with later farmyard buildings. It is owned by the National Trust and is open to the public.
References
Ordnance Survey
Geological Survey 1:50 000 Sheet 143.
External links
Woolsthorpe by Colsterworth page in the website of England's Local Heritage Initiative
Railways and quarries around Woolsthorpe by Colsterworth in 1963
Hamlets in Lincolnshire
South Kesteven District
|
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] |
59076217
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Nguyen
|
Joe Nguyen
|
Joseph-Thanh Nguyen (born September 27, 1983) is an American politician who is a member of the Washington State Senate from the 34th district. Nguyen, a second-generation Vietnamese American, was raised with his three siblings in White Center, Washington, by his mother. He is a program manager at Microsoft. He was a candidate for King County Executive in 2021 but was defeated by Dow Constantine 56 percent to 44 percent.
Early life and career
Nguyen was born in Seattle, Washington, as one of four children to a pair of Vietnamese immigrants who arrived in the United States as refugees. His family lived in public housing and relied on social services, particularly after his father became a quadriplegic in an accident. His mother worked as a seamstress, while Nguyen himself worked at his own high school as a janitor.
He graduated from John F. Kennedy Catholic High School in Burien after serving as class president for three years. Nguyen attended Seattle University and served as student body president for two years before graduating with Bachelor of Arts degrees in finance and humanities with a minor in economics. Nguyen worked as a senior strategist for Expedia and is a senior program manager at Microsoft with an emphasis on strategy and analytics. He has been involved in the company's charitable education program.
Nguyen chaired the Associate Board of Wellspring Family Services, a nonprofit organization for homeless services. During his time on the board, the state legislature passed trauma counseling legislation on behalf of Wellspring's lobbying. He also served on the King County Community Advisory Committee on Law Enforcement Oversight, which included criticism of the King County Sheriff's handling of the shooting of Tommy Le in June 2017. Le, a young Vietnamese American man, was shot by officers in Burien who were cleared of wrongdoing by an internal investigation of the Sheriff's Office, inciting outrage in the Vietnamese community. He volunteers at a local homeless encampment, Camp Second Chance, with his daughter.
Political career
Elections
Nguyen announced his candidacy for the 34th district senate seat in May 2018, shortly after incumbent Sharon Nelson decided to retire at the end of her term. The 34th district includes White Center, West Seattle, Vashon Island, and part of Burien. He aimed to increase the representation of people of color in government and "for people here to realize they have the power, the authority, to actually make positive change", also launching a podcast series to attract other potential candidates. Nguyen finished at the top of the primary with 31 percent of the vote, ahead of ten other candidates, and advanced to the general election alongside Shannon Braddock, a staffer to King County Executive Dow Constantine.
Nguyen, running as a Democrat, campaigned on a platform that focused on housing affordability, healthcare for all, public transit improvements, environmental protections, and education reform. He received the endorsements of congresswoman Pramila Jayapal, several Seattle and Burien council members, various local unions, and The Stranger. His campaign declined to use PAC funding, raising half as much as Braddock's campaign. Nguyen won the general election on November 6, 2018, defeating Braddock with 58 percent of the vote. He became one of the first two Vietnamese American legislators to be elected to the Washington State Legislature, alongside My-Linh Thai from the 41st district.
In April 2021 he announced he'd challenge incumbent Dow Constantine, who's running for his fourth term and formerly represented the 34th District in the State Senate, for the office of King County Executive.
Legislative accomplishments
In March 2020, Nguyen sponsored, and the legislature passed, a bill curtailing the use of facial recognition by the government and required government agencies to report facial recognition usage.
In April 2020, Nguyen sponsored, and the legislature passed, a bill expanding access to Washington State's Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Program, allowing families without regular housing to receive funds for more than the allotted 60 days.
In April 2021, Nguyen sponsored, and the legislature passed, a bill (SB 5055) transforming arbitration over police disciplinary actions in Washington state. Under the new framework, the Washington State Public Employment Relations Commission must create and appoint a roster of 9 to 18 new arbitrators who are then in charge of all discipline arbitrations for police covered by a collective bargaining agreement. The new law also provides more transparency to the public by collecting in one place all police discipline-related arbitrations and making those decisions available to the public.
Personal life
Nguyen is married to Tallie Nguyen, a special education teacher at the Highline Public Schools. They have three children and live in West Seattle.
References
Washington (state) Democrats
Washington (state) state senators
Living people
Politicians from Seattle
Seattle University alumni
21st-century American politicians
People from King County, Washington
1983 births
American politicians of Vietnamese descent
|
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201091
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1945 Irish presidential election
|
The 1945 Irish presidential election was held on Thursday, 14 June 1945. It was Ireland's first contested presidential election. Outgoing president Douglas Hyde, who had served since 1938, decided not to seek a second term. Fianna Fáil nominated its deputy leader, Tánaiste Seán T. O'Kelly, as its candidate. Fine Gael nominated Seán Mac Eoin. Independent republican Patrick McCartan sought and failed to receive the necessary four nominations from local councils, but secured a nomination from Oireachtas members.
O'Kelly won on the second count but the degree of voting transfers between the two opposition candidates, and O'Kelly's failure to win on the first count, showed the depth of growing opposition to Éamon de Valera's government and the potential that existed for cooperation among various opposition groups. De Valera's government was defeated in the subsequent 1948 general election and replaced by a First Inter-Party Government.
The election took place on the same date as the 1945 local elections. Electoral law was amended to allow administrative counties and county boroughs to be used as constituencies instead of using Dáil constituencies, as previously required. This was to facilitate sorting and counting of ballots with ballots for the local elections.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, candidates could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 198 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs, or
themselves, in the case of a former or retiring president.
All Irish citizens on the Dáil electoral register were eligible to vote.
The first candidate nominated was Seán Mac Eoin, a Fine Gael TD who was nominated on 5 May by 17 members of his own party, as well as three independent TDs, Alfie Byrne, Tom O'Reilly and Richard Anthony. Seán T. O'Kelly was nominated by Fianna Fáil Oireachtas members on 15 May. On the date before nominations closed on 16 May, the administrative council of the Labour Party voted to allow its Oireachtas members to sign the nomination form of Patrick McCartan, and Clann na Talmhan voted that its Oireachtas members would sign his nomination form, together guaranteeing his position on the ballot.
Result
Results by local authority
Results were announced by county councils and county borough corporations rather than by constituency.
References
1945 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential election
Presidential elections in Ireland
June 1945 events
|
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] |
201092
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20Doherty
|
Earl Doherty
|
Earl J. Doherty (born 1941) is a Canadian author of The Jesus Puzzle (1999), Challenging the Verdict (2001), and Jesus: Neither God Nor Man (2009). Doherty argues for a version of the Christ myth theory, the thesis that Jesus did not exist as a historical figure. Doherty says that Paul thought of Jesus as a spiritual being executed in a spiritual realm.
Education
Doherty has stated he has a bachelor's degree in Ancient History and Classical Languages, but no completed advanced degrees. His undergraduate studies gave him knowledge of Greek and Latin, to which he has added a basic knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac.
Writings
Doherty was introduced to the idea of a mythical origin of Jesus by, among other things, the work of G. A. Wells, who has authored a number of books arguing a moderate form of the "Christ myth" theory. In 1999, Doherty's book The Jesus Puzzle: Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ? was published by Canadian Humanist Publications. He self-published a 2005 re-release of The Jesus Puzzle under his own imprint, Age of Reason Publications, along with two other books. Challenging the Verdict (2001) is a critique of The Case for Christ, a book of Christian apologetics by author Lee Strobel. Jesus: Neither God Nor Man - The Case for a Mythical Jesus (2009) is a revised and expanded version of The Jesus Puzzle. In 2012, Doherty published The End of an Illusion: How Bart Ehrman's "Did Jesus Exist?" Has Laid the Case for an Historical Jesus to Rest.
Doherty asserts that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person named Jesus lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition." Doherty argues in The Jesus Puzzle (2005) and Jesus: Neither God nor Man—The Case for a Mythical Jesus (2009) that Jesus originated as a myth derived from Middle Platonism with some influence from Jewish mysticism, and that belief in a historical Jesus emerged only among Christian communities in the 2nd century.
According to Doherty, none of the major Christian apologists before 180 AD, except for Justin and Aristides of Athens, included an account of a historical Jesus in their defenses of Christianity. Instead Doherty suggests that the early Christian writers describe a Christian movement grounded in Platonic philosophy and Hellenistic Judaism, reaching the worship of a monotheistic Jewish god and what he calls a "logos-type Son". Doherty further argues that Theophilus of Antioch (c. 163–182), Athenagoras of Athens (c. 133–190), Tatian the Assyrian (c. 120–180), and Marcus Minucius Felix (writing around 150–270) offer no indication that they believed in a historical figure crucified and resurrected, and that the name Jesus does not appear in any of them.
The Jesus Puzzle
Doherty has used the title "The Jesus Puzzle" for four different works.
In Fall 1997, the Journal of Higher Criticism published his article, "The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins."
Around the same time he created a website under the same title, in which he developed the material which he was later to publish in book form. His method was to publish a fairly crude first draft, and then omit material that proved untenable, while retaining the general direction of argument. The site continued to be used for additional commentary and responses to reviews and criticisms of his work.
Doherty's non-fiction book The Jesus Puzzle: Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ? was published two years later.
He also used the title for a novel which he provided for download on his website.
In all four of these works, Doherty presents views on the origins of Christianity, specifically promoting the view that Jesus is a mythical figure rather than a historical person. Doherty argues that Paul and other writers of the earliest existing proto-Christian Gnostic documents did not believe in Jesus as a person who incarnated on Earth in a historical setting. Rather, they believed in Jesus as a heavenly being who suffered his sacrificial death in the lower spheres of heaven at the hands of the demon spirits, and was subsequently resurrected by God. This Christ myth was not based on a tradition reaching back to a historical Jesus, but on the Old Testament exegesis in the context of Jewish-Hellenistic religious syncretism heavily influenced by Middle Platonism, and what the authors believed to be mystical visions of a risen Jesus.
Doherty says that the Jesus myth was given a historical setting only by the second generation of Christians, somewhere between the 1st and 2nd century. He further says that even the author of the Gospel of Mark probably did not consider his gospel to be a literal work of history, but an allegorical midrashic composition based on the Old Testament prophecies. In the widely supported two-source hypothesis, the story of Mark was later fused with a separate tradition of anonymous sayings embodied in the Q document into the other gospels. According to Doherty, the Q-authors may have regarded themselves as "spokespersons for the Wisdom of God," with Jesus being the embodiment of this Wisdom. In time, the gospel-narrative of this embodiment of Wisdom became interpreted as the literal history of the life of Jesus. Doherty denies any historical value of the Acts of the Apostles, and refers to works by John Knox, Joseph B. Tyson, J.C. O'Neill, Burton L. Mack and Richard Pervo in dating Acts into the 2nd century and regarding it as largely based on legend.
In 2009, Doherty self-published a revised edition of his book, with a new title of Jesus: Neither God nor Man, expanded by incorporating the rebuttals to criticisms received since 1999 and accumulated on his website.
Reception
Among authors sympathetic to the view that Jesus never existed, Doherty's work has received mixed reactions. The Jesus Puzzle has received favorable reviews from fellow mythicists Robert M. Price and Richard Carrier. Frank Zindler, former editor of American Atheist, in a review of The Jesus Puzzle described it as "the most compelling argument against the historical Jesus published in my life-time".
George Albert Wells, who now argues a more moderate form of the Christ myth and who rejects Doherty's view that the mythical Jesus of Paul did not also descend to Earth, has nonetheless described The Jesus Puzzle as an "important book". R. Joseph Hoffmann considers that there are "reasons for scholars to hold" the view that Jesus never existed, but considers Doherty "A 'disciple' of Wells" who "has rehashed many of the former’s views in The Jesus Puzzle (Age of Reason Publications, 2005) which is qualitatively and academically far inferior to anything so far written on the subject". Doherty has responded that his work owes very little to Wells.
Writers who do not necessarily support the hypothesis that Jesus did not exist have found merit in some of Doherty's arguments. Hector Avalos has written that "The Jesus Puzzle outlines a plausible theory for a completely mythical Jesus."
Bart Ehrman, an expert on textual criticism of the NT and Early Christianity, has dismissed Jesus, Neither God nor Man as "filled with so many unguarded and undocumented statements and claims, and so many misstatements of fact, that it would take a 2,400-page book to deal with all the problems... Not a single early Christian source supports Doherty's claim that Paul and those before him thought of Jesus as a spiritual, not a human being, who was executed in the spiritual, not the earthly realm."
In a book criticizing the Christ myth theory, New Testament scholar Maurice Casey describes Doherty as "perhaps the most influential of all the mythicists", but one who is unable to understand the ancient texts he uses in his arguments.
Bibliography
The End of an Illusion: How Bart Ehrman's "Did Jesus Exist?" Has Laid the Case for an Historical Jesus to Rest. Ottawa: Age of Reason Publications 2012
References
External links
Website of Earl Doherty including a reproduction of his Fall 1997 Journal of Higher Criticism article "The Jesus Puzzle: Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins"
Earl Doherty’s response to Bart Ehrman‘s Did Jesus Exist?
Challenging the Verdict - A Cross-Examination of Lee Strobel's "The Case for Christ" at archive.org
The Jesus Puzzle at archive.org
1941 births
Living people
Canadian atheists
Christ myth theory proponents
Critics of Christianity
|
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] |
201094
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1952 Irish presidential election
|
In the 1952 Irish presidential election the outgoing president Seán T. O'Kelly was re-elected without a contest.
Procedure
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, candidates could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 207 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs, or
themselves, in the case of a former or retiring president.
All Irish citizens on the Dáil electoral register were eligible to vote.
Nomination process
On 25 April 1938, Minister for Local Government made an order under section 6 of the Presidential Elections Act 1937 opening nominations, with noon on 16 May as the deadline for nominations, and 10 June set as the date for a poll (if any).
President Seán T. O'Kelly nominated himself as a candidate, and when no other candidate was nominated, he was declared elected on 16 May. This was the first occasion on which a president nominated themselves for a second term.
Result
O'Kelly was inaugurated for his second term as President of Ireland on 25 June 1952.
References
1952 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential
Presidential elections in Ireland
Uncontested elections
June 1952 events
|
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201101
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1959 Irish presidential election
|
The 1959 Irish presidential election was held on Wednesday,
17 June 1959. Éamon de Valera, then Taoiseach, was elected as president of Ireland. A referendum proposed by de Valera to replace the electoral system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote with first-past-the-post voting which was held on the same day was defeated by 48.2% to 51.8%.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president may be nominated by:
at least twenty of the then 207 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs, or
themselves, in the case of a former or retiring president.
Outgoing president Seán T. O'Kelly had served two terms, and was ineligible to serve again. On 27 April, the Minister for Local Government signed the ministerial order opening nominations, with noon on 19 May as the deadline for nominations, and 17 June set as the date for a contest. All Irish citizens on the Dáil electoral register were eligible to vote.
Éamon de Valera who had served as President of Dáil Éireann and President of the Irish Republic from 1919 to 1922 during the Irish revolutionary period, as President of the Executive Council from 1932 to 1937, and as Taoiseach from 1937 to 1948, from 1951 to 1954, and again from 1957 until his election as president, was nominated by Fianna Fáil on 12 May. He had served as Fianna Fáil's leader since its foundation in 1926.
Seán Mac Eoin, a Fine Gael TD who had been the party's candidate in the 1945 presidential election, was nominated again by the party on 15 May.
Patrick McCartan, who had also been a candidate in the 1945 election and had served as a senator for Clann na Poblachta from 1948 to 1951, was nominated by two county councils only, short of the four required for nomination. Eoin O'Mahony also sought and failed to secure a nomination by county councils.
Éamon de Valera was inaugurated as president on 25 June.
Result
References
1959 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential
Éamon de Valera
Presidential elections in Ireland
June 1959 events in Europe
|
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] |
201102
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1966 Irish presidential election
|
The 1966 Irish presidential election was the fifth election in Ireland and was held on Wednesday, 1 June 1966. Incumbent president Éamon de Valera, 83 and with a rapidly deteriorating eyesight, standing for Fianna Fáil was narrowly re-elected, with Fine Gael candidate Tom O'Higgins coming within 1% (or 10,718 votes) of defeating de Valera.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president may be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 204 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs, or
themselves, in the case of a former or retiring president.
On 27 April, the Minister for Local Government made the order for the presidential election, with noon on 10 May as the date for nominations, and 1 June as the date of polling. Eoin "the Pope" O'Mahony, who had sought and failed to be nominated in 1959, tried again, unsuccessfully. He had the support of North Tipperary County Council.
As president, Éamon de Valera had the right to nominate himself for a second term, but he chose to be nominated by Fianna Fáil, the party he had led from 1926 until his election in 1959. Then Fianna Fáil leader and Taoiseach Seán Lemass had urged de Valera not to retire, as he had been considering. De Valera's campaign manager was Charles Haughey, later to become Fianna Fáil leader and Taoiseach.
Fine Gael nominated Tom O'Higgins, who had served as a TD since 1948, and was 49 at the time of the election. Gerard Sweetman served as his election director.
De Valera did not campaign, and to maintain balance, RTÉ chose not to cover the campaign of O'Higgins either.
Result
References
1966 elections in the Republic of Ireland
1966 in Irish politics
Charles Haughey
Éamon de Valera
Presidential elections in Ireland
June 1966 events in Europe
|
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201103
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Weininger
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Otto Weininger
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Otto Weininger (; 3 April 1880 – 4 October 1903) was an Austrian philosopher who lived in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1903, he published the book Geschlecht und Charakter (Sex and Character), which gained popularity after his suicide at the age of 23. Parts of his work were adapted for use by the Nazi regime (while at the same time denouncing him). Weininger was a strong influence on Ludwig Wittgenstein, August Strindberg, Julius Evola, and, via his lesser-known work Über die letzten Dinge, on James Joyce.
Life
Otto Weininger was born on 3 April 1880 in Vienna, a son of the Jewish goldsmith Leopold Weininger and his wife Adelheid. After attending primary school and graduating from secondary school in July 1898, Weininger registered at the University of Vienna in October of the same year. He studied philosophy and psychology but took courses in natural sciences and medicine as well. Weininger learned Greek, Latin, French and English very early, later also Spanish and Italian, and acquired passive knowledge of Swedish, Danish and Norwegian.
In the autumn of 1901 Weininger tried to find a publisher for his work Eros and the Psyche – which he submitted to his professors and as his thesis in 1902. He met Sigmund Freud, who did not, however, recommend the text to a publisher. His professors accepted the thesis and Weininger received his Ph.D. degree in July 1902. Shortly thereafter he became a Protestant.
In 1902 Weininger went to Bayreuth where he witnessed a performance of Richard Wagner's Parsifal, which left him deeply impressed. Via Dresden and Copenhagen he made his way to Christiania (Oslo) where he saw for the first time Henrik Ibsen's liberation drama Peer Gynt on stage. Upon his return to Vienna Weininger suffered from fits of deep depression. The decision to take his own life gradually took shape in his mind; after a long discussion with his friend Artur Gerber, however, Weininger realized that "it is not yet time".
In June 1903, after months of concentrated work, his book Sex and Character – A Fundamental Investigation – an attempt "to place sex relations in a new and decisive light" – was published by the Vienna publishers Braumüller & Co. The book contained his thesis to which three vital chapters were added: (XII) "The Nature of Woman and her Relation to the Universe", (XIII) "Judaism", (XIV) "Women and Humanity".
While the book was not received negatively, it did not create the expected stir. Weininger was attacked by Paul Julius Möbius, professor in Leipzig and author of the book On the Physiological Deficiency of Women, and was accused of plagiarizing. Deeply disappointed and seemingly depressed, Weininger left for Italy.
Back in Vienna he spent his last five days with his parents. On 3 October he took a room in the house at Schwarzspanierstraße 15 where Ludwig van Beethoven had died. He told the landlady that he was not to be disturbed before morning since he planned to work and then to go to bed late. This night he wrote two letters, one addressed to his father and the other to his brother Richard, telling them that he was going to shoot himself.
On 4 October Weininger was found mortally wounded, having shot himself in the chest. He died in the Wiener Allgemeines Krankenhaus (Vienna General Hospital), and was buried in the Matzleinsdorf Protestant Cemetery in Vienna.
Sex and Character
Masculinity and femininity
Sex and Character argues that all people are composed of a mixture of male and female substance, and attempts to support this view scientifically. The male aspect is active, productive, conscious and moral/logical, while the female aspect is passive, unproductive, unconscious and amoral/alogical. Weininger argues that emancipation is only possible for the "masculine woman", e.g. some lesbians, and that the female life is consumed with the sexual function: both with the act, as a prostitute, and the product, as a mother. The woman is a "matchmaker". By contrast, the duty of the male, or the masculine aspect of personality, is to strive to become a genius, and to forgo sexuality for an abstract love of the absolute, God, which he finds within himself.
A significant part of his book is about the nature of genius. Weininger argues that genius never applies solely to a specific field such as mathematics or music, but there is only the universal genius, in whom everything exists and makes sense. He reasons that this quality is probably present in all people to some degree.
Jewishness vs. Christianity
In a separate chapter, Weininger, himself a Jew who had converted to Christianity in 1902, analyzes the archetypal Jew as feminine, and thus profoundly irreligious, without true individuality (soul), and without a sense of good and evil. Christianity is described as "the highest expression of the highest faith", while Judaism is called "the extreme of cowardliness". Weininger decries the decay of modern times, and attributes much of it to feminine (or identically, "Jewish") character. By Weininger's reckoning everyone shows some femininity, and what he calls "Jewishness".
Critique of the Zeitgeist
On Jewishness, decadence and femininity:Our age, which is not only the most Jewish, but also the most effeminate of all ages; an age in which art represents only a sudarium of its humors; the age of the most gullible anarchism, without any understanding of the State and of justice; the age of the collectivist ethics of the species; the age in which history is viewed with the most astonishing lack of seriousness [historical materialism]; the age of capitalism and of Marxism; the age in which history, life, and science no longer mean anything, apart from economics and technology; the age when genius could be declared a form of madness, while it no longer possesses even one great artist or philosopher; the age of the least originality and its greatest pursuit; the age which can boast of being the first to have exalted eroticism, but not in order to forget oneself, the way the Romans or the Greeks did in their Bacchanalia, but in order to have the illusion of rediscovering oneself and giving substance to one’s vanity.
Reactions to suicide
Weininger's suicide in the house where Beethoven had diedthe man he considered one of the greatest geniuses of allmade him a cause célèbre, inspired several imitation suicides, and created a lot more interest in his book. The book received glowing reviews by Swedish author August Strindberg, who wrote that it had "probably solved the hardest of all problems", the "woman problem". It furthermore attracted the attention of Russian philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev, who claimed that "after Nietzsche there was nothing already in this [modern German] fleeting culture so remarkable."
Influence on Wittgenstein
Ludwig Wittgenstein read the book as a schoolboy and was deeply impressed by it, later listing it as one of his influences and recommending it to friends. Wittgenstein is recalled as saying that he thought Weininger was "a great genius". However, Wittgenstein's deep admiration of Weininger's thought was coupled with a fundamental disagreement with his position. Wittgenstein writes to G. E. Moore: "It isn't necessary or rather not possible to agree with him but the greatness lies in that with which we disagree. It is his enormous mistake which is great." In the same letter to Moore, Wittgenstein added that if one were to add a negation sign before the whole of Sex and Character, one would have expressed an important truth.
Weininger and the Nazis
Isolated parts of Weininger's writings were used by Nazi propaganda, despite the fact that Weininger actively argued against the ideas of race that came to be identified with the Nazis. In his private conversations, Hitler recalled a remark his mentor Dietrich Eckart made about Weininger: "I only knew one decent Jew and he committed suicide on the day when he realized that the Jew lives upon the decay of peoples...".
In the chapter titled "Judaism" in his book Sex and Character Weininger writes:
The Jewish race has been chosen by me as a subject of discussion, because, as will be shown, it presents the gravest and most formidable difficulties for my views.
I must, however, make clear what I mean by Judaism; I mean neither a race nor a people nor a recognised creed. I think of it as a tendency of the mind, as a psychological constitution which is a possibility for all mankind, but which has become actual in the most conspicuous fashion only amongst the Jews. Antisemitism itself will confirm my point of view.
... Thus the fact is explained that the bitterest Antisemites are to be found amongst the Jews themselves.
The true concept of the State is foreign to the Jew, because he, like the woman, is wanting in personality; his failure to grasp the idea of true society is due to his lack of free intelligible ego. Like women, Jews tend to adhere together, but they do not associate as free independent individuals mutually respecting each other's individuality.
As there is no real dignity in women, so what is meant by the word "gentleman" does not exist amongst the Jews. The genuine Jew fails in this innate good breeding by which alone individuals honour their own individuality and respect that of others. There is no Jewish nobility, and this is the more surprising as Jewish pedigrees can be traced back for thousands of years.
The familiar Jewish arrogance has a similar explanation...
Later in the same chapter he writes:
The faults of the Jewish race have often been attributed to the repression of that race by Aryans, and many Christians are still disposed to blame themselves in this respect. But the self-reproach is not justified. Outward circumstances do not mould a race in one direction, unless there is in the race the innate tendency to respond to the moulding forces; the total result comes at least as much from a natural disposition as from the modifying circumstances.
The Jew is not really anti-moral. But, none the less, he does not represent the highest ethical type. He is rather non-moral, neither good nor bad.
So also in the case of the woman...
...In the Jew and the woman, good and evil are not distinct from one another.
Jews, then, do not live as free, self-governing individuals, choosing between virtue and vice in the Aryan fashion...
Accordingly, Weininger's views are considered an important step in attempts to exclude women and Jews from society based on methodical philosophy, in an era declaring human equality and scientific thought.
In her book Nazi Ideology Prior to 1933, Barbara Miller Lane shows how Nazi ideologists such as Dietrich Eckart disregarded Weininger's deprecation of accusations against individual Jews, and instead simply stated that Jews, like women, lacked a soul and a belief in immortality, and that "Aryans" must guard themselves from "Jewishness" within, since this internal "Jewishness" is the source of evil.
Weininger and "Jewish self-hatred"
Allan Janik, in "Viennese Culture and the Jewish Self-Hatred Hypothesis: a Critique", questions the validity of the concept of "Jewish self-hatred", even when applied to Weininger, reputedly "the thinker who nearly everyone has taken to represent the very archetype of the self-hating Viennese Jewish intellectual". Janik places responsibility for this reputation upon Peter Gay. Janik doubts that such a concept as "Jewish self-hatred" is applicable to Weininger in any case, because, although he was of Jewish descent, "it is less than clear that he had a Jewish identity" to reject. In Janik's view, Gay misunderstands the role of religion in Jewish identity and "seems to smuggle in a whole lot of covert theological baggage in secularized form", resulting in "a piece of covert metaphysics parading as social science".
Works
Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine prinzipielle Untersuchung, neunzehnte, unveränderte Auflage mit einem Bildnisse des Verfassers (Wien und Leipzig: Wilhelm Braumüller Universitäts-Verlagsbuchhandlung Gesellschaft M. B. H., 1920).
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Books
Janik, Allan (1985). Essays on Wittgenstein and Weininger. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Janik, Allan (2001). Wittgenstein's Vienna Revisited. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. .
This book is a preservation facsimile.
Journal Articles
Newspapers
Online sources
Further reading
Abrahamsen, David (1946). The Mind and Death of a Genius. New York: Columbia University Press.
External links
Weininger photos and gravesite
Testimony by Weininger's friend Artur Gerber
Sex and Character, Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection
Works by Otto Weininger at Project Gutenberg
1880 births
1903 suicides
Anti-natalists
Austrian philosophers
Austrian male writers
Antisemitism in Austria
Austrian Protestants
Converts to Protestantism from Judaism
Late modern Christian antisemitism
Austrian Jews
Jewish philosophers
Suicides by firearm in Austria
Writers from Vienna
1903 deaths
|
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201105
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanto%20%28music%29
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Kanto (music)
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Kanto (, ) is a popular genre of Turkish music.
Terminology
Italian opera and theater had a profound effect on Turkish culture during the early 20th century. The terminology of music and theater derived from Italian. In the argot of the improvisational theater of Istanbul the stage was called sahano, backstage was referred to as koyuntu, backdrops depicting countryside as bosko, the applause as furi, and the songs sung as solos or duets between the acts and plays were called kanto. As was the case with their Italian counterparts, the Turkish troupe members played songs and music before the show and between the acts to pique people's interest and draw in customers. Kanto were based on traditional eastern makam but performed with Western instruments.
Theatrical origins
The improvised theatrical pieces were stage adaptations of the Karagöz (shadow puppet) and (form of Turkish theatre performed in the open air) traditions, although in a simplified form. The themes explored in these traditional theater arts (as well as their stereotypes) were used as the framework for the new extemporaneous performances of the tuluat ("improvised") theater. In this way, kanto may be considered as the unifying feature of all tuluat theater.
Periods
Kanto is usually divided into two periods. The division, particularly in terms of musical structure, is clear between the early kanto (1900s - 1923) and the kanto of the Post-Republican period (especially after the mid-1930s). It is further possible to identify two styles within the early period: Galata and Direklerarası (after the neighbourhoods of Old Istanbul).
Early period: 1900s–mid-1930s
The early period kanto tradition was nourished in Istanbul. The same was also true in the Post-Republican period. The city's large and diverse population provided the themes that were the mainstay of kanto. Kanto was heavily influenced by musical theatre, Balkan and Byzantine or Anatolian music (Karsilamas) (which was however often a subject of satire in kanto songs) and Greek music (Kalamatiano, Ballos, Syrtos) (especially the Istanbul Rum who were so fond of urban forms of entertainment). In other words, kanto was the result of cultural exchange and almost all the early kanto singers were either Rum or Armenian: Pepron, Karakas, Haim, Shamiram Kelleciyan, and Peruz Terzekyan (all of them performed during the period following 1903).
Galata and Direklerarası
Galata was the part of Istanbul where sailors, rowdies, and roustabouts used to frequent. Ahmet Rasim Bey gives a vivid picture of the Galata theaters in his novel Fuhs-i Akit "An Old Whore":
"Everyone thought Peruz was the most flirtatious, most skillful and the most provocative. The seats closest to the stage were always crammed full... They said of Peruz, 'she is a trollop who has ensnared the heart of many a young man and has made herself the enemy of many. 'Her songs would hardly be finished when chairs, flowers, bouquets and beribboned letters. Come flying from the boxseats. It seemed the building would be shaken to the ground."
Direklerarası in comparison to Galata was a more refined center of entertainment. Direklerarası was said to be quite lively at night during the month of Ramadan (or Ramazan in Turkish). It was there that the troupes of Kel Hasan and Abdi Efendi and later that of Neshid gained popularity. Under the influence of these masters kanto had its golden years.
The troupes' orchestras featured instruments such as the trumpet, the trombone, the violin, the trap drum and cymbals. The orchestra would start to play contemporary popular songs and marches about an hour before the beginning of main show. This intermission music ended up with the well known İzmir Marşı (Izmir March); a sign that the show time was approaching. The play began as soon as the musicians had taken their places at the side of the stage.
Prominent artists include: Peruz, Shamran, Kamelya, Eleni, Küçük and Büyük Amelya, Mari Ferha and Virjin.
1923–mid-1930s: decline in popularity
After the 1923 formation of the Turkish Republic, there were changes in the cultural life of Turkey. It was a period of rapid transformation and its effects were widespread. Turkish women had finally won the freedom to appear on the stage, breaking the monopoly previously held by Rûm (Istanbul Greek) and Armenian women who performed both in musical and non-musical theatre. Institutions such as Darulbedayi (Istanbul City Theatre) and Darulelhan (Istanbul Conservatory of Music) had trained musicians that turned out to work as kanto artists.
Before the 1930s, Western lifestyle and western art had put pressure on the traditional Turkish formats which were marginalized. The operetta, the tango and later the charleston, and the foxtrot overshadowed kanto. Kanto's popularity began to fade, the centers of entertainment shifted and the theaters of Galata and Direklerarası were eventually closed. Turkish female artists who were not receptive to kanto's typical ribaldry chose to turn away from it.
Themes
The kanto singers of this period were also composers. The songs had simple melodies combined with lyrics that described the tensions between men and women, or explored love themes, or just reflected local events of the time. The compositions were in well-known makams such as Rast, Hüzzam, Hicaz, Hüseyni and Nihavent. Kanto songs are remembered both by the names of their interpreters and their creators.
Late 1930s and beyond
There occurred a new change of trends after the late 1930s: there was a revival of interest in the kanto form. Although rather far from its fundamental principles a new type of kanto was once again popular. Kanto was not anymore exclusively limited to stage performances; there began to exist records produced in studios. While the lyrics began to include satirical takes on contemporary cultural trends and fashion. The songs were recorded with the 78 rpm phonograph. Columbia was the leading record label that commissioned kanto from Kaptanzade Ali Rıza Bey, Refik Fersan, Dramalı Hasan, Sadettin Kaynak, Cümbüş Mehmet and Mildan Niyazi Bey. The makams were the same but the instrumentation had changed. Kanto were now accompanied by cümbüş (a fretlees banjo-like instrument) the ud (a fretless lute), and calpara (castanets). Foxtrot, charleston, and rumba rhythms were combined with the typical kanto forms.
Female soloists from this period include: Makbule Enver, Mahmure, and Neriman; Beşiktaşlı Kemal Senman was the most sought after male singer for duets.
Themes
Among the themes explored by the new kantocu (singer(s) or composer(s) of kanto), the most frequent subject of satire was the new role of women after the formation of the Republic. Songs like "Sarhoş Kızlar" (Drunken Girls) or "Şoför Kadınlar" (Female Drivers) were written in revenge for all the suffering women had endured at the hands of men in the past. Other songs with similar themes include "Daktilo" (The Typewriter) (which brought to mind the newly formed Secretaires Society), "Bereli Kız" (The Girl with the Beret), "Kadın Asker", and "Olursa" (If Women Were Soldiers).
Contemporary use of the term
Kanto had a tremendous impact on contemporary Turkish popular music. However, the word Kanto eventually became more of a generalized umbrella term than a precise definition of a musical genre. Any tune that does not follow any conventions, or any song that appealed to the trends and tastes of the time it is released is labeled kanto. Any music instrumented in a novel way is also labeled kanto.
Nurhan Damcıoğlu is an example of a contemporary (post 1980s) artist labeled as a kanto singer.
Rhythms
Most rebetiko songs are based on traditional Greek or Anatolian dance rhythms. Most common are:
Syrtos, a general name for many Greek dances (including the Nisiotika), (mostly a 4/4 meter in various forms)
Zeibekiko, a 9/4 or a 9/8 meter, in its various forms
Sirtaki, including various kinds of Greek music. It is also the fast version of Chasapiko (like 4/4 and 2/4 meter)
Hasapiko, a 4/4 meter and the fast version Hasaposerviko in a 2/4 meter
Antikristos or Karsilamas and Argilamas (a 9/8 meter)
Kamilierikos, a 9/8 meter) and Aptalikos, broken down in two sixteenths, (slow version a 9/4 and fast version a 9/16 meter in various forms)
Tsifteteli, a dance of women, (a 4/4)
See also
Cantata
Arabesque music
Rebetiko
Laïkó
Longa (Middle Eastern music)
Fasıl
Ortaoyunu
Amalia Bakas
Hicaz Buselik Jewish Kanto
Notes
Armenian music
Italian music
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201106
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1973 Irish presidential election
|
The 1973 Irish presidential election was held on Wednesday, 30 May 1973. The outgoing president Éamon de Valera was ineligible for re-election after serving two terms in office. Former Tánaiste Erskine H. Childers, nominated by Fianna Fáil, was elected as president of Ireland, defeating Fine Gael deputy leader, Tom O'Higgins, who had come within 1% of defeating Éamon de Valera in the 1966 presidential election.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 204 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs.
On 25 April, the Minister for Local Government made the order for the presidential election, with noon on 8 May as the date for nominations, and 30 May as the date of polling.
Campaign
O'Higgins was approved as the Fine Gael candidate on 31 January. Childers was approved as the Fianna Fáil candidate on 6 April. George Colley was director of elections for Childers. O'Higgins was the early favourite to win, with odds of 1/2, against 6/4 for Childers.
Result
References
1973 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential
Presidential elections in Ireland
May 1973 events in Europe
|
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201108
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1974 Irish presidential election
|
The 1974 Irish presidential election resulted from the sudden death in office of President Erskine H. Childers. Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh was elected unopposed as the fifth president of Ireland.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 204 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs.
Agreed candidate
Initially all parties privately agreed to nominate the late president's widow, Rita Childers. Before she was informed of the plan, however, a mix-up led to the collapse of the arrangement. A partially deaf Fine Gael Teachta Dála, identified in some reports as Tom O'Donnell, confirmed the secret arrangement upon mishearing a journalist's question asking about the decision of a local council's nomination of Childers as president, having assumed that the cross-party decision was made public. Fianna Fáil leader Jack Lynch, thinking the party was set up, subsequently withdrew from the agreement and nominated Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh instead. The parties agreed to the new arrangement due to a number of external factors, including a sluggish economy and The Troubles.
Ó Dálaigh had served as Attorney General from 1951 to 1953, as a judge of the Supreme Court from 1953 to 1973, as Chief Justice from 1961 to 1973, and had been serving as a judge of the European Court of Justice from 1973 at the time of his nomination. All parties agreed to Ó Dálaigh's nomination. As no other candidate was nominated, it was not necessary to proceed to a ballot for his election.
Result
Ó Dálaigh was inaugurated as president on Thursday, 19 December 1974.
References
1974 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential
Presidential elections in Ireland
Uncontested elections
November 1974 events in Europe
|
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201109
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1976 Irish presidential election
|
The 1976 Irish presidential election was precipitated by the resignation of President Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh in October 1976. Patrick Hillery was elected unopposed as the sixth president of Ireland.
Background to the election
Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh resigned as president soon after an attack on him by Paddy Donegan, the Minister for Defence, in which the minister called the President a "thundering disgrace" for having referred the Emergency Powers Bill 1976 to the Supreme Court. Ó Dálaigh resigned on 22 October after Dáil Éireann supported the minister in a motion of no confidence.
Nomination process
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 204 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs
a former or retiring president, on their own nomination.
Fianna Fáil leader Jack Lynch proposed as the party's presidential election candidate Patrick Hillery, retiring European Commissioner for Social Affairs and former Minister for External Affairs. Charles Haughey, a critic of Lynch, proposed Joseph Brennan, TD for Donegal–Leitrim and a former Minister for Social Welfare. Hillery easily won the party nomination.
The government parties, Fine Gael and the Labour Party, did not nominate a candidate, and as no other candidate was nominated, it was not necessary to proceed to a ballot for the election.
Result
Patrick Hillery was inaugurated as president on Friday, 3 December.
References
1976 elections in the Republic of Ireland
Presidential
Presidential elections in Ireland
Uncontested elections
October 1976 events in Europe
|
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] |
201111
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1983 Irish presidential election
|
In the 1983 Irish presidential election outgoing President Patrick Hillery agreed under enormous political pressure to seek a second term. Though former Nobel Peace Prize and Lenin Peace Prize winner Seán MacBride made it known in the Sunday Press that he wanted to contest the office, only Hillery was nominated and was declared re-elected without the need for a poll.
Procedure
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, candidates could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 226 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 councils of the administrative counties, including county boroughs, or
themselves, in the case of a former or retiring president.
All Irish citizens on the Dáil electoral register were eligible to vote.
Result
The Minister for the Environment made the order opening nominations on 7 October, with noon on 21 October as the deadline for nominations, and 23 November set as the date for a contest. The only candidate nominated was Patrick Hillery, who had the right to nominate himself, and he was declared elected at the close of nominations.
Hillery was inaugurated for his second term as President of Ireland on Saturday, 3 December 1983.
See also
President of Ireland
References
1983 in Irish politics
Uncontested elections
Presidential elections in Ireland
December 1983 events in Europe
Presidential
|
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] |
201112
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Bunge
|
Mario Bunge
|
Mario Augusto Bunge (; ; Florida Oeste, September 21, 1919 – Montreal, February 24, 2020) was an Argentine-Canadian philosopher and physicist. His philosophical writings combined scientific realism, systemism, materialism, emergentism, and other principles.
He was an advocate of "exact philosophy" and a critic of existentialist, hermeneutical, phenomenological philosophy, and postmodernism. He was popularly known for his opinions against pseudoscience.
Biography
Bunge was born on September 21, 1919, in Buenos Aires (Argentina). His mother, Marie Herminie Müser, was a German nurse who left Germany just before the beginning of World War I. His father, Augusto Bunge, also of some German descent, was an Argentinian physician and socialist legislator. Mario, who was the couple's only child, was raised without any religious education, and enjoyed a happy and stimulating childhood in the outskirts of Buenos Aires.
Bunge had four children: Carlos F. and Mario A. J. (with ex-wife Julia), and Eric R. and Silvia A., with his wife of over 60 years, the Argentinian mathematician Marta Cavallo. Mario lived with Marta in Montreal since 1966, with one-year sabbaticals in other countries.
Studies and career
Bunge began his studies at the National University of La Plata, graduating with a Ph.D. in physico-mathematical sciences in 1952. He was professor of theoretical physics and philosophy, 1956–1966, first at La Plata then at University of Buenos Aires. His international debut was at the 1956 Inter-American Philosophical Congress in Santiago, Chile. He was particularly noticed there by Willard Van Orman Quine, who called Bunge the star of the congress. He was, until his retirement at age 90, the Frothingham Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at McGill University in Montreal, where he had been since 1966.
He became a centenarian in September 2019. A Festschrift was published to mark the occasion, with essays by an international collection of scholars. He died in Montreal, Canada, on 24 February 2020 at the age of 100.
Work
Bunge was a prolific intellectual, having written more than 400 papers and 80 books, notably his monumental Treatise on Basic Philosophy in eight volumes (1974–1989), a comprehensive and rigorous study of those philosophical aspects Bunge takes to be the core of modern philosophy: semantics, ontology, epistemology, philosophy of science and ethics. In his Treatise, Bunge developed a comprehensive scientific outlook which he then applied to the various natural and social sciences.
His work is based on global systemism, emergentism, rationalism, scientific realism, materialism and consequentialism. Bunge repeatedly and explicitly denied being a logical positivist, and wrote on metaphysics.
A variety of scientists and philosophers influenced his thought. Among those thinkers, Bunge explicitly acknowledged the direct influence of his own father, the Argentine physician Augusto Bunge, the Czech physicist Guido Beck, the Argentine mathematician Alberto González Domínguez, the Argentine mathematician, physicist and computer scientist Manuel Sadosky, the Italian sociologist and psychologist Gino Germani, the American sociologist Robert King Merton, and the French-Polish epistemologist Émile Meyerson.
Bunge defined himself as a left-wing liberal and democratic socialist, in the tradition of John Stuart Mill and José Ingenieros. He was a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.
Popularly, he is known for his remarks considering psychoanalysis as an example of pseudoscience. He was critical of the ideas of well known scientists and philosophers such as Karl Popper, Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and Daniel Dennett.
Bunge appreciated some aspects of Popper's critical rationalism but found it insufficient as a comprehensive philosophy of science, and instead formulated his own account of scientific realism.
John R. Wettersen, who defined "critical rationalism" more broadly than Popper's work, called Bunge's theory of science "a version of critical rationalism".
In a review of Bunge's 2016 memoirs, Between Two Worlds: Memoirs of a Philosopher-Scientist, James Alcock saw in Bunge "a man of exceedingly high confidence who has lived his life guided by strong principles about truth, science, and justice" and one who is "[impatient] with muddy thinking".
Influence on the social sciences
Bunge addressed issues of theory and method in the social sciences starting with his Treatise on Basic Philosophy and later in his career wrote two books entirely focused on the social sciences: Finding Philosophy in Social Science (1996) and Social Science under Debate: A Philosophical Perspective (1998). In these works he argued for an approach to the study of societies that he called systemism, an alternative to holism and individualism. He was an advocate for what he called mechanismic explanations and defended the view that social mechanisms are processes "in a concrete system, such that it is capable of bringing about or preventing some change in the system as a whole or in some of its subsystems".
Awards
Bunge was distinguished with twenty-one honorary doctorates and four honorary professorships by universities from both the Americas and Europe. Bunge was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (1984–) and of the Royal Society of Canada (1992–), and he is in the "Science Hall of Fame" featured in Science in 2011. In 1982 he was awarded the Premio Príncipe de Asturias (Prince of Asturias Award), in 2009 the Guggenheim Fellowship, and in 2014 the Ludwig von Bertalanffy Award in Complexity Thinking.
Selected publications
1959. Causality: The Place of the Causal Principle in Modern Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (Fourth edition, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009.)
1960. La ciencia, su método y su filosofía. Buenos Aires: Eudeba. (In French: La science, sa méthode et sa philosophie. Paris: Vigdor, 2001, .)
1962. Intuition and Science. Prentice-Hall. (In French: Intuition et raison. Paris: Vigdor, 2001, .)
1963. The Myth of Simplicity: Problems of Scientific Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
1967. Scientific Research: Strategy and Philosophy. Volume 1: The Search for System. Volume 2: The Search for Truth. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. Revised and reprinted as Philosophy of Science, 2 Vols. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1998.
1967. Foundations of Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag.
1973. Method, Model, and Matter. Dordrecht: Reidel.
1973. Philosophy of Physics. Dordrecht: Reidel.
1977. "Emergence and the Mind", Neuroscience 2(4), 501–509.
1980. The Mind-Body Problem. Oxford: Pergamon.
1981. Scientific Materialism. Dordrecht: Reidel.
1983. "Demarcating Science from Pseudoscience", Fundamenta Scientiae 3: 369–388.
1984. "What is Pseudoscience?", The Skeptical Inquirer 9: 36–46.
1987. Philosophy of Psychology (with Rubén Ardila). New York: Springer.
1987. "Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science", Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10: 576–577.
1988. Ciencia y desarrollo. Buenos Aires: Siglo Veinte.
1974–89. Treatise on Basic Philosophy: 8 volumes in 9 parts:
I: Semantics I: Sense and Reference. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1974.
II: Semantics II: Interpretation and Truth. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1974.
III: Ontology I: The Furniture of the World. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1977.
IV: Ontology II: A World of Systems. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979.
V: Epistemology and Methodology I: Exploring the World. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1983.
VI: Epistemology and Methodology II: Understanding the World. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1983.
VII: Epistemology and Methodology III: Philosophy of Science and Technology: Part I. Formal and Physical Sciences. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985. Part II. Life Science, Social Science and Technology. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985.
VIII: Ethics: the Good and the Right. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1989.
1996. Finding Philosophy in Social Science. New Haven: Yale University Press.
1996. "Is Religious Education Compatible with Science Education?" (with Martin Mahner), Science & Education 5(2), 101–123.
1997. Foundations of Biophilosophy (with Martin Mahner). New York: Springer.
1997. "Mechanism and Explanation", Philosophy of the Social Sciences 27(4), 410–465.
1998. Dictionary of Philosophy. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
1998. Elogio de la curiosidad. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana.
1998. Social Science under Debate: A Philosophical Perspective. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
1999. The Sociology–Philosophy Connection. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
2001. Philosophy in Crisis: The Need for Reconstruction. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
2001. Scientific Realism: Selected Essays of Mario Bunge. Edited by Martin Mahner. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
2003. Emergence and Convergence: Qualitative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
2004. "How Does It Work? The Search for Explanatory Mechanisms", Philosophy of the Social Sciences 34(2), 182–210.
2004. Über die Natur der Dinge. Materialismus und Wissenschaft (with Martin Mahner). Stuttgart: S. Hirzel Verlag.
2006. Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
2009. Political Philosophy: Fact, Fiction, and Vision. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
2010. Matter and Mind: A Philosophical Inquiry. New York: Springer.
2012. Evaluating Philosophies. New York: Springer.
2012. "Does Quantum Physics Refute Realism, Materialism and Determinism?", Science & Education 21(10): 1601–1610.
2013. Medical Philosophy: Conceptual Issues in Medicine. New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing Company.
2016. Between Two Worlds: Memoirs of a Philosopher-Scientist. New York: Springer.
2017. Doing Science: In the Light of Philosophy. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company.
2018. From a Scientific Point of View: Reasoning and Evidence Beat Improvisation across Fields. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars.
See also
List of people from Montreal
References
Further reading
VV.AA. (2003). Congreso-homenaxe internacional a Mario Bunge. Mos (Galicia), Grupo Aletheia. [Includes articles in Spanish by M. Bunge (Inverse problems), J. Aracil (MB and systems theory), A. Barceló (Philosophy and economics: three Bungen notions), I, Morgado (Brain, mind and philosophy), J. Mosterín (Biographical sketch of MB), M. A. Quintanilla (Instrumental rationality) y Héctor Vucetich (Quantum mechanics and realism), and in English by M. Mahner (M. Bunge's philosophy of biology)].
Agassi, Joseph and Robert S. Cohen (eds.) (1982). Scientific Philosophy Today: Essays in Honor of Mario Bunge. Dordrecht, D. Reidel.
Denegri, Guillermo and Gladys E. Martínez (2000). Tópicos actuales en filosofía de la ciencia. Homenaje a Mario Bunge en su 80º aniversario. Mar del Plata, Editorial Martín.
Marone, Luis and Rafael González del Solar (2000). "Homenaje a Mario Bunge, o por qué las preguntas en Ecología deberían comenzar con 'por qué'". In Denegri, Guillermo and Gladys E. Martínez (2000). Tópicos actuales en filosofía de la ciencia. Homenaje a Mario Bunge en su 80º aniversario. Mar del Plata, Editorial Martín. pp. 153–178.
Matthews, Michael R. (ed.) (2019). Mario Bunge: a Centenary Festschrift. Cham, Springer.
Serroni-Copello, Raúl (1989). Encuentros con Mario Bunge. Asociación de Investigaciones en Psicología.
Vacher, Laurent-Michel (1993). Entretiens avec Mario Bunge. Montreal, Liber.
Weingartner, Paul and Georg J. W. Dorn (eds.). 1990. Studies on Mario Bunge's Treatise. Amsterdam-Atlanta, GA, Rodopi.
External links
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201114
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1990 Irish presidential election
|
The 1990 Irish presidential election was the tenth presidential election to be held in Ireland, the fifth to be contested by more than one candidate, and the first to have a female candidate and winner. It was held on Wednesday, 7 November 1990.
Nomination procedure
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 226 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 31 county councils or county boroughs, or
a former or retiring president, on their own nomination.
The outgoing president, Patrick Hillery, had served the maximum of two terms, and no other former president was living.
Candidates
Brian Lenihan
Brian Lenihan, the Tánaiste and Minister for Defence was chosen by Fianna Fáil as their candidate, though he faced a late challenge for the party nomination from another senior minister, John Wilson. Lenihan was popular and widely seen as humorous and intelligent. He had delivered liberal policy reform, for example relaxed censorship in the 1960s.
Austin Currie
Fine Gael, after trying and failing to get former Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald and former Tánaiste Peter Barry to run, ultimately nominated the former Northern Ireland civil rights campaigner and SDLP member Austin Currie. Currie had been elected to the Dáil in the 1989 general election and had been a minister in Brian Faulkner's power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland from 1973–1974. However Currie had little experience in the politics of the Republic.
Mary Robinson
The Labour Party, along with the Workers' Party, nominated Mary Robinson, SC, a former Labour Party member and liberal campaigner who had served as a senator for Dublin University from 1969 to 1987. Robinson was a former Reid Professor of Law in the Trinity College Dublin and had been involved in the Campaign for Homosexual Law Reform and the campaign to save Wood Quay.
Campaign
Lenihan entered the race as odds-on favourite; no Fianna Fáil candidate had ever lost a presidential election. However Lenihan was derailed when he confirmed in an on-the-record interview with freelance journalist and academic researcher Jim Duffy that he had been involved in controversial attempts to pressurise President Patrick Hillery not to dissolve the Dáil in 1982. After the contrast between his public denials during the campaign and his eventual confirmation of his role during his earlier interview recorded in May the Progressive Democrats, then in coalition with Fianna Fáil, threatened to join an opposition motion of no confidence unless Lenihan was dismissed from the government or an inquiry into the 1982 events was set up. The incident caused Lenihan's support to drop from 43 to 32% with Robinson going from 38 to 51% Taoiseach Charles Haughey privately asked Lenihan to resign, and sacked him on 31 October—a week before the election—when he refused to do so leading to a sympathy vote for Lenihan; his support in the polls going from 32% on the 29th of October to 42% on the 3rd of November (with Robinson's support dropping from 51 to 42%).
At this point Cabinet minister Pádraig Flynn launched a personal attack on Mary Robinson, accusing her as "having a new-found interest in her family", an attack that was itself attacked in response as "disgraceful" on live radio by Michael McDowell, a senior member of the Progressive Democrats, which up to that point had supported Lenihan's campaign. Flynn's attack was a fatal blow to Lenihan's campaign, causing many female supporters of Lenihan to vote for Robinson in a gesture of support.
Lenihan received a plurality of first preference votes. Robinson received almost three times as many votes as Currie, and 76.73% of Currie's votes transferred to Robinson, beating Lenihan into second place and electing Robinson as Ireland's first female president.
Result
Results by constituency
References
1990 elections in the Republic of Ireland
1990 in Irish politics
Presidential elections in Ireland
November 1990 events in Europe
|
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] |
6464034
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrmecotypus
|
Myrmecotypus
|
Myrmecotypus is a genus of ant mimicking corinnid sac spiders first described by O. Pickard-Cambridge in 1894. Species mainly occur from Panama to Mexico, with one species found in the United States, and one in Argentina.
M. rettenmeyeri, named after entomologist Carl Rettenmeyer, has an unusual longitudinal band of black hairs extending along the midline of the cephalothorax, enhancing its resemblance to Camponotus sericeiventris, an ant it shares a habitat with. The black hairs correspond to the solid longitudinal keel-like dorsal extensions of the posterior sections of the ant's thorax.
Species
it contains fourteen species in North, Central, and South America:
Myrmecotypus fuliginosus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894 (type) – Mexico
Myrmecotypus haddadi Perger & Rubio, 2021 – Bolivia
Myrmecotypus iguazu Rubio & Arbino, 2009 – Bolivia, Argentina
Myrmecotypus jasmineae Leister & Miller, 2014 – Nicaragua
Myrmecotypus lineatipes Chickering, 1937 – Panama
Myrmecotypus lineatus (Emerton, 1909) – USA
Myrmecotypus niger Chickering, 1937 – Panama, Bolivia, Brazil
Myrmecotypus olympus Reiskind, 1969 – Panama, Brazil
Myrmecotypus orpheus Reiskind, 1969 – Panama
Myrmecotypus pilosus (O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898) – Mexico, Panama
Myrmecotypus rettenmeyeri Unzicker, 1965 – Panama
Myrmecotypus rubioi Pett & Perger, 2021 – Bolivia
Myrmecotypus rubrofemoratus Perger & Rubio, 2021 – Bolivia
Myrmecotypus tahyinandu Perger & Rubio, 2020 – Bolivia
References
External links
Myrmecotypus at BugGuide
Pictures of M. lineatus
Araneomorphae genera
Corinnidae
Spiders of North America
Spiders of South America
|
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201116
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant%C5%8D%20region
|
Kantō region
|
The is a geographical area of Honshu, the largest island of Japan. In a common definition, the region includes the Greater Tokyo Area and encompasses seven prefectures: Gunma, Tochigi, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tokyo, Chiba and Kanagawa. Within its boundaries, slightly more than 45 percent of the land area is the Kanto Plain. The rest consists of the hills and mountains that form the land borders. According to the official census on October 1, 2010, by the Japan Statistics Bureau, the population was 42,607,376, amounting to approximately one third of the total population of Japan.
Other definitions
The Kantō regional governors' association (関東地方知事会, Kantō chihō chijikai) assembles the prefectural governors of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi, Nagano and Shizuoka.
In the police organization of Japan, the National Police Agency's supervisory office for Kantō (関東管区警察局, Kantō kanku keisatsu-kyoku) is responsible for the Prefectural police departments of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi, Nagano and Shizuoka. Tokyo is not part of Kantō or any NPA region, its police has a dedicated liaison office with the national agency of its own.
The Kantō Regional Development Bureau (関東地方整備局, Kantō chihō seibi-kyoku) of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in the national government is responsible for eight prefectures generally (Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi) and parts of the waterways in two others (Nagano and Shizuoka). The Kanto Bureau of Economy, Trade and Industry (関東経済産業局, Kantō keizai-sangyō-kyoku) is responsible for eleven prefectures: Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi, Nagano and Shizuoka.
History
The heartland of feudal power during the Kamakura period and again in the Edo period, Kanto became the center of modern development. Within the Greater Tokyo Area and especially the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area, Kanto houses not only Japan's seat of government but also the nation's largest group of universities and cultural institutions, the greatest population and a large industrial zone. Although most of the Kanto plain is used for residential, commercial or industrial construction, it is still farmed. Rice is the principal crop, although the zone around Tokyo and Yokohama has been landscaped to grow garden produce for the metropolitan market.
A watershed moment of Japan's modern history took place in the late Taishō period: the Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. The quake, which claimed more than 100,000 lives and ravaged the Tokyo and Yokohama areas, occurred at a time when Japan was still reeling from the economic recession in reaction to the high-flying years during World War I.
Operation Coronet, part of Operation Downfall, the proposed Allied invasion of Japan during World War II, was scheduled to land at the Kantō plain. Most of the United States military bases on the island of Honshu are situated on the Kantō plain. These include Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Yokota Air Base, Yokosuka Naval Base, and Camp Zama.
The name Kanto literally means "East of the Barrier". The name Kanto is nowadays generally considered to mean the region east (東) of the Hakone checkpoint (関所). An antonym of Kanto, "West of the Barrier" means Kansai region, which lies western Honshu and was the center of feudal Japan.
After the Great Kanto earthquake many people in Kanto started creating art with different varieties of colors. They made art of earthquake and small towns to symbolize the small towns destroyed in the quake.
Subdivisions
North and South
The most often used subdivision of the region is dividing it to , consisting of Ibaraki, Tochigi, and Gunma Prefectures, and , consisting of Saitama (sometimes classified North), Chiba, the Tokyo Metropolis (sometimes singulated), and Kanagawa Prefectures. South Kantō is often regarded as synonymous with the Greater Tokyo Area. As part of Japan's attempts to predict earthquakes, an area roughly corresponding to South Kantō has been designated an 'Area of Intensified Observation' by the Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction.
The Japanese House of Representatives' divides it into the electorate which consists of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma and Saitama Prefectures, Tokyo electorate, and the electorate which consists of Chiba, Kanagawa and Yamanashi Prefectures. (Note that Yamanashi is out of Kantō region in the orthodox definition.)
Keirin's consists of Chiba, Kanagawa and Shizuoka Prefectures.
East and West
This division is not often but sometimes used.
: Ibaraki, Tochigi and Chiba Prefectures.
: Gunma, Saitama, Tokyo, Kanagawa (and sometimes Yamanashi) Prefectures.
Inland and Coastal
This division is sometimes used in economics and geography. The border can be modified if the topography is taken for prefectural boundaries.
: Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama (and sometimes Yamanashi) Prefectures.
: Ibaraki, Chiba, Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectures.
Greater Kantō
The Japanese national government defines the as Kantō region plus Yamanashi Prefecture. Japan's national public broadcaster NHK uses involving Yamanashi, Nagano and Niigata Prefectures for regional programming and administration.
Cities
The Kantō region is the most highly developed, urbanized, and industrialized part of Japan. Tokyo and Yokohama form a single industrial complex with a concentration of light and heavy industry along Tokyo Bay. Other major cities in the area include Kawasaki (in Kanagawa Prefecture); Saitama (in Saitama Prefecture); and Chiba (in Chiba Prefecture). Smaller cities, farther away from the coast, house substantial light and automotive industries. The average population density reached 1,192 persons per square kilometer in 1991.
Economy
The Kantō region largely corresponds to the Tokyo metropolitan area with the exception that it does not contain Yamanashi prefecture.
The Tokyo metropolitan area has the largest city economy in the world and is one of the major global center of trade and commerce along with New York City, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Paris, Seoul and London.
Greater Tokyo Area 2005
2005 average exchange rate (1 US Dollar = 110.22 Yen)
Source
GDP (purchasing power parity)
The agglomeration of Tokyo is the world's largest economy, with the largest gross metropolitan product at purchasing power parity (PPP) in the world according to a study by PricewaterhouseCoopers.
Kanto Region Metropolitan Employment Area
Sources:, Conversion rates - Exchange rates - OECD Data
Population
The population of Kanto region is very similar to that of Greater Tokyo Area except that it does not contain Yamanashi Prefecture and contains the rural populations throughout the region.
Per Japanese census data, and Kanto region's population has continuously grown but the population growth rate has slowed since early 1992.
The Kanto region at 2018 has a population at around 43.3 million people.
See also
Geography of Japan
Kantō dialect
Kantō Fureai Trail, aka Capital Region Nature Trail, a collection of hiking trails circumnavigating the entire Kantō Region
Kanto, a fictional region in the Pokémon franchise which is based on Kantō
Notes
Citations
Sources
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
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201118
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Northern%20British%20Columbia
|
University of Northern British Columbia
|
The University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) is a small, research-intensive public university in British Columbia, Canada. The main campus is located in Prince George, British Columbia. UNBC also has regional campuses in northern British Columbia in Prince Rupert, Terrace, Quesnel, and Fort St. John. The enabling legislation is the University of Northern British Columbia Act 1996. In the 2019–20 academic year, 3,570 students were enrolled at UNBC.
UNBC is ranked as the number one university of its size in Canada in the Primarily Undergraduate category by Maclean's.
UNBC also finished first in the rankings in 2015 and 2016 and routinely finishes in the top three in its category.
In 2007, the university obtained the trademark for "Canada's Green University". Because of its northern latitude, UNBC is a member of the University of the Arctic.
History
The British Columbia legislature passed Bill 40 (the UNBC Act), which formally established the university, on June 22, 1990. The university was established in response to a grass-roots movement spearheaded by the Interior University Society. UNBC offered a limited number of courses in rented office space in 1992 and 1993 but was opened officially by Queen Elizabeth II, with 1,500 students in 1994 upon the completion of the main Prince George campus after two years of construction.
The university gained attention with the introduction of the Northern Medical Program (NMP), a collaboration between UBC and UNBC. Through this collaboration, several academic physicians have been attracted to the city, which has led to an emerging academic medical community. For example, the introduction of the BC Cancer Agency Centre for the North has attracted academic oncologists, such as Dr. Robert Olson.
Organization and administration
The governance was modeled on the provincial University of Toronto Act 1906, which established a bicameral system of university government comprising a Senate (composed of members of the faculty), responsible for academic policy, and a Board of Governors (composed of members of the community), which exercises exclusive control over financial policy and having formal authority in all other matters. The President, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and to perform institutional leadership.
Campus
The Prince George campus is located on Cranbrook Hill, overlooking the city of Prince George from the west, and is widely renowned for its innovative architecture. The award-winning Wood Innovation and Design Centre, designed by Michael Green Architecture, was the world’s tallest modern all-timber structure upon completion and serves as a facility for the research and education on the uses of wood. The Wood Innovation Research Lab is an example of Passive House design in a northern climate.
The separate buildings are linked by an agora that is partially below ground level. It is the efficient heating system connected to all the core campus buildings that permits UNBC to pursue its goal of heating the university by the gasification of clean-burning, renewable wood pellets collected from the waste of pine trees killed by the mountain pine beetle epidemic.
The buildings at UNBC are designed to represent the northern landscape. The Canfor Winter Garden area has a flowing blue staircase below a ceiling of wooden lattices, representing the west coast rain forests. The cafeteria has a lighthouse design that represents the rugged coastline of northern British Columbia. Another structural feature, a pair of triangular glass peaks, represents mountains and functions as skylights above the UNBC Bookstore.
On October 13, 2010, UNBC was co-awarded the Campus Sustainability Leadership Award by the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) for its bio-energy project, which targets a reduction in fossil fuel use by supplying 85% of the heating needs at UNBC.
University Hospital of Northern British Columbia
The University Hospital of Northern British Columbia is a Level III trauma centre in Northern BC.
Culture
Motto
The UNBC motto, 'En cha huná, directly translates as "that person also lives" in the Nak'azdli (Fort St. James) dialect of the Indigenous language Dakelh (Carrier). It is interpreted in English as "respecting all forms of life".
Student life
The Northern Undergraduate Student Society, known colloquially as NUGSS, represents the undergraduate student body at the University of Northern British Columbia. A non-profit organization, NUGSS serves and represents all undergraduate students at all UNBC campuses. The Society governs student-led organizations on campus, provides the health and dental plan, advocates for student needs in local transit, and hosts various events. Annual NUGSS events include Backyard BBQ, Jump Back to NYE, and Final Affair.
The Northern British Columbia Graduate Student Society (NBCGSS), represents about 750 full-time and part-time graduate students. It was founded in the year of 1997, less than a decade after UNBC was founded. Every year NBCGSS holds events like winter/semi formals, a ski trip and a summer trip. NBCGSS is a member of the British Columbia Federation of Students (BCFS).
The UNBC First Nations Centre provides support services for indigenous students, including bringing in elders, counselling, and events such as talking circles and sweat lodges. The Northern Pride Centre Society or (also known as the "PC") offers a safe space, support, and resources to the LGBT and ally community, including a new Positive Space Campaign designed by UNBC students.
Student media
Over the Edge, a bi-weekly student newspaper. Established in 1994.
CFURadio 88.7 FM, the independent campus community radio station.
Athletics
The Timberwolves compete in the Canada West Universities Athletic Association. UNBC fields men's and women's teams in soccer and basketball.
Notable alumni
James Moore (Member of Parliament and Conservative Cabinet Member)
Currie Dixon, Yukon Legislative Assembly Member (2011–2016), Leader of the Yukon Party and Yukon Legislative Assembly Member (since 2021)
Additional images
Arms
See also
List of universities in British Columbia
Higher education in British Columbia
Education in Canada
References
Further reading
External links
University of Northern British Columbia
UNBC History
UNBC Timberwolves
UNBC Aboriginal Resource Dati
Photographs of the UNBC campus
BC Cancer Society - Centre for the North
University Hospital of Northern British Columbia (UHNBC)
Northern Undergraduate Student Society (NUGSS)
Over The Edge Newspaper
Educational institutions established in 1994
Universities in British Columbia
1994 establishments in British Columbia
|
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201120
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
1997 Irish presidential election
|
The 1997 Irish presidential election was held on Thursday, 30 October 1997. It was the eleventh presidential election to be held in Ireland, and only the sixth to be contested by more than one candidate. It was held ahead of schedule when incumbent Mary Robinson resigned to assume her new appointment as the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Candidates
The Minister for the Environment and Local Government made the order opening nominations on 15 September, with 30 September as the deadline for nominations. Five people received nominations, the highest number contesting to that point, and more remarkably, four of the five were women.
Mary McAleese
Mary McAleese was selected by Fianna Fáil as their candidate for the presidency. Born in Belfast, she was formerly a journalist with broadcaster, RTÉ, and at the time of her nomination, she was Pro-Vice Chancellor of Queen's University Belfast. Two other candidates, Albert Reynolds and Michael O'Kennedy, had also sought the Fianna Fáil nomination. Reynolds was a former Taoiseach while O'Kennedy was a former cabinet minister having served in the Finance and Foreign Affairs portfolios. Both were also sitting TDs which was seen as an advantage. In the first round of voting, Reynolds received 49 votes, McAleese 42, and O'Kennedy 21. In the second round, McAleese won, with 62 votes to Reynolds's 48. McAleese was later also endorsed by the Progressive Democrats, the smaller party in the coalition government with Fianna Fáil.
Mary Banotti
Mary Banotti was nominated by Fine Gael. She was the grand-niece of the former Irish leader, Michael Collins, and sister of the deputy leader of the party, Nora Owen. She defeated colleague Avril Doyle for the party nomination in a very close contest. Banotti, who was an MEP at the time, was the only serving politician among the five presidential candidates.
Adi Roche
Adi Roche, who had founded Chernobyl Children International in 1991, was nominated by the Labour Party. Roche was later endorsed by Democratic Left and the Green Party. At 42 years of age, she was and is the youngest person to stand in an Irish presidential election.
Dana Rosemary Scallon
Dana Rosemary Scallon received the nominations of five county councils: Donegal, Kerry, Longford, North Tipperary and Wicklow. Scallon was a singer, the winner of the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest, and a family values campaigner. She was the first candidate in any Irish presidential election to have been nominated by local authorities, rather than by Oireachtas members.
Derek Nally
Derek Nally was the fifth candidate to join the presidential race and the only male candidate. He was a retired Garda and victims' rights campaigner. He also received the nominations of five county councils: Carlow, Clare, Kildare, South Dublin and Wexford.
Result
Results by constituency
References
1997 elections in the Republic of Ireland
1997 in Irish politics
Presidential elections in Ireland
October 1997 events in Europe
|
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] |
201122
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC%20FASTRAND
|
UNIVAC FASTRAND
|
FASTRAND was a magnetic drum mass storage system built by Sperry Rand Corporation (later Sperry Univac) for their UNIVAC 1100 series and 418/490/494 series computers. A FASTRAND subsystem consisted of one or two Control Units and up to eight FASTRAND units. A dual-access FASTRAND subsystem included two complete control units, and provided parallel data paths that allowed simultaneous operations on any two FASTRAND units in the subsystem. Each control unit interfaced to one (optionally two) 1100 Series (36-bit), or 490 Series (30-bit), parallel I/O channels.
A voice coil actuator moved a bar containing multiple single track recording heads, so these drums operated much like moving head disk drives with multiple disks. The heads "flew" on self-acting hydrodynamic air bearings. The drums had a plated magnetic recording surface. An optional feature called Fastband included 24 additional tracks with fixed read/write heads. This feature provided rapid access (35 ms. average access time), and a write lockout feature.
The Fastrands were very heavy (5,000 pounds) and large, approximately 8' long. Due to their weight, FASTRAND units were usually not installed on "false floor", and required special rigging and mounts to move and/or install. There were reported cases of drum bearing failures that caused the machine to tear itself apart and send the heavy drum crashing through walls.
At the time of their introduction the storage capacity exceeded any other random access mass storage disk or drum.
There were three models of FASTRAND drives:
FASTRAND I had a single drum. The large mass of the rotating drum caused gyroscopic precession of the unit, making it tend to spin on the computer room floor as the Earth rotated under it. Very few of these devices were delivered.
FASTRAND II (the majority of units produced) had two counter-rotating drums to eliminate the gyroscopic effect. One actuator bar with heads was located between the drums.
FASTRAND III, introduced in 1970, was physically identical to the FASTRAND II, but increased the recording density by 50%.
Specifications (FASTRAND II)
Storage capacity: 22,020,096 36-bit words = 132,120,576 6-bit FIELDATA characters = 99 megabytes (8-bit bytes) per device
Drum rotation rate: 880 RPM (14.7 rotations per second)
Heads: 64
Sector size: 28 36-bit words
Track size: 64 sectors (1,792 36-bit words)
Track density: 105 tracks per inch
Average Access time (seek time plus rotational latency): 92 milliseconds
Data transfer rate: 26,283 36-bit words per second = 118 kilobytes per second (8-bit bytes) on 1100 series machines
Recording density, one-dimensional: 1,000 bits per inch (along one track)
Recording density, two-dimensional: 105,000 bits per square inch of drum surface
Max FASTRAND devices (drum units) per controller: 8
Controller price: $41,680 (1968 dollars)
FASTRAND device price: $134,400 (1968 dollars, equivalent to about $1 million in 2019 dollars)
Weight per FASTRAND device: 4,500 pounds
Weight per kilobyte:
Storage allocation
Despite the name, FASTRAND was slow. The head positioning time was significant, so software allocated storage by tracks (1,792 words, 10,752 characters or 8,064 eight-bit bytes) or "positions", a group of 64 tracks (114,688 words, 688,128 characters or 510,096 eight-bit bytes) which were under the heads at a single time. This storage allocation method remained on the 1100 series machines long after drums had been replaced by disks.
The track storage units were checkboarded so that, with precise computation of the program's processing time, one could create software with processing time per unit of Fastrand blocks that resulted in a program running in synchronism with the data transfer rate of the drum. Further, the track-to-track head movement time afforded an additional processing speed coordination possibility that permitted the computational rate to match the data transfer rate for large (for the time) data sets without being delayed by losing synchronism with the mass storage transfers.
See also
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware
The Story of Mel
External links
The FASTRAND II
YouTube video
UNIVAC hardware
UNIVAC storage devices
|
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201123
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20Irish%20presidential%20election
|
2004 Irish presidential election
|
The 2004 Irish presidential election was scheduled for Friday, 22 October 2004. However, nominations closed at noon on 1 October and the incumbent president, Mary McAleese, who had nominated herself in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, was the only candidate nominated. Accordingly, she was re-elected for a second seven-year term of office without the need to hold an election. This was the third time a president was returned unopposed, following Seán T. O'Kelly in 1952, and Patrick Hillery in 1983. McAleese was inaugurated for her second term on Thursday, 11 November 2004.
Nomination procedure
Under Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland, a candidate for president could be nominated by:
at least twenty of the 226 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas, or
at least four of 34 county or city councils, or
a former or retiring president, on their own nomination.
The Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government made the order opening nominations on 13 September, with noon on 1 October as the deadline for nominations, and 22 October set as the date for a contest, if any.
Nomination by Mary McAleese
Mary McAleese nominated herself as a candidate on 24 September.
McAleese had the support of the government parties Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats, who had nominated her in the 1997 election. She also had the support of opposition parties Fine Gael and Sinn Féin, while the Labour Party and the Green Party had considered contesting the election, but ultimately voted against doing so (see below).
Other potential candidates
Dana Rosemary Scallon
Dana Rosemary Scallon had contested the 1997 presidential election and had served as an MEP from 1999 until her defeat in 2004. Dana sought a nomination from local authorities, as she had done in 1997, but received only the nomination of Galway City Council. After failing to secure a nomination from local authorities, she wrote to every member of the Oireachtas seeking a nomination. She had the support for a time of Independent TD Jerry Cowley, but he later withdrew his support. Dana made an appeal to the President of the High Court on the day of the close of nominations, but was unsuccessful. A challenge by a lay litigant to extend the time for nomination to allow for Dana to be nominated failed in the High Court.
Labour Party
In early 2003, the Labour Party stated that it would run a candidate, irrespective of the attitudes of other parties, and even in the event of the president seeking a second term. But party leader Pat Rabbitte appeared less committed during a television interview in November 2003, pointing out that all the party's attentions were focused on the two Irish elections already set for 2004, the European Parliament election and the local elections to be held on 11 June 2004. However, former Minister for Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht Michael D. Higgins expressed in interest in contesting the election for the Labour Party.
On 15 September 2004, the party's parliamentary party recommended not running a candidate. The final decision was taken by the party's executive body, the National Executive, on 17 September 2004, which decided by 13 votes to 12 against running a candidate.
Green Party
Green Party TD Eamon Ryan let it be known that he was interested in seeking a nomination to run. However, practical difficulties included a lack of support from non-Green Party parliamentarians (fourteen of whom would be needed to nominate, as well as the six Green Party TDs), Mary McAleese's personal popularity, and funding issues. Having been endorsed by the party leadership, Ryan subsequently withdrew his name before a meeting of the Green Party National Council and the Green Party ultimately did not run a candidate.
Result
The only candidate nominated was Mary McAleese and she was declared elected at the close of nominations on 1 October.
References
Presidential
Presidential
Michael D. Higgins
Presidential elections in Ireland
Uncontested elections
October 2004 events in Europe
|
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201124
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion
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Invasion
|
An invasion is a military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory owned by another such entity, generally with the objective of either conquering; liberating or re-establishing control or authority over a territory; forcing the partition of a country; altering the established government or gaining concessions from said government; or a combination thereof. An invasion can be the cause of a war, be a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in itself. Due to the large scale of the operations associated with invasions, they are usually strategic in planning and execution.
History
Archaeological evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent occurrences since prehistory. In antiquity, before radio communications and fast transportation, the only way for a military to ensure adequate reinforcements was to move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the strategy of invasion. With invasion came cultural exchanges in government, religion, philosophy, and technology that shaped the development of much of the ancient world.
Before the days of package tours and cut-price airlines, military invasions functioned as a standard major form of proto-tourism – bringing large numbers of foreign visitors into new environments, with the consequential social, cultural and economic impacts on indigenous populations and on the invaders.
Defenses
States with potentially hostile neighbors typically adopt defensive measures to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, or rugged terrain, these measures have historically included fortifications. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier; the Great Wall of China, Hadrian's Wall, and the Danewerk are famous examples. Such barriers have also included trench lines and, in more modern times, minefields, cameras, and motion-sensitive sensors. However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide the defense, as well as maintain the equipment and positions, which can impose a great economic burden on the country. Some of those same techniques can also be turned against defenders, used to keep them from escape or resupply. During Operation Starvation, Allied forces used airdropped mines to severely disrupt Japanese logistical operations within their own borders.
Alternatively, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such as castles or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of a size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion—such as, for example, the Maginot Line. Forts can be positioned so that the garrisons can interdict the supply lines of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay siege to the structures.
In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses to combat land-based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large-scale mechanization have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. The obsolescence of large fortifications was displayed by the failure of the Maginot Line in the beginning of World War Two. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such as cities or towns as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobile armored and infantry divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in the Iraqi Army's stands in the 2003 invasion of Iraq at Baghdad, Tikrit, and Basra in the major combat in the Iraq War. A defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a counteroffensive like the Soviet Red Army at the Battle of Kursk or the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.
However, static emplacements remain useful in both defense against naval attacks and defense against air attacks. Naval mines are still an inexpensive but effective way to defend ports and choke off supply lines. Large static air defense systems that combine antiaircraft guns with missile launchers are still the best way to defend against air attacks. Such systems were used effectively by the North Vietnamese around Hanoi. Also, the United States has invested considerable time and money into the construction of a National Missile Defense system, a static defense grid intended to intercept nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Island nations, such as the United Kingdom or Japan, and continental states with extensive coasts, such as the United States, have utilized a significant naval presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the ability to sustain and service that defense force.
In particularly large nations, the defending force may also retreat to facilitate a counterattack by drawing the invaders deeper into hostile territory. One effect of this tactic is that the invading force becomes too spread out, making supply difficult and making the lines more susceptible to attack. This tactic, although costly, helped the Soviets stop the German advance at Stalingrad. It can also cause the invading force to extend too far, allowing a pincer movement to cut them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat at the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolutionary War. Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas, as happened in the Second Punic War.
Methods
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favour and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
By land
Invasion over land is the straightforward entry of armed forces into an area using existing land connections, usually crossing borders or otherwise defined zones, such as a demilitarized zone, overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical entities take defensive positions in areas that are most vulnerable to the methods mentioned above.
In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes and cruise missiles launched from ships at sea are a common method of "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve secretly garnering popular support, assassinating potentially threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 atomic-bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ultimately made it unnecessary for the Allies to invade the Japanese home islands with infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to enter under the terms of a treaty and as such are no longer invaders. As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "Applications regarding non-state combatants" in this article).
By sea
Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, and especially before the invention of flight, for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such as amphibious vehicles and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually with a resulting high casualty count—in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method. Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems during invasions from the sea. At the Battle of Tarawa, Marine landing craft became hung up on a coral reef and were shelled from the beach. Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and the tanks they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach. The island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked mass protests from civilians in the United States.
By air
Invasion by air is an invention of the 20th century and modern warfare. The idea involves sending military units into a territory by aircraft. The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in the air, using parachutes or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient number of troops—and the need for a high level of intelligence in order for the invasion to be successful.
The closest examples to a true air invasion are the Battle of Crete, Operation Thursday (the Chindits second operation during the Burma Campaign) and Operation Market Garden. The latter was an assault on the German-occupied Netherlands conducted in September 1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute and glider into enemy territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties. In the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may never come.
Pacification
Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached, pacification of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitary resistance movements. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.
Media propaganda such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts can be used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to take up resistance. This may be accomplished through reeducation, allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or, especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food, water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used; invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further fighting. These displays may also include public executions of enemy soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had the unintended effect of creating martyrs around which popular resistance can rally. An example of which was Sir William Wallace, who, centuries after his execution by the English, is still a symbol of Scottish nationalism.
Support
Logistics
Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find itself retreating. Before his invasion of Greece, Xerxes I spent three years amassing supplies from all over Asia; Herodotus wrote that the Persian army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".
In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before the laws of war, invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by conquering towns along the way. During the Second Punic War, for example, Hannibal diverted his army to conquer cities simply to gather supplies; his strategy in crossing the Alps necessitated traveling with as few provisions as possible, expecting the Roman stores to sustain them when they had breached the border. The scorched earth tactics used in Russia forced Napoleon to withdraw his forces due to lack of food and shelter. Today, the Law of land warfare forbids looting and the confiscation of private property, but local supplies, particularly perishables, are still purchased when possible for use by occupying forces, and airplanes often use parachutes to drop supplies to besieged forces. Even as rules become stricter, the necessities of war become more numerous; in addition to food, shelter, and ammunition, today's militaries require fuel, batteries, spare mechanical parts, electronic equipment, and many other things. In the United States, the Defense Logistics Agency employs over 22,000 civilians with the sole task of logistics support, and 30,000 soldiers graduate from the U.S. Army Logistics Management College each year.
Communication
Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his commands were timely and followed, as in the case of Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE). At that time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as the Battle of Marathon (490 BCE), with swift runners.
When possible, sloops and cutters were used to relay information by sea. brought Britain the first news that Nelson had defeated the French forces at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
The development of Morse Code, and later of voice communications by radio and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain in contact with a larger invasion force, to verify orders or to call for artillery support and air strikes. These communications were critical to the German blitzkrieg strategy, as infantry commanders relayed defensive positions to tanks and bombers.
Public relations
In diplomatic, public-relations and propaganda terms, it may help an invader (or a potential invader) to have an invitation as an excuse to intervene with a view to "restoring order" or "righting wrongs". Dissident groups, fifth columns or official circles may conspire to "call in" foreign assistance. Cases include:
From the point of view of the Byzantine Empire, the First Crusade's invasion and conquest of the Levant (1096–1099) resulted from an invitation issued by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1095, seeking assistance against the Turks in Anatolia.
English barons opposed to King John invited the French Prince Louis to undertake a French invasion of England in the First Barons' War of 1215–1217.
In 1688 an invitation to William of Orange to invade Britain helped along the Glorious Revolution.
Wolfe Tone asked for French intervention (the unsuccessful Expédition d'Irlande, 1796) in the lead-up to the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
Some members of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia allegedly called for Soviet intervention during the Prague Spring of 1968, which ended with the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.
National foundation-legends can echo the theme of inviting foreign warriors to come and rule a people: note the traditional account in the Tale of Bygone Years of how Varangian invaders came establish long-term rule in Novgorod (and subsequently throughout Russia).
Applications regarding non-state combatants
In the 20th and 21st centuries, questions arose regarding the effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralizing non-state combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to as "fourth generation warfare". In this case, one or more combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of civilians, foreign agents, mercenaries, politicians, religious leaders, and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced, but asymmetric warfare on the part of these groups can be continued indefinitely. Because regular armed forces units do not have the flexibility and independence of small covert cells, many believe that the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a disadvantage.
An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and unjust governments, an invasion can change the government and reeducate the people, making prolonged resistance unlikely and averting future violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small victories, similar to a war of attrition.
Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy point to a lack of examples in which occupying or peacekeeping forces have met with conclusive success. They also cite continuing conflicts such as Northern Ireland, Israel, Chechnya, and Iraq, as well as examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such as Lebanon, and Afghanistan. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents and the international media skew the facts for sensationalism or political gain.
Outcomes
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome is the loss of territory, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into a client state, often accompanied by requirements to pay reparations or tribute to the victor. In other cases the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to the status quo; this can be seen in wars of attrition, when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective, or where a nation previously subdued and currently occupied by an aggressive third party is restored to control of its own affairs (i.e. Western Europe following the Normandy landings in 1944, or Kuwait following the defeat of Iraq in 1991). In some cases, the invasion may be strategically limited to a geographical area, which is carved into a separate state as with the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
See also
Aggression
Combat
Conquest
Invasion literature
List of invasions
Military occupation
Military rule
Power projection
Sovereignty
Trespass
War
War of aggression
References
Wars by type
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201125
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Holyoake
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Keith Holyoake
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Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, (; 11 February 1904 – 8 December 1983) was the 26th prime minister of New Zealand, serving for a brief period in 1957 and then from 1960 to 1972, and also the 13th Governor-General of New Zealand, serving from 1977 to 1980. He is the only New Zealand politician to date to have held both positions.
Holyoake was born near Pahiatua in the Wairarapa region. He left formal education at age 12 to help on the family farm. Before entering politics, he was active in various local farming associations. Holyoake was first elected to Parliament in 1932, representing the conservative Reform Party. He played an instrumental role in the formation of the National Party in 1936. He lost his seat two years later but was earmarked for the safe seat of Pahiatua, which he held from 1943. Following National's first election victory, Holyoake entered Cabinet in 1949. In 1954, he was appointed the first deputy prime minister of New Zealand, under Sidney Holland. Holyoake became Leader of the National Party and prime minister two months before the , after Holland's resignation due to ill health. Following an election defeat, he served as the Leader of the Opposition for three years before National returned to power in 1960.
Holyoake's government rewrote the criminal legal code, passing the Crimes Act 1961. One of the main features of this act was the abolition of capital punishment, though only ten National MPs voted for its abolition. Among many conservative reforms, his government introduced a form of "voluntary unionism". In foreign policy, Holyoake supported the United States and sent troops to Vietnam. Holyoake led his party to four consecutive election victories (not since surpassed). In 1972, he resigned as prime minister to ease the succession for his deputy and friend, Jack Marshall.
In 1977, the National government of Robert Muldoon appointed Holyoake as governor-general, creating controversy as opponents argued that a former politician should not hold the non-partisan position. Holyoake's term was limited to three years, not the normal five. In 1980, he became a Knight of the Order of the Garter, a rare honour.
Holyoake is to date the third longest serving New Zealand prime minister (just under 12 years), surpassed only by Richard Seddon's 13 years and William Massey's close to 13 years; he was also the first to be born in the 20th century. Holyoake was known for his diplomatic style and "plummy" voice. He was also fondly (or mockingly) known as Kiwi Keith, a name given to him in childhood to distinguish him from an Australian cousin with the same name.
Early life
Holyoake was born at Mangamutu, a short distance from Pahiatua, a town in New Zealand's Wairarapa region, the son of Henry Victor Holyoake and Esther Eves. Holyoake's great-grandparents, Richard and Eliza Holyoake, settled at Riwaka near Motueka in 1843, and his maternal great-grandparents, William and Sarah Eves, arrived in Nelson in 1842. Relatives of the 19th-century secularist George Holyoake, the Holyoakes ran a small general store at Mangamutu, and then lived for a time in both Hastings and Tauranga, before settling on the family farm at Riwaka, following the death of Holyoake's grandfather in 1913.
Holyoake was raised in the Plymouth Brethren church, and his social life as a child was very restricted. At age 12, having left school after his father's death, Holyoake worked on the family hop and tobacco farm in Riwaka. His mother had trained as a school teacher, and continued his education at home. After taking over the management of the farm, he became involved in various local farming associations, something that increased his interest in politics.
Early political career
The Reform Party, which had strong rural support, selected Holyoake as its candidate for the Motueka seat in the . The incumbent MP, George Black, held the seat, but died the following year. Holyoake was the Reform Party's candidate in the resulting by-election in 1932, and was successful. He became the youngest Member of Parliament at the time, at the age of 28. In 1935, he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal.
In the , Holyoake retained his seat under the motto "Follow England and Vote Holyoake" despite a massive swing against the United–Reform Coalition. In the aftermath of this election, he played a key role in transforming the coalition into the modern National Party. He very quickly gained considerable respect from his colleagues, and was regarded as a rising star in the new party. The 1937 electoral redistribution was unfavourable for him and when the boundary changes applied at the , Holyoake lost his seat to a rising star of the governing Labour Party, Jerry Skinner. Holyoake had been discussed as a possible successor to the party's conscientious but lack-lustre leader, Adam Hamilton, but without being an MP, this was no longer considered an option.
In 1943 he returned to Parliament as MP for Pahiatua, having been lined up by National for that nomination. In 1946, he became the party's deputy Leader.
First National Government: 1949–1957
National won the and formed the First National Government, new Prime Minister Sidney Holland appointed Holyoake as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture. Holyoake was also for a year (1949–50) Minister for Scientific and Industrial Research, and was Minister of Marketing until the department was abolished in 1953.
As Minister of Agriculture for eight years Holyoake enhanced his reputation as a level-headed good administrator. Farm mechanisation was encouraged, the "extermination policy" achieved nearly eliminated the rabbit pest. Dismantling of marketing producer controls was completed.
Holyoake twice went to London to re-negotiate price levels on meat and wool products, and in 1955 attended the Food and Agricultural Organisation conference in Rome. On his return to New Zealand he visited India and the Soviet Union to seek alternative markets for New Zealand, although his trip bore little fruit. In 1957 he led a delegation seeking to protect New Zealand's access to the British market without notable success.
As Deputy leader of the National Party, Holyoake was acting prime minister whenever Holland was overseas. In recognition of this was made a member of the Privy Council in 1954, only after the Holland made him the first person to be formally appointed Deputy Prime Minister.
In 1953, in partnership with his friend Theodore Nisbet Gibbs and Gibbs' son Ian, Holyoake purchased a block of land on the northern shore of Lake Taupō from Ian's employer. The land, which had previously been purchased from Ngāti Tūwharetoa iwi in 1884, was a block of 5,385 acres largely covered in scrub and fern. Holyoake and Gibbs subsequently developed the land into a town called Kinloch, which became a holiday destination. On his deathbed, Holyoake said that Kinloch was his proudest achievement.
First period as prime minister
Holyoake became Prime Minister two months before the , when outgoing Prime Minister Sidney Holland retired due to ill-health, and also became Minister of Māori Affairs on the retirement of Ernest Corbett. The election was won by the Walter Nash-led Labour Party by a margin of two seats. Holyoake became Leader of the Opposition for the next three years.
Second National Government: 1960–1972
In the , the National Party returned to power and formed the Second National Government. Historians attribute the victory to Holyoake's skilful campaigning, particularly his attacks on Minister of Finance Arnold Nordmeyer's so-called "Black Budget" of 1958, which had increased taxes on petrol, cigarettes and liquor.
Second period as prime minister
The Holyoake government implemented numerous reforms of the public services and government institutions: for example, it created the Office of the Ombudsman and numerous quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations, and strengthened parliamentary scrutiny of the executive. Public broadcasting was removed from direct government oversight and placed under corporation control. Holyoake's government rewrote the criminal legal code, passing the Crimes Act 1961; the Act abolished capital punishment, though only ten National MPs voted for its abolition. In 1969, the Security Intelligence Service (SIS) was formally acknowledged to exist, and its minister, the prime minister, publicly acknowledged. That same year the New Zealand Parliament passed an Act covering the agency's functions and responsibilities: the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act.
In 1960, the Holyoake government published the "Hunn Report", a wide-ranging summary of Māori assets, and the state of Māori in New Zealand at the time. The report was a damning indictment of past governments' neglect of Māori within society, and Holyoake endeavoured to act on its findings. By embracing the No Maoris – No Tour cause, Holyoake ended the practice of an apartheid sporting body dictating the racial composition of New Zealand rugby teams touring in South Africa. In a 1966 speech directed at the South African authorities, Holyoake delicately defended the principle of racial equality, stating "in this country we are one people; as such we cannot as a nation be truly represented in any sphere by a group chosen on racial lines".
Holyoake accepted the post-war political consensus; he believed in the necessity of a mixed economy, championing a Keynesian strategy of public investment to maintain demand. However, as an anti-socialist, Holyoake sought to reduce the role of trade unions in industrial relations. The National government introduced a form of voluntary unionism, though the majority of industrial workplaces remained unionised; the policy was hotly debated within caucus, with Holyoake's deputy, Jack Marshall, and Tom Shand, favouring the retention of compulsory unionism. His government's industrial policy brought Holyoake into conflict with union leaders, such as Fintan Patrick Walsh.
Holyoake's government was comfortably re-elected for a second consecutive term in 1963. Holyoake's second term featured by a long period of prosperity and economic expansion. However, moves by the United Kingdom to join the European Economic Community challenged his government. Holyoake deliberately played down the issue, and chose not to vocally oppose British membership of the EEC. A significant step towards diversification was a limited free trade agreement with Australia, negotiated in 1965 by Holyoake's minister of overseas trade, Jack Marshall, who later also negotiated the terms of the arrangements for New Zealand under which Britain joined the EEC.
More controversial were the Holyoake government's relations with the United States at the start of the Vietnam War. The National government's initial response was carefully considered and characterised by Holyoake's cautiousness towards the entire Vietnam question. The fundamental issues, Holyoake said, were simple: "Whose will is to prevail in South Vietnam the imposed will of the North Vietnamese communists and their agents, or the freely expressed will of the people of South Vietnam?" His government preferred minimal involvement, with other South East Asian deployments already having a strain on the New Zealand Defence Force. New Zealand's alliance with the United States was an issue in the , which the National Party won on the back of.
Beginning in mid-1960s, the New Zealand government protested against French nuclear weapons testing in the Pacific region. In 1963, Holyoake announced the policy of banning the storage or testing of nuclear weapons within New Zealand territory.
As the prime minister during the Apollo 11 moon landing, he contributed to messages from 73 world leaders that were etched into a silicon disk left on the surface of the moon. The disk was left in the Sea of Tranquility by Buzz Aldrin.
Holyoake led his party to a narrow and unexpected victory in the . Two years prior Holyoake appointed a rising backbencher, Robert Muldoon as Minister of Finance in 1967, although ranked him lowly in his Cabinet. In response to falling wool prices and balance of payment problems, Muldoon introduced mini-budgets with Holyoake's approval.
The National government was humiliated in early 1970 in a disastrous by-election. Having already received the customary Companion of Honour, Holyoake was knighted as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1970 Queen's Birthday Honours. Political commentators speculated about when Holyoake would retire, and by the early 1970s his closest allies, including Jack Marshall, were privately encouraging him to step down. The government was perceived as careworn—two of its strongest ministers had died, and the party caucus was increasingly divided. After more than a decade in power, Holyoake's dogged conservatism appeared out of touch with an increasingly liberal society. However, it was not until 1972 that he resigned to ease the succession for Marshall. By then he had become the senior statesman of the Commonwealth. Holyoake remained in Cabinet as Minister of Foreign Affairs until National lost office at the end of the year.
Retirement
When National under Marshall was defeated at the , Holyoake remained prominent in opposition. Marshall retained him on the frontbench and appointed him Shadow Minister of Foreign Affairs. He became doubtful of Marshall's chance to regain government with time and threw his influence with the caucus behind Marshall's deputy Muldoon. In 1974 Marshall resigned as leader after realising that many of his colleagues (including Holyoake) no longer had confidence in him and Muldoon was elected in his place. Holyoake played an active part in the campaign for the , which saw National regain power again under Muldoon. Muldoon appointed Holyoake to the specially-created sinecure of Minister of State.
Governor-general
In 1977, Holyoake was unexpectedly and controversially appointed Governor-General of New Zealand by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of the then Prime Minister Robert Muldoon. The announcement was made by the Queen at the end of her tour of New Zealand on 7 March 1977, from the Royal Yacht HMY Britannia in Lyttelton Harbour.
This choice was deemed controversial by some, as Holyoake was a sitting Cabinet minister and a former prime minister. Many opponents of Muldoon's government claimed that it was a political appointment. The Leader of the Opposition, Bill Rowling (himself a former prime minister) stated that he would remove Holyoake as governor-general if the Labour Party won the , and openly suggested that he would have appointed Sir Edmund Hillary as governor-general. That suggestion was, in turn, criticised by the government, as Hillary had backed Labour in 1975 as part of the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign.
As a result of the appointment, Holyoake resigned from Parliament, leading to the Pahiatua by-election of 1977. He was succeeded from his seat by John Falloon.
Holyoake's conduct while in office, however, was acknowledged to be fair and balanced. In particular, Holyoake refused to comment on the 1978 general election, which gave Labour a narrow plurality of votes but a majority of seats in parliament to National. Social Credit leader Bruce Beetham said Holyoake as governor-general had "...a scrupulous impartiality that confounded the critics of his appointment". His term as governor-general was only for three years, on account of his age. Usually, governors-general serve for five years, but Holyoake was the oldest governor-general to date (at 73 years old). His term ended in 1980.
Death
Holyoake died on 8 December 1983, aged 79, in Wellington. His state funeral took place on 13 December 1983 in Wellington Cathedral of St Paul.
Personal life
Holyoake twice married Norma Janet Ingram: first in a civil ceremony on 24 September 1934, and again on 11 January 1935 at their Presbyterian church in Motueka. The couple had five children: two sons and three daughters. His daughter Diane married National MP Ken Comber. In the 1980 Queen's Birthday Honours, Norma, Lady Holyoake, was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, for public services since 1935.
Decorations, awards and memberships
Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC), 1954 New Years Honours List
Freeman of the City of London
Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Doctor of Laws (Agric), Honoris Causa, Seoul National University, South Korea
Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH), 1963 New Years Honours List
Knight of the Most Venerable Order of St John of Jerusalem (KStJ)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG), 1970
Companion of the Queen's Service Order
Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG), 1980
Arms
Footnotes
Notes
References
References
External links
Governor-General's website profile
Biography in 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
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1904 births
1983 deaths
New Zealand anti-communists
Companions of the Queen's Service Order
Governors-General of New Zealand
New Zealand Knights of the Garter
New Zealand Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
New Zealand members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
New Zealand farmers
New Zealand foreign ministers
New Zealand Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
New Zealand National Party MPs
Reform Party (New Zealand) MPs
New Zealand National Party leaders
People from Pahiatua
People of the Vietnam War
Prime Ministers of New Zealand
Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)
Deputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for South Island electorates
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1938 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1931 New Zealand general election
New Zealand politicians awarded knighthoods
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] |
201127
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set%20%28abstract%20data%20type%29
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Set (abstract data type)
|
In computer science, a set is an abstract data type that can store unique values, without any particular order. It is a computer implementation of the mathematical concept of a finite set. Unlike most other collection types, rather than retrieving a specific element from a set, one typically tests a value for membership in a set.
Some set data structures are designed for static or frozen sets that do not change after they are constructed. Static sets allow only query operations on their elements — such as checking whether a given value is in the set, or enumerating the values in some arbitrary order. Other variants, called dynamic or mutable sets, allow also the insertion and deletion of elements from the set.
A multiset is a special kind of set in which an element can figure several times.
Type theory
In type theory, sets are generally identified with their indicator function (characteristic function): accordingly, a set of values of type may be denoted by or . (Subtypes and subsets may be modeled by refinement types, and quotient sets may be replaced by setoids.) The characteristic function of a set is defined as:
In theory, many other abstract data structures can be viewed as set structures with additional operations and/or additional axioms imposed on the standard operations. For example, an abstract heap can be viewed as a set structure with a min(S) operation that returns the element of smallest value.
Operations
Core set-theoretical operations
One may define the operations of the algebra of sets:
union(S,T): returns the union of sets S and T.
intersection(S,T): returns the intersection of sets S and T.
difference(S,T): returns the difference of sets S and T.
subset(S,T): a predicate that tests whether the set S is a subset of set T.
Static sets
Typical operations that may be provided by a static set structure S are:
is_element_of(x,S): checks whether the value x is in the set S.
is_empty(S): checks whether the set S is empty.
size(S) or cardinality(S): returns the number of elements in S.
iterate(S): returns a function that returns one more value of S at each call, in some arbitrary order.
enumerate(S): returns a list containing the elements of S in some arbitrary order.
build(x1,x2,…,xn,): creates a set structure with values x1,x2,...,xn.
create_from(collection): creates a new set structure containing all the elements of the given collection or all the elements returned by the given iterator.
Dynamic sets
Dynamic set structures typically add:
create(): creates a new, initially empty set structure.
create_with_capacity(n): creates a new set structure, initially empty but capable of holding up to n elements.
add(S,x): adds the element x to S, if it is not present already.
remove(S, x): removes the element x from S, if it is present.
capacity(S): returns the maximum number of values that S can hold.
Some set structures may allow only some of these operations. The cost of each operation will depend on the implementation, and possibly also on the particular values stored in the set, and the order in which they are inserted.
Additional operations
There are many other operations that can (in principle) be defined in terms of the above, such as:
pop(S): returns an arbitrary element of S, deleting it from S.
pick(S): returns an arbitrary element of S. Functionally, the mutator pop can be interpreted as the pair of selectors (pick, rest), where rest returns the set consisting of all elements except for the arbitrary element. Can be interpreted in terms of iterate.
map(F,S): returns the set of distinct values resulting from applying function F to each element of S.
filter(P,S): returns the subset containing all elements of S that satisfy a given predicate P.
fold(A0,F,S): returns the value A|S| after applying Ai+1 := F(Ai, e) for each element e of S, for some binary operation F. F must be associative and commutative for this to be well-defined.
clear(S): delete all elements of S.
equal(S1', S2'): checks whether the two given sets are equal (i.e. contain all and only the same elements).
hash(S): returns a hash value for the static set S such that if equal(S1, S2) then hash(S1) = hash(S2)
Other operations can be defined for sets with elements of a special type:
sum(S): returns the sum of all elements of S for some definition of "sum". For example, over integers or reals, it may be defined as fold(0, add, S).
collapse(S): given a set of sets, return the union. For example, collapse({{1}, {2, 3}}) == {1, 2, 3}. May be considered a kind of sum.
flatten(S): given a set consisting of sets and atomic elements (elements that are not sets), returns a set whose elements are the atomic elements of the original top-level set or elements of the sets it contains. In other words, remove a level of nesting – like collapse, but allow atoms. This can be done a single time, or recursively flattening to obtain a set of only atomic elements. For example, flatten({1, {2, 3}}) == {1, 2, 3}.
nearest(S,x): returns the element of S that is closest in value to x (by some metric).
min(S), max(S): returns the minimum/maximum element of S.
Implementations
Sets can be implemented using various data structures, which provide different time and space trade-offs for various operations. Some implementations are designed to improve the efficiency of very specialized operations, such as nearest or union. Implementations described as "general use" typically strive to optimize the element_of, add, and delete operations. A simple implementation is to use a list, ignoring the order of the elements and taking care to avoid repeated values. This is simple but inefficient, as operations like set membership or element deletion are O(n), as they require scanning the entire list. Sets are often instead implemented using more efficient data structures, particularly various flavors of trees, tries, or hash tables.
As sets can be interpreted as a kind of map (by the indicator function), sets are commonly implemented in the same way as (partial) maps (associative arrays) – in this case in which the value of each key-value pair has the unit type or a sentinel value (like 1) – namely, a self-balancing binary search tree for sorted sets (which has O(log n) for most operations), or a hash table for unsorted sets (which has O(1) average-case, but O(n) worst-case, for most operations). A sorted linear hash table may be used to provide deterministically ordered sets.
Further, in languages that support maps but not sets, sets can be implemented in terms of maps. For example, a common programming idiom in Perl that converts an array to a hash whose values are the sentinel value 1, for use as a set, is:
my %elements = map { $_ => 1 } @elements;
Other popular methods include arrays. In particular a subset of the integers 1..n can be implemented efficiently as an n-bit bit array, which also support very efficient union and intersection operations. A Bloom map implements a set probabilistically, using a very compact representation but risking a small chance of false positives on queries.
The Boolean set operations can be implemented in terms of more elementary operations (pop, clear, and add), but specialized algorithms may yield lower asymptotic time bounds. If sets are implemented as sorted lists, for example, the naive algorithm for union(S,T) will take time proportional to the length m of S times the length n of T; whereas a variant of the list merging algorithm will do the job in time proportional to m+n. Moreover, there are specialized set data structures (such as the union-find data structure) that are optimized for one or more of these operations, at the expense of others.
Language support
One of the earliest languages to support sets was Pascal; many languages now include it, whether in the core language or in a standard library.
In C++, the Standard Template Library (STL) provides the set template class, which is typically implemented using a binary search tree (e.g. red–black tree); SGI's STL also provides the hash_set template class, which implements a set using a hash table. C++11 has support for the unordered_set template class, which is implemented using a hash table. In sets, the elements themselves are the keys, in contrast to sequenced containers, where elements are accessed using their (relative or absolute) position. Set elements must have a strict weak ordering.
Java offers the interface to support sets (with the class implementing it using a hash table), and the sub-interface to support sorted sets (with the class implementing it using a binary search tree).
Apple's Foundation framework (part of Cocoa) provides the Objective-C classes NSSet, NSMutableSet, NSCountedSet, NSOrderedSet, and NSMutableOrderedSet. The CoreFoundation APIs provide the CFSet and CFMutableSet types for use in C.
Python has built-in set and frozenset types since 2.4, and since Python 3.0 and 2.7, supports non-empty set literals using a curly-bracket syntax, e.g.: {x, y, z}; empty sets must be created using set(), because Python uses {} to represent the empty dictionary.
The .NET Framework provides the generic HashSet and SortedSet classes that implement the generic ISet interface.
Smalltalk's class library includes Set and IdentitySet, using equality and identity for inclusion test respectively. Many dialects provide variations for compressed storage (NumberSet, CharacterSet), for ordering (OrderedSet, SortedSet, etc.) or for weak references (WeakIdentitySet).
Ruby's standard library includes a set module which contains Set and SortedSet classes that implement sets using hash tables, the latter allowing iteration in sorted order.
OCaml's standard library contains a Set module, which implements a functional set data structure using binary search trees.
The GHC implementation of Haskell provides a Data.Set module, which implements immutable sets using binary search trees.
The Tcl Tcllib package provides a set module which implements a set data structure based upon TCL lists.
The Swift standard library contains a Set type, since Swift 1.2.
JavaScript introduced Set as a standard built-in object with the ECMAScript 2015 standard.
Erlang's standard library has a sets module.
Clojure has literal syntax for hashed sets, and also implements sorted sets.
LabVIEW has native support for sets, from version 2019.
As noted in the previous section, in languages which do not directly support sets but do support associative arrays, sets can be emulated using associative arrays, by using the elements as keys, and using a dummy value as the values, which are ignored.
Multiset
A generalization of the notion of a set is that of a multiset or bag, which is similar to a set but allows repeated ("equal") values (duplicates). This is used in two distinct senses: either equal values are considered identical, and are simply counted, or equal values are considered equivalent, and are stored as distinct items. For example, given a list of people (by name) and ages (in years), one could construct a multiset of ages, which simply counts the number of people of a given age. Alternatively, one can construct a multiset of people, where two people are considered equivalent if their ages are the same (but may be different people and have different names), in which case each pair (name, age) must be stored, and selecting on a given age gives all the people of a given age.
Formally, it is possible for objects in computer science to be considered "equal" under some equivalence relation but still distinct under another relation. Some types of multiset implementations will store distinct equal objects as separate items in the data structure; while others will collapse it down to one version (the first one encountered) and keep a positive integer count of the multiplicity of the element.
As with sets, multisets can naturally be implemented using hash table or trees, which yield different performance characteristics.
The set of all bags over type T is given by the expression bag T. If by multiset one considers equal items identical and simply counts them, then a multiset can be interpreted as a function from the input domain to the non-negative integers (natural numbers), generalizing the identification of a set with its indicator function. In some cases a multiset in this counting sense may be generalized to allow negative values, as in Python.
C++'s Standard Template Library implements both sorted and unsorted multisets. It provides the multiset class for the sorted multiset, as a kind of associative container, which implements this multiset using a self-balancing binary search tree. It provides the unordered_multiset class for the unsorted multiset, as a kind of unordered associative containers, which implements this multiset using a hash table. The unsorted multiset is standard as of C++11; previously SGI's STL provides the hash_multiset class, which was copied and eventually standardized.
For Java, third-party libraries provide multiset functionality:
Apache Commons Collections provides the Bag and SortedBag interfaces, with implementing classes like HashBag and TreeBag.
Google Guava provides the Multiset interface, with implementing classes like HashMultiset and TreeMultiset.
Apple provides the NSCountedSet class as part of Cocoa, and the CFBag and CFMutableBag types as part of CoreFoundation.
Python's standard library includes collections.Counter, which is similar to a multiset.
Smalltalk includes the Bag class, which can be instantiated to use either identity or equality as predicate for inclusion test.
Where a multiset data structure is not available, a workaround is to use a regular set, but override the equality predicate of its items to always return "not equal" on distinct objects (however, such will still not be able to store multiple occurrences of the same object) or use an associative array mapping the values to their integer multiplicities (this will not be able to distinguish between equal elements at all).
Typical operations on bags:
contains(B, x): checks whether the element x is present (at least once) in the bag B
is_sub_bag(B1, B2): checks whether each element in the bag B1 occurs in B1 no more often than it occurs in the bag B2; sometimes denoted as B1 ⊑ B2.
count(B, x): returns the number of times that the element x occurs in the bag B; sometimes denoted as B # x.
scaled_by(B, n): given a natural number n, returns a bag which contains the same elements as the bag B, except that every element that occurs m times in B occurs n * m times in the resulting bag; sometimes denoted as n ⊗ B.
union(B1, B2): returns a bag containing just those values that occur in either the bag B1 or the bag B2, except that the number of times a value x occurs in the resulting bag is equal to (B1 # x) + (B2 # x); sometimes denoted as B1 ⊎ B2.
Multisets in SQL
In relational databases, a table can be a (mathematical) set or a multiset, depending on the presence of unicity constraints on some columns (which turns it into a candidate key).
SQL allows the selection of rows from a relational table: this operation will in general yield a multiset, unless the keyword DISTINCT is used to force the rows to be all different, or the selection includes the primary (or a candidate) key.
In ANSI SQL the MULTISET keyword can be used to transform a subquery into a collection expression:
SELECT expression1, expression2... FROM table_name...
is a general select that can be used as subquery expression of another more general query, while
MULTISET(SELECT expression1, expression2... FROM table_name...)
transforms the subquery into a collection expression that can be used in another query, or in assignment to a column of appropriate collection type.
See also
Bloom filter
Disjoint set
Set (mathematics)
Notes
References
Data types
Composite data types
Abstract data types
|
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] |
201129
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourcery
|
Sourcery
|
Sourcery is a fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett, the fifth book in his Discworld series, published in 1988. On the Discworld, sourcerers – wizards who are sources of magic, and thus immensely more powerful than normal wizards – were the main cause of the great mage wars that left areas of the disc uninhabitable. As eight is a powerful magical number on Discworld, men born as the eighth son of an eighth son are commonly wizards. Since sourcerers are born the eighth son of an eighth son of an eighth son, they are wizards squared. To prevent the creation of sourcerers, therefore, wizards are not allowed to marry or have children. The first few pages of the novel deal with a sourcerer's father who cheats death by making a prophecy that Death must honour; the alternative is to risk destroying the Discworld. The rest of the novel deals with the sourcerer's plan to have wizards rule the Discworld, and the efforts of a small group – including Rincewind the Wizard, Nijel the Destroyer and Conina the Hairdresser, daughter of Cohen the Barbarian – to thwart those plans.
There are many references to geasa in the text, which are idiosyncratic curses, vows or obligations placed upon a person (usually a hero, such as Cúchulainn in Irish mythology).
Plot
Death comes to collect the soul of Ipslore the Red, a wizard who was banished from Unseen University for marrying and having children, something forbidden for wizards. Bitter over this fate, Ipslore vows to take revenge upon the wizards through his eighth son, Coin. As the eighth son of a wizard, Coin is born a sourcerer, a wizard who generates new magic rather than drawing it from the world, effectively making him the most powerful wizard on the Disc. At the moment of his death, Ipslore transfers his essential being into the infant Coin's staff, preventing Death from collecting his soul and allowing him to influence his son.
Eight years later, Virrid Wayzygoose, the next Archchancellor of Unseen University, is murdered by Coin, who then forces his way into the university's Great Hall. After Coin bests one of the top wizards in the University, he is welcomed by the majority of the wizards. Rincewind, The Luggage and the Librarian miss Coin's arrival, having fled the University shortly beforehand after the foreboding departure of all of its magically-influenced pest populations. While they are at the Mended Drum, Conina, a professional thief and a daughter of Discworld legend Cohen the Barbarian, arrives holding a box containing the Archchancellor's hat, which she has procured from the room of Wayzygoose, and possesses a kind of sentience as a result of being worn by hundreds of Archchancellors. Under the direction of the hat, which sees Coin as a threat to wizardry and the very world, Conina forces Rincewind to come with her and take a boat to the city of Al Khali, where the hat claims there is someone fit to wear it.
In Ankh-Morpork, the wizards are made more powerful due to Coin's presence drawing more magic into the Discworld. Under Coin's direction, the wizards take over Ankh-Morpork, transforming it into a pristine city and transforming the Patrician Lord Vetinari into a newt, and make plans to take over the world. Elsewhere, Rincewind, Conina and the Luggage end up in the company of Creosote, the seriph of Al Khali, and Abrim, his treacherous vizier. The trio are eventually separated; Rincewind is thrown into the snake pit, where he meets Nijel the Destroyer, a barbarian hero in training. Conina is taken to Creosote's harem, where the Seriph has his concubines tell him stories. The Luggage, having been scorned by Conina, runs away and gets drunk, before killing and eating several creatures in the deserts.
Coin eventually declares Unseen University and the various wizarding orders obsolete and orders the Library to be burnt down, claiming that Wizardry no longer requires such things. A group of wizards then attack Al Khali, the sheer amount of magic created by their arrival temporarily putting Rincewind into a trance and enabling him to use magic, allowing him and Nijel to escape the snake pit. They join up with Creosote and Conina, the latter immediately falling in love with Nijel, and they encounter Abrim, who had put on the Archchancellor's hat hoping to gain power from it, only to be possessed instead. Having the experience of many previous Archchancellors, the hat proves an even match for Sourcery empowered wizards, fighting off a group of them and enlisting others to its cause. As this takes place, Rincewind, Conina, Nijel and Creosote find a magical flying carpet in the palace's treasury, and use it to escape the palace as it gets destroyed by the possessed Abrim building his own tower.
With the orders no longer around to keep the wizards in check, wizards across the Discworld go to war with one another, threatening to destroy the world completely. Upon hearing Creosote express anti-wizard sentiments, an angry and humiliated Rincewind abandons the group, taking the flying carpet and making his way to the University, where he learns that the Librarian has saved the library books by hiding them in the ancient Tower of Art. The Librarian convinces Rincewind to stop Coin, and he goes off to face the Sourcerer with a sock containing a half-brick. Back in Al Khali, the Luggage, blaming the Archchancellor's hat for everything it has endured, forces its way into Abrim's tower. Distracted by the Luggage, the possessed vizier is killed by the Ankh-Morpork wizards, with the tower and the Archchancellor's hat getting destroyed in the process.
Despite his victory, Coin becomes concerned when he is told that wizards rule under the Discworld Gods. He traps the gods in an alternate reality, which shrinks to become a large pearl, unknowingly causing the Ice Giants, a race of beings who had been imprisoned by the gods, to escape their prison, whereupon they begin strolling across the Discworld, freezing everything in their path. Rincewind confronts Coin soon after this. The Sourcerer is amused, but unthreatened, by Rincewind attempting to fight him, prompting Ipslore to try and force Coin to kill him. Rincewind eventually convinces Coin to throw the staff away, but Ipslore's power is channelled against that of his son. The other wizards leave the tower as Rincewind rushes forward, grabbing the child and sending both of them to the Dungeon Dimensions while Death strikes the staff and takes Ipslore's soul. Rincewind orders Coin to return to the University and, using his other sock filled with sand, attacks the Creatures from the Dungeon Dimensions as a distraction to ensure Coin's escape. The Gods are subsequently set free, stopping the march of the Ice Giants. As the Librarian helps Coin escape, the Luggage charges into the Dungeon Dimensions after Rincewind.
Coin returns the University and Ankh-Morpork to the way they were before he came. After Conina and Nijel travel to the University looking for Rincewind, Coin uses his magic to make them forget him and live happily ever after together. Recognising that he is too powerful to remain in the world, Coin steps into a dimension of his own making, and is not seen on the Discworld again. The Librarian takes Rincewind's battered hat, which got left behind when he went into the Dungeon Dimensions, and places it on a pedestal in the Library.
Characters
Marmaric Carding
Coin
Conina
The Luggage
Nijel the Destroyer
Rincewind
Spelter
Adaptations
In 2010, Terry Pratchett stated that Sourcery would be the fifth Discworld novel to be adapted for Sky One, although he had initially wanted to adapt Making Money. However, he thought that it might work better as a film, and that he could have fun with characters like Nijel the Destroyer.
Reception
Critical reception for the novel was positive. Toronto Stars Paul Stuewe writes that Pratchett "demonstrates a flair for cerebral as well as slapstick comedy." A reviewer from Publishers Weekly felt that Sourcery was skillfully written, stating "Pratchett does not merely play with words, he juggles shrewd observations with aplomb." The reviewer added that "the author never takes himself or his message too seriously, and maintains a feather-light touch throughout." Tom Hutchinson, writing for The Times, thought that Sourcery presents a "memorable account of how we adapt power before it adapts us" and "may well be considered [Pratchett's] masterpiece." Thomas M. Wagner from SF Reviews.net gave the book a 3.5/5 rating, commenting that the story "has Pratchett's trademark lightning pacing, and it fires gags and one-liners at you as if from a fully automatic Uzi." He stated that though he found most of Sourcery funny, "it was very evident to me that Pratchett was, at this early stage of the series, barely scratching the surface of what his considerable wit is capable of."
References
External links
Annotations for Sourcery
Quotes from Sourcery
Synopsis of Sourcery
1988 British novels
Discworld books
1988 fantasy novels
Victor Gollancz Ltd books
British comedy novels
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201136
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Rock%20Instrumental%20Performance
|
Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance
|
The Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance was an honor presented to recording artists for quality instrumental rock performances at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards. Honors in several categories are presented at the ceremony annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position".
The award was first presented at the 22nd Grammy Awards in 1980 to Paul McCartney and the band Wings for "Rockestra Theme". From 1986 to 1989, the category was known as Best Rock Instrumental Performance (Orchestra, Group or Soloist). According to the category description guide for the 52nd Grammy Awards, the award is presented to artists "for newly recorded rock, hard rock or metal instrumental performances".
As of 2011, Jeff Beck holds the records for the most wins, with six. Sting has received three awards, twice as a member of The Police—although he had no part in the band's "Behind My Camel", the 1982 award winner which he did not write and refused to play on.
Two-time recipients include Eric Clapton, Carlos Santana (once as a member of the band Santana), The Flaming Lips, Steve Vai, and brothers Jimmie Vaughan and Stevie Ray Vaughan (each once as part of the duo Vaughan Brothers). At the 51st Grammy Awards (2009), the tribute act Zappa Plays Zappa (led by Dweezil Zappa, son of Frank Zappa) earned an award for their performance of Frank's instrumental song "Peaches en Regalia". Dweezil and Frank have both received multiple nominations and even competed against one another in 1988. Joe Satriani holds the record for the most nominations (as well as the record for the most nominations without a win), with fourteen.
The award was discontinued before the 2012 awards due to a major overhaul of Grammy categories. All instrumental performances in the rock category were shifted to either the newly formed Best Rock Performance or Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance categories.
Recipients
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
Vaughan Brothers consists of Jimmie and Stevie Ray Vaughan.
See also
List of Grammy Award categories
List of instrumental bands
List of rock instrumentals
References
General
Note: User must select the "Rock" category as the genre under the search feature.
Specific
External links
Official site of the Grammy Awards
1991 establishments in the United States
2011 disestablishments in the United States
Awards disestablished in 2011
Awards established in 1991
Rock Instrumental
|
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201140
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flapper
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Flapper
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Flappers were a subculture of young Western women in the 1920s who wore short skirts (knee height was considered short during that period), bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and flaunted their disdain for what was then considered acceptable behavior. Flappers were seen as brash for wearing excessive makeup, drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes in public, driving automobiles, treating sex in a casual manner, and otherwise flouting social and sexual norms. As automobiles became available, flappers gained freedom of movement and privacy. Flappers are icons of the Roaring Twenties, the social, political turbulence and increased transatlantic cultural exchange that followed the end of World War I, as well as the export of American jazz culture to Europe. There was a reaction to this counterculture from more conservative people who belonged mostly to older generations. They claimed that the flappers' dresses were 'near nakedness', and that flappers were 'flippant', 'reckless', and unintelligent.
Etymology
The slang term "flapper" may derive from an earlier use in northern England to mean "teenage girl", referring to one whose hair is not yet put up and whose plaited pigtail "flapped" on her back, or from an older word meaning "prostitute". The slang word "flap" was used for a young prostitute as early as 1631. By the 1890s, the word "flapper" was used in some localities as slang both for a very young prostitute, and, in a more general and less derogatory sense, of any lively mid-teenage girl.
The standard non-slang usage appeared in print as early as 1903 in England and 1904 in the United States, when novelist Desmond Coke used it in his college story of Oxford life, Sandford of Merton: "There's a stunning flapper". In 1907 English actor George Graves explained it to Americans as theatrical slang for acrobatic young female stage performers. The flapper was also known as a dancer, who danced like a bird—flapping her arms while doing the Charleston move. This move became quite a competitive dance during this era.
By 1908, newspapers as serious as The Times used the term, although with careful explanation: "A 'flapper', we may explain, is a young lady who has not yet been promoted to long frocks and the wearing of her hair 'up'". In April 1908, the fashion section of London's The Globe and Traveller contained a sketch entitled "The Dress of the Young Girl" with the following explanation: Americans, and those fortunate English folk whose money and status permit them to go in freely for slang terms ... call the subject of these lines the 'flapper.' The appropriateness of this term does not move me to such whole-hearted admiration of the amazing powers of enriching our language which the Americans modestly acknowledge they possess ..., [and] in fact, would scarcely merit the honour of a moment of my attention, but for the fact that I seek in vain for any other expression that is understood to signify that important young person, the maiden of some sixteen years. The sketch is of a girl in a frock with a long skirt, "which has the waistline quite high and semi-Empire, ... quite untrimmed, its plainness being relieved by a sash knotted carelessly around the skirt."
By November 1910, the word was popular enough for A. E. James to begin a series of stories in the London Magazine featuring the misadventures of a pretty fifteen-year-old girl and titled "Her Majesty the Flapper". By 1911, a newspaper review indicates the mischievous and flirtatious "flapper" was an established stage-type.
By 1912, the London theatrical impresario John Tiller, defining the word in an interview he gave to The New York Times, described a "flapper" as belonging to a slightly older age group, a girl who has "just come out". Tiller's use of the phrase "come out" means "to make a formal entry into 'society' on reaching womanhood". In polite society at the time, a teenage girl who had not come out would still be classed as a child. She would be expected to keep a low profile on social occasions and ought not to be the object of male attention. Although the word was still largely understood as referring to high-spirited teenagers, gradually in Britain it was being extended to describe any impetuous immature woman. By late 1914, the British magazine Vanity Fair was reporting that the Flapper was beginning to disappear in England, being replaced by the so-called "Little Creatures."
A Times article on the problem of finding jobs for women made unemployed by the return of the male workforce, following the end of World War One, was titled "The Flapper's Future". Under this influence, the meaning of the term changed somewhat, to apply to "independent, pleasure-seeking, khaki-crazy young women".
In his lecture in February 1920 on Britain's surplus of young women caused by the loss of young men in war, Dr. R. Murray-Leslie criticized "the social butterfly type... the frivolous, scantily-clad, jazzing flapper, irresponsible and undisciplined, to whom a dance, a new hat, or a man with a car, were of more importance than the fate of nations". In May of that year, Selznick Pictures released The Flapper a silent comedy film starring Olive Thomas. It was the first film in the United States to portray the "flapper" lifestyle. By that time, the term had taken on the full meaning of the flapper generation style and attitudes
The use of the term coincided with a fashion among teenage girls in the United States in the early 1920s for wearing unbuckled galoshes, and a widespread false etymology held that they were called "flappers" because they flapped when they walked, as they wore their overshoes or galoshes unfastened, showing that they defied convention in a manner similar to the 21st century fad for untied shoelaces. Another suggestion to the origin of the term, in relation to fashion, comes from a 1920s fashion trend in which young women left their overcoat unbuttoned to allow it to flap back and forth as they walked, appearing more independent and freed from the tight, Victorian Era style clothing.
By the mid-1930s in Britain, although still occasionally used, the word "flapper" had become associated with the past. In 1936 a Times journalist grouped it with terms such as "blotto" as outdated slang: "[blotto] evokes a distant echo of glad rags and flappers ... It recalls a past which is not yet 'period'."
Influences
One cause of the change in young women's behavior was World War I which ended in November 1918. The death of large numbers of young men in the war, and the Spanish flu pandemic which struck in 1918 killing between 20–40 million people, inspired in young people a feeling that life is short and could end at any moment. Therefore, young women wanted to spend their youth enjoying their life and freedom rather than just staying at home and waiting for a man to marry them.
Political changes were another cause of the flapper culture. World War I reduced the grip of the class system on both sides of the Atlantic, encouraging different classes to mingle and share their sense of freedom. Women finally won the right to vote in the United States on August 26, 1920. Women wanted to be men's social equals and were faced with the difficult realization of the larger goals of feminism: individuality, full political participation, economic independence, and 'sex rights'. They wanted to be treated like men and go smoking and drinking. In addition, many women had more opportunities in the workplace and had even taken traditionally male jobs such as doctors, lawyers, engineers and pilots. The rise of consumerism also promoted the ideals of "fulfilment and freedom", which encouraged women to think independently about their garments, careers, social activities.
Society changed quickly after World War I. For example, customs, technology, and manufacturing all moved quickly into the 20th century after the interruption of the war. The rise of the automobile was an important factor in flapper culture, as cars meant a woman could come and go as she pleased, travel to speakeasies and other entertainment venues, and use the large vehicles of the day for their popular activity, petting parties. Also, the economic boom allowed more people the time and money to play golf and tennis and to take vacations, which required clothing adapted to these activities; the flapper's slender silhouette was very suitable for movement.
Evolution of the image
The first appearance of the flapper style in the United States came from the popular 1920 Frances Marion film, The Flapper, starring Olive Thomas. Thomas starred in a similar role in 1917, though it was not until The Flapper that the term was used. In her final movies, she was seen as the flapper image. Other actresses, such as Clara Bow, Louise Brooks, Colleen Moore and Joan Crawford would soon build their careers on the same image, achieving great popularity.
In the United States, popular contempt for Prohibition was a factor in the rise of the flapper. With legal saloons and cabarets closed, back alley speakeasies became prolific and popular. This discrepancy between the law-abiding, religion-based temperance movement and the actual ubiquitous consumption of alcohol led to widespread disdain for authority. Flapper independence was also a response to the Gibson girls of the 1890s. Although that pre-war look does not resemble the flapper style, their independence may have led to the flapper wisecracking tenacity 30 years later.
Writers in the United States such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Anita Loos and illustrators such as Russell Patterson, John Held, Jr., Ethel Hays and Faith Burrows popularized the flapper look and lifestyle through their works, and flappers came to be seen as attractive, reckless, and independent. Among those who criticized the flapper craze was writer-critic Dorothy Parker, who penned "Flappers: A Hate Song" to poke fun at the fad. The secretary of labor denounced the "flippancy of the cigarette smoking, cocktail-drinking flapper". A Harvard psychologist reported that flappers had "the lowest degree of intelligence" and constituted "a hopeless problem for educators".
Another writer, Lynne Frame, said in her book that a large number of scientists and health professionals have analyzed and reviewed the degree of femininity of flappers' appearance and behavior, given the "boyishness" of the flapper look and behavior. Some gynecologists gave the opinion that women were less "marriageable" if they were less "feminine", as the husband would be unhappy in his marriage. In Frame's book, she also wrote that the appearance of flappers, like the short hair and short dress, distracted attention from feminine curves to the legs and body. These attributes were not only a fashion trend but also the expression of a blurring of gender roles.
The Gibson Girl
The Gibson Girl was one of the origins of the flapper. The invention of Charles Dana Gibson, the Gibson Girl changed the fashion, patterns, and lifestyles of the 1920s; these were much more progressive than the traditions of women's styles in the past. Before the Gibson Girl movement, women's voices as a group were infrequently heard. While some may see the Gibson Girl as just a fashion statement, it was much more broadly influential than that. "She depicted the modern woman, known popularly as the 'new woman', at a time when more women gained independence, began to work outside the home, and sought the right to vote and other rights." Gibson's illustrations showed feminist women of all kinds who worried more about themselves than about pleasing the men in their lives. It was the first time a woman could actually concentrate on her own dreams and goals. The Gibson Girl also exemplified the importance of intelligence and learning rather than catering to men's needs
According to a website on Kate Chopin, "The Gibson Girl influenced society in the early 1900s much like Barbie influenced society of the late 1900s. The Gibson Girl crossed many societal lines opening the way for women to participate in things they had never done before. She, like Barbie, portrayed women as strong individuals who could play sports while maintaining perfectly coiffed hair and dress. She was criticized by many, much like Barbie, for creating an unrealistic ideal of what women should look like: perfect proportions and long flowing hair. Despite the criticism she was a trend setter, a model for women in both dress and action, just like Barbie."
The fashion of the Gibson Girl allowed them a much more active lifestyle then previously, in both work and recreation. "Skirts were long and flared, and dresses were tailored with high necks and close-fitting sleeves. The style was considered masculine, and this was sometimes emphasized by wearing a necktie. Though women still wore the restrictive undergarments known as corsets, a new health corset came into style that was said to be better for the spine than earlier corsets. An S-shaped figure became trendy, with a large bust and large hips, separated by a tiny, corseted waist. These styles, worn with confidence and poise by modern women. ... She might be pictured at a desk in a tailored shirtwaist or at a tennis party in an informal sports dress. She wore her long hair upswept in an elaborate mass of curls, perhaps topped by a simple straw hat. Though she was capable and independent, the Gibson girl was always beautiful and elegant." According to the Library of Congress, "Gibson's meticulous depiction of their hats accentuates the Gibson Girls' stylish attire and visually reinforces the impression of height, leading the eye to the mountains. ... Gibson shows off the classic Gibson Girl as a figure who embraced outdoor physical activities."
The Gibson Girl was uniquely American compared to European standards of style. She was an ideal: youthful, feminist, strong and a truly modern woman. Gibson emphasized that any women can be represented as a Gibson Girl, both those in the middle and the upper class. Minnie Clark, known as "the original Gibson Girl", was a model for Gibson and could portray any type of women needed for his illustration. Gibson drew with characteristic grace women of all races and classes so that any woman could feel that they, too, could be a graceful Gibson
Magazines
In 1922, a small-circulation magazine – The Flapper, located in Chicago – celebrated the flapper's appeal. On the opening page of its first issue, it proudly declared flappers' break with traditional values. Also, flappers defended them by contrasting themselves with earlier generations of women whom they called "clinging vines". They mocked the confining fashions and demure passivity of older women and reveled in their own freedom. They did not even acknowledge that the previous generation of female activists had made the flappers' freedom possible.
In the 1920s, new magazines appealed to young German women with a sensuous image and advertisements for the appropriate clothes and accessories they would want to purchase. The glossy pages of Die Dame and Das Blatt der Hausfrau displayed the "Girl"—the flapper. She was young and fashionable, financially independent, and was an eager consumer of the latest fashions. The magazines kept her up to date on fashion, arts, sports, and modern technology such as automobiles and telephones.
Behavior
Although many young women in the 1920s saw flappers as the symbol of a brighter future, some also questioned the flappers' more extreme behavior. Therefore, in 1923, the magazine began asking for true stories from its readers for a new column called "Confessions of a Flapper". Some of these were lighthearted stories of girls getting the better of those who underestimated them, but others described girls betraying their own standards of behavior in order to live up to the image of flappers. There were several examples: a newlywed confessed to having cheated on her husband, a college student described being told by a boyfriend that she was not "the marrying kind" because of the sexual liberties she had permitted him, and a minister's daughter recounted the humiliation of being caught in the lie of pretending she was older and more sophisticated than she was. Many readers thought that flappers had gone too far in their quest for adventure. One 23-year-old "ex-vamp" declared: "In my opinion, the average flappers from 15 to 19 were brainless, inconsiderate of others, and easy to get into serious trouble."
So, among the readers of The Flapper, parts of them were celebrated for flappers' spirit and appropriation of male privilege, while parts of them acknowledged the dangers of emulating flappers too faithfully, with some even confessing to violating their own codes of ethics so as to live up to all the hype.
American banks and "flapper" employees
According to a report in 1922, some banks across the United States started to regulate the dress and deportment of young female employees who were considered to be "flappers". It began with a complaint of a mother in New Jersey who felt dissatisfied because her son did business only with a young female employee, whom she considered illegally attractive. The incident was duly reported to the officials of the bank, and rules adopted regarding requirements in dress for female employees. Those rules included that the dress should not have a pattern, it should be bought from a specific store, it must be worn in either black, blue or brown, its sleeves must not be shortened above the elbow, and its hem must not be worn higher than 12 inches from the ground. After that, the anti-flapper code soon spread to the Federal Reserve, where female employees were firmly told that there was no time for them to beautify themselves during office hours.
Image of youth
The flapper stands as one of the more enduring images of youth and new women in the 20th century and is viewed by modern-day Americans as something of a cultural heroine. However, back in the 1920s, many Americans regarded flappers as threatening to conventional society, representing a new moral order. Although most of them were the daughters of the middle class, they flouted middle-class values. Lots of women in the United States were drawn to the idea of being a flapper. There were rival organizations of flappers- the National Flapper Flock and the Royal Order of the Flapper. Flappers shrugged off their chaperones, danced suggestively, and openly flirted with boys. "Flappers prized style over substance, novelty over tradition, and pleasure over virtue." Ruth Gillettes, a 1920s singer, had a song titled "Oh Say! Can I See You Tonight?" which expresses the new behavior of girls in the 1920s. Before the 1920s, for a woman to call a man to suggest a date would be impossible. However, in the 1920s, many girls seemed to play a leading role in relationships, actively asking boys out or even coming to their homes.
Flappers' behavior was considered outlandish at the time and redefined women's roles. In the English media, they were stereotyped as pleasure-loving, reckless and prone to defying convention by initiating sexual relationships. Some have suggested that the flapper concept as a stage of life particular to young women was imported to England from Germany, where it originated "as a sexual reaction against the over-fed, under-exercised monumental woman, and as a compromise between pederasty and normal sex". In Germany, teenage girls were called "Backfisch", which meant a young fish not yet big enough to be sold in the market. Although the concept of "Backfisch" was known in England by the late 1880s, the term was understood to mean a very demure social type unlike the flapper, who was typically rebellious and defiant of convention. The evolving image of flappers was of independent young women who went by night to jazz clubs such as those in Harlem, which were viewed as erotic and dangerous, where they danced provocatively, smoked cigarettes and dated freely, perhaps indiscriminately. They were active, sporting, rode bicycles, drove cars, and openly drank alcohol, a defiant act in the American period of Prohibition. With time, came the development of dance styles such as the Charleston, the Shimmy, the Bunny Hug, and the Black Bottom, which were considered shocking, but were a symbolic badge of the flapper's rejection of traditional standards.
Overturning of Victorian roles
Flappers also began working outside the home and challenging women's traditional societal roles and the monolithic historical idea of women being powerless throughout social history.
They were considered a significant challenge to traditional Victorian gender roles, devotion to plain-living, hard work and religion. Increasingly, women discarded old, rigid ideas about roles and embraced consumerism and personal choice, and were often described in terms of representing a "culture war" of old versus new. Flappers also advocated voting and women's rights.
In this manner, flappers were a result of larger social changes – women were able to vote in the United States in 1920, and religious society had been rocked by the Scopes trial.
For all the concern about women stepping out of their traditional roles, however, many flappers were not engaged in politics. In fact, older suffragettes, who fought for the right for women to vote, viewed flappers as vapid and in some ways unworthy of the enfranchisement they had worked so hard to win. Dorothy Dunbar Bromley, a noted liberal writer at the time, summed up this dichotomy by describing flappers as "truly modern", "New Style" feminists who "admit that a full life calls for marriage and children" and also "are moved by an inescapable inner compulsion to be individuals in their own right".
Petting parties
"Petting" ("making out" or foreplay) became more common than in the Victorian era, for example, with the rise in popularity of "petting parties". At these parties, promiscuity became more commonplace, breaking from the traditions of monogamy or courtship with their expectations of eventual marriage. This was typical on college campuses, where young people "spent a great deal of unsupervised time in mixed company".
Carolyn Van Wyck wrote a column for Photoplay, an upmarket magazine that featured articles on pop culture, advice on fashion, and even articles on helping readers channel their inner celebrity. In March 1926 an anonymous young woman wrote in describing petting as a problem, explaining "The boys all seem to do it and don't seem to come back if you don't do it also. We girls are at our wits' end to know what to do. ... I'm sure that I don't want to marry anyone who is too slow to want to pet. But I want to discover what is right. Please help me." Van Wyck sympathized with the problem the writer faced and added, "It seems to me much better to be known as a flat tire and keep romance in one's mind than to be called a hot date and have fear in one's heart."
In the 1950s, Life magazine depicted petting parties as "that famed and shocking institution of the '20s", and commenting on the 'Kinsey Report', said that they have been "very much with us ever since". In the Kinsey Report of 1950, there was an indicated increase in premarital intercourse for the generation of the 1920s. Kinsey found that of women born before 1900, 14 percent acknowledged premarital sex before the age of 25, while those born after 1900 were two and a half times more likely (36 percent) to have premarital intercourse and experience an orgasm.
Slang
Flappers were associated with the use of a number of slang words, including "junk", "necker", "heavy petting", and "necking parties", although these words existed before the 1920s. Flappers also used the word "jazz" in the sense of anything exciting or fun. Their language sometimes reflected their feelings about dating, marriage and drinking habits: "I have to see a man about a dog" at this period often meant going to buy whiskey; and a "handcuff" or "manacle" was an engagement or wedding ring. Moreover, flappers invented slang terms like "hush money," which meant the allowance from a father or "dropping the pilot," which meant getting a divorce. Also reflective of their preoccupations were phrases to express approval, such as "That's so Jake", (okay); "That's the bee's knees", (a superb person); "Cake-eater," (a ladies' man); and the popular: "the cat's meow," (anything wonderful).
There were two more slangs that reflected flapper's behaviors or lifestyles, which were "treating" and "charity girls". "Treating" was a culture or habit mainly for the working-class flappers. Although they earned money from work, they still wanted to earn some more for them to live. Women were willingly invited to dance, for drinks, for entrances up to jewelry and clothing. For the "return service", women granted any kind of erotic or sexual interaction from flirting to sexual intercourse. However, this practice was easily mistaken for prostitution. So, some people would call them "charity girls" to differentiate them from prostitutes as the girls claimed that they did not accept money in their sexual encounters with men.
Appearance
In addition to their irreverent behavior, flappers were known for their style, which largely emerged as a result of French fashions, especially those pioneered by Coco Chanel, the effect on dress of the rapid spread of American jazz, and the popularization of dancing that accompanied it. Called garçonne in French ("boy" with a feminine suffix), flapper style made girls look young and boyish: short hair, flattened breasts, and straight waists accentuated it. By at least 1913, the association between slim adolescence and a certain characteristic look became fixed in the public's mind. Lillian Nordica, commenting on New York fashions that year, referred to
At this early date, it seems that the style associated with a flapper already included the boyish physique and close-fitting hat, but a hobble skirt rather than one with a high hemline.
Although the appearance typically associated now with flappers (straight waists, short hair and a hemline above the knee) did not fully emerge until 1926, there was an early association in the public mind between unconventional appearance, outrageous behavior, and the word "flapper". A report in The Times of a 1915 Christmas entertainment for troops stationed in France described a soldier in drag burlesquing feminine flirtatiousness while wearing "short skirts, a hat of Parisian type and flapper-like hair".
Despite the scandal flappers generated, their look became fashionable in a toned-down form among respectable older women. Significantly, the flappers removed the corset from female fashion, raised skirt and gown hemlines, and popularized short hair for women. Among actresses closely identified with the style were Tallulah Bankhead, Olive Borden, Clara Bow, Louise Brooks, Joan Crawford, Bebe Daniels, Billie Dove, Leatrice Joy, Helen Kane, Laura La Plante, Dorothy Mackaill, Colleen Moore, Norma Shearer, Norma Talmadge, Olive Thomas, and Alice White.
Beginning in the early 1920s, flappers began appearing in newspaper comic strips; Blondie Boopadoop and Fritzi Ritz – later depicted more domestically, as the wife of Dagwood Bumstead and aunt of Nancy, respectively – were introduced as flappers.
Apparel
Flapper dresses were straight and loose, leaving the arms bare (sometimes no straps at all) and dropping the waistline to the hips. Silk or rayon stockings were held up by garters. Skirts rose to just below the knee by 1927, allowing flashes of leg to be seen when a girl danced or walked through a breeze, although the way they danced made any long loose skirt flap up to show their legs. To enhance the view, some flappers applied rouge to their knees. Popular dress styles included the Robe de style. High heels also came into vogue at the time, reaching 2–3 inches (5–8 cm) high. Favored shoe styles were Mary Janes and T-straps in classic black, gold, silver, or nude shades.
Lingerie
Flappers did away with corsets and pantaloons in favor of "step-in" panties. Without the old restrictive corsets, flappers wore simple bust bodices to restrain their chest when dancing. They also wore new, softer and suppler corsets that reached to their hips, smoothing the whole frame, giving women a straight up and down appearance as opposed to the old corsets that slenderized the waist and accented the hips and bust.
The lack of curves of a corset promoted a boyish look. Adding an even more boyish look, the Symington Side Lacer was invented and became a popular essential as an everyday bra. This type of bra was made to pull in the back to flatten the chest. Other women envied flappers for their flat chests and bought the Symington Side Lacer to enhance the same look; large breasts were commonly regarded as a trait of unsophistication. Hence, flat chests became appealing to women, although flappers were the most common to wear such bras.
Hair and accessories
Boyish cuts were in vogue and released the weight of the tradition of women being required to grow their hair long, through popular cuts such as the bob cut, Eton crop, and shingle bob. Finger waving was used as a means of styling. Hats were still required wear and popular styles included the newsboy cap and cloche hat.
Jewelry usually consisted of art deco pieces, especially many layers of beaded necklaces. Pins, rings, and brooches came into style. Horn-rimmed glasses were also popular.
Cosmetics
As far back as the 1890s, French actress Polaire pioneered a look which included short, disheveled hair, emphatic mouth and huge eyes heavily outlined in kohl. The evolving flapper look required "heavy makeup" in comparison to what had previously been acceptable outside of professional usage in the theater. With the invention of the metal lipstick container as well as compact mirrors, bee stung lips came into vogue. Dark eyes, especially kohl-rimmed, were the style. Blush came into vogue now that it was no longer a messy application process. Women shaped their eyebrows needle-thin and penciled them in dark, emulating such actresses as Clara Bow.
Originally, pale skin was considered most attractive. However, tanned skin became increasingly popular after Coco Chanel showed off a tan after a holiday – it suggested a life of leisure, without the onerous need to work. Women wanted to look fit, sporty, and, above all, healthy.
Semiotics of the flapper
Being liberated from restrictive dress, from laces that interfered with breathing, and from hoops that needed managing suggested liberation of another sort. The new-found freedom to breathe and walk encouraged movement out of the house, and the flapper took full advantage. The flapper was an extreme manifestation of changes in the lifestyles of American women made visible through dress.
Changes in fashion were interpreted as signs of deeper changes in the American feminine ideal. The short skirt and bobbed hair were likely to be used as a symbol of emancipation. Signs of the moral revolution consisted of premarital sex, birth control, drinking, and contempt for older values. Before the War, a lady did not set foot in a saloon; after the War a woman, though no more "a lady", entered a speakeasy as casually as she would go into a railroad station. Women had started swearing and smoking publicly, using contraceptives, raising their skirts above the knee and rolling their hose below it. Women were now competing with men in the business world and obtaining financial independence and, therefore, other kinds of independence from men.
The New Woman was pushing the boundaries of gender roles, representing sexual and economic freedom. She cut her hair short and took to loose-fitting clothing and low cut dresses. No longer restrained by a tight waist and long trailing skirts, the modern woman of the 1920s was an independent thinker, who no longer followed the conventions of those before her. The flapper was an example of the prevailing conceptions of women and their roles during the Roaring 1920s. The flappers' ideal was motion with characteristics of intensity, energy, and volatility. She refused the traditional moral code. Modesty, chastity, morality, and traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity were seemingly ignored. The flapper was making an appeal to authority and was being attached to the impending "demoralization" of the country.
The Victorian American conception of sexuality and other roles of men and women in society and to one another were being challenged. Modern clothing was lighter and more flexible, better suiting the modern woman such as the flapper who wanted to engage in active sport. Women were now becoming more assertive and less willing to keep the home fires burning. The flappers' costume was seen as sexual and raised deeper questions of the behavior and values it symbolized.
End of the flapper era
The flapper lifestyle and look disappeared and the roaring '20s era of glitz and glamour came to an end in America after the Wall Street Crash of 1929
Unable to afford the latest trends and lifestyle, the once-vibrant flapper women returned to their dropped hemlines, and the flapper dress disappeared. A sudden serious tone washed over the public with the appearance of the Great Depression. The high-spirited attitude and hedonism were less acceptable during the economic hardships of the 1930s. When hemlines began to rise again, numerous states took action, making laws that restricted women to wear skirts with hemlines no shorter than three inches (7.5 centimeters) above the ankle. The ever-popular bobbed haircut was the cause for some women being fired from their jobs.
Transitioning into the 1930s was no easy task. Campaigns such as the "Make Do and Mend" slogan were becoming prevalent to ensure there was no overconsumption throughout society.
Fabric choices were among the many items to be cut back during this poverty-stricken time. Artificial fabrics were used instead of elegant fabrics such as silk, which were so popular in the early 1900s. No longer were party dresses adorned with decorative embellishments or made brightly colored. Instead, women headed to work to take over roles of men at war. The physically demanding jobs called for the creation and social acceptance of women's pants in society.
See also
Betty Boop
Hawksian woman
Jazz Age
Modern girl
1929 United Kingdom general election, "the flapper election"
Zelda Fitzgerald
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Abra, Allison. (September 2016) "Going to the palais: a social and cultural history of dancing and dance halls in Britain, 1918–1960." Contemporary British History 30#3 pp. 432–433.
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.
Dumenil, Lynn (1995) The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang.
Fass, Paula S. (2007) The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s. 2007.
Gourley, Kathleen (2007) Flappers and the New American Woman: Perceptions of Women from 1918 Through the 1920s (Images and or of Women in the Twentieth Century).
Hudovernik, Robert (2006) Jazz Age Beauties: The Lost Collection of Ziegfeld Photographer Alfred Cheney Johnston.
Latham, Angela J. (2000) Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls, and other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s.
Lauber, Ellie (2000) Fashions of the Roaring '20s.
Sagert, Kelly Boyer. Flappers: A Guide to an American Subculture. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2010.
.
Further reading
Mackrell, Judith (2013) Flappers: Six Women of a Dangerous Generation.
External links
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Slang
1920s fashion
Fashion aesthetics
Gender equality
1920s slang
Slang terms for women
Stereotypes of women
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201153
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide%20and%20rule
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Divide and rule
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Divide and rule policy (), or divide and conquer, in politics and sociology is gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into pieces that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy.
The use of this technique is meant to empower the sovereign to control subjects, populations, or factions of different interests, who collectively might be able to oppose its rule. Niccolò Machiavelli identifies a similar application to military strategy, advising in Book VI of The Art of War (1521). (L'arte della guerra): a Captain should endeavor with every act to divide the forces of the enemy. Machiavelli advises that this act should be achieved either by making him suspicious of his men in whom he trusted, or by giving him cause that he has to separate his forces, and, because of this, become weaker.
The maxim divide et impera has been attributed to Philip II of Macedon. It was utilised by the Roman ruler Julius Caesar and the French emperor Napoleon (together with the maxim divide ut regnes).
The strategy, but not the phrase, applies in many ancient cases: the example of Aulus Gabinius exists, parting the Jewish nation into five conventions, reported by Flavius Josephus in Book I, 169–170 of The Jewish War (De bello Judaico). Strabo also reports in Geographica, 8.7.3 that the Achaean League was gradually dissolved when it became part of the Roman province of Macedonia, as the Romans treated the various states differently, wishing to preserve some and to destroy others.
The strategy of division and rule has been attributed to sovereigns, ranging from Louis XI of France to the House of Habsburg. Edward Coke denounces it in Chapter I of the Fourth Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England, reporting that when it was demanded by the Lords and Commons what might be a principal motive for them to have good success in Parliament, it was answered: "Eritis insuperabiles, si fueritis inseparabiles. Explosum est illud diverbium: Divide, & impera, cum radix & vertex imperii in obedientium consensu rata sunt." [You would be invincible if you were inseparable. This proverb, Divide and rule, has been rejected, since the root and the summit of authority are confirmed by the consent of the subjects.] In a minor variation, Sir Francis Bacon wrote the phrase "separa et impera" in a letter to James I of 15 February 1615. James Madison made this recommendation in a letter to Thomas Jefferson of 24 October 1787, which summarized the thesis of The Federalist#10: "Divide et impera, the reprobated axiom of tyranny, is under certain (some) qualifications, the only policy, by which a republic can be administered on just principles." In Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch
by Immanuel Kant (1795), Appendix one, Divide et impera is the third of three political maxims, the others being Fac et excusa (Act now, and make excuses later) and Si fecisti, nega (If you commit a crime, deny it).
Elements of this technique involve:
creating or encouraging divisions among the subjects to prevent alliances that could challenge the sovereign and distributing forces that they overpower the other.
aiding and promoting those who are willing to cooperate with the sovereign
fostering distrust and enmity between local rulers
encouraging meaningless expenditures that reduce the capability for political and military spending
Historically, this strategy was used in many different ways by empires seeking to expand their territories.
Immanuel Kant refers this tactic in the Appendix I of his Perpetual Peace when describing the traits of a political moralist.
In economics, the concept is also mentioned as a strategy for market segmentation to get the most out of the players in a competitive market.
Foreign policy
Divide and rule can be used by states to weaken enemy military alliances. This usually happens when propaganda is disseminated within the enemy states in an attempt to raise doubts about the alliance. Once the alliance weakens or dissolves, a vacuum will allow the state to achieve military dominance.
Politics
In politics, the concept refers to a strategy that breaks up existing power structures, and especially prevents smaller power groups from linking up, causing rivalries and fomenting discord among the people to prevent a rebellion against the elites or the people implementing the strategy. The goal is either to pit the lower classes against themselves to prevent a revolution, or to provide a desired solution to the growing discord that strengthens the power of the elites.
The principle "divide et impera" is cited as a common in politics by Traiano Boccalini in La bilancia politica.
Narcissistic parenting
In families where one or both parents shows traits of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), they will attempt control of their children through a technique akin to political divide et impera by pitting child against child in a struggle for their affection. A common practice by the narcissistic parent is to designate a 'golden-child' who receives praise and can do no wrong, and a 'scape-goat' who gets the blame for everything that goes wrong, but this is used by the narcissist to further divide them by keeping both children in a state of insecurity about their positions in the family. In their battle to receive the limited supply of approval from the parent, they will see each other as a threat, and the parent can assume the role of saviour when they intervene to calm the aggression they created.
Psychopathy in the workplace
Clive R. Boddy found that "divide and conquer" was a common strategy by corporate psychopaths used as a smokescreen to help consolidate and advance their grip on power in the corporate hierarchy.
Historical examples
Africa
During the period of Nigeria being under colonial rule from 1900 to 1960, different regions were frequently reclassified for administrative purposes. The resulting tensions between Nigerian ethnic groups such as the Igbo and Hausa made it easier for the colonial authorities to consolidate their power in the region.
Asia
Mongolian Empire
While the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.
Indian subcontinent
Some Indians historians, such as politician Shashi Tharoor, assert that the British Raj frequently used this tactic to consolidate their rule and prevent the emergence of the Indian independence movement. A Times Literary Supplement review by British historian Jon Wilson suggests that although this was broadly the case a more nuanced approach might be closer to the facts. In the same vein, Indian jurist Markandey Katju wrote in The Nation:
Middle East
Some analysts assert that the United States is practicing the strategy in the 21st-century Middle East through their supposed escalation of the Sunni–Shia conflict. British journalist Nafeez Ahmed cited a 2008 RAND Corporation study for the U.S Armed Forces which recommended "divide and rule" as a possible strategy against the Muslim world in "the Long War". British historian Christopher Davidson argues that the current crisis in Yemen is being "egged on" by the United States government, and could be part of a wider covert strategy to "spur fragmentation in Iran allies and allow Israel to be surrounded by weak states”.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire often used a divide-and-rule strategy, pitting Armenians and Kurds against each other. This strategy no longer worked in the Republic of Turkey because the Armenians were eliminated in the Armenian Genocide.
Europe
Herodotus, (Histories, 5.3) claimed that the Thracians would be the strongest nation in the world if they were united.
Athenian historian Thucydides in his book History of the Peloponnesian War claimed that Alcibiades recommended to Persian statesman Tissaphernes, to weaken both Athens and Sparta for his own Persian's benefit. Alcibiades, suggested to Tissaphernes that 'The cheapest plan was to let the Hellenes wear each other out, at a small share of the expense and without risk to himself.
Tacitus in Germania. chapter 33 writes "Long, I pray, may foreign nations persist in hating one another .... and fortune can bestow on us no better gift than discord among our foes."
The Romans invaded the Kingdom of Macedonia from the south and defeated King Perseus in the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. Macedonia was then divided into four republics that were heavily restricted from relations with one another and other Hellenic states. A ruthless purge occurred, with allegedly anti-Roman citizens being denounced by their compatriots and forcibly deported in large numbers.
During the Gallic Wars, Caesar was able to use a divide and conquer strategy to easily defeat the Gauls. By the time the Gauls united under Vercingetorix, it was already too late for them.
In Revolutions of 1848, the governments which were being revolted against used this tactic to counter the rebels.
The Salami strategy of Hungarian Communist leader, Mátyás Rákosi.
The colonial authorities in British Cyprus often stirred up the Turkish minority in order to neutralize agitation from the Greek majority. This policy intentionally cultivated further animosity between the already divided Greek majority and the Turkish minority (which consists of 18% of the population) in the island that remains divided to this day after an invasion by Turkey to establish the state of North Cyprus (which is only diplomatically recognized by Turkey).
The partition of Ireland in 1921 was an intentional implementation of this strategy by David Lloyd George, the effects of which are still felt today in Northern Ireland. The Stanford historian Priya Satia claims that the partition of Ireland was in ways a patch-test for the partition of India in 1947. The British civil servant tasked with partitioning India was Lord Louis Mountbatten, uncle of the Duke of Edinburgh; he was assassinated by the IRA in 1979 in Co. Sligo, Ireland.
Mexico
United States
Harry G. Broadman opined in Forbes regarding President Donald Trump: "[a]s in his campaign, the President has been successfully—at least to date—pursuing a divide and conquer strategy domestically and internationally to try to achieve his goals. The result is an absence of a robust set of checks and balances to ensure that the best economic interests of the U.S. and the world will be served."
See also
References
External links
1st-millennium BC introductions
Conflict (process)
Latin words and phrases
Machiavellianism
Organizational conflict
Philip II of Macedon
Political terminology
Power (social and political) concepts
Strategy
Workplace
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201154
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide-and-conquer%20algorithm
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Divide-and-conquer algorithm
|
In computer science, divide and conquer is an algorithm design paradigm. A divide-and-conquer algorithm recursively breaks down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same or related type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem.
The divide-and-conquer technique is the basis of efficient algorithms for many problems, such as sorting (e.g., quicksort, merge sort), multiplying large numbers (e.g., the Karatsuba algorithm), finding the closest pair of points, syntactic analysis (e.g., top-down parsers), and computing the discrete Fourier transform (FFT).
Designing efficient divide-and-conquer algorithms can be difficult. As in mathematical induction, it is often necessary to generalize the problem to make it amenable to a recursive solution. The correctness of a divide-and-conquer algorithm is usually proved by mathematical induction, and its computational cost is often determined by solving recurrence relations.
Divide and conquer
The divide-and-conquer paradigm is often used to find an optimal solution of a problem. Its basic idea is to decompose a given problem into two or more similar, but simpler, subproblems, to solve them in turn, and to compose their solutions to solve the given problem. Problems of sufficient simplicity are solved directly.
For example, to sort a given list of n natural numbers, split it into two lists of about n/2 numbers each, sort each of them in turn, and interleave both results appropriately to obtain the sorted version of the given list (see the picture). This approach is known as the merge sort algorithm.
The name "divide and conquer" is sometimes applied to algorithms that reduce each problem to only one sub-problem, such as the binary search algorithm for finding a record in a sorted list (or its analog in numerical computing, the bisection algorithm for root finding). These algorithms can be implemented more efficiently than general divide-and-conquer algorithms; in particular, if they use tail recursion, they can be converted into simple loops. Under this broad definition, however, every algorithm that uses recursion or loops could be regarded as a "divide-and-conquer algorithm". Therefore, some authors consider that the name "divide and conquer" should be used only when each problem may generate two or more subproblems. The name decrease and conquer has been proposed instead for the single-subproblem class.
An important application of divide and conquer is in optimization, where if the search space is reduced ("pruned") by a constant factor at each step, the overall algorithm has the same asymptotic complexity as the pruning step, with the constant depending on the pruning factor (by summing the geometric series); this is known as prune and search.
Early historical examples
Early examples of these algorithms are primarily decreased and conquer – the original problem is successively broken down into single subproblems, and indeed can be solved iteratively.
Binary search, a decrease-and-conquer algorithm where the subproblems are of roughly half the original size, has a long history. While a clear description of the algorithm on computers appeared in 1946 in an article by John Mauchly, the idea of using a sorted list of items to facilitate searching dates back at least as far as Babylonia in 200 BC. Another ancient decrease-and-conquer algorithm is the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of two numbers by reducing the numbers to smaller and smaller equivalent subproblems, which dates to several centuries BC.
An early example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm with multiple subproblems is Gauss's 1805 description of what is now called the Cooley–Tukey fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, although he did not analyze its operation count quantitatively, and FFTs did not become widespread until they were rediscovered over a century later.
An early two-subproblem D&C algorithm that was specifically developed for computers and properly analyzed is the merge sort algorithm, invented by John von Neumann in 1945.
Another notable example is the algorithm invented by Anatolii A. Karatsuba in 1960 that could multiply two n-digit numbers in operations (in Big O notation). This algorithm disproved Andrey Kolmogorov's 1956 conjecture that operations would be required for that task.
As another example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm that did not originally involve computers, Donald Knuth gives the method a post office typically uses to route mail: letters are sorted into separate bags for different geographical areas, each of these bags is itself sorted into batches for smaller sub-regions, and so on until they are delivered. This is related to a radix sort, described for punch-card sorting machines as early as 1929.
Advantages
Solving difficult problems
Divide and conquer is a powerful tool for solving conceptually difficult problems: all it requires is a way of breaking the problem into sub-problems, of solving the trivial cases, and of combining sub-problems to the original problem. Similarly, decrease and conquer only requires reducing the problem to a single smaller problem, such as the classic Tower of Hanoi puzzle, which reduces moving a tower of height to move a tower of height .
Algorithm efficiency
The divide-and-conquer paradigm often helps in the discovery of efficient algorithms. It was the key, for example, to Karatsuba's fast multiplication method, the quicksort and mergesort algorithms, the Strassen algorithm for matrix multiplication, and fast Fourier transforms.
In all these examples, the D&C approach led to an improvement in the asymptotic cost of the solution. For example, if (a) the base cases have constant-bounded size, the work of splitting the problem and combining the partial solutions is proportional to the problem's size , and (b) there is a bounded number of sub-problems of size ~ at each stage, then the cost of the divide-and-conquer algorithm will be .
Parallelism
Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally adapted for execution in multi-processor machines, especially shared-memory systems where the communication of data between processors does not need to be planned in advance because distinct sub-problems can be executed on different processors.
Memory access
Divide-and-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of memory caches. The reason is that once a sub-problem is small enough, it and all its sub-problems can, in principle, be solved within the cache, without accessing the slower main memory. An algorithm designed to exploit the cache in this way is called cache-oblivious, because it does not contain the cache size as an explicit parameter. Moreover, D&C algorithms can be designed for important algorithms (e.g., sorting, FFTs, and matrix multiplication) to be optimal cache-oblivious algorithms–they use the cache in a probably optimal way, in an asymptotic sense, regardless of the cache size. In contrast, the traditional approach to exploiting the cache is blocking, as in loop nest optimization, where the problem is explicitly divided into chunks of the appropriate size—this can also use the cache optimally, but only when the algorithm is tuned for the specific cache sizes of a particular machine.
The same advantage exists with regards to other hierarchical storage systems, such as NUMA or virtual memory, as well as for multiple levels of cache: once a sub-problem is small enough, it can be solved within a given level of the hierarchy, without accessing the higher (slower) levels.
Roundoff control
In computations with rounded arithmetic, e.g. with floating-point numbers, a divide-and-conquer algorithm may yield more accurate results than a superficially equivalent iterative method. For example, one can add N numbers either by a simple loop that adds each datum to a single variable, or by a D&C algorithm called pairwise summation that breaks the data set into two halves, recursively computes the sum of each half, and then adds the two sums. While the second method performs the same number of additions as the first and pays the overhead of the recursive calls, it is usually more accurate.
Implementation issues
Recursion
Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as recursive procedures. In that case, the partial sub-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the procedure call stack. A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition.
Explicit stack
Divide-and-conquer algorithms can also be implemented by a non-recursive program that stores the partial sub-problems in some explicit data structure, such as a stack, queue, or priority queue. This approach allows more freedom in the choice of the sub-problem that is to be solved next, a feature that is important in some applications — e.g. in breadth-first recursion and the branch-and-bound method for function optimization. This approach is also the standard solution in programming languages that do not provide support for recursive procedures.
Stack size
In recursive implementations of D&C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise, the execution may fail because of stack overflow. D&C algorithms that are time-efficient often have relatively small recursion depth. For example, the quicksort algorithm can be implemented so that it never requires more than nested recursive calls to sort items.
Stack overflow may be difficult to avoid when using recursive procedures since many compilers assume that the recursion stack is a contiguous area of memory, and some allocate a fixed amount of space for it. Compilers may also save more information in the recursion stack than is strictly necessary, such as return address, unchanging parameters, and the internal variables of the procedure. Thus, the risk of stack overflow can be reduced by minimizing the parameters and internal variables of the recursive procedure or by using an explicit stack structure.
Choosing the base cases
In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the base cases, the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion.
Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, an FFT algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples, there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing.
On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non-recursively, resulting in a hybrid algorithm. This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work and may also allow the use of specialized non-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is short-circuiting the base case, also known as arm's-length recursion. In this case, whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack.
Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop-based insertion sort (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with entries would entail maximally quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function-call overhead or stack manipulation.
Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide-and-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely unrolled into code that has no recursion, loops, or conditionals (related to the technique of partial evaluation). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide-and-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes. Source-code generation methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently.
The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion "unrolling" or "coarsening", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.
Sharing repeated subproblems
For some problems, the branched recursion may end up evaluating the same sub-problem many times over. In such cases it may be worth identifying and saving the solutions to these overlapping subproblems, a technique is commonly known as memoization. Followed to the limit, it leads to bottom-up divide-and-conquer algorithms such as dynamic programming and chart parsing.
See also
Akra–Bazzi method
Decomposable aggregation function
Fork–join model
Master theorem (analysis of algorithms)
Mathematical induction
MapReduce
Heuristic (computer science)
References
Algorithms
Optimization algorithms and methods
|
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] |
201155
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotfi%20A.%20Zadeh
|
Lotfi A. Zadeh
|
Lotfi Aliasker Zadeh (; ; ; 4 February 1921 – 6 September 2017) was a mathematician, computer scientist, electrical engineer, artificial intelligence researcher, and professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley.
Zadeh is best known for proposing fuzzy mathematics, consisting of several fuzzy-related concepts: fuzzy sets, fuzzy logic, fuzzy algorithms, fuzzy semantics, fuzzy languages, fuzzy control, fuzzy systems, fuzzy probabilities, fuzzy events, and fuzzy information.
Zadeh was a founding member of the Eurasian Academy.
Early life and career
Azerbaijan
Zadeh was born in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, as Lotfi Aliaskerzadeh. His father was Rahim Aleskerzade, an Iranian Muslim Azerbaijani journalist from Ardabil on assignment from Iran, and his mother was Fanya (Feyga) Korenman, a Jewish pediatrician from Odessa, Ukraine, who was an Iranian citizen. The Soviet government at this time courted foreign correspondents, and the family lived well while in Baku. Zadeh attended elementary school for three years there, which he said "had a significant and long-lasting influence on my thinking and my way of looking at things."
Iran
In 1931, when Stalin began agricultural collectivization, and Zadeh was ten, his father moved his family back to Tehran, Iran. Zadeh was enrolled in Alborz High School, a missionary school, where he was educated for the next eight years, and where he met his future wife, Fay (Faina) Zadeh, who said that he was "deeply influenced" by the "extremely decent, fine, honest and helpful" Presbyterian missionaries from the United States who ran the college. "To me they represented the best that you could find in the United States – people from the Midwest with strong roots. They were really 'Good Samaritans' – willing to give of themselves for the benefit of others. So this kind of attitude influenced me deeply. It also instilled in me a deep desire to live in the United States." During this time, Zadeh was awarded several patents.
Zadeh sat for the Iran national university exams and placed third in the nation. As a student, he ranked first in his class in his first two years. In 1942, he graduated from the University of Tehran with a degree in electrical engineering, one of only three students in that field to graduate that year, due to the turmoil created by World War II, when the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union invaded Iran. Over 30,000 American soldiers were based there, and Zadeh worked with his father, who did business with them as a contractor for hardware and building materials.
United States
In 1943, Zadeh decided to leave for the United States to continue his education. He travelled to Philadelphia by way of Cairo after months of delay waiting first for the proper papers and later for the right ship to appear. He arrived in mid-1944, lived in New York and worked for an electronic association, and entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as a graduate student in September that year. While in the United States, he shortened his family name, creating a new middle name from the part he removed, and was thenceforth known as Lotfi Aliasker Zadeh. He received an MS degree in electrical engineering from MIT in 1946.
In 1947, as his parents had settled in New York City, Zadeh went to work as an engineer at Columbia University. Zadeh then applied to Columbia University, . Columbia admitted him as a doctoral student and offered him an instructorship as well. He received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Columbia in 1949 and became an assistant professor the next year. Zadeh taught for ten years at Columbia and was promoted to full professor in 1957.
The chairman of the electronic engineering department at the University of California, wrote and offered him work. In 1959, Zadeh joined the Electrical Engineering faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. During his lengthy research career, Zadeh made important scientific contributions in two distinct areas: (1) linear system theory and classical control systems, and (2) fuzzy sets, fuzzy logic, and related science and technology.
Zadeh was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1967 for Natural Sciences in Applied Mathematics.
Zadeh's first important research contribution, well known among scholars of his generation in the electrical engineering community, was in the area of classical control systems. His pioneer work, co-authored with Charles Desoer, Linear System Theory: The State Space Approach, laid a critical foundation for all modern approaches to system analysis and control. The second and more well-known contribution of Zadeh's research is his lifelong dedication to the creation, enhancement and the real-world impacts of a broad collection of science and technology based on fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic. He published his seminal work on fuzzy sets in 1965, in which he described the motivation of replicating human-like reasoning and detailed the mathematics of fuzzy set theory.
In 1973 he proposed his theory of fuzzy logic. Together, fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic provide the necessary foundations for a broad class of related innovations, including (but not limited to):
fuzzy control – a practical approach to non-linear control using fuzzy if-then rules in fuzzy logic
fuzzy pattern recognition – a generalization of conventional pattern recognition techniques using fuzzy sets (e.g., fuzzy k-means generalizes k-means clustering)
fuzzy database – generalizes classical database query language using fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic
fuzzy mathematics – generalizes conventional mathematics using fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic
neuro-fuzzy systems – a synergistic combination of fuzzy logic and neural networks, providing the first interpretable AI system based on neural network learning
He was also on the Board of Governors for International Neural Network Society (INNIS) in 2003.
He was one of the Board of Governors of the International Neural Network Society (INNIS) in 2003.
Impacts to higher education
Zadeh became the Chair of Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1963. One of the lasting impacts of his leadership in this role is the expansion and the integration of computer science. He initiated and completed (in 1968) the transformation of the Electrical Engineering department at UC Berkeley to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS). This strategic move not only led UC Berkeley's advancement into the top ranks of computer science education and research, but also led other research universities globally to add computer science to their electrical engineering departments.
In 1973, Lotfi Zadeh received the prestigious (Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers) IEEE Education Award, largely in recognition of his performance as chair of EE and then EECS. Other important services to UC Berkeley include his Academic Senate committee memberships: Academic Planning & Resource Allocation (1992–95); Committees (1969–70; 1980–81); Courses of Instruction (1975–80); and Faculty Awards (1990–92). Professor Zadeh graduated more than 50 PhD students, many of whom went on to become leaders in various areas of engineering, management and information sciences.
Personal life and beliefs
Zadeh photographed people around him.
Zadeh was called "quick to shrug off nationalism, insisting there are much deeper issues in life", and was quoted as saying in an interview: "The question really isn't whether I'm American, Russian, Iranian, Azerbaijani, or anything else. I've been shaped by all these people and cultures, and I feel quite comfortable among all of them." He noted in the same interview: "Obstinacy and tenacity, not being afraid to get embroiled in controversy – that's very much a Turkish tradition. That's part of my character, too. I can be very stubborn. That has probably been beneficial for the development of fuzzy logic." He described himself as "an American, mathematically oriented, electrical engineer of Iranian descent, born in Russia."
He and his wife Fay Zadeh had two children, Stella and Norman Zada. His wife wrote a book, My Life and Travels with the Father of Fuzzy Logic about their travels and experiences together, visiting "exotic places" and meeting interesting people around the world.
Zadeh died in his home in Berkeley, California, on 6 September 2017, at the age of 96. He was buried at the First Alley of Honors, on 29 September 2017 in Baku, Azerbaijan, the city in which he was born. His funeral was well attended by "highly respected people." A month prior to his death, the University of Tehran had released an erroneous report that Zadeh had died, but withdrew it several days later.
Work
According to Google Scholar, as of November 2021, Zadeh's work has been cited at least 269,091 times in scholarly works, with the 1965 Fuzzy sets paper receiving at least 122,743 citations.
Fuzzy sets and systems
Zadeh, in his theory of fuzzy sets, proposed using a membership function (with a range covering the interval [0,1]) operating on the domain of all possible values. He proposed new operations for the calculus of logic and showed that fuzzy logic was a generalisation of classical and Boolean logic. He also proposed fuzzy numbers as a special case of fuzzy sets, as well as the corresponding rules for consistent mathematical operations (fuzzy arithmetic).
Fuzzy logic and artificial intelligence
Zadeh's research career has had a lasting impact on artificial intelligence (AI). Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic are both motivated by our understanding of human cognition: that we are comfortable with concepts that have vague boundaries. This is well aligned with the Physical symbol system assumption in AI (by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon), inspired by another aspect of human cognition: that humans are comfortable with concepts that are described by symbols.
The concept of a linguistic variable in fuzzy logic connects a symbol that is typically a predicate in classical logic (e.g., "John is Bold", or in predicate logic – Bold(John)) – to linguistic values (e.g., "John is somewhat bold." or in fuzzy logic – Bold(John)=Somewhat ) – which generalizes the binary value of predicate logic in two ways.
First, the two possible values (True or False) in predicate logic are generalized to a continuum (typically from 0, which corresponds to False, to 1, which corresponds to True). This allows the expression of Bold(John)= 0.5, which indicates that John is midway between being devoid of boldness and being entirely bold.
The second generalization enabled by fuzzy logic is to use a fuzzy set such as "somewhat bold" to describe a person's boldness level in a way that is more natural to human understanding and communication. Without this generalization, we can only describe the value of a person's boldness as a number (e.g., 0.5) or as an interval (e.g., [0.25, 0.75]). With this generalization, one can express the semantic meaning of "somewhat bold" as a fuzzy set in the domain of 0 and 1.
Zadeh was also an active contributor to the AI community, including at the Dartmouth Workshop that coined the term "artificial intelligence". He was subsequently a frequent contributor to leading AI conferences such as AAAI and IJCAI, as well as other top venues such as AI Magazine.
Other contributions
Zadeh is credited, along with John R. Ragazzini, in 1952, with having pioneered the development of the Z-transform method in discrete time signal processing and analysis. These methods are now standard in digital signal processing, digital control, and other discrete-time systems used in industry and research. He was an editor of the International Journal of Computational Cognition.
Zadeh's work also included computing with words and perceptions. His later papers include "From Search Engines to Question-Answering Systems" and "Toward a Generalized Theory of Uncertainty (GTU)—An Outline".
Selected publications
A complete list of publications is available.
Awards and honors
Zadeh was a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Association for Computing Machinery, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence and the International Fuzzy Systems Association, and a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He was also a member of the Academies of Science of Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Finland, Korea and Poland, and of the International Academy of Systems Studies in Moscow. He received 24 honorary doctorates.
Awards received by Zadeh include, among many others:
IEEE Education Medal; 1973
Eringen Medal; 1976
IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal, for "seminal contributions to information science and systems, including the conceptualization of fuzzy sets"; 1992
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Rufus Oldenburger Medal; 1993.
Honorary Professorship from the Azerbaijan State Oil Academy; 1993
IEEE Medal of Honor, for "pioneering development of fuzzy logic and its many diverse applications"; 1995
American Automatic Control Council's Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award; 1998.
ACM Allen Newell Award; 2001
Outstanding Contribution Award, Web Intelligence Consortium (WIC), Halifax, Canada, 2003.
Wall of Fame, Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum (HNF), Paderborn, Germany, 2004.
V. Kaufmann Prize and Gold Medal, International Association for Fuzzy-Set Management and Economy (SIGEF), Barcelona, Spain, Nov. 15, 2004.
J. Keith Brimacombe IPMM Award in recognition of his development of fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic, 2005.
Benjamin Franklin Medal in Electrical Engineering from The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, for inventing and developing the field of "fuzzy logic"; 2009
Induction into the IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame, 2011, "for his work on soft computing, fuzzy logic, and neural-net theory".
BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), Spain, 2012.
Honorary Doctor of the Óbuda University (Budapest, Hungary) 2011
Golden Goose Award, for Fuzzy Logic; 2017
Legacy
In 2014, the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society established the "Lotfi A. Zadeh Pioneer Award", which is given to honour a person or persons with "outstanding and pioneering contributions to academic and/or industrial research in systems science and engineering, human-machine systems, and/or cybernetics." The award is funded from a $100,000 donation from Zadeh's son, Norm Zadeh, and is administered by the IEEE. Nominees must have "pioneered and developed innovative research, executed in either academe or industry," that has resulted in major scientific advances in "systems science and engineering, human-machine systems, and/or cybernetics." Contributions must have been made at least 15 years prior to the award date.
In February 2019, ADA University in Baku, Azerbaijan presented the first "Lotfi Zadeh Scholarships", which honour the academic success of undergraduate students in the university's School of IT and Engineering. Winners of the scholarship receive a complete tuition waiver for the semester or semester-equivalent in which they achieved a 4.0 average.
On 24 February 2021, the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society and the International Fuzzy Systems Association (IFSA) jointly celebrated the centenary of Zadeh's birth.
On 30 November 2021, Google honored Zadeh with a Google Doodle. His seminal paper Fuzzy sets was submitted for publication on this day in 1964.
See also
Concept of Stratification
References
Citations
General bibliography
Further reading
Zadeh, Fay. "My Life and Travels with the Father of Fuzzy Logic". 1998, TSI Press, Albuquerque, NM.
Zadeh, Lofti A. "Lotfi Visions", two-part interview with Jack J. Woehr, Dr. Dobb's Journal, July 1994 (part 1) and August 1994 (part 2).
Trillas, Enric. In Memory of L.A. Zadeh Mathware & soft computing, ISSN-e 1134-5632, Vol. 24, Nº. 2, 2017, págs. 16-18
I. Dzitac, F.G. Filip, M.J. Manolescu, Fuzzy Logic Is Not Fuzzy: World-renowned Computer Scientist Lotfi A. Zadeh, International Journal of Computers Communications & Control (December), Vol 12 No 6 (2017), 748–789.
External links
Lotfi A. Zadeh , Academic profile, College of Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Berkeley
Dubois, Didier; Prade, Henri.
Azerbaijan International:
Lotfi Zadeh (interview): Reflections on the Beginnings of "Fuzzy Logic" in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 2:4 (1994), pp. 46–47.
Lotfi Zadeh, Berkeley Commencement Speech: "Commercialism and Human Values: When You Can't Stop for Lunch," in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 6:1 (Spring 1998), p. 65.
"Famous People: Then and Now, Lotfi Zadeh (reflecting on his childhood) in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 7:4 (Winter 1999), pp. 28–29.
Lotfi Zadeh: "Short Biographical Sketch". Azerbaijan International, Vol. 2:4 (Winter 1994), p. 49.
Lotfi Zadeh, Honorary Chair and Keynote Speaker, ICCCC 2008. Agora University of Oradea
1921 births
2017 deaths
Artificial intelligence researchers
Alborz High School alumni
Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Control theorists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Azerbaijani logicians
American logicians
American computer scientists
Iranian Azerbaijani scientists
Scientists from Baku
Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award recipients
Systems scientists
UC Berkeley College of Engineering faculty
Columbia University faculty
MIT School of Engineering alumni
University of Tehran alumni
Iranian electrical engineers
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Iranian expatriate academics
American people of Azerbaijani-Jewish descent
Soviet emigrants to Iran
Iranian emigrants to the United States
Soviet Azerbaijani people
Burials at Alley of Honor
Iranian logicians
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Azerbaijani people of Iranian descent
Azerbaijani people of Jewish descent
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201160
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolfo%20Bioy%20Casares
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Adolfo Bioy Casares
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Adolfo Bioy Casares (; September 15, 1914 – March 8, 1999) was an Argentine fiction writer, journalist, diarist, and translator. He was a friend and frequent collaborator with his fellow countryman Jorge Luis Borges, and is the author of the fantastic fiction novel The Invention of Morel.
Biography
Adolfo Bioy Casares was born on September 15, 1914 in Buenos Aires, the only child of Adolfo Bioy Domecq and Marta Ignacia Casares Lynch. He was born in Recoleta, a neighborhood of Buenos Aires traditionally inhabited by upper-class families, where he would reside the majority of his life. Due to his family's high social class, he was able to dedicate himself exclusively to literature and, at the same time, distinguish his work from the traditional literary medium of his time. He wrote his first story ("Iris y Margarita") at the age of eleven. He began his secondary education in the Instituto Libre de Segunda Enseñanza at the Universidad de Buenos Aires. Later, he started but did not end up finishing degrees in law, philosophy, and literature. Fueled by disappointment with the university atmosphere, he moved to a family ranch where, when he didn't have visitors, he devoted himself almost entirely to his study of literature. By the time he reached his late twenties, he maintained proficiency in Spanish, English, French (which he spoke from the age of 4) and German. Between 1929 and 1937 Bioy Casares published a number of books (Prólogo, 17 disparos contra lo porvenir, Caos, La nueva tormenta, La estatua casera, Luis Greve, muerto) that he would later disdain, restricting additional publications and refusing to discuss them, labeling all his work previous to 1940 as 'horrible'.
In 1932 he met Jorge Luis Borges at Villa Ocampo, a house in San Isidro belonging to Victoria Ocampo. There, she often hosted different international figures and organized cultural celebrations, one of which brought Borges and Bioy Casares together. Bioy Casares recalled that on that particular occasion, the two writers stepped away from the rest of the guests, only to be reprimanded by Ocampo. This reproach provoked them to leave the gathering and return to the city together. The journey sealed a lifelong friendship and many influential literary collaborations. Under the pseudonyms H. Bustos Domecq and Benito Suárez Lynch, the two teamed up on a variety of projects from short stories (Seis problemas para don Isidro Parodi, Dos fantasías memorables, Un modelo para la muerte), to screenplays (Los orilleros, Invasión), and fantastic fiction (Antología de la literatura fantástica, Cuentos breves y extraordinarios). Between 1945 and 1955, they directed "El séptimo círculo" ("The Seventh Circle"), a collection of translations of popular English detective fiction, a genre that Borges greatly admired. In 2006, Borges, a biographical volume of more than 1600 pages from Bioy Casares' journals, revealed many additional details of the friendship shared by the two writers. Bioy Casares had already prepared and corrected the texts some time previously, but he never was able to publish them himself.
In 1940, he published the short novel The Invention of Morel, which marked the beginning of his literary maturity. The novel's introduction was written by Borges, in which he comments on the absence of precursors to science fiction in Spanish literature, presenting Bioy Casares as the pioneer of a new genre. The novella was very well accepted and received the Primer Premio Municipal de Literatura (First Municipal Prize of Literature) in 1941. During this same time, in collaboration with Borges and Silvina Ocampo, he published two anthologies: Antología de la literatura fantástica (1940) y Antología poética argentina (1941).
In 1940, Bioy Casares married Silvina Ocampo, Victoria's sister, who was a painter as well as a writer. In 1954, one of Bioy Casares' mistresses gave birth in the United States to his daughter, Marta, who was subsequently adopted by his wife Silvina. Marta was killed in an automobile accident just three weeks after Silvina Ocampo's death, leaving Adolfo with two children. The estate of Silvina Ocampo and Adolfo Bioy Casares was awarded by a Buenos Aires court to yet another love child of Adolfo Bioy Casares, Fabián Bioy. Fabián Bioy died, aged 40, in Paris, France on 11 February 2006.
Bioy won several awards, including the Gran Premio de Honor of SADE (the Argentine Society of Writers, 1975), the French Legion of Honour (1981), the Diamond Konex Award of Literature (1994) the title of Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires (1986), and the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (awarded to him in 1991 in Alcalá de Henares). Adolfo Bioy Casares is buried in La Recoleta Cemetery, Buenos Aires.
Works
The best-known novel by Bioy Casares is La invención de Morel (The Invention of Morel). It is the story of a man who, evading justice, escapes to an island said to be infected with a mysterious fatal disease. Struggling to understand why everything seems to repeat, he realizes that all the people he sees there are actually recordings, made with a special machine, invented by Morel, which is able to record not only three-dimensional images, but also voices and scents, making it all indistinguishable from reality. The story mixes realism, fantasy, science fiction and terror. Borges wrote an introduction in which he called it a work of "reasoned imagination" and linked it to H. G. Wells' oeuvre. Both Borges and Octavio Paz described the novel as "perfect". The story is held to be the inspiration for Alan Resnais's Last Year at Marienbad and an influence on the TV series Lost.
Novels and novellas
La nueva tormenta o la vida de Juan Ruteno, 167 pp. (1935; "The New Storm or The Life of Juan Ruteno")
La invención de Morel, 126 pp. (1940; translated into English as The Invention of Morel, 1964, )
El perjurio de la nieve, 64 pp. (1944; "The Snow's Perjury")
Plan de evasión, 162 pp. (1945; translated into English as A Plan for Escape, 1975, )
El sueño de los héroes, 216 pp. (1954; translated into English as The Dream of Heroes, 1987, )
Homenaje a Francisco Almeyra, 37 pp. (1954; "Homage to Francisco Almeyra")
Diario de la guerra del cerdo, 207 pp. (1969; translated into English as Diary of the War of the Pig, 1972, )
Dormir al Sol, 229 pp. (1973; translated into English as Asleep in the Sun, 1978, )
La aventura de un fotógrafo en La Plata, 223 pp. (1985; translated into English as The Adventures of a Photographer in La Plata, 1989, )
Un campeón desparejo, 110 pp. (1993; "An Uneven Champion")
Short story collections
17 disparos contra el porvenir, 173 pp. (1933; "17 Shots Against the Future")
Caos, 283 pp. (1934, "Chaos")
Luis Greve, muerto, 157 pp. (1937; "Luis Greve, Deceased")
La trama celeste, 246 pp. (1948; "The Celestial Plot")
Las vísperas de Fausto, 15 pp. (1949; "Faust's Eve")
Historia prodigiosa, 151 pp. (1956; "A Remarkable History")
El lado de la sombra, 192 pp. (1962; "The Shady Side")
El gran serafín, 190 pp. (1967; "The Great Seraph")
El héroe de las mujeres, 191 pp. (1978; "The Hero of Women")
Historias desaforadas, 231 pp. (1986; "Colossal Stories")
Una muñeca rusa, 179 pp. (1991; translated into English as A Russian Doll and Other Stories, 1992, )
Generally, these Spanish-language collections have not been systematically translated into English. English language collections include:
Selected Stories, 176 pp. (1994, )
Essays
La otra aventura, 153 pp. (1968, "The Other Adventure")
Memoria sobre la pampa y los gauchos, 57 pp. (1970, "Memoir on the Pampas and the Gauchos")
Miscellanies (mixed collections of stories, poems, essays, reflections, aphorisms, etc.)
Prólogo, 127 pp. (1929; "Prologue")
La estatua casera, 51 pp. (1936; "The Household Statue")
Guirnalda con amores, 200 pp. (1959; "Garland with Loves")
Dictionary of Argentinean slang
Breve diccionario del argentino exquisito, 161 pp. (1971; "Brief Dictionary of Affected Argentineans")
Letters
En viaje (1967), 260 pp. (1996; "Travelling in 1967"; letters to Silvina Ocampo)
Diaries
Descanso de caminantes. Diarios íntimos, 507 pp. (2001; "Rest for Travellers and Intimate Diaries"; a selection from his Journals)
Works written in collaboration with Jorge Luis Borges
Seis problemas para don Isidro Parodi (1942; translated into English as Six Problems for Don Isidro Parodi, 1981, )
Dos fantasías memorables (1946; "Two Memorable Fantasies")
Un modelo para la muerte (1946; "A Model for Death")
Cuentos breves y extraordinarios (1955; "Short and Amazing Stories")
Crónicas de Bustos Domecq (1967; translated into English as Chronicles of Bustos Domecq, 1976, )
Libro del cielo y del infierno, (1960; "The Book of Heaven and Hell")
Nuevos cuentos de Bustos Domecq (1977; "New Stories by Bustos Domecq")
Dos fantasías memorables and Un modelo para la muerte were originally published in private printings of only 300 copies. The first commercial printings were published in 1970.
Works written in collaboration with Silvina Ocampo
Los que aman, odian (Those Who Love, Hate, 1946)
Screenplays written in collaboration with Jorge Luis Borges
Los orilleros (1955, The Hoodlums)
El paraíso de los creyentes (1955, The Paradise of the Believers)
Invasión (1969, Invasion)
The Others (1974)
References
External links
Caricature and obituary at literatura.org (in Spanish)
logosfreebooks.org biography of Bioy Casares (in Spanish)
Spanish-language page on Bioy Casares, including links to some passages from his works
Bioy renowned around the world. Published online in www.Argentina.ar (in English)
Premio Cervantes winners
1914 births
1999 deaths
Illustrious Citizens of Buenos Aires
Argentine people of Irish descent
Argentine science fiction writers
Magic realism writers
Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery
20th-century novelists
Male novelists
Argentine diarists
Writers from Buenos Aires
Prix Roger Caillois recipients
20th-century Argentine male writers
20th-century diarists
|
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201162
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20V%C3%A9rendrye
|
La Vérendrye
|
La Vérendrye, La Verendrye or Verendrye may refer to:
People
Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye (1685–1749), French Canadian military officer, fur trader and explorer, often called simply "La Vérendrye". His sons were:
Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye (1713–1736), explorer
Pierre Gaultier de La Vérendrye (1714–1755), explorer and fur trader
François de La Vérendrye (1715–1794), explorer and trader
Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye (1717–1761), explorer and fur trader
Verendrye brothers' journey to the Rocky Mountains, 1742–43
Places
La Verendrye (electoral district), in Manitoba, Canada
La Verendrye Provincial Park, in Ontario, Canada
La Vérendrye Trail, in Manitoba, Canada
La Vérendrye Wildlife Reserve, in Quebec, Canada
Parc de la Vérendrye (Le Domaine) Water Aerodrome, in Quebec, Canada
Verendrye, North Dakota, a ghost town in McHenry County
Verendrye National Monument, a former US national monument in North Dakota
Other
Verendrye Electric Cooperative, a public utility cooperative in North Dakota
|
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201164
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undertow%20%28Tool%20album%29
|
Undertow (Tool album)
|
Undertow is the debut studio album by American rock band Tool, released on April 6, 1993 by Zoo Entertainment. Produced by the band and Sylvia Massy, it was recorded from October to December 1992 at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys and Grandmaster Recorders in Hollywood. The album includes some tracks the band decided to not release on their debut EP Opiate.
According to AllMusic, Undertow helped heavy metal music remain prominent as a mainstream musical style, and allowed several later bands to break through to the mainstream. It was released at a time when grunge was at the height of its popularity, and pop punk was slowly beginning to gather mainstream attention. AllMusic saw the album's success in the "striking, haunting visuals that complemented the album's nihilistic yet wistful mood."
As of 2020, Undertow has sold over three million copies in the United States, and is certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Background
Undertow was Tool's only full album release with original bassist Paul D'Amour.
Comedian Bill Hicks is noted as "inspiration" in the liner notes, and Undertow is the only Tool album released while he was still alive. His presence would feature again on Tool's next album, Ænima.
Chris Haskett, then with the Rollins Band, is credited in the liner notes with "sledge hammer", probably relating to the "three pianos and shotguns smashed with sledgehammers" on "Disgustipated". Adam Jones recalls a story in which the band purchased two second-hand pianos with the intention of blasting them with shotguns in the indoor parking lot of Grand Master Studio and putting the resulting sounds to tape. Apparently the woman running the studio was happy as long as they cleaned up the mess afterwards. Since the incident, Tool has been approached by other bands claiming to have seen the shotgun holes left by them in the carpark wall.
Artwork
The album art was designed by Adam Jones. Photos in the liner notes of a nude obese woman, a nude thin man, and the band members with pins in the sides of their heads generated controversy, resulting in the album being removed from stores such as Kmart and Walmart. The band reacted by releasing another version, which depicted a giant barcode on a white background. This version of the album included a note from the band:
The message on the photographs of the band members reads "Trust me trust me trust me trust me trust me I just want to start this over say you won't go this is love I'll make weapons out of my imperfections lay back and let me show you another way only this one holy medium brings me peace of mind cleanse and purge me in the water twice as loud as reason euphoria I've been far too sympathetic no one told you to come I hope it sucks you down life feeds on life this is necessary." The songs the lyrics contained in the passage are from appear in this order: "Sober", "Crawl Away", "4°", "Prison Sex", "Flood", "Undertow", "Intolerance", "Swamp Song", "Disgustipated". The only quote missing from the album is "I'll make weapons out of my imperfections", a line from Maynard's original lyrics for "Bottom" before they were modified by guest Henry Rollins.
In some versions of the album, when the black CD tray is removed from the case, a picture of a cow licking what appears to be its genital region is revealed. In other versions of the album, released internationally, the picture of the cow licking the genital region is viewable without problems under the transparent backing of the disc case. The photo of the cow is accredited in the album's liner notes to have been taken by Danielle Bregman. The ribcage is also on the front cover of the album, but the obese woman is absent from the booklet; only the members of the band are depicted.
Adam Jones' pet pig, Moe, appears on the back cover amid an array of forks standing on end.
Reception
AllMusic gave the album a positive review, stating "With its technical brilliance, musical complexities, and aggressive overtones, Undertow not only paved the way for several bands to break through to the mainstream adolescent mall-rage demographic, it also proved that metal could be simultaneously intelligent, emotional, and brutal." In Entertainment Weeklys review of the album, David Browne said "Like many of its brethren in the alternative-metal corps—Alice in Chains, Stone Temple Pilots, and Helmet—Tool can crunch and lumber about with the best of them. What put this L.A. band a notch above the rest are better songs (with actual verses, choruses, and hooks-check out the terrific "Prison Sex") and the hints of vulnerability in singer Maynard James Keenan's voice".
In a Dotdash bibliographical article of the band, reviewer Tim Grierson called the album the "Essential Tool Album" and stated "It may be impossible to describe the impact that Undertow had at the time of its release in 1993. Searching, angry, liberating and scary, Tool's full-length debut emerged during a period in rock music when Seattle bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam were expressing alienation through grunge riffs, inspiring lots of copycat artists. Undertow expressed alienation, too, but the album's imposing waves of misery and dread seemed to come from an entirely different planet than grunge, providing a startling counterpoint to the trendy sounds of the era". A less positive review came from Select writer Andrew Perry, who said "[B]ereft of the irony, danger and maverick punkiness of grunge's finest, Tool ultimately will only help Alice In Chains reassert the trad metal market. Which really isn't what we deserve."
Accolades
(*) designates unordered lists.
Track listing
"Disgustipated" is track 69 on most pressings in North America (tracks 10–68 are silent; tracks 10–67 are one second each in length, and track 68 is two seconds). It also appears as track 39, track 10 (mostly in Europe and Australia) or as a hidden track following "Flood" on track nine. On certain Japanese imports, "Disgustipated" is track 70. In all cases, however, it is listed as track 10 on the album itself.
Personnel
The band members' instruments are listed under aliases in the liner notes.
Maynard James Keenan – vocals (listed as "Möstresticator")
Adam Jones – guitar (listed as "Bastardometer"), artwork
Paul D'Amour – bass (listed as "Bottom Feeder")
Danny Carey – drums (listed as "Membranophones")
Additional personnel
Henry Rollins - additional vocals on "Bottom"
Statik – programming on "Disgustipated"
Production
Produced and mixed by Sylvia Massy
Mixed by Ron St. Germain
Charts
Sales and certifications
Release history
The promotional vinyl did not include the final track "Disgustipated" so that the entire album could fit onto one disc. Because it is promotional, it is possible that it was released before the regular pressing, therefore, only the year is listed.
The year 1996 represents the year that Volcano Entertainment began using its own logo on releases which formerly used the Zoo Entertainment logo. In reality, 1996 reissues with the Volcano logo may not have actually been widely distributed until early in 1997.
The year 1999 represents the year that Tool's Tool Dissectional label was used in conjunction with Volcano. Strong evidence supports a North American reissue date of July 1, 1999, however, the European ones are unknown. To be cautious, only the year is given for all releases of this nature.
The year 2004 represents the year that Sony BMG was created. These reissues contain artwork that depicts Sony BMG as the distributor. Since Sony BMG's pressing schedule is not known, the actual release date may be sometime in 2004 or 2005.
References
External links
1993 debut albums
Zoo Entertainment (record label) albums
Alternative metal albums
Tool (band) albums
Obscenity controversies in music
Albums recorded at Sound City Studios
|
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