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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%20alphabet
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Turkish alphabet
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The Turkish alphabet () is a Latin-script alphabet used for writing the Turkish language, consisting of 29 letters, seven of which (Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language. This alphabet represents modern Turkish pronunciation with a high degree of accuracy and specificity. Mandated in 1928 as part of Atatürk's Reforms, it is the current official alphabet and the latest in a series of distinct alphabets used in different eras.
The Turkish alphabet has been the model for the official Latinization of several Turkic languages formerly written in the Arabic or Cyrillic script like Azerbaijani (1991), Turkmen (1993), and recently Kazakh (2021).
History
Early reform proposals and alternate scripts
The earliest known Turkic alphabet is the Orkhon script, also known as the Old Turkish alphabet, the first surviving evidence of which dates from the 7th century. In general, Turkic languages have been written in a number of different alphabets including Uyghur, Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and some other Asiatic writing systems.
Turkish was written using a Turkish form of the Arabic script for over 1,000 years. It was poorly suited to write works that incorporated a great deal of Arabic and Persian vocabulary as their spellings were largely unphonetic and thus had to be memorized. This created a significant barrier of entry as only highly formal and prestige versions of Turkish were top heavy in Arabic and Persian vocabulary. Not only would students have trouble predicting the spellings of certain Arabic and Persian words, but some of these words were so rarely used in common speech that their spellings would not register in the collective conscious of students. However, it was much better suited to the Turkish part of the vocabulary. Although Ottoman Turkish was never formally standardized by a decree of law, words of Turkic origin largely had de facto systematic spelling rules associated with them which made it easier to read and write. On the rare occasion a Turkic word had irregular spelling that had to be memorized, there was often a dialectal or historic phonetic rationale that would be validated by observing the speech of eastern dialects, Azeri, and Turkmen. Whereas Arabic is rich in consonants but poor in vowels, Turkish is the opposite; the script was thus inadequate at distinguishing certain Turkish vowels and the reader was forced to rely on context to differentiate certain words. The introduction of the telegraph in the 19th century exposed further weaknesses in the Arabic script, although this was buoyed to some degree by advances in the printing press and Ottoman Turkish Keyboard typewriters.
The Turkic Kipchak Cuman language was written in the Latin alphabet, for example in the Codex Cumanicus.
Some Turkish reformists promoted the adoption of the Latin script well before Atatürk's reforms. In 1862, during an earlier period of reform, the statesman Münuf Pasha advocated a reform of the alphabet. At the start of the 20th century similar proposals were made by several writers associated with the Young Turks movement, including Hüseyin Cahit, Abdullah Cevdet, and Celâl Nuri. The issue was raised again in 1923 during the first Economic Congress of the newly founded Turkish Republic, sparking a public debate that was to continue for several years.
A move away from the Arabic script was strongly opposed by conservative and religious elements. It was argued that Romanisation of the script would detach Turkey from the wider Islamic world, substituting a "foreign" (i.e. European) concept of national identity for the traditional sacred community. Others opposed Romanisation on practical grounds; at that time there was no suitable adaptation of the Latin script that could be used for Turkish phonemes. Some suggested that a better alternative might be to modify the Arabic script to introduce extra characters to better represent Turkish vowels. In 1926, however, the Turkic republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, giving a major boost to reformers in Turkey.
Turkish-speaking Armenians used the Mesrobian script to write Holy Bibles and other books in Turkish for centuries and the linguistic team which invented the modern Turkish alphabet included several Armenian linguists, such as Agop Dilâçar. Karamanli Turkish was, similarly, written with a form of the Greek alphabet.
Introduction of the modern Turkish alphabet
The current 29-letter Turkish alphabet was established as a personal initiative of the founder of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. It was a key step in the cultural part of Atatürk's Reforms, introduced following his consolidation of power. Having established a one-party state ruled by his Republican People's Party, Atatürk was able to sweep aside the previous opposition to implementing radical reform of the alphabet. He announced his plans in July 1928 and established a Language Commission () consisting of the following members:
Ragıp Hulusi Özden
İbrahim Grantay
Ahmet Cevat Emre
Mehmet Emin Erişirgil
İhsan Sungu
Avni Başman
Falih Rıfkı Atay
Ruşen Eşref Ünaydın
Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu
Ali Hayder Taner
The commission was responsible for adapting the Latin script to meet the phonetic requirements of the Turkish language. The resulting Latin alphabet was designed to reflect the actual sounds of spoken Turkish, rather than simply transcribing the old Ottoman script into a new form.
Atatürk himself was personally involved with the commission and proclaimed an "alphabet mobilisation" to publicise the changes. He toured the country explaining the new system of writing and encouraging the rapid adoption of the new alphabet. The Language Commission proposed a five-year transition period; Atatürk saw this as far too long and reduced it to three months. The change was formalised by the Turkish Republic's law number 1353, the Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet, passed on 1 November 1928. Starting 1 December 1928, newspapers, magazines, subtitles in movies, advertisement and signs had to be written with the letters of the new alphabet. From 1 January 1929, the use of the new alphabet was compulsory in all public communications as well the internal communications of banks and political or social organisations. Books had to be printed with the new alphabet as of 1 January 1929 as well. The civil population was allowed to use the old alphabet in their transactions with the institutions until 1 June 1929.
In the Sanjak of Alexandretta (today's province of Hatay), which was at that time under French control and would later join Turkey, the local Turkish-language newspapers adopted the Latin alphabet only in 1934.
The reforms were also backed up by the Law on Copyrights, issued in 1934, encouraging and strengthening the private publishing sector. In 1939, the First Turkish Publications Congress was organised in Ankara for discussing issues such as copyright, printing, progress on improving the literacy rate and scientific publications, with the attendance of 186 deputies.
Political and cultural aspects
As cited by the reformers, the old Arabic script was much more difficult to learn than the new Latin alphabet. The literacy rate did indeed increase greatly after the alphabet reform, from around 10% to over 90%, but many other factors also contributed to this increase, such as the foundation of the Turkish Language Association in 1932, campaigns by the Ministry of Education, the opening of Public Education Centres throughout the country, and Atatürk's personal participation in literacy campaigns.
Atatürk also commented on one occasion that the symbolic meaning of the reform was for the Turkish nation to "show with its script and mentality that it is on the side of world civilisation". The second president of Turkey, İsmet İnönü further elaborated the reason behind adopting a Latin alphabet:
The alphabet reform cannot be attributed to ease of reading and writing. That was the motive of Enver Pasha. For us, the big impact and the benefit of an alphabet reform was that it eased the way to cultural reform. We inevitably lost our connection with Arabic culture.
The Turkish writer Şerif Mardin has noted that "Atatürk imposed the mandatory Latin alphabet in order to promote the national awareness of the Turks against a wider Muslim identity. It is also imperative to add that he hoped to relate Turkish nationalism to the modern civilisation of Western Europe, which embraced the Latin alphabet." The explicitly nationalistic and ideological character of the alphabet reform showed in the booklets issued by the government to teach the population the new script. They included sample phrases aimed at discrediting the Ottoman government and instilling updated Turkish values, such as: "Atatürk allied himself with the nation and drove the sultans out of the homeland"; "Taxes are spent for the common properties of the nation. Tax is a debt we need to pay"; "It is the duty of every Turk to defend the homeland against the enemies." The alphabet reform was promoted as redeeming the Turkish people from the neglect of the Ottoman rulers: "Sultans did not think of the public, Ghazi commander [Atatürk] saved the nation from enemies and slavery. And now, he declared a campaign against ignorance [illiteracy]. He armed the nation with the new Turkish alphabet."
The historian Bernard Lewis has described the introduction of the new alphabet as "not so much practical as pedagogical, as social and cultural – and Mustafa Kemal, in forcing his people to accept it, was slamming a door on the past as well as opening a door to the future". It was accompanied by a systematic effort to rid the Turkish language of Arabic and Persian loanwords, often replacing them with revived early Turkic words. However, the same reform also rid the language of many Western loanwords, especially French, in favor of Turkic words, albeit to a lesser degree. Atatürk told his friend Falih Rıfkı Atay, who was on the government's Language Commission, that by carrying out the reform, "we were going to cleanse the Turkish mind from its Arabic roots."
Yaşar Nabi, a leading journalist, argued in the 1960s that the alphabet reform had been vital in creating a new Western-oriented identity for Turkey. He noted that younger Turks, who had only been taught the Latin script, were at ease in understanding Western culture but were quite unable to engage with Middle Eastern culture. The new script was adopted very rapidly and soon gained widespread acceptance. Even so, older people continued to use the Turkish Arabic script in private correspondence, notes and diaries until well into the 1960s.
Letters
The following table presents the Turkish letters, the sounds they correspond to in International Phonetic Alphabet and how these can be approximated more or less by an English speaker.
{| class="wikitable"
!Uppercase
!Lowercase
!Name
!Name (IPA)
!Value
!English approximation
|-
| align=center| A || align=center| a || a || || || As a in father
|-
| align=center| B || align=center| b || be || || || As b in boy|-
| align=center| C || align=center| c || ce || || || As j in joy|-
| align=center| Ç || align=center| ç || çe || || || As ch in chair|-
| align=center| D || align=center| d || de || || || As d in dog|-
| align=center| E || align=center| e || e || || || As e in red|-
| align=center| F || align=center| f || fe || || || As f in far|-
| align=center| G || align=center| g || ge || || , || As g in got|-
| align=center| Ğ || align=center| ğ || yumuşak ge || || (, , ) || —
|-
| align=center| H || align=center| h || he, ha, haş || , || || As h in hot|-
| align=center| I || align=center| ı || ı || || || Somewhat like i in cousin; see Close back unrounded vowel
|-
| align=center| İ || align=center| i || i || || || As i in fit|-
| align=center| J || align=center| j || je || || || As s in measure|-
| align=center| K || align=center| k || ke, ka || , || , || As k in kit|-
| align=center| L || align=center| l || le || || , || As l in love|-
| align=center| M || align=center| m || me || || || As m in man|-
| align=center| N || align=center| n || ne || || || As n in nice|-
| align=center| O || align=center| o || o || || || As o in more|-
| align=center| Ö || align=center| ö || ö || || || As ur in nurse, with lips rounded
|-
| align=center| P || align=center| p || pe || || || As p in pin|-
| align=center| R || align=center| r || re || || || As tt in American English better|-
| align=center| S || align=center| s || se || || || As s in song|-
| align=center| Ş || align=center| ş || şe || || || As sh in show|-
| align=center| T || align=center| t || te || || || As t in tick|-
| align=center| U || align=center| u || u || || || As u in pull|-
| align=center| Ü || align=center| ü || ü || || || Somewhat like u in tune; see Close front rounded vowel
|-
| align=center| V || align=center| v || ve || || || As v in vat|-
| align=center| Y || align=center| y || ye || || || As y in yes|-
| align=center| Z || align=center| z || ze || || || As z in zigz'''ag
|-
| align=center| Q || align=center| q || kû, kü || , || — || —
|-
| align=center| W || align=center| w || çift ve || || — || —
|-
| align=center| X || align=center| x || iks || || — || —
|}
Of the 29 letters, eight are vowels (A, E, I, İ, O, Ö, U, Ü); the other 21 are consonants.
Dotted and dotless I are distinct letters in Turkish such that ⟨i⟩ becomes ⟨İ⟩ when capitalised, ⟨I⟩ being the capital form of ⟨ı⟩.
Turkish also adds a circumflex over the back vowels ⟨â⟩ and ⟨û⟩ following ⟨k⟩, ⟨g⟩, or ⟨l⟩ when these consonants represent , , and (instead of , , and ):
â for and/or to indicate that the consonant before â is palatalised; e.g. means "profit", while means "snow".
î for (no palatalisation implied, however lengthens the pronunciation of the vowel).
û for and/or to indicate palatalisation.
In the case of length distinction, these letters are used for old Arabic and Persian borrowings from the Ottoman Turkish period, most of which have been eliminated from the language. Native Turkish words have no vowel length distinction, and for them the circumflex is used solely to indicate palatalisation.
Turkish orthography is highly regular and a word's pronunciation is usually identified by its spelling.
Distinctive features
Dotted and dotless I are separate letters, each with its own uppercase and lowercase forms. The lowercase form of I is ı, and the lowercase form of İ is i. (In the original law establishing the alphabet, the dotted İ came before the undotted I; now their places are reversed.) The letter J, however, uses a tittle in the same way English does, with a dotted lowercase version, and a dotless uppercase version.
Optional circumflex accents can be used with "â", "î" and "û" to disambiguate words with different meanings but otherwise the same spelling, or to indicate palatalisation of a preceding consonant (for example, while means "snow", means "profit"), or long vowels in loanwords, particularly from Arabic.
Software localisation
In software development, the Turkish alphabet is known for requiring special logic, particularly due to the varieties of i and their lowercase and uppercase versions. This has been called the Turkish-I problem.
See also
Turkish Braille
Turkish phonology
Uniform Turkic Alphabet
References
External links
Yunus Emre Enstitusu – Online Learning
The Turkish Alphabet
Online Turkish
Turkish Alphabet Pronunciation
Dilek Nur Polat Ünsür (22 Mac 2021). "How Newspapers Familiarized Readers with the Latin Script During the Turkish Alphabet Reform", ATypI 2020 presentation
Alphabet
Latin alphabets
Spelling reform
Romanization of Arabic
Writing systems introduced in 1928
Alphabets used by Turkic languages
mn:Түрк хэл бичиг
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201419
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81
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Śūnyatā
|
Śūnyatā (; ) pronounced in English as (shoon-ya-ta), translated most often as emptiness, vacuity, and sometimes voidness, is a Buddhist concept which has multiple meanings depending on its doctrinal context. It is either an ontological feature of reality, a meditative state, or a phenomenological analysis of experience.
In Theravāda Buddhism, Suññatā often refers to the non-self (Pāli: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman) nature of the five aggregates of experience and the six sense spheres. Suññatā is also often used to refer to a meditative state or experience.
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, śūnyatā refers to the tenet that "all things are empty of intrinsic existence and nature (svabhava)", but may also refer to the Buddha-nature teachings and primordial or empty awareness, as in Dzogchen, Shentong, or Chan.
Etymology
"Śūnyatā" (Sanskrit) is usually translated as "devoidness", "emptiness", "hollow", "hollowness", "voidness". It is the noun form of the adjective śūnya, plus -tā:
śūnya, in the context of buddha dharma, primarily means "empty", or "void," but also means "zero," and "nothing," and derives from the root śvi, meaning "hollow"
-tā is a suffix denoting a quality or state of being, equivalent to English "-ness"
Development of the concept
The concept of śūnyatā as "emptiness" is related to the concept of anatta in early Buddhism. Over time, many different philosophical schools or tenet-systems (Sanskrit: siddhānta) have developed within Buddhism in an effort to explain the exact philosophical meaning of emptiness.
After the Buddha, emptiness was further developed by the Abhidharma schools, Nāgārjuna and the Mādhyamaka school, an early Mahāyāna school. Emptiness ("positively" interpreted) is also an important element of the Buddha-nature literature, which played a formative role in the evolution of subsequent Mahāyāna doctrine and practice.
Early Buddhism
Pāli Nikāyas
The Pāli Canon uses the term śūnyatā ("emptiness") in three ways: "(1) as a meditative dwelling, (2) as an attribute of objects, and (3) as a type of awareness-release."
According to Bhikkhu Analayo, in the Pāli Canon "the adjective suñña occurs with a much higher frequency than the corresponding noun suññatā" and emphasizes seeing phenomena as 'being empty' instead of an abstract idea of "emptiness."
One example of this usage is in the Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta (SN 22:95), which states that on close inspection, each of the five aggregates are seen as being void (rittaka), hollow (tucchaka), coreless (asāraka). In the text a series of contemplations is given for each aggregate: form is like "a lump of foam" (pheṇapiṇḍa); sensation like "a water bubble" (bubbuḷa); perception like "a mirage" (marici); formations like "a plantain tree" (kadalik-khandha); and cognition is like "a magical illusion" (māyā).
According to Shi Huifeng, the terms "void" (rittaka), "hollow" (tucchaka), and "coreless" (asāraka) are also used in the early texts to refer to words and things which are deceptive, false, vain, and worthless. This sense of worthlessness and vacuousness is also found in other uses of the term māyā, such as the following:"Monks, sensual pleasures are impermanent, hollow, false, deceptive; they are illusory (māyākatame), the prattle of fools."The Suñña Sutta, part of the Pāli Canon, relates that the monk Ānanda, Buddha's attendant asked,It is said that the world is empty, the world is empty, lord. In what respect is it said that the world is empty?" The Buddha replied, "Insofar as it is empty of a self or of anything pertaining to a self: Thus it is said, Ānanda, that the world is empty.According to the American monastic Thanissaro Bhikku:
Meditative state
Emptiness as a meditative state is said to be reached when "not attending to any themes, he [the bhikku] enters & remains in internal emptiness" (MN 122). This meditative dwelling is developed through the "four formless states" of meditation or Arūpajhānas and then through "themeless concentration of awareness."
The Cūlasuññata-sutta (MN III 104) and the Mahāsuññata-sutta (MN III 109) outline how a monk can "dwell in emptiness" through a gradual step-by-step mental cultivation process, they both stress the importance of the impermanence of mental states and the absence of a self.
In the Kāmabhu Sutta S IV.293, it is explained that a bhikkhu can experience a trancelike contemplation in which perception and feeling cease. When he emerges from this state, he recounts three types of "contact" (phasso):
"emptiness" (suññato),
"signless" (animitto),
"undirected" (appaihito).
The meaning of emptiness as contemplated here is explained at M I.297 and S IV.296-97 as the "emancipation of the mind by emptiness" (suññatā cetovimutti) being consequent upon the realization that "this world is empty of self or anything pertaining to self" (suññam ida attena vā attaniyena vā).
The term "emptiness" (suññatā) is also used in two suttas in the Majjhima Nikāya, in the context of a progression of mental states. The texts refer to each state's emptiness of the one below.
Chinese Āgamas
The Chinese Āgamas contain various parallels to the Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta. One partial parallel from the Ekottara Āgama describes the body with different metaphors: "a ball of snow", "a heap of dirt", "a mirage", "an illusion" (māyā), or "an empty fist used to fool a child". In a similar vein, the Mūla-Sarvāstivādin Māyājāla Sūtra, gives two sets of metaphors for each of the sensory consciousnesses to illustrate their vain, illusory character.
Other Sarvāstivādin Āgama sutras (extant in Chinese) which have emptiness as a theme include Samyukta Āgama 335 - Paramārtha-śunyatā-sūtra ("Sutra on ultimate emptiness") and Samyukta Āgama 297 - Mahā-śunyatā-dharma-paryāya ("Greater discourse on emptiness"). These sutras have no parallel Pāli suttas. These sutras associate emptiness with dependent origination, which shows that this relation of the two terms was already established in pre-Nagarjuna sources. The sutra on great emptiness states:
The phrase "when this exists..." is a common gloss on dependent origination. Sarvāstivādin Āgamas also speak of a certain "emptiness samadhi" (śūnyatāsamādhi) as well as stating that all dharmas are "classified as conventional".
Mun-Keat Choong and Yin Shun have both published studies on the various uses of emptiness in the Early Buddhist texts (Pāli Canon and Chinese Āgamas). Choong has also published a collection of translations of Āgama sutras from the Chinese on the topic of emptiness.
Early Buddhist schools and Abhidharma
Many of the early Buddhist schools featured śūnyatā as an important part of their teachings.
The Sarvastivadin school's Abhidharma texts like the Dharmaskandhapāda Śāstra, and the later Mahāvibhāṣa, also take up the theme of emptiness vis-a-vis dependent origination as found in the Agamas.
Schools such as the Mahāsāṃghika Prajñaptivādins as well as many of the Sthavira schools (except the Pudgalavada) held that all dharmas were empty (dharma śūnyatā). This can be seen in the early Theravada Abhidhamma texts such as the Patisambhidamagga, which also speak of the emptiness of the five aggregates and of svabhava as being "empty of essential nature". The Theravada Kathavatthu also argues against the idea that emptiness is unconditioned. The Mahāvastu, an influential Mahāsāṃghika work, states that the Buddha"has shown that the aggregates are like a lightning flash, as a bubble, or as the white foam on a wave."One of the main themes of Harivarman's Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra (3rd-4th century) is dharma-śūnyatā, the emptiness of phenomena.
Theravāda
Theravāda Buddhists generally take the view that emptiness is merely the not-self nature of the five aggregates. Emptiness is an important door to liberation in the Theravāda tradition just as it is in Mahayana, according to Insight meditation teacher Gil Fronsdal. The classic Theravāda text known as the Patisambhidamagga (c. 3rd century BCE) describes the five aggregates as being empty (suññam) of essence or intrinsic nature (sabhava). The Patisambhidamagga also equates not-self with the emptiness liberation in a passage also cited by Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga (Vism XXI 70):"When one who has great wisdom brings [volitional formations] to mind as not-self, he acquires the emptiness liberation" -Patis. II 58.The Visuddhimagga (c. 5th century CE), the most influential classical Theravāda treatise, states that not-self does not become apparent because it is concealed by "compactness" when one does not give attention to the various elements which make up the person. The Paramatthamañjusa Visuddhimaggatika of Acariya Dhammapala, a 5th-century Theravāda commentary on the Visuddhimagga, comments on this passage by referring to the fact that we often assume unity and compactness regarding phenomena or functions which are instead made up of various elements, but when one sees that these are merely empty dhammas, one can understand the not-self characteristic:"when they are seen after resolving them by means of knowledge into these elements, they disintegrate like froth subjected to compression by the hand. They are mere states (dhamma) occurring due to conditions and void. In this way the characteristic of not-self becomes more evident."The modern Thai teacher Buddhadasa referred to emptiness as the "innermost heart" of the Buddhist teachings and the cure for the disease of suffering. He stated that emptiness, as it relates to the practice of Dhamma, can be seen both "as the absence of Dukkha and the defilements that are the cause of Dukkha and as the absence of the feeling that there is a self or that there are things which are the possessions of a self." He also equated nibbana with emptiness, writing that "Nibbana, the remainderless extinction of Dukkha, means the same as supreme emptiness." Emptiness is also seen as a mode of perception which lacks all the usual conceptual elaborations we usually add on top of our experiences, such as the sense of "I" and "Mine". According to Thanissaro Bhikku, emptiness is not so much a metaphysical view, as it is a strategic mode of acting and of seeing the world which leads to liberation:Emptiness is a mode of perception, a way of looking at experience. It adds nothing to and takes nothing away from the raw data of physical and mental events. You look at events in the mind and the senses with no thought of whether there's anything lying behind them.
This mode is called emptiness because it's empty of the presuppositions we usually add to experience to make sense of it: the stories and world-views we fashion to explain who we are and the world we live in. Although these stories and views have their uses, the Buddha found that some of the more abstract questions they raise — of our true identity and the reality of the world outside — pull attention away from a direct experience of how events influence one another in the immediate present. Thus they get in the way when we try to understand and solve the problem of suffering.
Some Theravādins, such as David Kalupahana, see Nagarjuna's view of emptiness as compatible with the Pali Canon. In his analysis of the Mulamadhyamikakarika, Kalupahana sees Nagarjuna's argument as rooted in the Kaccānagotta Sutta (which Nagarjuna cites by name). Kalupahana states that Nagarjuna's major goal was to discredit heterodox views of Svabhava (own-nature) held by the Sarvastivadins and establish the non-substantiality of all dharmas. According to Peter Harvey, the Theravāda view of dhammas and sabhava is not one of essences, but merely descriptive characteristics and hence is not the subject of Madhyamaka critique developed by Nagarjuna (see below).
In Theravāda, emptiness as an approach to meditation is also seen as a state in which one is "empty of disturbance." This form of meditation is one in which meditators become concentrated and focus on the absence or presence of disturbances in their minds; if they find a disturbance they notice it and allow it to drop away; this leads to deeper states of calmness. Emptiness is also seen as a way to look at sense-experience that does not identify with the "I-making" and "my-making" process of the mind. As a form of meditation, this is developed by perceiving the six sense-spheres and their objects as empty of any self, this leads to a formless jhana of nothingness and a state of equanimity.
Mathew Kosuta sees the Abhidhamma teachings of the modern Thai teacher Ajaan Sujin Boriharnwanaket as being very similar to the Mahayana emptiness view.
Mahayana Buddhism
There are two main sources of Indian Buddhist discussions of emptiness: the Mahayana sutra literature, which is traditionally believed to be the word of the Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism, and the shastra literature, which was composed by Buddhist scholars and philosophers.
Prajñāpāramitā sūtras
The Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutras taught that all entities, including dharmas, are empty of self, essential core, or intrinsic nature (svabhava), being only conceptual existents or constructs. The notion of prajña (wisdom, knowledge) presented in these sutras is a deep non-conceptual understanding of emptiness. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also use various metaphors to explain the nature of things as emptiness, stating that things are like "illusions" (māyā) and "dreams" (svapna). The Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita, possibly the earliest of these sutras, states:If he knows the five aggregates as like an illusion, But makes not illusion one thing, and the aggregates another; If, freed from the notion of multiple things, he courses in peace— Then that is his practice of wisdom, the highest perfection.Perceiving dharmas and beings like an illusion (māyādharmatām) is termed the "great armor" (mahāsaṃnaha) of the Bodhisattva, who is also termed the 'illusory man' (māyāpuruṣa). The Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra adds the following similes to describe how all conditioned things are to be contemplated: like a bubble, a shadow, like dew or a flash of lightning. In the worldview of these sutras, though we perceive a world of concrete and discrete objects, these objects are "empty" of the identity imputed by their designated labels. In that sense, they are deceptive and like an illusion. The Perfection of Wisdom texts constantly repeat that nothing can be found to ultimately exist in some fundamental way. This applies even to the highest Buddhist concepts (bodhisattvas, bodhicitta, and even prajña itself). Even nirvana itself is said to be empty and like a dream or magical illusion.
In a famous passage, the Heart sutra, a later but influential Prajñāpāramitā text, directly states that the five skandhas (along with the five senses, the mind, and the four noble truths) are said to be "empty" (sunya):In the Prajñāpāramitā sutras the knowledge of emptiness, i.e. prajñāpāramitā is said to be the fundamental virtue of the bodhisattva, who is said to stand on emptiness by not standing (-stha) on any other dharma (phenomena). Bodhisattvas who practice this perfection of wisdom are said to have several qualities such as the "not taking up" (aparigṛhīta) and non-apprehension (anupalabdhi) of anything, non-attainment (aprapti), not-settling down (anabhinivesa) and not relying on any signs (nimitta, mental impressions). Bodhisattvas are also said to be free of fear in the face of the ontological groundlessness of the emptiness doctrine which can easily shock others.
Mādhyamaka school
Mādhyamaka is a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of philosophy which focuses on the analysis of emptiness, and was thus also known as śūnyatavāda. The school is traditionally seen as being founded by the Indian Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna.
Nāgārjuna's goal was to refute the essentialism of certain Abhidharma schools and the Hindu Nyaya school. His best-known work is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (MMK), in which he used reductio arguments (Skt: prasanga) to show the non-substantiality of everything. Nāgārjuna equated the emptiness of dharmas with their dependent origination, and thus with their being devoid any permanent substance or primary, substantial existence (svabhava). Nāgārjuna writes in the MMK:We state that conditioned origination is emptiness. It is mere designation depending on something, and it is the middle path. (24.18) Since nothing has arisen without depending on something, there is nothing that is not empty. (24.19) Nāgārjuna's Mādhyamaka states that since things have the nature of lacking true existence or own being (niḥsvabhāva), all things are mere conceptual constructs (prajñaptimatra) because they are just impermanent collections of causes and conditions. Because of this, Mādhyamaka is also known as Niḥsvabhāvavāda. This also applies to the principle of causality itself, since everything is dependently originated. If one is unaware of this, things may seem to arise as existents, remain for a time and then subsequently perish. In reality, dependently originated phenomena do not arise or remain as inherently existent phenomena and yet they still appear as a flow of conceptual constructs. Thus both existence and nihilism are ruled out. Any enduring essential nature would prevent the process of dependent origination, or any kind of origination at all. For things would simply always have been, and will always continue to be, without any change. For Nāgārjuna, the realization of emptiness is a key understanding which allows one to reach liberation because it is nothing but the elimination of ignorance.
There has been significant debate, both in ancient India and in modern scholarship, as to how to interpret Mādhyamaka and whether it is nihilistic (a claim that Mādhyamaka thinkers vehemently denied). Some scholars like F. Shcherbatskoy have also interpreted emptiness as described by Nāgārjuna as a Buddhist transcendental absolute, while other scholars such as David Kalupahana consider this interpretation to be a mistake. According to Paul Williams, Nāgārjuna associates emptiness with the ultimate truth but his conception of emptiness is not some kind of Absolute, but rather it is the very absence of true existence with regards to the conventional reality of things and events in the world.
For Nāgārjuna the phenomenal world is the limited truth (samvrtisatya) and does not really exist in the highest reality (paramarthasatya) and yet it has a kind of conventional reality which has its uses for reaching liberation. This limited truth includes everything, including the Buddha himself, the teachings (Dharma), liberation and even Nāgārjuna's own arguments. This two-truth schema which did not deny the importance of convention allowed him to defend himself against charges of nihilism. Because of his philosophical work, Nāgārjuna is seen by some modern interpreters as restoring the Middle way of the Buddha, which had become influenced by absolutist metaphysical tendencies of schools like the Vaibhasika.
Nāgārjuna is also famous for arguing that his philosophy of emptiness was not a view, and that he in fact did not take any position or thesis whatsoever since this would just be another form of clinging. In his Vigrahavyavartani Nāgārjuna outright states that he has no thesis (pratijña) to prove. This idea would become a central point of debate for later Mādhyamaka philosophers. After Nāgārjuna, his pupil Āryadeva (3rd century CE) commented on and expanded Nāgārjuna's system. An influential commentator on Nāgārjuna was Buddhapālita (470–550) who has been interpreted as developing the 'prāsaṅgika' approach to Nāgārjuna's works, which argues that Madhyamaka critiques of essentialism are done only through reductio ad absurdum arguments. Like Nāgārjuna, instead of putting forth any positive position of his own, Buddhapālita merely seeks to show how all philosophical positions are untenable and self contradictory without putting forth a positive thesis.
Buddhapālita is often contrasted with the works of Bhāvaviveka (c. 500 – c. 578), who argued for the use of logical arguments using the pramana-based epistemology of Indian logicians like Dignāga. Bhāvaviveka argued that Madhyamika's could put forth positive arguments of one's own, instead of just criticizing others' arguments, a tactic called vitaṇḍā (attacking) which was seen in bad form in Indian philosophical circles. He argued that the position of a Mādhyamaka was simply that phenomena are devoid of inherent nature. This approach has been labeled the svātantrika style of Madhyamaka by Tibetan philosophers and commentators. Another influential commentator, Candrakīrti (c. 600–650), critiqued Bhāvaviveka's adoption of the pramana tradition on the grounds that it contained a subtle essentialism and argued that Mādhyamikas must make no positive assertions and need not construct formal arguments.
Yogācāra school
The central text of the Yogācāra school, the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, explains emptiness in terms of the three natures theory, stating that its purpose is to "establish the doctrine of the three-own-beings (trisvabhāva) in terms of their lack of own-nature (niḥsvabhāvatā)." According to Andrew Skilton, in Yogācāra, emptiness is the "absence of duality between perceiving subject (lit. "grasper", Skt: grāhaka, Tib: 'dzin-pa) and the perceived object ("grasped", Skt: grāhya, Tib: bzhung-ba)." This is seen in the following quote from the Madhyāntavibhāga: There exists the imagination of the unreal, there is no duality, but there is emptiness, even in this there is that.In his commentary, the Indian Yogācāra philosopher Vasubandhu explains that imagination of the unreal (abhūta-parikalpa) is the "discrimination between the duality of grasped and grasper." Emptiness is said to be "the imagination of the unreal that is lacking in the form of being graspable or grasper." Thus in Yogacara, it can be said that emptiness is mainly that subject and object and all experiences which are seen in the subject–object modality are empty.
According to Yogācāra thought, everything we conceive of is the result of the working of the Eight Consciousnesses. The "things" we are conscious of are "mere concepts" (vijñapti), not 'the thing in itself'. In this sense, our experiences are empty and false, they do not reveal the true nature of things as an enlightened person would see them, which would be non-dual, without the imputed subject object distinction.
The Yogācāra school philosophers Asaṅga and Vasubandhu criticized those in the Madhymamika school who "adhere to non-existence" (nāstikas, vaināśkas) and sought to move away from their negative interpretation of emptiness because they feared any philosophy of 'universal denial' (sarva-vaināśika) would stray into 'nihilism' (ucchedavāda), an extreme which was not the middle way. Yogacarins differed from Madhyamikas in positing that there really was something which could be said to 'exist' in experience, namely some kind of nonobjective and empty perception. This Yogacara conception of emptiness, which states that there is something that exists (mainly, vijñapti, mental construction), and that it is empty, can be seen in the following statement of Vasubandhu:Thus, when something is absent [in a receptacle], then one, seeing that [receptacle] as devoid of that thing, perceives that [receptacle] as it is, and recognises that [receptacle], which is left over, as it is, namely as something truly existing there.This tendency can also be seen in Asaṅga, who argues in his Bodhisattvabhūmi that there must be something that exists which is described as empty:Emptiness is logical when one thing is devoid of another because of that [other's] absence and because of the presence of the empty thing itself.Asaṅga also states:The nonexistence of duality is indeed the existence of nonexistence; this is the definition of emptiness. It is neither existence, nor nonexistence, neither different nor identical.This "existence of nonexistence" definition of emptiness can also be seen in Asaṅga's Abhidharmasamuccaya where he states that emptiness is "the non-existence of the self, and the existence of the no-self."
In the sixth century, scholarly debates between Yogacarins and Madhyamikas centered on the status and reality of the paratantra-svabhāva (the "dependent nature"), with Madhyamika's like Bhāvaviveka criticizing the views of Yogacarins like Dharmapāla of Nalanda as reifying dependent origination.
Buddha-nature
An influential division of 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts develop the notion of Tathāgatagarbha or Buddha-nature. The Tathāgatagarbha doctrine, at its earliest, probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE.
The Tathāgatagarbha is the topic of the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, where the title itself means a garbha (womb, matrix, seed) containing Tathāgata (Buddha). In the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self. The ultimate goal of the path is characterized using a range of positive language that had been used in Indian philosophy previously by essentialist philosophers, but which was now transmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary to describe a being who has successfully completed the Buddhist path.
These Sutras suggest, states Paul Williams, that 'all sentient beings contain a Tathāgata as their 'essence, core or essential inner nature'. They also present a further developed understanding of emptiness, wherein the Buddha-nature, the Buddha and Liberation are seen as transcending the realm of emptiness, i.e. of the conditioned and dependently originated phenomena.
One of these texts, the Angulimaliya Sutra, contrasts between empty phenomena such as the moral and emotional afflictions (kleshas), which are like ephemeral hailstones, and the enduring, eternal Buddha, which is like a precious gem:
The Śrīmālā Sūtra is one of the earliest texts on Tathāgatagarbha thought, composed in the 3rd century in south India, according to Brian Brown. It asserted that everyone can potentially attain Buddhahood, and warns against the doctrine of Śūnyatā. The Śrīmālā Sūtra posits that the Buddha-nature is ultimately identifiable as the supramundane nature of the Buddha, the garbha is the ground for Buddha-nature, this nature is unborn and undying, has ultimate existence, has no beginning nor end, is nondual, and permanent. The text also adds that the garbha has "no self, soul or personality" and "incomprehensible to anyone distracted by sunyata (voidness)"; rather it is the support for phenomenal existence.
The notion of Buddha-nature and its interpretation was and continues to be widely debated in all schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Some traditions interpret the doctrine to be equivalent to emptiness (like the Tibetan Gelug school); the positive language of the texts Tathāgatagarbha sutras are then interpreted as being of provisional meaning, and not ultimately true. Other schools, however (mainly the Jonang school), see Tathāgatagarbha as being an ultimate teaching and see it as an eternal, true self, while Śūnyatā is seen as a provisional, lower teaching.
Likewise, western scholars have been divided in their interpretation of the Tathāgatagarbha, since the doctrine of an 'essential nature' in every living being appears to be confusing, since it seems to be equivalent to a 'Self', which seems to contradict the doctrines in a vast majority of Buddhist texts. Some scholars, however, view such teachings as metaphorical, not to be taken literally.
According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature which these sutras discuss does not represent a substantial self (ātman). Rather, it is a positive expression of emptiness, and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this view, the intention of the teaching of Buddha-nature is soteriological rather than theoretical. According to others, the potential of salvation depends on the ontological reality of a salvific, abiding core reality – the Buddha-nature, empty of all mutability and error, fully present within all beings. Japanese scholars of the "Critical Buddhism" movement meanwhile see Buddha-nature as an essentialist and thus an un-Buddhist idea.
Tibetan Buddhism
In Tibetan Buddhism, emptiness (Wylie: stong-pa nyid) is mainly interpreted through the lens of Mādhyamaka philosophy, though the Yogacara- and Tathāgatagarbha-influenced interpretations are also influential. The interpretations of the Indian Mādhyamaka philosopher Candrakīrti are the dominant views on emptiness in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.
In Tibet, a distinction also began to be made between the autonomist (svātantrika, rang rgyud pa) and consequentialist (prāsaṅgika, thal 'gyur pa) approaches to Mādhyamaka reasoning about emptiness. The distinction was invented by Tibetan scholarship, and not one made by classical Indian Madhyamikas.
Further Tibetan philosophical developments began in response to the works of the influential scholar Dolpopa (1292–1361) and led to two distinctly opposed Tibetan Mādhyamaka views on the nature of emptiness and ultimate reality.
One of these is the view termed shentong (Wylie: gzhan stong, 'other empty'), which is a further development of Indian Yogacara-Madhyamaka and the Buddha-nature teachings by Dolpopa, and is primarily promoted in the Jonang school but also by some Kagyu figures like Jamgon Kongtrul. This view states that ultimate reality is empty of the conventional, but it is itself not empty of being ultimate Buddhahood and the luminous nature of mind. Dolpopa considered his view a form of Mādhyamaka, and called his system "Great Mādhyamaka". In Jonang, this ultimate reality is a "ground or substratum" which is "uncreated and indestructible, noncomposite and beyond the chain of dependent origination."
Dolpopa was roundly critiqued for his claims about emptiness and his view that they were a kind of Mādhyamaka. His critics include Tibetan philosophers such as the founder of the Gelug school Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) and Mikyö Dorje, the 8th Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu (1507–1554).
Rangtong (Wylie: rang stong; 'self-empty') refers to views which oppose shentong and state that ultimate reality is that which is empty of self-nature in a relative and absolute sense; that is to say ultimate reality is empty of everything, including itself. It is thus not a transcendental ground or metaphysical absolute, but just the absence of true existence (svabhava). This view has sometimes been applied to the Gelug school because they tend to hold that emptiness is "an absolute negation" (med dgag).
However, many Tibetan philosophers reject these terms as descriptions of their views on emptiness. The Sakya thinker Gorampa Sonam Senge (1429-1489), for example, called his version of Mādhyamaka, "freedom from extremes" or "freedom from proliferations" (spros bral) and claimed that the ultimate truth was ineffable, beyond predication or concept. For Gorampa, emptiness is not just the absence of inherent existence, but it is the absence of the four extremes in all phenomena i.e. existence, nonexistence, both and neither (see: catuskoti).
The 14th Dalai Lama, who generally speaks from the Gelug perspective, states:
Chinese Buddhism
Sānlùn school
When Buddhism was introduced in China it was initially understood in terms of indigenous Chinese philosophical culture. Because of this, emptiness (Ch., kong, 空;) was at first understood as pointing to a kind of transcendental reality similar to the Tao. It took several centuries to realize that śūnyatā does not refer to an essential transcendental reality underneath or behind the world of appearances.
Chinese Mādhyamaka (known as Sānlùn, or the "three treatise school") began with the work of Kumārajīva (344–413 CE) who translated the works of Nāgārjuna into Chinese. Sānlùn figures like Kumārajīva's pupil Sengzhao (384–414), and the later Jizang (549–623) were influential in introducing a more orthodox and non-essentialist interpretation of emptiness to Chinese Buddhism. Sengzhao argues, for example, that the nature of phenomena could not be said to be either existent or non-existent and that it was necessary to go beyond conceptual proliferation to realize emptiness. Jizang (549–623) was another central figure in Chinese Madhyamaka who wrote numerous commentaries on Nāgārjuna and Aryadeva and is considered to be the leading representative of the school. Jizang called his method "deconstructing what is misleading and revealing what is corrective". He insisted that one must never settle on any particular viewpoint or perspective but constantly reexamine one's formulations to avoid reifications of thought and behavior.
In the modern era, one major Chinese figure who has written on Mādhyamaka is the scholar monk Yin Shun (1906–2005).
Tiantai and Huayan
Later Chinese philosophers developed their own unique interpretations of emptiness. One of these was Zhiyi, the intellectual founder of the Tiantai school, who was strongly influenced by the Lotus sutra. The Tiantai view of emptiness and dependent origination is inseparable from their view of the "interfusion of phenomena" and the idea that the ultimate reality is an absolute totality of all particular things which are "Neither-Same-Nor-Different" from each other.
In Tiantai metaphysics, every event, function, or characteristic is the product of the interfusion of all others, the whole is in the particular and every particular event/function is also in every other particular. This also leads to the conclusion that all phenomena are "findable" in each and every other phenomena, even seemingly conflicting phenomena such as good and evil or delusion and enlightenment are interfused with each other.
The Huayan school understood emptiness and ultimate reality through the similar idea of interpenetration or "coalescence" (Wylie: zung-'jug; Sanskrit: yuganaddha), using the concept of Indra's net to illustrate this.
Chán
Chan Buddhism was influenced by all the previous Chinese Buddhist currents. The Mādhyamaka of Sengzhao, for example, influenced the views of the Chan patriarch Shen Hui (670-762), a critical figure in the development of Chan, as can be seen by his "Illuminating the Essential Doctrine" (Hsie Tsung Chi). This text emphasizes that true emptiness or Suchness cannot be known through thought since it is free from thought (wu-nien). Shen Hui also states that true emptiness is not nothing, but it is a "Subtle Existence" (miao-yu), which is just "Great Prajña."
The Chinese Chan presentation of emptiness, influenced by Yogacara and the Tathāgatagarbha sutras, also used more positive language and poetic metaphors to describe the nature of emptiness. For example, Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157), a key figure in the Caodong lineage, wrote:"The field of boundless emptiness is what exists from the very beginning. You must purify, cure, grind down, or brush away all the tendencies you have fabricated into apparent habits. [Those tendencies are the clouds in our eyes.] Then you can reside in a clear circle of brightness. Utter emptiness has no image. Upright independence does not rely on anything. Just expand and illuminate the original truth unconcerned by external conditions. Accordingly, we are told to realize that not a single thing exists. In this field birth and death do not appear. The deep source, transparent down to the bottom, can radiantly shine and can respond unencumbered to each speck of dust [each object] without becoming its partner. The subtlety of seeing and hearing transcends mere colors and sounds. The whole affair functions without leaving traces and mirrors without obscurations. Very naturally, mind and Dharmas emerge and harmonize."
Western Buddhism
Various western Buddhists note that Śūnyatā refers to the emptiness of inherent existence, as in Madhyamaka; but also to the emptiness of mind or awareness, as open space and the "ground of being," as in meditation-orientated traditions and approaches such as Dzogchen and Shentong.{{refn|group=note|Quotes:* John Snelling: "At the core of Mahayana philosophy lies the notion of Emptiness: Shunyata. This is very much in the spirit of anatta (Skt. anatman) as first taught by the Buddha. It is often used to imply, not mere or sheer nothingness (that would be the nihilistic view), but 'emptiness of inherent existence'''; that is, the absence of any kind of enduring or self-sustaining essence. There is also a sense in which it has connotations of 'conceptual emptiness': absence of thoughts. It could be regarded too as a non-term signifying the ineffable understanding arising within the practice of meditation. Although seemingly negative, it also has its positive uses - and of course ultimately points beyond the positive negative dichotomy."* Hans Knibbe: "There are at least to important meanings of this concept of emptiness, namely: - empty of independent existence; - openness and space as grounf of being.* Nigel Wellings: "Thus we have two types of emptiness, the emptiness of self in the skandhas that reveals the absence of an empirical and metaphysical self. And the emptiness of the self in Nirvâ.na that reveals nothing of the empirical self existing within the Nirvâ.na consciousness.Harvey seems to confirm this view when he tells us that all conditioned dharmas are empty of self because they are impermanent and a source of suffering, while the unconditioned dharma, Nirvâ.na, is empty because it does not "support the feeling of 'I-ness'", that is, the impermanent skandhas. (1990:52). This is very similar to the teaching of the modern Kagyu Nyingma Lama, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, a Shentong exponent:
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Hinduism
Influence on Advaita Vedanta
Gaudapada has developed his concept of "ajāta", which uses the term "anutpāda":
"An" means "not", or "non"
"Utpāda" means "genesis", "coming forth", "birth"
Taken together "anutpāda" means "having no origin", "not coming into existence", "not taking effect", "non-production".
According to Gaudapada, the Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death. The Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal. The empirical world of appearances is considered Maya (unreal as it is transitory), and not absolutely existent. Thus, Gaudapada's concept of ajativada is similar to Buddhist term "anutpāda" for the absence of an origin or śūnyatā.
But Gaudapada's perspective is quite different from Nagarjuna. Gaudapada's perspective found in Mandukya Karika is based on the Mandukya Upanishad. According to Gaudapada, the metaphysical absolute called Brahman never changes, while the phenomenal world changes continuously, so the phenomenal world cannot arise independently from Brahman. If the world cannot arise, yet is an empirical fact, then the perceived world has to be a transitory (unreal) appearance of Brahman. And if the phenomenal world is a transitory appearance, then there is no real origination or destruction, only apparent origination or destruction. From the level of ultimate truth (paramārthatā) the phenomenal world is māyā, "illusion", apparently existing but ultimately not metaphysically real.
In Gaudapada-Karika, chapter III, verses 46–48, he states that Brahman never arises, is never born, is never unborn, it rests in itself:
In contrast to Renard's view, Karmarkar states the Ajativada of Gaudapada has nothing in common with the Śūnyatā concept in Buddhism. While the language of Gaudapada is undeniably similar to those found in Mahayana Buddhism, states Comans, their perspective is different because unlike Buddhism, Gaudapada is relying on the premise of "Brahman, Atman or Turiya" exist and are the nature of absolute reality.
In ShaivismSunya and sunyatisunya are concepts which appear in some Shaiva texts, such as the Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra, which contains several verses mentioning voidness as a feature of ultimate reality - Shiva:
"The Absolute void is Bhairava who is beyond the senses and the mind, beyond all the categories of these instruments. From the point of view of the human mind, He is most void. from the point of view of Reality, He is most full, for He is the source of all manifestation."
"The yogi should concentrate intensely on the idea (and also feel) that this universe is totally void. In that void, his mind would become absorbed. Then he becomes highly qualified for absorption i.e. his mind is absorbed in the absolute void (sunyatisunya)."
In a series of Kannada language texts of Lingayatism, a Shaivism tradition, shunya is equated to the concept of the supreme. In particular, the Shunya Sampadane texts present the ideas of Allama Prabhu in a form of dialogue, where shunya is that void and distinctions which a spiritual journey seeks to fill and eliminate. It is the described as a state of union of one's soul with the infinite Shiva, the state of blissful moksha.
In VaishnavismShunya Brahma is a concept found in certain texts of Vaishnavism, particularly in Odiya, such as the poetic Panchasakhas. It explains the Nirguna Brahman idea of Vedanta, that is the eternal unchanging metaphysical reality as "personified void". Alternative names for this concept of Hinduism, include shunya purusha and Jagannatha (Vishnu) in certain text. However, both in Lingayatism and various flavors of Vaishnavism such as Mahima Dharma, the idea of Shunya is closer to the Hindu concept of metaphysical Brahman, rather than to the Śūnyatā concept of Buddhism. However, there is some overlap, such as in the works of Bhima Bhoi.
In the Vaishnavism of Orissa, the idea of shunya brahman or shunya purusha is found in the poetry of the Orissan Panchasakhas (Five Friends), such as in the compositions of 16th-century Acyutananda. Acyutananda's Shunya Samhita extols the nature of shunya brahman:
nāhi tāhāra rūpa varṇa, adṛsha avarṇa tā cinha.
tāhāku brahmā boli kahi, śūnya brahmhati se bolāi.
It has no shape, no colour,
It is invisible and without a name
This Brahman is called Shunya Brahman.
The Panchasakhas practiced a form of Bhakti called Jnana-mishrita Bhakti-marga, which saw the necessity of knowledge (Jnana) and devotion - Bhakti.
Alternative translations
Interdependence (Ringu Tulku)
Thusness
See also
Acosmism
Apophatic theology
Buddha Nature
Buddhist philosophy
Chaos (cosmogony)
Depersonalization
Derealization
Determinism
Existentialism
Kenosis
Maya (illusion)
Nihilism
Performative contradiction
Structuralism (philosophy of science)
Notes
References
Sources
Primary
.
.
.
.
Secondary
.
Ven. Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso, Rimpoche. Progressive Stages Of Meditation On Emptiness'',
External links
Zach Dorfman, Toward a Buddhist Politics of Freedom (The Montreal Review, September 2011)
Buddhism: The Way of Emptiness (dedicated website)
Buddhist philosophical concepts
Hindu philosophical concepts
Madhyamaka
Nondualism
Rangtong
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201422
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Una%20Stubbs
|
Una Stubbs
|
Una Stubbs (1 May 1937 – 12 August 2021) was an English actress, television personality and dancer who appeared on British television and in the theatre, and occasionally in films. She became known after appearing in the film Summer Holiday (1963) and later played Rita Rawlins in the BBC sitcoms Till Death Us Do Part (1965–1975) and In Sickness and in Health (1985–1992). Her other television roles include Aunt Sally in Worzel Gummidge (1979–1981) and Miss Bat in The Worst Witch (1998–2001). She also appeared as Sherlock Holmes's landlady Mrs. Hudson in the BAFTA-winning television series Sherlock (2010–2017).
Career
As a 16-year-old, in 1953, she danced in a Folies Bergère-style musical revue, "Pardon My French", at the Prince of Wales Theatre, alongside Frankie Howerd and the pianist Winifred Atwell. She first appeared on television as one of the Dougie Squires Dancers on the British television music show Cool for Cats in 1956. She also appeared as a dancer at the London Palladium. and worked in cabaret, clubs and revues in London, and was one of Lionel Blair's dance ensemble.
During 1958–59, Stubbs was the "cover girl" of Dairy Box chocolates, produced by Rowntree's. She referred to herself as the "Rowntrees Chocolate Girl", when describing a visit she made to the Rowntree's factory in York (where, unknown to her, her grandfather had worked).
In 1963, she joined the cast of new charades-based gameshow Don't Say a Word (ITV), a forerunner of Give Us a Clue. Her first screen role was in the Cliff Richard film, Summer Holiday (1963). She also appeared in Richard's next film, Wonderful Life (1964). Soon afterwards, she made her breakthrough in television comedy, playing Rita, the married daughter of Alf Garnett in the BBC sitcom Till Death Us Do Part (1966–1975). In 1968, as a direct spin off from the sitcom, she appeared, alongside Warren Mitchell, in a series of television adverts for Findus frozen products.
She also appeared in the short-lived sitcom Till Death... (1981), again playing Rita. She played Rita a third time in a few episodes of the BBC sitcom In Sickness and in Health (1985–1992). During 1970–71, Stubbs teamed again with Cliff Richard to appear each week on his BBC1 TV Series, It's Cliff Richard!. When she did not take part in the next series as it was broadcast shortly after she had a baby, her TV "mother", Dandy Nichols from Till Death Us Do Part, took her place.
Stubbs featured in the Fawlty Towers episode "The Anniversary" in 1979. From 1979 to 1981, she played Aunt Sally in the ITV children's series Worzel Gummidge opposite Jon Pertwee and Barbara Windsor, and was for several years a team captain in the weekly game show Give Us a Clue in the 1980s, reuniting her with Lionel Blair, the other team captain.
She appeared in the shows Midsomer Murders, Heartbeat, Casualty, Keeping Up Appearances, Born and Bred and The Worst Witch. In recent years, Stubbs also appeared in Victoria Wood's We'd Quite Like to Apologise, The Catherine Tate Show, Agatha Christie's Marple, EastEnders, Benidorm since 2010, and Sherlock as Mrs. Hudson. She appeared in an episode of Call the Midwife in 2015.
Stubbs was on the West End stage in Noël Coward's Star Quality with Penelope Keith in 2001 and Friedrich Schiller's Don Carlos with Derek Jacobi in 2005. More recently she appeared in La Cage Aux Folles at the Menier Chocolate Factory, Pygmalion at the Theatre Royal, Bath and Old Vic and The Family Reunion at the Donmar Warehouse. She was in the original cast of The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time at the National Theatre in 2012.
In 2015 she co-presented The Big Painting Challenge on BBC One alongside Richard Bacon.
Personal life
Stubbs was born in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, the daughter of Angela K. Rawlinson and Clarence Reginald Stubbs. She grew up in Hinckley, Leicestershire, and was sent to La Roche dancing school in Slough by her mother. She was married to the actor Peter Gilmore from 1958 to 1969: they adopted a son, Jason. After their divorce in 1969, she married actor Nicky Henson. They divorced in 1975 but remained good friends. She and Henson had two children: composer Christian Henson (born 25 December 1971), and musician-composer Joe Henson (born 18 September 1973).
For many years, Stubbs sketched vignettes of characters around London, and held exhibitions of these near her Mayfair home. On several occasions, paintings by Stubbs were exhibited at the Royal Academy's Summer Exhibition, most recently in 2020.
Stubbs had known her Sherlock co-star Benedict Cumberbatch since he was four years old, as she had worked with his mother, Wanda Ventham. Stubbs was the subject of an episode of the BBC series Who Do You Think You Are?, broadcast on 24 July 2013. It discussed several of her ancestors, including her great-grandfather Sir Ebenezer Howard, who was the founder of the garden city movement, and was the driving force in the design and creation of the first garden cities, Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City, situated in Hertfordshire.
After several months of ill health, Stubbs died at her home in Edinburgh on 12 August 2021, at the age of 84. Tributes were paid by her fellow performers Sir Cliff Richard, Benedict Cumberbatch, Melvyn Hayes and Johnny Vegas.
Filmography
Film
Television
Audio dramas
Theatre
References
External links
1937 births
2021 deaths
People from Welwyn Garden City
English film actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
Actresses from Hertfordshire
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
English dancers
|
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] |
201436
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20lie
|
Big lie
|
The big lie () is a gross distortion or misrepresentation of the truth, used especially as a propaganda technique. The German expression was coined by Adolf Hitler, when he dictated his 1925 book Mein Kampf, to describe the use of a lie so colossal that no one would believe that someone "could have the impudence to distort the truth so infamously." Hitler claimed that the technique had been used by Jews to blame Germany's loss in on German general Erich Ludendorff, who was a prominent nationalist political leader in the Weimar Republic.
According to historian Jeffrey Herf, the Nazis used the idea of the original big lie to turn sentiment against Jews and justify the Holocaust. Herf maintains that Joseph Goebbels and the Nazi Party actually used the big lie technique that they describedand that they used it to turn long-standing antisemitism in Europe into mass murder. Herf further argues that the Nazis' big lie was their depiction of Germany as an innocent, besieged land striking back at "international Jewry", which the Nazis blamed for starting . Nazi propaganda repeatedly claimed that Jews held power behind the scenes in Britain, Russia, and the United States. It further spread claims that the Jews had begun a war of extermination against Germany, and used these to assert that Germany had a right to annihilate the Jews in self-defense.
In the 21st century, the term has been applied to attempts to overturn the result of the 2020 U.S. presidential election by Donald Trump and his allies, specifically the false claim that the election was stolen through massive voter and electoral fraud. The scale of the claims resulted in Trump supporters attacking the U.S. Capitol.
Scholars say that constant repetition in many different media is necessary for the success of the big lie technique, as is a psychological motivation for the audience to believe the extreme assertions.
Use on behalf of Nazi Germany
Hitler's description
The source of the big lie technique is this passage, taken from Chapter 10 of James Murphy's translation of Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf. (The quote is one paragraph in Murphy's translation and in the German original.)
In 1943, The New York Times contributor Edwin James asserted that Hitler's biggest lie was his revisionist claim that Germany was not defeated in war in 1918, but rather was betrayed by internal groups. This stab-in-the-back myth was spread by right-wing groups, including the Nazis.
In enacting the Holocaust
According to historian Jeffrey Herf, the Nazis used the idea of the original big lie to turn sentiment against Jews and justify the Holocaust. Herf maintains that Joseph Goebbels and the Nazi Party actually used the big lie technique that they describedand that they used it to turn long-standing antisemitism in Europe into mass murder. Herf further argues that the Nazis' big lie was their depiction of Germany as an innocent, besieged land striking back at international Jewry, which the Nazis blamed for starting . Nazi propaganda repeatedly claimed that Jews held power behind the scenes in Britain, Russia, and the United States. It further spread claims that the Jews had begun a war of extermination against Germany, and used these to assert that Germany had a right to annihilate the Jews in self-defense.
The Cold War historian Zachary Jonathan Jacobson describes its use:
Goebbels's description
Joseph Goebbels also put forth a theory which has come to be commonly associated with the expression "big lie". Goebbels wrote the following paragraph in an article dated 12 January 1941, sixteen years after Hitler first used the phrase. The article, titled "Aus Churchills Lügenfabrik" (English: "From Churchill's Lie Factory") was published in Die Zeit ohne Beispiel.
Alleged quotation
The following supposed quotation of Joseph Goebbels has been repeated in numerous books and articles and on thousands of web pages, yet none of them has cited a primary source. According to the research and reasoning of Randall Bytwerk, it is an unlikely thing for Goebbels to have said.
U.S. psychological profile of Hitler
The phrase "big lie" was used in a report prepared around 1943 by Walter C. Langer for the United States Office of Strategic Services in describing Hitler's psychological profile. The report was later published in book form as The Mind of Adolf Hitler in 1972. Langer stated of the dictator:
His primary rules were: never allow the public to cool off; never admit a fault or wrong; never concede that there may be some good in your enemy; never leave room for alternatives; never accept blame; concentrate on one enemy at a time and blame him for everything that goes wrong; people will believe a big lie sooner than a little one; and if you repeat it frequently enough people will sooner or later believe it.
A somewhat similar quote appears in the 1943 Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler: With Predictions of His Future Behaviour and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and After Germany's Surrender, by Henry A. Murray:
... never to admit a fault or wrong; never to accept blame; concentrate on one enemy at a time; blame that enemy for everything that goes wrong; take advantage of every opportunity to raise a political whirlwind.
Use in the United States
Cold War Era
Some U.S. Government officials believed the technique continued to be employed by antisemitic conspiracy theorists in the decades after World War II. In their 1964 report on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, the members of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee stated their belief that "peddlers" of the debunked pamphlet made use of "the Hitler technique of the 'big lie'" not only as a means of promoting Antisemitic canards, but also to exploit American fears of Communist influence.
Trump's false claim of a stolen election
During his political career, Donald Trump has employed what has been characterized as the propaganda technique of a firehose of falsehood. To support his attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election, he and his allies repeatedly and falsely claimed that there had been massive election fraud and that Trump was the true winner of the election. U.S. Senators Josh Hawley and Ted Cruz subsequently contested the election results in the Senate. Their effort was characterized as "the big lie" by then President-elect Joe Biden: "I think the American public has a real good, clear look at who they are. They're part of the big lie, the big lie." Republican senators Mitt Romney and Pat Toomey, scholars of fascism Timothy Snyder and Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Russian affairs expert Fiona Hill, and others also used the term "big lie" to refer to Trump's false claims about massive election fraud. By May 2021, many Republicans had come to embrace the false narrative and use it as justification to impose new voting restrictions and attempt to take control of the administrative management of elections. Republicans who opposed the narrative faced backlash.
Dominion Voting Systems, which provided voting machines to many jurisdictions in the 2020 election, is seeking in damages from Trump's lawyer Rudy Giuliani. In the lawsuit, Dominion alleges that "he and his allies manufactured and disseminated the 'Big Lie', which foreseeably went viral and deceived millions of people into believing that Dominion had stolen their votes and fixed the election."
In early 2021, The New York Times examined Trump's promotion of "the big lie" for political purposes to subvert the 2020 election, and concluded that the lie encouraged the 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol.
The attack was cited in a resolution to impeach Trump for a second time.
During Trump's second impeachment trial, the house managers Jamie Raskin, Joe Neguse, Joaquin Castro, Stacey Plaskett and Madeleine Dean all used the phrase "the big lie" repeatedly to refer to the notion that the election was stolen, with a total of 16 mentions in the initial presentation alone. The phrase, leading up to and including the election period, formed the first section of the "provocation" part of the argument.
On October 7, the Senate Judiciary Committee released new testimony and a staff report, according to which:
we were only a half-step away from a full blown constitutional crisis as President Donald Trump and his loyalists threatened a wholesale takeover of the Department of Justice (DOJ). They also reveal how former Acting Civil Division Assistant Attorney General Jeffrey Clark became Trump's Big Lie Lawyer, pressuring his colleagues in DOJ to force an overturn of the 2020 election.
Other uses by American conservatives
By early 2021, Trump and several prominent Republicans tried to appropriate the term "the big lie", claiming that it refers to other electoral issues. Trump stated that the term refers to the "Fraudulent Presidential Election of 2020". An opinion piece in the typically conservative Wall Street Journal, as well as Republican politicians Mitch McConnell and Newt Gingrich, referred to "the big lie" as Democratic opposition to what were new and more restrictive voter identification requirements. McConnell's office referred to a Democratic attempt to abolish the filibuster to enact voting rights legislation as "the left's Big Lie [that] there is some evil anti-voting conspiracy sweeping America". Timothy Snyder observes:
The lie is so big that it reorders the world. And so part of telling the big lie is that you immediately say it's the other side that tells the big lie. Sadly, but it's just a matter of record, all of that is in Mein Kampf.
By January 2022, Republicans were taking actions to impose new voting restrictions and to take complete control of voting and the administrative management of elections, all while a large majority of Republicans continued to believe that the 2020 election had been stolen from them and asserted that democracy was at risk of failing. Extensive press coverage indicated the Republican efforts themselves appeared to present a threat to democracy.
Use by China
The Chinese government has called the Uyghur genocide a "big lie" perpetrated by hostile forces.
Analysis
Psychologists, psychiatrists and others have explained why the big lie technique works. Dr. Ramani Durvasula, a licensed clinical psychologist and professor of psychology who is an expert on narcissistic personality disorder and narcissistic abuse says that:
Repetition is important, because the Big Lie works through indoctrination. The Big Lie then becomes its own evidence base — if it is repeated enough, people believe it, and the very repetition almost tautologically becomes the support for the Lie. ... Hear something enough it becomes truth. People assume there is an evidence base when the lie is big (it's like a blind spot). ... [People also fail to realize] that there are people in our midst that lack empathy, have no care for the common good, are grandiose, arrogant, and willing to exploit and manipulate people for solely their own egocentric needs. ... [Instead] a sort of halo effect imbues leaders with presumed expertise and power — when that is not at all the case (most if not all megalomaniacal leaders, despots, tyrants, oligarchs share narcissism/psychopathy as a trait).
The importance of repetition in the acceptance of the big lie is stressed by Miriam Bowers-Abbott, an associate professor of logic at Mount Carmel College of Nursing, who states: "What's especially helpful is repetition in a variety of contexts. That is, not just the same words over and over — but integration of an idea in lots of ways. It builds its own little web of support." Such repetition can occur in the physical environment, according to Dr. Matt Blanchard, a clinical psychologist at New York University, who states: "Nothing sells the Big Lie like novelty t-shirts, hats and banners. These items are normally associated with sports teams, not life-and-death political issues. But Trump and his circle have deftly used these items to generate the kind of unbridled loyalty Americans associate with pro football. ... The banners and hats crucially add an air of silliness to everything. If I can buy a novelty hat about it, can it really be so serious? ... It's a genius mindf**k."
Blanchard also notes that people assess information that has a direct impact on their lives differently than more abstract information with less proximity to them. He states that "the act of 'believing' is not just one thing that humans do. Instead, this one word represents a wide range of relationships that humans have with information. We don't truly 'believe' things, so much as provisionally accept information we find useful." Because of this, he states that "most people don't whole-heartedly 'believe' the Big Lie, but they are more than happy to provisionally accept it because... why not? It might be entertaining. It might flatter your identity. It might help you bond with other people in your community. Or it might help you vent some rage. ... '[B]elief' is always predicated on usefulness."
Psychiatrist Bandy X. Lee notes that emotional reasons lie beneath the acceptance of outrageous assertions such as the big lie, stating:
Usually, they are trying to find comfort and to avoid pain. ... This happens in states of lesser health, where one is less inclined to venture into new domains or to seek creative solutions. There is comfort in repetition, and so a people or a nation under duress will gravitate more toward what is repeated to them than what is realistic. Adolf Hitler understood this very well, which is why the American psychologist Walter Langer coined the phrase to describe his method.
Social media also plays a role in such emotional responses, according to Bowers-Abbott, who states:It was easier to dislodge untruths before social media. In social media, people tend to take public positions. When that position turns out to be wrong, it's embarrassing. And backing down is typically seen as weakness. So they double-down on untrue claims to save face and personal credibility. ... We are way too emotionally attached to being right. It would be better for our culture as a whole to value uncertainty and intellectual humility and curiosity. Those values help us ask questions without the expectation of permanent answers.
Durvasula, Blanchard and Lee agree that it is unlikely that a believer in a big lie can be persuaded through the presentation of factual evidence. Durvasula argues that improvement in critical thinking skills are necessary, stating: "It means ending algorithms that only provide confirmatory news and instead people seeing stories and information that provide other points of view ... creating safe spaces to have these conversations ... encouraging civil discourse with those who hold different opinions, teaching people to find common ground (e.g. love of family) even when belief systems are not aligned." Blanchard says that "[S]preaders of the Big Lie will only be discredited in the eyes of their supporters if they face their greatest fear — accountability. ... They must be seen to lose at the ballot box, they must be arrested when they break the law, they must be sued for every defamation, they must be pursued with every legal tool available in an open society. ... Above all else they must be seen as weak. Only then will their lies lose their usefulness for the millions who once saw something to gain -- personally, psychologically, politically, financially -- in choosing to believe." Lee notes that it is important when attempting to disabuse someone of a big lie, it is important not to put them on the defensive: "You have to fix the underlying emotional vulnerability that led people to believing it in the first place. For populations, it is usually the pain of not having a place in the world, which socioeconomic inequality exacerbates. Deprivation of health care, education, an ability to make a living, and other avenues for dignity can make a population psychologically vulnerable to those who look to exploit them."
See also
Conspiracy theory
Demagogue
Fake news
Firehose of falsehood
Gaslighting
Noble lie
Post-truth politics
Truthiness
References
Further reading
External links
"Analysis of Nazi Propaganda" by Karthik Narayanaswami (Harvard University)
"The Big Lie and Its Consequences" (Project Syndicate; 17 May 2021)
Deception
Lying
Propaganda techniques
Views on Adolf Hitler
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201438
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%93t%C4%81%20Workshop
|
Wētā Workshop
|
Wētā Workshop is a special effects and prop company based in Miramar, New Zealand, producing effects for television and film. The company is named after the New Zealand wētā, one of the world's largest insects, which is featured in the logo.
History
Founded in 1987 by Richard Taylor and Tania Rodger as RT Effects, Wētā Workshop has produced creatures and makeup effects for the TV series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys and Xena: Warrior Princess and effects for films such as Meet the Feebles and Heavenly Creatures. A digital division, Weta Digital, was formed in 1993; it is a separate company and operates independently.
Wētā Workshop's output was used in director Peter Jackson's film trilogies The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, producing sets, costumes, armour, weapons, creatures and miniatures. It also aided in the making of Jackson's 2005 version of King Kong.
It supported the creation of Reclaiming the Blade (2009), a documentary film on stage combat, historical European and Asian swordsmanship.
Innovations
Chainmaille
For the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, realistic looking PVC chainmail was made, not just for the lead actors, but also for the hundreds of extras that appeared throughout the films. PVC pipe was cut into rings, assembled by hand into a semblance of armor, and then electroplated. A total of 82.9 million links were manufactured from 7 miles of PVC pipe.
The workshop now has a division, Weta Tenzan Chain Maille, making chainmaille for film work. PVC injection was used for the armor in Kingdom of Heaven, giving better results than the process for Lord of the Rings. It produces aluminium or steel mail for high-impact stuntwork.
Bigatures
The term bigature is Wētā Workshop's nickname for a very large miniature model. They are used in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, with the largest of them measuring some 9 metres high. Extensive computer graphics techniques and computer-controlled cameras were used to seamlessly mesh the Bigature photography with live actors and scenes.
Bigatures used in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy included models of:
The Hornburg – the mountain fortress of the Rohirrim
The Grey Havens – the Elven harbour
Minas Tirith – the White City of Gondor
Rivendell – Elrond's city for the Elves
Caras Galadhon – Galadriel's city in Lothlórien
Argonath – the gateway into Gondor, two statues of Elendil and Isildur
Osgiliath – the ruined City of Gondor
Orthanc – Saruman's tower
Cirith Ungol – the tower that guards the pass of Shelob
Paths of the Dead – City of the Dead Men of Dunharrow
Minas Morgul – Sauron's 'Dead City'
Barad-dûr – Sauron's massive tower
The Black Gate – the gate guarding the gap between the Ered Lithui and the Ephel Dúath
Grond – the battering ram that smashed down the gates of Minas Tirith
Mûmakil – large war elephants used by the Haradrim
Weta Legs
The name "Weta Legs" is Wētā Workshop's name for a "low profile, professional grade reverse leg stilt" developed by sculptor-designer Kim Graham and Wētā technicians and manufactured by Performing Legs Ltd. Designed and largely hand-made by Graham, these digitigrade leg extensions are intended for "creature and costume performances in movies, television, theatre, circus, street performances and other creative performances."
Originally reserved for "commercial film and television projects", Wētā briefly brought them to market – in relatively limited quantities – for online purchase by members of the public in 2010. With the ability to take extra prosthetics such as layers of fur or skin "to resemble a digitigrade leg, from canine and feline to fantastical demons, dragons, satyrs and even robots", these devices are promoted as being easy to get used to, partly because they "allow for realistic and natural movement as they are jointed at the knee and the ankle."
Workplace culture allegations
Beginning in June 2020, an investigative project by Kiwi public TV broadcaster 1 News into Weta's workplace culture resulted in over 11 current and former Wētā Workshop employees anonymously sharing accounts of "bullying and harassment". Another former employee Layna Lazar came public with her own allegation by social media posting the same month that she was sexually harassed repeatedly and after seeking recourse, was fired, this prompted an independent review by Hive Consulting; in December of that year. Their reviewer Ashley Benefield dismissed the allegations stating that "the majority of allegations in the post including the most serious allegations, have either not been substantiated or were reasonable in the context of circumstances not described in the post". The review's December 2020 report did not address the anonymous allegations of over 11 employees originally reported by 1 News back in July, and the concerned employees stated in response they were not informed of the review having finished, either, in spite of their reluctant cooperation in it. Lazar stated in response that she "genuinely 100 percent still" stands by her public allegations. Meanwhile, the project by 1 News resulted in over 40 employees to share accounts of bullying, harassment and sexism at the sister company Weta Digital in September 2020, leading to a separate independent review.
Special effects filmography
Meet the Feebles (1989)
Braindead (1992)
The Tommyknockers (1993)
Heavenly Creatures (1994)
Hercules: The Legendary Journeys (1995–2001)
Xena: Warrior Princess (1995–2000)
Forgotten Silver (1995)
The Frighteners (1996)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
Peter Pan (2003)
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
The Last Samurai (2003)
I, Robot (2004)
Hellboy (2004)
Van Helsing (2004)
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005)
King Kong (2005)
Kingdom of Heaven (2005)
The Legend of Zorro (2005)
Jane and the Dragon (2005–2006)
Black Sheep (2006)
30 Days of Night (2007)
The Water Horse: Legend of the Deep (2007)
The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2008)
Eel Girl (2008)
Love Story 2050 (2008)
The Lovely Bones (2009)
Under the Mountain (2009)
District 9 (2009)
Born of Hope (2009)
Avatar (2009)
The WotWots (2009–2011)
The Devil's Rock (2010)
Daybreakers (2010)
The Adventures of Tintin: Secret of the Unicorn (2011)
Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011)
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey (2012)
The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug (2013)
Elysium (2013)
The ABCs of Death (2013)
The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (2014)
Krampus (2015)
Thunderbirds Are Go (2015–2020)
Mad Max: Fury Road (2015)
I (2015)
Remo (2016)
Spectral (2016)
Blade Runner 2049 (2017)
Power Rangers (2017)
The Great Wall (2017)
Thor: Ragnarok (2017)
Ghost In the Shell (2017)
2.0 (2018)
The Wandering Earth (2019)
Alita: Battle Angel (2019)
I Am Mother (2019)
References
Further reading
Official Companies Office Data
External links
Wētā Workshop
Weta Digital
Film production companies of New Zealand
Special effects companies
Wellington City
Entertainment companies established in 1987
Companies based in Wellington
Privately held companies of New Zealand
Toy companies of New Zealand
Science and technology in New Zealand
New Zealand companies established in 1987
|
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] |
201439
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Brilliant%20Career
|
My Brilliant Career
|
My Brilliant Career is a 1901 novel written by Miles Franklin. It is the first of many novels by Stella Maria Sarah Miles Franklin (1879–1954), one of the major Australian writers of her time. It was written while she was still a teenager, as a romance to amuse her friends. Franklin submitted the manuscript to Henry Lawson who contributed a preface and took it to his own publishers in Edinburgh. The popularity of the novel in Australia and the perceived closeness of many of the characters to her own family and circumstances as small farmers in New South Wales near Goulburn caused Franklin a great deal of distress and led her to withdrawing the novel from publication until after her death.
Shortly after the publication of My Brilliant Career, Franklin wrote a sequel, My Career Goes Bung, which would not be published until 1946.
Plot summary
The heroine, Sybylla Melvyn, is an imaginative, headstrong girl growing up in rural Australia in the 1890s. Drought and a series of poor business decisions reduce her family to subsistence level, her father begins to drink excessively, and Sybylla struggles to deal with the monotony of her life. To her relief, she is sent to live on her grandmother's property, where life is more comfortable. There she meets wealthy young Harold Beecham, who loves her and proposes marriage; convinced of her ugliness and aware of her tomboyish ways, Sybylla is unable to believe that he could really love her.
By this time, her father's drinking has plunged the family into debt, and she is sent to work as governess/housekeeper for the family of an almost illiterate neighbour to whom her father owes money. She finds life there unbearable and eventually suffers a physical breakdown which leads to her return to the family home. When Harold Beecham returns to ask Sybylla to marry him, she concludes that she would only make him unhappy and sends him away, determined never to marry. The novel ends with no suggestion that she will ever have the "brilliant career" as a writer that she desires.
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
A 1979 film version, produced by Margaret Fink and directed by Gillian Armstrong, features Judy Davis and Sam Neill in starring roles as Sybylla and Harry.
Release details
1901, Australia, William Blackwood & Sons (ISBN NA), Pub date ? ? 1901, hardback (First edition)
1980, UK, Virago Press (), Pub date July 14, 1980, paperback
References
External links
Introduction to a new edition published in The Sydney Morning Herald
1901 Australian novels
Australian novels adapted into films
Novels by Miles Franklin
Novels set in New South Wales
Novels set in the 19th century
Roman à clef novels
William Blackwood books
1901 debut novels
fr:Ma brillante carrière
|
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201442
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutterworth
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Lutterworth
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Lutterworth is a market town and civil parish in the Harborough district of Leicestershire, England. The town is located in southern Leicestershire, close to the borders with Warwickshire and Northamptonshire. It is located north of Rugby, Warwickshire and south of Leicester.
At the 2011 UK census, the civil parish of Lutterworth had a population of 9,353. The built up area of Lutterworth, which also includes the adjacent village of Bitteswell had a population of 9,907.
History
Lutterworth was originally an Anglo Saxon settlement, its name is probably derived from the Old English Hlutre Worth: Lutterworth was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086.
Lutterworth was granted its market charter in 1214 by King John and became a small but busy market town.
In the 14th century, the religious reformer John Wycliffe was rector in St Mary's Church, Lutterworth between 1374 and 1384, and it was here that he is traditionally believed to have produced the first translation of the Bible from Latin into English. The church was restored in the 19th century and a large tower replaced the original spire. The church still contains some 15th-century wall paintings.
The Irish statesman Robert le Poer was parish priest here c.1318.
Lutterworth Grammar School was founded in 1630, by 1676 the population of Lutterworth had reached 644.
In the days of the stagecoach, Lutterworth was an important stopping-place on the road from Leicester to Oxford and London, and many former coaching inns remain in the town. The town also contains a number of well preserved half-timbered buildings.
Frank Whittle, inventor of the jet engine, developed some of the world's first jet engines at the British Thomson-Houston works in Lutterworth, and in nearby Rugby, during the late 1930s and the 1940s, with his company Power Jets. A replica of his first jet aircraft the Gloster E.28/39 stands in the middle of a roundabout just south of the town as a memorial and a number of papers and documents relating to Whittle's development of the jet engine are displayed at the town's museum.
The M1 motorway was built just to the east of Lutterworth in 1964, and the M6 motorway was built a few miles to the south in 1971.
At the time of the first national census in 1801, Lutterworth had a population of 1,652, this had nearly doubled to 3,197 by 1901. By 2001 it had reached 8,294. Further population growth in the 21st century has brought the population up to nearly 10,000 by 2017.
Notable buildings
Cavalier Inn
One of the established landmarks of the town is the 17th-century building on the corner of George Street and Leicester Road, previously a tavern called the Cavalier Inn. The Cavalier Inn was located just on the northern edge of the town centre of Lutterworth. Although the building has been modified over the years, it still retains its rustic charm with stone walls and low ceilings and beams.
Originally called the "Ram Inn" – that part of George Street was called Ram Lane – it changed its name in the early 1970s after a brewery 'make-over' which greatly improved the interior.
It is said that the brewery did not like the name Ram Inn and prudishly renamed it 'the Cavalier' after claims that wounded royalist soldiers sheltered in Lutterworth following the Battle of Naseby in 1645.
In October 2010 the Cavalier Inn closed and was changed in status to a log-burning store, retailing log-burning fires and similar products and services.
Lutterworth Town Hall
The architect of Lutterworth Town Hall was Joseph Hansom, who also designed Birmingham Town Hall and took out the first patent of the horse-drawn hansom cab.
Shambles Inn
Another of the landmarks of the town centre is the thatched roof & timber-framed building now known as the 'Shambles Inn'. This former abattoir and butcher's is the oldest timber-framed building in Lutterworth, dating back to the 16th century. It was first used as a public house from 1791 until 1840, when it was converted back to a home and butcher's shop. In 1982 it was converted back into a public house and named the Shambles.
Local economy
To the west of the town [] is a large logistics and distribution centre called Magna Park, which is the main source of employment in the Lutterworth area. Magna Park is built upon the site of the old Bitteswell aerodrome. Also near Lutterworth is Stanford Hall.
A controversial issue in the town is how to manage the traffic flows emanating from Magna Park and the nearby M1 and A5 trunk roads. Approximately 3,000 heavy goods vehicles pass through the town every day and pollution levels are reported as being high.
The Census 2011 Summary also indicates an overall growth in residents' vehicles, which is likely to add to traffic and pollution concerns according to the Census summary.
There is a Morrisons Food Store (formerly Safeway) on Bitteswell Road, as well as a Subway on High Street. Waitrose opened on 11 March 2010 on a site previously occupied by Netto. Aldi opened a new store on Rugby Road on 12 Aug 2021.
On the Greenacres Housing estate in the town there was an estate public house, recently called 'The Sir Frank Whittle' and previously called 'The Balloon'. This building was sold by the brewery to the Co-op who changed the use and structure of the premises to be the new Co-op store in the town. The Co-op Food Store previously located on George Street closed in June 2014 coinciding with the opening of the new store.
Lutterworth also houses the headquarters of the free Bible distributors 'Good News for everyone'. This organisation, formerly known as British Gideons, has been headquartered in Lutterworth since 1974.
Transport
Lutterworth lies on the A426 Leicester–Rugby road, adjacent to the M1 motorway at junction 20. It is also located within a few miles of the M6 motorway and A5 trunk road. A southern bypass, the A4303, was opened in 1999, providing a route for traffic from the M1 to the A5 to avoid Lutterworth town centre.
The nearest railway station to Lutterworth is Rugby railway station about six miles to the south. The town formerly had its own railway station on the former Great Central Main Line which opened in 1899, and closed in 1969.
Historically there were another two railway stations close to Lutterworth: The first was Ullesthorpe & Lutterworth, about to the north west, on the former Midland Railway (later part of the LMS) line from Rugby to Leicester, closed on 1 January 1962. The second was Welford & Kilworth at one time known as Welford & Lutterworth, some east on the London & North Western Railway (also later LMS) line from Rugby to Market Harborough and Peterborough, closed on 6 June 1966.
Arriva Midlands and Centrebus are the main operators of bus services around Lutterworth with services into Leicester, Market Harborough, Rugby, Warwickshire and Hinckley.
Sport
The town supports two individual local football teams : Lutterworth Athletic F.C. and Lutterworth Town A.F.C. who both play in the United Counties League
There is also a tennis club – Lutterworth Tennis Club – located just outside Lutterworth on Hall Lane. Banger Racing was once staged in the town on farmland adjacent to the Coventry Road on the A4303. Racing ceased in the late 1990s.
Education
Primary schools
There are two primary schools in Lutterworth: John Wycliffe Primary School and Sherrier Primary School. Sherrier was originally housed in a Victorian building on Churchgate before moving to a new location on Bitteswell Road in 1983. Sherrier featured on the BBC TV children's TV programme Blue Peter on 5 February 2008.
Secondary schools
The local secondary schools are Lutterworth High School (for ages 11–16) on Woodway Road and Lutterworth College (for ages 11–18) on Bitteswell Road, both of which achieve good results in applicable exams. A new Studio School called Sir Frank Whittle Studio School opened in 2015 (for ages 14–18) that offers purely vocational courses. In 2019 the Sir Frank Whittle Studio School closed due to a lack of students and minimal further interest.
Health services
Feilding Palmer Hospital, run by Leicestershire Partnership NHS Trust is situated in the town. It has a ward which provides general rehabilitation and palliative and end of life care. Under the Leicester, Leicestershire and Rutland Sustainability and transformation plan it is proposed to close.
Popular culture
Mark Corrigan of the British television series Peep Show describes a trip to Lutterworth by public transport as taking so long that it feels like going to Mordor, a reference to Tolkien's Lord of the Rings trilogy.
The 1973 sitcom Me, myself and Nigel Wright was set in an ostrich farm near the town.
See also
Bitteswell
References
External links
Lutterworth Town Council
Towns in Leicestershire
Market towns in Leicestershire
Civil parishes in Harborough District
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201443
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan%20Na
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Lan Na
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The Lan Na or Lan Na Kingdom (, , "Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields"; , , ), also known as Lannathai, and most commonly called Lanna or Lanna Kingdom, was an Indianized state centered in present-day Northern Thailand from the 13th to 18th centuries.
The cultural development of the Northern Thai people had begun long before as successive kingdoms preceded Lan Na. As a continuation of the kingdom of Ngoenyang, Lan Na emerged strong enough in the 15th century to rival the Ayutthaya Kingdom, with whom wars were fought. However, the Lan Na Kingdom was weakened and became a tributary state of the Taungoo Dynasty in 1558. Lan Na was ruled by successive vassal kings, though some enjoyed autonomy. The Burmese rule gradually withdrew but then resumed as the new Konbaung Dynasty expanded its influence. In 1775, Lan Na chiefs left the Burmese control to join Siam, leading to the Burmese–Siamese War (1775–76).
Following the retreat of the Burmese force, Burmese control over Lan Na came to the end. Siam, under King Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom, gained control of Lan Na in 1776. From then on, Lan Na became a tributary state of Siam under the succeeding Chakri Dynasty.
Throughout the latter half of the 1800s, the Siamese state dismantled Lan Na independence, absorbing it into the emerging Siamese nation-state. Beginning in 1874, the Siamese state reorganized Lan Na Kingdom as Monthon Phayap, brought under the direct control of Siam. The Lan Na Kingdom effectively became centrally administered from through the Siamese thesaphiban governance system instituted in 1899. By 1909, Lan Na Kingdom no longer existed formally as an independent state, as Siam finalized the demarcation of its borders with the British and French.
Names
The Lan Na kingdom is known by a number of exonyms in neighboring languages. In Burmese chronicles and sources, it is called Zinme Pyi (, ), Zinme being a Burmese language transcription of Chiang Mai; or Yun Pyi (, ), Yun being the Burmese term for the Northern Thai people. In the Laotian language, it is known as .
The Pali chronicles refer to the kingdom as Yonaraṭṭha (Kingdom of the Yuan) or Bingaraṭṭha (Kingdom of the Mae Ping). In the Chinese History of the Yuan, it is called Babai Xifu (Pa-pai-si-fu) (), first attested in 1292.
History
Early establishment
Mangrai, the 25th king of Ngoenyang (modern Chiang Saen) of the Lavachakkaraj dynasty, whose mother was a princess of a kingdom in Sipsongpanna ("the twelve nations"), centralized the mueangs of Ngoenyang into a unified kingdom or mandala and allied with the neighboring Phayao Kingdom. In 1262, Mangrai moved the capital from Ngoenyang to the newly founded Chiang Rai – naming the city after himself. Mangrai then expanded to the south and subjugated the Mon kingdom of Hariphunchai (centered on modern Lamphun) in 1281. Mangrai moved the capital several times. Leaving Lamphun due to heavy flooding, he drifted until settling at and building Wiang Kum Kam in 1286/7, staying there until 1292 at which time he relocated to what would become Chiang Mai. He founded Chiang Mai in 1296, expanding it to become the capital of Lan Na. Claimed territories of Mangrai's Lan Na include modern northern Thailand provinces (with exception of Phrae – which was under vassalhood of Sukhothai– and Phayao and Nan), Kengtung, Mong Nai, and Chiang Hung (modern Jinghong in Yunnan). He also reduced to vassaldom and received tribute from areas of modern Northern Vietnam, principally in the Black and Red river valleys, and most of Northern Laos, plus the Sipsongpanna of Yunnan where his mother originated.
Disunity and prosperity
Around 1311, Mangrai died and was succeeded by his second son Grama, or Jayasangrama (Khun Hham). He soon retired to Chiangrai and appointed his son Saen Phu as the Uparaja (Viceroy) of Chiangmai. Mangrai's youngest son, ruler of Mong Nai returned to claim the throne, occupying Haripunjaya. Saen Phu and his brother Nam Thuem fled to their father in Chiangrai. Nam Tuam succeeded in driving out their uncle, restoring Saen Phu onto the throne in 1322 or 1324. Saen Phu founded the city of Chiang Saen in 1325 or 1328, before he died in 1334. His son Kham Fu replaced him but reigned only few years, before he was succeeded by his son Pha Yu, who restored the capital to Chiang Mai again. There he fortified the city and built Wat Phra Singh.
Theravada Buddhism prospered in Lan Na during the reign of religious Kue Na who established the dhatu of Doi Suthep in 1386. Kue Na promoted the Lankawongse sect and invited monks from Sukhothai to replace the existing Mon Theravada that Lan Na inherited from Haripunchai.
Lan Na enjoyed peace under Saenmuengma (which means ten thousand cities arrive – to pay tribute). The only disturbing event was the failed rebellion by his uncle Prince Maha Prommatat. Maha Prommatat requested aid from Ayutthaya. Borommaracha I of Ayutthaya sent his troops to invade Lan Na but was repelled. This was the first armed conflict between the two kingdoms. Lan Na faced invasions from the newly established Ming Dynasty in the reign of Sam Fang Kaen.
Expansions under Tilokkarat
The Lan Na kingdom was strongest under Tilokkarat (1441–1487). Tilokkarat seized the throne from his father Sam Fang Kaen in 1441. Tilokkarat's brother, Thau Choi, rebelled to reclaim the throne for his father and sought Ayutthayan support. Borommaracha II sent his troops to Lan Na in 1442 but was repelled and the rebellion was suppressed. Tilokkarat conquered the neighboring Kingdom of Payao in 1456.
To the south, the emerging Kingdom of Ayutthaya was also growing powerful. Relations between the two kingdoms had worsened since the Ayutthayan support of Thau Choi's rebellion. In 1451, Yutthitthira, a Sukhothai royal who had conflicts with Trailokanat of Ayutthaya, gave himself to Tilokkarat. Yuttitthira urged Trilokanat to invade Pitsanulok which he had claims on, igniting the Ayutthaya-Lan Na War over the Upper Chao Phraya valley (i.e. the Kingdom of Sukhothai). In 1460, the governor of Chaliang surrendered to Tilokkarat. Trailokanat then used a new strategy and concentrated on the wars with Lan Na by moving the capital to Pitsanulok. Lan Na suffered setbacks and Tilokkarat eventually sued for peace in 1475.
Tilokkarat was also a strong patron of Theravada Buddhism. In 1477, the Buddhist Council to recompile the Tripitaka was held near Chiang Mai. Tilokkarat also built and rehabilitated many notable temples. Tilokkarat then expanded west to the Shan States of Laihka, Hsipaw, Mong Nai, and Yawnghwe.
Decline
After Tilokkarat, Lan Na was then subjected to old-style princely struggles that prevented the kingdom from defending itself against powerful growing neighbors. The Shans then broke themselves free of Lan Na control that Tilokkarat had established. The last strong ruler was Paya Kaew who was the great-grandson of Tilokkarat. In 1507, Kaew invaded Ayutthaya but was repelled – only to be invaded in turn in 1513 by Ramathibodi II and Lampang was sacked. In 1523, a dynastic struggle occurred in Kengtung State. One faction sought Lan Na support while another faction went for Hsipaw. Kaew then sent Lan Na armies to re-exert control there but was readily defeated by Hsipaw armies. The loss was so tremendous that Lan Na never regained such dominance.
In 1538, King Ketklao, son of Kaew, was overthrown by his own son Thau Sai Kam. However, Ketklao was restored in 1543 but suffered mental illness and was executed in 1545. Ketklao's daughter, Chiraprapha, then succeeded her father as the queen regnant. As Lan Na was plundered by the dynastic struggles, both Ayutthaya and the Burmese saw this as an opportunity to overwhelm Lan Na. Chairacha of Ayutthaya invaded Lan Na in 1545, but Chiraprapha negotiated for peace. Chairacha returned next year, sacking Lampang and Lamphun, and threatened Chiangmai itself. So, Chiraprapha was forced to put her kingdom under Ayutthaya as a tributary state.
Facing pressures from the invaders, Chiraprapha decided to abdicate in 1546 and the nobility gave the throne to her nephew (son of her sister), Prince Chaiyasettha of Lan Xang. Chaiyasettha moved to Lan Na and thus Lan Na was ruled by a Laotian king. In 1547, Prince Chaiyasettha returned to Lan Xang to claim the throne and ascended as Setthathirath. Setthathirath also brought the Emerald Buddha from Chiangmai to Luang Prabang (the one that would be later taken to Bangkok by Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke).
The nobles then chose Mekuti, the Shan saopha of Mong Nai whose family was related to Mangrai, to be the new king of Lan Na. It was said that, as a Shan king, Mekuti violated several Lan Na norms and beliefs.
Burmese rule
The kingdom then came to conflict over Shan states with the expansionist Burmese king Bayinnaung. Bayinnaung's forces invaded Lan Na from the north, and Mekuti surrendered on 2 April 1558. Encouraged by Setthathirath, Mekuti revolted during the Burmese–Siamese War (1563–64). But the king was captured by Burmese forces in November 1564, and sent to then Burmese capital Pegu. Bayinnaung then made Wisutthithewi, a Lan Na royal, the queen regnant of Lan Na. After her death, Bayinnaung appointed one of his sons Nawrahta Minsaw (Noratra Minsosi), viceroy of Lan Na in January 1579. Burma allowed a substantial degree of autonomy for Lan Na but strictly controlled the corvée and taxation.
After Bayinnaung, his massive empire quickly unraveled. Siam successfully revolted (1584–93), after which all the vassals of Pegu went their own way by 1596–1597. Lan Na's Nawrahta Minsaw too declared independence in 1596. In 1602, Nawrahta Minsaw became a tributary of King Naresuan of Siam. However, Siam's control was short-lived. The actual suzerainty effectively ended with Naresuan's death in 1605. By 1614, Siam's control over Lan Na was at most nominal. When the Burmese returned, the ruler of Lan Na Thado Kyaw (Phra Choi) sought and received help from Lan Xang, not his nominal overlord Siam, which did not send any help. After 1614, vassal kings of Burmese descent ruled Lan Na for over one hundred years. Siam did try to take over Lan Na in 1662–1664 but failed.
By the 1720s, the Toungoo Dynasty was on its last legs. In 1727, Chiang Mai revolted because of high taxation. The resistance forces drove back the Burmese army in 1727–1728 and 1731–1732, after which Chiang Mai and Ping valley became independent. Chiang Mai became a tributary again in 1757 to the new Burmese dynasty. It revolted again in 1761 with Siamese encouragement but the rebellion was suppressed by January 1763. In the 1765, the Burmese used Lan Na as a launching pad to invade the Laotian states, and Siam itself.
End of Burmese rule
In the early 1770s, Burma was at the peak of its military power since Bayinnaung, having defeated Siam (1765–67) and China (1765–69), the Burmese army commanders and governors became "drunk with victory". This arrogant repressive behavior by the local Burmese government caused a rebellion in Lan Na. The new Burmese governor at Chiang Mai, Thado Mindin, was disrespectful to local chiefs and the people, and became extremely unpopular. One of the local chiefs, Kawila of Lampang revolted with Siamese help, and captured the city on 15 January 1775, ending the 200-year Burmese rule. Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam.
Burma tried to regain Lan Na in 1775–76, 1785–86, 1797 but failed each time. In the 1790s, Kawila consolidated his hold of Lan Na, taking over Chiang Saen. He then tried to take over Burma's Shan state of Kengtung and Sipsongpanna (1803–1808) but failed.
Nonetheless, the Kingdom of Chiang Mai, as a vassal state of Siam, had come into existence. Under Siamese suzerainty, Lan Na kingdom was divided into five smaller principalities, namely the Chiang Mai, Nan, Lampang, Lamphun, and Phrae. Lan Na ceased to be an entity on its own after it was incorporated into modern Kingdom of Siam.
Chiang Mai, under Burma's rule, lasted more than 200 years, but there were some periods that switched to Ayutthaya rule. The reign of King Narai the Great, and there were some independent periods, but was dominated and ruled by the Lao King called Ong Kham from the Kingdom of Luang Prabang for more than 30 years.
Lan Na language
Kham Mueang or Phasa Mueang () is the modern spoken form of the old Lan Na language. Kham Mueang means "language of the principalities" (Kham, language or word; mueang, town, principality, kingdom) as opposed to the languages of many hill tribe peoples in the surrounding mountainous areas. The language may be written in the old Lan Na script, which somewhat resembles that of the Thai, but differs significantly in spelling rules. Due to the influence of the latter, it also differs significantly from the modern pronunciation of Kham Mueang.
Historical writings on Lan Na
The Chiang Mai chronicles - Probably started in the late 15th century and enlarged with every copying of the palm leaves manuscript. Current version is from 1828, English translation available as .
Jinakālamāli - composed by Ratanapañña (16th century) an account of the early rise of Buddhism in Thailand and details on many historical events.
Zinme Yazawin - Burmese chronicle of Zinme (Chiang Mai).
See also
List of rulers of Lan Na
Kingdom of Chiang Mai
Lan Na language
Notes
References
External links
Former countries in Thai history
Indianized kingdoms
Chiang Mai
Chiang Mai province
History of Chiang Mai
13th century in Thailand
14th century in Thailand
15th century in Thailand
16th century in Thailand
17th century in Thailand
18th century in Siam
1292 establishments in Asia
1775 disestablishments in Asia
States and territories established in 1292
States and territories disestablished in 1775
13th-century establishments in Thailand
1770s disestablishments in Thailand
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
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201444
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gilbert
|
John Gilbert
|
John Gilbert may refer to:
Religion
John Gilbert (bishop of St David's) (died 1397), Bishop of Hereford, 1375–1389
John Gilbert (archbishop of York) (1693–1761), Archbishop of York
Sports
John Brian Gilbert (tennis) (1887–1974), British tennis player
John Gilbert (cricketer, born 1910) (1910–1992), English cricketer
John Gilbert (cricketer, born 1816) (1816–1887), English cricketer
John Gilbert (baseball) (1864–1903), Major League Baseball shortstop
John Gilbert (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1970s and 1980s
Politicians
John Gilbert (MP for Derby), see Derby
John Gilbert, Baron Gilbert (1927–2013), British Labour Party politician
John Gilbert (Canadian politician) (1921–2006), NDP MP from Ontario
John I. Gilbert (1837–1904), New York politician
John Gilbert (alderman) (1871-1934), Chairman of the London County Council
Others
Sir John Gilbert (1533-1596), English knight, half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, and favourite of Queen Elizabeth I
John Gilbert (agent) (1724–1795), land agent and engineer
John Gibbs Gilbert (1810–1889), American comedian
John Davies Gilbert (1811–1854), English scientist
John Gilbert (naturalist) (1812–1845), British naturalist and explorer
Sir John Gilbert (painter) (1817–1897), British artist
Sir John Thomas Gilbert (1829–1898), Irish archivist and historian
John Gilbert (bushranger) (1842–1865), Australian bushranger
John Wesley Gilbert (1864–1923), African American trailblazer and archaeologist
John Gilbert (actor) (1897–1936), American actor of the silent film era
Johnny Gilbert (born 1924), American television game show presenter
John Gilbert (broadcaster) (1930–1998), from Canada
John Selwyn Gilbert (born 1943), former British television scriptwriter, director and producer
John Phil Gilbert (born 1949), U.S. federal judge
John Gilbert (film editor) (born c. 1960), New Zealand film editor
John Henry Gilbert (1901–1974), British philatelist
John J. Gilbert (born 1937), American zoologist
See also
Jack Gilbert (disambiguation)
Jonathan Gilbert (born 1967), American actor
John Graham-Gilbert (1794–1866), Scottish portrait painter and art collector
|
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201446
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan%20Airlines
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Libyan Airlines
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Libyan Airlines (; transliterated: al-Khutut al-Jawiyah al-Libiyah), formerly known as Libyan Arab Airlines over several decades, is the flag carrier of Libya. Based in Tripoli, it operates scheduled passenger and cargo services within Libya and to Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, the majority of which leave from Tripoli International Airport. Benina International Airport in Benghazi serves as a secondary base. Libyan Airlines also operates Hajj services. The company is wholly owned by the government of Libya.
History
Early years
The carrier traces its roots back to when Kingdom of Libya Airlines was set up in conformity with law no. 22. The airline was government-owned, having an initial investment of LYD 2 million. It began operations in flying regional routes with Sud SE-210 Caravelle equipment. Following the carrier starting services along the Tripoli–Benghazi run, the Libyans prevented foreign companies that also flew the route from operating on it in order to allow the national airline to expand. Absorbing Libavia and United Libya Airlines operations, international flights radiating from Benghazi and Tripoli began in , initially serving Athens, Cairo, London, Malta, Paris, Rome and Tunis.
The early years saw Air France providing the company with technical assistance, KLM managing the sales and reservations, and BOAC taking care of traffic, finance and communications. In , the airline and ATI struck an agreement for the lease of Fokker F27 aircraft to cover short-haul routes, with the agreement coming into force on 15 Jun the same year. A third Caravelle was ordered in 1968. That year, a study to increase the airline's productivity was carried out by TWA, concluding that operating with five three-engined, 138-seater jet aircraft, and four propeller-powered 60-seater aircraft would be the most suitable choice. The report concluded that the lease of the turboprop F-27s was too costly, and the airline decided to acquire two new aircraft from Fokker in 1969. Regarding the jet aircraft, the Boeing 727 and the Trident were the only options.
From the Libyan revolution (1969) to the Libyan Civil War (2011)
Following the 1969 coup d'état, the airline was renamed Libyan Arab Airlines, or Jamahiriya Libyan Air Lines, on 1 sep. The company suspended its operations for two weeks after the coup. With Beirut and Geneva already being part of the route network by , nine international destinations were already served. In , Libyan Arab Airlines ordered two Boeing 727-200s for US$14 million. These two aircraft were part of the fleet by , along with three Caravelles and two Fokker F27s. Six Fokker F27s—four Mk600s and two Mk400s—were purchased in , and in May the same year, three additional Boeing 727-200s were ordered, aimed at replacing the Caravelles. In 1975, Libyan Arab Airlines was made the only operator within the country. Furthermore, the government committed to cancel their debts with the company on a monthly basis, and any losses the airline would incur should be compensated by the state. Also in 1975, the six F27s ordered the previous year were delivered, and the three-strong Boeing 727 order was partly fulfilled when two of these aircraft were incorporated into the fleet. By , there were 12 aircraft in the fleet, including four Boeing 727s, four Fokker F27-600s, two Fokker F27-400s, and two Falcon 20s; a Boeing 727-200 and a Boeing 737 were pending delivery. Two more Boeing 727s were acquired in ; in August that year, the carrier took delivery of a Boeing 707-320C to be used by the government. The airline had 1,800 employees at ; at this time, passenger and cargo flights radiating from Benghazi, Tripoli and Sebha to Athens, Algiers, Beirut, Cairo, Casablanca, Damascus, Jeddah, Khartoum, London, Malta, Paris, Rome, Tunis and Zurich were operated. During the year, the Tripoli–Frankfurt–Athens–Tunis–Casablanca and Benghazi–Rome–London routes were launched.
The handover of two Boeing 727-200 Advanced aircraft, due to be delivered in June and , was blocked due to concerns that Libya was supporting terrorism. Despite the US State Department initially authorising the acquisition of three Boeing 747s and two Boeing 727s in March the following year, the transaction was blocked in mid-1979 over concerns the Libyan government would use the aircraft to transport military material and personnel, as there were suspicions that Libya played a role in the deposition of Idi Amin in Uganda. Also in 1979, a cargo subsidiary named Libyan Arab Air Cargo was set up. During the year, Madrid, Moscow, Sofia and Warsaw were included in the airline's list of destinations.
By mid-1980, the number of employees had grown to 2,500, and Amman, Belgrade, Cotonou, Istanbul and Niamey were added to the route network; later that year, Karachi was incorporated as a destination. In Libyan Arab Airlines ordered eight 44-seater Fokker F27-600s in a deal worth more than £17 million. Ten Airbuses—six A300s and four A310s—were ordered in October the same year. At that time, Airbuses were equipped either with General Electric (GE) or Pratt & Whitney (P&W) powerplants, but the airline ordered Rolls-Royce engines to power them—something that had not been done before, as the former two were manufactured in the United States and there was a ban in force on providing Libya with technology that could possibly have military uses. The order was at least partly cancelled by Airbus, as neither GE nor P&W would provide the engines for the four A310s in the order book.
The company had managed to buy a number of ageing US-manufactured jets, including Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s, since 1979; many of them were either cannibalised for spare parts or sold. Three Fokker F28-4000s were bought from Fokker in 1984. At , the fleet consisted of four Boeing 707s—two -320Bs and two -320Cs—10 Boeing 727-200s, 17 F27s—two -400s, one -500 and 14 -600s—and three Fokker F28-4000s. Employment at this time was 4,500; destinations served included Algiers, Amman, Amsterdam, Athens, Belgrade, Benghazi, Bucharest, Casablanca, Damascus, Frankfurt, Istanbul, Jeddah, Karachi, Kuwait, Larnaca, London, Madrid, Malta, Milan, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Sebha, Sfax, Sofia, Tripoli, Tunis, Vienna, Warsaw and Zürich, along with an extensive domestic network. However, the airline had to cut most of its international services that year due to a US embargo imposed on the country. In 1986, six more F27-600s were phased in. During the year, Libyan Arab managed to bypass the US economic embargo against the country when the carrier acquired, through intermediary companies, ex-British Caledonian GE-powered A310 aircraft for million. Owing to both the lack of spare parts and the inability of Libyan Arab to service the GE engines, the airline sold these two aircraft to Air Algérie in 1987; in practice, the aircraft were not sold but leased, and the Algerian airline would have operated these two aircraft on Libyan Arab's behalf, but they later rolled back their decision amid concerns that the United States would take action against Air Algérie, and the two A310s were returned to Libya. Finally, British Caledonian was fined million (£600,000) for its involvement in the deal, and Libyan Arab kept both aircraft, with Swissair training Libyan crews in order to fly them. Unable to order Western-built aircraft, the airline moved to Soviet-made airframers, ordering three Tupolev Tu-154Ms in 1989.
At , the fleet consisted of five Boeing 707-320Cs, ten Boeing 727-200s, three Fokker F28-4000s, 16 Fokker F27s (13 -600s, two -500s and one -400), four Lockheed L-100-200s, 21 Ilyushin Il-76s and five Twin Otters. Another drawback hit the carrier following the United Nations Security Council Resolution 748, adopted as a consequence of the Libyan government allegedly having supported the terrorists responsible for the bombings of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772. The resolution saw a trade embargo imposed on Libya, which included the delivery of new aircraft or spare parts that could possibly boost the military capacity of the country, and Libyan Airlines was denied any landing or overflight rights of third-party countries. Thus, all international flights came to an end, and LAA could only operate on domestic routes.
In , civil sanctions against the country were lifted. It followed Libya handing over two men suspected of being involved in the Lockerbie bombing. Intended to replace an ageing fleet of Boeing 707s, 727s and Fokker F27s, a letter of intent worth US$1.5 billion was signed with Airbus in October that year; it included Airbus A320s, A330s and A340s. The fact that these aircraft had US-manufactured parts once again prevented the deal to be firmed up as a trade embargo over the country, imposed in 1983, was still in force, and Libyan Arab Airlines sought alternative manufacturers to acquire new aircraft for re-fleeting. In the meantime, an Airbus A310 leased from Air Djibouti enabled Libyan Arab Airlines to expand services to the Middle East and North Africa, and Airbus A320s were on wet-lease from TransAer. Amman became the first non-domestic destination to be served again. Fleet and route network grew further when regional carrier Air Jamahiriya was merged into Libyan Arab Airlines in 2001. In 2006, the airline was renamed Libyan Airlines. The airline pursues an expansion policy, which is concentrated on European business and tourist customers. Newly introduced destinations like Milan, Ankara, Athens and Madrid have led to a route network similar to the one offered prior to the 1992 trade embargo.
Libyan Civil Waronwards
As a consequence of the Libyan Civil War and the resulting no-fly zone over the country enforced by NATO in accordance with the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, all flight operations with Libyan Airlines were terminated on 17 March 2011. The airline restarted operations in October the same year flying the Tripoli–Cairo route.
In , Libyan Airlines was affected by a ban that was imposed by the European Union (EU) on all carriers having an operator's certificate issued in Libya from flying into the member countries. The airline was removed from the list of air carriers banned in the EU in December the same year, as well as from the subsequent list released in . Despite this, Libyan Airlines served the European market with wet-leased aircraft due to the Libyan Civil Aviation Authority (LYCAA) voluntarily opting for a ban until Libyan crews become re-certified. The voluntary ban will continue through 2014. No Libyan carriers have been included in the version of the list of airlines banned in the EU. Despite information regarding LYCAA's failure for meeting international safety standards that may lead to an effective ban, an agreement between Libyan authorities and the EU to lift the ban seemed plausible to take effect by mid-2014. However, in December that year all air carriers having an operator's certificate issued in Libya have been either banned or subject to restrictions in their operations into European airspace.
Corporate affairs
Ownership and structure
The company is 100% owned by the government of Libya. Since 31 July 2007, Libyan Airlines has been a subsidiary of the state-owned Libyan Afriqiyah Aviation Holding Company (LAAHC), together with Afriqiyah Airways.
, the CEO position was held by Khaled Ben Alewa.
Business trends
Annual reports for the airline do not appear to be published. In the absence of these, the main sources for trends are press and industry reports.
Proposed merger with Afriqiyah Airways
On 31 July 2007, Libyan Airlines became a subsidiary of the state owned Libyan Afriqiyah Aviation Holding Company (LAAHC), together with Afriqiyah Airways. LAAHC is owned by the Libyan National Social Fund (30%), the Libyan National Investment Company (30%), the Libya-Africa Investment Fund (25%), and the Libyan Foreign Investment Company (15%). On 21 September 2010, it was announced that the two airlines, which had already begun extensive code-sharing and set up joint ground handling, maintenance and catering services, were to merge by November of that year, which was later postponed indefinitely, though.
The proposed privatisation and merger with Afriqiyah Airways has also been postponed, despite the fact it was originally planned to be effective in November 2010. The two carriers were later expected to merge in late 2011, however the Arab Spring and poor organisation forced this deal to be postponed many more times. Both airlines are to merge by the first half of 2013, according to Libya's current Interim Transport Minister Yousef el-Uheshi – 12 to 13 months after negotiations are expected to resume in March 2012. The successful merging of the carriers depends on the government's ability to cut costs in both workforce and salaries, which rival European carriers in size.
Destinations
Fleet
Recent developments
In order to modernize and expand its fleet, Libyan Airlines placed several orders with aircraft manufacturers. In , at the Paris Air Show, the carrier signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Airbus for new aircraft, including Airbus A350-800s, Airbus A330-200s and A320s; the MOU was converted into a firm order in December the same year, in a deal valued at around billion. Also in , Libyan Airlines placed an order for three Bombardier CRJ-900s worth million, and took option for another two aircraft of the type; for an approximate value of million, this option was exercised in . That month, an order for Airbus A350-800s was placed.
In , Libyan Airlines took delivery of the first of seven Airbus A320s ordered in 2007. In , with five CRJ-900s already in operation, three more aircraft of the type were ordered for million, and three more were taken on option. In late , the carrier took delivery of the first Airbus A330, becoming a new customer for the type. A second A330 was phased in a month later. In , the A350-800 order was switched to the -900 model, with the addition of more aircraft of the larger variant.
Damaged aircraft during the Libyan conflict
In , amid the 2014 Libyan conflict, clashes between antagonistic forces that tried to gain control of Tripoli International Airport damaged or destroyed a number of aircraft parked at the airport, including ones belonging to Afriqiyah Airways and Libyan Airlines. In particular, seven Libyan Airlines aircraft resulted damaged during shelling. In December 2014, the European union banned all Libyan Airlines (along with 6 other Libyan airlines) flights within European skies, citing the ongoing conflicts as a major security threat.
Current fleet
The Libyan Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of August 2019):
Fleet development
Over the years, the company operated the following aircraft types:
Incidents and accidents
Fatal accidents
On 21 February 1973 at around 14:10 local time, Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 from Tripoli to Cairo, which was operated by a Boeing 727-200 (registered 5A-DAH), was shot down by Israeli fighter aircraft because it was thought to be a foreign military attack aircraft. Among the 113 people on board, only one crew member and four passengers survived the subsequent crash-landing in the desert near Ismaïlia.
On 2 December 1977, a Tupolev 154 (registered LZ-BTN), which was chartered by Libyan Arab Airlines from Balkan Bulgarian Airlines to operate a Hajj flight from Jeddah to Benghazi crashed near Benina International Airport because of fuel exhaustion. The aircraft had been circling the airport because it could not land due to dense fog, and an alternate landing strip could not be reached in time. 59 of the 159 passengers died in the accident, whilst all six crew members survived.
On 22 December 1992, Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 1103, a Boeing 727-200 registered 5A-DIA, disintegrated on approach to Tripoli International Airport. The official government story was that it had collided with a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 of the Libyan Air Force over Tripoli. Both aircraft crashed, killing all 157 persons on board the Boeing but the 2 crew of the air force jet ejected safely, making it the worst accident in the history of the airline.
Non-fatal incidents
On 28 November 1981, a Libyan Arab Airlines Fokker F27 Friendship (registered 5A-DBE) was damaged beyond repair in a forced landing in the desert near Kufra, which had become necessary because the aircraft had run out of fuel.
On 6 June 1989, an LAA Fokker F27 (registered 5A-DDV) experienced an engine failure shortly after take-off from Zella Airfield for a flight to Tripoli. The crew tried to return to the airfield, but had to execute a forced landing in the desert instead, during which the aircraft was destroyed. The 36 passengers and three crew members survived the crash.
On 7 December 1991, a Libyan Arab Airlines Boeing 707 (registered 5A-DJT) crashed on take-off at Tripoli International Airport. There were no fatalities among the 189 passengers and ten crew on board.
Military occurrences
Several aircraft of the company were destroyed on the ground in different war events:
On 5 June 1967, during the Six-Day War, a Kingdom of Libya Airlines Learjet 23 (registered 5A-DAD), which was parked at Damascus International Airport, was destroyed in an Israeli air raid.
On 15 April 1986, a Libyan Arab Airlines Fokker F27 Friendship (registered 5A-DLP) was destroyed at Benina International Airport during the United States bombing of the airfield as part of Operation El Dorado Canyon.
On 25 August 2011, during the Libyan Civil War, a Libyan Airlines Airbus A300-600 (registered 5A-DLZ) was destroyed during fighting actions at Tripoli International Airport.
On 15 July 2014, a Libyan Airlines Airbus A330 (registered 5A-LAS) suffered substantial damage in the right hand fuselage during the fighting actions at Tripoli International Airport. The aircraft is now stored for maintenance.
On 20 July 2014, a Libyan Airlines Bombardier CRJ-900 (registered 5A-LAL) was destroyed during fighting actions at Tripoli International Airport.
Hijackings
On 6 July 1976, an LAA Boeing 727 was hijacked during a flight from Tripoli to Benghazi and forced to land at Palma de Mallorca Airport, where the perpetrator surrendered.
On 24 August 1979, another Boeing 727 was forced to divert from its Benghazi-Tripoli route and land at Larnaca.
On 16 October of the same year, a domestic flight from Hun to Tripoli was hijacked by three passengers, who forced the Fokker F27 Friendship (registered 5A-DDU) to divert to Malta. After two days on the ground at Luqa Airport, the perpetrators surrendered.
On 7 December 1981, an LAA flight from Zurich to Tripoli was hijacked by three persons who thus wanted to press prisoners free. The Boeing 727 was flown to Beirut, were the perpetrators surrendered.
On 20 February 1983, Flight 484 was hijacked en route a flight from Sabha to Benghazi. The two hijackers forced the 727 (registered 5A-DII) to land in Malta, and surrendered three days later.
Also in 1983, on 22 June, an LAA Boeing 707 was hijacked during a flight from Athens to Tripoli, by two persons who demanded to be taken to Iran. During the negotiations, the aircraft was flown to Rome and Larnaca, where the hijackers surrendered.
See also
Transportation in Libya
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Airlines banned in the European Union
Airlines of Libya
Arab Air Carriers Organization members
Airlines established in 1964
Government-owned airlines
Government of Libya
Libyan brands
Organizations based in Tripoli
1960s establishments in Libya
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201447
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20W.%20Eckert
|
Allan W. Eckert
|
Allan Wesley Eckert (January 30, 1931 – July 7, 2011) was an American novelist and playwright who specialized in historical novels for adults and children, and was also a naturalist. His novel Incident at Hawk's Hill (1971) was initially marketed to adults and selected by Reader's Digest Condensed Books. A runner-up for the Newbery Medal, it was afterward marketed as a children's novel and adapted by Disney for a television movie known as The Boy Who Talked to Badgers (1975).
Eckert wrote several books of natural history. In addition, he wrote more than 225 episodes of Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom, for which he received an Emmy Award.
His numerous historical novels were popular, including several that were part of his series "The Winning of America". In 1996, one of them was adapted for the stage as 1913: The Great Dayton Flood and premiered at Wright State University, also being produced at the Kennedy Center in Washington, DC. He wrote the drama Tecumseh for an outdoor production at Sugarloaf Mountain Amphitheatre near Chillicothe, Ohio that has been a destination for tourists every summer since 1973.
Biography
Eckert was born in Buffalo, New York, in 1931, and raised in the Chicago, Illinois area. He attended college near Bellefontaine, Ohio, and remained a longtime resident there.
As a young man, he hitchhiked around the United States, living off the land and learning about wildlife. He began writing about nature and American history at the age of thirteen. He eventually wrote numerous books for children and adults. His children's novel, Incident at Hawk's Hill, was a runner-up for the Newbery Medal in 1972. One of his novels tells how the great auk became extinct.
Eckert published numerous novels of the Ohio Country frontier in what was called his "The Winning of America" series, including accounts of frontiersmen and notable Native Americans, such as Tecumseh. He conducted extensive research for his works, but inserted fictional dialogue for his historical figures.
Eckert also wrote several unproduced screenplays. He wrote more than 225 episodes of Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom, for which he received an Emmy Award.
In a 1999 poll conducted by the Ohioana Library Association, Eckert shared with Toni Morrison the accolade of "Favorite Ohio Writer of All Time."
Eckert died in his sleep on July 7, 2011, in Corona, California, at the age of 80.
Dramatizations and adaptations
Eckert wrote the outdoor drama Tecumseh! which, in 1997, celebrated its 25th year of production at the multi-million-dollar Sugarloaf Mountain Amphitheater near Chillicothe, Ohio. His 1968 children's novel Blue Jacket was adapted as a drama of the same name designed for outdoor performances. It opened in 1982 at a facility outside Xenia, Ohio. The production eventually closed due to financial difficulties, but it was estimated to have generated more than nine million dollars yearly into the local economy of southwest Ohio.<ref>"Blue Jacket puts $9 million yearly into Greene County economy, Helen Bebbington, The Dayton Daily News, June 12, 2003.</ref>
Eckert's 1965 book A Time of Terror: The Great Dayton Flood was in 1996 adapted for the stage as 1913: The Great Dayton Flood by W. Stuart McDowell and Timothy Nevits. It was performed at Wright State University, featuring recorded narration by actors Martin Sheen, Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. The production won a number of awards from the American College Theatre Festival XXIX at the Riffe Center, Columbus, Ohio. It opened the 1997 festival in the Kennedy Center, returning to Dayton that fall, where it played in the Victoria Theatre.
Criticism
While Eckert emphasized the historical basis of his books and stressed the years of research he conducted, he created dialogue and internal thought for his ostensibly historic figures. Reviewers have described his work as "an entertaining blend of fact and fiction." What Eckert described as "narrative biography” was criticized by Kirkus Reviews as “an apparent euphemism for poetic license”, when discussing his book about Tecumseh. A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh was described as "A biography that succeeds better as fiction". The reviewer said that the book "in its interpretative zeal … strays from … the historical record to the point of being suspect".
Bibliography The Great Auk: A Novel (1963); 2003 paperback reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation, .A Time of Terror: The Great Dayton Flood (1965); 1997 reprint edition with an Afterword by W. Stuart McDowell, Landfall Press, .The Silent Sky: The Incredible Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon (1965); 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Writer's Digest Course in Short Story Writing; 1965.Wild Season; 1967; 1981 reprint edition, Landfall Press, (paperback: ).The Frontiersmen: A Narrative (1967); 2001 paperback reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation; .Bayou Backwaters; with Marlin Perkins (1967), 2000 reprint edition, Doubleday, .The Crossbreed; 1968, Little Brown & Company, ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Blue Jacket: War Chief of the Shawnees; 1968; 2003 reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation, , (paperback: ).The King Snake; (Juvenile natural history) 1968; 1990 reprint, Scholastic, ; 2001 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Dreaming Tree; 1968; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Wilderness Empire: A Narrative;1968; 2001 reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation, , (paperback: ).In Search of a Whale; 1969, Doubleday, .The Conquerors; 1970; 2002 reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation, , (paperback: ).Incident at Hawk's Hill; 1971; 1995 reprint edition, Little Brown & Company, , (paperback: ).The Court-Martial of Daniel Boone; 1973, Little Brown & Company, ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Owls of North America, North of Mexico: All the Species and Subspecies Illustrated in Color and Fully Described; 1973, Doubleday Books, .Tecumseh!: A Play; 1975; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The HAB Theory; 1976, Little Brown & Company, ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Wilderness War, A Narrative; 1978; 2003 reprint edition, Jesse Stuart Foundation, , (paperback: ).The Wading Birds of North America: North of Mexico; 1978; 1987 reprint edition, Gramercy, .Savage Journey: A Novel"; (Juvenile literature); 1979, Little Brown & Company, ; 2001 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Song of the Wild; (Juvenile literature); 1980, Little Brown & Co., ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Whattizzit Nature Pun Quizzes; (booklet) 1981, Landfall Press, .Gateway to Empire; 1982, Little Brown & Company, ; 1983 paperback edition, Bantam Books, .Johnny Logan: Shawnee Spy: A Novel; 1982, Little Brown & Co, ; 2001 Paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.Com, .Wilderness Empire, Number 2; 1982, Bantam Books, .The Dark Green Tunnel; (Juvenile fantasy); 1983, Little Brown & Co., ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Wand: The Return to Mesmeria; (Juvenile fantasy) 1984, Little Brown & Co, ; 2001 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .The Scarlet Mansion; 1985, Little Brown & Company, ; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Earth Treasures Volume 1: the Northeastern Quadrant; 1985; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Earth Treasures Volume 2: the Southeastern Quadrant; 1985; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Earth Treasures Volume 3: the Northwestern Quadrant; 1986; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Earth Treasures Volume 4A: the Southwestern Quadrant; 1987; 2000 paperback reprint edition, Backinprint.com, .Twilight Of Empire; 1988, Little Brown & Company, ; 1989 paperback reprint edition, Bantam, .A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh; 1992, Bantam Books, ; 1993 paperback reprint, Domain, ; 1995 paperback reprint, Smithmark Publishing, .That Dark and Bloody River: Chronicles of the Ohio River Valley; 1995, Bantam Books, , (paperback ).The World of Opals; 1997, John Wiley & Sons, .Return to Hawk's Hill; 1998, Little Brown & Company, , (paperback: ).Dark Journey: The Tragedy of the Donner Party''; 2009, Jesse Stuart Foundation,
References
External links
1931 births
2011 deaths
American historical novelists
Historians from New York (state)
Newbery Honor winners
Writers from Buffalo, New York
American male novelists
20th-century American novelists
People from Bellefontaine, Ohio
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
American male screenwriters
American male television writers
American television writers
Screenwriters from New York (state)
20th-century American screenwriters
Emmy Award winners
Historians from Ohio
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rescuers
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The Rescuers
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The Rescuers is a 1977 American animated adventure comedy-drama film produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by Buena Vista Distribution. The 23rd Disney animated feature film, the film is about the Rescue Aid Society, an international mouse organization headquartered in New York City and shadowing the United Nations, dedicated to helping abduction victims around the world at large. Two of these mice, jittery janitor Bernard (Bob Newhart) and his co-agent, the elegant Miss Bianca (Eva Gabor), set out to rescue Penny (Michelle Stacy), an orphan girl being held prisoner in the Devil's Bayou by treasure huntress Madame Medusa (Geraldine Page). The film is based on a series of books by Margery Sharp, most notably The Rescuers (1959) and Miss Bianca (1962).
The Rescuers entered development in 1963, but was shelved due to Walt Disney's dislike of the project's political overtones. During the 1970s, the film was revived as a project for the younger animators, but it was taken over by the senior animation staff following the release of Robin Hood (1973). The Rescuers was released on June 22, 1977, to positive critical reception and became a box office success. The film was also successful throughout the world, including France and West Germany. Due to the film's success, a sequel titled The Rescuers Down Under was released in 1990, which made this film the first Disney animated film to have a sequel.
Plot
In an abandoned riverboat in Devil's Bayou, Louisiana, a young orphan named Penny drops a message in a bottle, containing a plea for help, into the river. The Rescue Aid Society, an international mouse organization inside the United Nations, finds the bottle when it washes up in New York City. The Hungarian representative, Miss Bianca, volunteers to accept the case and chooses Bernard, a stammering janitor, as her co-agent. The two visit Morningside Orphanage, where Penny lived, and meet an old cat named Rufus. He tells them about a sketchy woman named Madame Medusa who once tried to lure Penny into her car and may have succeeded in abducting Penny this time.
The mice travel to Medusa's pawn shop, where they discover that she and her partner, Mr. Snoops, are on a quest to find the world's largest diamond, the Devil's Eye. The mice learn that Medusa and Snoops are currently at the Devil's Bayou with Penny, whom they have indeed kidnapped and placed under the guard of two trained crocodiles, Brutus and Nero. With the help of an albatross named Orville and a dragonfly named Evinrude, the mice follow Medusa to the bayou. There, they learn that Medusa plans to force Penny to enter a small hole that leads down into a pirates' cave where the Devil's Eye is located.
Bernard and Bianca find Penny and devise a plan of escape. They send Evinrude to alert the local animals, who loathe Medusa, but Evinrude is delayed when he is forced to take shelter from a flock of bats. The following morning, Medusa and Snoops send Penny down into the cave to find the gem. Unbeknownst to Medusa, Bianca and Bernard are hiding in Penny's skirt pocket. The three soon find the Devil's Eye within a pirate skull. As Penny pries the mouth open with a sword, the mice push the gem through it, but soon the oceanic tide rises and floods the cave. The three barely manage to retrieve the diamond and escape.
Medusa betrays Snoops and hides the diamond in Penny's teddy bear while holding the two of them at gunpoint. When she trips over a cable set as a trap by Bernard and Bianca, Medusa loses the bear and the diamond to Penny, who runs away with them. The local animals arrive at the riverboat and aid Bernard and Bianca in trapping Brutus and Nero, then set off Mr. Snoops's fireworks to create more chaos. Meanwhile, Penny and the mice commandeer Medusa's swamp-mobile, a makeshift airboat. Medusa unsuccessfully pursues them, using Brutus and Nero as water-skis. As the riverboat sinks from the fireworks' damage, Medusa crashes and is left clinging to the boat's smoke stacks as Mr. Snoops escapes on a raft and laughs at her, while the irritated Brutus and Nero turn on her and circle below.
Back in New York City, the Rescue Aid Society watch a news report of how Penny found the Devil's Eye, which has been given to the Smithsonian Institution, and how Penny has been adopted. The meeting is interrupted when Evinrude arrives with a call for help, sending Bernard and Bianca on a new adventure.
Cast
Bob Newhart as Bernard, Rescue Aid Society's timid janitor, who reluctantly tags along with Miss Bianca on her journey to the Devil's Bayou to rescue Penny. He is highly superstitious about the number 13 and dislikes flying (the latter being a personality trait of Newhart).
Eva Gabor as Miss Bianca, the Hungarian representative of the Rescue Aid Society. She is sophisticated and adventurous, and fond of Bernard, choosing him as her co-agent as she sets out to rescue Penny. Her Hungarian nationality was derived from that of her voice actress.
Geraldine Page as Madame Medusa, a greedy, redheaded, wicked pawn-shop owner. Upon discovering the Devil's Eye diamond hidden in a blowhole, she kidnaps the small orphan, Penny, to retrieve it for her, as Penny is the only one small enough to fit in it. In the end, she is thwarted and presumably eaten by her two crocodiles, Brutus and Nero.
Michelle Stacy as Penny, a lonely six-year-old orphan girl, residing at Morningside Orphanage in New York City. She is kidnapped by Medusa in an attempt to retrieve the world's largest diamond, the Devil's Eye.
Joe Flynn as Mr. Snoops, Medusa's clumsy and incompetent business partner, who obeys his boss's orders to steal the Devil's Eye in exchange for half of it. Upon being betrayed by Medusa, however, he turns on her and flees by raft, laughing at her. This was Flynn's final role before his death in 1974.
Jim Jordan as Orville (named after Orville Wright of the Wright brothers, the inventors of the airplane; most likely influenced from Bob Newhart's stand-up sketch "Merchandising the Wright Brothers"), an albatross who gives Bernard and Bianca a ride to Devil's Bayou. Jordan, 80 years old by the time the film was completed, had been lured out of retirement and had not performed since the death of his wife and comic partner Marian in 1961; it would serve as Jordan's last public performance.
John McIntire as Rufus, an elderly cat who resides at Morningside Orphanage and comforts Penny when she is sad. Although his time onscreen is rather brief, he provides the film's most important theme, faith. He was designed by animator Ollie Johnston, who retired after the film following a 40-year career with Disney.
Jeanette Nolan as Ellie Mae and Pat Buttram as Luke, two muskrats who reside in a Southern-style home on a patch of land in Devil's Bayou. Luke drinks very strong, homemade liquor, which is used to help Bernard and Evinrude regain energy when they need it. Its most important usage is for fuel for powering Medusa's swamp-mobile in the film's climax.
James MacDonald as Evinrude (named after a brand of outboard motors), a dragonfly who mans a leaf boat across Devil's Bayou, giving Bernard and Miss Bianca a ride across the swamp waters.
Bernard Fox as Mr. Chairman, the chairman to the Rescue Aid Society.
George Lindsey as Deadeye, a fisher rabbit who is one of Luke and Ellie Mae's friends.
Larry Clemmons as Gramps, a grumpy, yet kind old turtle who carries a brown cane.
Dub Taylor as Digger, a mole.
John Fiedler as Deacon Owl
Shelby Flint as Singer, Bottle
Bill McMillian as TV Announcer
Production
In January 1963, story artist Otto Englander wrote a treatment developed from the first book centering on a Norwegian poet held captive by a totalitarian government in the Siberia-like stronghold. However, as the story grew overtly involved with international intrigue, Walt Disney shelved the project as he was unhappy with the political overtones. In August 1968, Englander wrote another treatment featuring Bernard and Bianca rescuing Richard the Lionheart during the Middle Ages. The project was revived in the early 1970s as a project for the young animators, led by Don Bluth, as the studio would alternate between full-scale "A pictures" and smaller, scaled-back "B pictures" with simpler animation. The animators had selected the most recent book, Miss Bianca in the Antarctic, with its story focusing on a captured polar bear forced into performing in shows, causing the unsatisfied bear to place a bottle that would reach the mice. Jazz singer Louis Prima was to voice the character named Louis the Bear, and this version was to feature six songs sung by Prima written by Floyd Huddleston. In February 1974, Huddleston had also detailed that comedian Redd Foxx had been cast as a lion. However, in 1975, following headaches and episodes of memory loss, Prima discovered he had a stem brain tumor, and the project was scrapped.
Meanwhile, the "A" crew had finished work on Robin Hood (1973), and was set to begin production on an adaptation of Paul Gallico's book titled Scruffy, with Ken Anderson as director. The story concerned the monkeys of Gibraltar that would be threatened by the Nazi Party's attempt to capture them from the British Empire during World War II. When the time had come to green-light one of the two projects, the studio leaders eventually decided to go for The Rescuers. When Scruffy was shelved, the veteran team turned the project into a more traditional, full-scale production and ultimately dropped the Arctic setting of the story. Story artist Fred Lucky had stated, "It was too stark a background for the animators."
Cruella de Vil, the villainess from One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), was originally considered to be the main antagonist of the film, but veteran Disney animator Ollie Johnston stated it felt wrong to attempt a sequel and the idea was dropped. Instead, she was replaced by a retouched version of the Diamond Duchess in Miss Bianca. The motive to steal a diamond originated in Margery Sharp's 1959 novel, Miss Bianca. Her appearance was based on animator Milt Kahl's then-wife, Phyllis Bounds (who was the niece of Lillian Disney), whom he did not particularly like. This was Kahl's last film for the studio, and he wanted his final character to be his best; he was so insistent on perfecting Madame Medusa that he ended up doing almost all the animation for the character himself. Penny was inspired by Patience, the orphan in the novel. For the accomplices, the filmmakers adapted the character, Mandrake, into Mr. Snoops and his appearance was caricatured from animation historian John Culhane. Culhane claims he was practically tricked into posing for various reactions, and his movements were imitated on Mr. Snoops's model sheet. However, he stated, "Becoming a Disney character was beyond my wildest dreams of glory." Brutus and Nero are based on the two bloodhounds, Tyrant and Torment in the novels.
The writers had considered developing Bernard and Bianca into married professional detectives, though they decided that leaving the characters as unmarried novices was more romantic. For the supporting characters, a pint-sized swampmobile for the mice—a leaf powered by a dragonfly—was created. As they developed the comedic potential of displaying his exhaustion through buzzing, the dragonfly grew from an incidental into a major character. Veteran sound effects artist and voice talent Jimmy MacDonald came out of retirement to provide the effects. Also, the local swamp creatures were originally written as a dedicated home guard that drilled and marched incessantly. However, the writers evolved them into a volunteer group of helpful little bayou creatures. Their leader, a singing bullfrog voiced by Phil Harris, was deleted from the film. A pigeon was originally proposed to be the transportation for Bernard and Bianca, until Ollie Johnston remembered a True-Life Adventures episode that showed albatrosses and their clumsy take-offs and landings, and suggested the ungainly bird instead.
Animation
Ever since One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), animation for theatrical Disney animated films was done by xerography, which had only been able to produce black outlines, but had been improved for the cel artists to use a medium-grey toner in order to create a softer-looking line. At the end of production, it marked the last joint effort by veterans Milt Kahl, Ollie Johnston, and Frank Thomas, and the first Disney film worked on by Don Bluth as a directing animator, instead of an assistant animator. Other animators who stepped up during production were Glen Keane, Ron Clements, and Andy Gaskill, who would all play an important role in the Disney Renaissance.
Music
The songwriting team of Carol Connors and Ayn Robbins first met in 1973 on a double date. Connors had earlier co-composed and sang successful songs such as "To Know Him Is to Love Him" and "Hey Little Cobra" with the Teddy Bears. Meanwhile, Robbins worked as a personal secretary to actors George Kennedy and Eva Gabor and wrote unpublished poetry. On their first collaboration, they composed eleven songs for a Christmas show for an unproduced animated film. In spite of this, they were offered an interview from Walt Disney Productions to compose songs for The Rescuers. Describing their collaborative process, Robbins noted "...Carol plays the piano and I play the pencil." Additionally, Connors and Robbins collaborated with composer Sammy Fain on the song, "Someone's Waiting for You". Most of the songs they wrote for the film were performed by Shelby Flint. Also, notably for the first time since Bambi (1942), all the most significant songs were sung as part of a narrative, as opposed to by the film's characters as in most Disney animated films.
Songs
Original songs performed in the film include:
Songs heard in the film but not released on the soundtrack include:
"Faith is a Bluebird" – Although not an actual song, it is a poem recited by Rufus and partially by Penny in a flashback the old cat has to when he last saw the small orphan girl, and comforted her through the poem, about having faith. The titular bluebird that appears in this sequence originally appeared in Alice in Wonderland (1951).
"The U.S. Air Force" – Serves as the leitmotif for Orville.
"For Penny's a Jolly Good Fellow" – Sung by the orphan children at the end of the film, as a variation of the song "For He's a Jolly Good Fellow".
Release
On June 19, 1977, The Rescuers premiered at the AFI Silver Theatre in Washington, D.C. During the film's initial theatrical run, the film was released as a double feature with the live-action nature documentary film, A Tale of Two Critters. On December 16, 1983, The Rescuers was re-released to theaters accompanied with the new Mickey Mouse featurette, Mickey's Christmas Carol, which marked the character's first theatrical appearance after a 30-year absence. In anticipation of its upcoming theatrically released sequel in 1990, The Rescuers Down Under, The Rescuers saw another successful theatrical run on March 17, 1989.
Marketing
To tie in with the film's 25th anniversary, The Rescuers debuted in the Walt Disney Classics Collection line in 2002, with three different figures featuring three of the film's biggest stars, as well as the opening title scroll. The three figures were sculpted by Dusty Horner and they were: Brave Bianca, featuring Miss Bianca the heroine and priced at $75, Bold Bernard, featuring hero Bernard, priced also at $75 and Evinrude Base, featuring Evinrude the dragonfly and priced at $85. The title scroll featuring the film's name, The Rescuers, and from the opening song sequence, "The Journey," was priced at $30. All figures were retired in March 2005, except for the opening title scroll which was suspended in December 2012.
The Rescuers was the inspiration for another Walt Disney Classics Collection figure in 2003. Ken Melton was the sculptor of Teddy Goes With Me, My Dear, a limited-edition, 8-inch sculpture featuring the evil Madame Medusa, the orphan girl Penny, her teddy bear "Teddy" and the Devil's Eye diamond. Exactly 1,977 of these sculptures were made, in reference to the film's release year, 1977. The sculpture was priced at $299 and instantly declared retired in 2003.
In November 2008, a sixth sculpture inspired by the film was released. Made with pewter and resin, Cleared For Take Off introduced the character of Orville into the collection and featured Bernard and Bianca a second time. The piece, inspired by Orville's take-off scene in the film, was sculpted by Ruben Procopio.
Home media
The Rescuers premiered on VHS and LaserDisc on September 18, 1992 as part of the Walt Disney Classics series. The release went into moratorium on April 30, 1993. It was re-released on VHS as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection on January 5, 1999, but was recalled three days later and reissued on March 23, 1999 (see "Nudity scandal").
The Rescuers was released on DVD on May 20, 2003, as a standard edition, which was discontinued in November 2011.
On August 21, 2012, a 35th-anniversary edition of The Rescuers was released on Blu-ray alongside its sequel in a "2-Movie Collection".
Nudity scandal
On January 8, 1999, three days after the film's second release on home video, The Walt Disney Company announced a recall of about 3.4 million copies of the videotapes because there was an objectionable image in one of the film's backgrounds.
The image in question is a blurry image of a topless woman with breasts and nipples showing. The image appears twice in non-consecutive frames during the scene in which Miss Bianca and Bernard are flying on Orville's back through New York City. The two images could not be seen in ordinary viewing because the film runs too fast—at 24 frames per second.
On January 10, 1999, two days after the recall was announced, the London newspaper The Independent reported:A Disney spokeswoman said that the images in The Rescuers were placed in the film during post-production, but she declined to say what they were or who placed them... The company said the aim of the recall was to keep its promise to families that they can trust and rely on the Disney brand to provide the best in family entertainment.
The Rescuers home video was reissued on March 23, 1999, with the inappropriate nudity edited and blocked out.
Reception
Box office
The Rescuers was successful upon its original theatrical release earning worldwide gross rentals of $48 million at the box office. During its initial release in France, it out-grossed Star Wars (1977) receiving admissions of 7.2 million. The film also became the highest-grossing film in West Germany at the time with admissions of 9.7 million. By the end of its theatrical run, the distributor rentals amounted to $19 million in the United States and Canada while its international rentals totaled $41 million.
The Rescuers was re-released in 1983 in which it grossed $21 million domestically. The film was again re-released in 1989 and grossed $21.2 million domestically. In its total lifetime domestic gross, the film has grossed $71.2 million, and its total lifetime worldwide gross is $169 million.
Critical reaction
The Rescuers was said to be Disney's greatest film since Mary Poppins (1964), and seemed to signal a new golden age for Disney animation. Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times praised the film as "the best feature-length animated film from Disney in a decade or more—the funniest, the most inventive, the least self-conscious, the most coherent, and moving from start to finish, and probably most important of all, it is also the most touching in that unique way fantasy has of carrying vibrations of real life and real feelings." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote the film "is one of the most rousing and appealing animated features ever made by the Disney studio. The last production for several members of the original feature animation unit assembled by Walt Disney in the late '30s, the film is both a triumphant swan song and gladdening act of regeneration." Variety magazine wrote the film was "the best work by Disney animators in many years, restoring the craft to its former glories. In addition, it has a more adventurous approach to color and background stylization than previous Disney efforts have displayed, with a delicate pastel palette used to wide-ranging effect."
Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film "doesn't belong in the same category as the great Disney cartoon features (Snow White and The Seven Dwarfs, Bambi, Fantasia) but it's a reminder of a kind of slickly cheerful, animated entertainment that has become all but extinct." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four writing, "To see any Disney animated film these days is to compare it with Disney classics released 30 or 40 years ago. Judged against Pinocchio, for example. The Rescuers is lightweight, indeed. Its themes are forgettable. It's mostly an adventure story." TV Guide gave the film three stars out of five, opining that The Rescuers "is a beautifully animated film that showed Disney still knew a lot about making quality children's fare even as their track record was weakening." They also praised the voice acting of the characters, and stated that the film is "a delight for children as well as adults who appreciate good animation and brisk storytelling." Ellen MacKay of Common Sense Media gave the film four out of five stars, writing, "Great adventure, but too dark for preschoolers".
In his book, The Disney Films, film historian Leonard Maltin refers to The Rescuers as "a breath of fresh air for everyone who had been concerned about the future of animation at Walt Disney's," praises its "humor and imagination and [that it is] expertly woven into a solid story structure [...] with a delightful cast of characters." Finally, he declares the film "the most satisfying animated feature to come from the studio since 101 Dalmatians." He also briefly mentions the ease with which the film surpassed other animated films of its time. The film's own animators Frank Thomas and Ollie Johnston stated on their website that The Rescuers had been their return to a film with heart and also considered it their best film without Walt Disney. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received an 81% approval rating, with an average rating of 6.50/10 based on 31 reviews. The website's consensus states: "Featuring superlative animation, off-kilter characters, and affectionate voice work by Bob Newhart and Eva Gabor, The Rescuers represents a bright spot in Disney's post-golden age." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100 based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Jack Shaheen, in his study of Hollywood portrayals and stereotypes of Arabs, noted the inclusion of delegates from Arab countries in the Rescue Aid Society.
Accolades
The Rescuers was nominated in 1978 for an Academy Award for the song "Someone's Waiting for You" at the 50th Academy Awards. The song lost to "You Light Up My Life" from the film of the same name.
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated The Rescuers for its Top 10 Animated Films list.
Sequel
The Rescuers was the first Disney animated film to have a sequel. After three successful theatrical releases of the original film, The Rescuers Down Under was released theatrically on November 16, 1990.
The Rescuers Down Under takes place in the Australian Outback, and involves Bernard and Bianca trying to rescue a boy named Cody and a giant golden eagle called Marahute from a greedy poacher named Percival C. McLeach. Both Bob Newhart and Eva Gabor reprised their lead roles. Since Jim Jordan, who had voiced Orville, had since died, a new character, Wilbur (Orville's brother, another albatross), was created and voiced by John Candy.
See also
1977 in film
List of American films of 1977
List of highest-grossing animated films
List of highest-grossing films in France
List of animated feature films of 1977
List of Walt Disney Pictures films
List of Disney theatrical animated feature films
References
Bibliography
External links
1970s American animated films
1970s children's animated films
1970s comedy-drama films
1970s crime drama films
1970s crime comedy films
1970s fantasy adventure films
1970s English-language films
1977 animated films
1977 comedy films
1977 drama films
1977 films
American adventure drama films
American buddy films
American children's animated adventure films
American children's animated comedy films
American children's animated drama films
American children's animated fantasy films
American films
American comedy-drama films
American coming-of-age films
American fantasy adventure films
Animated buddy films
Animated coming-of-age films
Animated films about birds
Animated films about cats
Animated films about mice
Animated films about reptiles and amphibians
Animated films about orphans
Animated films based on children's books
Animated films set in New York City
Animation controversies in film
Disney controversies
Films based on works by Margery Sharp
Films about child abduction
Films about the United Nations
Films based on multiple works of a series
Films directed by John Lounsbery
Films directed by Wolfgang Reitherman
Films directed by Art Stevens
Films produced by Ron W. Miller
Films set in Louisiana
Obscenity controversies in film
Obscenity controversies in animation
Walt Disney Animation Studios films
Walt Disney Pictures films
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201455
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susuwatari
|
Susuwatari
|
Susuwatari (, ; "wandering soot"), also called Makkuro kurosuke (; "makkuro" meaning "pitch black", "kuro" meaning "black" and "-suke" being a common ending for boys names), is the name of a fictitious sprite that was devised by Hayao Miyazaki, drawn by Studio Ghibli, known from the famous anime-productions My Neighbor Totoro (1988) and Spirited Away (2001) where, in the former, they are identified as "black soots" in early subtitles, as "soot sprites" or "dust bunnies" in the Streamline Pictures English dub, and as "soot gremlins" in the Walt Disney Studios English dubbed version.
Description
Susuwatari are described and shown as tennis ball-sized, pitch-black and fuzzy-haired beings with two large eyes and long, thin limbs. They move by hovering around, but they can extend stick-like limbs from their bodies to do certain tasks, and can lift objects many times their own weight. They make a squeaky murmuring sound when excited, and dissolve into powder (soot) if crushed.
My Neighbor Totoro
In My Neighbor Totoro, the house the main characters move into is full of Susuwatari, which are rationalized as Makkuro Kurosuke, an optical illusion caused by moving quickly from light into darkness. Seeing that the family is made of good people, the Susuwatari leave the house to move to another abandoned area.
Spirited Away
They later reappeared in Spirited Away as workers in Kamaji's boiler room.
The protagonist Sen (Chihiro) befriends a number of them by helping them carry coal. Sen is told that if these Susuwatari are not given a job to do, they turn back into soot. Another character, Lin, feeds the Susuwatari much like farmers feed chickens, throwing handfuls of the Japanese candy konpeitō onto the ground for them to eat. After Sen is accepted among the staff of the bathhouse, chiefly by Kamaji and Lin, the Susuwatari become almost admiring of her, and help her in their small ways.
See also
Dust bunny
References
Citations
Bibliography
Hayao Miyazaki, Yuji Oniki: Spirited Away. Viz Communications, San Francisco, 2003,
Hayao Miyazaki: My neighbour Totoro. Viz Communications, San Francisco, 2005,
Julien R. Fielding: Discovering world religions at twenty-four frames per second. Scarecrow Press, 2008, , page 317.
Patrick Drazen: A Gathering of Spirits: Japan's Ghost Story Tradition: from Folklore and Kabuki to Anime and Manga. iUniverse, New York 2011, , page 144.
Ayumi Suzuki: Animating the chaos: Contemporary Japanese anime, cinema, and postmodernity. ProQuest, Carbondale 2008, , page 14.
Nakamura, Tamah, Professor. "Spirited Away." "Hayao Miyazaki's World" 'Best of' Booklet, edited by Hiroshi Kudo and Bobby Recinos, PDF ed., Kyushu University, 2013, pp. 17–91.
Hartman, Emma. "Tradition vs. Innovation and the Creatures in Spirited Away." Digital Literature Review, PDF ed., vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 1–13.
Hayao Miyazaki
Studio Ghibli
Yōkai
Fictional fairies and sprites
Film characters introduced in 1988
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%20%28grammar%29
|
Object (grammar)
|
In linguistics, an object is any of several types of arguments. In subject-prominent, nominative-accusative languages such as English, a transitive verb typically distinguishes between its subject and any of its objects, which can include but are not limited to direct objects, indirect objects, and arguments of adpositions (prepositions or postpositions); the latter are more accurately termed oblique arguments, thus including other arguments not covered by core grammatical roles, such as those governed by case morphology (as in languages such as Latin) or relational nouns (as is typical for members of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area).
In ergative-absolutive languages, for example most Australian Aboriginal languages, the term "subject" is ambiguous, and thus the term "agent" is often used instead to contrast with "object", such that basic word order is often spoken of in terms such as Agent-Object-Verb (AOV) instead of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). Topic-prominent languages, such as Mandarin, focus their grammars less on the subject-object or agent-object dichotomies but rather on the pragmatic dichotomy of topic and comment.
Types
English
In English traditional grammar types, three types of object are acknowledged: direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. These object types are illustrated in the following table:
Note that indirect objects are frequently expressed as objects of prepositions, complicating the traditional typology; e.g. "I gave salt to the man."
Other languages
Some Chinese verbs can have two direct objects, one being more closely bound to the verb than the other; these may be called "inner" and "outer" objects.
Secundative languages lack a distinction between direct and indirect objects, but rather distinguish primary and secondary objects. Many African languages fall into this typological category.
Syntactic category
While the typical object is a pronoun, noun, or noun phrase, objects can also appear as other syntactic categories, as illustrated in the following table for the English language:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category !! Example
|-
| Noun (phrase) or pronoun || The girl ate fruit.
|-
| that-clause || We remembered that we had to bring something.
|-
| Bare clause || We remembered we had to bring something.
|-
| for-clause || We were waiting for him to explain.
|-
| Interrogative clause || They asked what had happened.
|-
| Free relative clause || I heard what you heard.
|-
| Gerund (phrase or clause) || He stopped asking questions.
|-
| to-infinitive || Sam attempted to leave.
|-
| Cataphoric it || I believe it that she said that.
|}
Identification
A number of criteria can be employed for identifying objects, e.g.:
1. Subject of passive sentence: Most objects in active sentences can become the subject in the corresponding passive sentences.
2. Position occupied: In languages with strict word order, the subject and the object tend to occupy set positions in unmarked declarative clauses. The object follows the subject.
3. Morphological case: In languages that have case systems, objects are marked by certain cases (accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, etc.).
Languages vary significantly with respect to these criteria. The first criterion identifies objects reliably most of the time in English, e.g.
Fred gave me a book.
a. A book was given (to) me.—Passive sentence identifies a book as an object in the starting sentence.
b. I was given a book.—Passive sentence identifies me as an object in the starting sentence.
The second criterion is also a reliable criterion for analytic languages such as English, since the relatively strict word order of English usually positions the object after the verb(s) in declarative sentences. The third criterion is less applicable to English, though, since English lacks morphological case, exceptions being the personal pronouns (I/me, we/us, he/him, she/her, they/them). For languages that have case and relatively freer word order, morphological case is the most readily available criterion for identifying objects. In Latin and related languages, direct objects are usually marked with the accusative case, and indirect objects with the dative case. However, object marking may also follow non-syntactic rules, such as animacy. In Spanish, for example, human objects have to be marked by the preposition a (as an example of differential object marking).
Verb classes
Verbs can be classified according to the number and/or type of objects that they do or do not take. The following table provides an overview of some of the various verb classes:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Transitive verbs !! Number of objects !! Examples
|-
| Monotransitive || One object || I fed the dog.
|-
| Ditransitive || Two objects || You lent me a lawnmower.
|-
| Tritransitive || Three objects || I'll trade you this bicycle for your binoculars.
|-
! Intransitive verbs !! Semantic role of subject !! Examples
|-
| Unaccusative || Patient || The man stumbled twice, The roof collapsed.
|-
| Unergative || Agent || He works in the morning, They lie often.
|}
Ergative and object-deletion verbs can be transitive or intransitive, as indicated in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Transitive !! Example
|-
| Ergative || The submarine sank the freighter.
|-
| Object deletion || We have already eaten dinner.
|-
! Intransitive !! Example
|-
| Ergative || The freighter sank.
|-
| Object deletion || We have already eaten.
|}
The distinction drawn here between ergative and object-deletion verbs is based on the role of the subject. The object of a transitive ergative verb is the subject of the corresponding intransitive ergative verb. With object-deletion verbs, in contrast, the subject is consistent regardless of whether an object is or is not present.
In sentence structure
Objects are distinguished from subjects in the syntactic trees that represent sentence structure. The subject appears (as high or) higher in the syntactic structure than the object. The following trees of a dependency grammar illustrate the hierarchical positions of subjects and objects:
The subject is in blue, and the object in orange. The subject is consistently a dependent of the finite verb, whereas the object is a dependent of the lowest non-finite verb if such a verb is present.
See also
Subject (grammar)
Predicate (grammar)
Dependency grammar
Object pronoun
Prepositional pronoun
Transitive verb
Intransitive verb
Oblique case
Differential object marking
Subject–verb inversion in English
predication
predicand
raising
Notes
Literature
Ágel, V., L. Eichinger, H.-W. Eroms, P. Hellwig, H. Heringer, and H. Lobin (eds.) 2003/6. Dependency and valency: An international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Biber, D. et al. 1999. Longman Grammar of spoken and written English. Essex, England: Pearson Education limited.
Carnie, A. 2013. Syntax: A generative introduction, 3rd edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Collins Cobuild English Grammar 1995. London: HarperCollins Publishers.
Conner, J. 1968. A grammar of standard English. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Freeborn, D. 1995. A course book in English grammar: Standard English and the dialects, 2nd edition. London: MacMillan Press LTD.
Keenan, E. and B. Comrie 1977. Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 8. 63–99.
Kesner Bland, S. Intermediate grammar: From form to meaning and use. New York: Oxford University Press.
External links
Direct Objects at chompchomp.com
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201458
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniskirt
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Miniskirt
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A miniskirt (sometimes hyphenated as mini-skirt, separated as mini skirt, or sometimes shortened to simply mini) is a skirt with its hemline well above the knees, generally at mid-thigh level, normally no longer than below the buttocks; and a dress with such a hemline is called a minidress or a miniskirt dress. A micro-miniskirt or microskirt is a miniskirt with its hemline at the upper thigh, at or just below crotch or underwear level.
Short skirts have existed for a long time, though they were generally not called "mini" or recognised as a fashion trend until the 1960s. Instances of clothing resembling miniskirts have been identified by archaeologists and historians as far back as c. 1390–1370 BCE. In the early 20th century, the dancer Josephine Baker's banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt. Extremely short skirts became a staple of 20th-century science fiction, particularly in 1940s pulp artwork, such as that by Earle K. Bergey, who depicted futuristic women in a "stereotyped combination" of metallic miniskirt, bra and boots.
Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the next few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh. Stockings with suspenders (garters) were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. The popular acceptance of miniskirts peaked in the "Swinging London" of the 1960s, and has continued to be commonplace, particularly among younger women and teenage girls. Before that time, short skirts were only seen in sport and dance clothing, such as skirts worn by female tennis players, figure skaters, cheerleaders, and dancers.
Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant and the Parisian André Courrèges.
Pre-1960
While very short skirts have existed for a long time, they were generally not called "mini" until the 1960s. Figurines produced by the Vinča culture (c. 5700–4500 BCE) have been interpreted by archaeologists as representing women in miniskirt-like garments. One of the oldest surviving garments resembling a miniskirt is the short woollen skirt with bronze ornaments worn by the Egtved Girl for her burial in the Nordic Bronze Age (c. 1390–1370 BCE).
One of the earliest known cultures where women regularly wore clothing resembling miniskirts was a subgroup of the Miao people of China, the Duan Qun Miao (, literally "short skirt Miao"). In albums produced during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) from the early eighteenth century onwards to illustrate the various types of Miao, the Duan Qun Miao women were depicted wearing "mini skirts that barely cover the buttocks." At least one of the "One Hundred Miao Pictures" albums contains a poem that specifically describes how the women's short skirts and navel-baring styles were an identifier for this particular group.
The dancer Josephine Baker's banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt.
Mid-20th century science fiction
Extremely short skirts became a staple of 20th-century science fiction, particularly in 1940s pulp artwork such as that by Earle K. Bergey who depicted futuristic women in a "stereotyped combination" of metallic miniskirt, bra and boots. The "sci-fi miniskirt" was seen in genre films and television programmes as well as on comic book covers. The very short skirts worn by regular female characters Carol and Tonga (played by Virginia Hewitt and Nina Bara) in the 1950–55 television series Space Patrol have been suggested as probably the first 'micro-minis' to have been seen on American television. It was later seen as remarkable that only one formal complaint relating to the skirts could be recalled, and that by an ad agency in relation to an upwards shot of Carol climbing a ladder. Hewitt pointed out that even though the complainant claimed they could see up her skirt, her matching tights rendered her effectively clothed from neck to ankle. Otherwise, Space Patrol was applauded for being wholesome and family-friendly, even though the women's short skirts would have been unacceptable in other contexts. Although the 30th-century women in Space Patrol were empowered, experts in their field, and largely treated as equals, "it was the skirts that fuelled indelible memories." The Space Patrol skirts were not the shortest to be broadcast at the time – the German-made American 1954 series Flash Gordon showed Dale Arden (played by Irene Champlin) in an even shorter skirt.
1960s
The manager of an unnamed shop in London's Oxford Street began experimenting in 1960 with skirt hemlines an inch above the knees of window mannequins, and noted how positively his customers responded. Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the next few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh. Stockings with suspenders (American English: "garters") were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. Towards the end of the 1960s, an even shorter version, called the microskirt or micro-mini, emerged.
Extremely short skirts, some as much as eight inches above the knee, were observed in Britain in the summer of 1962. The young women who wore these short skirts were called "Ya-Ya girls", a term derived from "yeah, yeah" which was a popular catcall at the time. One retailer noted that the fashion for layered net crinoline petticoats raised the hems of short skirts even higher. The designer Mary Quant was quoted as saying that "short short skirts" indicated youthfulness which was seen as desirable, fashion-wise.
The earliest known reference to the miniskirt is in a humorous 1962 article datelined Mexico City and describing the "mini-skirt" or "Ya-Ya" as a controversial item of clothing that was the latest thing on the production line there. The article characterized the miniskirt as stopping eight inches above the knee. It referred to a writing by a psychiatrist, whose name it did not provide, who had argued that the miniskirt was a youthful protest of international threats to peace. Much of the article described the reactions of men, who were said to favor the fashion on young women to whom they were unrelated, but to oppose it on their own wives and fiancés.
In the UK, by shortening the skirts to less than they were classed as children's garments rather than adult clothes. Children's clothing was not subject to purchase tax whereas adult clothing was. The avoidance of tax meant that the price was correspondingly less.
Designer claims
Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant and the Parisian André Courrèges. Although Quant reportedly named the skirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini, there is no consensus as to who designed it first. Valerie Steele has noted that the claim that Quant was first is more convincingly supported by evidence than the equivalent Courrèges claim. However, the contemporary fashion journalist Marit Allen, who edited the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK Vogue, firmly stated that the British designer John Bates was the first to offer fashionable miniskirts. Other designers, including Pierre Cardin and Yves Saint Laurent, had also been raising hemlines at the same time.
Mary Quant
The miniskirt is one of the garments most widely associated with Mary Quant. Quant herself is ambivalent about the claim that she invented the miniskirt, stating that her customers should take credit, as she herself wore very short skirts, and they requested even shorter hemlines for themselves. Regardless of whether or not Quant invented the miniskirt, it is widely agreed that she was one of its highest-profile champions. Contrary to obvious and popular belief, Quant named the garment after the Mini Cooper, a favorite car of hers, stating that the car and the skirt were both "optimistic, exuberant, young, flirty", and complemented each other.
Quant had started experimenting with shorter skirts in the late 1950s, when she started making her own designs up to stock her boutique on the King's Road. Among her inspirations was the memory of seeing a young tap-dancer wearing a "tiny skirt over thick black tights", influencing her designs for young, active women who did not wish to resemble their mothers. In addition to the miniskirt, Quant is often credited with inventing the coloured and patterned tights that tended to accompany the garment, although their creation is also attributed to the Spanish couturier Cristóbal Balenciaga who offered harlequin-patterned tights in 1962 or to Bates.
In 2009, a Mary Quant minidress was among the 10 British "design classics" featured on a series of Royal Mail stamps, alongside the Tube map, the Spitfire, and the red telephone box.
André Courrèges
Courrèges explicitly claimed that he invented the mini, and accused Quant of only "commercialising" it. He presented short skirts measuring four inches above the knee in January 1965 for that year's Spring/Summer collection, although some sources claim that Courrèges had been designing miniskirts as early as 1961, the year he launched his couture house. The collection, which also included trouser suits and cut-out backs and midriffs, was designed for a new type of athletic, active young woman. Courrèges had presented "above-the-knee" skirts in his August 1964 haute couture presentation which was proclaimed the "best show seen so far" for that season by The New York Times. The Courrèges look, featuring a knit bodystocking with a gabardine miniskirt slung around the hips, was widely copied and plagiarised, much to the designer's chagrin, and it would be 1967 before he again held a press showing for his work. Steele has described Courrèges's work as a "brilliant couture version of youth fashion" whose sophistication far outshone Quant's work, although she champions the Quant claim. Others, such as Jess Cartner-Morley of The Guardian explicitly credit him, rather than Quant, as the miniskirt's creator.
John Bates and others
The idea that John Bates, rather than Quant or Courrèges, innovated the miniskirt had an influential champion in Marit Allen, who as editor of the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK Vogue, kept track of up-and-coming young designers. In 1966 she chose Bates to design her mini-length wedding outfit in white gabardine and silver PVC. In January 1965 Bates's "skimp dress" with its "short-short skirt" was featured in Vogue, and would later be chosen as the Dress of the Year. Bates was also famous for having designed mini-coats and dresses and other outfits for Emma Peel (played by Diana Rigg) in the TV series The Avengers, although the manufacturers blocked his request for patterned tights to enable Emma Peel to fight in skirts if necessary.
An alternative origin story for the miniskirt came from Barbara Hulanicki of the London boutique Biba, who recalled that in 1966 she received a delivery of stretchy jersey skirts that had shrunk drastically in transit. Much to her surprise, the ten-inch long garments rapidly sold out.
In 1967 Rudi Gernreich was among the first American designers to offer miniskirts, in the face of strongly worded censure and criticism from American couturiers James Galanos and Norman Norell. Criticism of the miniskirt also came from the Paris couturier Coco Chanel, who declared the style "disgusting" despite being herself famed for supporting shorter skirts in the 1920s.
Reception
Owing to Quant's position in the heart of fashionable "Swinging London", the miniskirt was able to spread beyond a simple street fashion into a major international trend. The style came into prominence when Jean Shrimpton wore a short white shift dress, made by Colin Rolfe, on 30 October 1965 at Derby Day, first day of the annual Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia, where it caused a sensation. According to Shrimpton, who claimed that the brevity of the skirt was due mainly to Rolfe's having insufficient material, the ensuing controversy was as much as anything to do with her having dispensed with a hat and gloves, seen as essential accessories in such a conservative society.
Upper garments, such as rugby shirts, were sometimes adapted as mini-dresses. With the rise in hemlines, the wearing of tights or pantyhose, in place of stockings, became more common. Some European countries banned mini-skirts from being worn in public, claiming they were an invitation to rapists. In response, Quant retorted that there was clearly no understanding of the tights worn underneath.
The response to the miniskirt was particularly harsh in Africa, where many state governments saw them as an un-African garment and part of the corrupting influence of the West. Young city-dwelling African women who wore Western clothing such as the miniskirt were particularly at risk of attack based on their clothing, although Robert Ross notes that gender roles and politics were also a key factor. The urban woman earning her own living and independence was seen as a threat to masculine authority, particularly if she wore clothing seen as un-African. Short skirts were seen as indicating that their wearer was a prostitute, and by conflation, a witch who drained male-dominated society of its vitality and energy. In addition to prostitutes and witches, miniskirts also became associated with secretaries, schoolgirls and undergraduates, and young women with "sugar daddies" as lovers or boyfriends. Andrew M. Ivaska has noted that these various tropes boiled down to a basic fear of female power, fear that a woman would use her education or sexual power to control men and/or achieve her own independence, and that the miniskirt therefore became a tangible object of these fears.
In 1968 the Youth League of Tanzania's ruling TANU party launched Operation Vijana. Organised and run by young men, Vijana was a morality campaign targeting indecent clothing, which led to attacks on women with at least one stoning reportedly triggered by the victim's miniskirt. Gangs of youths patrolled bus stations and streets looking for women dressed "inappropriately", and dealing out physical attacks and beatings. In Ethiopia, an attack on women wearing miniskirts triggered a riot of leftist students in which a hundred cars were set on fire and fifty people injured.
Kamuzu Banda, president of Malawi, described miniskirts as a "diabolic fashion which must disappear from the country once and for all." It is also reported that Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, cited apartheid and the miniskirt as his two primary hates. By the mid-1970s the Zanzibar revolutionary party had forbidden both women and men from wearing a long list of garments, hairstyles and cosmetics, including miniskirts.
Post-1960s
1970s
From 1969 onwards, the fashion industry largely returned to longer skirts such as the midi and the maxi. Journalist Christopher Booker gave two reasons for this reaction: firstly, that "there was almost nowhere else to go ... the mini-skirts could go no higher"; and secondly, in his view, "dressed up in mini-skirts and shiny PVC macs, given such impersonal names as 'dolly birds', girls had been transformed into throwaway plastic objects". This lengthening of hemlines coincided with the growth of the feminist movement. However, in the 1960s the mini had been regarded as a symbol of liberation, and it was worn by some, such as Germaine Greer and, in the following decade, Gloria Steinem. Greer herself wrote in 1969 that:
Although they disappeared from mainstream fashion by the mid-70s, miniskirts never entirely went away. This was evidenced by Deborah Harry of the group Blondie, Kate Pierson and Cindy Wilson of the group The B-52's, Siouxsie Sioux of the group Siouxsie And The Banshees, and the group The Slits, who often wore miniskirts during the "new wave" era of the late 70s; and by the female cast members of the TV show Hee Haw, who were known as the "Hee Haw Honeys", who always wore country-style minidresses even during the miniskirt's fashion hiatus in the late 70s and early 80s; and as mentioned above, by female tennis players, figure skaters, cheerleaders, and dancers. The song "(I Don't Want to Go to) Chelsea" (1978), by new wave artist Elvis Costello, contains the line in the chorus: "There's no place here for the mini-skirt waddle."
1980s and 1990s
In the spring of 1982 (as featured in the June issue of Time Magazine that year), short skirts began to re-emerge, notably in the form of "rah-rahs", which were modeled on those worn by female cheerleaders at sporting and other events. In 1985, the British designer Vivienne Westwood offered her first "mini-crini", an abbreviated version of the Victorian crinoline. Its mini-length, bouffant silhouette inspired the puffball skirts widely presented by more established designers such as Christian Lacroix. In 1989, Westwood's mini-crini was described as having combined two conflicting ideals – the crinoline, representing a "mythology of restriction and encumbrance in woman's dress", and the "equally dubious mythology of liberation" associated with the miniskirt.
From the 1980s, many women began to incorporate the miniskirt into their business attire, a trend which grew during the remainder of the century. The titular character of the 1990s television program Ally McBeal, a lawyer portrayed by Calista Flockhart, has been credited with popularising micro-skirts.
The very short skirt is an element of Japanese school uniform, which since the 1990s has been exploited by young women who are part of the kogal (or gyaru) subculture as part of their look.
2000s and 2010s
In the early 2000s, micro-minis were once again revived. In 2003, Tom Ford, at that time described as one of the few designers able to effortlessly dictate changes in fashion, stated that micro-skirts would be the height of fashion for Spring/Summer 2003. For fashionable wear, early 21st century microskirts were often worn with leggings or tights in order to avoid revealing too much. At this time, an even briefer version of the micro-mini emerged, creating a garment sometimes described as a "belt-skirt".
A BBC article in 2014 wrote that miniskirts remained as contemporary a garment as ever, retaining their associations with youth. In an early 2010s study the department store Debenhams found that women continued buying miniskirts up to the age of 40, whilst 1983 studies showed that 33 years old was when the average woman had stopped buying them. Debenham's report concluded that by the 2020s, miniskirts would be seen as a wardrobe staple for British women in their 40s and early 50s.
Despite this, in the early 21st century, miniskirts are still seen as controversial, and remain subject to bans and regulation. Valerie Steele told the BBC in 2014 that even though miniskirts no longer had the power to shock in most Western cultures, she would hesitate to wear one in most parts of the world. She described the garment as symbolic of looking forward to future freedom and backwards to a "much more restricted past" and noted that international rises in extreme conservatism and religious fundamentalism had led to an anti-women backlash, some of which was shown through censure and criticism of women wearing "immodest" clothing. In 2010, the mayor of Castellammare di Stabia in Italy ordered that police fine women for wearing "very short" miniskirts. In the 2000s, a ban on miniskirts at a teacher's college in Kemerovo was claimed by lawyers to be against the terms of equality and human rights as laid out by the Russian constitution, whilst in Chile, the women's minister, Carolina Schmidt, described a regional governor's ban on public employees wearing minis and strapless tops as "absolute nonsense" and challenged their right to regulate other people's clothing. In July 2010, Southampton city council also tried to regulate their female employees's wardrobes, telling them to avoid miniskirts and dress "appropriately."
Miniskirts regularly appear in Africa as part of controversies, something that has continued since the 1960s. In the early 21st century alone, instances have included a proposed ban on miniskirts in Uganda justified by claiming that they were a dangerous distraction to drivers and would cause road accidents, and in 2004, a leaflet campaign in Mombasa instructed women to dress modestly and "shun miniskirts", leading to the Kenyan government denying that they wanted a ban. Since the 1990s, women perceived to be "indecently dressed" might be stripped in public often by gangs of men, but sometimes by other women. These acts took place in Kenya, Zambia and elsewhere, including incidents in Johannesburg in 2008 and 2011 which led to similar attacks in various states including Sudan, Malawi, Zimbabwe and elsewhere. The President of Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika, was forced to make a statement in 2012 after male gangs forcibly stripped women in Lilongwe and Mzuzu. By this point, "miniskirt protests" regularly followed these acts of violence, with the protesters defiantly wearing miniskirts. In late February 2010, a group of about 200 Ugandan women demonstrated against a so-called "miniskirt law", an anti-pornography legislation which specifically forbade women to dress "in a manner designed to sexually excite", or from wearing clothing that revealed their thighs and/or other body parts. Uganda revisited their proposed ban in 2013, with Simon Lokodo, Minister of Ethics and Integrity, proposing another anti-pornography bill which would outlaw revealing "intimate parts", defined as "anything above the knee", and vowing that women who wore miniskirts would be arrested. While most of these proposed bans come from male politicians, in 2009 Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwe's Vice President, had to deal with rumours that she intended to ban miniskirts and trousers for women. In Africa, one of the main issues with the miniskirt since the 1960s is that it is seen as representative of protest against predominantly male authority, an accusation also applied to trousers for women which are perceived as blurring the gender divide.
See also
Hotpants
References
Sources
External links
1960s fads and trends
1960s fashion
1960s neologisms
1970s fashion
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
Articles containing video clips
History of fashion
Skirts
Women's clothing
|
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201460
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscopy
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Stereoscopy
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Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives . Any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope.
Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer. These two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. This technique is distinguished from 3D displays that display an image in three full dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3-dimensional objects being displayed by head and eye movements.
Background
Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three-dimensional depth from given two-dimensional images. Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process, which only begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing ensues within the brain, as it strives to make sense of the raw information. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, and the depth dimension of those objects. The cues that the brain uses to gauge relative distances and depth in a perceived scene include
Stereopsis
Accommodation of the eye
Overlapping of one object by another
Subtended visual angle of an object of known size
Linear perspective (convergence of parallel edges)
Vertical position (objects closer to the horizon in the scene tend to be perceived as farther away)
Haze or contrast, saturation, and color, greater distance generally being associated with greater haze, desaturation, and a shift toward blue
Change in size of textured pattern detail
(All but the first two of the above cues exist in traditional two-dimensional images, such as paintings, photographs, and television.)
Stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth in a photograph, movie, or other two-dimensional image by the presentation of a slightly different image to each eye, which adds the first of these cues (stereopsis). The two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Because all points in the image produced by stereoscopy focus at the same plane regardless of their depth in the original scene, the second cue, focus, is not duplicated and therefore the illusion of depth is incomplete. There are also mainly two effects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for human vision: (1) the mismatch between convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object's perceived position in front of or behind the display or screen and the real origin of that light; and (2) possible crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation in some methods of stereoscopy.
Although the term "3D" is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of "3D" displays, the observer's head and eye movement do not change the information received about the 3-dimensional objects being viewed. Holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two stereophonic speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images "3D". The accurate term "stereoscopic" is more cumbersome than the common misnomer "3D", which has been entrenched by many decades of unquestioned misuse. Although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also.
Most 3D displays use this stereoscopic method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838,
and improved by Sir David Brewster who made the first portable 3D viewing device.
Wheatstone originally used his stereoscope (a rather bulky device) with drawings because photography was not yet available, yet his original paper seems to foresee the development of a realistic imaging method:
For the purposes of illustration I have employed only outline figures, for had either shading or colouring been introduced it might be supposed that the effect was wholly or in part due to these circumstances, whereas by leaving them out of consideration no room is left to doubt that the entire effect of relief is owing to the simultaneous perception of the two monocular projections, one on each retina. But if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Careful attention would enable an artist to draw and paint the two component pictures, so as to present to the mind of the observer, in the resultant perception, perfect identity with the object represented. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, &c., might thus be represented so as not to be distinguished by sight from the real objects themselves.
Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large multi-dimensional data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information. The three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images.
Visual requirements
Anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images:
Simultaneous perception
Fusion (binocular 'single' vision)
Stereopsis
These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision. A person's stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, due to a variety of medical conditions. According to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of stereo to them.
Stereoscopic viewing may be artificially created by the viewer's brain, as demonstrated with the Van Hare Effect, where the brain perceives stereo images even when the paired photographs are identical. This "false dimensionality" results from the developed stereoacuity in the brain, allowing the viewer to fill in depth information even when few if any 3D cues are actually available in the paired images.
Side-by-side
Traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating a 3D illusion starting from a pair of 2D images, a stereogram. The easiest way to enhance depth perception in the brain is to provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images, representing two perspectives of the same object, with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the perspectives that both eyes naturally receive in binocular vision.
To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead, the viewer's eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at infinite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be spaced correspondingly closer together.
The advantages of side-by-side viewers is the lack of diminution of brightness, allowing the presentation of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum color, simplicity in creation, and little or no additional image processing is required. Under some circumstances, such as when a pair of images is presented for freeviewing, no device or additional optical equipment is needed.
The principal disadvantage of side-by-side viewers is that large image displays are not practical and resolution is limited by the lesser of the display medium or human eye. This is because as the dimensions of an image are increased, either the viewing apparatus or viewer themselves must move proportionately further away from it in order to view it comfortably. Moving closer to an image in order to see more detail would only be possible with viewing equipment that adjusted to the difference.
Freeviewing
Freeviewing is viewing a side-by-side image pair without using a viewing device.
Two methods are available to freeview:
The parallel viewing method uses an image pair with the left-eye image on the left and the right-eye image on the right. The fused three-dimensional image appears larger and more distant than the two actual images, making it possible to convincingly simulate a life-size scene. The viewer attempts to look through the images with the eyes substantially parallel, as if looking at the actual scene. This can be difficult with normal vision because eye focus and binocular convergence are habitually coordinated. One approach to decoupling the two functions is to view the image pair extremely close up with completely relaxed eyes, making no attempt to focus clearly but simply achieving comfortable stereoscopic fusion of the two blurry images by the "look-through" approach, and only then exerting the effort to focus them more clearly, increasing the viewing distance as necessary. Regardless of the approach used or the image medium, for comfortable viewing and stereoscopic accuracy the size and spacing of the images should be such that the corresponding points of very distant objects in the scene are separated by the same distance as the viewer's eyes, but not more; the average interocular distance is about 63 mm. Viewing much more widely separated images is possible, but because the eyes never diverge in normal use it usually requires some previous training and tends to cause eye strain.
The cross-eyed viewing method swaps the left and right eye images so that they will be correctly seen cross-eyed, the left eye viewing the image on the right and vice versa. The fused three-dimensional image appears to be smaller and closer than the actual images, so that large objects and scenes appear miniaturized. This method is usually easier for freeviewing novices. As an aid to fusion, a fingertip can be placed just below the division between the two images, then slowly brought straight toward the viewer's eyes, keeping the eyes directed at the fingertip; at a certain distance, a fused three-dimensional image should seem to be hovering just above the finger. Alternatively, a piece of paper with a small opening cut into it can be used in a similar manner; when correctly positioned between the image pair and the viewer's eyes, it will seem to frame a small three-dimensional image.
Prismatic, self-masking glasses are now being used by some cross-eyed-view advocates. These reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to be displayed. However, any viewing aid that uses prisms, mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply a type of stereoscope, excluded by the customary definition of freeviewing.
Stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the aid of mirrors or prisms while simultaneously keeping them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing lenses inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye vergence and accommodation. Simple freeviewing therefore cannot accurately reproduce the physiological depth cues of the real-world viewing experience. Different individuals may experience differing degrees of ease and comfort in achieving fusion and good focus, as well as differing tendencies to eye fatigue or strain.
Autostereogram
An autostereogram is a single-image stereogram (SIS), designed to create the visual illusion of a three-dimensional (3D) scene within the human brain from an external two-dimensional image. In order to perceive 3D shapes in these autostereograms, one must overcome the normally automatic coordination between focusing and vergence.
Stereoscope and stereographic cards
The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope-like devices, allowing the use of larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view. One can buy historical stereoscopes such as Holmes stereoscopes as antiques. Many stereo photography artists like Jim Naughten and Rebecca Hackemann also make their own stereoscopes.
Transparency viewers
Some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent photographs on film or glass, known as transparencies or diapositives and commonly called slides. Some of the earliest stereoscope views, issued in the 1850s, were on glass. In the early 20th century, 45x107 mm and 6x13 cm glass slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography, especially in Europe. In later years, several film-based formats were in use. The best-known formats for commercially issued stereo views on film are Tru-Vue, introduced in 1931, and View-Master, introduced in 1939 and still in production. For amateur stereo slides, the Stereo Realist format, introduced in 1947, is by far the most common.
Head-mounted displays
The user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two small LCD or OLED displays with magnifying lenses, one for each eye. The technology can be used to show stereo films, images or games, but it can also be used to create a virtual display. Head-mounted displays may also be coupled with head-tracking devices, allowing the user to "look around" the virtual world by moving their head, eliminating the need for a separate controller. Performing this update quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the user requires a great amount of computer image processing. If six axis position sensing (direction and position) is used then wearer may move about within the limitations of the equipment used. Owing to rapid advancements in computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of video and other equipment these devices are beginning to become available at more reasonable cost.
Head-mounted or wearable glasses may be used to view a see-through image imposed upon the real world view, creating what is called augmented reality. This is done by reflecting the video images through partially reflective mirrors. The real world view is seen through the mirrors' reflective surface. Experimental systems have been used for gaming, where virtual opponents may peek from real windows as a player moves about. This type of system is expected to have wide application in the maintenance of complex systems, as it can give a technician what is effectively "x-ray vision" by combining computer graphics rendering of hidden elements with the technician's natural vision. Additionally, technical data and schematic diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment, eliminating the need to obtain and carry bulky paper documents.
Augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have applications in surgery, as it allows the combination of radiographic data (CAT scans and MRI imaging) with the surgeon's vision.
Virtual retinal displays
A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a retinal scan display (RSD) or retinal projector (RP), not to be confused with a "Retina Display", is a display technology that draws a raster image (like a television picture) directly onto the retina of the eye. The user sees what appears to be a conventional display floating in space in front of them. For true stereoscopy, each eye must be provided with its own discrete display. To produce a virtual display that occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or mirrors, the light source must be very close to the eye. A contact lens incorporating one or more semiconductor light sources is the form most commonly proposed. As of 2013, the inclusion of suitable light-beam-scanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic, as is the alternative of embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of thousands (or millions, for HD resolution) of accurately aligned sources of collimated light.
3D viewers
There are two categories of 3D viewer technology, active and passive. Active viewers have electronics which interact with a display. Passive viewers filter constant streams of binocular input to the appropriate eye.
Active
Shutter systems
A shutter system works by openly presenting the image intended for the left eye while blocking the right eye's view, then presenting the right-eye image while blocking the left eye, and repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of the two images into a single 3D image. It generally uses liquid crystal shutter glasses. Each eye's glass contains a liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming dark when voltage is applied, being otherwise transparent. The glasses are controlled by a timing signal that allows the glasses to alternately darken over one eye, and then the other, in synchronization with the refresh rate of the screen. The main drawback of active shutters is that most 3D videos and movies were shot with simultaneous left and right views, so that it introduces a "time parallax" for anything side-moving: for instance, someone walking at 3.4 mph will be seen 20% too close or 25% too remote in the most current case of a 2x60 Hz projection.
Passive
Polarization systems
To present stereoscopic pictures, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through polarizing filters or presented on a display with polarized filters. For projection, a silver screen is used so that polarization is preserved. On most passive displays every other row of pixels is polarized for one eye or the other. This method is also known as being interlaced. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of opposite polarizing filters. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the opposite polarized light, each eye only sees one of the images, and the effect is achieved.
Interference filter systems
This technique uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3D image. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization or super-anaglyph. Dolby 3D uses this principle. The Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system has also used an improved version of this technology
In June 2012 the Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing ″challenging global economic and 3D market conditions″.
Color anaglyph systems
Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding each eye's image using filters of different (usually chromatically opposite) colors, typically red and cyan. Red-cyan filters can be used because our vision processing systems use red and cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours of objects. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each eye. When viewed through the "color-coded" "anaglyph glasses", each of the two images reaches one eye, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perception of a three dimensional scene or composition.
Chromadepth system
The ChromaDepth procedure of American Paper Optics is based on the fact that with a prism, colors are separated by varying degrees. The ChromaDepth eyeglasses contain special view foils, which consist of microscopically small prisms. This causes the image to be translated a certain amount that depends on its color. If one uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on the other eye, then the two seen pictures – depending upon color – are more or less widely separated. The brain produces the spatial impression from this difference. The advantage of this technology consists above all of the fact that one can regard ChromaDepth pictures also without eyeglasses (thus two-dimensional) problem-free (unlike with two-color anaglyph). However the colors are only limitedly selectable, since they contain the depth information of the picture. If one changes the color of an object, then its observed distance will also be changed.
Pulfrich method
The Pulfrich effect is based on the phenomenon of the human eye processing images more slowly when there is less light, as when looking through a dark lens. Because the Pulfrich effect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth, it is not useful as a general stereoscopic technique. For example, it cannot be used to show a stationary object apparently extending into or out of the screen; similarly, objects moving vertically will not be seen as moving in depth. Incidental movement of objects will create spurious artifacts, and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to actual depth in the scene.
Over/under format
Stereoscopic viewing is achieved by placing an image pair one above one another. Special viewers are made for over/under format that tilt the right eyesight slightly up and the left eyesight slightly down. The most common one with mirrors is the View Magic. Another with prismatic glasses is the KMQ viewer. A recent usage of this technique is the openKMQ project.
Other display methods without viewers
Autostereoscopy
Autostereoscopic display technologies use optical components in the display, rather than worn by the user, to enable each eye to see a different image. Because headgear is not required, it is also called "glasses-free 3D". The optics split the images directionally into the viewer's eyes, so the display viewing geometry requires limited head positions that will achieve the stereoscopic effect. Automultiscopic displays provide multiple views of the same scene, rather than just two. Each view is visible from a different range of positions in front of the display. This allows the viewer to move left-right in front of the display and see the correct view from any position. The technology includes two broad classes of displays: those that use head-tracking to ensure that each of the viewer's two eyes sees a different image on the screen, and those that display multiple views so that the display does not need to know where the viewers' eyes are directed. Examples of autostereoscopic displays technology include lenticular lens, parallax barrier, volumetric display, holography and light field displays.
Holography
Laser holography, in its original "pure" form of the photographic transmission hologram, is the only technology yet created which can reproduce an object or scene with such complete realism that the reproduction is visually indistinguishable from the original, given the original lighting conditions. It creates a light field identical to that which emanated from the original scene, with parallax about all axes and a very wide viewing angle. The eye differentially focuses objects at different distances and subject detail is preserved down to the microscopic level. The effect is exactly like looking through a window. Unfortunately, this "pure" form requires the subject to be laser-lit and completely motionless—to within a minor fraction of the wavelength of light—during the photographic exposure, and laser light must be used to properly view the results. Most people have never seen a laser-lit transmission hologram. The types of holograms commonly encountered have seriously compromised image quality so that ordinary white light can be used for viewing, and non-holographic intermediate imaging processes are almost always resorted to, as an alternative to using powerful and hazardous pulsed lasers, when living subjects are photographed.
Although the original photographic processes have proven impractical for general use, the combination of computer-generated holograms (CGH) and optoelectronic holographic displays, both under development for many years, has the potential to transform the half-century-old pipe dream of holographic 3D television into a reality; so far, however, the large amount of calculation required to generate just one detailed hologram, and the huge bandwidth required to transmit a stream of them, have confined this technology to the research laboratory.
In 2013, a Silicon Valley company, LEIA Inc, started manufacturing holographic displays well suited for mobile devices (watches, smartphones or tablets) using a multi-directional backlight and allowing a wide full-parallax angle view to see 3D content without the need of glasses.
Volumetric displays
Volumetric displays use some physical mechanism to display points of light within a volume. Such displays use voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include multiplanar displays, which have multiple display planes stacked up, and rotating panel displays, where a rotating panel sweeps out a volume.
Other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the air above a device. An infrared laser is focused on the destination in space, generating a small bubble of plasma which emits visible light.
Integral imaging
Integral imaging is a technique for producing 3D displays which are both autostereoscopic and multiscopic, meaning that the 3D image is viewed without the use of special glasses and different aspects are seen when it is viewed from positions that differ either horizontally or vertically. This is achieved by using an array of microlenses (akin to a lenticular lens, but an X–Y or "fly's eye" array in which each lenslet typically forms its own image of the scene without assistance from a larger objective lens) or pinholes to capture and display the scene as a 4D light field, producing stereoscopic images that exhibit realistic alterations of parallax and perspective when the viewer moves left, right, up, down, closer, or farther away.
Wiggle stereoscopy
Wiggle stereoscopy is an image display technique achieved by quickly alternating display of left and right sides of a stereogram. Found in animated GIF format on the web, online examples are visible in the New-York Public Library stereogram collection. The technique is also known as "Piku-Piku".
Stereo photography techniques
For general purpose stereo photography, where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision and give a visual impression as close as possible to actually being there, the correct baseline (distance between where the right and left images are taken) would be the same as the distance between the eyes. When images taken with such a baseline are viewed using a viewing method that duplicates the conditions under which the picture is taken, then the result would be an image much the same as that which would be seen at the site the photo was taken. This could be described as "ortho stereo."
However, there are situations in which it might be desirable to use a longer or shorter baseline. The factors to consider include the viewing method to be used and the goal in taking the picture. The concept of baseline also applies to other branches of stereography, such as stereo drawings and computer generated stereo images, but it involves the point of view chosen rather than actual physical separation of cameras or lenses.
Stereo window
The concept of the stereo window is always important, since the window is the stereoscopic image of the external boundaries of left and right views constituting the stereoscopic image. If any object, which is cut off by lateral sides of the window, is placed in front of it, an effect results that is unnatural and is undesirable, this is called a "window violation". This can best be understood by returning to the analogy of an actual physical window. Therefore, there is a contradiction between two different depth cues: some elements of the image are hidden by the window, so that the window appears as closer than these elements, and the same elements of the image appear as closer than the window. So that the stereo window must always be adjusted to avoid window violations.
Some objects can be seen in front of the window, as far as they don't reach the lateral sides of the window. But these objects can not be seen as too close, since there is always a limit of the parallax range for comfortable viewing.
If a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window, if the scene is distant, it would be some distance behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be just beyond the window. An object smaller than the window itself could even go through the window and appear partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to a part of a larger object that is smaller than the window. The goal of setting the stereo window is to duplicate this effect.
Therefore, the location of the window versus the whole of the image must be adjusted so that most of the image is seen beyond the window. In the case of viewing on a 3D TV set, it is easier to place the window in front of the image, and to let the window in the plane of the screen.
On the contrary, in the case of projection on a much larger screen, it is much better to set the window in front of the screen (it is called "floating window"), for instance so that it is viewed about two meters away by the viewers sit in the first row. Therefore, these people will normally see the background of the image at the infinite. Of course the viewers seated beyond will see the window more remote, but if the image is made in normal conditions, so that the first row viewers see this background at the infinite, the other viewers, seated behind, will also see this background at the infinite, since the parallax of this background is equal to the average human interocular.
The entire scene, including the window, can be moved backwards or forwards in depth, by horizontally sliding the left and right eye views relative to each other. Moving either or both images away from the center will bring the whole scene away from the viewer, whereas moving either or both images toward the center will move the whole scene toward the viewer. This is possible, for instance, if two projectors are used for this projection.
In stereo photography window adjustments is accomplished by shifting/cropping the images, in other forms of stereoscopy such as drawings and computer generated images the window is built into the design of the images as they are generated.
The images can be cropped creatively to create a stereo window that is not necessarily rectangular or lying on a flat plane perpendicular to the viewer's line of sight. The edges of the stereo frame can be straight or curved and, when viewed in 3D, can flow toward or away from the viewer and through the scene. These designed stereo frames can help emphasize certain elements in the stereo image or can be an artistic component of the stereo image.
Uses
While stereoscopic images have typically been used for amusement, including stereographic cards, 3D films, 3D television, stereoscopic video games, printings using anaglyph and pictures, posters and books of autostereograms, there are also other uses of this technology.
Art
Salvador Dalí created some impressive stereograms in his exploration in a variety of optical illusions. Other stereo artists include Zoe Beloff, Christopher Schneberger, Rebecca Hackemann, William Kentridge, and Jim Naughten. Red-and-cyan anaglyph stereoscopic images have also been painted by hand.
Education
In the 19th century, it was realized that stereoscopic images provided an opportunity for people to experience places and things far away, and many tour sets were produced, and books were published allowing people to learn about geography, science, history, and other subjects. Such uses continued till the mid-20th century, with the Keystone View Company producing cards into the 1960s.
Space exploration
The Mars Exploration Rovers, launched by NASA in 2003 to explore the surface of Mars, are equipped with unique cameras that allow researchers to view stereoscopic images of the surface of Mars.
The two cameras that make up each rover's Pancam are situated 1.5m above the ground surface, and are separated by 30 cm, with 1 degree of toe-in. This allows the image pairs to be made into scientifically useful stereoscopic images, which can be viewed as stereograms, anaglyphs, or processed into 3D computer images.
The ability to create realistic 3D images from a pair of cameras at roughly human-height gives researchers increased insight as to the nature of the landscapes being viewed. In environments without hazy atmospheres or familiar landmarks, humans rely on stereoscopic clues to judge distance. Single camera viewpoints are therefore more difficult to interpret. Multiple camera stereoscopic systems like the Pancam address this problem with unmanned space exploration.
Clinical uses
Stereogram cards and vectographs are used by optometrists, ophthalmologists, orthoptists and vision therapists in the diagnosis and treatment of binocular vision and accommodative disorders.
Mathematical, scientific and engineering uses
Stereopair photographs provided a way for 3-dimensional (3D) visualisations of aerial photographs; since about 2000, 3D aerial views are mainly based on digital stereo imaging technologies. One issue related to stereo images is the amount of disk space needed to save such files. Indeed, a stereo image usually requires twice as much space as a normal image. Recently, computer vision scientists tried to find techniques to attack the visual redundancy of stereopairs with the aim to define compressed version of stereopair files. Cartographers generate today stereopairs using computer programs in order to visualise topography in three dimensions. Computerised stereo visualisation applies stereo matching programs.
In biology and chemistry, complex molecular structures are often rendered in stereopairs. The same technique can also be applied to any mathematical (or scientific, or engineering) parameter that is a function of two variables, although in these cases it is more common for a three-dimensional effect to be created using a 'distorted' mesh or shading (as if from a distant light source).
See also
Cloud stereoscopy
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Scott B. Steinman, Barbara A. Steinman and Ralph Philip Garzia. (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Medical.
External links
Archival collections
Guide to the Edward R. Frank Stereograph Collection. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
Niagara Falls Stereo Cards RG 541 Brock University Library Digital Repository
Other
Durham Visualization Laboratory stereoscopic imaging methods and software tools
University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Stereocard Collection
Stereographic Views of Louisville and Beyond, 1850s–1930 from the University of Louisville Libraries
American University in Cairo Rare Books and Special Collections Digital Library Underwood & Underwood Egypt Stereoviews Collection
Views of California and the West, ca. 1867–1903, The Bancroft Library
Museum exhibition on the history of stereographs and stereoscopes (1850–1930)
Two stereoscopic selfies from 1890
3D imaging
Binocular rivalry
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201462
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC%201100/2200%20series
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UNIVAC 1100/2200 series
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The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series is a series of compatible 36-bit computer systems, beginning with the UNIVAC 1107 in 1962, initially made by Sperry Rand. The series continues to be supported today by Unisys Corporation as the ClearPath Dorado Series. The solid-state 1107 model number was in the same sequence as the earlier vacuum-tube computers, but the early computers were not compatible with the solid-state successors.
Architecture
Data formats
Fixed-point, either integer or fraction
Whole word – 36-bit (ones' complement)
Half word – two 18-bit fields per word (unsigned or ones' complement)
Third word – three 12-bit fields per word (ones' complement)
Quarter word – four 9-bit fields per word (unsigned)
Sixth word – six 6-bit fields per word (unsigned)
Floating point
Single precision – 36 bits: sign bit, 8-bit characteristic, 27-bit mantissa
Double precision – 72 bits: sign bit, 11-bit characteristic, 60-bit mantissa
Alphanumeric
FIELDATA – UNIVAC 6-bit code variant (no lower case characters) six characters in each 36-bit word. (FIELDATA was originally a seven-bit code of which only 64 code positions (occupying six bits) were formally defined.)
ASCII – 9 bits per character (right-most eight used for an ASCII character) four characters in each 36-bit word
Instruction format
Instructions are 36 bits long with the following fields:
f (6 bits) - function designator (opcode),
j (4 bits) - partial word designator, J-register designator, or minor function designator,
a (4 bits) - register (A, X, or R) designator or I/O designator,
x (4 bits) - index register (X) designator,
h (1 bit ) - index register increment designator,
i (1 bit) - indirect address designator,
u (16 bits) - address or operand designator.
Registers
The 128 registers of the high-speed "general register stack" ("integrated circuit registers" on the UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC 1106 models), map to the current data space in main storage starting at memory address zero. These registers include both user and executive copies of the A, X, R, and J registers and many special function executive registers.
The table on the right shows the addresses (in octal) of the user registers.
There are 15 index registers (X1 ... X15), 16 accumulators (A0 ... A15), and 15 special function user registers (R1 .. R15). The 4 J registers and 3 "staging registers" are uses of some of the special function R registers.
One interesting feature is that the last four index registers (X12 ... X15) and the first four accumulators (A0 ... A3) overlap, allowing data to be interpreted either way in these registers. This also results in four unassigned accumulators (A15+1 ... A15+4) that can only be accessed by their memory address (double word instructions on A15 do operate on A15+1).
Vacuum tube machines not mutually compatible
Prior to the UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC produced several vacuum-tube-based machines with model numbers from 1101 to 1105. These machines had different architectures and word sizes and were not compatible with each other or with the 1107 and its successors. They all used vacuum tubes and many used drum memory as their main memory. Some were designed by Engineering Research Associates (ERA) which was later purchased and merged with the UNIVAC company.
The UNIVAC 1101, or ERA 1101, was a computer system designed by ERA and built by the Remington Rand corporation in the 1950s. It was never sold commercially. It was developed under Navy Project 13, which is 1101 in binary. The UNIVAC 1102 or ERA 1102 was designed by Engineering Research Associates for the United States Air Force. The 36-bit UNIVAC 1103 was introduced in 1953 and an upgraded version (UNIVAC 1103A) was released in 1956. This was the first commercial computer to use core memory instead of the Williams tube. The UNIVAC 1105 was the successor to the 1103A, and was introduced in 1958.
The UNIVAC 1104 system was a 30-bit version of the 1103 built for Westinghouse Electric, in 1957, for use on the BOMARC Missile Program. However, by the time the BOMARC was deployed in the 1960s, a more modern computer (a version of the AN/USQ-20, designated the G-40) had replaced the UNIVAC 1104.
UNIVAC 1100 compatible series
These machines had a common architecture and word size. They all used transistorized electronics and integrated circuits. Early machines used core memory (the 1110 used plated wire memory) until that was replaced with semiconductor memory in 1975.
1107
The UNIVAC 1107 was the first solid-state member of Sperry Univac's UNIVAC 1100 series of computers, introduced in October 1962. It was also known as the Thin-Film Computer because of its use of thin-film memory for its register storage. It represented a marked change of architecture: unlike previous models, it was not a strict two-address machine: it was a single-address machine with up to 65,536 words of 36-bit core memory. The machine's registers were stored in 128 words of thin-film memory, a faster form of magnetic storage. With six cycles of thin-film memory per 4 microsecond main memory cycle, address indexing was performed without a cycle time penalty. Only 36 systems were sold.
The core memory was available in 16,384 36-bit words in a single bank; or in increments of 16,384 words to a maximum of 65,536 words in two separately accessed banks. With a cycle time of 4 microseconds, the effective cycle time was 2 microseconds when instruction and data accesses overlapped in two banks.
The 128-word thin-film memory general register stack (16 each arithmetic, index, and repeat with a few in common) had a 300-nanosecond access time with a complete cycle time of 600 nanoseconds. Six cycles of thin-film memory per core memory cycle and fast adder circuitry permitted memory address indexing within the current instruction core memory cycle and also modification of the index value (the signed upper 18 bits were added to the lower 18 bits) in the specified index register (16 were available). The 16 input/output (I/O) channels also used thin-film memory locations for direct-to-memory I/O memory location registers. Programs could not be executed from unused thin-film memory locations.
Both UNISERVO IIA and UNISERVO III tape drives were supported, both of which could use either metallic (UNIVAC I) or mylar tape.
The FH880 drum memory unit was also supported as a spooling and file-storage media. Spinning at 1800 RPM, it stored approximately 300,000 36-bit words.
The 1107, without any peripherals, weighed about .
Univac provided a batch operating system, EXEC I. Computer Sciences Corporation was contracted to provide a powerful optimizing Fortran IV compiler, an assembler named SLEUTH with sophisticated macro capabilities, and a very flexible linking loader.
1108
The 1108 was introduced in 1964. Integrated circuits replaced the thin-film memory that the UNIVAC 1107 used for register storage. Smaller and faster cores, compared to the 1107, were used for main memory.
In addition to faster components, two significant design improvements were incorporated: base registers and additional hardware instructions. The two 18-bit base registers (one for instruction storage and one for data storage) permitted dynamic relocation: as a program got swapped in and out of main memory, its instructions and data could be placed anywhere each time it got reloaded. To support multiprogramming, the 1108 had memory protection using two base and limit registers, with 512-word resolution. One was called the I-bank or instruction bank, and the other the D-bank or data bank. If the I-bank and D-bank of a program were put into different physical banks of memory, a 1/2 microsecond advantage accrued, called "alternate bank timing." The 1108 also introduced the Processor State Register, or PSR. In addition to controlling the Base Registers, it included various control "bits" that enabled the various Storage Protection features, allowed selection of either the User or Exec set of A, X & R registers, and enabled "Guard Mode" for user programs. Guard Mode prevented user programs from execution of Executive Only "privileged" instructions, and from accessing memory locations outside the program's allocated memory.
Additional 1108 hardware instructions included double precision arithmetic, double-word load, store, and comparison instructions. The processor could have up to 16 input/output channels for peripherals. The 1108 CPU was, with the exception of the 128-word (200 octal) ICR (Integrated Control Register) stack, entirely implemented via discrete component logic cards, each with a 55-pin high density connector, which interfaced to a machine wire wrapped backplane. Additional hand applied twisted pair wiring was utilized to implement backplane connections with sensitive timing, connections between machine wire wrapped backplanes, and connections to the I/O channel connector panel in the lower section of the CPU Cabinet. The ICR (Integrated Control Register) stack was implemented with "new" integrated circuit technology, replacing the thin film registers on the 1107. The ICR consisted of 128 38-bits, with a half-word Parity Bit calculated and checked with each access. The ICR was logically the first 128 memory addresses (200 Octal), but was contained in the CPU. The core memory was contained in a one or more separate cabinet(s), and consisted of two separate 32K modules, for a total capacity of 64K 38-bit words (36-bits data and a Parity Bit for each 18-bit half-word). The basic cycle time of the core memory was 750 ns, and the supporting circuitry was implemented with the same circuit card/backplane technology as the 1108 CPU.
Just as the first UNIVAC 1108 systems were being delivered in 1965, Sperry Rand announced the UNIVAC 1108 II (also known as the UNIVAC 1108A) which had support for multiprocessing: up to three CPUs, four memory banks totaling 262,144 words, and two independent programmable input/output controllers (IOCs). With everything busy, five activities could be going on at the same moment: three programs running in the CPUs and two input/output processes in the IOCs. One more instruction was incorporated: test-and-set, to provide for synchronization between the CPUs.
Although a 1964 internal study indicated only about 43 might sell, in all, 296 processors were produced.
The 1108 II, or 1108A, was the first multiprocessor machine in the series, capable of expansion to three CPUs and two IOCs (Input/Output Control Units). To support this, it had up to 262,144 words (four cabinets) of eight-ported main memory: separate instruction and data paths for each CPU, and one path for each IOC. The memory was organized in physical banks of 65,536 words, with separate odd and even ports in each bank. The instruction set was very similar to that of the 1107, but included some additional instructions, including the "Test and Set" instruction for multiprocessor synchronization. Some models of the 1108 implemented the ability to divide words into four nine-bit bytes, allowing use of ASCII characters. Most 1108A configurations included one or two CPUs, each with eight or (optionally) 16 36-bit parallel I/O channels, and two or three 64K core memory cabinets. Three CPU systems, with four core memory cabinets were the exception due to cost considerations. The IOC was a separate cabinet that contained 8 or (optionally) 16 additional I/O channels to support configurations with very large Mass Storage requirements. A very limited number of IOCs were produced, with United Air Lines (UAL) being the primary customer.
The UNIVAC Array Processor, or UAP, was produced in even more limited numbers that the IOC. It was a custom-built, stand-alone math coprocessor to the 1108A system. The UAP, at its most basic level, consisted of four 1108A arithmetic units, and associated control circuitry, contained in a standalone cabinet almost identical to the 1108A CPU. The UAP was physically and logically situated between two 1108A multiprocessor systems. It was capable of directly addressing and interfacing to the four 65K core memory cabinets of two independent 1108A systems. It was capable of executing a number of array-processing instructions, the most important being fast Fourier transform (FFT). At a simplified level, one of the 1108A CPUs would move data arrays into core memory, and send the UAP an instruction packet, containing the function to be executed, and the memory address(es) of the data array(s), across a standard I/O channel. The UAP would then perform the operation, totally independent of the CPU(s), and, when the operation was complete, "interrupt" the originating CPU via the I/O channel. A very small number of UAPs were built, with Shell Oil Company being (likely) the only customer. The UAPs were installed in Shell's Houston Data Center, and were used to process seismic data.
When Sperry Rand replaced the core memory with semiconductor memory, the same machine was released as the UNIVAC 1100/20. In this new naming convention, the final digit represented the number of CPUs (e.g., 1100/22 was a system with two CPUs) in the system.
1106
The 1107 and early 1108 machines were aimed at the engineering/scientific computing community, so much so that the 1100 Series User Group was named the UNIVAC Scientific Exchange, or USE. The operating systems were batch oriented, with FORTRAN and (to a much lesser extent) ALGOL being the most commonly used languages. As the market for commercial computing became more mature, these operating systems were no longer able to meet the growing demand for business computing, where applications were commonly written in COBOL. UNIVAC responded to this change in the market with the 1108A multiprocessor system and with the EXEC 8 operating system. Where engineering and scientific programs could often be "compute bound" (i.e. utilizing the entire CPU and core memory), business applications, typically written in COBOL, were almost always "I/O bound" (i.e. waiting for I/O operations to complete). Instrumentation of the EXEC 8 operating system showed that, in a 1108A multiprocessor configuration, the CPU(s) were often in the "idle loop" as much as 50% of the time (see note below). Since CPU performance was not an issue in these applications, it made commercial sense to create a lower-priced, lower-performance system to address the rapidly growing commercial business market.
The UNIVAC 1106 was introduced in December 1969 and was absolutely identical to the UNIVAC 1108, both physically and in instruction set. Like the 1108, it was multiprocessor capable, though it appears that it was never supplied with more than two CPUs, and did not support IOCs. In fact, the only difference between an 1108A CPU and an 1106 CPU was a couple of timing cards. In order to keep costs low, an 1106 CPU could be ordered with as few as four word channels. This meant that only three I/O channels were available for peripheral subsystems, as channel 15 (the highest-numbered channel) was always, in both 1106 and 1108 systems, dedicated to the operator's console. Early versions of the UNIVAC 1106 were simply half-speed UNIVAC 1108 systems. Later Sperry Univac used a different memory system which was inherently slower and cheaper than that of the UNIVAC 1108. Sperry Univac sold a total of 338 processors in 1106 systems.
When Sperry Rand replaced the core memory with semiconductor memory, the same machine was released as the UNIVAC 1100/10.
Note: EXEC 8 Idle Loop - the "Idle Loop" was entered when a CPU had no available task to execute (typically when waiting for an I/O operation to complete). A simplified description is that the CPU executed a block transfer (op code 022) of the ICR stack (the first 0200 memory addresses) back to the same addresses. Since the ICR stack was contained in the CPU, this minimized use of core memory cycles, freeing them up for active CPUs.
1110
The UNIVAC 1110 was the fourth member of the series, introduced in 1972.
The UNIVAC 1110 had enhanced multiprocessing support: sixteen-way memory access allowed up to six CAUs (Command Arithmetic Unit, the new name for CPU and so called because the CAU no longer had any I/O capability) and four IOAUs (Input Output Access Units, the name for separate units which performed the I/O channel programs). The 1110 CAU expanded the memory address range from the 18-bits (1108 and 1106) to 24-bits, allowing for up to 16 million words of addressable memory. The core memory used on the 1108/1106 systems was replaced with faster plated wire memory. Each memory cabinet contained eight independent 8K plated wire memory modules, or 64K for the entire cabinet. As with the 1108/1106, there was a maximum of four 64K cabinets per system. The 1110 also had 'Extended Memory' cabinets accessible in a 'daisy chain' arrangement to augment main storage. It was possible to utilize the 1108 64K core memory cabinets as Extended Storage, but in most systems utilized, the larger, less expensive 131K memory cabinets from the 1106 system. Up to eight Extended Memory cabinets were allowed, for a maximum of one million words of Extended Storage. An ESC (Extended Storage Controller) was required for each pair of memory cabinets to provide the physical connection, and address translation, from the 1110 CAUs and IOAU(s).
The minimum configuration for a 1110 system was two CAUs and one IOAU. The largest configuration, 6x4 was only used by NASA. The 1110 CAU was the first pipelined processor to be designed by UNIVAC. The CAU could have as many as four instructions in various stages of execution at any given instant. The IOAU was completely separate, both physically and logically from the CAU, and had its own access path to the various Main and Extended Memory Modules. This allowed I/O operations to be independent from the compute operations, no longer "stealing" memory cycles from CAU(s). The IOAU included 8 (optionally 16 or 24) 1108/1106 compatible 36-bit Word Channels, and also included the Hardware Maintenance Panel. Pictures/illustrations of a 1110 system typical showed the IOAU Maintenance Panel, as the CAU cabinet had no indicator lights. The IOAU Maintenance Panel could display the various CAU registers from one or two associated CAU(s). The 1110 CAU also introduced an extension to the instruction set of 'Byte Instructions'. The major components of the 1110 system, the CAU, IOAU and Main Memory cabinets were designed using the same 55-pin high density card connectors, and machine wire wrapped backplane(s) as the 1108/1106. The discrete component logic used by the older systems was replaced by transistor–transistor logic (TTL) integrated circuits (see Note, below). The CAU was an extremely complex unit, utilizing over 1000 cards.
When Sperry Rand replaced the plated wire memory with semiconductor memory, the same machine was released as the UNIVAC 1100/40. In this new naming convention, the final digit represented the number of CPUs in the system. The 1100/40 utilized a new Main Memory cabinet, replacing the 8K plated wire memory modules with 16K static RAM modules (based on 1024x1-bit static RAM chips), for a total of 131K per cabinet. This allowed expansion of the Main Memory to a maximum of 524K. As with the 1110, the 1100/40 CAU had four base and limit registers, so a program could access four 64k banks. New instructions were added to allow a program to change the contents of the banks, rather than the banks being fixed when the program was prepared
Sperry Rand sold a total of 290 processors in 1110 systems.
Note: TTL Integrated circuits used in 1110 (1100/40) CAU, IOAU and Main Memory cabinets were ceramic 14-pin DIPs, where pins 4 and 10 were +5 volts and ground respectively: state-of-the-art in 1969.
#3007500 - Integrated Circuit - IC32, Hex Inverter
#3007501 - Integrated Circuit - IC33, Quad 2 Input NAND
#3007502 - Integrated Circuit - IC34, Triple 3 Input NAND
#3007503 - Integrated Circuit - IC35, Dual 4 Input NAND with Split Output
#3007504 - Integrated Circuit - IC36, 8 Input NAND with Split Output
#3007505 - Integrated Circuit - IC37, Quad 2 Input NOR
#3007506 - Integrated Circuit - IC38, Dual And-Or Inverter-2 Wide OR, 2, 2 Input AND, with Split Output
#3007507 - Integrated Circuit - IC39, Triple FLIP-FLOP with Set, Over-Ride, and Reset
#3007508 - Integrated Circuit - IC40, Dual FLIP-FLOP, "D" Type
#3007509 - Integrated Circuit - IC41, AND-OR Inverter-4 Wide OR, 2, 2, 3, 4 Input AND
#3007603 - Integrated Circuit - IC50, Quad Two-Input Line Driver
Part Numbers beginning with "3" originated in the Univac Blue Bell (Philadelphia), PA location.
Part numbers beginning with "4" originated in the Roseville (St. Paul), MN location.
Purchased Components group was in Blue Bell.
Semiconductor memory series
In 1975, Sperry Univac introduced a new series of machines with semiconductor memory replacing core, with a new naming convention:
An upgraded 1106 was called the UNIVAC 1100/10. In this new naming convention, the final digit represented the number of CPUs or CAUs in the system, so that, for example, a two-processor 1100/10 system was designated an 1100/12. An upgraded 1108 was called the UNIVAC 1100/20.
An upgraded 1110 was released as the UNIVAC 1100/40. The biggest change was the replacement of the Type 7015 64K Plated Wire Memory cabinet with a new Type 7030 131K solid state (static RAM) Memory Cabinet. The allowed Main Storage to be expanded from maximum of 262K to a maximum of 524K. The Type 7030 Main Memory cabinet still contained eight separate Memory Modules, but they were now 16K (38-bit words, 36 Data and 2 Parity), instead of 8K each. The Type 7013 131K Core Memory Cabinet (originally used on the later 1106 Systems as Main Storage) was also replaced with a Solid-State Memory Cabinet, based on Intel 1103A DRAM.
The UNIVAC 1100/80 was introduced in 1979. It was intended to combine 1100 and 494 systems. As with the 1100/10, 1100/20 and 1100/40, the final digit represented the number of CAUs in the system.
The 1100/80 introduced a high-speed cache memory - the SIU or Storage Interface Unit. The SIU contained either 8K, or (optionally) 16K 36-bit words of buffer memory, and was logically and physically positioned between the CAU(s)/IOU(s) and the (larger, slower) Main Memory units. The first version of the 1100/80 system could be expanded to a maximum of two CAUs, and two IOUs. A later version was expandable to four CAUs and four IOUs. The SIU control panel of the updated 1100/80 (pictured above) was able to logically and physically partition larger Multi-Processor configurations into completely independent systems, each with its separate Operating System. The CAU was capable of executing both 36-bit 1100 series instructions, and 30-bit 490 series instructions. The CAU contained the same basic register stack, in the first 128 words of addressable memory, as previous generations of 1100 Series machines, but since these registers were implemented with the same ECL chips as the rest of the system, the registers did not require parity to be generated/checked with each write/read. The IOU, or Input/Output Unit was modular in design and could be configured with different Channel Modules to support varying I/O requirements. The Word Channel Module included four 1100 Series (parallel) Word Channels. Block Multiplexer and Byte Channel Modules allowed direct connection of high-speed disk/tape systems, and low speed printers, etc. respectively. The Control/Maintenance Panel was now on the SIU, and provided a minimum of indicator/buttons since the system incorporated a mini-computer, based on the BC/7 (business computer) as a maintenance processor. This was used to load microcode, and for diagnostic purposes. The CAU, IOU, and SIU units were implemented using emitter-coupled logic (ECL) on high density multi-layer PC boards. The ECL circuitry utilized DC voltages of +0 and -2 volts, with the CAU requiring four 50 amp -2 volt power supplies. Power was 400 Hz, to reduce large scale DC power supplies. The 400 Hz power was supplied by a motor/alternator, because even though solid state 400 Hz inverters were available, they were not considered reliable enough to meet the system uptime requirements.
An 1100/84 Multiprocessor 4x2 system, in two clusters (could be "partitioned" into two separate systems), including four CPU cabinets, two IOU cabinets, two SIU buffer storage units (16K words each) and 2,096K words of Main Memory (backing storage) in four cabinets, two System Maintenance Units (SMU), two Motor Alternators, a transition unit, and two System Consoles at list price was $5,414,871. in October 1980. This configuration could be rented for $127,764 per month, or leased (5 year) for $95,844 per month. Monthly maintenance was $10,235 on this configuration. It was fairly common to discount list prices for large and/or Government customers.
The UNIVAC 1100/60 was introduced in 1979. It replaced the 1108/1106-based 1100/10 and 1100/20 systems.
The 1100/60 System was available in both Single Processor 1100/61 (Model C1) and Dual Processor 1100/62 (Model H1) configurations. It was implemented using custom Sperry Univac designed Micro-Processor Integrated Circuits. Main Storage (524K to 1048K) words per CPU, optional Semiconductor Buffer Storage (up to 8K words per CPU), and the Input/Output Unit (IOU) were contained in CPU cabinet. The IOU (optionally) supported both Block and Word Channels. The system also included a System Support Processor for diagnostic testing and system console support.
An 1100/62 Model E1 (upgraded version) - Medium Performance Multiprocessor Complex - two CPUs with 2K Buffer Storage, two IOUs with one Block Mux, and one Word Channel module (four channels), 1048K words of Main Storage, two System Support Processors, two System Consoles, and a Maintenance Console listed for $889,340. in March 1980. This configuration could be rented for $21,175 per month, or leased (5 year) for $16,780 per month. Monthly maintenance was $3,000 on this configuration. As with the 1100/80 System discounting was common for large and/or Government customers.
The UNIVAC 1100/70 was introduced in 1981. The technology was an upgraded version of the 1100/60 design. It replaced the 1110-based 1100/40 systems.
The UNIVAC 1100/90 was introduced in 1982. As with the 1100/80, it was available with up to four processors, and four I/O units. It was the largest, and final, member of the 1100 Series, and was the only system to be liquid-cooled.
The Sperry Integrated Scientific Processor (ISP) is an attachment to the 1100/90.
SPERRY 2200 series
In 1983, Sperry Corporation discontinued the name UNIVAC for their products.
SPERRY 2200/100 introduced in 1985
SPERRY Integrated Scientific Processor introduced in 1985
UNISYS 2200 series
In 1986, Sperry Corporation merged with Burroughs Corporation to become Unisys, and this corporate name change was henceforth reflected in the system names. Each of the systems listed below represents a family with similar characteristics and architecture, with family members having different performance profiles.
UNISYS 2200/200 introduced in 1986
UNISYS 2200/400 introduced in 1988
UNISYS 2200/600 introduced in 1989
UNISYS 2200/100 introduced in 1990
UNISYS 2200/500 introduced in 1993
UNISYS 2200/900 introduced in 1993
UNISYS 2200/300 introduced in 1995
UNISYS ClearPath IX4400 introduced in 1996
UNISYS ClearPath IX4800 introduced in 1997
UNISYS 2200/3800 introduced in 1997
UNISYS ClearPath IX5600 introduced in 1998
UNISYS ClearPath IX5800 introduced in 1998
UNISYS ClearPath IX6600 introduced in 1999
UNISYS ClearPath IX6800 introduced in 1999
UNISYS ClearPath Plus CS7800 introduced in 2001 (renamed Dorado 180 in 2003)
UNISYS ClearPath Plus CS7400 introduced in 2002 (renamed Dorado 140 in 2003)
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 100 introduced in 2003
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 200 introduced in 2005
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 300 introduced in 2005
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 400 introduced in 2007
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 4000 introduced in 2008
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 700 introduced in 2009
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 4100 introduced in 2010
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 800 introduced in 2011
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 4200 introduced in 2012
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 4300 introduced in 2014
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 6300 introduced in 2014
UNISYS ClearPath Dorado 8300 introduced in 2015
UNISYS ClearPath IX series
In 1996, Unisys introduced the ClearPath IX series. The ClearPath machines are a common platform that implement either the 1100/2200 architecture (the ClearPath IX series) or the Burroughs large systems architecture (the ClearPath NX series). Everything is common except the actual CPUs, which are implemented as ASICs. In addition to the IX (1100/2200) CPUs and the NX (Burroughs large systems) CPU, the architecture had Xeon (and briefly Itanium) CPUs. Unisys' goal was to provide an orderly transition for their 1100/2200 customers to a more modern architecture.
See also
List of UNIVAC products
Unisys OS 2200 operating system
Unisys 2200 Series system architecture
IBM 7090 IBM's top-of-the-line 36-bit computer series of the late 1950s.
References
External links
UNIVAC Memories
A history of Univac computers and Operating Systems (PDF file)
UNIVAC timeline
UNIVAC 1108-II The big system with the big reputation (PDF)
The Case 1107
UNIVAC Thin-Film Memory Computer 1107
UNIVAC 1107 documentation on Bitsavers.org
1105 1100 2200 series
36-bit computers
Unisys
|
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201463
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardulfurataini
|
Ardulfurataini
|
"Arḍ ul-Furātayn" (), also known as the "Land of The Two Rivers" or "Ardulfurataini", was the national anthem of Iraq from 1981 to 2003, during the Ba'athist regime of Saddam Hussein.
History
It was adopted in 1981, written by (who died in 1984) with music by Walid Georges Gholmieh.
The lyrics make mention of important people in Iraqi history, such as Saladin, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Muthanna ibn Haritha, with the last verse extolling Ba'athism.
In shortened performances, the chorus was played twice, preceded by an instrumental introduction. Other abridged performances had the chorus twice, then the first verse once, concluding with the chorus performed twice. In full performances, the chorus was sung first twice, then each verse once with the chorus repeated twice in between, then the chorus sung again twice at the end.
After the ousting of Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime in 2003, the former national anthem of Iraq from the late 1950s and early 1960s, "Mawtini" (not to be confused with the current Iraqi national anthem of the same name) was reintroduced on a provisional basis. That was replaced in 2004 by the new Iraqi government with a new national anthem, also called "Mawtini", which is currently in use today.
Lyrics
See also
List of historical national anthems
References
External links
"Ardulfurataini Watan" (in MP3 format)
"Ardulfurataini Watan" (in MIDI format)
"Ardulfurataini Watan" (in MIDI format)
Coldstream Guards performance
Asian anthems
Historical national anthems
History of the Ba'ath Party
Iraqi music
Modern history of Iraq
National symbols of Iraq
Songs about Iraq
|
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201474
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatchback
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Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design.
While early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970.
The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, as well as executive cars and some sports cars. They are a primary component on a sport utility vehicle.
Characteristics
The distinguishing feature of a hatchback is a rear door that opens upwards and is hinged at roof level (as opposed to the boot/trunk lid of a saloon/sedan, which is hinged below the rear window). Most hatchbacks use a two-box design body style, where the cargo area (trunk/boot) and passenger areas are a single volume. The rear seats can often be folded down to increase the available cargo area. Hatchbacks may have a removable rigid parcel shelf, or flexible roll-up tonneau cover to cover the cargo space behind the rear seats.
3 door and 5 door terminology
When describing the body style, the hatch is often counted as a door, therefore a hatchback with two passenger doors is called a three-door and a hatchback with four passenger doors is called a five-door.
Estates vs. liftbacks vs. notchbacks
Estates/station wagons and liftbacks have in common a two-box design configuration, a shared interior volume for passengers and cargo and a rear door (often called a tailgate in the case of an estate/wagon) that is hinged at roof level, similar to hatchbacks. Liftback cars are similar to hatchbacks from a functional perspective in having a tailgate hinged from the roof, but differ from hatchbacks from a styling perspective in having more of a sloped roofline. The term "fastback" may sometimes also be used by manufacturers to market liftback cars.A fastback is a broad automotive term used to describe the styling of the rear of a car in having a single slope from the roof to the rear bumper.
Some hatchbacks are notchback three box designs, bearing a resemblance to sedans/saloons from a styling perspective, but being closer to hatchbacks in functionality by having a tailgate hinged from the roof. This is featured on cars such as the 1951 Kaiser-Frazer Vagabond, Simca 1100, Mazda 6 GG1, and Opel Vectra C. As such, notchbacks are not fastbacks, as the slope of the roofline on a notchback is interrupted by its three box design.
An estate/wagon typically differs from a liftback or hatchback by being longer (therefore more likely to have a D-pillar). Other potential differences of a station wagon include:
steeper rake at the rear (ie the rear door is more vertical)
a third row of seats
rear suspension designed for increased load capacity or to minimize intrusion into the cargo area
the tailgate is more likely to be a multi-part design or extend all the way down to the bumper
Liftback
"Liftback" is a term for hatchback models in which the rear cargo door or hatch is more horizontally angled than on an average hatchback, and as a result, the hatch is lifted more upwards than backwards, to open.
The term was first used by Toyota in 1973, to describe the Toyota Celica Liftback GT.
Later, Toyota needed to distinguish between two 5-door versions of the Toyota Corolla, one of which was a conventional 5-door hatchback with a nearly vertical rear hatch while the other one was a 5-door more horizontal hatch, for which the term Liftback was used.
History
History
The first production hatchback was marketed by Citroën in 1938: the Citroën 11CV Commerciale. The initial target market was tradesmen who needed to carry bulky objects, like butchers, bakers, vintners, and grocers. Before World War II, the tailgate had two pieces, a top section hinged from roof level and a bottom section hinged from below. When production of the Commerciale resumed after the war, the tailgate became a one-piece design which was hinged from roof level, as per the design used on most hatchbacks since.
In 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. These models were styled much like a typical 1940s sedan, fully retaining their three-box profile; however, they included a two-piece tailgate as per the first Citroën 11CV Commerciale. The Vagabond and Traveler models also had folding rear seats, and a shared volume for the passengers and cargo. The design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have been described as "America’s First Hatchback".
The British Motor Corporation (BMC) launched a 'Countryman' version of the Austin A40 Farina twobox economy car in 1959. Just like its A30 and A35 Countryman predecessors, it was a very small estate car — but instead of regular, sideways opening rear doors, it had a horizontally split tailgate, having a top-hinged upper door and bottom-hinged lower door. The 1959 A40 Countryman differed from the 1958 A40 Farina saloon, in that the rear window was marginally smaller, to allow for a frame that could be lifted up, with its own support, so that the car now incorporated a horizontal-split two-piece tailgate. The lower panel was now flush with the floor and its hinges had been strengthened.
Sports cars
In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a top-hinged rear tailgate, manufacturing 700 examples. Its successor, the 1958 DB Mark III, also offered a folding rear seat. The 1954 AC Aceca and later Aceca-Bristol from AC Cars had a similar hatch tailgate, though only 320 were built.
In 1965, MG had Pininfarina modify the MGB roadster into a hatchback design called the MGB GT, becoming the first volume-production sports car with this type of body.
Many coupés have 3 doors, including the Jaguar E-Type and Datsun 240Z.
Mass market acceptance
In 1961, Renault introduced the Renault 4 as a moderately upscale alternative to the Citroën 2CV. The Renault 4 was the first million-selling, mass-produced, compact two-box car with a steeply raked rear side, opened by a large, one-piece, lift-gate hatch.
During its production life cycle, Renault marketed the R4 calling it a small station wagon, just like Austin's series of small Countryman estate models from 1954 to 1968 – even after the term "hatchback" appeared around 1970. The company only offered one two-box body style. The Renault 4 continued in production in until 1992, selling over 8 million cars.
In 1965, the R4 economy car was complemented by the D-segment Renault 16, the first volume production two-box, hatchback family car. Its rear seats were adjustable, would fold down, or could be completely removed. The Renault 16 was successful in a market segment previously exclusively populated by notchback sedans, and in spite of making only the one body style for 15 years, selling over 1 million cars.
Modern hatchbacks
Unlike the Renault 4, which had a semi-integrated body, mounted on a platform chassis, and a front mid-mounted and longitudinally placed engine behind the front axle, the 1967 Simca 1100, which followed in the footsteps of the 1959 BMC Mini with front-wheel drive, a more space-efficient transverse engine layout, unitary bodywork and independent suspension (features which became key design concepts used by almost every mass-market family car since) - and it was the first hatchback with these features. The Simca 1100 also came in both three and five-door variants, and the hatchback models took a central position, traditionally taken up by saloons, in a full model line-up, completed by a station wagon, as well as panel van versions.
Also in 1967, Citroën released the Dyane, a redesigned 2CV with a large rear hatch, to compete with the Renault 4.
The Simca was closely followed by the Mini's larger stablemate, the Austin Maxi, which with the hatch was a five-door saloon, and with a transverse SOHC engine, a five-speed transmission, and a flexible seating arrangement which gave the option of forming a double bed. Created by the same designer as BMC's Mini, sir Alec Issigonis – accountants had determined that the car had to use the same set of doors as the Austin / Morris 1800, but would be marketed below it in the model range, so needed a shorter rear body. A curtailed rear end with a big hatch resulted. The Austin Maxi operated in the same market segment as the Renault 16, and the two competitors were closely matched in specifications and exterior dimensions, although the Maxi had significantly more interior space due to its transverse engine.
In 1974, the Volkswagen Golf was introduced, intended to replace the ubiquitous Beetle.
In 1976 British Leyland introduced the Rover 3500, a rear wheel drive executive car five-door hatchback.
Europe
Increasing demand for compact hatchbacks in Europe during the 1970s led to the release of models such as the Austin Ambassador, Austin Maestro, Fiat 127 and Renault 5. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, the majority of superminis and compact cars had been updated or replaced with hatchback models.
Hatchbacks were the mainstay of manufacturers' D-segment offerings in Europe in the 1990s (they were already popular in the 1980s) and until the late 2000s. It was common for manufacturers to offer the same D-segment model in three different body styles: a 4-door sedan, a 5-door hatchback, and a 5-door station wagon. Such models included the Ford Mondeo, the Mazda 626/Mazda6, the Nissan Primera, the Opel Vectra/Insignia, and the Toyota Carina/Avensis. There were also models in this market segment available only as a 5-door hatchback or a 4-door sedan, and models available only as a 5-door hatchback or a 5-door station wagon. Often the hatchback and the sedan shared the same wheelbase and the same overall length, and the full rear overhang length of a conventional sedan trunk was retained on the five-door hatchback version of the car.
The 1989-2000 Citroën XM and second-generation Skoda Superb (2008-2015) are cars that blur the line between hatchbacks and sedans. They feature an innovative "Twindoor" trunk lid. It can be opened like in a sedan, using the hinges located below the rear glass; or together with the rear glass, like in a hatchback, using the hinges at the roof.
Audi and BMW introduced hatchbacks in 2009, but marketed them as "Sportback" (Audi) or "Gran Turismo"/"Gran Coupe" (BMW).
In the 2010s hatchback versions became available on luxury cars such as the BMW 5 Series Gran Turismo, Porsche Panamera, and Audi A7 while the Skoda Octavia was always available as a hatchback. Meanwhile, three-door hatchbacks have seen a fall in popularity, compared with 5-door models. This has led to many models no longer being offered in 3-door body styles, for example, the Audi A3 and Renault Clio.
North America
In 1970, American Motors Corporation (AMC) released the first North American subcompact car since the 1953-1961 Nash Metropolitan, the AMC Gremlin. Although the Gremlin has the appearance of a hatchback, it is frequently called a Kammback coupe instead, with only its rear window being an upwards opening hatch, that gives access to the rear luggage space. The Gremlin was based on the AMC Hornet, but its abrupt hatchback rear end cut the car's overall length from . AMC added a hatchback version to its larger compact-sized Hornet line for the 1973 model year. The design and fold-down rear seat more than doubled cargo space and the Hornet was claimed to be the "first compact hatchback" manufactured by U.S. automaker. The 1975 Pacer featured a rear door or hatchback. A longer model with a wagon-type configuration was added in 1977 with its large rear "hatch" as one of the car's three doors, all having different sizes. The 1979 AMC Spirit was available in two designs, a "sedan" with a rear lift up window and a semi-fastback "liftback" version.
General Motors' first hatchback model was the Chevrolet Vega, introduced in September 1970. Over a million Vega hatchbacks were produced for the 1971–1977 model years accounting for about half of the Vega's total production. The Vega hatchback was also rebadged and sold as the 1973–1977 Pontiac Astre, 1978 Chevrolet Monza S, 1975–1980 Buick Skyhawk, 1975–1980 Oldsmobile Starfire and 1977–1980 Pontiac Sunbird.
In 1974, the larger Chevrolet Nova became available in a hatchback body style. The Nova hatchback was also rebadged as the Chevrolet Concours, Pontiac Ventura, Pontiac Phoenix, Oldsmobile Omega, Buick Apollo, and Buick Skylark. In 1980, General Motors released its first front-wheel drive hatchback models, the Chevrolet Citation and Pontiac Phoenix.
Both AMC and GM offered a dealer accessory that turned their compact hatchback models into low-cost recreational vehicles. An example is the Mini-Camper Kit for the AMC Hornet, a low-priced canvas tent that converted an open hatchback into a camping compartment with room for sleeping. The "Mini-Camper" was a weatherproof covering that fitted over the roof section from the B-pillar back to the rear bumper that was easy to set up.
Ford Motor Company's first hatchback was the Ford Pinto Runabout, introduced in 1971. The Pinto-based 1974-1978 Ford Mustang II was offered as a hatchback. The body style was continued for the redesigned Fox platform-based 1979 third generation Mustang and the Mercury Capri derivative. For 1981, Ford offered hatchback versions of its sub-compact Escort and the badge engineered Mercury Lynx, which were now front-wheel drive. Two-seat hatchback derivatives were introduced for 1982, the Ford EXP and the Mercury LN-7.
Chrysler Corporation's first hatchbacks (and first front-wheel drive cars) were the 1978 Dodge Omni / Plymouth Horizon models, which were based on the French Simca-Talbot Horizon. These were followed by the 3-door hatchback Dodge Omni 024 / Plymouth Horizon TC3 which were later renamed Dodge Charger and Plymouth Turismo.
Japan
The first Japanese hatchbacks were the 1972 Honda Civic, Nissan Sunny, and Nissan Cherry. The Civic and Cherry had front-wheel drive powertrains, which later became the common configuration for a hatchback. Along with the Honda Civic, other Japanese hatchback models included the Nissan Pulsar, Toyota Corolla, and Suzuki Swift.
Almost all Japanese Kei cars ("city cars") use a hatchback body style, to maximize cargo capacity given the overall vehicle size is limited by Kei car regulations. Kei cars include the Mitsubishi Minica, Honda Life, Suzuki Fronte, Subaru Vivio, and Daihatsu Mira.
USSR
The first Soviet hatchback was the rear-wheel drive IZh 2125 Kombi, which entered production in 1973. This was followed only in the 1980s by the front-wheel drive Lada Samara in 1984, the Moskvitch 2141/Aleko in 1986, and ZAZ Tavria in 1987.
Brazil
In 2014, four of the top five selling models in Brazil were hatchbacks. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, hatchbacks were less popular than sedans, leading manufacturers to develop compact sedan models for the Brazilian market, for example, the Fiat Premio and sedan versions of the Opel Corsa and Ford Fiesta.
India
Hatchbacks are the highest selling car body style in India. The Maruti 800 sold over 2.5 million units since its launch in 1983. Since 2004, Maruti 800 has been overtaken by Maruti Alto as the car with highest annual sales. In 2015, Tata Motors launched a hatchback version of the Nano, the least expensive road car in the world.
See also
Trunk (car)
Hot hatch
Fastback
Shooting brake
References
External links
Car classifications
Car body styles
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201479
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syngas
|
Syngas
|
Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and very often some carbon dioxide. The name comes from its use as intermediates in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG) and for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is usually a product of coal gasification and the main application is electricity generation. Syngas is combustible and can be used as a fuel of internal combustion engines. Historically, it has been used as a replacement for gasoline, when gasoline supply has been limited; for example, wood gas was used to power cars in Europe during WWII (in Germany alone half a million cars were built or rebuilt to run on wood gas). However, it has less than half the energy density of natural gas.
Syngas can be produced from many sources, including natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually any hydrocarbon feedstock, by reaction with steam (steam reforming), carbon dioxide (dry reforming) or oxygen (partial oxidation). It is a crucial intermediate resource for production of hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. It is also used as an intermediate in producing synthetic petroleum for use as a fuel or lubricant via the Fischer–Tropsch process and previously the Mobil methanol to gasoline process.
Production methods include steam reforming of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons to produce hydrogen, the gasification of coal, biomass, and in some types of waste-to-energy gasification facilities.
Production
The chemical composition of syngas varies based on the raw materials and the processes. Syngas produced by coal gasification generally is a mixture of 30 to 60% carbon monoxide, 25 to 30% hydrogen, 5 to 15% carbon dioxide, and 0 to 5% methane. It also contains lesser amount of other gases.
The main reaction that produces syngas, steam reforming, is an endothermic reaction with 206 kJ/mol methane needed for conversion.
The first reaction, between incandescent coke and steam, is strongly endothermic, producing carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen (water gas in older terminology). When the coke bed has cooled to a temperature at which the endothermic reaction can no longer proceed, the steam is then replaced by a blast of air.
The second and third reactions then take place, producing an exothermic reaction—forming initially carbon dioxide and raising the temperature of the coke bed—followed by the second endothermic reaction, in which the latter is converted to carbon monoxide, CO. The overall reaction is exothermic, forming "producer gas" (older terminology). Steam can then be re-injected, then air etc., to give an endless series of cycles until the coke is finally consumed. Producer gas has a much lower energy value, relative to water gas, due primarily to dilution with atmospheric nitrogen. Pure oxygen can be substituted for air to avoid the dilution effect, producing gas of much higher calorific value.
When used as an intermediate in the large-scale, industrial synthesis of hydrogen (principally used in the production of ammonia), it is also produced from natural gas (via the steam reforming reaction) as follows:
CH4 + H2O -> CO + 3H2
In order to produce more hydrogen from this mixture, more steam is added and the water gas shift reaction is carried out:
CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2
The hydrogen must be separated from the to be able to use it. This is primarily done by pressure swing adsorption (PSA), amine scrubbing, and membrane reactors.
Alternative technologies
Biomass catalytic partial oxidation
Conversion of biomass to syngas is typically low-yield. The University of Minnesota developed a metal catalyst that reduces the biomass reaction time by up to a factor of 100. The catalyst can be operated at atmospheric pressure and reduces char. The entire process is autothermic and therefore heating is not required.
Another process has been developed at DTU Energy which is efficient and does not have any issues of fouling of the catalyst (in this case a cerium oxide catalyst).
Carbon dioxide and methane
A two-stage method developed in 2012 produces syngas consisting only of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. In a first step, methane is decomposed at a temperature of more than 1000 °C, thus forming a mixture of carbon and hydrogen (reaction: CH4 + energy -> C + 2 H2). Preferably, a plasma heater provides heating in the first step. In a second step, CO2 is added to the hot mixture of carbon and hydrogen (reaction: C + CO2 -> 2 CO). The carbon and the CO2 react at high temperature to form carbon monoxide (reaction: C + CO2 -> 2 CO). The mixture of carbon monoxide from the second step and hydrogen from the first step thus forms a high-purity syngas consisting only of CO and H2.
Alternatively, water can be used instead of CO2 in the second step to achieve a higher amount of hydrogen in the syngas. In this case, the reaction of the second step is: C + H2O -> CO + H2. Both methods also allow to vary the ratio of CO to H2.
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
Microwave energy
CO2 can be split into CO and then combined with hydrogen to form syngas. A method for production of carbon monoxide from carbon dioxide by treating it with microwave radiation is being examined by the solar fuels-project of the Dutch Institute For Fundamental Energy Research. This technique was alleged to have been used during the Cold war in Russian nuclear submarines to allow them to get rid of CO2 gas without leaving a bubble trail. Publicly available journals published during the Cold War indicate that American submarines used conventional chemical scrubbers to remove CO2. Documents released after the sinking of the Kursk, a Cold War era Oscar-class submarine, indicate that potassium superoxide scrubbers were used to remove carbon dioxide on that vessel.
Solar energy
Heat generated by concentrated solar power may be used to drive thermochemical reactions to split carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide or to make hydrogen. Natural gas may be used as a feedstock in a facility that integrates concentrated solar power with a power plant fueled by natural gas augmented by syngas while the sun is shining.
Co-electrolysis
By employing co-electrolysis, i.e. the combined electrochemical conversion of steam () and carbon dioxide () to carbon monoxide (CO) with the use of renewably generated electricity, syngas can be produced in the framework of a -valorization scenario, allowing for a closed carbon cycle.
Submerged Carbon Arc
Production of syngas can be done by creating an electric arc underwater. The high heat causes the water to split into hydrogen and oxygen. Some of the carbon that gets vaporized in the carbon arc reacts with the oxygen and makes carbon monoxide due to the high heat.
Some of the Carbon gets turned into carbon nanotubes
Electricity
Depending on the technology used for producing synthesis gas, electricity may be one major input.
Use of electricity to extract carbon dioxide from water and then water gas shift to syngas has been trialled by the US Naval Research Lab. This process becomes cost effective if the price of electricity is below $20/MWh.
Electricity generated from renewable sources is also used to process carbon dioxide and water into syngas through high-temperature electrolysis. This is an attempt to maintain carbon neutrality in the generation process. Audi, in partnership with company named Sunfire, opened a pilot plant in November 2014 to generate e-diesel using this process.
Uses
Gas lighting
Coal gasification processes to create syngas were used for many years to manufacture illuminating gas (coal gas) for gas lighting, cooking and to some extent, heating, before electric lighting and the natural gas infrastructure became widely available.
Energy capacity
Syngas that is not methanized typically has a lower heating value of 120 BTU/scf . Untreated syngas can be run in hybrid turbines that allow for greater efficiency because of their lower operating temperatures, and extended part lifetime.
Sponge iron
Syngas is used to directly reduce iron ore to sponge iron.
Diesel
Syngas can be used in the Fischer–Tropsch process to produce diesel, or converted into e.g. methane, methanol, and dimethyl ether in catalytic processes.
If the syngas is post-treated by cryogenic processing, it should be taken into account that this technology has great difficulty in recovering pure carbon monoxide if relatively large volumes of nitrogen are present due to carbon monoxide and nitrogen having very similar boiling points which are –191.5 °C and –195.79 °C respectively. Certain process technology selectively removes carbon monoxide by complexation/decomplexation of carbon monoxide with cuprous aluminum chloride () dissolved in an organic liquid such as toluene. The purified carbon monoxide can have a purity greater than 99%, which makes it a good feedstock for the chemical industry. The reject gas from the system can contain carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, ethane, and hydrogen. The reject gas can be further processed on a pressure swing adsorption system to remove hydrogen, and the hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be recombined in the proper ratio for catalytic methanol production, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, etc. Cryogenic purification, being very energy-intensive, is not well suited to simply making fuel, because of the greatly reduced net energy gain.
Methanol
Syngas is used to produce methanol as in the following reaction. CO_2 + 3 H2 ->CH3OH + H2O
Hydrogen
Syngas is used to produce hydrogen for the Haber process.
Syngas from Waste
A variety of waste gasifications systems has been developed in the years 1991 to 2000. As an example Logan City Council, Australia, will use a waste gasification process to dramatically shrink the volume of waste needing to be trucked off site and produce syngas to power the facility. Once wastewater is treated to kill off harmful pathogens and bacteria, the remaining biosolids will be heated to high temperatures to produce a syngas mixture made up of mostly hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and carbon dioxide. The syngas produced in waste-to-energy gasification facilities can be used e.g. to generate electricity.
See also
Biochar
Biobased economy
Biofuels
Boudouard reaction
Claus process
Coal gas
Industrial gas
Integrated gasification combined cycle
Partial oxidation
Reformer sponge iron cycle
Syngas fermentation
Underground coal gasification
References
External links
"Sewage treatment plant smells success in synthetic gas trial" ARENA, accessed December 6 2020
Fischer Tropsch archive
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/508051/a-cheap-trick-enables-energy-efficient-carbon-capture/
Coal technology
Fuel gas
Waste treatment technology
Synthetic fuels
Industrial gases
Synthetic fuel technologies
Petrochemicals
|
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201480
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuoso
|
Virtuoso
|
A virtuoso (from Italian virtuoso or , "virtuous", Late Latin virtuosus, Latin virtus, "virtue", "excellence" or "skill") is an individual who possesses outstanding talent and technical ability in a particular art or field such as fine arts, music, singing, playing a musical instrument, or composition.
Meaning
This word also refers to a person who has cultivated appreciation of artistic excellence, either as a connoisseur or collector. The plural form of virtuoso is either virtuosi or the Anglicisation virtuosos, and the feminine forms are virtuosa and virtuose.
According to Music in the Western civilization by Piero Weiss and Richard Taruskin:
...a virtuoso was, originally, a highly accomplished musician, but by the nineteenth century the term had become restricted to performers, both vocal and instrumental, whose technical accomplishments were so pronounced as to dazzle the public.
The defining element of virtuosity is the performance ability of the musician in question, who is capable of displaying feats of skill well above the average performer.
Especially in music, both critics and musicians have mixed opinions on virtuosity. While the skill implied is clearly positive, musicians focused on virtuosity have been criticized for overlooking substance and emotion in favor of raw technical prowess.
More commonly applied in the context of the fine arts, the term can also refer to a "master" or "ace" who excels technically within any particular field or area of human knowledge—anyone especially or dazzlingly skilled at what they do. For instance, Ken Jennings's initial success on Jeopardy! was described as a "virtuoso performance."
History
The meaning of virtuoso has its roots in the Italian usage of the 16th and 17th centuries, signifying an honorific term reserved for a person distinguished in any intellectual or artistic field. The term evolved with time, simultaneously broadening and narrowing in scope as interpretations went in and out of fashion and debates unraveled. Originally a musician was considered a virtuoso by being an accomplished composer, theorist, or maestro, rather than a skilled performer.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the word shifted in meaning, and many musicians applied it without considering merit, sometimes to themselves. Sébastien de Brossard, in his Dictionnaire de Musique (Paris, 1703), approached the word virtuoso by its Latin root virtu emphasizing exceptional training, especially in theory. This position was also defended in Johann Gottfried Walther's Musicalisches Lexicon (1732) favoring the theorist over the performer. Johann Mattheson's Der brauchbare Virtuoso (1720) maintained the respect for the traditional "theoretische Virtuosen" (theoretical virtuoso) but also paid tribute to the "virtuosi prattici" (performer virtuoso).
Johann Kuhnau in his The Musical Charlatan (Der musikalische Quack-Salber, 1700) defined the "true virtuoso", once again emphasizing theory ("der wahre Virtuose"), while describing the "highly gifted musician" ("der glückselige Musicus") or "performer virtuoso" as having nothing more than practical facility.
In the late 18th century, people began to use the term to describe an instrumentalist or vocalist who pursued a career as a soloist. The tension about the merit of practical virtuosity started to grow at the same time and intensified in the 19th century, only to remain an open debate since then. Franz Liszt, considered one of the greatest of all virtuosos, declared that "virtuosity is not an outgrowth, but an indispensable element of music" (Gesammelte Schriften, iv, 1855–9). Richard Wagner opposed the "triviality and exhibitionist talents of the performer" voicing his opinion strongly:
The real dignity of the virtuoso rests solely on the dignity he is able to preserve for creative art; if he trifles and toys with this, he casts his honour away. He is the intermediary of the artistic idea.
Bibliography
Doran, Robert (ed.): Liszt and Virtuosity. Rochester: University of Rochester Press (Eastman Studies in Music), 2020.
References
Musicians
Italian words and phrases
|
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201481
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg%20National%20Cemetery
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Gettysburg National Cemetery
|
Gettysburg National Cemetery is a United States national cemetery created for Union/Federal casualties of the July 1 to 3, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War (1861–1865). It is located just outside Gettysburg Borough to the south, in Adams County, Pennsylvania. The land was part of the Gettysburg Battlefield, and the cemetery is within Gettysburg National Military Park administered by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior.
Originally called Soldiers' National Cemetery, U.S. 16th President Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865, served 1861–1865), delivered his Gettysburg Address at the cemetery's consecration, November 19, 1863. That day is observed annually at the cemetery and in the town as
"Remembrance Day" with a parade/procession and memorial ceremonies by thousands of Civil War reenactor troops, both Union Army/United States Army and Confederate States Army and descendants heritage organizations led by the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) and the Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV).
The cemetery contains 3,512 interments from the Civil War, including the graves of 979 unknowns. It also has sections for veterans of the Spanish–American War (1898), World War I (1917–1918), and other wars, along with graves of the veterans' spouses and children. The total number of interments exceeds 6,000.
Battlefield monuments, memorials, and markers are scattered throughout the cemetery, and its stone walls, iron fences and gates, burial and section markers, and brick sidewalk are listed as contributing structures within Gettysburg Battlefield Historic District.
Description
The centerpiece of Gettysburg National Cemetery is Soldiers' National Monument (1869), a 60-foot-tall (18 m) granite monument designed by sculptor Randolph Rogers and architect George Keller. It is surrounded by concentric semicircles of graves, divided into 18 sections for Union states (1 each), a section for United States Regulars, and 3 sections for unknown soldiers.
Battlefield monuments within Gettysburg National Cemetery include those of the 1st United States Artillery Battery H, the 2nd Maine Battery, the 1st Massachusetts Battery (Cook's Battery), the 1st Minnesota Infantry, the 1st New Hampshire Light Battery, the 5th New York Independent Light Artillery, the 136th New York Volunteer Infantry, the 1st Ohio Battery H, the 55th Ohio Infantry, the 73rd Ohio Infantry, and the 75th Pennsylvania Infantry; and markers for the 1st Ohio Battery I and the 3rd Volunteer Brigade Artillery Reserve (Huntington's Brigade). Other monuments include the New York State Monument (1893), the Kentucky State Monument (1975), the Lincoln Address Monument (1912), the Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial (1994), the Major-General John F. Reynolds Statue (1872), and the Major-General Charles Collis Memorial (1906).
History
Reinterments
Union remains were transferred from the Gettysburg Battlefield burial plots (e.g., on Cemetery Hill) as well as local church cemeteries, field hospital burial sites (e.g., Camp Letterman & the Rock Creek-White Run Union Hospital Complex), the "USA General Hospital, York, Pa." and the Valley of Death where unburied soldiers decomposed in place. Samuel Weaver, as "Superintendent of the exhuming of the bodies", personally observed the contractor's workers opening graves, placing remains in coffins, and burying them in the cemetery, and at least 1 reinterment was from the neighboring Evergreen Cemetery (Adams County, Pennsylvania).
Consecration
Chronology
References
Further reading
External links
National Park Service: Gettysburg National Cemetery
Finding Aid for Correspondence and Printed Material on Gettysburg National Cemetery, Special Collections, Linderman Library, Lehigh University
The Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg (1874) by John Russell Bartlett
American Civil War cemeteries
National Cemetery
Cemetery Hill
Cemeteries in Pennsylvania
United States national cemeteries
1863 establishments in Pennsylvania
|
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201482
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Quant
|
Mary Quant
|
Dame Barbara Mary Quant, Mrs Plunket Greene, (born 11 February 1930) is a British fashion designer and fashion icon. She became an instrumental figure in the 1960s London-based Mod and youth fashion movements. She was one of the designers who took credit for the miniskirt and hotpants. Ernestine Carter wrote: "It is given to a fortunate few to be born at the right time, in the right place, with the right talents. In recent fashion there are three: Chanel, Dior, and Mary Quant."
Early life
Quant was born on 11 February 1930 in Blackheath, London, the daughter of Welsh teachers. Her parents, Jack and Mildred Quant, were both from mining families; however, they had been awarded scholarships to grammar school and had both attained first-class degrees at Cardiff University before they moved to London to work as school teachers.
She went to Blackheath High School. For college, her desire had been to study fashion; however, her parents dissuaded her from that course of study, and she instead studied illustration and art education at Goldsmiths College for which she received a degree in 1953. In pursuit of her love for fashion, after finishing her degree, she apprenticed with Erik, a high-end Mayfair milliner on Brook Street next door to Claridge's hotel.
Fashion career
Quant initially sold clothing sourced from wholesalers in her new boutique. The bolder and more unique pieces in her collection started garnering more attention from media like Harper's Bazaar, and an American manufacturer purchased some of her dress designs. Because of this attention and her personal love for these bolder styles, she decided to take designs into her own hands. Initially working solo, she was soon employing a handful of sewing machine operators; by 1966 she was working with a total of 18 manufacturers. A self-taught designer inspired by the culture-forward 'Chelsea Set' of artists and socialites, Quant's designs were riskier and more unique than standard styles of the time. Quant's designs revolutionized fashion from the utilitarian wartime standard of the late 40s to the energy of the 50s and 60s' cultural shifts. Quant's impact did not just come from her unique designs; in her boutique, she created a special environment, including music, drinks, and long hours that appealed to young adults. This environment was unique for the industry, as it differentiated from the stale department stores and inaccessible high-end designer store environments that had a hold of the fashion market. It made Bazaar a hot spot for trendy youth, a brand new experience in the world of shopping, and a beacon of inspiration for the world of fashion moving forward.
For a while in the late 1950s and early 1960s, Quant was one of only two London-based high-end designers consistently offering youthful clothes for young people. The other was Kiki Byrne, who opened her boutique on the King's Road in direct competition with Quant.
Quant and the miniskirt
The miniskirt, described as one of the defining fashions of the 1960s, is one of the garments most widely associated with Quant. While she is often cited as the inventor of the style, this claim has been challenged by others. Marit Allen, a contemporary fashion journalist and editor of the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK Vogue, firmly stated that another British fashion designer, John Bates, rather than Quant or André Courrèges, was the original creator of the miniskirt. Others credit Courrèges with the invention of the style. However, skirts had been getting shorter since the 1950s—a development Quant considered practical and liberating, allowing women the ability to run for a bus.
Quant later said: "It was the girls on the King's Road [during the "Swinging London" scene] who invented the mini. I was making easy, youthful, simple clothes, in which you could move, in which you could run and jump and we would make them the length the customer wanted. I wore them very short and the customers would say, 'Shorter, shorter.'" She gave the miniskirt its name, after her favourite make of car, the Mini, and said of its wearers: "they are curiously feminine, but their femininity lies in their attitude rather than in their appearance ... She enjoys being noticed, but wittily. She is lively—positive—opinionated."
In addition to the miniskirt, Quant is often credited with inventing the coloured and patterned tights that tended to accompany the garment, although their creation is also attributed to the Spanish couturier Cristóbal Balenciaga, who offered harlequin-patterned tights in 1962, or to John Bates.
Later career
In the late 1960s, Quant offered short shorts that were the forerunner of hotpants and became a British fashion icon. Through the 1970s and 1980s she concentrated on household goods and make-up rather than just her clothing lines, including the duvet, which she claims to have invented.
In 1988, Quant designed the interior of the Mini (1000) Designer (originally dubbed the Mini Quant, the name was changed when popularity charts were set against having Quant's name on the car). It featured black-and-white striped seats with red trimming. The seatbelts were red, and the driving and passenger seats had Quant's signature on the upper left quadrant. The steering-wheel had Quant's signature daisy, and the bonnet badge had "Mary Quant" written over the signature name. The headlight housings, wheel arches, door handles and bumpers were all "nimbus grey", rather than the more common chrome or black finishes. Two thousand were released in the UK on 15 June 1988, and a number were also released on to foreign markets; however, the numbers for these are hard to come by. The special edition Mini came in two body colours, jet black and diamond white.
In 2000, she resigned as director of Mary Quant Ltd, her cosmetics company, after a Japanese buy-out. There are more than 200 Mary Quant Colour shops in Japan.
Recognition
In 1963 Quant was the first winner of the Dress of the Year award. In 1966 she was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for her outstanding contribution to the fashion industry. She arrived at Buckingham Palace to accept the award in a cream wool jersey minidress with blue facings.
In 1990 she won the Hall of Fame Award of the British Fashion Council.
She was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to British fashion.
Quant received an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2006. In 2012, she was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life.
Quant is a fellow of the Chartered Society of Designers, and winner of the Minerva Medal, the society's highest award.
Books by Quant
1966: Quant by Quant — her first autobiography
1984: Colour by Quant
1986: Quant on Make-up
1999: Classic Make-up and Beauty Book
2011: Mary Quant: Autobiography — her second autobiography
Trivia
In the 1966 Donovan song "Sunny South Kensington", Quant and Jean-Paul Belmondo's drug use/abuse is immortalised in the lyric "Jean-Paul Belmondo and-a Mary Quant got stoned, to say the least".
French musician Laurent Voulzy dedicated a song to Quant on his 2001 album Avril
Quant is referenced in the musical number "This Is What We Want" in the 2014 stage musical Made in Dagenham, based on the 2010 film of the same name.
Personal life
She met her future husband and business partner, Alexander Plunket Greene, grandson of Harry Plunket Greene, in 1953. They were married from 1957 until his death in 1990, and had a son, Orlando (b. 1969 ).
See also
Daisy, doll designed by Quant
Notes
References
Further reading
Sandbrook, Dominic. White Heat: A history of Britain in the swinging sixties (Abacus, 2015) pp. 217–37.
External links
Mary Quant at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Accessed 3 June 2010.
Mary Quant – Miniskirt – Icons of England
Official website of Mary Quant Cosmetics
1930 births
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
British fashion designers
Welsh fashion designers
Living people
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Chartered designers
People from Blackheath, London
People educated at Blackheath High School
British women artists
Welsh women artists
British women fashion designers
English people of Welsh descent
|
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201484
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotting%20scope
|
Spotting scope
|
A spotting scope is a compact high-power telescope optimized for detailed observation of distant objects. They are used as portable optical enhancement devices for various outdoor activities such as birdwatching, skygazing and other naturalist activities, for hunting and target shooting to verify a marksman's shot placements, for tactical ranging and surveillance, and for any other application that requires higher magnification than ordinary binoculars (typically 20× to 60×).
The light-gathering power and resolution of a spotting scope is determined by the diameter of the objective lens, typically between . The larger the objective, the more massive and expensive the telescope.
The optical assembly has a small refracting objective lens, an internal image-erecting system, and an eyepiece that is usually removable. The image-erecting system may use relay lenses, prisms such as Porro or roof prisms, or a catadioptric system of the Schmidt or Maksutov design. Spotting scopes may have a ruggedized design, a mounting interface for attaching to a tripod, and an ergonomically designed and located control knob for focus adjustment. Some spotting scopes also have in-built reticles for stadiametric rangefinding.
Spotting scope eyepieces are usually interchangeable to adapt for different magnifications, or may have variable zoom to give a range of magnifications. Magnifications less than 20× are unusual, as are magnifications more than 60× since the latter can lead to poorer image brightness, a narrow field of view and too much image shaking, even on a tripod. The eyepiece mount layout can be "straight-through" (the eyepiece is on the same axis as the scope body), or "angled" (the eyepiece is at an angle to the scope body—usually 45 degrees).
The high magnification of spotting scopes makes them prone to image disturbance from vibrations, so they are often stabilized with tripods or (less commonly) monopods, which provide a stationary and steady platform. Tripod heads can be used to control any required movements of the scope.
See also
Milliradian, an angular measurement used in reticled scopes intended for precision shooting
Digiscoping, long-range videography using a spotting scope with a digital video recorder mounted to the eyepiece
List of telescope types
References
External links
Birding Scopes
Ask-a-Biologist - Advanced Birders Guide - Spotting Scopes
Binoculars
Optical telescopes
|
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] |
201485
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion%20battery
|
Lithium-ion battery
|
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery composed of cells in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion cells use an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode.
Li-ion batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-discharge. Cells can be manufactured to either prioritize energy or power density. They can however be a safety hazard since they contain flammable electrolytes and if damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires.
A prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier research by John Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, Rachid Yazami and Koichi Mizushima during the 1970s1980s, and then a commercial Li-ion battery was developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications.
Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across types of lithium-ion batteries. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with a polymer gel as electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide () cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer a high energy density. Lithium iron phosphate (), lithium manganese oxide ( spinel, or -based lithium rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide ( or NMC) may offer longer lives and may have better rate capability. Such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in electric vehicles.
Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in the area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries, ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems.
History
Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples is a /Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide () as a cathode material, which has a layered structure that can take in lithium ions without significant changes to its crystal structure. Exxon tried to commercialize this battery in the late 1970s, but found the synthesis expensive and complex, as is sensitive to moisture and releases toxic gas on contact with water. More prohibitively, the batteries were also prone to spontaneously catch fire due to the presence of metallic lithium in the cells.
In 1980, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough, after testing a range of alternative materials, replaced with lithium cobalt oxide (, or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability. The same year, Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite, and invented the lithium graphite electrode (anode).
These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting. The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. A variety of anode materials were studied; in 1987, Akira Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using an anode of "soft carbon" (a charcoal-like material) along with Goodenough's previously reported LCO cathode and a carbonate ester-based electrolyte. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asashi Kasei Co. also released their own lithium-ion battery.
Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing the soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite, a concept originally proposed by Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974 but considered unfeasible due to unresolved incompatibilities with the electrolytes then in use.
In 2012 John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries".
In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh.
Design
Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon. The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent. The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell.
The most common commercially used anode (negative electrode) is graphite, which in its fully lithiated state of LiC6 correlates to a maximal capacity of 1339 C/g (372 mAh/g). The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide). More experimental materials include graphene-containing electrodes, although these remain far from commercially viable due to their high cost.
Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. The salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate (), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. Other salts like lithium perchlorate (), lithium tetrafluoroborate (), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide () are frequently used in research for reasons of cost or convenience but are not usable in commercial cells.
Depending on materials choices, the voltage, energy density, life, and safety of a lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode structures.
The increasing demand for batteries has led vendors and academics to focus on improving the energy density, operating temperature, safety, durability, charging time, output power, elimination of cobalt requirements, and cost of lithium-ion battery technology.
Electrochemistry
The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are materials of anode and cathode, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. During charge, an oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction may also produce uncharged material that remains at the anode. Lithium ions move through the electrolyte, electrons move through the external circuit, and then they recombine at the cathode (together with the cathode material) in a reduction half-reaction. The electrolyte and external circuit provide conductive media for lithium ions and electrons, respectively, but do not partake in the electrochemical reaction. During discharge, electrons flow from the negative electrode (anode) towards the positive electrode (cathode) through the external circuit. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, mostly in the external circuit. During charging these reactions and transports go in the opposite direction: electrons move from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the external circuit. To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electric energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g. due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1).
Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called insertion (intercalation) or extraction (deintercalation), respectively.
As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries).
The following equations exemplify the chemistry.
The positive electrode (cathode) half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is
CoO2 + Li+ + e- <=> LiCoO2
The negative electrode (anode) half-reaction for the graphite is
LiC6 <=> C6 + Li+ + e^-
The full reaction (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging) being
LiC6 + CoO2 <=> C6 + LiCoO2
The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:
Li+ + e^- + LiCoO2 -> Li2O + CoO
Overcharging up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction:
LiCoO2 -> Li+ + CoO2 + e^-
In a lithium-ion cell, the lithium ions are transported to and from the positive or negative electrodes by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in from to during charge, and reducing from to during discharge. The cobalt electrode reaction is only reversible for x < 0.5 (x in mole units), limiting the depth of discharge allowable. This chemistry was used in the Li-ion cells developed by Sony in 1990.
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant/6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline but does not consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries many times heavier per unit of energy.
The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions will electrolyze.
Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as , or in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte acts as a conductive pathway for the movement of cations passing from the negative to the positive electrodes during discharge. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte at room temperature () are in the range of 10 mS/cm, increasing by approximately 30–40% at and decreasing slightly at . The combination of linear and cyclic carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC)) offers high conductivity and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)-forming ability. Organic solvents easily decompose on the negative electrodes during charge. When appropriate organic solvents are used as the electrolyte, the solvent decomposes on initial charging and forms a solid layer called the solid electrolyte interphase, which is electrically insulating, yet provides significant ionic conductivity. The interphase prevents further decomposition of the electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate is decomposed at a relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. lithium, and forms a dense and stable interface. Composite electrolytes based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) provide a relatively stable interface. It can be either solid (high molecular weight) and be applied in dry Li-polymer cells, or liquid (low molecular weight) and be applied in regular Li-ion cells. Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are another approach to limiting the flammability and volatility of organic electrolytes.
Recent advances in battery technology involve using a solid as the electrolyte material. The most promising of these are ceramics. Solid ceramic electrolytes are mostly lithium metal oxides, which allow lithium-ion transport through the solid more readily due to the intrinsic lithium. The main benefit of solid electrolytes is that there is no risk of leaks, which is a serious safety issue for batteries with liquid electrolytes. Solid ceramic electrolytes can be further broken down into two main categories: ceramic and glassy. Ceramic solid electrolytes are highly ordered compounds with crystal structures that usually have ion transport channels. Common ceramic electrolytes are lithium super ion conductors (LISICON) and perovskites. Glassy solid electrolytes are amorphous atomic structures made up of similar elements to ceramic solid electrolytes but have higher conductivities overall due to higher conductivity at grain boundaries. Both glassy and ceramic electrolytes can be made more ionically conductive by substituting sulfur for oxygen. The larger radius of sulfur and its higher ability to be polarized allow higher conductivity of lithium. This contributes to conductivities of solid electrolytes are nearing parity with their liquid counterparts, with most on the order of 0.1 mS/cm and the best at 10 mS/cm. An efficient and economic way to tune targeted electrolytes properties is by adding a third component in small concentrations, known as an additive. By adding the additive in small amounts, the bulk properties of the electrolyte system will not be affected whilst the targeted property can be significantly improved. The numerous additives that have been tested can be divided into the following three distinct categories: (1) those used for SEI chemistry modifications; (2) those used for enhancing the ion conduction properties; (3) those used for improving the safety of the cell (e.g. prevent overcharging).
Charging and discharging
During discharge, lithium ions () carry the current within the battery cell from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.
During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-voltage (a higher voltage than the battery produces, of the same polarity), forcing a charging current to flow within each cell from the positive to the negative electrode, i.e., in the reverse direction of a discharge current under normal conditions. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.
Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions.
The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different:
A single Li-ion cell is charged in two stages:
Constant current (CC).
Constant voltage (CV).
A Li-ion battery (a set of Li-ion cells in series) is charged in three stages:
Constant current.
Balance (not required once a battery is balanced).
Constant voltage.
During the constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the voltage limit per cell is reached.
During the balance phase, the charger reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by a balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Some fast chargers skip this stage. Some chargers accomplish the balance by charging each cell independently.
During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current.
Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below
Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion.
Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow 'fast-charging' within a temperature range of . Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature charge, the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures the internal resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging times. Consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries should not be charged at temperatures below . Although a battery pack may appear to be charging normally, electroplating of metallic lithium can occur at the negative electrode during a subfreezing charge, and may not be removable even by repeated cycling. Most devices equipped with Li-ion batteries do not allow charging outside of 0–45 °C for safety reasons, except for mobile phones that may allow some degree of charging when they detect an emergency call in progress.
Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month.
The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge. Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate was estimated at 2% to 3%, and 2–3% by 2016.
By comparison, the self-discharge rate for NiMH batteries dropped, as of 2017, from up to 30% per month for previously common cells to about 0.08–0.33% per month for low self-discharge NiMH batteries, and is about 10% per month in NiCd batteries.
Cathode
Cathode materials are generally constructed from or . The cobalt-based material develops a pseudo tetrahedral structure that allows for two-dimensional lithium-ion diffusion. The cobalt-based cathodes are ideal due to their high theoretical specific heat capacity, high volumetric capacity, low self-discharge, high discharge voltage, and good cycling performance. Limitations include the high cost of the material, and low thermal stability. The manganese-based materials adopt a cubic crystal lattice system, which allows for three-dimensional lithium-ion diffusion. Manganese cathodes are attractive because manganese is cheaper and because it could theoretically be used to make a more efficient, longer-lasting battery if its limitations could be overcome. Limitations include the tendency for manganese to dissolve into the electrolyte during cycling leading to poor cycling stability for the cathode. Cobalt-based cathodes are the most common, however other materials are being researched with the goal of lowering costs and improving cell life.
, is a candidate for large-scale production of lithium-ion batteries such as electric vehicle applications due to its low cost, excellent safety, and high cycle durability. For example, Sony Fortelion batteries have retained 74% of their capacity after 8000 cycles with 100% discharge. A carbon conductive agent is required to overcome its low electrical conductivity.
Anode
Negative electrode materials are traditionally constructed from graphite and other carbon materials, although newer silicon-based materials are being increasingly used (see Nanowire battery). These materials are used because they are abundant and are electrically conducting and can intercalate lithium ions to store electrical charge with modest volume expansion (~10%). Graphite is the dominant material because of its low voltage and excellent performance. Various materials have been introduced, but their higher voltage reduces low energy density. Low voltage is the key requirement; otherwise, the excess capacity is useless in terms of energy density.
As graphite is limited to a maximum capacity of 372 mAh/g much research has been dedicated to the development of materials that exhibit higher theoretical capacities, and overcoming the technical challenges that presently encumber their implementation. The extensive 2007 Review Article by Kasavajjula et al.
summarizes early research on silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells. In particular, Hong Li et al. showed in 2000 that the electrochemical insertion of lithium ions in silicon nanoparticles and silicon nanowires leads to the formation of an amorphous Li-Si alloy. The same year, Bo Gao and his doctoral advisor, Professor Otto Zhou described the cycling of electrochemical cells with anodes comprising silicon nanowires, with a reversible capacity ranging from at least approximately 900 to 1500 mAh/g.
To improve stability of the lithium anode, several approaches of installing a protective layer have been suggested. Silicon is beginning to be looked at as an anode material because it can accommodate significantly more lithium ions, storing up to 10 times the electric charge, however this alloying between lithium and silicon results in significant volume expansion (ca. 400%), which causes catastrophic failure for the cell. Silicon has been used as an anode material but the insertion and extraction of \scriptstyle Li+ can create cracks in the material. These cracks expose the Si surface to an electrolyte, causing decomposition and the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the new Si surface (crumpled graphene encapsulated Si nanoparticles). This SEI will continue to grow thicker, deplete the available \scriptstyle Li+, and degrade the capacity and cycling stability of the anode.
There have been attempts using various Si nanostructures that include nanowires, nanotubes, hollow spheres, nanoparticles, and nanoporous with the goal of them withstanding the (\scriptstyle Li+)-insertion/removal without significant cracking. Yet the formation of SEI on Si still occurs. So a coating would be logical, in order to account for any increase in the volume of the Si, a tight surface coating is not viable. In 2012, researchers from Northwestern University created an approach to encapsulate Si nanoparticles using crumpled r-GO, graphene oxide. This method allows for protection of the Si nanoparticles from the electrolyte as well as allow for the expansion of Si without expansion due to the wrinkles and creases in the graphene balls.
These capsules began as an aqueous dispersion of GO and Si particles and are then nebulized into a mist of droplets that pass through a tube furnace. As they pass through the liquid evaporates, the GO sheets are pulled into a crumpled ball by capillary forces and encapsulate Si particles with them. There is a galvanostatic charge/discharge profile of 0.05 \scriptstyle mA/cm^2 to 1 \scriptstyle mA/cm^2 for current densities 0.2 to 4 A/g, delivering 1200 mAh/g at 0.2 A/g.
Electrolyte
Electrolyte alternatives have also played a significant role, for example the lithium polymer battery. Polymer electrolytes are promising for minimizing the dendrite formation of lithium. Polymers are supposed to prevent short circuits and maintain conductivity.
The ions in the electrolyte diffuse because there are small changes in the electrolyte concentration. Linear diffusion is only considered here. The change in concentration c, as a function of time t and distance x, is
In this equation, D is the diffusion coefficient for the lithium ion. It has a value of in the electrolyte. The value for ε, the porosity of the electrolyte, is 0.724.
Formats
Cells
Li-ion cells (as distinct from entire batteries) are available in various shapes, which can generally be divided into four groups:
Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in older laptop batteries)
Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals)
Flat or pouch (soft, flat body, such as those used in cell phones and newer laptops; these are lithium-ion polymer batteries.
Rigid plastic case with large threaded terminals (such as electric vehicle traction packs)
Cells with a cylindrical shape are made in a characteristic "swiss roll" manner (known as a "jelly roll" in the US), which means it is a single long 'sandwich' of the positive electrode, separator, negative electrode, and separator rolled into a single spool. The shape of the jelly roll in cylindrical cells can be approximated by an Archimedean spiral. One advantage of cylindrical cells compared to cells with stacked electrodes is the faster production speed. One disadvantage of cylindrical cells can be a large radial temperature gradient inside the cells developing at high discharge currents.
The absence of a case gives pouch cells the highest gravimetric energy density; however, for many practical applications they still require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state of charge (SOC) level is high, and for general structural stability of the battery pack of which they are part. Both rigid plastic and pouch-style cells are sometimes referred to as prismatic cells due to their rectangular shapes. Battery technology analyst Mark Ellis of Munro & Associates sees three basic Li-ion battery types used in modern (~2020) electric vehicle batteries at scale: cylindrical cells (e.g., Tesla), prismatic pouch (e.g., from LG), and prismatic can cells (e.g., from LG, Samsung, Panasonic, and others). Each form factor has characteristic advantages and disadvantages for EV use.
Since 2011, several research groups have announced demonstrations of lithium-ion flow batteries that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution.
In 2014, Panasonic created the smallest Li-ion cell. It is pin shaped. It has a diameter of 3.5mm and a weight of 0.6g. A coin cell form factor resembling that of ordinary lithium batteries is available since as early as 2006 for LiCoO2 cells, usually designated with a "LiR" prefix.
Batteries
A battery (also called a battery pack) consists of multiple connected lithium-ion cells. Battery packs for large consumer electronics like laptop computers also contain temperature sensors, voltage regulator circuits, voltage taps, and charge-state monitors. These components minimize safety risks like overheating and short circuiting. To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel circuit is more effective and more efficient than connecting a single large battery.
Uses
The vast majority of commercial Li-ion batteries are used in consumer electronics and electric vehicles. Such devices include:
Portable devices: these include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets, digital cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles and torches (flashlights).
Power tools: Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws, and a variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
Electric vehicles: electric vehicle batteries are used in electric cars, hybrid vehicles, electric motorcycles and scooters, electric bicycles, personal transporters and advanced electric wheelchairs. Also radio-controlled models, model aircraft, aircraft, and the Mars Curiosity rover.
More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications. Lithium-ion batteries are also frequently discussed as a potential option for grid energy storage, although they are not yet cost-competitive at scale.
Performance
Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of positive and negative electrode materials, the energy density and voltage vary accordingly.
The open-circuit voltage is higher than in aqueous batteries (such as lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride and nickel-cadmium). Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age, although this depends strongly on the voltage and temperature the batteries are stored at. Rising internal resistance causes the voltage at the terminals to drop under load, which reduces the maximum current draw. Eventually, increasing resistance will leave the battery in a state such that it can no longer support the normal discharge currents requested of it without unacceptable voltage drop or overheating.
Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.2 V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6 V. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.7 V nominal voltage with a 4.2 V maximum while charging. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry (i.e., charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2 V is reached in the cell and continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero). Typically, the charge is terminated at 3% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. In 2015 researchers demonstrated a small 600 mAh capacity battery charged to 68 percent capacity in two minutes and a 3,000 mAh battery charged to 48 percent capacity in five minutes. The latter battery has an energy density of 620 W·h/L. The device employed heteroatoms bonded to graphite molecules in the anode.
Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from 1991 to 2005 the energy capacity per price of lithium ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0.3 W·h per dollar to over 3 W·h per dollar. In the period from 2011 to 2017, progress has averaged 7.5% annually. Overall, between 1991 and 2018, prices for all types of lithium-ion cells (in dollars per kWh) fell approximately 97%. Over the same time period, energy density more than tripled. Efforts to increase energy density contributed significantly to cost reduction. Differently sized cells with similar chemistry can also have different energy densities. The 21700 cell has 50% more energy than the 18650 cell, and the bigger size reduces heat transfer to its surroundings.
Lifespan
Life of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise. Manufacturers' datasheet typically uses the word "cycle life" to specify lifespan in terms of the number of cycles to reach 80% of the rated battery capacity. Inactive storage of these batteries also reduces their capacity. Calendar life is used to represent the whole life cycle of battery involving both the cycle and inactive storage operations. Battery cycle life is affected by many different stress factors including temperature, discharge current, charge current, and state of charge ranges (depth of discharge). Batteries are not fully charged and discharged in real applications such as smartphones, laptops and electric cars and hence defining battery life via full discharge cycles can be misleading. To avoid this confusion, researchers sometimes use cumulative discharge defined as the total amount of charge (Ah) delivered by the battery during its entire life or equivalent full cycles, which represents the summation of the partial cycles as fractions of a full charge-discharge cycle. Battery degradation during storage is affected by temperature and battery state of charge (SOC) and a combination of full charge (100% SOC) and high temperature (usually > 50 °C) can result in sharp capacity drop and gas generation. Multiplying the battery cumulative discharge by the rated nominal Voltage gives the total energy delivered over the life of the battery. From this one can calculate the cost per kWh of the energy (including the cost of charging).
Over their lifespan batteries degrade gradually leading to reduced capacity due to a variety of chemical and mechanical changes to the electrodes. Some of the most prominent mechanisms include the growth of resistive layers (solid electrolyte interphase, or SEI) on the electrode surfaces, lithium plating, mechanical cracking of the SEI layer or electrode particles, and thermal decomposition of electrolyte. Degradation is strongly temperature-dependent: degradation at room temperature is minimal but increases for batteries stored or used in hot or cold environments. High charge levels also hasten capacity loss. Batteries generate heat when being charged or discharged, especially at high currents. Large battery packs, such as those used in electric vehicles, are generally equipped with thermal management systems that maintain a temperature between and . Pouch and cylindrical cell temperatures depend linearly on the discharge current. Poor internal ventilation may increase temperatures. Loss rates vary by temperature: 6% loss at , 20% at , and 35% at . In contrast, the calendar life of cells is not affected by high charge states. The advent of the SEI layer improved performance, but increased vulnerability to thermal degradation. The layer is composed of electrolyte – carbonate reduction products that serve both as an ionic conductor and electronic insulator. It forms on both the anode and cathode and determines many performance parameters. Under typical conditions, such as room temperature and the absence of charge effects and contaminants, the layer reaches a fixed thickness after the first charge, allowing the device to operate for years. However, operation outside such parameters can degrade the device via several reactions. Lithium-ion batteries are prone to capacity fading over hundreds to thousands of cycles. It is by slow electrochemical processes, the formation of a solid-electrolyte inter phase (SEI) in the negative electrode. SEI forms in between the first charge and discharge and results in the consumption of lithium ions. The consumption of lithium ions reduces the charge and discharge efficiency of the electrode material. However, SEI film is organic solvent insoluble and hence it can be stable in organic electrolyte solutions. If proper additives are added to the electrolyte to promote SEI formation, the co-embedding of solvent molecules can be effectively prevented and the damage to electrode materials can be avoided. On the other hand, SEI is selective and allows lithium ions to pass through and forbids electrons to pass through. This guarantees the continuity of charging and discharging cycle. SEI hinders the further consumption of lithium ions and thus greatly improves the electrode, as well as the cycle performance and service life. New data has shown that exposure to heat and the use of fast charging promote the degradation of Li-ion batteries more than age and actual use. Charging Li-ion batteries beyond 80% can drastically accelerate battery degradation.
Five common exothermic degradation reactions can occur:
Chemical reduction of the electrolyte by the anode.
Thermal decomposition of the electrolyte.
Chemical oxidation of the electrolyte by the cathode.
Thermal decomposition by the cathode and anode.
Internal short circuit by charge effects.
The SEI layer that forms on the anode is a mixture of lithium oxide, lithium fluoride and semicarbonates (e.g., lithium alkyl carbonates). At elevated temperatures, alkyl carbonates in the electrolyte decompose into insoluble that increases film thickness, limiting anode efficiency. This increases cell impedance and reduces capacity. Gases formed by electrolyte decomposition can increase the cell's internal pressure and are a potential safety issue in demanding environments such as mobile devices. Below 25 °C, plating of metallic Lithium on the anodes and subsequent reaction with the electrolyte is leading to loss of cyclable Lithium. Extended storage can trigger an incremental increase in film thickness and capacity loss. Charging at greater than 4.2 V can initiate Li+ plating on the anode, producing irreversible capacity loss. The randomness of the metallic lithium embedded in the anode during intercalation results in dendrites formation. Over time the dendrites can accumulate and pierce the separator, causing a short circuit leading to heat, fire or explosion. This process is referred to as thermal runaway. Discharging beyond 2 V can also result in capacity loss. The (copper) anode current collector can dissolve into the electrolyte. When charged, copper ions can reduce on the anode as metallic copper. Over time, copper dendrites can form and cause a short in the same manner as lithium. High cycling rates and state of charge induces mechanical strain on the anode's graphite lattice. Mechanical strain caused by intercalation and de-intercalation creates fissures and splits of the graphite particles, changing their orientation. This orientation change results in capacity loss. Electrolyte degradation mechanisms include hydrolysis and thermal decomposition. At concentrations as low as 10 ppm, water begins catalyzing a host of degradation products that can affect the electrolyte, anode and cathode. participates in an equilibrium reaction with LiF and . Under typical conditions, the equilibrium lies far to the left. However the presence of water generates substantial LiF, an insoluble, electrically insulating product. LiF binds to the anode surface, increasing film thickness. hydrolysis yields , a strong Lewis acid that reacts with electron-rich species, such as water. reacts with water to form hydrofluoric acid (HF) and phosphorus oxyfluoride. Phosphorus oxyfluoride in turn reacts to form additional HF and difluorohydroxy phosphoric acid. HF converts the rigid SEI film into a fragile one. On the cathode, the carbonate solvent can then diffuse onto the cathode oxide over time, releasing heat and potentially causing thermal runaway. Decomposition of electrolyte salts and interactions between the salts and solvent start at as low as 70 °C. Significant decomposition occurs at higher temperatures. At 85 °C transesterification products, such as dimethyl-2,5-dioxahexane carboxylate (DMDOHC) are formed from EC reacting with DMC. Cathode degradation mechanisms include manganese dissolution, electrolyte oxidation and structural disorder. In hydrofluoric acid catalyzes the loss of metallic manganese through disproportionation of trivalent manganese:
2Mn3+ → Mn2++ Mn4+
Material loss of the spinel results in capacity fade. Temperatures as low as 50 °C initiate Mn2+ deposition on the anode as metallic manganese with the same effects as lithium and copper plating. Cycling over the theoretical max and min voltage plateaus destroys the crystal lattice via Jahn-Teller distortion, which occurs when Mn4+ is reduced to Mn3+ during discharge. Storage of a battery charged to greater than 3.6 V initiates electrolyte oxidation by the cathode and induces SEI layer formation on the cathode. As with the anode, excessive SEI formation forms an insulator resulting in capacity fade and uneven current distribution. Storage at less than 2 V results in the slow degradation of and cathodes, the release of oxygen and irreversible capacity loss.
The need to "condition" NiCd and NiMH batteries has leaked into folklore surrounding Li-ion batteries, but is unfounded. The recommendation for the older technologies is to leave the device plugged in for seven or eight hours, even if fully charged. This may be a confusion of battery software calibration instructions with the "conditioning" instructions for NiCd and NiMH batteries.
Safety
Fire hazard
Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may become pressurized if they become damaged. A battery cell charged too quickly could cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. A Li-ion battery fire can be started due to (1) thermal abuse, e.g. poor cooling or external fire, (2) electrical abuse, e.g. overcharge or external short circuit, (3) mechanical abuse, e.g. penetration or crash, or (4) internal short circuit, e.g. due to manufacturing flaws or aging. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional battery-specific tests, and there are shipping limitations imposed by safety regulators. There have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Galaxy Note 7 recall for battery fires.
Lithium-ion batteries have a flammable liquid electrolyte. A faulty battery can cause a serious fire. Faulty chargers can affect the safety of the battery because they can destroy the battery's protection circuit. While charging at temperatures below 0 °C, the negative electrode of the cells gets plated with pure lithium, which can compromise the safety of the whole pack.
Short-circuiting a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Smoke from thermal runaway in a Li-ion battery is both flammable and toxic. The fire energy content (electrical + chemical) of cobalt-oxide cells is about 100 to 150 kJ/(A·h), most of it chemical.
Around 2010, large lithium-ion batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; , there had been at least four serious lithium-ion battery fires, or smoke, on the Boeing 787 passenger aircraft, introduced in 2011, which did not cause crashes but had the potential to do so. UPS Airlines Flight 6 crashed in Dubai after its payload of batteries spontaneously ignited.
To reduce fire hazards, research projects are intended to develop non-flammable electrolytes.
Damaging and overloading
If a lithium-ion battery is damaged, crushed, or is subjected to a higher electrical load without having overcharge protection, then problems may arise. External short circuit can trigger the battery explosion.
If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture. In extreme cases this can lead to leakage, explosion or fire. To reduce these risks, many lithium-ion cells (and battery packs) contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell. or when overcharged or discharged. Lithium battery packs, whether constructed by a vendor or the end-user, without effective battery management circuits are susceptible to these issues. Poorly designed or implemented battery management circuits also may cause problems; it is difficult to be certain that any particular battery management circuitry is properly implemented.
Voltage limits
Lithium-ion cells are susceptible to stress by voltage ranges outside of safe ones between 2.5 and 3.65/4.1/4.2 or 4.35V (depending on the components of the cell). Exceeding this voltage range results in premature aging and in safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells. When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry may drain the battery below its shutoff voltage; normal chargers may then be useless since the battery management system (BMS) may retain a record of this battery (or charger) 'failure'. Many types of lithium-ion cells cannot be charged safely below 0 °C, as this can result in plating of lithium on the anode of the cell, which may cause complications such as internal short-circuit paths.
Other safety features are required in each cell:
Shut-down separator (for overheating)
Tear-away tab (for internal pressure relief)
Vent (pressure relief in case of severe outgassing)
Thermal interrupt (overcurrent/overcharging/environmental exposure)
These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated. Further, these features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device and a back-up pressure valve. Contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices. Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e.g., prismatic high current cells cannot be equipped with a vent or thermal interrupt. High current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent. Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits.
Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP) improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity. As of 2006, these 'safer' lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in electric cars and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical.
Recalls
In October 2004, Kyocera Wireless recalled approximately 1 million mobile phone batteries to identify counterfeits.
In December 2005, Dell recalled approximately 22,000 laptop computer batteries, and 4.1 million in August 2006.
In 2006, approximately 10 million Sony batteries used in Dell, Sony, Apple, Lenovo, Panasonic, Toshiba, Hitachi, Fujitsu and Sharp laptops were recalled. The batteries were found to be susceptible to internal contamination by metal particles during manufacture. Under some circumstances, these particles could pierce the separator, causing a dangerous short circuit.
In March 2007, computer manufacturer Lenovo recalled approximately 205,000 batteries at risk of explosion.
In August 2007, mobile phone manufacturer Nokia recalled over 46 million batteries at risk of overheating and exploding. One such incident occurred in the Philippines involving a Nokia N91, which used the BL-5C battery.
In September 2016, Samsung recalled approximately 2.5 million Galaxy Note 7 phones after 35 confirmed fires. The recall was due to a manufacturing design fault in Samsung's batteries which caused internal positive and negative poles to touch.
Transport restrictions
IATA estimates that over a billion lithium and lithium-ion cells are flown each year. Some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard aircraft because of the fire hazard. Some postal administrations restrict air shipping (including EMS) of lithium and lithium-ion batteries, either separately or installed in equipment.
Environmental impact
Extraction of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, manufacture of solvents, and mining byproducts present significant environmental and health hazards.
Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution. It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage. It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium). Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste.
Lithium mining takes place in North and South America, Asia, South Africa, Australia, and China.
Cobalt for Li-ion batteries is largely mined in the Congo (see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoule (MJ) of energy. The global warming potential of lithium-ion batteries manufacturing strongly depends on the energy source used in mining and manufacturing operations, and is difficult to estimate, but one 2019 study estimated 73 kg CO2e/kWh. Effective recycling can reduce the carbon footprint of the production significantly.
Solid waste and recycling
Since Li-ion batteries contain less toxic metals than other types of batteries which may contain lead or cadmium, they are generally categorized as non-hazardous waste. Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for incinerators and landfills. These metals can be recycled, usually by burning away the other materials, but mining generally remains cheaper than recycling; recycling may cost $3/kg, and in 2019 less than 5% of lithium ion batteries were being recycled. Since 2018, the recycling yield was increased significantly, and recovering lithium, manganese, aluminum, the organic solvents of the electrolyte, and graphite is possible at industrial scales. The most expensive metal involved in the construction of the cell is cobalt. Lithium is less expensive than other metals used and is rarely recycled, but recycling could prevent a future shortage.
Accumulation of battery waste presents technical challenges and health hazards. Since the environmental impact of electric cars is heavily affected by the production of lithium-ion batteries, the development of efficient ways to repurpose waste is crucial. Recycling is a multi-step process, starting with the storage of batteries before disposal, followed by manual testing, disassembling, and finally the chemical separation of battery components. Re-use of the battery is preferred over complete recycling as there is less embodied energy in the process. As these batteries are a lot more reactive than classical vehicle waste like tire rubber, there are significant risks to stockpiling used batteries.
Pyrometallurgical recovery
The pyrometallurgical method uses a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides in the battery to an alloy of Co, Cu, Fe, and Ni. This is the most common and commercially established method of recycling and can be combined with other similar batteries to increase smelting efficiency and improve thermodynamics. The metal current collectors aid the smelting process, allowing whole cells or modules to be melted at once. The product of this method is a collection of metallic alloy, slag, and gas. At high temperatures, the polymers used to hold the battery cells together burn off and the metal alloy can be separated through a hydrometallurgical process into its separate components. The slag can be further refined or used in the cement industry. The process is relatively risk-free and the exothermic reaction from polymer combustion reduces the required input energy. However, in the process, the plastics, electrolytes, and lithium salts will be lost.
Hydrometallurgical metals reclamation
This method involves the use of aqueous solutions to remove the desired metals from the cathode. The most common reagent is sulfuric acid. Factors that affect the leaching rate include the concentration of the acid, time, temperature, solid-to-liquid-ratio, and reducing agent. It is experimentally proven that H2O2 acts as a reducing agent to speed up the rate of leaching through the reaction:
2LiCoO2(s) + 3H2SO4 + H2O2 → 2CoSO4(aq) + Li2SO4 + 4H2O + O2
Once leached, the metals can be extracted through precipitation reactions controlled by changing the pH level of the solution. Cobalt, the most expensive metal, can then be recovered in the form of sulfate, oxalate, hydroxide, or carbonate. [75] More recently recycling methods experiment with the direct reproduction of the cathode from the leached metals. In these procedures, concentrations of the various leached metals are premeasured to match the target cathode and then the cathodes are directly synthesized.
The main issues with this method, however, is that a large volume of solvent is required and the high cost of neutralization. Although it's easy to shred up the battery, mixing the cathode and anode at the beginning complicates the process, so they will also need to be separated. Unfortunately, the current design of batteries makes the process extremely complex and it is difficult to separate the metals in a closed-loop battery system. Shredding and dissolving may occur at different locations.
Direct recycling
Direct recycling is the removal of the cathode or anode from the electrode, reconditioned, and then reused in a new battery. Mixed metal-oxides can be added to the new electrode with very little change to the crystal morphology. The process generally involves the addition of new lithium to replenish the loss of lithium in the cathode due to degradation from cycling. Cathode strips are obtained from the dismantled batteries, then soaked in NMP, and undergo sonication to remove excess deposits. It is treated hydrothermally with a solution containing LiOH/Li2SO4 before annealing.
This method is extremely cost-effective for noncobalt-based batteries as the raw materials do not make up the bulk of the cost. Direct recycling avoids the time-consuming and expensive purification steps, which is great for low-cost cathodes such as LiMn2O4 and LiFePO4. For these cheaper cathodes, most of the cost, embedded energy, and carbon footprint is associated with the manufacturing rather than the raw material. It is experimentally shown that direct recycling can reproduce similar properties to pristine graphite.
The drawback of the method lies in the condition of the retired battery. In the case where the battery is relatively healthy, direct recycling can cheaply restore its properties. However, for batteries where the state of charge is low, direct recycling may not be worth the investment. The process must also be tailored to the specific cathode composition, and therefore the process must be configured to one type of battery at a time. Lastly, in a time with rapidly developing battery technology, the design of a battery today may no longer be desirable a decade from now, rendering direct recycling ineffective.
Human rights impact
Extraction of raw materials for lithium ion batteries may present dangers to local people, especially land-based indigenous populations.
Cobalt sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo is often mined by workers using hand tools with few safety precautions, resulting in frequent injuries and deaths. Pollution from these mines has exposed people to toxic chemicals that health officials believe to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties. Human rights activists have alleged, and investigative journalism reported confirmation, that child labor is used in these mines.
A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples' right to free prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.
Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, USA has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites. Links between resource extraction and missing and murdered indigenous women have also prompted local communities to express concerns that the project will create risks to indigenous women. Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January, 2021.
Research
Researchers are actively working to improve the power density, safety, cycle durability (battery life), recharge time, cost, flexibility, and other characteristics, as well as research methods and uses, of these batteries.
See also
Borate oxalate
Comparison of commercial battery types
European Battery Alliance
Gigafactory 1
Lithium as an investment
Nanowire battery
Solid-state battery
Thin film lithium-ion battery
References
Further reading
External links
.
List of World's Largest Lithium-ion Battery Factories (2020).
Energy Storage Safety at National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
New More Efficient Lithium-ion Batteries The New York Times. September 2021.
NREL Innovation Improves Safety of Electric Vehicle Batteries, NREL, October 2015.
Degradation Mechanisms and Lifetime Prediction for Lithium-Ion Batteries, NREL, July 2015.
Impact of Temperature Extremes on Large Format Li-ion Batteries for Vehicle Applications, NREL, March 2013.
Japanese inventions
20th-century inventions
Metal-ion batteries
American inventions
English inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable%20battery
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Rechargeable battery
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A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or secondary cell (formally a type of energy accumulator), is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, zinc–air, nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).
Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them.
Billions of dollars in research are being invested around the world for improving batteries and industry also focuses on building better batteries.
Applications
Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), road vehicles (cars, vans, trucks, motorbikes), trains, small airplanes, tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.
Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.
Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing electric energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods) and for renewable energy uses (such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night). Load-leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost and the need for peaking power plants.
According to a report from Research and Markets, the analysts forecast the global rechargeable battery market to grow at a CAGR of 8.32% during the period 2018–2022.
Small rechargeable batteries can power portable electronic devices, power tools, appliances, and so on. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to locomotives and ships. They are used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone power systems.
Charging and discharging
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the source must be higher than that of the battery to force current to flow into it, but not too much higher or the battery may be damaged.
Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.
Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.
Rate of discharge
Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20-hour" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15-minute discharge.
The terminal voltage of the battery is not constant during charging and discharging. Some types have relatively constant voltage during discharge over much of their capacity. Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.
Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
Damage from cell reversal
Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further to the point the positive and negative terminals switch polarity causes a condition called . Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell.
Cell reversal can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:
When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.
Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuitry built inside.
Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.
In some situations, such as when correcting NiCd batteries that have been previously overcharged, it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.
Damage during storage in fully discharged state
If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above.
It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell reversal—either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time.
Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods.
For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it.
Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.
Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle. Lithium batteries can discharge to about 80 to 90% of their nominal capacity. Lead-acid batteries can discharge to about 50–60%. While flow batteries can discharge 100%.
Lifespan and cycle stability
If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.
Recharging time
Recharging time is an important parameter to the user of a product powered by rechargeable batteries. Even if the charging power supply provides enough power to operate the device as well as recharge the battery, the device is attached to an external power supply during the charging time. For electric vehicles used industrially, charging during off-shifts may be acceptable. For highway electric vehicles, rapid charging is necessary for charging in a reasonable time.
A rechargeable battery cannot be recharged at an arbitrarily high rate. The internal resistance of the battery will produce heat, and excessive temperature rise will damage or destroy a battery. For some types, the maximum charging rate will be limited by the speed at which active material can diffuse through a liquid electrolyte. High charging rates may produce excess gas in a battery, or may result in damaging side reactions that permanently lower the battery capacity. Very roughly, and with many exceptions and caveats, restoring a battery's full capacity in one hour or less is considered fast charging. A battery charger system will include more complex control-circuit- and charging strategies for fast charging, than for a charger designed for slower recharging.
Active components
The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative electrodes are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The sum of the potentials from these half-reactions is the standard cell potential or voltage.
In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systems—especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cells—this practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.
Types
Commercial types
The lead–acid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.
The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd) was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. It uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have been almost completely superseded by nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
The nickel–iron battery (NiFe) was also developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899; and commercialized by Thomas Edison in 1901 in the United States for electric vehicles and railway signalling. It is composed of only non-toxic elements, unlike many kinds of batteries that contain toxic mercury, cadmium, or lead.
The nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) became available in 1989. These are now a common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium.
The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, is the choice in most consumer electronics, having the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat generated by the battery. Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards" so the risk is acceptable.
Lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo) are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are available but have not displaced Li-ion in the market. A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering remote-controlled cars, boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the consumer market, in various configurations, up to 44.4v, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions. Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes.
Other experimental types
‡ citations are needed for these parameters
Notes
a Nominal cell voltage in V.
b Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
c Specific power = power/weight in W/kg
e Energy/consumer price in W·h/US$ (approximately)
f Self-discharge rate in %/month
g Cycle durability in number of cycles
h Time durability in years
i VRLA or recombinant includes gel batteries and absorbed glass mats
p Pilot production
The lithium–sulfur battery was developed by Sion Power in 1994. The company claims superior energy density to other lithium technologies.
The thin-film battery (TFB) is a refinement of lithium ion technology by Excellatron. The developers claim a large increase in recharge cycles to around 40,000 and higher charge and discharge rates, at least 5 C charge rate. Sustained 60 C discharge and 1000C peak discharge rate and a significant increase in specific energy, and energy density.
Lithium iron phosphate battery is used in some applications.
UltraBattery, a hybrid lead–acid battery and ultracapacitor invented by Australia's national science organisation CSIRO, exhibits tens of thousands of partial state of charge cycles and has outperformed traditional lead-acid, lithium and NiMH-based cells when compared in testing in this mode against variability management power profiles. UltraBattery has kW and MW-scale installations in place in Australia, Japan and the U.S.A. It has also been subjected to extensive testing in hybrid electric vehicles and has been shown to last more than 100,000 vehicle miles in on-road commercial testing in a courier vehicle. The technology is claimed to have a lifetime of 7 to 10 times that of conventional lead-acid batteries in high rate partial state-of-charge use, with safety and environmental benefits claimed over competitors like lithium-ion. Its manufacturer suggests an almost 100% recycling rate is already in place for the product.
The potassium-ion battery delivers around a million cycles, due to the extraordinary electrochemical stability of potassium insertion/extraction materials such as Prussian blue.
The sodium-ion battery is meant for stationary storage and competes with lead–acid batteries. It aims at a low total cost of ownership per kWh of storage. This is achieved by a long and stable lifetime. The effective number of cycles is above 5000 and the battery is not damaged by deep discharge. The energy density is rather low, somewhat lower than lead–acid.
Alternatives
A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems. Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses such as portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which are wound up by hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be used to charge a battery rather than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven by a dynamo directly. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, flywheel energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor for conversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electrical grid.
Ultracapacitors capacitors of extremely high value are also used; an electric screwdriver which charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as many screws as a device using a rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007, and similar flashlights have been produced. In keeping with the concept of ultracapacitors, betavoltaic batteries may be utilized as a method of providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and energy capacity of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid betavoltaic power source" by those in the industry.
Ultracapacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid vehicles. One drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. This terminal voltage drop complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai.
Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of rechargeable fuel cell.
Research
Rechargeable battery research includes development of new electrochemical systems as well as improving the life span and capacity of current types.
See also
Battery pack
Comparison of commercial battery types
Energy density
Energy storage
List of battery types
Metal–air electrochemical cell
Search for the Super Battery
References
Further reading
Belli, Brita. ‘Battery University’ Aims to Train a Work Force for Next-Generation Energy Storage, The New York Times, 8 April 2013. Discusses a professional development program at San Jose State University.
Vlasic, Bill. Chinese Firm Wins Bid for Auto Battery Maker, The New York Times, published online 9 December 2012, p. B1.
Cardwell, Diane. Battery Seen as Way to Cut Heat-Related Power Losses, 16 July 2013 online and 17 July 2013 in print on 17 July 2013, on page B1 in the New York City edition of The New York Times, p. B1. Discusses Eos Energy Systems' Zinc–air batteries.
Cardwell, Diane. SolarCity to Use Batteries From Tesla for Energy Storage, 4 December 2013 on line, and 5 December 2013 in the New York City edition of The New York Times, p. B-2. Discusses SolarCity, DemandLogic and Tesla Motors.
Galbraith, Kate. In Presidio, a Grasp at the Holy Grail of Energy Storage, The New York Times, 6 November 2010.
Galbraith, Kate. Filling the Gaps in the Flow of Renewable Energy, The New York Times, 22 October 2013.
Witkin, Jim. Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars, The New York Times, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable batteries and the new-technology lithium ion battery.
Wald, Matthew L. Hold That Megawatt!, The New York Times, 7 January 2011. Discusses AES Energy Storage.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Is That Onions You Smell? Or Battery Juice?, The New York Times, 9 May 2012. Discusses vanadium redox battery technology.
Wald, Matthew L. Green Blog: Cutting the Electric Bill with a Giant Battery, The New York Times, 27 June 2012. Discusses Saft Groupe S.A.
Wald, Matthew L. Seeking to Start a Silicon Valley for Battery Science, The New York Times, 30 November 2012.
Wald, Matthew L. From Harvard, a Cheaper Storage Battery, The New York Times, 8 January 2014. Discusses research into flow-batteries utilizing carbon-based molecules called quinones.
Witkin, Jim. Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars, The New York Times, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable batteries and lithium ion batteries.
Witkin, Jim. Green Blog: A Second Life for the Electric Car Battery, The New York Times, 27 April 2011. Describes: ABB; Community Energy Storage for the use of electric vehicle batteries for grid energy storage.
Woody, Todd. Green Blog: When It Comes to Car Batteries, Moore’s Law Does Not Compute, The New York Times, 6 September 2010. Discusses lithium-air batteries.
Jang Wook Choi. Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities.
Flexible electronics
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201489
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient%20descent
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Gradient descent
|
In mathematics gradient descent (also often called steepest descent) is a first-order iterative optimization algorithm for finding a local minimum of a differentiable function. The idea is to take repeated steps in the opposite direction of the gradient (or approximate gradient) of the function at the current point, because this is the direction of steepest descent. Conversely, stepping in the direction of the gradient will lead to a local maximum of that function; the procedure is then known as gradient ascent.
Gradient descent is generally attributed to Cauchy, who first suggested it in 1847. Hadamard independently proposed a similar method in 1907. Its convergence properties for non-linear optimization problems were first studied by Haskell Curry in 1944, with the method becoming increasingly well-studied and used in the following decades.
Description
Gradient descent is based on the observation that if the multi-variable function is defined and differentiable in a neighborhood of a point , then decreases fastest if one goes from in the direction of the negative gradient of at . It follows that, if
for a small enough step size or learning rate , then . In other words, the term is subtracted from because we want to move against the gradient, toward the local minimum. With this observation in mind, one starts with a guess for a local minimum of , and considers the sequence such that
We have a monotonic sequence
so, hopefully, the sequence converges to the desired local minimum. Note that the value of the step size is allowed to change at every iteration. With certain assumptions on the function (for example, convex and Lipschitz) and particular choices of (e.g., chosen either via a line search that satisfies the Wolfe conditions, or the Barzilai–Borwein method shown as following),
convergence to a local minimum can be guaranteed. When the function is convex, all local minima are also global minima, so in this case gradient descent can converge to the global solution.
This process is illustrated in the adjacent picture. Here, is assumed to be defined on the plane, and that its graph has a bowl shape. The blue curves are the contour lines, that is, the regions on which the value of is constant. A red arrow originating at a point shows the direction of the negative gradient at that point. Note that the (negative) gradient at a point is orthogonal to the contour line going through that point. We see that gradient descent leads us to the bottom of the bowl, that is, to the point where the value of the function is minimal.
An analogy for understanding gradient descent
The basic intuition behind gradient descent can be illustrated by a hypothetical scenario. A person is stuck in the mountains and is trying to get down (i.e., trying to find the global minimum). There is heavy fog such that visibility is extremely low. Therefore, the path down the mountain is not visible, so they must use local information to find the minimum. They can use the method of gradient descent, which involves looking at the steepness of the hill at their current position, then proceeding in the direction with the steepest descent (i.e., downhill). If they were trying to find the top of the mountain (i.e., the maximum), then they would proceed in the direction of steepest ascent (i.e., uphill). Using this method, they would eventually find their way down the mountain or possibly get stuck in some hole (i.e., local minimum or saddle point), like a mountain lake. However, assume also that the steepness of the hill is not immediately obvious with simple observation, but rather it requires a sophisticated instrument to measure, which the person happens to have at the moment. It takes quite some time to measure the steepness of the hill with the instrument, thus they should minimize their use of the instrument if they wanted to get down the mountain before sunset. The difficulty then is choosing the frequency at which they should measure the steepness of the hill so not to go off track.
In this analogy, the person represents the algorithm, and the path taken down the mountain represents the sequence of parameter settings that the algorithm will explore. The steepness of the hill represents the slope of the error surface at that point. The instrument used to measure steepness is differentiation (the slope of the error surface can be calculated by taking the derivative of the squared error function at that point). The direction they choose to travel in aligns with the gradient of the error surface at that point. The amount of time they travel before taking another measurement is the step size.
Examples
Gradient descent has problems with pathological functions such as the Rosenbrock function shown here.
The Rosenbrock function has a narrow-curved valley that contains the minimum. The bottom of the valley is very flat. Because of the curved flat valley, the optimization is zigzagging slowly with small step sizes towards the minimum. The Whiplash gradient descent, which is a closed-loop algorithm, successfully minimizes this function.
The zigzagging nature of the method is also evident below, where the gradient ascent method is applied to
Choosing the step size and descent direction
Since using a step size that is too small would slow convergence, and a too large would lead to divergence, finding a good setting of is an important practical problem. Philip Wolfe also advocated for using "clever choices of the [descent] direction" in practice. Whilst using a direction that deviates from the steepest descent direction may seem counter-intuitive, the idea is that the smaller slope may be compensated for by being sustained over a much longer distance.
To reason about this mathematically, let's use a direction and step size and consider the more general update:
.
Finding good settings of and requires a little thought. First of all, we would like the update direction to point downhill. Mathematically, letting denote the angle between and , this requires that To say more, we need more information about the objective function that we are optimising. Under the fairly weak assumption that is continuously differentiable, we may prove that:
This inequality implies that the amount by which we can be sure the function is decreased depends on a trade off between the two terms in square brackets. The first term in square brackets measures the angle between the descent direction and the negative gradient. The second term measures how quickly the gradient changes along the descent direction.
In principle inequality () could be optimized over and to choose an optimal step size and direction. The problem is that evaluating the second term in square brackets requires evaluating , and extra gradient evaluations are generally expensive and undesirable. Some ways around this problem are:
Forgo the benefits of a clever descent direction by setting , and use line search to find a suitable step-size , such as one that satisfies the Wolfe conditions. A more economic way Backtracking line search of choosing learning rates, has both good theoretical guarantees and experimental results. Note that one does not need to choose to be the gradient, but any direction which has positive intersection product with the gradient is OK.
Assuming that is twice-differentiable, use its Hessian to estimate Then choose and by optimising inequality ().
Assuming that is Lipschitz, use its Lipschitz constant to bound Then choose and by optimising inequality ().
Build a custom model of for . Then choose and by optimising inequality ().
Under stronger assumptions on the function such as convexity, more advanced techniques may be possible.
Usually by following one of the recipes above, convergence to a local minimum can be guaranteed. When the function is convex, all local minima are also global minima, so in this case gradient descent can converge to the global solution.
Solution of a linear system
Gradient descent can be used to solve a system of linear equations
reformulated as a quadratic minimization problem.
If the system matrix is real symmetric and positive-definite, an objective function is defined as the quadratic function, with minimization of
so that
For a general real matrix , linear least squares define
In traditional linear least squares for real and the Euclidean norm is used, in which case
The line search minimization, finding the locally optimal step size on every iteration, can be performed analytically for quadratic functions, and explicit formulas for the locally optimal are known.
For example, for real symmetric and positive-definite matrix , a simple algorithm can be as follows,
To avoid multiplying by twice per iteration,
we note that implies , which gives the traditional algorithm,
The method is rarely used for solving linear equations, with the conjugate gradient method being one of the most popular alternatives. The number of gradient descent iterations is commonly proportional to the spectral condition number of the system matrix (the ratio of the maximum to minimum eigenvalues of , while the convergence of conjugate gradient method is typically determined by a square root of the condition number, i.e., is much faster. Both methods can benefit from preconditioning, where gradient descent may require less assumptions on the preconditioner.
Solution of a non-linear system
Gradient descent can also be used to solve a system of nonlinear equations. Below is an example that shows how to use the gradient descent to solve for three unknown variables, x1, x2, and x3. This example shows one iteration of the gradient descent.
Consider the nonlinear system of equations
Let us introduce the associated function
where
One might now define the objective function
which we will attempt to minimize. As an initial guess, let us use
We know that
where the Jacobian matrix is given by
We calculate:
Thus
and
Now, a suitable must be found such that
This can be done with any of a variety of line search algorithms. One might also simply guess which gives
Evaluating the objective function at this value, yields
The decrease from to the next step's value of
is a sizable decrease in the objective function. Further steps would reduce its value further, until an approximate solution to the system was found.
Comments
Gradient descent works in spaces of any number of dimensions, even in infinite-dimensional ones. In the latter case, the search space is typically a function space, and one calculates the Fréchet derivative of the functional to be minimized to determine the descent direction.
That gradient descent works in any number of dimensions (finite number at least) can be seen as a consequence of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. That article proves that the magnitude of the inner (dot) product of two vectors of any dimension is maximized when they are colinear. In the case of gradient descent, that would be when the vector of independent variable adjustments is proportional to the gradient vector of partial derivatives.
The gradient descent can take many iterations to compute a local minimum with a required accuracy, if the curvature in different directions is very different for the given function. For such functions, preconditioning, which changes the geometry of the space to shape the function level sets like concentric circles, cures the slow convergence. Constructing and applying preconditioning can be computationally expensive, however.
The gradient descent can be combined with a line search, finding the locally optimal step size on every iteration. Performing the line search can be time-consuming. Conversely, using a fixed small can yield poor convergence.
Methods based on Newton's method and inversion of the Hessian using conjugate gradient techniques can be better alternatives. Generally, such methods converge in fewer iterations, but the cost of each iteration is higher. An example is the BFGS method which consists in calculating on every step a matrix by which the gradient vector is multiplied to go into a "better" direction, combined with a more sophisticated line search algorithm, to find the "best" value of For extremely large problems, where the computer-memory issues dominate, a limited-memory method such as L-BFGS should be used instead of BFGS or the steepest descent.
Gradient descent can be viewed as applying Euler's method for solving ordinary differential equations to a gradient flow. In turn, this equation may be derived as an optimal controller for the control system with given in feedback form . However, don't let this analogy to mean that the convergence of the gradient descent in the discrete setting follows from results known for the gradient flow: while the gradient flow has very good convergence guarantees, the situation in the discrete setting is more complicated and one has to be careful in choosing a good learning rate. More generally, it is misleading to think that the good properties of some ODE will automatically guarantee good properties of a corresponding discrete version.
Modifications
Gradient descent can converge to a local minimum and slow down in a neighborhood of a saddle point. Even for unconstrained quadratic minimization, gradient descent develops a zig-zag pattern of subsequent iterates as iterations progress, resulting in slow convergence. Multiple modifications of gradient descent have been proposed to address these deficiencies.
Fast gradient methods
Yurii Nesterov has proposed a simple modification that enables faster convergence for convex problems and has been since further generalized. For unconstrained smooth problems the method is called the fast gradient method (FGM) or the accelerated gradient method (AGM). Specifically, if the differentiable function is convex and is Lipschitz, and it is not assumed that is strongly convex, then the error in the objective value generated at each step by the gradient descent method will be bounded by . Using the Nesterov acceleration technique, the error decreases at . It is known that the rate for the decrease of the cost function is optimal for first-order optimization methods. Nevertheless, there is the opportunity to improve the algorithm by reducing the constant factor. The optimized gradient method (OGM) reduces that constant by a factor of two and is an optimal first-order method for large-scale problems.
For constrained or non-smooth problems, Nesterov's FGM is called the fast proximal gradient method (FPGM), an acceleration of the proximal gradient method.
Momentum or heavy ball method
Trying to break the zig-zag pattern of gradient descent, the momentum or heavy ball method uses a momentum term in analogy to a heavy ball sliding on the surface of values of the function being minimized, or to mass movement in Newtonian dynamics through a viscous medium in a conservative force field. Gradient descent with momentum remembers the solution update at each iteration, and determines the next update as a linear combination of the gradient and the previous update. For unconstrained quadratic minimization, a theoretical convergence rate bound of the heavy ball method is asymptotically the same as that for the optimal conjugate gradient method.
This technique is used in stochastic gradient descent and as an extension to the backpropagation algorithms used to train artificial neural networks.
Extensions
Gradient descent can be extended to handle constraints by including a projection onto the set of constraints. This method is only feasible when the projection is efficiently computable on a computer. Under suitable assumptions, this method converges. This method is a specific case of the forward-backward algorithm for monotone inclusions (which includes convex programming and variational inequalities).
Gradient descent is a special case of mirror descent using the squared Euclidean distance as the given Bregman divergence.
See also
Backtracking line search
Conjugate gradient method
Stochastic gradient descent
Rprop
Delta rule
Wolfe conditions
Preconditioning
Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno algorithm
Davidon–Fletcher–Powell formula
Nelder–Mead method
Gauss–Newton algorithm
Hill climbing
Quantum annealing
Continuous Local Search
References
Further reading
External links
Using gradient descent in C++, Boost, Ublas for linear regression
Series of Khan Academy videos discusses gradient ascent
Online book teaching gradient descent in deep neural network context
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Mathematical optimization
First order methods
Optimization algorithms and methods
Gradient methods
|
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] |
201490
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchy%20Online
|
Anarchy Online
|
Anarchy Online is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) published and developed by Norwegian video game development company Funcom. Released in the summer of 2001, the game was the first in the genre to include a science-fiction setting, dynamic quests, instancing, free trials, and in-game advertising. The game's ongoing storyline revolves around the fictional desert planet "Rubi-Ka", the source of a valuable mineral known as "Notum". Players assume the role of a new colonist to Rubi-Ka. With no specific objective to win Anarchy Online, the player advances the game through the improvement of a character's skills over time. After more than 20 years, Anarchy Online has become one of the oldest surviving games in the genre.
Plot
Fighting for military and political power on Rubi-Ka are the Omni-Tek corporation (owners of the planet's one thousand-year lease), the separatist clans, terrorist groups, extraterrestrial life, and ancient civilizations. The narrative was developed to be played out as a series of virtual "role-play" events over the course of four years, influenced by the actions of those taking part in the game.
According to the game's back story, the "Source" of all life deep inside the planet created the first forms of life, who called themselves the Xan. They began as a small, perfect, immortal civilization, living in peace and harmony. The Xans' eventual discovery and research of the Source's power lead them to create powerful technology. They built a great civilization, but this made them greedy and arrogant. Two factions formed within the Xan, calling themselves the Redeemed and the Unredeemed. These groups fought over how best to use the Source — now strained and unstable from their tampering. They tried in vain to fix the problem, but discovered it was too late - the Source would soon destroy the planet. Rubi-Ka was ripped apart in a cataclysm, leaving it a barren rock. The Source, and small fragments of the Xans' dead civilization, were thrown into another dimension known as the Shadowlands. The survivors left in search of other habitable planets, where they planted versions of their species; they hoped that one would prosper and eventually return to Rubi-Ka. Earth was one of their destinations.
In the year 28,708 AD, a mining survey ship from the mega-corporation Omni-Tek rediscovered Rubi-Ka. The Interstellar Confederation of Corporations (ICC) granted Omni-Tek a one thousand-year lease on the planet shortly after. It was a seemingly useless, arid landscape far from civilization, until the discovery of the mineral Notum, unique to Rubi-Ka. Research of Notum and its properties led to major leaps forward in nanotechnology, making possible the creation of powerful new technology, as well as the resurrection of the dead. After terraforming a portion of Rubi-Ka and constructing several cities, outposts, and transportation infrastructure, the company began importing colonists under contract as miners and other professions.
The first five hundred years of Omni-Tek's control of Rubi-Ka were marked with an exemplary worker treatment record. However, as time passed, their policies degraded. Their scientists' tinkering with the mutating effects of Notum on the colonists in a quest for efficiency lead to large numbers of failed experiments. Survivors of these experiments became the game's four playable races, or Breeds, each designed by Omni-Tek to specialize in a type of work. Together with the original "Solitus" race, the genetically engineered Herculean "Atrox," the intelligent "Nanomages," and the nimble "Opifexes," they continued their labor in the midst of an increasingly hostile and totalitarian culture. This caused a significant number of workers to rebel, and begin to trade stolen Notum to a rival corporation. These rebel groups, collectively calling themselves the Clans, fought a series of wars with Omni-Tek over the next several centuries.
Player point of view
Anarchy Onlines story, from the player's point of view, began in 29,475, after the most recent peace treaty had been signed between Omni-Tek and the Clans. ICC peacekeeping troops later moved into some cities to protect neutral observers of the war who had rejected their contractual obligations with Omni-Tek, but did not align themselves with the Clans. Omni-Tek, the Clans, and the neutral observers make up the game's three playable factions and control much of Rubi-Ka's terraformed surface.
After scientists opened a portal to the Shadowlands, players found the Source, killing the guardian the Xan had left there to protect it. This prompted an alien race known as the Kyr'ozch to begin attacking Rubi-Ka. The story's current plots revolve around the fight by all sides for control of the planet.
Gameplay
Players assume the roles of new colonists to Rubi-Ka or the Shadowlands. The game world is occupied by human players and computer-controlled characters, both friendly and hostile. The game begins with the player creating a unique character, choosing its name, gender, height, weight, and facial features. Each character is also one of the four humanoid "breeds". The final choice is that of the character's profession, similar to the character classes of other role-playing games.
The game's multiplayer nature and "free-form" gameplay encourage creating personal networks, and cooperating and fighting with other players. Players interact with Anarchy Onlines interface via a keyboard and mouse. The game's heads-up display consists of a series of windows, menus and buttons located on the periphery of the screen. Players communicate with each other by typing text in chat windows, and occasionally through emotive character animations. Communication with computer-controlled characters is executed via text windows, in which players chose from a menu of possible responses to the conversation being shown. Like most role playing games, Anarchy Online provides structure for role-playing events. Most major cities include night clubs and other venues specifically for this. Events are organized either by players, or officially by Funcom staff.
Groups of players, large or small, are often required to complete objectives. In addition to forming teams and informal chat groups, joining a player organization is encouraged. These are, like guilds in similar games, officially recognized groups bound together for technical and social benefits. Organizations are able to build their own cities across the game world, control areas of land, run player markets, and access other special content.Getting Started on Rubi-ka pg. 72–75
Among the most distinct gameplay elements of Anarchy Online are dynamic missions. Missions, or quests, are a traditional gameplay element in the role playing genre. The player or team is given a set of tasks—usually related to the story—to complete somewhere in the game world; in return, they are rewarded with experience points, items, and money. Dynamic missions are similar to traditional missions in purpose, but are created at the player's request. Once they choose its difficulty and other options, the game generates a new indoor area filled with computer-controlled enemies. The player or team are told to go to its location, and finish some task inside for their reward. Dynamic missions, like many other encounters in Anarchy Online, are "instanced": each mission area is available only to the owners of the mission.
Skill system
Much of what characters can do, and how well they do it, is determined by the game's eighty-three distinct character skills. A skill is a numerical representation of a character's proficiency in an area of skill, starting at zero. As players kill computer-controlled enemies, they gain experience points for their character. After gaining enough points, the character levels up. The current maximum level is 220. At each new level, the character is given some "skill points", which are used to increase any combination of the eighty-three skills that they choose.
Any character can access and increase any skill. The character's profession, however, provides unique resources — "perks", "alien perks", "research", and "nano programs"—that increase specific skill further. This makes each profession more adept at elements of gameplay than others. Doctors, for instance, can increase skills related to healing much higher than a Soldier because of these additional resources. Perks are chosen from a menu when the character reaches certain levels. Alien perks are gained when the player kills enough of a specific type of alien enemy. Research is gained by diverting a percentage of earned experience points toward personal or faction-specific research projects, instead of new levels. Nano programs give temporary increases to certain skills.
Combat
After targeting another character and initiating combat, the player and his opponent will damage each other automatically with their weapons. This continues until the player stops or the target is dead. Each profession's unique nano programs, perks and research also provide combat abilities used by the player during the fight. These can heal the owner, cause additional damage, lower the skills of the enemy, blind them or otherwise hinder the enemy's ability to fight. Once the target is dead, the player is able to loot money and items from the enemy's body.
After death, the character's skills are reduced for several minutes, making them much less powerful in combat during that period.
Combat between two or more human players, known as "player vs player", or "PvP" is encouraged by both the reward of special equipment, and the social nature of the game. Killing other players also rewards characters with a "PvP ranking", permanently shown beside the player's name, which represent how many other human players they have killed. Player versus player combat is controlled by the percentage of "suppression gas" in the area that dictates whether a player can start combat unprovoked with another player. Generally, this percentage approaches 100% in major cities, providing safe havens, and decreases while moving to more remote areas.
Combat was updated with the release of the Battlestation expansion. This allowed for a pure PvP environment where Clan and Omni could square off in a spacestation arena (Neutrals could join any side; much later, due to a declining playerbase, clans and omni were allowed to join teams side by side.) Battlestation points were scored by capturing "capping" up to four locations, one in the middle and three down long corridors; teleporters shortened the distance between the corridor ends. Battlestation allowed for much higher team and individual kill scores; the highest scoring team kill player of all time was Ndonaden (a doctor class Omni).
History
Development
Preliminary development for Anarchy Online began in 1995 at Funcom's Oslo, Norway studios. Up until that point, the company had only developed offline video games for consoles, including the critically successful Speed Punks for the PlayStation. In a 2007 interview, former project leader Gaute Godager said Funcom's management wanted to put substantial resources into developing a new MMORPG; they believed the genre's user base would expand in the coming years. Unlike most other games in the genre, which had traditional role-playing fantasy themes, Anarchy Online featured a science-fiction theme. The game would also feature a relatively large playable area, and graphics that were, at the time, more advanced than existing MMORPGs. Godager said he and many other developers saw the idea as "crazy," describing the project as "very ambitious". The project's team grew steadily between 1995 and 2001 to include at least 70 developers.
In a 2001 interview, gameworld designer Morten Byom said that the process of creating Rubi-Ka's virtual world had "taken more time and effort than anyone imagined when we first started." The team took inspiration from a number of sources including science-fiction books, movies, architecture in Oslo, and other games in the genre. They stated one of the biggest challenges as finding ways to encourage players to use the entire game world as they play, not to "gather in one corner". Byom said he wanted to give the world as much detail as possible to make the game "convincing" to the player.
Composers Morten Sørlie, Tor Linløkken, and Bjørn Arve Lagim created the soundtrack and music of Anarchy Online. Using a system they call "Sample-based Interactive Music", the game mixes numerous music samples to create dynamic music. By starting, stopping, fading, and layering samples based on where the player is, and what they are doing, the game creates a continuous stream of background music. Bjørn Arve Lagim stated the music is inspired by the "traditional sound" of a film score, using both orchestral and electronic instruments. Longer full-length versions of some songs were later released on compact disc with a special edition of the game in 2002.
Anarchy Online was officially announced at the 2000 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). GameSpot, and other online sites, published articles tracking the game's development over the next year. It made its second appearance at E3 in May 2001, one month before launch. Based on the beta version shown there, GameSpot stated they were "confident in the game's progress, given what we've seen". At the European Computer Trade Show in 2001 it was awarded Multiplayer Game of Show. A public beta test began two weeks before launch, during which 100,000 players downloaded and played pre-release versions of the game, helping the company find bugs and other technical problems with the software.
Release
Anarchy Online officially launched to the public on June 27, 2001 in the United States and Norway and on September 28 of the same year in the rest of Europe. In addition to being distributed as a retail box from physical and online stores, Anarchy Online was one of the first MMORPGs available via online digital distribution.
During its first month of release many stability, registration, and billing issues hurt public perception of the game. Some gaming reporters claimed it was the worst launch of an MMO in the history of the genre. Funcom spent about 6 months fixing the game, particularly the beginning experience. The company then took the "fixed game" on a press tour to convince reporters to give it another try, even though reviews and scores had been printed months before. At the same time, the company needed to build subscribers, which was very difficult given the reputation of the game. Funcom introduced the first "free trial" of the game and gave out returned boxed copies for free at the 2002 Game Developer's Conference. Some gaming publications informed their readers of the improved game, although they did not change their original scores. By the end of that year, Anarchy Online had recovered from the launch woes and won the MMO of the Year award from PC Gamer. The company went on to create expansions, including the Shadowlands expansion in 2003 that earned several Editor's Choice awards.
Two months after its release in August 2001, Funcom began offering free trial subscriptions, now common practice for other games in the MMOG genre. New players were able to sign up for accounts that remained free for a limited number of days. This required them to supply some personal information, including a credit card number. After their trial period, players could either cancel their accounts, or keep them to continue playing the game at the cost of the monthly subscription fee.
Expansions
Periodic free updates are released as content patches on an average of three per month since the game's release. These fix bugs, and add relatively small amounts of new content. The patches are downloaded and installed automatically when players start the game software. Larger updates, called expansion packs and booster packs, are available for purchase to further extend the game, typically adding new playable areas, creatures, equipment, and story progression. Expansions tend to introduce large amounts of new content; boosters are considered "too large" for a patch, but "not large enough" to warrant a full expansion.
{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Anarchy Online expansion and booster packs
! style="width:120px;"| Title
! style="width:40px;"| Year
! style="width:70px;"| Type
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| Notum Wars
| 2002
| booster
| Notum Wars was the game's first major content update in 2002. It introduced the land control areas which are now a central gameplay feature. It also added a new character creation system, flying vehicles, aesthetic improvements to the game world, and improvements to the game's rendering engine.
|-
| Shadowlands
| 2003
| expansion
| Shadowlands has been the largest expansion to date. Seven themed areas, and dozens of other new locations significantly added to the game's playable area. It raised the maximum character level from 200 to 220, and introduced the perk system. Also included were a new user interface, two new player professions, improvements to the game's rendering engine, new dynamic missions, and a "flood" of new items.
|-
| Alien Invasion
| 2004
| expansion
| Most of ''Alien Invasions content centered around player organizations. "City plots" were placed throughout Rubi-Ka which organizations can buy to erect custom cities. These cities give skill bonuses, access to unique equipment, access to new dynamic missions, and venues for role-play events. It also included a new starter area—which serves as a training ground for new characters—and new user interface. The perk system was extended with the introduction of "alien experience points".
|-
| Lost Eden| 2006
| expansion
| Lost Eden was the first expansion released after the original story had ended. It focused almost entirely on player versus player combat, although new dynamic missions were also included. The battle stations were introduced, and the pilotable vehicles for use on them and the land control areas. New weapons and armor affect skills useful against other players. It also introduced the research skill system.
|-
| Legacy of the Xan| 2009
| booster
| Legacy of the Xan focused on "end-game" content for existing players. It added new areas, equipment, and weapons for players whose characters have reached a high level.
|}
Free Play program
On December 15, 2004, Funcom replaced trial subscriptions with a business model supported by in-game advertising called the "Free Play" program. Under this program, new players are allowed indefinite access to the full original game without supplying a credit card number. With the exception of the first booster pack Notum Wars, the offer does not include access to content added with expansion or booster packs. Free subscribers are shown advertisements provided by Massive Incorporated, a company that supplies in-game advertising. The ads appear on virtual billboards placed in high traffic areas of the game world. Paying customers have the option to replace these ads with ones for fictitious products related to the game. Free subscribers may also purchase paid points to participate in micro-transactions and purchase in-game items that do not directly impact combat related gameplay.
The Free Play program was originally set to last one year, but its length has been extended every year since its creation. As of April 2020, the free to play program still exists. Former game director Craig Morrison stated in a 2008 interview that the program has "been a vital part of the success of the game." In January 2008, Funcom rebranded their subscription model as a "tier subscription system", adding a third options for customers to access to the game. Customers can access the original game and Notum Wars booster pack for free via the Free Play program, pay the full monthly subscription fee for access to all expansion and booster packs, or pay a reduced monthly fee for access to only the Shadowlands expansion pack. The Shadowlands-only option was later removed.
Present
The "Free Play" program, started in 2004, allows new players indefinite access to the original game in return for viewing in-game advertisements. Vital to the game's continued operation, the program created 400,000 new subscriptions in its first ten months, and had generated US$1 million in advertising revenue by 2006.
Funcom announced in June 2007 that they would be updating the game's 3D rendering engine. While the current engine — Funcom's proprietary Dreamworld — had received incremental improvements with the Notum Wars booster in 2002 and Shadowlands expansion in 2003, the 2008 announcement stated it would be completely replaced with more modern software to "release the game fresh". Originally, a modified version of the open-source rendering engine OGRE was used. Funcom released a short video demonstrating an early version of its implementation, and stated it would be completed by the end of 2008. OGRE was dropped in May 2009 because it did not provide "the full featureset" they had anticipated. Current game director Colin Cragg stated Anarchy Onlines "small development team" could not afford the "growing [cost] estimates" involved in making the necessary modifications to it.
Funcom decided to instead use a recent version of the Dreamworld engine, the same version used for their 2008 MMORPG Age of Conan. This new engine features improved water rendering, particle effects, and character animation. It also includes incremental improvements to technologies already used in Anarchy Online, such as the dynamic weather system. No new release date has been announced, although periodic status updates are published in the game's official weekly development blog Friday With Means.
Also introduced in 2008, Funcom added micro-transactions to the game called paid points. Paid points may be acquired through several ways. First, players may purchase them outright via their account management page, which then becomes available to their characters in game. Alternatively, players are also awarded bonus paid points based on number of months of subscription purchased. These paid points may be used to purchase items that were given as pre-order bonuses such as a fully decor-able apartment in game, or newly created vehicles that are otherwise not available through in-game currency called credits. All items available for purchase with paid points are strictly cosmetic in nature, with the exception of a Personal Scout Mech, a combat vehicle that was a pre-order bonus for the Lost Eden expansion.
In 2010, the player community became involved in development of the game, with community-created inventory icons and planet map being accepted into the official game.
A game engine upgrade was originally slated for release in 2013. The new engine, also used for Age of Conan and The Secret World, was planned to be supported concurrently with the previous engine.
This new 'dreamworld' engine was successfully released to the public for use on the live servers on June 25, 2015. While the engine is still in a 'beta' state, it is available for use with the 'live' production servers.
Server mergers
For much of its existence, Anarchy Online featured two game servers for English-speaking players, Atlantean and Rimor, and one for German-speaking players, Die Neue Welt. In 2010, Die Neue Welt was brought offline with most of its player population distributed between the two English-speaking servers. In 2013, the two remaining English servers, Atlantean and Rimor merged to form a single unifying server to host remaining Anarchy Online players.
Music
Following an innovative concept for the release time, game's music was thought to stick interactively with ingame actions, taking many parameters into account (area, faction, activity, danger, time, etc.). To accomplish this, the various musical tracks of the game were divided into 1400 sound files of 5 to 10 seconds in order to adapt in realtime to any event.
Their musical composition was done before game release and then following various extensions by several musicians : first and mainly, composers Morten Sørlie, Tor Linløkken & Bjørn Arve Lagim on classic game and then its Shadowlands expansion ; a part of these works were released through 2 Compact Disc volumes in 2001 and 2004; then joined in composer Leon Willett for Lost Eden extension in 2006 and electro band Ayria in 2009 during the addition of the virtual club named "The Grind" accessible ingame from ICC.
All the music linked to the game, unreleased and animated series included, were gathered into a collection of 4 volumes of 56 tracks free to download (packed with all visuals to self-print CDs & booklets) through Steam for AO's 16th birthday.
Reception
After the launch of Anarchy Online and the subsequent technical problems, Funcom issued a statement to reviewers asking them to "hold back on a full review until we have solved these problems." Some video game reviewers, such as Computer Games Magazine, published reviews anyway; others, such as GameSpy who described the game as "nearly unplayable", chose to wait one month before publishing a formal review. The troubled release has had a lasting effect on the game's reputation, and is nearly always mentioned in the generally positive reviews of later expansion packs as a juxtaposition.
While Anarchy Onlines launch problems had a negative effect on initial critics, the game itself was generally reviewed favorably; it scored an average of 7.6 out of 10 from GameSpy, GameSpot, and IGN. GameSpy later described it as "a promising game with some big technical flaws." IGN called it a "brilliant, engaging, profound MMORPG," but added it came with "atrocious technical problems." PC Gamer magazine said that it "will be [...] the next great MMORPG," but that the game needed "some serious work" before it would reach its potential; they would award the game with Best Massively Multiplayer Game the next year.Computer Games Magazine described Anarchy Online as a "'science-fiction' Everquest"—EverQuest was a popular fantasy MMORPG at the time—in that it took the traditional fantasy elements of the genre and gave them "science-y sounding" words. They went on to praise the game's large, detailed game world, and its "evolutionary" user interface. GameSpy said the game's soundtrack was "grand, cinematic, and very appropriate" in their review. PC Gamer magazine said that the intricate skill system gave the game "incredible character depth".
The dynamic mission system was met with mixed reviews. PC Gamer called it a "brilliant" solution to camping — the practice of waiting for a computer - controlled character in the outdoor game world to appear so that it can be killed and items looted. Computer Games Magazine said that while the missions were a good idea in theory, they are "too simple and similar", claiming that this caused players to become bored and camp for items outside anyway. Visually, they called the missions "cramped, boxy, and generally unappealing," compared to the rest of the game.
The editors of PC Gamer US later named Anarchy Online the best massively multiplayer game of 2001. They wrote, "After AOs abysmal launch and well-deserved public drubbing, Funcom dedicated itself to fixing the game's myriad troubles[. ...] The result has been admirable".
The first booster pack Notum Wars was released in 2002; at that time, the first expansion pack Shadowlands had already been announced. Staci Krause of IGN noted the new character creation interface made the game's introduction to new players easier. The "land control" areas, one of the major additions in Notum Wars, were described by Krause as "not only interesting, but fun." She also said that the new additions to the game world, and improvements to the 3D rendering engine, "add to the sense that Rubi-Ka is a busy planet." Yahoo! criticized the land control areas as being complicated and expensive, and said that participation in battles was difficult for players not in an organization.
The Shadowlands expansion was the most critically acclaimed by far, winning several Editor's Choice Awards from IGN, CNet, GameSpot, GameSpy and others in 2003. Critics applauded the size and scope of it, such as Andrew Park of GameSpot who called it "absolutely enormous." Tom Chick of GameSpy praised the "distinctive and exotic" art direction of the new areas. Critics of Shadowlands noted that the expansion's design was too "fantasy oriented", as compared to the original game.Alien Invasion, released in 2004, did not receive the same abundance of praise as its predecessor, although most scores were above 7 out of 10. The new content it introduced, in critics' eyes, was not designed for new players. G4 TV wrote that it would be a "tough sell to new players", but added it "offer[s] existing players a solid reason to keep playing." GameSpy wrote that the expansion's new features, such as improved user interface and chat system, "make the game more enjoyable to play."
After twelve years, Anarchy Online has become one of the longest-running MMORPGs in operation. Publications who had reviewed the game's previous additions did not review the Lost Eden expansion in 2006, or the Legacy of The Xan booster in 2009. GamesRadar+'s Sarah Borger wrote of Lost Eden that the game's aging graphics and user interface "make the world hard to interact with," but she went on to acclaim the new player versus player content it added.
Sales and subscriptions
Five days after the game's launch, public relations director Marit Lund announced that "35,000 registered accounts" had been created.Funcom has periodically stated subscription totals in press releases and financial statements. The amounts represent subscriptions "to date", and it is not specified whether canceled subscriptions or limited trial accounts are included. In the United States, Anarchy Onlines sales reached 47,356 units by the first week of November 2001, a performance that GameSpot's Desslock described as "woeful". By 2002, the total number of subscriptions created since launch was stated as 150,000. After the release of the Shadowlands and Alien Invasion expansion packs, total subscriptions had risen to 700,000 in late 2004. Sales of the game, its expansion packs, and monthly customer subscriptions had generated US$28 million dollars by 2005.
The "free play" program, started in 2004, has had the most significant effect on subscriptions to date. ”More than 400,000 new players" signed up for free subscriptions in the program's first ten months according to Funcom CEO Trond Arne Aas. The next year, the number of free subscriptions created, independent of paid subscriptions, was stated as one million. The income from the program—which had generated $1,000,000 by its second year—supplements revenue from paid accounts.
Funcom attributed "higher than expected" company profits in 2006 to Lost Eden'''s release in December of that year. Subscription revenue during this time was described as "steady" and "profitable". Subscription revenue remained "steady" for the next three years, until 2009 when they were described as "slowly declining". It was stated that close to two million subscriptions, both free and paid, had been created by July 2008.
Notes and references
General
Specific
External links
Official Anarchy Online website
Prophet Without Honor (Anarchy Online Book 1)
Funcom games
Science fiction video games
Science fiction massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Video games developed in Norway
Video games with expansion packs
Windows games
Windows-only games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
2001 video games
Persistent worlds
Multiplayer online games
Active massively multiplayer online games
Free-to-play video games
|
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201492
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML-Kit
|
HTML-Kit
|
HTML-Kit is a proprietary HTML editor for Microsoft Windows made by chami.com.
The application is a full-featured HTML editor designed to edit, format, validate, preview and publish web pages in HTML, XHTML and XML -languages.
HTML-Kit is freeware, although extra features are available at a cost to registered users.
An Alpha version, HTML-Kit Tools (previously named build 300), is in development and is currently only available for download by registered users. Build 292, the current stable build is available for download as freeware.
Features
HTML-Kit colours HTML code and has built-in preview. It includes internal, external, server-side and live preview modes; FTP Workspace for uploading, downloading and online editing of files.
HTML-Kit can be extended with plugins. Over 400 free plugins are available for download via the program's web site. The default installation of HTML Kit does include some plugins of general utility, such as HTML Tidy for creating standards-compliant HTML/XHTML pages, a library of code snippets and an HTML color picker.
HTML-Kit enables running batch actions such as global search and replace in multiple files, Internet Explorer and Mozilla / Netscape side-by-side previewing, W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines checking through HTML Tidy, internal Command Prompt, TimeTracker, translations, Text to Speech Wizard and UnicodePad.
Syntax highlighting
As of version 292, HTML-Kit supports syntax highlighting for languages such as :
HTML
Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML)
Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLT)
Visual Basic (VB)
Visual Basic Script Edition (VBScript)
PHP
Perl
Python
Ruby
C/C++
C#
Pascal
Lisp
SQL
Active Server Pages (ASP)
Java
JavaScript
JavaServer Pages (JSP)
Ratings
HTML-Kit gets a 5-star rating by download.com and 4-star rating by php-editors.
See also
List of HTML editors
Comparison of HTML editors
Comparison of WYSIWYG HTML editors
HTML Tidy
External links
HTML-Kit official site
Review and Download from download.com
Review and Features Description
Review at php-editors.com
Tutorial:Improved Web Development using HTML-Kit at devarticles.com
HTML editors
|
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201494
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funcom
|
Funcom
|
Funcom Oslo AS (, formerly Funcom Productions AS) is a Norwegian video game developer that specializes in online games. It is best known for the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) titles Age of Conan, Anarchy Online, and The Secret World – and The Longest Journey series of adventure games. The company has offices in Oslo, Norway, and North Carolina, US. It also had offices in Beijing, Dublin, and Montreal previously. It is now owned by the Chinese media conglomerate Tencent.
History
Founded in 1993 by Erik Gloersen, Tyr Neilsen, Andre Backen, Gaute Godager and Olav Mørkrid, the company is an independent game developer and publisher. It focuses mainly on PC games but have also released games on other platforms, including mobile phones and tablets. Funcom's console releases includes titles on Sega Mega Drive/Genesis, Super NES, Sega Saturn, Xbox, Xbox One and PS4.
In December 2005, Funcom NV., the Dutch parent company of Funcom Oslo, was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange.
On March 14, 2007, the company abandoned traditional physical product distribution (e.g. on optical discs) in favor of digital distribution completely. The main reason for this decision was claimed to be the financial losses due to software piracy.
On August 21, 2008, Funcom laid off half of its customer service department located in Durham, North Carolina. On November 22, 2008, third parties reported that Funcom fired an additional 70% of the staff in their US workforce, possibly endangering future releases.
On September 17, 2008, Gaute Godager left Funcom, stating he was dissatisfied with certain elements of Age of Conan, which he directed. Craig Morrison took over the direction of Age of Conan.
On February 23, 2009, Funcom reported financial losses of approximately $23 million in the fourth quarter of 2008. The unsuccessful launch of Age of Conan was cited as the reason for such a steep decline. The chief analyst of DnB NOR, Fredrik Thoresen, estimated that 100,000 subscribers played the game at the time of the report, far below the publisher's expectations, though these numbers were not confirmed by Funcom itself.
On September 1, 2009, Funcom announced the establishment of a new development studio in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The new studio has worked on Funcom's two MMORPG projects: The Secret World and the Age of Conan expansion pack Rise of the Godslayer.
On September 29, 2009, Funcom announced a reduction of 20% of its staff, resulting in a "significant delay" for the release of The Secret World.
All the perceived actions were reflected in the 2010 Annual Financial Report. The current number of employees is 282 (a 19% reduction to 2009). As the result of the new strategy, the operating results came close to a positive value — in 2010 it reached — US$593 thousand compared to — US$10 798 thousand in 2009.
On July 2, 2012, Funcom announced Ole Schreiner as the new CEO of Funcom and as a new member of the management board of Funcom. Ole Schreiner comes from the position of COO of the company, a role he has held for several years. Ole Schreiner is one of Funcom's longest-serving employees and he has been working directly with titles such as Anarchy Online, Age of Conan and The Secret World in several capacities. Trond Arne Aas, long-term CEO of Funcom, took on a new role as Strategic Advisor to the Board and Chief Strategy Officer,
On August 22, 2012, Funcom announced that it laid off half of the company as a cost-adjustment initiative due to the poor performance of their MMORPG The Secret World. Some of the lay-offs were temporary. They blamed this poor performance on the Metacritic score of the game and the launch of competing titles like Diablo III.
On January 10, 2013, Funcom announced that they had initiated a process of restructuring the company around its core products and technology. The restructuring involved, among other things, that some of the company's offices would be closed or consolidated with others. Thus Funcom hoped to create a stronger and more effective organization.
The company announced on January 17, 2013, that it would lay off some of its staff of their Montreal branch as a part of the restructuring process.
On January 29, 2014, Norwegian economic crime unit Økokrim launched an investigation into suspected infringement of the provisions of the Securities Trading Act connected to the 2012 launch of The Secret World. In October 2015, the case against Funcom was closed after the company paid a fine.
On April 24, 2014, the company reported securing NOK 9.7 million (US$1.6 million) additional equity. The additional cash boost helped the company to fully prepare for the launch of the LEGO Minifigures MMO in summer 2014.
In October 2015, the company launched The Park, a single-player horror experience based on The Secret World intellectual property.
In December 2015, the company announced that it had entered into a partnership agreement with Conan Properties International LLC, making it the preferred partner for PC and console games based on the Conan the Barbarian brand.
In January 2016, the company announced it was working on Conan Exiles, an open-world survival game based on the Conan the Barbarian brand. The game released on Steam PC Early Access on January 31, 2017, and launched on the Xbox One as part of the Game Preview program in August 2017.
In March 2017, the company announced it would relaunch The Secret World as Secret World Legends, the free-to-play reboot of the original 2012 MMORPG. It launched June 2017, and was made available on Steam in July 2017. There have been no substantial updates to the game since October 2018.
In August 2017, the company revealed a new logo and branding alongside a positioning that openly acknowledges low points in the company's history.
On 8 January 2019, it was announced that Funcom had acquired 50.1% of the Lisbon, Portugal-based company Zona Paradoxal, Lda (“ZPX”) with whom it has had a working relationship since 2017.
On 26 February 2019, Funcom announced that it was entering into an exclusive partnership with Legendary Entertainment to develop games related to the upcoming Dune films.
Tencent Holdings acquired a 29% minority stake in Funcom in September 2019, making it the largest shareholder in the company. Tencent announced in January 2020 its intent to fully acquire Funcom through purchasing all outstanding shares of the company in February 2020 valued at .
In June 2021, Funcom acquired Swedish video game developer The Outsiders, while the company also announced plans to open a new studio in Romania.
Funcom acquired Cabinet Group, which owns the intellectual property rights of Conan, Mutant, and Solomon Kane and other works based on the writings of Robert E. Howard, in September 2021. Funcom stated that with this acquisition, that alongside a new game, they planned to merge these into a new studio Heroic Signatures and release a new game based on these properties. On December 2, 2021, it was announced that they would sign an agreement with NUKKLEAR, whereas NUKKLEAR would develop its own Dune survival video game.
Portfolio
The Longest Journey was produced by Ragnar Tørnquist and was very well-received both by critics and users. The game was published in 9 languages: English, Norwegian, French, Dutch, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Russian and Spanish. The game was also released in other countries, but mainly in English-speaking ones.
Anarchy Online is a critically acclaimed online game, more specifically a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), with 20 international awards. Funcom issued several expansions; The Notum Wars, Shadowlands, Alien Invasion, Lost Eden and Legacy of The Xan. Founder Gaute Godager was the first Game Director, before Marius Enge released Alien Invasion and took over at the release of Shadowlands. However, shortly after the release of Alien Invasion, Morten Byom took over. Later, near the release of the Lost Eden expansion, Byom moved on to the Age of Conan team, and was succeeded as Game Director by Craig Morrison, also known as "Silirrion". Following the game, a book about the prehistory of the planet and a CD with music from the game were released.
In the spring of 2006, the company released the sequel to The Longest Journey for the Xbox and PC, entitled Dreamfall.
Funcom has also developed an online action role-playing video game for PC and console entitled Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures. This product utilizes the Conan the Cimmerian franchise license. The PC version of this game was released on May 20, 2008, and the Xbox 360 version was cancelled. As of 2011, the subscription model of the game has been altered to a hybrid game is marketed as Age of Conan: Unchained. Funcom released an expansion pack for the game called Age of Conan: Rise of the Godslayer.
The development of their MMO The Secret World was announced on May 11, 2007. The game was released on July 3, 2012.
Funcom earned a license from the Lego Company to develop a new MMO game, titled Lego Minifigures Online. The game is child friendly and was originally intended to be free-to-play, but released with a buy-to-play model on June 29, 2015.
On October 27, 2015, Funcom released a single-player horror title, The Park, set in the same universe setting as their MMO, The Secret World.
On October 25, 2016, Funcom released the one vs. one multiplayer game, Hide and Shriek, set in the same universe as their MMO The Secret World.
On January 31, 2017, Funcom released an online survival sandbox game Conan Exiles, set in the Conan the Cimmerian franchise, as an Early Access title on PC. It would later be released on the Xbox One as part of the Game Preview program on August 16, 2017.
On June 26, 2017, Funcom re-launched The Secret World as Secret World Legends, a free-to-play rebuild of the original 2012 MMORPG. It would become available on Steam July 31, 2017.
Conan Exiles launched on 8 May 2018.
List of games
Games developed
Games published
References
External links
Companies based in Oslo
Video game development companies
Companies formerly listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange
Video game companies of Norway
Video game companies established in 1993
Norwegian companies established in 1993
Tencent divisions and subsidiaries
2019 mergers and acquisitions
|
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201495
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid%20battery
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Lead–acid battery
|
The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors.
As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead–acid batteries are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy densities. In 1999 lead–acid battery sales accounted for 40–50% of the value from batteries sold worldwide (excluding China and Russia), equivalent to a manufacturing market value of about $15 billion. Large-format lead–acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead–acid) batteries.
In the charged state, the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the aqueous sulfuric acid. The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (H2O) molecules are formed from H+ ions of the acid and O2− ions of PbO2. Conversely, during charging, the battery acts as a water-splitting device.
History
The French scientist Nicolas Gautherot observed in 1801 that wires that had been used for electrolysis experiments would themselves provide a small amount of "secondary" current after the main battery had been disconnected. In 1859, Gaston Planté's lead–acid battery was the first battery that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Planté's first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral. His batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure invented an improved version that consisted of a lead grid lattice, into which a lead oxide paste was pressed, forming a plate. This design was easier to mass-produce. An early manufacturer (from 1886) of lead–acid batteries was Henri Tudor.
Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leaking. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position were first used in the 1930s, and in the late 1920s, portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell to be mounted vertically or horizontally (but not inverted) due to valve design. In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA, or "sealed") was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat (AGM) types, allowing operation in any position.
It was discovered early in 2011 that lead–acid batteries did in fact use some aspects of relativity to function, and to a lesser degree liquid metal and molten-salt batteries such as the Ca–Sb and Sn–Bi also use this effect.
Electrochemistry
Discharge
In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven by the pronounced reduction in energy when 2 H+(aq) (hydrated protons) of the acid react with O2− ions of PbO2 to form the strong O-H bonds in H2O (ca. −880 kJ per 18 g of water). This highly exergonic process also compensates for the energetically unfavorable formation of Pb2+(aq) ions or lead sulfate ((s)).
Negative plate reactionPb(s) + (aq) → (s) + (aq) + 2e−
The release of two conducting electrons gives the lead electrode a negative charge.
As electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions
and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen
ions screen the charged electrode from the solution which limits further reaction
unless charge is allowed to flow out of the electrode.
Positive plate reaction(s) + (aq) + 3(aq) + 2e− → (s) + 2(l)
taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of .
The total reaction can be written as
(s) + (s) + 2(aq) → 2(s) + 2(l)
The net energy released per mol (207 g) of Pb(s) converted to (s), is ca. 400 kJ, corresponding to the formation of 36 g of water. The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere hours per kilogram (or 13.9-ampere hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery) for a 2-volt cell. This comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but in practice, a lead–acid cell gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.
Charging
In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate is lead dioxide. The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy.
Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead–acid battery allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost
this way.
Effect of charge level on freezing point
Because of freezing-point depression, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze in a cold environment when the battery has a low charge and a correspondingly low sulfuric acid concentration.
Ion motion
During discharge, produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and is then consumed at the positive plates, while is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during the charge. This motion can be electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, or by the flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the electrolyte density is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise similar gel cell.
Measuring the charge level
Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries: It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.
The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.
Voltages for common usage
IUoU battery charging is a three-stage charging procedure for lead–acid batteries. A lead–acid battery's nominal voltage is 2 V for each cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge.
Float voltage varies depending on battery type (i.e. flooded cells, gelled electrolyte, absorbed glass mat), and ranges from 1.8 V to 2.27 V. Equalization voltage, and charging voltage for sulfated cells, can range from 2.67 V to almost 3 V. (only until a charge current is flowing) Specific values for a given battery depend on the design and manufacturer recommendations, and are usually given at a baseline temperature of , requiring adjustment for ambient conditions.
Construction
Plates
The lead–acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However, such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for only a few minutes.
Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially, this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of producing batteries greatly declined. Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area.
In 1880, Camille Alphonse Faure patented a method of coating a lead grid (which serves as the current conductor) with a paste of lead oxides, sulfuric acid, and water, followed by curing phase in which the plates were exposed to gentle heat in a high-humidity environment. The curing process changed the paste into a mixture of lead sulfates which adhered to the lead plate. Then, during the battery's initial charge (called "formation") the cured paste on the plates was converted into electrochemically active material (the "active mass"). Faure's process significantly reduced the time and cost to manufacture lead–acid batteries, and gave a substantial increase in capacity compared with Planté's battery. Faure's method is still in use today, with only incremental improvements to paste composition, curing (which is still done with steam, but is now a very tightly controlled process), and structure and composition of the grid to which the paste is applied.
The grid developed by Faure was of pure lead with connecting rods of lead at right angles. In contrast, present-day grids are structured for improved mechanical strength and improved current flow. In addition to different grid patterns (ideally, all points on the plate are equidistant from the power conductor), modern-day processes also apply one or two thin fiber-glass mats over the grid to distribute the weight more evenly. And while Faure had used pure lead for his grids, within a year (1881) these had been superseded by lead–antimony (8–12%) alloys to give the structures additional rigidity. However, high-antimony grids have higher hydrogen evolution (which also accelerates as the battery ages), and thus greater outgassing and higher maintenance costs. These issues were identified by U. B. Thomas and W. E. Haring at Bell Labs in the 1930s and eventually led to the development of lead–calcium grid alloys in 1935 for standby power batteries on the U.S. telephone network. Related research led to the development of lead–selenium grid alloys in Europe a few years later. Both lead–calcium and lead–selenium grid alloys still add antimony, albeit in much smaller quantities than the older high-antimony grids: lead–calcium grids have 4–6% antimony while lead–selenium grids have 1–2%. These metallurgical improvements give the grid more strength, which allows it to carry more weight, i.e. more active material, and so the plates can be thicker, which in turn contributes to battery lifespan since there is more material available to shed before the battery becomes unusable. High-antimony alloy grids are still used in batteries intended for frequent cycling, e.g. in motor-starting applications where frequent expansion/contraction of the plates need to be compensated for, but where outgassing is not significant since charge currents remain low. Since the 1950s, batteries designed for infrequent cycling applications (e.g., standby power batteries) increasingly have lead–calcium or lead–selenium alloy grids since these have less hydrogen evolution and thus lower maintenance overhead. Lead–calcium alloy grids are cheaper to manufacture (the cells thus have lower up-front costs), and have a lower self-discharge rate, and lower wagering requirements, but have slightly poorer conductivity, are mechanically weaker (and thus require more antimony to compensate), and are more strongly subject to corrosion (and thus a shorter lifespan) than cells with lead–selenium alloy grids.
The open-circuit effect is a dramatic loss of battery cycle life which was observed when calcium was substituted for antimony. It is also known as the antimony free effect.
Modern-day paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the lead–to–lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needle–like dendrites. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves the dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles, and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.
Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or studs, formerly of glass or ceramic, and now of plastic. In AGM cells, the separator is the glass mat itself, and the rack of plates with separators are squeezed together before insertion into the cell; once in the cell, the glass mats expand slightly, effectively locking the plates in place. In multi-cell batteries, the cells are then connected to one another in series, either through connectors through the cell walls, or by a bridge over the cell walls. All intra-cell and inter-cell connections are of the same lead alloy as that used in the grids. This is necessary to prevent galvanic corrosion.
Deep-cycle batteries have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead–oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, with higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.
About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead–acid battery rated around 60 A·h is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case. For example, there are approximately 8.7 kg (19 lb) of lead in a typical 14.5-kg (32 lb) battery.
Separators
Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites ("treeing"), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators allow the flow of ions between the plates of an electrochemical cell to form a closed circuit. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but it deteriorates in the acid electrolyte.
An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery's operating temperature range.
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
In the absorbent glass mat design, or AGM for short, the separators between the plates are replaced by a glass fibre mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet, and if the battery is punctured the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. Principally the purpose of replacing liquid electrolyte in a flooded battery with a semi-saturated fiberglass mat is to substantially increase the gas transport through the separator; hydrogen or oxygen gas produced during overcharge or charge (if the charge current is excessive) is able to freely pass through the glass mat and reduce or oxidize the opposing plate respectively. In a flooded cell the bubbles of gas float to the top of the battery and are lost to the atmosphere. This mechanism for the gas produced to recombine and the additional benefit of a semi-saturated cell providing no substantial leakage of electrolyte upon physical puncture of the battery case allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes them useful in portable devices and similar roles. Additionally the battery can be installed in any orientation, though if it is installed upside down then acid may be blown out through the overpressure vent.
To reduce the water loss rate calcium is alloyed with the plates, however gas build-up remains a problem when the battery is deeply or rapidly charged or discharged. To prevent over-pressurization of the battery casing, AGM batteries include a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as "valve-regulated lead–acid", or VRLA, designs.
Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material, and mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell, slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a characteristic "bulging" in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes, due to the expansion of the positive plates.
The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal wet cell is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tends to wear out rapidly. This is one of the reasons a conventional car battery can be ruined by leaving it stored for a long period and then used and recharged. The mat significantly prevents this stratification, eliminating the need to periodically shake the batteries, boil them, or run an "equalization charge" through them to mix the electrolyte. Stratification also causes the upper layers of the battery to become almost completely water, which can freeze in cold weather, AGMs are significantly less susceptible to damage due to low-temperature use.
While AGM cells do not permit watering (typically it is impossible to add water without drilling a hole in the battery), their recombination process is fundamentally limited by the usual chemical processes. Hydrogen gas will even diffuse right through the plastic case itself. Some have found that it is profitable to add water to an AGM battery, but this must be done slowly to allow for the water to mix via diffusion throughout the battery. When a lead–acid battery loses water, its acid concentration increases, increasing the corrosion rate of the plates significantly. AGM cells already have a high acid content in an attempt to lower the water loss rate and increase standby voltage, and this brings about shorter life compared to a lead–antimony flooded battery. If the open circuit voltage of AGM cells is significantly higher than 2.093 volts, or 12.56 V for a 12 V battery, then it has a higher acid content than a flooded cell; while this is normal for an AGM battery, it is not desirable for long life.
AGM cells that are intentionally or accidentally overcharged will show a higher open circuit voltage according to the water lost (and acid concentration increased). One amp-hour of overcharge will electrolyse 0.335 grams of water per cell; some of this liberated hydrogen and oxygen will recombine, but not all of it.
Gelled electrolytes
During the 1970s, researchers developed the sealed version or gel battery, which mixes a silica gelling agent into the electrolyte (silica gel- based lead–acid batteries used in portable radios from the early 1930s were not fully sealed). This converts the formerly liquid interior of the cells into a semi-stiff paste, providing many of the same advantages of the AGM. Such designs are even less susceptible to evaporation and are often used in situations where little or no periodic maintenance is possible. Gel cells also have lower freezing and higher boiling points than the liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.
The only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems.
"Maintenance free", "sealed", and "VRLA"(valve regulated lead acid)
Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance free, sealed and VRLA. However, it is quite common to find resources stating that these terms refer to one or another of these designs, specifically.
Applications
Most of the world's lead–acid batteries are automobile starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999. In 1992 about 3 million tons of lead were used in the manufacture of batteries.
Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centres, grid energy storage, and off-grid household electric power systems. Lead–acid batteries are used in emergency lighting and to power sump pumps in case of power failure.
Traction (propulsion) batteries are used in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles. Large lead–acid batteries are also used to power the electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines when submerged, and are used as emergency power on nuclear submarines as well. Valve-regulated lead–acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in back-up power supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies; UPS) and for electric scooters, electric wheelchairs, electrified bicycles, marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles, and motorcycles. Many electric forklifts use lead–acid batteries, where the weight is used as part of a counterweight. Lead–acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.
Portable batteries for miners' cap lamps headlamps typically have two or three cells.
Cycles
Starting batteries
Lead–acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. Starting batteries kept on a continuous float charge will suffer corrosion of the electrodes which will also result in premature failure. Starting batteries should therefore be kept open circuit but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent sulfation.
Starting batteries are of lighter weight than deep-cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.
Deep-cycle batteries
Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars, and others) and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less peak current, but can withstand frequent discharging.
Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep-cycle batteries. They may be referred to as "marine/motorhome" batteries, or "leisure batteries".
Fast and slow charge and discharge
The capacity of a lead–acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. The empirical relationship between discharge rate and capacity is known as Peukert's law.
When a battery is charged or discharged, only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called "interface charge" or "surface charge", spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.
Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.
Valve regulated (VRLA)
In a valve regulated lead–acid (VRLA) battery, the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and make impossible) regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called maintenance free batteries. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA cells do require maintenance. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry-out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking regular internal resistance, conductance, or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.
VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983, because the acid electrolyte is absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill. The separator also helps them better withstand vibration. They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due to their small footprint and installation flexibility.
Sulfation and desulfation
Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to sulfation, the crystallization of lead sulfate. They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate does not recombine into electrolyte and slowly converts into a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.
Sulfation occurs in lead–acid batteries when they are subjected to insufficient charging during normal operation. It impedes recharging; sulfate deposits ultimately expand, cracking the plates and destroying the battery. Eventually, so much of the battery plate area is unable to supply current that the battery capacity is greatly reduced. In addition, the sulfate portion (of the lead sulfate) is not returned to the electrolyte as sulfuric acid. It is believed that large crystals physically block the electrolyte from entering the pores of the plates. A white coating on the plates may be visible in batteries with clear cases or after dismantling the battery. Batteries that are sulfated show a high internal resistance and can deliver only a small fraction of normal discharge current. Sulfation also affects the charging cycle, resulting in longer charging times, less efficient and incomplete charging, and higher battery temperatures.
SLI batteries (starting, lighting, ignition; e.g., car batteries) suffer the most deterioration because vehicles normally stand unused for relatively long periods of time. Deep-cycle and motive power batteries are subjected to regular controlled overcharging, eventually failing due to corrosion of the positive plate grids rather than sulfation.
Sulfation can be avoided if the battery is fully recharged immediately after a discharge cycle. There are no known independently verified ways to reverse sulfation. There are commercial products claiming to achieve desulfation through various techniques such as pulse charging, but there are no peer-reviewed publications verifying their claims. Sulfation prevention remains the best course of action, by periodically fully charging the lead–acid batteries.
Stratification
A typical lead–acid battery contains a mixture with varying concentrations of water and acid. Sulfuric acid has a higher density than water, which causes the acid formed at the plates during charging to flow downward and collect at the bottom of the battery. Eventually the mixture will again reach uniform composition by diffusion, but this is a very slow process. Repeated cycles of partial charging and discharging will increase stratification of the electrolyte, reducing the capacity and performance of the battery because the lack of acid on top limits plate activation. The stratification also promotes corrosion on the upper half of the plates and sulfation at the bottom.
Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and splashing in the cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.
Risk of explosion
Excessive charging causes electrolysis, emitting hydrogen and oxygen. This process is known as "gassing". Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell. Catalytic caps are available for flooded cells to recombine hydrogen and oxygen. A VRLA cell normally recombines any hydrogen and oxygen produced inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this happens (for example, on overcharging) the valve vents the gas and normalizes the pressure, producing a characteristic acid smell. However, valves can fail, such as if dirt and debris accumulate, allowing pressure to build up.
Accumulated hydrogen and oxygen sometimes ignite in an internal explosion. The force of the explosion can cause the battery's casing to burst, or cause its top to fly off, spraying acid and casing fragments. An explosion in one cell may ignite any combustible gas mixture in the remaining cells. Similarly, in a poorly ventilated area, connecting or disconnecting a closed circuit (such as a load or a charger) to the battery terminals can also cause sparks and an explosion, if any gas was vented from the cells.
Individual cells within a battery can also short circuit, causing an explosion.
The cells of VRLA batteries typically swell when the internal pressure rises, so giving a warning to users and mechanics. The deformation varies from cell to cell, and is greatest at the ends where the walls are unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be carefully isolated and discarded. Personnel working near batteries at risk for explosion should protect their eyes and exposed skin from burns due to spraying acid and fire by wearing a face shield, overalls, and gloves. Using goggles instead of a face shield sacrifices safety by leaving the face exposed to possible flying acid, case or battery fragments, and heat from a potential explosion.
Environment
Environmental concerns
According to a 2003 report entitled "Getting the Lead Out", by Environmental Defense and the Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Michigan, the batteries of vehicles on the road contained an estimated of lead. Some lead compounds are extremely toxic. Long-term exposure to even tiny amounts of these compounds can cause brain and kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems in children. The auto industry uses over of lead every year, with 90% going to conventional lead–acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a well-established industry, more than ends up in landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic Release Inventory, another are released in the lead mining and manufacturing process.
Attempts are being made to develop alternatives (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal and of lead smelting operations, among other reasons. Alternatives are unlikely to displace them for applications such as engine starting or backup power systems, since the batteries, although heavy, are low-cost.
Recycling
According to the Battery Council, an industry group, lead–acid battery recycling is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world. In the United States 99% of all battery lead was recycled between 2014 and 2018.
However, documents of the U.S. Environmental Protection Administration, since 1982, have indicated rates varying between 60% and 95%.
Lead is highly toxic to humans, and recycling it can result in pollution and contamination of people resulting in numerous and lasting health problems. One ranking cites lead–acid battery recycling as the world's most deadly industrial process, in terms of Disability-adjusted life years lost—resulting in 2,000,000 to 4,800,000 estimated years of individual human life lost, globally.
Lead–acid battery-recycling sites, themselves, have become a source of lead pollution, and by 1992, the EPA had selected 29 such sites for its Superfund clean-up, with 22 on its National Priority List.
An effective pollution control system is a necessity to prevent lead emission. Continuous improvement in battery recycling plants and furnace designs is required to keep pace with emission standards for lead smelters.
Additives
Chemical additives have been used ever since the lead–acid battery became a commercial item, to reduce lead sulfate build-up on plates and improve battery condition when added to the electrolyte of a vented lead–acid battery. Such treatments are rarely, if ever, effective.
Two compounds used for such purposes are Epsom salts and EDTA. Epsom salts reduce the internal resistance in a weak or damaged battery and may allow a small amount of extended life. EDTA can be used to dissolve the sulfate deposits of heavily discharged plates. However, the dissolved material is then no longer available to participate in the normal charge-discharge cycle, so a battery temporarily revived with EDTA will have a reduced life expectancy. Residual EDTA in the lead–acid cell forms organic acids which will accelerate corrosion of the lead plates and internal connectors.
The active materials change physical form during charge/discharge, resulting in growth and distortion of the electrodes, and shedding of electrodes into the electrolyte. Once the active material has fallen out of the plates, it cannot be restored into position by any chemical treatment. Similarly, internal physical problems such as cracked plates, corroded connectors, or damaged separators cannot be restored chemically.
Corrosion problems
Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead–acid battery results from a chemical reaction of the battery terminals, plugs, and connectors.
Corrosion on the positive terminal is caused by electrolysis, due to a mismatch of metal alloys used in the manufacture of the battery terminal and cable connector. White corrosion is usually lead or zinc sulfate crystals. Aluminum connectors corrode to aluminum sulfate. Copper connectors produce blue and white corrosion crystals. Corrosion of a battery's terminals can be reduced by coating the terminals with petroleum jelly or a commercially available product made for the purpose.
If the battery is overfilled with water and electrolyte, thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.
The electrolyte can seep from the plastic-to-lead seal where the battery terminals penetrate the plastic case.
Acid fumes that vaporize through the vent caps, often caused by overcharging, and insufficient battery box ventilation can allow the sulfuric acid fumes to build up and react with the exposed metals.
See also
Automotive battery
Battery room
Comparison of commercial battery types
Dry cell
History of the battery
List of battery sizes
List of battery types
Silver calcium battery
UltraBattery
References
General
Battery Plate Sulfation (MagnaLabs)
Battery Desulfation
Lead Acid Batteries
DC Supply! (April 2002)
Some Technical Details on Lead Acid Batteries
External links
Battery Council International (BCI), lead–acid battery manufacturers' trade organization.
Car and Deep-Cycle Battery Frequently Asked Questions
Lead (Pb) Toxicity: Key Concepts | ATSDR - Environmental Medicine & Environmental Health Education - CSEM (Case Studies in Environmental Medicine), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, CDC
Lead Acid Battery Desulfator (Home Power #77 June/July 2000)
Acid battery
Motor vehicle batteries
Rechargeable batteries
Sulfuric acid
1859 introductions
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] |
201500
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makoto%20Sait%C5%8D%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Makoto Saitō (disambiguation)
|
was viscount, admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and 30th Prime Minister of Japan.
Makoto Saitō may also refer to:
, Japanese graphic designer
, also known as K-ness., Japanese professional wrestler
, Japanese sport wrestler
|
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201503
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20status
|
Social status
|
Social status is the level of social value a person is considered to hold. More specifically, it refers to the relative level of respect, honour, assumed competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society. Status is based in widely shared beliefs about who members of a society think holds comparatively more or less social value, in other words, who they believe is better in terms of competence or moral traits. Status is determined by the possession of various characteristics culturally believed to indicate superiority or inferiority (e.g., confident manner of speech or race). As such, people use status hierarchies to allocate resources, leadership positions, and other forms of power. In doing so, these shared cultural beliefs make unequal distributions of resources and power appear natural and fair, supporting systems of social stratification. Status hierarchies appear to be universal across human societies, affording valued benefits to those who occupy the higher rungs, such as better health, social approval, resources, influence, and freedom.
Definition
The sociologist Max Weber outlined three central aspects of stratification in a society: class, status, and power. In his scheme, which remains influential today, people possess status in the sense of honor because they belong to specific groups with unique lifestyles and privileges. Modern sociologists and social psychologists broadened this understanding of status to refer to one's relative level of respectability and honor more generally.
Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a person occupies as a "status" (e.g., gender, social class, ethnicity, having a criminal conviction, having a mental illness, etc.). As social network analysts, Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust Stanley cautioned "there is considerable disagreement among social scientists about the definitions of the related concepts of social position, social status, and social role." They note that while many scholars differentiate those terms, they can define those terms in a way that clashes with the definitions of another scholar; for example they state that "[Ralph] Linton uses the term 'status' in a way that is identical to our use of the term "position".
Determination
Status hierarchies depend primarily on the possession and use of status symbols. These are cues or characteristics that people in a society agree indicate how much status a person holds and how they should be treated. Such symbols can include the possession of valued attributes, like being conventionally beautiful or having a prestigious degree. Other status symbols include wealth and its display through conspicuous consumption. Status in face-to-face interaction can also be conveyed through certain controllable behaviors, such as assertive speech, posture, and emotional displays. Social network analysts have also shown that one's affiliations can also be a source of status. Several studies document that being popular or demonstrating dominance over peers increases a person's status. Analyses of private companies also find that organizations can gain status from having well-respected corporate partners or investors.
Because status is always relative to others, that means a person can enter many situations throughout their life or even a single day in which they hold high, equal, or low status depending on who is around them. For instance, a doctor holds high status when interacting with a patient, equal status in a meeting with fellow doctors, and low status when meeting with their hospital's chief of medicine. A person can also be a 'big fish in a small pond' such that they have higher status than everyone else in their organization, but low or equal status relative to professionals in their entire field.
Some perspectives on status emphasize its relatively fixed and fluid aspects. Ascribed statuses are fixed for an individual at birth, while achieved status is determined by social rewards an individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of ability and/or perseverance. Examples of ascribed status include castes, race, and beauty among others. Meanwhile, achieved statuses are akin to one's educational credentials or occupation: these things require a person to exercise effort and often undergo years of training. The term master status has been used to describe the status most important for determining a person's position in a given context, like possessing a mental illness.
However, the concept of a master status is controversial. Status characteristics theory argues members of a task group will listen to whomever they believe will most help them solve a problem. One's external status in society (e.g., race or gender) determines influence in small groups, but so does a person's known ability on the task (e.g., mechanical ability when a car breaks down). This implies that known ability would attenuate the effect of external status, implying a given external status characteristic is not a master status. The program of research finds characteristics assumed to be master statuses (e.g., mental illness) are, in fact, attenuated by known ability. Moreover, status affects group members' assertiveness only when characteristics differentiate group members (i.e., groups are mixed-race or mixed-gender). With respect to gender, experimental tests repeatedly found that women are highly deferential only in the presence of men. Although for disadvantaged groups, status disadvantage is not completely negated by valued characteristics, their social status does not depend predominantly on any one group membership. As such, status characteristics research has yet to identify a social characteristic that operates like a robust cross-situational master status.
Uses of status
Although a person's status does not always correspond to merit or actual ability, it does allow the members of a group to coordinate their actions and quickly agree on who among them should be listened to. When actual ability does correspond to status, then status hierarchies can be especially useful. They allow leaders to emerge who set informed precedents and influence less knowledgeable group members, allowing groups to use the shared information of their group to make more correct decisions. This can be especially helpful in novel situations where group members must determine who is best equipped to complete a task.
In addition, groups accord more respect and esteem to members who help them succeed, which encourages highly capable members to contribute in the first place. This helps groups motivate members to contribute to a collective good by offering respect and esteem as a kind of compensation for helping everyone in the group succeed. For instance, people recognized as achieving great feats for their group or society are sometimes accorded legendary status as heroes.
Finally, status helps maintain social inequality. Because status is based on beliefs about social worth and esteem, sociologists argue it can then appear only natural that higher-status people have more material resources and power. Status makes it appear that a person's rank or position in society is due to their relative merit, and therefore deserved. For instance, if a society holds that the homeless are unworthy of respect or dignity, then their poor material conditions are not evaluated as unjust by members of that society, and therefore are not subject to change.
In different societies
Whether formal or informal, status hierarchies are present in all societies. In a society, the relative honor and prestige accorded to individuals depends on how well an individual is perceived to match a society's values and ideals (e.g., being pious in a religious society or wealthy in a capitalist society). Status often comes with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle practices.
In modern societies, occupation is usually thought of as the main determinant of status, but other memberships or affiliations (such as ethnic group, religion, gender, voluntary associations, fandom, hobby) can have an influence. Achieved status, when people are placed in the stratification structure based on their individual merits or achievements like education or training, is thought to be reflective of modern developed societies. Consequently, achieved status implies that social mobility in a society is possible, as opposed to caste systems characterized by immobility based solely on ascribed status.
In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied. In some cases it can be quite rigid, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, and some Indigenous Australian societies. In these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wife's mother quite seriously (a non-joking relationship), although the mother-in-law has no special "status" over anyone except her son-in-law—and only then in specific contexts.
Status maintains and stabilizes social stratification. Mere inequality in resources and privileges is perceived as unfair and thus prompts retaliation and resistance from those of lower status, but if some individuals are seen as better than others (i.e., have higher status), then it seems natural and fair that high-status people receive more resources and privileges. Historically, Max Weber distinguished status from social class, though some contemporary empirical sociologists combine the two ideas to create socioeconomic status or SES, usually operationalized as a simple index of income, education and occupational prestige.
In nonhuman animals
Social status hierarchies have been documented in a wide range of animals: apes, baboons, wolves, cows/bulls, hens, even fish, and ants. Natural selection produces status-seeking behavior because animals tend to have more surviving offspring when they raise their status in their social group. Such behaviors vary widely because they are adaptations to a wide range of environmental niches. Some social dominance behaviors tend to increase reproductive opportunity, while others tend to raise the survival rates of an individual’s offspring. Neurochemicals, particularly serotonin, prompt social dominance behaviors without need for an organism to have abstract conceptualizations of status as a means to an end. Social dominance hierarchy emerges from individual survival-seeking behaviors.
Status inconsistency
Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on his or her social status. For example, a teacher may have a positive societal image (respect, prestige) which increases their status but may earn little money, which simultaneously decreases their status. In task-focused interpersonal encounters, people unconsciously combine this information to develop impressions of their own and others' relative rank. At one time, researchers thought status inconsistency would be a source of stress, though evidence for this hypothesis proved inconsistent, leaving some to conclude conflicting expectations through occupying incompatible roles may be the true stressor.
Social stratification
Status is one of the major components of social stratification, the way people are hierarchically placed in a society. The members of a group with similar status interact mainly within their own group and to a lesser degree with those of higher or lower status in a recognized system of social stratification. Although the determinants of status are specific to different cultures, some of the more common bases for status-based stratification include:
Wealth/Income
Gender
Race/Ethnicity
Social class
Occupation
Popularity (also called sociometric status)
Max Weber's three dimensions of stratification
The German sociologist Max Weber argued stratification is based on three factors: property, status, and power. He claimed that social stratification is a result of the interaction of wealth (class), prestige status (or in German Stand) and power (party).
Property refers to one's material possessions. If someone has control of property, that person has power over others and can use the property to his or her own benefit.
Status refers to a person's relative level of respectability and social honor. Weber's interest was particularly in status groups, which have distinct cultural dispositions and privileges, and whose members mostly socialize with one another.
Power is the ability to do what one wants, regardless of the will of others. (Domination, a closely related concept, is the power to make others' behavior conform to one's commands).
Status group
Max Weber developed the idea of "status group" which is a translation of the German Stand (pl. Stände). Status groups are communities that are based on ideas of lifestyles and the honor the status group both asserts, and is given by others. Status groups exist in the context of beliefs about relative prestige, privilege, and honor. People in status groups are only supposed to engage with people of like status, and in particular, marriage inside or outside the group is discouraged. Status groups in some societies include professions, club-like organizations, ethnicity, race, and any other socially (de)valued group that organizes interaction among relative equals.
See also
References
Further reading
Botton, Alain De (2004), Status Anxiety, Hamish Hamilton
Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
Social status. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
Weber, Max (2015) "Classes, Stände, Parties," pp. 37–58 in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Anthropology
Sociological terminology
Social stratification
|
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201504
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894%20in%20literature
|
1894 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1894.
Events
February – Oscar Wilde's play Salome is first published in English, with illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley.
February 15 – French anarchist Martial Bourdin accidentally kills himself while attempting to plant a bomb at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, a fictionalised version of which appears in Joseph Conrad's novel The Secret Agent (1907).
Early Spring – Mary Antin emigrates from White Russia (Belarus) to the United States with her mother.
April – The Yellow Book imprint, edited by Henry Harland, begins publication by John Lane and Elkin Mathews – The Bodley Head – in London.
April 21 – George Bernard Shaw's play Arms and the Man is premièred at the Avenue Theatre in London.
May – The Scottish writer William Sharp publishes Pharais, his first novel under the pseudonym Fiona MacLeod.
June – The German novelist Hermann Hesse begins an apprenticeship in mechanical engineering at a factory in Calw.
August 15 – A. E. Waite starts to publish and edit an occult periodical, The Unknown World.
October – Lafcadio Hearn begins work as a journalist for the English-language Kobe Chronicle in Japan.
November 8 – Robert Frost's first poem, "My Butterfly" appears in The New York Independent, which pays him $15.
December
An abridgement of Stephen Crane's American Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage is first published as a serial in The Philadelphia Press.
Arthur Conan Doyle publishes "An Alpine Pass on "Ski"" in The Strand Magazine (London), popularizing skiing as a sport in Switzerland.
December 22 – Claude Debussy's symphonic poem Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, a free interpretation of Stéphane Mallarmé's 1876 poem, "L'Après-midi d'un faune", is premièred in Paris.
unknown dates
The U.K. circulating libraries of Mudie's and WHSmith cease to purchase three-volume novels, killing off the format.
J. M. Dent begins in London to publish Temple Shakespeare pocket editions, edited by Israel Gollancz.
The Century Roman typeface, first of the Century type family, is cut by American Type Founders' designer Linn Boyd Benton, originally for Theodore Low De Vinne's The Century Magazine.
New books
Fiction
Gabriele D'Annunzio – Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death)
Clementina Black – The Agitator
Léon Bloy – Disagreeable Tales
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – The Christmas Hirelings
Walter Browne – 2894
Hall Caine
The Madhi: or Love and Race, A Drama in Story
The Manxman
Anton Chekhov – "The Student" («Студент», published in Russkiye Vedomosti, April)
Kate Chopin
Bayou Folk
"The Story of an Hour"
Ella Hepworth Dixon – The Story of a Modern Woman
Arthur Conan Doyle – The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (collection)
George du Maurier – Trilby (serialization in Harper's Monthly Magazine)
Marcellus Emants – Een Nagelaten Bekentenis (A Posthumous Confession)
Theodor Fontane – Effi Briest (begins serialization in Deutsche Rundschau)
Mary E. Wilkins Freeman – Pembroke
George Gissing – In the Year of Jubilee
Katharine Glasier (as Katharine Conway) – Husband & Brother, a few chapters in a woman's life of to-day
H. Rider Haggard – The People of the Mist
Knut Hamsun – Pan
Robert Hichens – The Green Carnation
William Dean Howells – A Traveler from Altruria
Jerome K. Jerome – John Ingerfield: And Other Stories
Sheridan Le Fanu – The Watcher and Other Weird Stories
Juhan Liiv – "Vari" ("The Shadow")
Arthur Machen – The Great God Pan (in book form, with "The Innermost Light")
Ian Maclaren – Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush
George A. Moore – Esther Waters
William Morris – The Wood Beyond the World
Arthur Morrison – Martin Hewitt: Investigator
John Muir – The Mountains of California
Gustavus W. Pope – Journey to Mars
Bolesław Prus – The New Woman (Emancypantki; book publication)
Jules Renard – Poil de carotte (Carrot Head)
Solomon Schindler – Young West
Flora Annie Steel
The Flower of Forgiveness
The Potter's Thumb
Tales of the Punjab (short stories)
Stendhal – Lucien Leuwen
Hermann Sudermann – The Undying Past (Es war)
Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne – The Ebb-Tide
Mark Twain
Pudd'nhead Wilson
Tom Sawyer Abroad
Jules Verne – Captain Antifer
Mary Augusta Ward – Marcella
H. G. Wells – "The Red Room"
Israel Zangwill – The Bachelors' Club
Émile Zola – Lourdes
Children and young people
Harold Avery
The Orderly Officer
The School's Honour
R. D. Blackmore – Perlycross
Anthony Hope
The Dolly Dialogues
The Prisoner of Zenda
Rudyard Kipling – The Jungle Book
E. Nesbit – Miss Mischief
Talbot Baines Reed – Tom, Dick and Harry
Margaret Marshall Saunders – Beautiful Joe
Ethel Turner – Seven Little Australians
Drama
Hall Caine – The Manxman ("Pete" version)
William Gillette – Too Much Johnson (adapted from Maurice Ordonneau's La Plantation Thomassin)
Martin Greif – Agnes Bernauer, der Engel von Augsburg
Sydney Grundy
A Bunch of Violets
An Old Jew
Henry Arthur Jones – The Case of Rebellious Susan
Josef Lauff – Ignez de Castro
Maurice Maeterlinck – The Death of Tintagiles (La Mort de Tintagiles, for marionette performance)
Marc-André Raffalovich and John Gray – The Blackmailers
Victorien Sardou – Gismonda
George Bernard Shaw – Arms and the Man
Poetry
Bliss Carman – Low Tide on Grande Pre: A Book Of Lyrics
Pierre Louÿs – Songs of Bilitis
Rainer Maria Rilke – Leben und Lieder
Non-fiction
John Bartlett (comp.) – A Complete Concordance or verbal index to words, phrases and passages in the dramatic Works of Shakespeare
Edward Carpenter – Homogenic Love and Its Place in a Free Society
Christabel Rose Coleridge – The Daughters Who Have not Revolted (essays)
Francis Darwin (with E. H. Acton) – The Practical Physiology of Plants
King Gillette – The Human Drift
Karl Marx – Das Kapital
Leo Tolstoy – The Kingdom of God Is Within You («Царство Божіе внутри васъ», Tsárstvo Bózhiye vnutrí vas)
Births
January 1 – Aurora Nilsson, Swedish writer (died 1972)
January 22 – Charles Langbridge Morgan, English novelist and dramatist (died 1958)
February 6 – Eric Partridge, New Zealand/British lexicographer (died 1979)
March 17 – Paul Green, American novelist and Pulitzer Prize winning playwright (died 1981)
March 23 – Mark Slonim, Russian literary historian and critic (died 1976)
April 6 – Elinor M. Brent-Dyer, English children's writer (died 1969)
April 7 – A. A. Thomson, English cricket and travel writer (died 1968)
May 1 – Elizabeth Johanna Bosman, South African author who wrote under the pen name Marie Linde (d. 1963)
May 27
Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French novelist and pamphleteer (died 1961)
Dashiell Hammett, American detective fiction writer (died 1961)
June 14 – W. W. E. Ross, Canadian geophysicist and Imagist poet (died 1966)
June 15 – Trygve Gulbranssen, Norwegian novelist, businessman and journalist (died 1962)
June 28 – Allardyce Nicoll, British literary scholar (died 1976)
July 8 – Claude-Henri Grignon, Canadian novelist, journalist and politician (died 1976)
July 9 – Phelps Putnam, American poet (died 1948)
July 26 – Aldous Huxley, English novelist and poet (died 1963)
July 30 – Păstorel Teodoreanu, Romanian poet and satirist (died 1964)
August 31 – Albert Facey, Australian autobiographer (died 1982)
September 6 – Howard Pease, American maritime adventure novelist (died 1974)
September 19 – Rachel Field, American author and poet (died 1942)
September 23 – Momčilo Nastasijević, Serbian poet, novelist and dramatist (died 1938)
October 4 – Frans G. Bengtsson, Swedish novelist, essayist, poet and biographer (died 1954)
October 9 – Agnes von Krusenstjerna, Swedish writer (died 1940)
October 14 – E. E. Cummings, American poet (died 1962)
October 18 – H. L. Davis, American fiction writer, Pulitzer Prize winning novelist and poet (died 1960)
October 26 – Eugene Jolas, American writer, literary translator and critic (died 1952)
December 8 – James Thurber, American cartoonist and humorous writer (died 1961)
December 26
Håkon Evjenth, Norwegian children's writer (died 1951)
Jean Toomer (Nathan Eugene Pinchback Toomer), African American writer (died 1967)
December 31 – Hong Shen (洪深), Chinese dramatist (died 1955)
Deaths
February 8 – R. M. Ballantyne, Scottish novelist for youth (born 1825)
April 8
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Bankim Chatterjee), Bengali writer and poet (born 1838)
Harriet Anne Scott, Scottish novelist (born 1819)
April 12 – Ludwig Pfau, German poet, journalist, and revolutionary (born 1821)
April 14 – Adolf Friedrich von Schack, German poet, literary historian and art collector (born 1815)
April 29 – Augusta Theodosia Drane, English religious writer and biographer (born 1823)
May 7 – Marie Sophie Schwartz, Swedish novelist (died 1875)
May 20 – Edmund Yates, Scottish novelist and dramatist (born 1831)
June 5 – Edward Capern, English poet (born 1819)
July 30 – Walter Pater, English essayist, critic and novelist (born 1839)
August 6 – Otto Müller, German novelist (born 1816)
September 29 – Christina Rossetti, English poet (born 1830)
October 8 – Oliver Wendell Holmes, American poet and physician (born 1809)
October 20 – James Anthony Froude, English historian, novelist and biographer (born 1818)
December 3 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet and travel writer (born 1850)
Unknown dates
Giuseppe Borrello, Sicilian poet (born 1820)
Nabagopal Mitra, Indian playwright, poet and essayist (born c. 1840)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – Frank Taylor
References
External link
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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201506
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Wetmore
|
William Wetmore
|
William Wetmore (September 16, 1771 – October 27, 1827) founded Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio in 1812.
Wetmore was born in Middletown, Connecticut and was hired by Joshua Stow as a land agent of property in the Western Reserve which was purchased by the Connecticut Land Company. Wetmore moved to Ohio in 1804 and became one of the original proprietors of Cuyahoga Falls.
He built the second house in what became Stow Township. Wetmore was elected Justice of the Peace of Stow, as well as Clerk of the Court of Ravenna, Ohio.
During the War of 1812, William Wetmore was appointed commander for troops stationed at Old Portage. (This was the northern Portage Path, at the Cuyahoga River.) Acting as an agent for Joshua Stow, owner of the township, William also gave permission to Francis Kelsey and Isaac Wilcox to build a dam across the Cuyahoga River and to erect a sawmill. It is said lumber from this mill was used by the army to build ships at Portage for use against the British. (The dam washed away long after this.)
Wetmore and Joshua Stow owned , the southern border being Portage Trail, and began developing Cuyahoga Falls in 1825. Wetmore's sons, William Jr. and Henry, supervised 30 men who constructed a dam, gristmill, sawmill, paper and linseed oil mills.
On the occasion of Edwin Wetmore's 21st birthday (1823), parents William and Anne gave him a plot of land in the Village of Silver Lake, along an upscale suburban street, Kent Road, then it was the farm that helped sustain his family and in 1820, Edwin had already built a 2-story Connecticut style farmhouse on this property. The house, with modifications, stands on and is occupied today.
William Wetmore built his home at the corner of Front Street and Portage Trail. A short time later it became a hotel known as the "Perry House" and "Clifford Inn."
In 1830, St. John's Episcopal Church was organized by William Wetmore. They met in a schoolhouse at Front and Wadsworth Streets. Shortly thereafter, construction was started at its present site on Portage Trail and Second Street.
In the twentieth century, the Wetmore farm was subdivided into a neighborhood known as Paradise Park. This tree-lined neighborhood stretches from the Wetmore house present site of the Stow-Munroe Falls Public Library, and runs several blocks. Today, Wetmore Park and Wetmore Street (located by Holy Family Church) serve as reminders of Stow's first settle family.
Wetmore died on October 27, 1827, aged 56, in Ohio and is interred in Stow Cemetery.
The William Wetmore house was located on Darrow and Kent Road, lots 25,35, 36. Edwin Wetmore's home is located on Kent Rd and still occupied today.
References
External links
http://www.stow.oh.us/community/history/historyWetmore.shtml
1771 births
1827 deaths
People from Middletown, Connecticut
People from Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio
People of colonial Connecticut
American military personnel of the War of 1812
|
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] |
201510
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocular
|
Monocular
|
A monocular is a compact refracting telescope used to magnify images of distant objects, typically using an optical prism to ensure an erect image, instead of using relay lenses like most telescopic sights. The volume and weight of a monocular are typically less than half of a pair of binoculars with similar optical properties, making it more portable and also less expensive. This is because binoculars are essentially a pair of monoculars packed together — one for each eye. As a result monoculars only produce two-dimensional images, while binoculars can use two parallaxed images (each for one eye) to produce binocular vision, which allows stereopsis and depth perception.
Monoculars are ideally suited to those application where three-dimensional perception is not needed, or where compactness and low weight are important (e.g. hiking). Monoculars are also sometimes preferred where difficulties occur using both eyes through binoculars due to significant eyesight variation (e.g. strabismus, anisometropia or astigmatism) or unilateral visual impairment (due to amblyopia, cataract or corneal ulceration).
Conventional refracting telescopes that use relay lenses has a straight optical path that is relatively long; as a result, monoculars normally use Porro or roof prisms to "fold up" the optical path, which makes it much shorter and compact (see the entry on binoculars for details). However, monoculars also tend to have lower magnification factors than telescopes of the same objective size, and typically lack the capacity of variable magnification.
Visually impaired people may use monoculars to see objects at distances at which people with normal vision do not have difficulty, e.g., to read text on a chalkboard or projection screen. Applications for viewing more distant objects include natural history, hunting, marine and military. Compact monoculars are also used in art galleries and museums to obtain a closer view of exhibits.
When high magnification, a bright image, and good resolution of distant images are required, a relatively larger instrument is preferred (i.e. a telescope), often mounted on a tripod. A smaller pocket-sized "pocket scope" (i.e. a typical monocular) can be used for less stringent applications. These comments are quantified below.
Whereas there is a huge range of binoculars on the world market, monoculars are less widely available and with a limited choice in the top quality bracket, with some traditionally very high quality optical manufacturers not offering monoculars at all. Today, most monoculars are manufactured in Japan, China, Russia and Germany, with China offering more product variety than most. Prices range widely, from the highest specification designs listed at over £300 down to "budget" offerings at under £10. (As at February 2016).
Monocular sizes
As with binoculars and telescopes, monoculars are primarily defined by two parameters: magnification and objective lens diameter, for example, 8×30 where 8 is the magnification and 30 is the objective lens diameter in mm (this is the lens furthest from the eye). An 8× magnification makes the distant object appear to be 8 times larger at the eye. Contemporary monoculars are typically compact and most normally within a range of 4× magnification to 10×, although specialized units outside these limits are available. Variable magnification or zoom is sometimes provided, but has drawbacks and is not normally found on the top quality monoculars. Objective lens diameter is typically in the range 20mm to 42mm. Care is needed in interpreting some monocular specifications where numerical values are applied loosely and inaccurately—e.g. "39×95", which on a small cheap monocular is more likely to refer to the physical dimensions than the optical parameters. (This is covered in more detail in the section "Interpreting product specifications" below.)
As with binoculars, possibly the most common and popular magnification for most purposes is 8×. This represents a usable magnification in many circumstances and is reasonably easy to hold steady without a tripod or monopod. At this magnification, the field of view is relatively wide, making it easier to locate and follow distant objects. For viewing at longer distances, 10× or 12× is preferable if the user is able to hold the monocular steady. However, increasing magnification will compromise the field of view and the relative brightness of the object. These and other considerations are major factors influencing the choice of magnification and objective lens diameter. Although very high numerical magnification sounds impressive on paper, in reality, for a pocket monocular it is rarely a good choice because of the very narrow field of view, poor image brightness and great difficulty in keeping the image still when hand holding. Most serious users will eventually come to realise why 8× or 10× are so popular, as they represent possibly the best compromise and are the magnifications most commonly adopted in the very highest quality field monoculars (and binoculars).
Where a monocular ends and a telescope starts is debatable but a telescope is normally used for high magnifications (>20×) and with correspondingly larger objective lens diameter (e.g. 60–90mm). A telescope will be significantly heavier, more bulky and much more expensive than a monocular and due to the high magnifications, will normally need a tripod, telescopes used for astronomy typically have inverted images. Most popular monocular sizes mimic popular binoculars – e.g. 7×25, 8×20, 8×30, 8×42, 10×42.
Design
Much of the basic design considerations and related parameters are the same as for binoculars and are covered in that entry, but some expanded comments have been added where appropriate:
Prism type – porro or roof
Lens & prism coating (the quality of coating can significantly affect light transmission and image brightness and in the highest specifications is proportionally more expensive)
Exit pupil
Exit pupil is defined as the diameter of the objective lens divided by the magnification and expressed in mm. (e.g. a 8×40 will give an exit pupil diameter of 5mm). For a given situation, the greater the exit pupil, the better the light transmission into the eye. Hence a large objective lens with a low magnification will give good light admission, especially important in deteriorating light conditions. The classic 7×50 marine binocular or monocular is ideally suited to low light conditions with its relatively large exit pupil diameter of 7.1mm and a realistic magnification which is practical on a moving boat. However, the exit pupil should be considered in relationship with the human eye pupil diameter. If the exit pupil of the chosen instrument is greater than the human eye pupil then there will be no benefit, as the eye will be the limiting factor in light admission. In effect, the extra light-gathering potential is wasted. This is a consideration as one ages, because human eye pupil dilation range diminishes with age, as shown as an approximate guide in the table below.
Twilight factor (related to magnification and objective lens diameter and is a guide to the ability to see detail at low light conditions and does not necessarily indicate brightness)
Transmittance (the % of light transmitted through the monocular, indicating brightness, and will be over 90% in quality instruments)
Field of view (important in being able to see a wide panorama and not appearing to be looking down a tunnel).
Field of view (fov) and magnification are related; for a given situation, fov increases with decreasing magnification and vice versa. This applies to monoculars, binoculars and telescopes. However, this relationship also depends on optical design and manufacture, which can cause some variation. The chart below has been compiled by the author to show the fov/magnification relationship based on best-in-class data, taken both from personal tests and from manufacturers' specifications. Contrary to some belief, it is a myth that binoculars offer a wider field of view than monoculars. For a given specification and manufacturer offering both monocular or binocular options of the same model, the field of view is exactly the same whether monocular or binocular.
Water/fog proofing
General construction – material (metal, plastic), types of body coating
Armoured body protection (to resist knocks and damage in the field)
Lens protection/covers (some are integrated, some loose)
Eye relief
Eye relief is a particularly important (but often overlooked) parameter for spectacle wearers if the full field of view is to be visible. Although magnification, objective lens diameter and field of view (either in degrees or m @1000m) are often shown on the body of the monocular, eye relief virtually never is (except perhaps to say "long eye relief" or "LER"). Early optics tended to have short eye relief (sub-10mm) but more contemporary designs are now much better. At least 15mm is desirable—ideally nearer 20mm—for spectacle wearers. (See table of eye reliefs below, noting the best in class, Opticron 5×30 at 25mm and Opticron 8×42 DBA at 21mm). Eye relief can seriously compromise the field of view if too short, so even if an optic has a good field of view specification, without an accompanying long eye relief, the benefit of the wide view will not be obtained (again, only applying to spectacle wearers). Good eye relief can greatly be facilitated by the eye lens diameter. The photograph below shows a comparison between two 8× monoculars, the one on the left typical of a 1980s design and with a relatively small eyepiece lens diameter (11mm) and sub-10mm eye relief. The one on the right is more contemporary—from 2016—and with a relatively large eyepiece diameter (24mm) and approximately 15mm eye relief. This large eyepiece lens not only helps eye relief but also helps to create a wider field of view.
Two additional aspects, which are particularly relevant in the context of monoculars are:
Focusing mechanism
A significant difference between binoculars and monoculars is in the focusing system. Today, binoculars almost universally use a central wheel focusing system, operating on both sides simultaneously although on some large observation binoculars, as well as some older designs, individual focusing on each eyepiece is sometimes used. Monoculars, however, employ a variety of different focusing systems, all with pros and cons. These include:
A large knurled focusing ring around the body of the monocular
A small focusing ring close to the eyepiece
A small external focusing wheel alongside and above the monocular
A small focusing lever
A sliding focus button
A toggle focus mechanism on top of the monocular
A large knurled ring surrounding the objective lens
"Dual focus" where there are two focusing rings.
The most common is the focusing ring around the body. This retains the compactness of the unit but requires two hands to operate and does not give particularly fast focusing. In some units, the ring can be stiff to operate.
The small ring near the eyepiece also usually needs two hands to operate and in some designs can interfere with the twist-up eye cup. Being small, it can also be less convenient to operate, especially wearing gloves. The degree of twist from closest focus to infinity varies between manufacturers. Some use a very small twist (about a quarter of a turn) whereas others use a full turn or more. The small degree of twist gives a very fast focus but can be overly sensitive and in some designs too stiff to use single-handed. A full turn is a practical compromise.
A focusing wheel tends not to be used on top quality monoculars (with the exception of the Bushnell 10×42HD Legend) but is particularly popular on budget offerings from China. Although it makes the monocular more bulky, it does give very convenient focusing with one hand (via one finger) and is particularly fast and smooth, which is necessary in circumstances where quick, accurate changes of focus are important (e.g. bird watching in a wood).
A focusing lever is not common but is used, for example, on the Opticron Trailfinder. This mechanism provides very quick focusing while retaining compactness but can be stiff and overly sensitive to use and again ideally needs two hands.
Minox and some others use a slider button, rather than a lever, on low magnification, ultra-compact designs, pushed side to side, which is also fast but rather sensitive.
Toggle focus is very rarely used (e.g. Carson Bandit 8×25). It provides a one-handed focus mechanism in a relatively large toggle, making it quick and easy to operate "in the field" with gloves but can be rather over-sensitive and difficult to fine tune.
The knurled ring around the objective lens appears to be a unique feature of the Minox 8×25 Macroscope and claims to provide quick focusing.
Some low-budget entry-level monoculars from China claim "dual focusing", which means focusing by means of twisting either the main body of the monocular, and/or the smaller ring near the eyepiece (referred to as the dioptre adjustment on binoculars). Quite why dual focusing is felt necessary on a monocular is questionable but could be for marketing reasons; there is no real technical benefit with such a system, which is never found on the top-quality monoculars from manufacturers like Opticron, Leica and Zeiss.
Zoom or variable magnification
As with binoculars, zoom magnification is sometimes available but is virtually unknown in the best quality units (both binoculars and monoculars) as the optical quality and field of view are seriously compromised. Although zoom systems are widely and successfully used on cameras, for observation optics, zoom systems with any credibility are reserved for top quality spotting scopes and come with a very high price tag. Zoom monoculars are available from some "budget" manufacturers, which sound impressive on paper but often have extreme and unrealistic magnification ranges as well as an extremely narrow field of view.
Some examples of current monoculars by specification
(Prices are typical UK selling prices as at Feb 2016)
Interpreting product specifications
As mentioned previously, product specifications can sometimes be misleading, confusing or incorrect values stated. Such inaccuracies are more commonly found on budget items but have also sometimes been seen from some brand leaders. For those not experienced in interpreting such specifications, it is always wise to try out the item before buying wherever possible. Some of the descriptors needing particular care with include:
Basic size (e.g. 8×30). As mentioned earlier, examples are sometimes seen where product physical dimensions or some other arbitrary figures are stated instead of magnification and objective lens diameter. This is very misleading and does not properly describe the product. Examples seen include a "40×60" in a compact monocular, where the objective lens diameter was actually 40mm (and the magnification was certainly not 40×). Another, described as "35×95", was actually a 20×40. Also, in a few cases, the overall diameter of the case surrounding the objective lens is used, rather than the lens itself, thus making it seem the objective lens is bigger than it truly is. Magnifications can also be exaggerated, an example of a claimed 16× in reality being closer to an 8x, with the number "16" probably referring to the eyepiece lens diameter. In this case, the claimed "16×52" was in reality an "8×42". Care is needed with such misleading and exaggerated specifications, more likely to be found on some very low budget items.
"Day-night vision" or sometimes just "night vision" is another misleading descriptor commonly seen in the specification of low-end, budget monoculars as it gives the impression the item is a night-vision instrument, effective in darkness, when it clearly is not. True night vision monoculars (or "image intensifiers", as typically used in military applications for example) use an electrical power source for light enhancement and are substantially more expensive and bulky than a comparable normal monocular.
Zoom is sometimes stated where there is no zoom facility. Zoom means a variable magnification facility, as often seen on cameras, for example. The term "zoom" or misleading phrases like "power zoom" or "mega zoom" are used incorrectly when referring to a single magnification optic. Zoom values will always be two numbers separated by a hyphen (e.g. 8-20) and then followed by the objective lens diameter (e.g. 8-20×50). As mentioned elsewhere in this entry, a true zoom facility can be seen on some budget monoculars but with very significant optical limitations.
Field of view (fov) specification. This parameter is sometimes stated incorrectly (over-stated) and needs interpreting with care when buying an instrument without first field-testing. It is normally expressed in degrees, m@1000m or ft@1000yds. An approximate conversion from degrees to m@1000m is to multiply degrees by 17.5 which can be used as a check if both values are stated. The author has carried out fov tests on several monoculars and the results shown in the table below. Generally, the manufacturer's stated figure is accurate within a few percentages but two were considerably over-stated, one in particular (9×30) by 30%. When reviewing a claimed fov value, reference can be made to the fov/magnification relationship in Design, above. This relationship represents best-in-class and so anything substantially exceeding a fov value from this plot, for a given magnification, should be treated with caution, especially in budget offerings.
Specialist monoculars
Some monoculars satisfy specialist requirements and include:
Built-in compass
Compact, folding monocular
Night vision system (requiring a power source and usually having low magnification)
Rangefinder/graticule
Gallery scope (low magnification, wide field of view for use in museums and galleries)
Microscope conversion & ultra-close focus
Built-in image stabiliser
See also
History of the telescope
List of telescope types
Monocle
Schmidt-Pechan prism
Spotting scope
Telescope
References
External links
Technical details about monoculars in German
Optical telescopes
Hiking equipment
Assistive technology
Binoculars
|
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201517
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20studies
|
Social studies
|
In the United States education system (and other countries), social studies is the integrated study of multiple fields of social science and the humanities, including history, geography, and political science. The term was first coined by American educators around the turn of the twentieth century as a catch-all for these subjects, as well as others which did not fit into the traditional models of lower education in the United States, such as philosophy and psychology. One of the purposes of social studies, particularly at the level of higher education, is to integrate several disciplines, with their unique methodologies and special focuses of concentration, into a coherent field of subject areas that communicate with each other by sharing different academic "tools" and perspectives for deeper analysis of social problems and issues. The social studies aims to train students for informed, responsible participation in a diverse democratic society. The content of social studies provides the necessary background knowledge in order to develop values and reasoned opinions, and the objective of the field is civic competence.
History of social studies
The original onset of the social studies field emerged in the 19th century and later grew in the 20th century. Those foundations and building blocks were put into place in the 1820s in the country of Great Britain before being integrated into the United States. The purpose of the subject itself was to promote social welfare and its development in countries like the United States and others.
An early concept of social studies is found in John Dewey's philosophy of elementary and secondary education. Dewey valued the subject field of geography for uniting the study of human occupations with the study of the earth. He valued inquiry as a process of learning, as opposed to the absorption and recitation of facts, and he advocated for greater inquiry in elementary and secondary education, to mirror the kind of learning that takes place in higher education. His ideas are manifested to a large degree in the practice of inquiry-based learning and student-directed investigations implemented in contemporary social studies classrooms. Dewey valued the study of history for its social processes and application to contemporary social problems, rather than a mere narrative of human events. In this view, the study of history is made relevant to the modern student, and is aimed at the improvement of society.
In the United States through the 1900s, social studies revolved around the study of geography, government, and history. In 1912, the Bureau of Education (not to be confused with its successor agency, the United States Department of Education) was tasked by then Secretary of the Interior Franklin Knight Lane with completely restructuring the American education system for the twentieth century. In response, the Bureau of Education, together with the National Education Association, created the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. The commission was made up of 16 committees (a 17th was established two years later, in 1916), each one tasked with the reform of a specific aspect of the American Education system. Notable among these was the Committee on Social Studies, which was created to consolidate and standardize various subjects that did not fit within normal school curricula into a new subject, to be called "the social studies."
In 1920, the work done by the Committee on Social Studies culminated in the publication and release of Bulletin No. 28 (also called "The Committee on Social Studies Report, 1916"). The 66-page bulletin, published and distributed by the U.S. Bureau of Education, is believed to be the first written work dedicated entirely to the subject. It was designed to introduce the concept to American educators and serve as a guide for the creation of nationwide curricula based around social studies. The bulletin proposed many ideas that were considered radical at the time, and it is regarded by many educators as one of the most controversial educational resources of the early twentieth century.
In the years after its release, the bulletin received criticism from educators on its vagueness, especially in regards to the definition of Social Studies itself. Critics often point to Section 1 of the report, which vaguely defines Social Studies as "understood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organization and development of human society, and to man as a member of social groups."
The changes to the field of study never fully materialized until the 1950s, when changes occurred at the state and national levels that dictated the curriculum and the preparation standards of its teacher. This led to a decrease in the amount of factual knowledge being delivered instead of focusing on key concepts, generalizations, and intellectual skills. Eventually, around the 1980s and 1990s, the development of computer technologies helped grow the publishing industry. Textbooks were created around the curriculum of each state and that coupled with the increase in political factors from globalization and growing economies lead to changes in the public and private education system. Now came the influx of national curriculum standards, from the increase of testing to the accountability of teachers and school districts shifting the social study education system to what it is today.
Subject fields
Social studies is not a subject, instead functioning as a field of study that incorporates many different subjects. It primarily includes the subjects of history, geography, economics, civics, and sociology. Through all of that, the elements of ethics, psychology, philosophy, anthropology, art, and literature are incorporated into the subject field itself. The field of study itself focuses on human beings and their respective relationships. With that, many of these subjects include some form of social utility that is beneficial to the subject field itself.
Teaching social studies
To teach social studies in the United States, one must obtain a valid teaching certification to teach in that given state and a valid subject specific certification in social studies. The social studies certification process focuses on the core areas: history, geography, economics, civics, and political science. Each state has specific requirements for the certification process and the teacher must follow the specific guidelines of the state they wish to teach.
Ten themes of social studies
According to the National Council for the Social Studies, there are ten themes that represent the standards about human experience that is constituted in the effectiveness of social studies as a subject study from pre-K through 12th grade.
Culture
The study of culture and diversity allows learners to experience culture through all stages from learning to adaptation, shaping their respective lives and society itself. This social studies theme includes the principles of multiculturalism, a field of study in its own right that aims to achieve greater understanding between culturally diverse groups of students as well as including the experiences of culturally diverse learners in the curriculum.
Time, continuity, and change
Learners examine the past and the history of events that lead to the development of the current world. Ultimately, the learners will examine the beliefs and values of the past to apply them to the present. Learners build their inquiry skills in the study of history.
People, places, and environment
Learners will be able to understand who they are and the environment and places that surround them. It gives spatial views and perspectives of the world to the learner. This theme is largely contained in the field of geography, which includes the study of humanity's connections with resources, instruction in reading maps and techniques and perspectives in analyzing information about human populations and the Earth's systems.
Individual development and identity
Learners will be able to understand their own personal identity, development, and actions. Through this, they will be able to understand the influences that surround them.
Individuals, groups, and institutions
Learners will understand how groups and institutions influence people's everyday lives. They will be able to understand how groups and institutions are formed, maintained, and changed.
Power, authority, and governance
Learners will understand the forms of power, authority, and governance from historical to contemporary times. They will become familiar with the purpose of power, and with the limits that power has on society.
Production, distribution, and consumption
Learners will understand the organization of goods and services, ultimately preparing the learner for the study of greater economic issues. The study of economic issues, and with it, financial literacy, is intended to increase students' knowledge and skills when it comes to participating in the economy as workers, producers, and consumers.
Science, technology, and society
Learners will understand the relationship between science, technology, and society, understanding the advancement through the years and the impacts they have had.
Global connections
Learners will understand the interactive environment of global interdependence and will understand the global connections that shape the everyday world.
Civic ideals and practices
Learners will understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens and learn to grow in their appreciation of active citizenship. Ultimately, this helps their growth as a full participant in society. Some of the values that civics courses strive to teach are an understanding of the right to privacy, an appreciation for diversity in American society, and a disposition to work through democratic procedures. One of the curricular tools used in the field of civics education is a simulated congressional hearing. Social studies educators and scholars distinguish between different levels of civic engagement, from the minimal engagement or non-engagement of the legal citizen to the most active and responsible level of the transformative citizen. Within social studies, the field of civics aims to educate and develop learners into transformative citizens who not only participate in a democracy, but challenge the status quo in the interest of social justice.
References
External links
The Social Studies in Secondary Education
National Council for the Social Studies
Changes in Social Studies
History in Social Studies
Education by subject
Humanities education
Social sciences
|
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201525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mae%20Jemison
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Mae Jemison
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Mae Carol Jemison (born October 17, 1956) is an American engineer, physician, and former NASA astronaut. She became the first black woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. Jemison joined NASA's astronaut corps in 1987 and was selected to serve for the STS-47 mission, during which she orbited the Earth for nearly eight days on September 12–20, 1992.
Born in Alabama and raised in Chicago, Jemison graduated from Stanford University with degrees in chemical engineering as well as African and African-American studies. She then earned her medical degree from Cornell University. Jemison was a doctor for the Peace Corps in Liberia and Sierra Leone from 1983 until 1985 and worked as a general practitioner. In pursuit of becoming an astronaut, she applied to NASA.
Jemison left NASA in 1993 and founded a technology research company. She later formed a non-profit educational foundation and through the foundation is the principal of the 100 Year Starship project funded by DARPA. Jemison also wrote several books for children and appeared on television several times, including in a 1993 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. She holds several honorary doctorates and has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame and the International Space Hall of Fame.
Early life and education
Mae Carol Jemison was born in Decatur, Alabama, on October 17, 1956, the youngest of three children of Charlie Jemison and Dorothy Jemison (). Her father was a maintenance supervisor for a charity organization, and her mother worked most of her career as an elementary school teacher of English and math at the Ludwig van Beethoven Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois. The family first lived in Woodlawn and later the Morgan Park neighborhoods. Jemison knew from a young age that she wanted to study science and someday go into space. The television show Star Trek and, in particular, African-American actress Nichelle Nichols' portrayal of Lieutenant Uhura further stoked her interest in space.
Jemison enjoyed studying nature and human physiology, using her observations to learn more about science. Although her mother encouraged her curiosity and both her parents were supportive of her interest in science, she did not always see the same support from her teachers. When Jemison told a kindergarten teacher she wanted to be a scientist when she grew up, the teacher assumed she meant she wanted to be a nurse. Seeing a lack of female astronauts during the Apollo missions also frustrated Jemison. She later recalled, "everybody was thrilled about space, but I remember being irritated that there were no women astronauts."
Jemison began studying ballet at the age of 8 or 9 and entered high school at 12 years old, where she joined the cheerleading team and the Modern Dance Club. Jemison had a great love for dance from a young age. She learned several styles of dance, including African and Japanese, as well as ballet, jazz, and modern dance. As a child, Jemison had aspirations of becoming a professional dancer. At the age of 14, she auditioned for the leading role of Maria in West Side Story. She did not get the leading role but was selected as a background dancer.
After graduating from Chicago's Morgan Park High School in 1973, Jemison entered Stanford University at the age of 16. Although she was young to be leaving home for college, Jemison later said it did not faze her because she was "naive and stubborn enough". There were very few other African-American students in Jemison's classes and she continued to experience discrimination from her teachers. In an interview with The Des Moines Register in 2008, Jemison said that it was difficult to go to Stanford at 16 but that her youthful arrogance may have helped her; she asserted that some arrogance is necessary for women and minorities to be successful in a white male dominated society.
At Stanford, Jemison served as head of the Black Students Union. She also choreographed a musical and dance production called Out of the Shadows. During her senior year in college, she struggled with the choice between going to medical school or pursuing a career as a professional dancer after graduation; she graduated from Stanford in 1977, receiving a B.S. degree in chemical engineering. and B.A. degree in African and African-American studies. While at Stanford, she also pursued studies related to her childhood interest in space and first considered applying to NASA.
Medical career
Jemison attended Cornell Medical School and during her training, traveled to Cuba, to conduct a study funded by American Medical Student Association and to Thailand, where she worked at a Cambodian refugee camp. She also worked for Flying Doctors stationed in East Africa. During her years at Cornell, Jemison continued to study dance by enrolling in classes at the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. After graduating with an M.D. degree in 1981, she interned at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center in 1982, and worked as a general practitioner for Ross–Loos Medical Group.
Jemison joined the staff of the Peace Corps in 1983 and served as a medical officer until 1985. She was responsible for the health of Peace Corps volunteers serving in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Jemison supervised the Peace Corps' pharmacy, laboratory, medical staff as well as providing medical care, writing self-care manuals, and developing and implementing guidelines for health and safety issues. She also worked with the Centers for Disease Control helping with research for various vaccines.
NASA career
Upon returning to the United States after serving in the Peace Corps, Jemison settled in Los Angeles, California. In Los Angeles, she entered into private practice and took graduate level engineering courses. The flights of Sally Ride and Guion Bluford in 1983 inspired Jemison to apply to the astronaut program. Jemison first applied to NASA's astronaut training program in October 1985, but NASA postponed selection of new candidates after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986. Jemison reapplied in 1987 and was chosen out of roughly 2,000 applicants to be one of the fifteen people in the NASA Astronaut Group 12, the first group selected following the destruction of Challenger. The Associated Press covered her as the "first black woman astronaut" in 1987. CBS featured Jemison as one of the country's "most eligible singles" on Best Catches, a television special hosted by Phylicia Rashad and Robb Weller in 1989.
Jemison's work with NASA before her shuttle launch included launch support activities at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida and verification of Shuttle computer software in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL). On September 28, 1989, she was selected to join the STS-47 crew as Mission Specialist 4 and was also designated Science Mission Specialist, a new astronaut role being tested by NASA to focus on scientific experiments.
STS-47
Jemison flew her only space mission from September 12 to 20, 1992, on STS-47, a cooperative mission between the United States and Japan, as well as the 50th shuttle mission. Jemison logged 190 hours, 30 minutes, 23 seconds in space and orbited the earth 127 times. The crew was split into two shifts with Jemison assigned to the Blue Shift. Throughout the eight day mission, she began communications on her shift with the salute "Hailing frequencies open", a quote from Star Trek. Jemison took a poster from the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater along with her on the flight. She also took a West African statuette and a photo of pioneering aviator Bessie Coleman, the first African American with an international pilot license.
STS-47 carried the Spacelab Japan module, a cooperative mission between the United States and Japan that included 43 Japanese and United States life science and materials processing experiments. Jemison and Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri were trained to use the Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE), a technique developed by Patricia S. Cowings that uses biofeedback and autogenic training to help patients monitor and control their physiology as a possible treatment for motion sickness, anxiety and stress-related disorders.
Aboard the Spacelab Japan module, Jemison tested NASA's Fluid Therapy System, a set of procedures and equipment to produce water for injection, developed by Sterimatics Corporation. She then used IV bags and a mixing method, developed by Baxter Healthcare, to use the water from the previous step to produce saline solution in space. Jemison was also a co-investigator of two bone cell research experiments. Another experiment she participated in was to induce female frogs to ovulate, fertilize the eggs and then see how tadpoles developed in zero gravity.
Resignation from NASA
After her return to Earth, Jemison resigned from NASA in March 1993 with the intention of starting her own company. NASA training manager and author Homer Hickam, who had trained Jemison for her flight, later expressed some regret that she had departed.
Post-NASA career
Jemison served on the board of directors of the World Sickle Cell Foundation from 1990 to 1992. In 1993, she founded The Jemison Group Inc., a consulting firm which considers the sociocultural impact of technological advancements and design. Jemison also founded the Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence and named the foundation in honor of her mother. One of the projects of the foundation is The Earth We Share, a science camp for students aged 12 to 16. Founded in 1994, camps have been held at Dartmouth College, Colorado School of Mines, Choate Rosemary Hall and other sites in the United States, as well as internationally in South Africa, Tunisia, and Switzerland. The Dorothy Jemison Foundation also sponsors other events and programs, including the Shaping the World essay competition, Listening to the Future (a survey program that targets obtaining opinions from students), Earth Online (an online chatroom that allows students to safely communicate and discuss ideas on space and science), and the Reality Leads Fantasy Gala.
Jemison was a professor of environmental studies at Dartmouth College from 1995 to 2002 where she directed the Jemison Institute for Advancing Technology in Developing Countries. In 1999, she also became an Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University. Jemison continues to advocate strongly in favor of science education and getting minority students interested in science. She is a member of various scientific organizations, such as the American Medical Association, the American Chemical Society, the Association of Space Explorers and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1999, Jemison founded BioSentient Corp and obtained the license to commercialize AFTE, the technique she and Mohri tested on themselves during STS-47.
In 2012, Jemison made the winning bid for the DARPA 100 Year Starship project through the Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence. The Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence was awarded a $500,000 grant for further work. The new organization maintained the organizational name 100 Year Starship. Jemison is the current principal of the 100 Year Starship.
In 2018, she collaborated with Bayer Crop Science and National 4-H Council for the initiative named Science Matters which was aimed at encouraging young children to understand and pursue agricultural sciences.
Books
Jemison's first book, Find Where the Wind Goes (2001), is a memoir of her life written for children. She describes her childhood, her time at Stanford, in the Peace Corps and as an astronaut. School Library Journal found the stories about her earlier life to be the most appealing. Book Report found that the autobiography gave a realistic view into her interactions with her professors, whose treatment of was not based on her intelligence but on stereotypes of woman of color.
Her A True Book series of four children's books published in 2013 is co-authored with Dana Meachen Rau. Each book in the series has a "Find the Truth" challenge, true or false questions answers to which are revealed at the end of the story. School Library Journal found the series to be "properly tantalizing surveys" of the Solar System but criticized the inclusion of a few outdated theories in physics and astronomy.
Public profile
LeVar Burton learned that Jemison was an avid Star Trek fan and asked her if she would be interested in being on the show. In 1993, Jemison appeared as Lieutenant Palmer in "Second Chances", an episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, becoming the first real-life astronaut to appear on Star Trek.
From 1999 to 2005, Jemison was appointed an Andrew Dickson White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University.
Jemison is an active public speaker who appears before private and public groups promoting science and technology. "Having been an astronaut gives me a platform," says Jemison, "but I'd blow it if I just talked about the Shuttle." Jemison uses her platform to speak out on the gap in the quality of health-care between the United States and the Third World, saying that "Martin Luther King [Jr.]... didn't just have a dream, he got things done." Jemison has also appeared as host and technical consultant of the science series World of Wonder which aired on the Discovery Channel from 1994 to 1998.
In 2006, Jemison participated in African American Lives, a PBS television miniseries hosted by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., that traces the family history of eight famous African Americans using historical research and genetic techniques. Jemison found to her surprise that she is 13% East Asian in her genetic makeup. She also learned that some of her paternal ancestors were slaves at a plantation in Talladega County, Alabama.
Jemison participated in the Red Dress Heart Truth fashion show, wearing Lyn Devon, during the 2007 New York Fashion Week to help raise money to fight heart disease. In May of the same year, she was the graduation commencement speaker and only the 11th person in the 52-year history of Harvey Mudd College to be awarded an honorary D.Eng. degree.
On February 17, 2008, Jemison was the featured speaker for the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Alpha Kappa Alpha, the first sorority established by African-American college women. Jemison paid tribute to Alpha Kappa Alpha by carrying the sorority's banner with her on her shuttle flight. Her space suit is a part of the sorority's national traveling Centennial Exhibit. Jemison is an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha.
Jemison participated with First Lady Michelle Obama in a forum for promising girls in the Washington, D.C. public schools in March 2009.
In 2014, Jemison also appeared at Wayne State University for their annual Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Tribute Luncheon. In 2016, she partnered with Bayer Corporation to promote and advance science literacy in schools, emphasizing hands-on experimentation.
She took part in the Michigan State University's lecture series, "Slavery to Freedom: An American Odyssey," in February 2017. In May 2017, Jemison gave the commencement speech at Rice University. She discussed the 100 Year Plan, science and education and other topics at Western Michigan University also in May 2017.
In 2017, LEGO released the "Women of NASA" set, with minifigures of Jemison, Margaret Hamilton, Sally Ride, and Nancy Grace Roman. The Google Doodle on March 8, 2019 (International Women's Day) featured a quote from Jemison: "Never be limited by other people's limited imaginations."
Personal life
Jemison built a dance studio in her home and has choreographed and produced several shows of modern jazz and African dance.
In the spring of 1996, Jemison filed a complaint against a Texas police officer, accusing him of police brutality during a traffic stop that ended in her arrest. She was pulled over by Nassau Bay police officer Henry Hughes for allegedly making an illegal U-turn and arrested after Hughes learned of an outstanding warrant on Jemison for a speeding ticket. In the process of arresting her, the officer twisted her wrist and forced her to the ground, as well as having her walk barefooted from the patrol car into the police station. In her complaint, Jemison said the officer physically and emotionally mistreated her. Jemison's attorney said she believed she had already paid the speeding ticket years ago. She spent several hours in jail and was treated at an area hospital after release for deep bruises and a head injury. The Nassau Bay officer was suspended with pay pending an investigation, but the police investigation cleared him of wrongdoing. She filed a lawsuit against the city of Nassau Bay and the officer.
Honors and awards
1988 Essence Science and Technology Award
1990 Gamma Sigma Sigma Woman of the Year
1991 McCall's 10 Outstanding Women for the 90s
1992 Johnson Publications Black Achievement Trailblazers Award
1992 Ebony Black Achievement Award
1993 National Women's Hall of Fame
1993 Ebony magazine 50 Most Influential women
1993 Kilby Science Award
1993 Montgomery Fellow, Dartmouth College
1993 People magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People in the World"
1993 Turner Trumpet Award
2002 listed among the 100 Greatest African Americans according to Molefi Kete Asante
2002 Texas Women's Hall of Fame inductee
2003 Intrepid Award by the National Organization for Girls
2004 International Space Hall of Fame
2005 The National Audubon Society, Rachel Carson Award
2017 Buzz Aldrin Space Pioneer Award
2019 Florida Southern College Honorary Chancellor
2021 Sylvanus Thayer Award from the United States Military Academy
Institutions
1992 Mae C. Jemison Science and Space Museum, Wilbur Wright College, Chicago, Illinois
1992 Mae C. Jemison Academy, an alternative public school in Detroit, Michigan
2001 Mae Jemison School, an elementary public school in Hazel Crest, Illinois
2007 Bluford Drew Jemison STEM Academy, a public charter school in Baltimore, Maryland (closed in 2013)
2010 Bluford Drew Jemison STEM Academy West, a Middle/High School in Baltimore, Maryland
2013 Jemison High School, Huntsville, Alabama
Honorary doctorates
1991 Doctor of Letters, Winston-Salem College, North Carolina
1991 Doctor of Science, Lincoln College, Pennsylvania
2000 Doctor of Humanities, Princeton University
2005 Doctor of Science, Wilson College, North Carolina
2006 Doctor of Science, Dartmouth College
2007 Doctor of Engineering, Harvey Mudd College
2007 Doctor of Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
2008 Doctor of Humanities, DePaul University
2009 Doctor of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of NYU
2019 Doctor of Humane Letters, Florida Southern College
Filmography
Star Trek: The Next Generation (1993) – Lieutenant Palmer, episode "Second Chances"
Susan B. Anthony Slept Here (1995) – herself
Star Trek: 30 Years and Beyond (1996) – herself
The New Explorers (1998) – episode "Endeavor"
How William Shatner Changed the World (2005) – herself
African American Lives (2006) – herself
No Gravity (2011) – herself
The Real (2016) – herself
Publications
She contributed the piece "Outer Space: The Worldly Frontier" to the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium, edited by Robin Morgan.
See also
List of African-American astronauts
References
Further reading
Blue, Rose J. Mae Jemison: Out of this World, Millbrook Press, 2003 –
Burby, Liza N. Mae Jemison: The First African American Woman Astronaut, The Rosen Publishing Group, 1997 –
Canizares, Susan. Voyage of Mae Jemison, Sagebrush Education Resources, 1999 –
Ceaser, Ebraska D. Mae C. Jemison: 1st Black Female Astronaut, New Day Press, 1992.
Polette, Nancy. Mae Jemison, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2003 –
Sakurai, Gail. Mae Jemison: Space Scientist, Scholastic Library Publishing, 1996 –
Yannuzzi, Della A. Mae Jemison: A Space Biography, Enslow Publishers, 1998 –
External links
Biography at NASA
Mae Jemison – Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
"Stories of Atlanta – Boldly Going ... And Taking Stuff"
1956 births
African-American women aviators
African-American aviators
African-American physicians
African-American scientists
American bioengineers
American primary care physicians
American women physicians
Engineers from Illinois
Living people
NASA civilian astronauts
Peace Corps volunteers
People from Chicago
People from Decatur, Alabama
People from Houston
Physician astronauts
Physicians from Alabama
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Stanford University School of Engineering alumni
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
Women astronauts
Writers from Alabama
African-American women physicians
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women
|
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201528
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani%20music
|
Romani music
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Romani music (often referred to as gypsy or gipsy music, which is sometimes considered a derogatory term) is the music of the Romani people who have their origins in northern India but today live mostly in Europe.
Historically nomadic, though now largely settled, the Romani people have long acted as entertainers and tradesmen. In many of the places Romanies live they have become known as musicians. The wide distances travelled have introduced a multitude of influences of: Byzantine, Greek, Arabic, Indian, Persian, Turkish, Slavic, Romanian, German, Dutch, French, Spanish, and even Jewish musical forms.
It is difficult to define the parameters of a unified Romani musical style, as there are many differences in melodic, harmonic, rhythmic and formal structures from region to region. Lyrics to Romani songs are often sung in one or more dialects of the Romani language, and dance frequently accompanies Romani music performance.
The quintessentially Spanish flamenco is to a very large extent the music (and dance, or indeed the culture) of the Romani people of Andalusia.
Apart from Romani music for local use, in Eastern Europe a separate Romani music originated for entertainment at parties and celebrations. This music drew its themes from Hungarian, Romanian, Russian and other sources. Later on it gained popularity in Western Europe, where many Romani orchestras were active, playing sophisticated melodies of East European origin. Probably the most influential Romani musician was Django Reinhardt (1910–1953).
Original Romani music
Original Romani folksongs, not derived from the countries where the Romani live, are relatively rare. This particular folk music is mainly vocal and consists of slow plaintive songs and fast melodies which may be accompanied by dancing. The fast melodies are accompanied with tongue-clacking, hand-clapping, mouth-basses, clicking of wooden spoons and other techniques.
There are five main components that are found throughout Romani music of various territories. The first is the use of three voices or parts: the melodic line, the terce and the quint either through vocalization or instruments. The second is syncopation, where the music starts right after a beat while maintaining a consistent rhythm. The third is having the music played in different phrases, meaning that the entrance and exit of different musical themes are felt at different times throughout a song either through rhythm or instruments. The fourth is harmony, where a minor chord is used instead of a major chord. The last is singing, where natural vocal abilities are emphasized.
The development of Romani music dates back to the playing of instruments such as lutes in the late 1400s in Hungary and Italy. Roma would perform with non-Roma as entertainers in any aspect of performance. Eventually, as organized religion gained traction, performance became less emphasized and sometimes prohibited for non-Roma populations, so Roma filled all professional entertainment spots. They also performed at life events such as weddings, baptisms, funerals and circumcisions.
Because there is no one nation state for Romani, they were often forced to create their own living spaces within the countries they settled. Musical and cultural influences were taken from the countries where they lived and incorporated into their own music such as instruments, languages and subject matter of the music itself. Some songs incorporate the Romani language.
Country-related music
Most Romani music is based on the folk music of the countries where the Romani went through or settled. Local music is adopted and performed – usually instrumental – and, slowly, it is transformed into Romani styles, which are usually more complex than the original styles. In its turn, Romani music has greatly influenced the local music. Among these the Hungarian versions have become best known, although examples of Romani music in other countries also endure.
Spain
The Romani people of Spain (Iberian Kale people) have contributed significantly to the Andalusian musical tradition known as flamenco. Although it is not, strictly speaking, Romani music, Flamenco is closely associated to this ethnicity and a significant proportion of famous flamenco artists are Iberian Kale people.
Bulgaria
Due to the significant Romani population in Bulgaria, this ethnic group's music is very popular. Chalgamata music is also played by Romani musicians in Bulgaria.
Romania
The Lăutari were traditional Romani musicians, playing at various events (weddings, funerals, etc.)
The manele genre which is very popular in Romania is supported by Romani ethnic musicians, too.
Russia
A choir in Russia was the Sokolovsky choir.
In 1931, a public Romani theatre, Romen Theatre, has been established in Moscow incorporating Romani music and dance into theatrical performances.
Turkey
Romani people are known throughout Turkey for their musicianship. Their urban music brought echoes of classical Turkish music to the public via the meyhane or taverna. This type of fasıl music (a style, not to be confused with the fasıl form of classical Turkish music) coupled with food and alcoholic beverages is often associated with the underclass of Turkish society, though it also can be found in more "respectable" establishments in modern times.
Romanis have also influenced the fasıl itself. Played in music halls, the dance music (oyun havası) required at the end of each fasıl has been incorporated with Ottoman rakkas or belly dancing motifs. The rhythmic ostinato accompanying the instrumental improvisation (ritimli taksim) for the belly-dance parallels that of the classical gazel, a vocal improvisation in free rhythm with rhythmic accompaniment. Popular musical instruments in this kind of fasıl are the clarinet, violin, kanun and darbuka. Clarinetist Mustafa Kandıralı is a well known fasıl musician.
Balkans
A typical type of Romani music is known as Tallava. Tallava was originated by the Roma minority in Kosovo in the 1990s. The genre of Tallava was later adopted among the Ashkali group. Tallava is common among Albania. This genre has influences from other music genres such as Greek (Skiladiko) and Bulgarian (Chalga). It also blended with Turkish (Arabesque), Arabic (Arabic pop music), Serbian (Turbo-folk) and Albanian music.
Hungary
The Rajkó Orchestra and Folk Ensemble is known for preserving Hungarian Roma music, dance and costume culture since 1952. Their work carries on the traditions of century old generations. Their performances can be seen at a number of venues, among others at the Danube Palace of Budapest during the season between 1 May and 31 October.
Another notable Roma music formation is Ando Drom. Established by Jenő Zsigó in 1993, the Ando Drom Foundation serves to promote Romany art, encourage young talent and to allow the Romany encounter their own culture within the community, through the productions of the band Ando Drom, among others, a group pioneering the reinterpretation of Romany music and dance. Their music is contemporary in nature. Besides authentic Romany folk songs, they play a kind of urban Romany music which gives a voice to the present-day reality of the community. They avoid reconstructing the manners of old musicians and singers or their style.
Traditionally there are two types of Romani music: one rendered for non-Romani audiences, the other is made within the Romani community. The music performed for outsiders is called “gypsy music”, which is a colloquial name that comes from Ferenc Liszt. They call the music they play among themselves "folk music".
Although Romani musicians in Hungary were mentioned in books since the 15th century, musicianship as an occupation didn't become widespread among the Roma until the latter half of the 18th century. The Roma started to develop an ethnic music culture from the 1970s and they obtained national minority status in Hungary. Two famous Romani musicians of the 18th century were Mihály Barna and Panna Cinka. The band of the latter had two violins ("prim" and "kontra"), a cimbalom, and double-bass.
The boom of Romani music in the last decades of the 18th century was triggered by the Hungarian nationalist movement. New genres started to evolve in music, and dance. Romani bands performed in more places, such as parks, promenades. Patronized by aristocrats, Romani musicians started to learn more about Viennese classicism and European musical culture. The unique harmonization of Hungarian "gypsy music" started to differ from its Balkanian counterpart. This was one major factor of the Western European success of Hungarian "gypsy music". This music was exotic, but still accessible for the masses. Another contributory factor for success was the tradition of playing without scores. This further popularized the Romani musicians since they learned and play music by ear. Romani bands first consisted of strings, harp and duda. Later on harp was replaced with cimbalom. The harmonies accompanying the melodies became more dominant in their music. Duda was replaced by clarinet and tárogató. The instrumentation was impacted by Western classical influences, so the most popular form was: two violins (prímás and kontrás), cimbalom, double bass. Bigger bands had clarinet, cello, and later another violin (tercprímás).
In the early 19th century, Romani musicians became the representatives of national music. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 in Hungary, Romani bands played their music for soldiers before and after the battle to encourage and entertain them. After the loss of the war, these musicians gained a lot of respect from the country. Romani music became the symbol of desired freedom. A new genre called magyar nóta evolved by around the middle of the century. The composers of the time wanted to sound more like Western European music by extending the folksong form and adopting some elements of Western style. This genre was also performed by Romani musicians, thus it started to be labelled as "gypsy music" as well. The most famous Romani composer of this century was Pista Danko (1858–1903).
Western Europe
The sophisticated music of the Romani orchestras that visited Western Europe became popular in the second half of the 19th century and had its heyday from the 1920s onwards to about 1960, although this music remains popular still today. The tours of rajkó-orchestras – featuring young Romani-musicians – added much to its popularity. The rajkó boys were both endearing and virtuoso, a combination that enchanted the public.
The cimbalom, unknown to the Western audience, added its characteristic sound to the violins played in a Romani style. Romani virtuoso like Bela Babai, Lajos Veres, the many members of the Lakatos family and others became famous. Nowadays the names of Roby Lakatos, Buffo Sandor and Sandor Jaroka still are household names for the Western connoisseurs of this type of music.
Since 2014, an E.U.-supported project named Music4Rom has highlighted the importance of the Romani music in classical music. Jorge Chaminé is one of the founders of this project. The values promoted by Music4Rom include recognition, understanding of others, creativity, tolerance and admiration. The project promotes Romani values to build intercultural bridges, social inclusion and children's education through music.
See also
Flamenco
Romani jazz
Romani punk
Lăutari
Romani anthem
Romani society and culture
Pretty Loud
References
Bibliography
Broughton, Simon, "Kings and Queens of the Road". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 146–158. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
Balint Sarosi, "Zigeunermusik" (Gypsy music), Budapest 1970, in English, German, Hungarian
External links
Romani muzika (blog)
The largest archive of Romani music on the Internet – 100,000 Romani songs
Romani music live. A musical tour through Romania
Traditional music by ethnicity
|
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201531
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%2044%20%28Haydn%29
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Symphony No. 44 (Haydn)
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Symphony No. 44 in E minor, Hoboken I/44, was completed in 1772 by Joseph Haydn. It is popularly known as Trauer (). An apocryphal story relates that Haydn asked for the slow movement of this symphony to be played at his funeral.
Movements
The work is in four movements and is scored for two oboes, bassoon, two horns (in E and G), continuo (harpsichord) and strings:
Allegro con brio,
Menuetto e Trio (Trio in E major): Allegretto,
Adagio in E major,
Finale: Presto,
The piece is typical of Haydn's Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) period. The first movement, which is in sonata form, begins with a four-note motif played in unison which occurs throughout the movement. After a brief period of E minor, the second subject, in G major, in its fullest form, appears abruptly. The development section develops both themes, especially the first half of the second theme. The development of the second theme becomes unstoppable and hyperactive and eventually climaxes before modulating back to E minor for the recapitulation. The first subject gets its repeat in the tonic in its fullest form. The second theme, this time in the tonic, only gets the second half of itself repeated, because the first half was widely used in the development section, as it is written above. Instead, there is a brief episode in the middle, which helps the second theme's length to stay the same as the exposition.
The second movement, unusually, is a minuet in E minor and trio in E major; thus the work is one of the few symphonies of the Classical era to place the Minuet second (others include Haydn's 32nd and 37th, and his brother Michael's 15th and 16th). The minuet is in the form of a "Canone in Diapason" between the upper and lower strings with the lower strings trailing the upper strings by a single bar. Haydn would later use a similar double canon with the lower strings trailing the upper strings by one measure in the famous "Witches Minuet" of his D minor quartet from Op. 76.
The third movement is slow, also in E major, and with strings muted. The finale, like the first movement, is in sonata form and is dominated by a figure which opens the movement in unison. It is quite contrapuntal, and ends in E minor rather than finishing in a major key as was usual in most other minor key works of the time.
Since all of the movements have the same tonic, the work is homotonal.
See also
List of symphonies by name
Notes
References
Robbins Landon, H. C. (1963) Joseph Haydn: Critical Edition of the Complete Symphonies, Universal Edition, Vienna
Symphony 044
Compositions in E minor
1772 compositions
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201532
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Chicago (disambiguation)
|
Chicago, Illinois, is the third-most populous city in the United States.
Chicago may also refer to:
Places
United States
New Chicago, California, an unincorporated community formerly known as "Chicago" in Amador County
Port Chicago, California, a former town and naval station in Contra Costa County
Chicago River, a river in Chicago, Illinois
Lake Chicago, a prehistoric lake from the Wisconsin Glacial Period
Chicago, Kansas, a formerly populated community
Zimbabwe
Chicago, Zimbabwe, a suburb of Kwekwe
Culture and the arts
Music
Chicago (band), a jazz rock band founded in 1967
Chicago (album), 1970
"Chicago" (Graham Nash song), 1970
"Chicago" (Michael Jackson song), also known as She Was Lovin' Me
"Chicago song", a song on David Sanborn's A Change of Heart, 1987
"Chicago" (Sufjan Stevens song), 2005
"Chicago" (That Toddlin' Town), a 1922 song by Fred Fisher
Chicago house, a genre of electronic dance music
"Chicago", a 1977 single by Kiki Dee
"Chicago", a song by Groove Armada from the 1999 album Vertigo
"Chicago", a song by Kate Voegele from the 2007 album Don't Look Away
"Chicago", a song by The Devil Wears Prada from the 2011 album Dead Throne
"Chicago", a song by Tom Waits from the 2011 album Bad as Me
Theatre, film and television
Chicago (play), 1926, written by Maurine Dallas Watkins
Chicago (1927 film), based on the 1926 play
Chicago (musical), first performed in 1975, based on the 1926 play
Chicago (2002 film), based on the 1975 musical
"Chicago" (Prison Break), a 2007 TV episode
Chicago, a 1965 play by Sam Shepard
Chicago (franchise), a group of NBC television dramas set in the Illinois city
Literature
Chicago (magazine), a lifestyle periodical about the Illinois city
Chicago (manga), by Yumi Tamura
Chicago (novel), by Egyptian author Alaa-Al-Aswany
"Chicago" (poem), by Carl Sandburg
The Chicago Manual of Style, for American English
Games
Chicago (bridge card game), a form of contract bridge
Chicago (poker card game), a Swedish poker game (or any one of several stud poker variants, including "Chicago", "Big Chicago", and "Little Chicago")
Chicago (pool), a "money ball" pool gambling game
Chicago 90, a 1989 video game by Microïds
People
Judy Chicago (born 1939), American feminist artist
Chicago West, daughter of Kanye West and Kim Kardashian
Science and technology
334 Chicago, a large main-belt asteroid found in 1892
Chicago (typeface), a classic Apple Macintosh font
Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, a 1944 agreement
Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor
Windows Chicago, the code name for Windows 95
Schools of thought
Any of several disciplines, some associated with the University of Chicago, including
Chicago school (architecture)
Chicago school (literary criticism)
Chicago school (sociology)
Chicago school of economics
Sports
Current teams
Chicago Bears, a professional American football team of the NFL's National Football Conference, Northern Division
Chicago Blackhawks, a professional ice hockey team of the NHL's Western Conference, Central Division
Chicago Sky, a professional basketball team of the WNBA's Eastern Conference
Chicago Bulls, a professional basketball team of the NBA's Eastern Conference, Central Division
Chicago Cubs, a professional baseball team of the MLB's National League, Central Division
Chicago Red Stars, a professional soccer team in the National Women's Soccer League, based in the suburb of Bridgeview
Chicago Fire Soccer Club, a professional soccer team in the MLS' Eastern Conference based in the suburb of Bridgeview
Chicago White Sox, a professional baseball team of MLB's American League, Central Division
Chicago Wolves, a professional ice hockey team of the American Hockey League's Western Conference, Central Division and affiliate of the NHL's St. Louis Blues
Club Atlético Nueva Chicago, an association football (soccer) club of Argentina's Primera División (premier division) in Mataderos, Buenos Aires
Former teams
Chicago Blitz, a professional American football team of the United States Football League (1982–84)
Chicago Boosters, an Independent American football team which played in one APFA game (1920–1921)
Chicago Bruisers, a professional arena football team and charter member of the Arena Football League (1987–89)
Chicago Bulls (AFL, 1926), a professional American football team
Chicago Cardinals (NFL, 1920-1959), a professional American football team
Chicago Cardinals (ice hockey), a professional team in the American Hockey Association (1926–1927)
Chicago Indians, an American football team of the former minor American Football League (1938–39)
Chicago Packers/Zephyrs, a professional basketball team of the National Basketball Association (1961–1963), now the Washington Wizards
Chicago Rockets ("Chicago Hornets" in 1949), a professional American football team of the All-America Football Conference (1946–49)
Chicago Rush, a professional arena football team of the Arena Football League (2001–2013)
Chicago Shamrocks, a professional ice hockey team in the American Hockey Association (1930–1932)
Chicago Stags, a professional basketball team of the National Basketball Association (1946–1950)
Chicago Sting, an American professional NASL soccer team (1974–1988)
Transportation
USS Chicago, any of several U.S. Navy vessels
Chicago (aircraft), a plane used in the first successful air circumnavigation of the globe
Chicago (CTA), Chicago Transit Authority
Chicago station (CTA Blue Line), or Chicago and Milwaukee
Chicago station (CTA Brown and Purple Lines), or Chicago and Franklin
Chicago station (CTA Red Line), or Chicago and State
City of Chicago (train), a passenger train
Chicago Tunnel Company, a former narrow-gauge freight network under downtown Chicago
See also
Chicago Park, California, an unincorporated community in Nevada County
Chicago Heights, Illinois, Cook County
Chicago Ridge, Illinois, Cook County
North Chicago, Illinois, Lake County
South Chicago Heights, Illinois, Cook County
West Chicago, Illinois, DuPage County
East Chicago, Indiana, a city
New Chicago, Indiana, a town
Chicago Junction, Ohio, former name of Willard, Ohio
Little Chicago, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
Chicago Corners, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Chicago Junction, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Little Chicago, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
"My Kind of Town", a song sometimes mistakenly referred to as "Chicago"
Chicagoland (disambiguation)
|
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201534
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20%282002%20film%29
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Chicago (2002 film)
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Chicago is a 2002 American musical black comedy crime film based on the 1975 stage musical of the same name which in turn originated in the 1927 film of the same name. It explores the themes of celebrity, scandal, and corruption in Chicago during the Jazz Age. The film stars Renée Zellweger, Catherine Zeta-Jones, and Richard Gere. Chicago centers on Roxie Hart (Zellweger) and Velma Kelly (Zeta-Jones), two murderesses who find themselves in jail together awaiting trial in 1920s Chicago. Roxie, a housewife, and Velma, a vaudevillian, fight for the fame that will keep them from the gallows. The film marks the theatrical directorial debut of Rob Marshall, who also choreographed the film, and was adapted by screenwriter Bill Condon, with music by John Kander and lyrics by Fred Ebb.
Chicago was critically lauded, and the cast received widespread acclaim for their performances. The film went on to win six Academy Awards in 2003, including Best Picture, making it the first musical to win Best Picture since Oliver! in 1968. For her performance, Zeta-Jones won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, the British Academy Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress. Zellweger won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical and Gere won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
Plot
In 1924, Roxie Hart watches lead role Velma Kelly perform ("Overture/All That Jazz") at a Chicago theater. Wanting stardom for herself, she begins an affair with Fred Casely, who claims to know the manager. After the show, Velma is arrested for killing her husband Charlie and sister Veronica, after finding them in bed together.
A month later, Casely admits to Roxie that he has no showbiz connections and just wanted to sleep with her. Enraged, she shoots him dead. She convinces her husband, Amos, to take the blame, telling him she killed a burglar in self-defense. As Amos confesses to the detective, Roxie fantasizes that she is singing a song devoted to her husband ("Funny Honey"). However, when the detective brings up evidence of Roxie's affair with Casely, Amos recants; Roxie furiously admits the truth and is arrested. Ambitious District Attorney Martin Harrison announces he will seek the death penalty.
At Cook County Jail, Roxie is sent to Murderess' Row, supervised by the corrupt Matron "Mama" Morton ("When You're Good to Mama"). Roxie meets her idol Velma, but her friendship is rudely rebuffed. She learns the backstories of the other women there, including Velma ("Cell Block Tango"). On Morton's advice, Roxie engages Velma's lawyer, the brilliant Billy Flynn ("All I Care About"). Flynn and Roxie manipulate the press, reinventing Roxie as an originally virtuous woman corrupted by the fast life of the city; she claims that she had the affair with Casely because Amos was always working, but repented and left Casely for Amos, and Casely jealously attacked her ("We Both Reached for the Gun"). The press believe the story; praised by the public as a tragic heroine, Roxie becomes an overnight sensation ("Roxie"). Velma, unhappy at losing the public's attention, tries to convince Roxie to join her act, replacing the sister that she murdered ("I Can't Do It Alone"), but Roxie, now the more popular of the two rivals, snubs her just as Velma originally snubbed Roxie.
Meanwhile, wealthy heiress Kitty "Go-To-Hell Kitty" Baxter, is arrested for murdering her husband and his two lovers, and the press and Flynn focus more on her. To Velma's surprise, Roxie quickly steals back the fame by claiming pregnancy. Amos is ignored by the press ("Mister Cellophane"), and Flynn, to create more sympathy for Roxie, convinces him that the child is Casely's, and that he should divorce Roxie in the middle of her predicament. Roxie over-confidently fires Flynn, believing she can now win on her own. However, when Katalin Helinszki, a Hungarian woman on Murderess' Row (who happens to be the only inmate to protest and insist on her own innocence), becomes the first woman in Cook County history to be executed by hanging, Roxie realizes the gravity of the situation and rehires Flynn.
Roxie's trial begins, and Billy turns it into a media spectacle ("Razzle Dazzle") with the help of the sensationalist newspaper reporters and radio personality Mary Sunshine. Billy discredits witnesses, manipulates evidence, and even stages a public reconciliation between Amos and Roxie when she says the child is his. The trial seems to be going Roxie's way until Velma appears with Roxie's diary, reading incriminating entries in exchange for amnesty in her own case. Billy discredits the diary, implying that Harrison was the one who planted the evidence ("A Tap Dance"). Roxie is acquitted, but her fame is eclipsed moments later when another woman, who had also shot her own husband, shoots her lawyer just outside the courthouse. Flynn tells her to accept it, and admits that he tampered with her diary himself, in order to incriminate the district attorney and also free two clients simultaneously. Amos remains loyal and excited to be a father, but Roxie cruelly rejects him, revealing her pregnancy is false, and he finally leaves her.
Roxie does become a vaudeville performer, but is very unsuccessful ("Nowadays"). The similarly-unsuccessful Velma reapproaches Roxie to suggest performing together as a double act consisting of two murderers. Roxie initially refuses, but later accepts when Velma points out that they can perform together despite their resentment for each other. The two stage a spectacular performance that earns them praise from the audience and the press ("Nowadays / Hot Honey Rag"). The film concludes with Roxie and Velma receiving a standing ovation from an enthusiastic audience (which includes Flynn, Morton, the jurors and other acquitted murderesses), and proclaiming that, "We couldn't have done it without you".
Cast
Renée Zellweger as Roxie Hart, a housewife who aspires to be a vaudevillian, and is arrested for the murder of her deceitful lover Fred Casely. Jennifer Aniston was considered for the role.
Catherine Zeta-Jones as Velma Kelly, a charismatic showgirl who is arrested for the murders of her husband, Charlie, and her sister, Veronica after finding them in bed together.
Richard Gere as Billy Flynn, a duplicitous, greedy, smooth-talking lawyer who turns his clients into celebrities to gain public support for them. Michael Jackson was considered for the role but Harvey Weinstein heavily objected to the idea of casting Jackson as he felt more attention would be paid to him than the rest of the cast. John Travolta was offered the role but turned it down.
Queen Latifah as Matron "Mama" Morton, the corrupt but nurturing matron of the Cook County Jail.
John C. Reilly as Amos Hart, Roxie's naive, simple-minded but devoted husband.
Christine Baranski as Mary Sunshine, a sensationalist reporter.
Taye Diggs as The Bandleader, a shadowy, mystical master of ceremonies who introduces each song.
Colm Feore as Martin Harrison, the prosecutor in both Roxie and Velma's court cases.
Lucy Liu as Kitty Baxter, a millionaire heiress who briefly outshines Velma and Roxie when she kills her husband and his two mistresses.
Dominic West as Fred Casely, Roxie's deceitful lover and murder victim.
Jayne Eastwood as Mrs. Borusewicz, the Harts' neighbor from across the hall.
Chita Rivera as Nicky, a prostitute. Rivera originated the role of Velma Kelly in the Broadway musical Chicago in 1975; her appearance in the film is a cameo.
Mýa as Mona, a prisoner on Murderess' Row who killed her artist boyfriend Al Lipschitz via strangulation after discovering he had multiple affairs.
Susan Misner as Liz, a prisoner on Murderess' Row who killed her husband Bernie by shooting him twice in the head after he wouldn't stop popping his gum.
Denise Faye as Annie, a prisoner on Murderess' Row who killed her boyfriend Ezekiel Young by poisoning his drink with arsenic after discovering he was a Mormon with six different wives.
Deidre Goodwin as June, a prisoner on Murderess' Row who killed her husband Wilbur by stabbing him 10 times with her kitchen knife after he angrily accused her out of jealousy of having an affair with the milkman.
Ekaterina Chtchelkanova as Katalin Helinszki, a Hungarian prisoner on Murderess' Row who insists she is innocent and does not speak English except for two words: "not guilty"; regardless, she is hanged.
Production
Development
The film is based on the 1975 Broadway musical, which ran for 936 performances but was not well received by audiences, primarily due to the show's cynical tone. A film version of Chicago was to have been the next project for Bob Fosse, who had directed and choreographed the original 1975 Broadway production and had won an Oscar for his direction of the film version of Cabaret (1972). Although he died before realizing his version, Fosse's distinctive jazz choreography style is evident throughout the 2002 film, and he is thanked in the credits. The minimalist 1996 revival of the musical proved far more successful, having played more than 9,562 performances (as of November 17, 2019), holding records for longest-running musical revival, longest-running American musical on Broadway, and second longest-running show in Broadway history. Its runaway success sparked a greater appreciation of the 1975 original production and renewed stalled interest in a long-anticipated film adaptation, which incorporates the influences of both productions.
The original production's musical numbers were staged as vaudeville acts; the film respects this but presents them as cutaway scenes in the mind of the Roxie character, while scenes in "real life" are filmed with a hard-edged grittiness. (This construct is the reason given by director Marshall why "Class," performed by Velma and Mama, was cut from the film.) The musical itself was based on a 1926 Broadway play by Maurine Watkins about two real-life Jazz-era murderers Beulah Annan (Roxie Hart) and Belva Gaertner (Velma Kelly). The George Abbott-directed production, starring Francine Larrimore and Juliette Crosby, ran for 172 performances at the Music Box Theatre, and within a year was adapted to a film in which Gaertner herself had a cameo. Chicago was produced by American companies Miramax Films and The Producers Circle in association with the German company Kallis Productions.
Roxie Hart, also known as Chicago or Chicago Gal, is a 1942 American comedy film directed by William A. Wellman and starring Ginger Rogers, Adolphe Menjou, George Montgomery, Nigel Bruce, Phil Silvers, William Frawley and Spring Byington. The film is an adaptation of the 1926 play Chicago by Maurine Dallas Watkins, a journalist who had found her inspiration in two real-life Chicago trials she had covered for the press
Filming
Chicago was filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The courthouse scene was shot in Osgoode Hall. Other scenes were filmed at Queen's Park, the former Gooderham and Worts Distillery, Casa Loma, the Elgin Theatre, Union Station, the Canada Life Building, the Danforth Music Hall, and at the Old City Hall.
Music
"Overture / All That Jazz" – Velma, Company
"Funny Honey" – Roxie and Amos
"When You're Good to Mama" – Mama
"Cell Block Tango" – Velma, Cell Block Girls
"All I Care About" – Billy, Chorus Girls
"We Both Reached for the Gun" – Billy, Roxie, Mary, Reporters
"Roxie" – Roxie, Chorus Boys
"I Can't Do It Alone" – Velma
"Mister Cellophane" – Amos
"Razzle Dazzle" – Billy, Company
"Class" – Velma and Mama (cut from the film; included in DVD and 2005 broadcast premiere on NBC)
"A Tap Dance" – Billy
"Nowadays" – Roxie
"Nowadays / Hot Honey Rag" – Roxie, Velma
"I Move On" – Roxie and Velma (over the end credits)
"All That Jazz (reprise)" – Velma, Company
Release
Home media
Chicago was released on DVD in Region 1 (USA, Canada, and US territories) on August 19, 2003. It was released in Full Screen and Widescreen. In addition to this release, a two-disc "Razzle Dazzle" Edition was released over two years later on December 20, 2005, and later, on Blu-ray format, in January 2007 and, in an updated release, in May 2011. Miramax was the label responsible for the production of the DVDs and the discs themselves provide a feature-length audio commentary track with director Marshall and screenwriter Condon. There is also a deleted musical number called "Class", performed by Zeta-Jones and Queen Latifah.
Reception
Box office
Chicago grossed $170,687,518 in the United States and Canada, as well $136,089,214 in other territories. Combined, the film grossed $306,776,732 worldwide, which was, at the time, the highest gross of any film never to reach #1 or #2 in the weekly box office charts in the North American markets (Canada and United States—where it peaked at #3). This record has since been outdone by Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel. Worldwide, Chicago was the highest grossing live action musical with $306 million, a record that was then broken by Mamma Mia!.
Critical response
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Chicago holds an 86% approval rating, based on 259 reviews, with an average rating of 8.00/10. The site's critics consensus states: "A rousing and energetic adaptation of the Broadway musical, Chicago succeeds on the level of pure spectacle, but provides a surprising level of depth and humor as well." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.
The cast received widespread acclaim for their performances. Tim Robey, writer for The Daily Telegraph in the United Kingdom, labeled Chicago as "The best screen musical for 30 years." He also stated that it has taken a "three-step tango for us to welcome back the movie musical as a form." Robey said "This particular Chicago makes the most prolific use it possibly can out of one specific advantage the cinema has over the stage when it comes to song and dance: it's a sustained celebration of parallel montage." Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it "Big, brassy fun". However, other reviews claimed that there were issues with the film being too streamlined, and minor complaints were made toward Marshall's directing influences.
Accolades
Legacy
Chicago, along with the 2001 musical Moulin Rouge! and the hip hop centered film 8 Mile in 2002, is widely considered to be responsible for ushering a re-emergence of the musical film genre in the 21st century. Following the success of Chicago, many musical films have been released in cinemas, with several adapted from stage productions for Broadway and London's West End, including Phantom of the Opera, The Producers, Rent, Dreamgirls, Hairspray, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, Mamma Mia!, Nine, Les Misérables, Rock of Ages, The Last Five Years, Into The Woods, Cats, Dear Evan Hansen, and more. The 2013 Scottish film Sunshine on Leith was also adapted from a stage production, originating with Scotland's Dundee Repertory Theatre.
Japanese rock band Buck-Tick named their 2010 album Razzle Dazzle after the film's song of the same name.
The revived interest in musical films has also brought remakes or sequels to earlier films, including Beauty and the Beast in 2017 (a live-action adaptation of Disney's 1991 animated feature, itself adapted for Broadway in 1994), the 2018 films: Mamma Mia: Here We Go Again! (a sequel to 2008's Mamma Mia!), A Star Is Born (a fourth version of the film following earlier productions in 1937, 1954, and 1976) and Mary Poppins Returns (a sequel to 1964's Mary Poppins), and 2019 films: Aladdin (a live-action adaptation of Disney's 1992 animated feature, itself adapted for Broadway in 2011) and The Lion King (a photorealistic live-action adaptation of Disney's 1994 animated feature, itself adapted for Broadway in 1997). Notable original and biographical musical films have also been released to critical and commercial success since Chicago's cinematic run, including Walk the Line in 2005, Once in 2006, Enchanted in 2007, La La Land in 2016, and Rocketman in 2019. Other original and biographical musical films that were released to commercial success with mixed critical reception, includes Across the Universe in 2007, The Greatest Showman in 2017, Bohemian Rhapsody in 2018, and Yesterday in 2019.
Many of Chicago's cast and crew have also gone on to work in succeeding musicals, including director Rob Marshall (Nine, Into The Woods, Mary Poppins Returns), writer Bill Condon (writer/director for Dreamgirls, director for Beauty and the Beast, writer for The Greatest Showman), costume designer Colleen Atwood (Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, Into The Woods), and actresses Catherine Zeta-Jones (Rock of Ages), Queen Latifah (Hairspray) and Christine Baranski (Mamma Mia!, Into the Woods).
Notes
References
External links
2000s dance films
2000s crime comedy-drama films
American crime comedy-drama films
2000s musical comedy-drama films
2002 films
2003 films
American comedy films
American comedy-drama films
American dance films
American fantasy films
American films
American films based on plays
American musical comedy-drama films
American satirical films
BAFTA winners (films)
Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners
Best Picture Academy Award winners
Edgar Award-winning works
2000s English-language films
Films about capital punishment
Films about lawyers
Films about musical theatre
Films based on adaptations
Films based on musicals
Films directed by Rob Marshall
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films scored by Danny Elfman
Films set in Chicago
Films set in 1924
Films set in prison
Films set in the Roaring Twenties
Films shot in Toronto
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award
Jazz films
Mariticide in fiction
Films with screenplays by Bill Condon
Sororicide in fiction
Miramax films
Women in prison films
2002 directorial debut films
2000s satirical films
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] |
201535
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escurial
|
Escurial
|
For The Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial please see El Escorial.
Escurial is a municipality located in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain.
References
Municipalities in the Province of Cáceres
|
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201537
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism%20%28political%20philosophy%29
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Pluralism (political philosophy)
|
Pluralism as a political philosophy is the recognition and affirmation of diversity within a political body, which is seen to permit the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions, and lifestyles. While not all political pluralists advocate for a pluralist democracy, this is most common as democracy is often viewed as the most fair and effective way to moderate between the discrete values. As put by arch-pluralist Isaiah Berlin, "let us have the courage of our admitted ignorance, of our doubts and uncertainties. At least we can try to discover what others ... require, by ... making it possible for ourselves to know men as they truly are, by listening to them carefully and sympathetically, and understanding them and their lives and their needs... ." Pluralism thus tries to encourage members of society to accommodate their differences by avoiding extremism (adhering solely to one value, or at the very least refusing to recognize others as legitimate) and engaging in good faith dialogue. Pluralists also seek the construction or reform of social institutions in order to reflect and balance competing principles.
One of the more famous arguments for institutional pluralism came from James Madison in The Federalist paper number 10. Madison feared that factionalism would lead to in-fighting in the new American republic and devotes this paper to questioning how best to avoid such an occurrence. He posits that to avoid factionalism, it is best to allow many competing factions (advocating different primary principles) to prevent any one from dominating the political system. This relies, to a degree, on a series of disturbances changing the influences of groups so as to avoid institutional dominance and ensure competition. Like Edmund Burke, this view concerns itself with balance, and subordinating any single abstract principle to a plurality or realistic harmony of interests. Pluralism recognizes that certain conditions may make good-faith negotiation impossible, and therefore also focuses on what institutional structures can best modify or prevent such a situation. Pluralism advocates institutional design in keeping with a form of pragmatic realism here, with the preliminary adoption of suitable existing socio-historical structures where necessary. One of the problems plaguing any discussion of pluralism is that it is a multi-faceted concept. There are at least four distinct ways in which the term pluralism has been used.
William E. Connolly challenges older theories of pluralism by arguing for pluralization as a goal rather than as a state of affairs. Connolly's argument for the "multiplication of factions" follows James Madison's logic in engaging groups, constituencies, and voters at both the micro and macro level. Essentially, he has shifted the theory from a conservative theory of order, to a progressive theory of democratic contestation and engagement. Connolly introduces the distinction between pluralism and pluralization. Pluralism, whether the interest-group pluralism of Robert A. Dahl or political liberalism's "reasonable" pluralism, is oriented towards existing diversity of groups, values, and identities competing for political representation. Pluralization, by contrast, names the emergence of new interests, identities, values, and differences raising claims to representation not currently legible within the existing pluralist imaginary.
The common good
Pluralism is connected with the hope that this process of conflict and dialogue will result in a quasi-common good. This common good is not an abstract value or set in stone, however, but an attempt at balancing competing social interests and will thus constantly shift given present social conditions. Proponents in the contemporary political philosophy of such a view include Isaiah Berlin, Stuart Hampshire and Bernard Williams. An earlier version of political pluralism was a strong current in the formation of modern social democracy (to balance socialist and capitalist ideals), with theorists such as the early Harold Laski and G. D. H. Cole, as well as other leading members of the British Fabian Society. In the United States, President Dwight Eisenhower's "middle way" was arguably motivated by a belief in political pluralism.
While advocated by many pluralists, pluralism need not embrace social democracy given it does not a priori assume a desirable political system. Rather, pluralists advocate one based on the pre-existing traditions and cognizable interests of a given society, and the political structure most likely to harmonize these factors. Thus, pluralists have also included Michael Oakeshott and John Kekes, proponents of something close to liberal conservatism (although will often reject such political labels). What pluralists certainly do have in common is the notion that a single vision or ideological schema, whether Marxism or unbridled neoliberalism, is likely too simplistic and rigid to advocate human beings' natural plurality of values. Pluralists likewise reject historicism and utopian thinking. While some, like John N. Gray, repudiate historical progress altogether, others, like Edmund Burke, indicate that human progress has occurred, as a function of improved social harmony.
Conditions
For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus that shared values are at least worth pursuing. The most important baseline value is thus that of mutual respect or tolerance. If no such dialogue is possible, extremism and physical coercion are likely inevitable.
Notable pluralists
Aristotle
Montaigne
James Madison
Alexis de Tocqueville
early Harold Laski
Stuart Hampshire
Edmund Burke
Isaiah Berlin
Adam Smith
David Hume
Edward Gibbon
Voltaire
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
James Fitzjames Stephen
Charles Sanders Peirce
William James
Bernard Williams
William McKinley
Learned Hand
later Michael Oakeshott
Joseph Raz
John Kekes
later Paul Feyerabend
John N. Gray
Hannah Arendt
Robert A. Dahl
William E. Connolly
See also
Anekantavada
Liberal democracy
Moderation
Value pluralism
Notes
References
Rajiv Krishnan Kozhikode and Jiatao Li, "Political pluralism, public policies, and organizational choices: banking branch expansion in India, 1948–2003," Academy of Management Journal, 55(2), 339–359.
Pluralism and Liberal Democracy, Richard E. Flatham (2005).
"Isaiah Berlin"
Morality and Conflict, Hampshire, Stuart (1983).
From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics, Blattberg, Charles (2000).
Democratic platform in Social Pluralism, Kazemzadeh, Hamed (2020).
Liberty, Berlin, Isaiah (2002).
In the Beginning Was the Deed, Williams, Bernard (2005).
"Michael Oakeshott and Modern Conservatism"
On legal pluralism and communities, see: Gad Barzilai, Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
Pluralism (philosophy)
Political theories
Power sharing
|
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] |
201544
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xvid
|
Xvid
|
Xvid (formerly "XviD") is a video codec library following the MPEG-4 video coding standard, specifically MPEG-4 Part 2 Advanced Simple Profile (ASP). It uses ASP features such as b-frames, global and quarter pixel motion compensation, lumi masking, trellis quantization, and H.263, MPEG and custom quantization matrices.
Xvid is a primary competitor of the DivX Pro Codec. In contrast with the DivX codec, which is proprietary software developed by DivX, Inc., Xvid is free software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License. This also means that unlike the DivX codec, which is only available for a limited number of platforms, Xvid can be used on all platforms and operating systems for which the source code can be compiled.
History
In January 2001, DivXNetworks founded OpenDivX as part of Project Mayo which was intended to be a home for open source multimedia projects. OpenDivX was an open-source MPEG-4 video codec based on a stripped-down version of the MoMuSys reference MPEG-4 encoder. The source code, however, was placed under a restrictive license and only members of the DivX Advanced Research Centre (DARC) had write access to the project's CVS. In early 2001, DARC member Sparky wrote an improved version of the encoding core called encore2. This was updated several times before, in April, it was removed from CVS without warning. The explanation given by Sparky was "We (our bosses) decided that we are not ready to have it in public yet."
In July 2001, developers started complaining about a lack of activity in the project; the last CVS commit was several months old, bugfixes were being ignored, and promised documentation had not been written. Soon after, DARC released a beta version of their closed-source commercial DivX 4 codec, which was based on encore2, saying that "what the community really wants is a Winamp, not a Linux." It was after this that a fork of OpenDivX was created, using the latest version of encore2 that was downloaded before it was removed. Since then, all the OpenDivX code has been replaced and Xvid has been published under the GNU General Public License.
Patent issues
As an implementation of MPEG-4 Part 2, Xvid uses many patented technologies. For this reason, Xvid 0.9.x versions were not licensed in countries where these software patents are recognized. With the 1.0.x releases, a GNU GPL v2 license is used with no explicit geographical restriction. However, the legal usage of Xvid may still be restricted by local laws.
Sigma Designs controversy
In July 2002, Sigma Designs released an MPEG-4 video codec called the REALmagic MPEG-4 Video Codec. Before long, people testing this new codec found that it contained considerable portions of Xvid code. Sigma Designs was contacted and confirmed that a programmer had based REALmagic on Xvid, but assured that all GPL code would be replaced to avoid copyright infringement. When Sigma Designs released the supposedly rewritten REALmagic codec, the Xvid developers immediately disassembled it and concluded that it still contained Xvid code, only rearranged in an attempt to disguise its presence. The Xvid developers decided to stop work and go public to force Sigma Designs to respect the terms of the GPL. After articles were published in Slashdot and The Inquirer, in August 2002 Sigma Designs agreed to publish their source code.
Playing Xvid encoded files
Xvid is not a video format; it is a program for compressing to and decompressing from (hence the name codec) the MPEG-4 ASP format. Since Xvid uses MPEG-4 Advanced Simple Profile (ASP) compression, video encoded with Xvid is MPEG-4 ASP video (not "Xvid video"), and can therefore be decoded with all ASP-compliant decoders. This includes a large number of media players and decoders based on libavcodec (such as MPlayer, VLC, ffdshow or Perian). , xvid.com carries binaries for using the codec.
Xvid encoded files can be written to a CD or DVD and played in some (but not all) DivX compatible DVD players and media players. However, Xvid can optionally encode video with advanced MPEG-4 features that most DivX Certified set-top players do not support. Files encoded with global motion compensation, Qpel, MPEG quantization, multiple B-frames or files that exceed the Video buffering verifier limitations may not play back properly on DivX Certified hardware devices.
For example, Xvid specifies three warp points for its implementation of global motion compensation as opposed to the single warp point implementation of DivX. Enabling some of the more advanced encoding features can compromise player compatibility. Some issues exist with the custom quantization matrices used in tools such as AutoGK that automate encoding with Xvid. This can (depending on the decoder chipset of the set-top player in question) produce videos that have unstable playback and artifacts. However, most recent model DivX compatible DVD players have improved support for custom quantization matrices.
Encoding applications
See also
List of codecs
Comparison of video codecs
References
External links
Xvid.org website
Xvid Setup/Reference Guide @ Digital Digest
Xvid Binary Download Page - Links to Windows/Linux binaries on the official website
Xvid Source Code Download Page - includes daily snapshots on the official website
Xvid QuickTime Component - unofficial Xvid component for Mac OS X
Cross-platform software
Free video codecs
|
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201546
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Underhill%20%28DE-682%29
|
USS Underhill (DE-682)
|
USS Underhill (DE-682) was a of the United States Navy during World War II. Built in 1943, she served in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific until her sinking in a suicide attack by a Japanese Kaiten manned torpedo on 24 July 1945.
Namesake
Samuel Jackson Underhill was born on 25 August 1917 in Jericho, New York. He received a Bachelor of Science from Yale University and attended Harvard Law School before enlisting in the United States Navy Reserve as a Seaman Second Class on 8 November 1940. After serving briefly at Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn, New York, Underhill was appointed an aviation cadet and was transferred on 6 February 1941 to the Naval Air Station, Jacksonville, Florida, for flight training. He subsequently underwent further training at Miami, Florida; was designated a naval aviator on 15 July; and was commissioned an ensign in the Naval Reserve on 6 August. Following advanced flight training at Norfolk, Virginia, he reported to Scouting Squadron 5 (VS-5).
In May 1942, during the Battle of the Coral Sea Underhill was with VS-5 on board the carrier . When VS-5 raided Tulagi on the morning of 4 May he flew his Douglas SBD Dauntless dive-bomber against a heavy anti-aircraft barrage and contributed to the sinking or damaging of eight enemy vessels. On the morning of 7 May, a coordinated attack group of 17 SBDs from VS-5 took off from Yorktown and, in clear skies with unlimited visibility, launched a dive bombing attack on the light carrier Shōhō. The American planes scored nine direct hits and two near misses sinking the Shōhō.
On the morning of 8 May, Yorktown launched the SBDs of VS-5, dividing the group to accomplish separate missions. One division flew in the strike that ultimately attacked the Japanese carrier Shōkaku. The other, which included Underhill, remained behind to conduct anti-torpedo plane patrol around Yorktown's formation due to the lack of fighters. At 11:10, the eight SBDs of VS-5's anti-torpedo plane patrol were jumped by a group of six Japanese fighters from Zuikaku. The slower Dauntless dive-bombers quickly found themselves at a disadvantage against the more nimble Japanese attackers. In the ensuing dogfight, the Zeros shot down four SBDs with no loss to themselves (although the American pilots claimed four destroyed) before being driven off by US fighters. Underhill was among those lost in the dogfight. He was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his extraordinary
Construction and Commissioning
Underhills keel was laid down on 16 September 1943 by the Bethlehem Steel Company's Fore River Shipyard at Quincy, Massachusetts. She was launched on 15 October 1943 sponsored by Mrs. David (Bertha) Underhill, aunt and guardian of Ensign Underhill. Underhill was commissioned exactly one month later.
Atlantic/Mediterranean service
After trial runs and crew training, Underhill moved to the Boston Navy Yard for provisioning and loading of ammunition. On 2 December 1943, she was underway to Bermuda for further training and shakedown, returning to Boston Navy Yard on 10 January 1944 for minor repairs. She got underway from Boston on 17 January 1944 and arrived at Guantanamo Bay on 22 January, reporting to Commander, Caribbean Sea Frontier, for duty. She operated out of Trinidad and Guantanamo escorting convoys until late in May when she escorted SS George Washington from Kingston, Jamaica, to Miami, Florida.
Underhill returned on 30 May 1944 to Boston Navy Yard, where her torpedo tubes were removed and replaced with Bofors 40 mm antiaircraft guns. Additionally two 20 mm anti-aircraft guns were added on the fantail. Her new area of operations was the Mediterranean Sea, where the Junkers Ju 88 dive bombers flying out of Southern France had been converted to torpedo planes and were taking a toll on British and French convoys.
Following training exercises in Casco Bay, Maine, Underhill got underway before dawn on Independence Day and steamed from Hampton Roads to screen UGS 47, a large, slow convoy bound for Mediterranean ports. Underhill conducted battle drills and investigated sonar contacts during the long, uneventful Atlantic voyage. In the Mediterranean Sea on 21 and 22 July, she responded to several air raid warnings, but no enemy action materialized, although the last three convoys to pass along this route had been attacked by German planes.
She escorted convoys between Bizerte, Tunisia and Oran, Algeria. After her first convoy in Bizerte, Underhill was ordered out into the Mediterranean Sea where she steamed all night at flank speed, fully illuminated in waters known to be populated with U-boats and overflown by German aircraft. The invasion of southern France was launched a few days later; it is likely Underhill's cruise was a diversion or a probe. When returning to Bizerte, she struck a ship sunken in the channel and badly damaged her port propeller and shaft, which was repaired in Oran. After arriving at that port on 27 July, she underwent temporary repairs; then, on 5 August, she departed North Africa. Early on 6 August, she joined the escort of Convoy GUS 47, with which she arrived safely at New York City on 18 August. Six days later, Commander Newcomb relieved Jackson as commanding officer; he would hold the post for the rest of his life.
The next convoy, UGS 54 to Plymouth, England, in September, was uneventful until Underhill left Plymouth in October. Upon leaving the harbor, a submarine sonar contact was made in the English Channel. Several hours of depth charging accomplished nothing, but while running the patterns, the ship struck an underwater object (possibly a U-boat) destroying the ship's sonar soundhead. Underhill drydocked at Plymouth, but the British were unable to make needed repairs, so Underhill returned to Boston with a group of tank landing ships (LSTs) for a new sound head.
She escorted Convoy UGS 60 from Boston to Mers el Kebir in November; then engaged in anti-submarine warfare exercises out of Oran with the
French submarine Doris. She departed that Algerian port on 3 December escorting GUS 60 and reached New York on 21 December. She entered the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 21 December, departing for New London, Connecticut, on 8 January 1945 for a temporary assignment with Submarine Forces, Atlantic. Operating out of New London, she served as a training and escort ship for submarines, took part in exercises in Block Island Sound and Long Island Sound; and trained intensively in anti-submarine warfare.
Pacific service
In late January 1945, Underhill was assigned to the Seventh Fleet in the Philippine Islands, departing New London on 8 February 1945, rendezvousing with HMS Patroller to escort the British escort carrier to the Panama Canal Zone. Underhill then steamed via the Panama Canal, the Galapagos Islands, and Bora Bora to the Admiralty Islands and arrived at Seeadler Harbor on 15 March 1945.
Her first convoy took her to Lingayen Gulf where she remained for four days of radar picket duty. From there she went on to Hollandia (currently known as Jayapura) and Biak. On 5 June 1945, Underhill left Hollandia escorting the troopship USS General M.B. Stewart (AP-140) to Leyte Gulf.
On 10 June 1945, Underhill left Leyte for Hollandia, but en route received a distress call from OA-10 #23, a Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat. Underhill and Thadeus Parker were diverted to the crash site by orders of the Commander, Philippine Sea Frontier. The destroyers and various aircraft patrolled the area until 12 June when the search was abandoned. After Parker and the aircraft had left the area, Underhill'''s lookouts spotted green dye marker and a ration can floating in the water. Investigating further, into a rain squall, the lookouts found three survivors, who had been in the water about 60 hours with life jackets but no life raft. Underhill took them aboard at 07:59 and transported them to Hollandia.Underhill escorted shipping between Manus, Bora Bora, and Palau, until she joined a large convoy of supply and troopships. She departed Leyte Gulf on 9 July and arrived at Okinawa on 14 July 1945. There, she was assigned to radar picket duty until relieved to serve as escort commander of Task Unit 99-1-18, a convoy from Buckner Bay, Okinawa back to Leyte Gulf on 21 July 1945. The convoy included one troop ship and six LSTs carrying troops of the 96th Division back to the Philippines for rest and reinforcements. The convoy escorts were patrol craft PC-1251, PC-803, PC-804, and PC-807, sub chasers SC-1306 and SC-1309, and patrol craft escort PCE-872.
Underhill sinking
On the morning of the third day out, 24 July 1945, about 200 to 300 miles northeast of Cape Engaño, Underhill's radar detected a Japanese "Dinah" reconnaissance plane circling the convoy about ten miles out. Her crew immediately manned their battle stations and ordered other escorts to air defense stations. The Japanese pilot remained out of gun range, determining the convoy's base course and relaying it to Japanese submarines in the area. After some 45 minutes, Underhill crew secured from battle stations and ordered the other escorts to resume assigned patrol stations. During this time, an SC had developed mechanical problems and had to be taken in tow by PCE-872.
Two or three Japanese submarines were in the area. After establishing the convoy's base course, one released a dummy naval mine in the path of the convoy. When it was sighted by Underhill lookouts, the ship's commander ordered a general course change to port. When the last ship had cleared, Underhill stood in to sink the mine. After repeated direct hits by the 20-millimeter guns and 30-calibre rifle fire, the convoy realized the mine was a diversionary tactic by the Japanese submarines.
A sonar contact made earlier had been lost during the course changes required by the mine threat, but Underhill regained contact and guided PC-804 into a depth charge attack with no immediate results. A few minutes later, however, a sub was sighted on the surface in the area where PC-804 had attacked. Underhill set course to ram, but the sub dived and the command was changed to drop depth charges. A 13-charge pattern was laid, explosions brought up oil and debris, and PC-804 reported a kill.Underhill reversed course and passed back through the debris. Sonar picked up another contact. The depth charges had brought to the surface two Kaiten, Japanese suicide manned torpedoes, each with a warhead equivalent to about two standard torpedoes. One was on either side of Underhill; the one to starboard was too close for any of Underhill's guns to bear.
At 15:15, the captain ordered flank speed, a turn onto collision course, and all hands to stand by to ram. Underhill struck the Kaiten to port, and two explosions resulted, the first directly under the bridge and magazine area, the second, a few seconds later, forward of the bridge area and more to starboard. Underhill broke in half at the forward fire room. The stern section remained upright and afloat; The bow, sticking straight up, began drifting away to starboard. The explosions flung a tremendous quantity of oily water over the aft section, knocking down men and washing some overboard, but also dousing possible fires in that portion of the ship.
Although hampered in their rescue efforts by the necessity to pursue sound contacts and by alarms over real and imagined periscope sightings, PC-803 and PC-804 quickly came to the aid of survivors in the water and on the slowly sinking aft section. On board Underhill, the wounded were brought to the boat and main decks, while unhurt survivors aided the injured and attempted to control the damage.
About an hour later PC-803 and PC-804 had returned to rescue survivors. Hampered because of still being under attack by the midget subs, the transfer of many seriously wounded men to the patrol craft was difficult. PC-804 was the first to reach the combat site to assist with rescue operations and hove-to off the starboard quarter of Underhill. The patrol boats and sub chasers alternated between assisting survivors and attacking submarine contacts.
After the last known survivors were rescued, a firing line was formed by PC-803, PC-804, and PCE-872. The fragments of Underhill were sunk by three-inch (76.2 mm) and 40 mm gunfire at 19:17. Loss Location reported at 19°20'N, 126°42'E.
The remainder of 24 July was spent rejoining the convoy. Some survivors were transferred to LST 768 and the balance to LST 739 which had on board Commander LST Group 46 who among the command was the only Medical Doctor in the convoy at about 03:00 on 25 July. Task Unit 99-1-18 proceeded to its destination of Leyte Gulf.
Aftermath
A total of 112 crew members of Underhill perished in the explosion, while 122 survived. Ten of the fourteen officers were lost, including the commanding officer, Lieutenant Commander Newcomb. Every crewman was awarded the Purple Heart, and Newcomb also received the Silver Star. Chief Boatswain's Mate Stanley Dace was posthumously awarded the bronze star with combat "V" and citation of merit in August 1998. One other shipmate, Pharmacist's Mate Third class Joseph Manory, was awarded the Navy and Marine Commendation Medal with Combat "V" in 1998.
Just six days after the sinking of the Underhill, the heavy cruiser Indianapolis was attacked and sunk in the area by a Japanese submarine. The historical film USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage (2016), dramatizing the incident, also includes a mention of the Underhill and of how it did not affect the order not to give the Indianapolis a sonar and an escort.
USS Underhill'' was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 September 1945.
References
External links
http://www.ussunderhill.org/
navsource.org: USS Underhill
Buckley-class destroyer escorts
World War II shipwrecks in the South China Sea
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1943 ships
United States Navy New York (state)-related ships
Ships sunk by Japanese submarines
Maritime incidents in July 1945
Naval magazine explosions
|
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] |
201548
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palantir
|
Palantir
|
Palantir may refer to:
Palantír, a magical sphere in J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings
Palantir Technologies, an American software company
|
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201553
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romy%20and%20Michele%27s%20High%20School%20Reunion
|
Romy and Michele's High School Reunion
|
Romy and Michele's High School Reunion is a 1997 American comedy film directed by David Mirkin and starring Mira Sorvino, Lisa Kudrow, and Janeane Garofalo. The plot revolves around two 28-year-old women who appear to have not achieved much success in life, and decide to invent fake careers to impress former classmates at their ten-year high school reunion. The characters are taken from the stage play Ladies Room, which also featured Kudrow.
Plot
Romy White and Michele Weinberger (Mira Sorvino and Lisa Kudrow) live together in Venice, Los Angeles, California. Romy works as a cashier in the service department at a Jaguar dealership and Michele is unemployed. They are single, unambitious, and enjoy a casual lifestyle. While working, Romy encounters former high school classmate, Heather Mooney (Janeane Garofalo), who informs Romy about their upcoming ten-year high school reunion in Tucson, Arizona.
As high school students in 1987, they were picked on by the "A-Group", led by cheerleader Christie Masters (Julia Campbell), who humiliates them repeatedly. Finally, at the prom, Christie tricks Romy into believing that her boyfriend Billy Christianson (Vincent Ventresca) was in love with Romy, and had dumped Christie to be with Romy. Romy waits all night to dance with Billy, who had already left with Christie. Michele dances with her instead.
Romy realizes that their lack of achievements will not make a good impression at the reunion. Desperate to impress their former classmates, Romy and Michele make last-ditch attempts to improve themselves, hoping to avoid being bullied again.
Having failed to secure better jobs and boyfriends, Romy and Michele decide to fake success by showing up in an expensive car and business suits. Romy borrows a Jaguar XJ-S from a co-worker, and Michele makes their outfits. En route to the reunion, they decide to claim that they invented the Post-it Note, believing that no one will know better. They argue over the details of their lie, which escalates into an argument about their friendship. They decide to go their separate ways once they reach the reunion.
At the reunion, Michele hears Romy claiming that she invented Post-its by herself. Michele convinces the A-Group she invented a special kind of glue. Sandy Frink (Alan Cumming), the nerd who had a crush on Michele in high school, has become wealthy and attractive since high school, and hits on Michele after hitting her with his limo. Billy and Romy reunite and hit it off. Both Romy and Michele win awards as the "Most Changed For the Better Since High School" members of their graduating class, but still refuse to speak with each other. Seventy years later, an elderly Michele learns that Romy is on her deathbed, and calls her to make amends. However, they rehash the same argument and Romy dies without resolving their issues.
Michele wakes up alone in the car, realizing that she was dreaming. At the reunion, Romy starts to tell the Post-it story, but Heather blows the lie by revealing the real inventor’s name. Christie and her friends taunt Romy, and Michele ineptly defends her. Romy runs out, and Michele chases after her. They reconcile and decide to be themselves instead of trying to impress other people. They change into brightly colored homemade outfits and return to the reunion.
They confront Christie, who makes fun of their clothes. Former A-Group girl Lisa Luder (Elaine Hendrix), now a fashion editor, announces that the outfits are actually "not bad". Christie verbally attacks Lisa, who coolly dismisses her. The other A-Group girls abandon Christie, while everyone else congratulates Romy and Michele. Heather apologizes to Romy and Michele and admits she was miserable in high school because she was in love with Sandy, who was in love with Michele. Romy and Michele comfort her by reminding her that she was always successful at making classmate Toby Walters (Camryn Manheim) miserable.
Sandy, who turns out to be an actual billionaire, arrives via helicopter. He confesses that he still loves Michele and asks her to dance with him. Michele agrees, as long as Romy can dance with them. After their interpretive dance to Cyndi Lauper's "Time After Time" receives huge applause, Sandy escorts them to his helicopter. On their way out, they encounter Billy. Once a fit and handsome athlete, he is now an overweight alcoholic who is married to Christie, has a dead-end job working for Christie’s father, and is unsure if he is the father of her latest pregnancy. He hits on Romy, who tells him to wait for her in his hotel room. She then leaves the reunion with Michele as the two women join Sandy in his helicopter. The reunion guests watch as the helicopter takes off.
Six months later, back in Los Angeles, Romy and Michele use money loaned to them by Sandy to open a successful fashion boutique.
Cast
Mira Sorvino as Romy White
Lisa Kudrow as Michele Weinberger
Janeane Garofalo as Heather Mooney
Alan Cumming as Sandy Frink
Julia Campbell as Christie Masters
Vincent Ventresca as Billy Christianson
Camryn Manheim as Toby Walters
Mia Cottet as Cheryl Quick
Elaine Hendrix as Lisa Luder
Kristin Bauer as Kelly Possenger
Jacob Vargas as Ramon
Justin Theroux as Clarence the Cowboy
Tate Taylor as Casey Deegan
Rick Pasqualone as Mark Black
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 6.19/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Romy and Michele's High School Reunion has an admittedly slight premise, but it's elevated by ample heart, an infectiously playful spirit, and the buoyant chemistry of Lisa Kudrow and Mira Sorvino." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.
Box office
The film opened at number two in the North American box office, making $7.4 million in its opening weekend, finishing behind Volcano. It grossed a total of $29 million in North America.
Accolades
The film won and was nominated for a number of awards throughout 1998.
Television pilot and prequel
An earlier incarnation of the Romy and Michele characters appeared in a sitcom pilot called Just Temporary. Based on the stage play Ladies Room, the pilot was written by the play's author, Robin Schiff. Both Lisa Kudrow and Christie Mellor reprised their roles from the play for the pilot. Although the show was not picked up for the fall schedule, NBC did air the pilot on September 1, 1999.
A prequel television film, Romy and Michele: In the Beginning, premiered on ABC Family on May 30, 2005.
A musical adaptation premiered at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle, Washington in Summer 2017.
Soundtrack
Two soundtrack albums featuring music from Romy and Michele's High School Reunion were released in 1997 courtesy of Hollywood Records. The first album, titled "Original Soundtrack", was made available ten days before the official North American film release, while the second album, "More Music From the Motion Picture", was released four months later. Due to copyright issues, several songs which featured in the film, did not appear on either soundtrack album; songs omitted include the film's opening song "Just a Girl" by No Doubt, "Y.M.C.A." by Village People, "Addicted to Love" by Robert Palmer, "Time After Time" by Cyndi Lauper, "Ain't No Love (Ain't No Use)" by Sub Sub, featuring Melanie Williams, "Footloose" by Kenny Loggins, "Hello Trouble" by The Desert Rose Band, "Don't Get Me Wrong" by The Pretenders and "Have a Good Time" by Talawah Crew. Both albums were reissued as a 2-CD set as part of the Double Features series.
Original Soundtrack
More Music from the Motion Picture
See also
List of cult films
References
External links
1997 films
1990s buddy comedy films
1990s female buddy films
American buddy comedy films
American female buddy films
American films
American films based on plays
Class reunions in popular culture
Films about proms
Films directed by David Mirkin
Films produced by Laurence Mark
Films scored by Steve Bartek
Films set in 1987
Films set in 1997
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Tucson, Arizona
Touchstone Pictures films
1997 directorial debut films
1997 comedy films
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201562
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%20calendar
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Egyptian calendar
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The ancient Egyptian calendar – a civil calendar – was a solar calendar with a 365-day year. The year consisted of three seasons of 120 days each, plus an intercalary month of five epagomenal days treated as outside of the year proper. Each season was divided into four months of 30 days. These twelve months were initially numbered within each season but came to also be known by the names of their principal festivals. Each month was divided into three 10-day periods known as decans or decades. It has been suggested that during the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty the last two days of each decan were usually treated as a kind of weekend for the royal craftsmen, with royal artisans free from work.
Because this calendrical year was nearly a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year, the Egyptian calendar lost about one day every four years relative to the Gregorian calendar. It is therefore sometimes referred to as the (), as its months rotated about one day through the solar year every four years. 's Canopus Decree attempted to correct this through the introduction of a sixth epagomenal day every four years but the proposal was resisted by the Egyptian priests and people and abandoned until the establishment of the Alexandrian or Coptic calendar by Augustus. The introduction of a leap day to the Egyptian calendar made it equivalent to the reformed Julian calendar, although by extension it continues to diverge from the Gregorian calendar at the turn of most centuries.
This ran concurrently with an which was used for some religious rituals and festivals. Some Egyptologists have described it as lunisolar, with an intercalary month supposedly added every two or three years to maintain its consistency with the solar year, but no evidence of such intercalation before the has yet been discovered.
History
Prehistory
Current understanding of the earliest development of the Egyptian calendar remains speculative. A tablet from the reign of the First Dynasty pharaoh Djer (BC) was once thought to indicate that the Egyptians had already established a link between the heliacal rising of Sirius ( or Sopdet, "Triangle"; , Sôthis) and the beginning of their year, but more recent analysis has questioned whether the tablet's picture refers to Sirius at all. Similarly, based on the Palermo Stone, Alexander Scharff proposed that the Old Kingdom observed a 320-day year, but his theory has not been widely accepted. Some evidence suggests the early civil calendar had 360 days, although it might merely reflect the unusual status of the five epagomenal days as days "added on" to the proper year.
With its interior effectively rainless for thousands of years, ancient Egypt was "a gift of the river" Nile, whose annual flooding organized the natural year into three broad natural seasons known to the Egyptians as:
Inundation or Flood (, sometimes anglicized as Akhet): roughly from September to January.
Emergence or Winter (, sometimes anglicized as Peret): roughly from January to May.
Low Water or Harvest or Summer (, sometimes anglicized as Shemu): roughly from May to September.
As early as the reign of Djer (BC, Dynasty I), yearly records were being kept of the flood's high-water mark. Otto E. Neugebauer noted that a 365-day year can be established by averaging a few decades of accurate observations of the Nile flood without any need for astronomical observations, although the great irregularity of the flood from year to year and the difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently accurate Nilometer and record in prehistoric Egypt has caused other scholars to doubt that it formed the basis for the Egyptian calendar.
Note that the names of the three natural seasons were incorporated into the Civil calendar year (see below), but as this calendar year is a , the seasons of this calendar slowly rotate through the natural solar year, meaning that Civil season Akhet/Inundation only occasionally coincided with the Nile inundation.
Lunar calendar
The Egyptians appear to have used a purely lunar calendar prior to the establishment of the solar civil calendar in which each month began on the morning when the waning crescent moon could no longer be seen. Until the closing of Egypt's polytheist temples under the Byzantines, the lunar calendar continued to be used as the liturgical year of various cults. The lunar calendar divided the month into four weeks, reflecting each quarter of the lunar phases. Because the exact time of morning considered to begin the Egyptian day remains uncertain and there is no evidence that any method other than observation was used to determine the beginnings of the lunar months prior to the there is no sure way to reconstruct exact dates in the lunar calendar from its known dates. The difference between beginning the day at the first light of dawn or at sunrise accounts for an 11–14 year shift in dated observations of the lunar cycle. It remains unknown how the Egyptians dealt with obscurement by clouds when they occurred and the best current algorithms have been shown to differ from actual observation of the waning crescent moon in about one-in-five cases.
Parker and others have argued for its development into an observational and then calculated lunisolar calendar which used a 30 day intercalary month every two to three years to accommodate the lunar year's loss of about 11 days a year relative to the solar year and to maintain the placement of the heliacal rising of Sirius within its twelfth month. No evidence for such a month, however, exists in the present historical record.
A second lunar calendar is attested by a demotic astronomical papyrus dating to sometime after 144 CE which outlines a lunisolar calendar operating in accordance with the Egyptian civil calendar according to a 25 year cycle. The calendar seems to show its month beginning with the first visibility of the waxing crescent moon, but Parker displayed an error in the cycle of about a day in 500 years, using it to show the cycle was developed to correspond with the new moon around 357BCE. This date places it prior to the Ptolemaic period and within the native Egyptian Dynasty XXX. Egypt's 1st Persian occupation, however, seems likely to have been its inspiration. This lunisolar calendar's calculations apparently continued to be used without correction into the Roman period, even when they no longer precisely matched the observable lunar phases.
The days of the lunar month — known to the Egyptians as a "temple month" — were individually named and celebrated as stages in the life of the moon god, variously Thoth in the Middle Kingdom or Khonsu in the Ptolemaic era: "He ... is conceived ... on Psḏntyw; he is born on Ꜣbd; he grows old after Smdt".
Civil calendar
The civil calendar was established at some early date in or before the Old Kingdom, with probable evidence of its use early in the reign of Shepseskaf (BC, Dynasty IV) and certain attestation during the reign of Neferirkare (mid-25th centuryBC, Dynasty V). It was probably based upon astronomical observations of Sirius whose reappearance in the sky closely corresponded to the average onset of the Nile flood through the 5th and A recent development is the discovery that the 30-day month of the Mesopotamian calendar dates as late as the Jemdet Nasr Period (late 4th-millenniumBC), a time Egyptian culture was borrowing various objects and cultural features from the Fertile Crescent, leaving open the possibility that the main features of the calendar were borrowed in one direction or the other as well.
The civil year comprised exactly 365 days, divided into 12 months of 30 days each and an intercalary month of five days, were celebrated as the birthdays of the gods Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys. The regular months were grouped into Egypt's three seasons, which gave them their original names, and divided into three 10-day periods known as decans or decades. In later sources, these were distinguished as "first", "middle", and "last". It has been suggested that during the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty the last two days of each decan were usually treated as a kind of weekend for the royal craftsmen, with royal artisans free from work. Dates were typically expressed in a YMD format, with a pharaoh's regnal year followed by the month followed by the day of the month. For example, the New Year occurred on
The importance of the calendar to Egyptian religion is reflected in the use of the title "Lord of Years" () for its various creator gods. Time was also considered an integral aspect of Maat, the cosmic order which opposed chaos, lies, and violence.
The civil calendar was apparently established in a year when Sirius rose on its New Year but, because of its lack of leap years, it began to slowly cycle backwards through the solar year. Sirius itself, about 40° below the ecliptic, follows a Sothic year almost exactly matching that of the Sun, with its reappearance now occurring at the latitude of Cairo (ancient Heliopolis and Memphis) on 19July (Julian), only two or three days later than its occurrence in early antiquity.
Following Censorinus and Meyer, the standard understanding was that, four years from the calendar's inception, Sirius would have no longer reappeared on the Egyptian New Year but on the next day ; four years later, it would have reappeared on the day after that; and so on through the entire calendar until its rise finally returned to 1460 years after the calendar's inception, an event known as "apocatastasis". Owing to the event's extreme regularity, Egyptian recordings of the calendrical date of the rise of Sirius have been used by Egyptologists to fix its calendar and other events dated to it, at least to the level of the four-Egyptian-year periods which share the same date for Sirius's return, known as "tetraëterides" or "quadrennia". For example, an account that Sothis rose on —the 181st day of the year—should show that somewhere 720, 721, 722, or 723 years have passed since the last apocatastasis. Following such a scheme, the record of Sirius rising on in 239BC implies apocatastases on 1319 and 2779BC ±3 years. Censorinus's placement of an apocatastasis on 21July AD139 permitted the calculation of its predecessors to 1322, 2782, and 4242BC. The last is sometimes described as "the first exactly dated year in history" but, since the calendar is attested before Dynasty XVIII and the last date is now known to far predate early Egyptian civilization, it is typically credited to Dynasty II around the middle date.
The classic understanding of the Sothic cycle relies, however, on several potentially erroneous assumptions. Following Scaliger, Censorinus's date is usually emended to 20July but ancient authorities give a variety of 'fixed' dates for the rise of Sirius. His use of the year 139 seems questionable, as 136 seems to have been the start of the tetraëteris and the later date chosen to flatter the birthday of Censorinus's patron. Perfect observation of Sirius's actual behavior during the cycle—including its minor shift relative to the solar year—would produce a period of 1457 years; observational difficulties produce a further margin of error of about two decades. Although it is certain the Egyptian day began in the morning, another four years are shifted depending on whether the precise start occurred at the first light of dawn or at sunrise. It has been noted that there is no recognition in surviving records that Sirius's minor irregularities sometimes produce a triëteris or penteteris (three- or five-year periods of agreement with an Egyptian date) rather than the usual four-year periods and, given that the expected discrepancy is no more than 8 years in 1460, the cycle may have been applied schematically according to the civil years by Egyptians and the Julian year by the Greeks and Romans. The occurrence of the apocatastasis in the so close to the great political and sun-based religious reforms of /Akhenaton also leaves open the possibility that the cycle's strict application was occasionally subject to political interference. The record and celebration of Sirius's rising would also vary by several days (equating to decades of the cycle) in eras when the official site of observation was moved from near Cairo. The return of Sirius to the night sky varies by about a day per degree of latitude, causing it to be seen 8–10 days earlier at Aswan than at Alexandria, a difference which causes Rolf Krauss to propose dating much of Egyptian history decades later than the present consensus.
Ptolemaic calendar
Following Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Dynasty came to power in Egypt, continuing to use its native calendars with Hellenized names. In 238 BC, Ptolemy III's Canopus Decree ordered that every 4th year should incorporate a sixth day in its intercalary month, honoring him and his wife as gods equivalent to the children of Nut. The reform was resisted by the Egyptian priests and people and was abandoned.
Coptic calendar
Egyptian scholars were involved with the establishment of Julius Caesar's reform of the Roman calendar, although the Roman priests initially misapplied its formula and—by counting inclusively—added leap days every three years instead of every four. The mistake was corrected by Augustus through omitting leap years for a number of cycles until AD4. As the personal ruler of Egypt, he also imposed a reform of its calendar in 26 or 25BC, possibly to correspond with the beginning of a new Callipic cycle, with the first leap day occurring on 6 Epag. in the year 22BC. This "Alexandrian calendar" corresponds almost exactly to the Julian, causing 1Thoth to remain at 29August except during the year before a Julian leap year, when it occurs on 30August instead. The calendars then resume their correspondence after 4Phamenoth/ 29February of the next year.
Months
For much of Egyptian history, the months were not referred to by individual names, but were rather numbered within the three seasons. As early as the Middle Kingdom, however, each month had its own name. These finally evolved into the New Kingdom months, which in turn gave rise to the Hellenized names that were used for chronology by Ptolemy in his Almagest and by others. Copernicus constructed his tables for the motion of the planets based on the Egyptian year because of its mathematical regularity. A convention of modern Egyptologists is to number the months consecutively using Roman numerals.
A persistent problem of Egyptology has been that the festivals which give their names to the months occur in the next month. Alan Gardiner proposed that an original calendar governed by the priests of Ra was supplanted by an improvement developed by the partisans of Thoth. Parker connected the discrepancy to his theories concerning the lunar calendar. Sethe, Weill, and Clagett proposed that the names expressed the idea that each month culminated in the festival beginning the next.
Legacy
The reformed Egyptian calendar continues to be used in Egypt as the Coptic calendar of the Egyptian Church and by the Egyptian populace at large, particularly the fellah, to calculate the agricultural seasons. It differs only in its era, which is dated from the ascension of the Roman emperor Diocletian. Contemporary Egyptian farmers, like their ancient predecessors, divide the year into three seasons: winter, summer, and inundation. It is also associated with local festivals such as the annual Flooding of the Nile and the ancient Spring festival Sham el-Nessim.
The Ethiopian calendar is based on this reformed calendar but uses Amharic names for its months and uses a different era. The French Republican Calendar was similar, but began its year at the autumnal equinox. British orrery maker John Gleave represented the Egyptian calendar in a reconstruction of the Antikythera mechanism.
See also
Egyptian chronology
Egyptian astronomy
Coptic & Ethiopian calendars
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
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. (Full Hungarian version.)
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, a review of Clagett's Ancient Egyptian Science, Vols. I & II.
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External links
Detailed information about the Egyptian calendars, including lunar cycles
Date Converter for Ancient Egypt
Calendrica Includes the Egyptian civil calendar with years in Ptolemy's Nabonassar Era (year 1 = 747 BC) as well as the Coptic, Ethiopic, and French calendars.
Civil, ver. 4.0, is a 25kB DOS program to convert dates in the Egyptian civil calendar to the Julian or Gregorian ones
30th-century BC establishments
Solar calendars
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201563
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedinellales
|
Pedinellales
|
Pedinellales is a group of single-celled algae found in both marine environments and freshwater.
These are found in both freshwater and marine environments, and most genera are sessile, attached by posterior stalks. The flagellum is at the anterior of the cell, and the tentacles surround it, often capturing small prey drawn in by its current. The colored genera are Pedinella, Apedinella, Pseudopedinella, and Mesopedinella. Several more genera have lost their chloroplasts and feed entirely by phagocytosis. These are Parapedinella, Actinomonas, and Pteridomonas.
It also appears that certain heliozoa are actually derived pedinellids. Ciliophrys alternates between a mobile flagellate stage and a heliozoan feeding stage, where the body is contracted with extended axopods all over its surface, and the flagellum is curled up into a tight figure eight. The actinophryids, Actinophrys and Actinosphaerium, exist only in a heliozoan form with no flagellum and with more elaborate bundles of microtubules supporting their axopods. Their inclusion was argued by Mikrjukov and Patterson, who coined the term actinodine to refer specifically to this extended group.
Pedinellids were classified as heliozoans by some authors. The colored pedinellids were originally treated as a family of golden algae in the order Ochromonadales, promoted to an order Pedinellales by Zimmerman in 1984. Their relationship to the silicoflagellates became apparent some time later, and Patterson defined this rankless group for the two in 1994. Moestrup treated it as the class Dictyochophyceae, previously restricted to the silicoflagellates, while Cavalier-Smith defined a new class Actinochrysophyceae for them.
Taxonomy
Taxonomy provided by AlgaeBase.
Family Cyrtophoraceae Pascher 1911
Genus Cyrtophorana Strand 1929
Genus Palatinella Lauterborn 1906
Family Pedinellaceae Pascher 1910 [Actinomonadaceae Kent 1880; Ciliophryidae Poche 1913; Pedinellidae Cavalier-Smith 1986 stat. nov. 1995; Pseudopedinellaceae]
Genus Actinomonas Kent 1880
Genus Apedinella Throndsen 1971
Genus Ciliophrys Cienkowski 1876
Genus Helicopedinella Sekiguchi et al. 2003
Genus Mesopedinella Daugbjerg 1996
Genus Parapedinella Pedersen, Beech & Thomsen 1986
Genus Pedinella Wyssotzki 1887 non Dahl 1909
Genus Pseudopedinella Carter 1937
Genus Pteridomonas Penard 1889
References
Heterokont orders
Dictyochophyceae
|
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] |
201565
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Ingenii
|
Mare Ingenii
|
Mare Ingenii (Latin ingeniī, the "Sea of Cleverness") is one of the few lunar mare features on the far side of the Moon. The mare sits in the Ingenii basin, which is of the Pre-Nectarian epoch, which lies in turn in the outer part of the older and much larger South Pole–Aitken basin. The mare material located in Ingenii and the surrounding craters is of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The dark circular feature which dominates this mare is the crater Thomson (112 km diameter), with the overflow from Ingenii/Thomson directly to the east. Mare Ingenii is incompletely and thinly covered over much of its expanse with mare lava sheets. The light grey crater to the south of Mare Ingenii is Obruchev.
The mare has swirling patterns of bright material, similar to Reiner Gamma and to patterns within Mare Marginis, which are not associated with topographic or volcanic features. The lunar swirls are believed to be associated with magnetic fields.
Prior to formal naming in 1961 by the IAU, the crater was known as Basin XIV.
Mare Ingenii is located at the antipode of the Mare Imbrium impact basin. The furrowed crater walls of the basin (and possibly those of Van de Graaff crater) may have been caused by focused seismic waves resulting from the Imbrium impact.
The mare contains the second instance of a lunar pit discovered on the moon and one of several outside the Earth to date.
See also
Mare Desiderii
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) articles
The Swirls of Mare Ingenii,
Depths of Mare Ingenii
References
External links
High resolution lunar overflight video by Seán Doran, based on LRO data, that passes over Mare Ingenii at the start
Ingenii
Ingenii
Ingenii
|
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] |
201566
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Anguis
|
Mare Anguis
|
Mare Anguis (Latin anguis, the "serpent sea") is a lunar mare located on the near side of the Moon, about 150 kilometers in diameter. Located within the Crisium basin, Mare Anguis is a part of the Nectarian System, meaning that it was formed during the Nectarian time period. Like most mare, the surface of Mare Anguis is dark, indicating that it has been filled with volcanic basalt. It forms part of a concentric ring to the northeast of the Crisium rim, and it lies at an elevation 800 m above Mare Crisium. Channels lead down from Mare Anguis to Mare Chrisium, with some possible indications of lava flow.
The small, 7–km diameter crater Eimmart A lies at the east edge of Mare Anguis. It is a proposed source for the Antarctic meteorite ALHA81005. The impact appears to have excavated mare basalt, which probably accounts for the olivine/low-Ca pyroxene mixture found in the spectrum.
References
Anguis
Anguis
|
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201568
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Macedonian
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HMS Macedonian
|
HMS Macedonian was a 38-gun fifth-rate in the Royal Navy, later captured by the during the War of 1812.
Construction and commissioning
Macedonian was built at Woolwich Dockyard, England in 1809, launched 2 June 1810, and commissioned the same month. She was commanded by Captain Lord William FitzRoy. Among the original crew was the 13-year-old Samuel Leech, who later wrote a memoir of his experiences.
As HMS Macedonian
Macedonian first delivered a company of soldiers to Lisbon, Portugal, then remained in the area, guarding against the possibility of French naval attack. On 20 February 1811, she collided with Ives – a British merchant ship bound from Demerara on the north coast of South America to Greenock, Scotland – in the Atlantic Ocean off Lisbon, and Ives was so severely damaged that she was set afire and Macedonian took her crew aboard. While Macedonian operated off Portugal, FitzRoy made personal profit by falsification of records of ships' stores, for which he was court-martialled in March 1811 and dismissed from the service. (He was quietly reinstated in August 1811, presumably due to his aristocratic rank).
FitzRoy's replacement, William Waldegrave, was an interim appointment whose command lasted for only a few weeks before he was himself replaced by John Surnam Carden. One of Carden's first actions was to hire a band, a move popular with the crew, but he did not get along with the first lieutenant David Hope.
In January 1812, Macedonian was ordered to secretly deliver some bills of exchange to Norfolk, Virginia and to bring back an equivalent quantity of gold and silver currency, as part of a scheme to keep the Bank of England solvent. During the visit, Carden socialised with the notables of Norfolk, including Captain Stephen Decatur, but bungled the mission by inadvertently revealing what was planned, and had to return to Lisbon empty handed. Captain Carden dined frequently with Decatur and his wife Susan and jokingly bet a beaver hat on the outcome of a battle of their ships. They had come to consider one another friends.
In September 1812, Macedonian was ordered to accompany an East Indiaman as far as Madeira, then to cruise in search of prizes as long as his supplies permitted.
Loss to USS United States
Macedonian left Madeira on 22 October 1812, but only a few days later, on the morning of 25 October, encountered , commanded by Carden's former dinner host Decatur. The United States had just declared war on the United Kingdom, and both captains were eager to achieve personal glory in a fight.
Unfortunately for Macedonian, United States was a 44-gun heavy frigate, and her broadside was of metal, versus Macedonians . USS United States hove round, turning downwind and making HMS Macedonian chase her. Within a few minutes of closing, fire from United Statess 24-pounder cannons brought down all three of Macedonians masts, and riddled the hull. United States then pulled away temporarily, leaving Carden and Hope time to contemplate their lack of options. Finally, with United States preparing to rake the British vessel again, Carden struck his colors, making Macedonian the second Royal Navy vessel to surrender to the Americans during the war.
As USS Macedonian
Decatur was careful to preserve Macedonian, sending over a detail to help repair her. This took a full two weeks. Decatur then brought the captured ship into Newport, Rhode Island as a prize on 4 December 1812, causing an immediate national sensation. had previously beaten , but Guerriere had been too badly damaged to save. Macedonian was a sizable and welcome addition to the then tiny US Navy.
Macedonian was immediately taken into the United States Navy, retaining the name as Macedonian under the command of Captain Jacob Jones.
Early in May after receiving needed repairs Macedonian, along with United States and the sloop hoped to make their way to sea from the anchorage of Staten Island by way of Sandy Hook but were because of the British Blockade, two ships of the line and three frigates guarding that passage Decatur, determined, took his squadron and crossing New York harbor made his way up the East River by way of Hell Gate, New York, 24 May 1813. While sailing along Long Island Sound on the night of 24 May the flagship United States was struck by lightning, causing damage to the main mast, which came crashing down and causing serious damage to the vessel. Macedonian, being close by, immediately distanced herself from the periled United States. After hasty repairs the fleet continued on their way eastward along the Sound. Because of unfavorable winds and a passage not favorable to heavy vessels, the fleet finally reached Montauk Point, the easternmost point of Long Island. The open sea was now before them but the British had blockading vessels there lying in wait. Outmatched, the fleet had no alternative but to turn back, making their way to the Thames River (Connecticut), where Macedonian and the rest of the fleet remained until the end of the war.
On 20 May 1815 she departed for the Mediterranean to join Commodore Decatur's 10-ship squadron in the Second Barbary War in Algeria, a renewal of naval action against the Barbary powers, to stop harassment of American shipping. On 17 June the frigate assisted in the capture of the Algerian flagship, the frigate Mashuda, by frigates and , the sloops-of-war and .
The signing of a treaty with Tunis and Tripoli on 7 August, following that with Algeria in June, won maritime freedom in the Mediterranean. The next three years Macedonian patrolled there and off the East Coast.
From January 1819 to March 1821 the frigate operated off the Pacific coast of South America, giving aid and protection to the commercial ships in the area during the disorders following the Latin American colonial revolts, before returning to Boston in June 1821.
During this period she worked as a banking ship, doing business with privateers of every kind. Captain Downes often kept his midshipmen and other trusted aides busy counting specie. Many deposits were made, with many single deposits of over 100,000.
The men complained bitterly about their treatment, writing of how they were forced to eat mealy grain while counting hundreds of thousands of dollars in specie. Many of the men felt that Captain Downes was doing this for the "good of the Captain" and wondered when they would be used for the purpose they joined the Navy for rather than for the Captain's personal enrichment.
On 2 April 1822 the Macedonian left Boston as part of Commodore James Biddle's West Indies Squadron. Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson had assigned the squadron to guard United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy. During their deployment seventy six of the Macedonian officers and men died. Seventy four of these deaths were by yellow fever. Biddle reported another fifty two of his crew were on sick-list. In their report to the Secretary of the Navy, Commodore Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Dr. Charles Chase state the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss Biddle noted his squadron was forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. The Macedonian crew upon arrival were provided medical care and quarantined at Craney Island
She next cruised in the West Indies, where she helped suppress piracy, into 1826.
On 11 June 1826 Macedonian departed Norfolk for service on the Pacific station, returning to Hampton Roads, 30 October 1828. She was decommissioned in 1828 and was broken up at the Norfolk Navy Yard. The crew for this final voyage included William Henry Leonard Poe, brother of American writer Edgar Allan Poe. HMS Macedonians captured ensign was on display at Mahan Hall at the U.S. Naval Academy, but was removed on 27 February 2018 for preservation.
See also
USS United States vs HMS Macedonian
List of frigate classes of the Royal Navy
List of ships captured in the 19th century
References
Bibliography
External links
Figurehead of the Macedonian at the U.S. Naval Academy
Radio-Controlled model with additional data and history.
Frigates of the Royal Navy
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
War of 1812 ships of the United States
War of 1812 ships of the United Kingdom
1810 ships
Ships built in Woolwich
Vessels captured by the United States Navy
Maritime incidents in 1811
Maritime incidents in 1812
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] |
201570
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Crisium
|
Mare Crisium
|
Mare Crisium (Latin crisium, the "Sea of Crises") is a lunar mare located in the Moon's Crisium basin, just northeast of Mare Tranquillitatis. The basin is of the Pre-Imbrian period, 4.55 to 3.85 billion years ago.
Characteristics
Mare Crisium is in diameter, and in area. It has a very flat floor, with a ring of wrinkle ridges (dorsa) toward its outer boundaries. These are Dorsa Tetyaev, Dorsum Oppel, Dorsum Termier, and Dorsa Harker. The cape-like feature protruding into the southeast of the mare is Promontorium Agarum. On the western rim of the mare is the palimpsest Yerkes, and Lick to the southeast is similar. The crater Picard is located just to the east of Yerkes, and northwest of Picard are the craters Peirce and Swift. The ray system of the crater Proclus overlie the northwestern mare. Mare Anguis can be seen northeast of Mare Crisium.
A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Crisium from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL.
Names
Like most of the other maria on the Moon, Mare Crisium was named by Giovanni Riccioli, whose 1651 nomenclature system has become standardized.
By the 17th century, Mare Crisium had acquired the name 'Caspian Sea', being labelled as such by Thomas Harriot, Pierre Gassendi and Michael Van Langren. Ewen A. Whitaker speculates that it received this name because it occupies roughly the same position on the Moon's face as does the Caspian Sea on Earth, with respect to maps of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. The English astronomer William Gilbert's map of c.1600 calls it 'Brittania' after Britain.
Observation and exploration
Mare Crisium is just visible from Earth with the naked eye as a small dark spot on the edge of the Moon's face.
It is the site of the crash-landing of Soviet Luna 15 probe in 1969. A soil sample from Mare Crisium was successfully brought to Earth on 22 August 1976 by the Soviet lunar mission Luna 24.
Views
References
External links
High resolution lunar overflight video by Seán Doran, based on LRO data, that passes near Mare Crisium (see album for more); a longer version that starts over the western margin of Mare Fecunditatis is on YouTube
Crisium
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Anattā
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In Buddhism, the term anattā (Pali) or anātman (Sanskrit) refers to the doctrine of "non-self" – that no unchanging, permanent self or essence can be found in any phenomenon. While often interpreted as a doctrine denying the existence of a self, anatman is more accurately described as a strategy to attain non-attachment by recognizing anything as impermanent, while staying silent on the ultimate existence of an unchanging essence. In contrast, Hinduism asserts the existence of Atman as pure consciousness or witness-consciousness, "reify[ing] consciousness as an eternal self."
Etymology and nomenclature
Anattā is a composite Pali word consisting of an (not, without) and attā (self-existent essence). The term refers to the central Buddhist concept that there is no phenomenon that has "self" or essence. It is one of the three characteristics of all existence, together with dukkha (suffering, dissatisfaction) and anicca (impermanence).
Anattā is synonymous with Anātman (an + ātman) in Sanskrit Buddhist texts. In some Pali texts, ātman of Vedic texts is also referred to with the term Attan, with the sense of soul. An alternate use of Attan or Atta is "self, oneself, essence of a person", driven by the Vedic era Brahmanical belief that atman is the permanent, unchangeable essence of a living being, or the true self.
In Buddhism-related English literature, Anattā is rendered as "not-Self", but this translation expresses an incomplete meaning, states Peter Harvey; a more complete rendering is "non-Self" because from its earliest days, Anattā doctrine denies that there is anything called a 'Self' in any person or anything else, and that a belief in 'Self' is a source of Dukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness). Buddhist scholar Richard Gombrich, however, argues that anattā is often mistranslated as meaning "not having a self or essence", but actually means "is not ātman" instead of "does not have ātman." It is also incorrect to translate Anattā simply as "ego-less", according to Peter Harvey, because the Indian concept of ātman and attā is different from the Freudian concept of ego.
Anattā in early Buddhism
In early Buddhist texts
The concept of Anattā appears in numerous Sutras of the ancient Buddhist Nikāya texts (Pali canon). It appears, for example, as a noun in Samyutta Nikaya III.141, IV.49, V.345, in Sutta II.37 of Anguttara Nikaya, II.37–45 and II.80 of Patisambhidamagga, III.406 of Dhammapada. It also appears as an adjective, for example, in Samyutta Nikaya III.114, III.133, IV.28 and IV.130–166, in Sutta III.66 and V.86 of Vinaya. It is also found in the Dhammapada.
The ancient Buddhist texts discuss Attā or Attan (self), sometimes with alternate terms such as Atuman, Tuma, Puggala, Jiva, Satta, Pana and Nama-rupa, thereby providing the context for the Buddhist Anattā doctrine. Examples of such Attā contextual discussions are found in Digha Nikaya I.186-187, Samyutta Nikaya III.179 and IV.54, Vinaya I.14, Majjhima Nikaya I.138, III.19, and III.265–271 and Anguttara Nikaya I.284. According to Steven Collins, the inquiry of anattā and "denial of self" in the canonical Buddhist texts is "insisted on only in certain theoretical contexts", while they use the terms atta, purisa, puggala quite naturally and freely in various contexts. The elaboration of the anattā doctrine, along with identification of the words such as "puggala" as "permanent subject or soul" appears in later Buddhist literature.
According to Collins, the Suttas present the doctrine in three forms. First, they apply the "no-self, no-identity" investigation to all phenomena as well as any and all objects, yielding the idea that "all things are not-self" (sabbe dhamma anattā). Second, states Collins, the Suttas apply the doctrine to deny self of any person, treating conceit to be evident in any assertion of "this is mine, this I am, this is myself" (etam mamam eso 'ham asmi, eso me atta ti). Third, the Theravada texts apply the doctrine as a nominal reference, to identify examples of "self" and "not-self", respectively the Wrong view and the Right view; this third case of nominative usage is properly translated as "self" (as an identity) and is unrelated to "soul", states Collins. The first two usages incorporate the idea of soul.
No denial of self
Buddhist scholars Richard Gombrich and Alexander Wynne argue that the Buddha's descriptions of non-self in early Buddhist texts do not deny that there is a self. Wynne and Gombrich both argue that the Buddha's statements on anattā were originally a "not-self" teaching that developed into a "no-self" teaching in later Buddhist thought. According to Wynne, early Buddhist texts such as the Anattālakkhana Sutta do not deny that there is a self, stating that the five aggregates that are described as not self are not descriptions of a human being but descriptions of the human experience. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, it is possible that "original Buddhism did not deny the existence of the soul", even though a firm Buddhist tradition has maintained that the Buddha avoided talking about the soul or even denied its existence.
Tibetologist André Migot states that original Buddhism may not have taught a complete absence of self, pointing to evidence presented by Buddhist and Pali scholars Jean Przyluski and Caroline Rhys Davids that early Buddhism generally believed in a self, making Buddhist schools that admit an existence of a "self" not heretical, but conservative, adhering to ancient beliefs. While there may be ambivalence on the existence or non-existence of self in early Buddhist literature, Bronkhorst suggests that these texts clearly indicate that the Buddhist path of liberation consists not in seeking Atman-like self-knowledge, but in turning away from what might erroneously be regarded as the self. This is a reverse position to the Vedic traditions which recognized the knowledge of the self as "the principal means to achieving liberation."
According to Harvey, the contextual use of Attā in Nikāyas is two sided. In one, it directly denies that anything can be found called a self or soul in a human being that is a permanent essence of a human being, a theme found in Brahmanical (Ancient Hindu) traditions. In another, states Peter Harvey, such as at Samyutta Nikaya IV.286, the Sutta considers the materialistic concept in pre-Buddhist Vedic times of "no afterlife, complete annihilation" at death to be a denial of Self, but still "tied up with belief in a Self". "Self exists" is a false premise, assert the early Buddhist texts. However, adds Peter Harvey, these texts do not admit the premise "Self does not exist" either because the wording presumes the concept of "Self" prior to denying it; instead, the early Buddhist texts use the concept of Anattā as the implicit premise.
Developing the self
According to Peter Harvey, while the Suttas criticize notions of an eternal, unchanging Self as baseless, they see an enlightened being as one whose empirical self is highly developed. This is paradoxical, states Harvey, in that "the Self-like nibbana state" is a mature self that knows "everything as Selfless". The "empirical self" is the citta (mind/heart, mindset, emotional nature), and the development of self in the Suttas is the development of this citta.
One with "great self", state the early Buddhist Suttas, has a mind which is neither at the mercy of outside stimuli nor its own moods, neither scattered nor diffused, but imbued with self-control, and self-contained towards the single goal of nibbana and a 'Self-like' state. This "great self" is not yet an Arahat, because he still does small evil action which leads to karmic fruition, but he has enough virtue that he does not experience this fruition in hell.
An Arahat, states Harvey, has a fully enlightened state of empirical self, one that lacks the "sense of both 'I am' and 'this I am'", which are illusions that the Arahat has transcended. The Buddhist thought and salvation theory emphasizes a development of self towards a Selfless state not only with respect to oneself, but recognizing the lack of relational essence and Self in others, wherein states Martijn van Zomeren, "self is an illusion".
Karma, rebirth and anattā
The Buddha emphasized both karma and anattā doctrines. The Buddha criticized the doctrine that posited an unchanging essence as a subject as the basis of rebirth and karmic moral responsibility, which he called "atthikavāda". He also criticized the materialistic doctrine that denied the existence of both soul and rebirth, and thereby denied karmic moral responsibility, which he calls "natthikavāda". Instead, the Buddha asserted that there is no essence, but there is rebirth for which karmic moral responsibility is a must. In the Buddha's framework of karma, right view and right actions are necessary for liberation.
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism all assert a belief in rebirth, and emphasize moral responsibility in a way different from pre-Buddhist materialistic schools of Indian philosophies. The materialistic schools of Indian philosophies, such as Charvaka, are called annihilationist schools because they posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and death is that state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved.
Buddha criticized the materialistic annihilationism view that denied rebirth and karma, states Damien Keown. Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because they encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism. Anattā does not mean there is no afterlife, no rebirth or no fruition of karma, and Buddhism contrasts itself to annihilationist schools. Buddhism also contrasts itself to other Indian religions that champion moral responsibility but posit eternalism with their premise that within each human being there is an essence or eternal soul, and this soul is part of the nature of a living being, existence and metaphysical reality.
Anattā in Theravada Buddhism
Traditional views
Theravada Buddhism scholars, states Oliver Leaman, consider the Anattā doctrine as one of the main theses of Buddhism. The Buddhist denial of a self is what distinguishes Buddhism from major religions of the world such as Christianity and Hinduism, giving it uniqueness, asserts the Theravada tradition. With the doctrine of Anattā, stands or falls the entire Buddhist structure, asserts Nyanatiloka Mahathera.
According to Collins, "insight into the teaching of anattā is held to have two major loci in the intellectual and spiritual education of an individual" as s/he progresses along the Path. The first part of this insight is to avoid sakkayaditthi (Personality Belief), that is converting the "sense of I which is gained from introspection and the fact of physical individuality" into a theoretical belief in a self. "A belief in a (really) existing body" is considered a false belief and a part of the Ten Fetters that must be gradually lost. The second loci is the psychological realization of anattā, or loss of "pride or conceit". This, states Collins, is explained as the conceit of asmimana or "I am"; (...) what this "conceit" refers to is the fact that for the unenlightened man, all experience and action must necessarily appear phenomenologically as happening to or originating from an "I". When a Buddhist gets more enlightened, this happening to or originating in an "I" or sakkdyaditthi is less. The final attainment of enlightenment is the disappearance of this automatic but illusory "I".
The Theravada tradition has long considered the understanding and application of the Anattā doctrine to be a complex teaching, whose "personal, introjected application has always been thought to be possible only for the specialist, the practising monk". The tradition, states Collins, has "insisted fiercely on anattā as a doctrinal position", while in practice it may not play much of a role in the daily religious life of most Buddhists. The Theravada doctrine of Anattā, or not-self not-soul, inspire meditative practices for monks, states Donald Swearer, but for the lay Theravada Buddhists in Southeast Asia, the doctrines of kamma, rebirth and punna (merit) inspire a wide range of ritual practices and ethical behavior.
The Anattā doctrine is key to the concept of Nibbana in the Theravada tradition. The liberated nirvana state, states Collins, is the state of Anattā, a state that is neither universally applicable nor can be explained, but can be realized.
Current disputes
The dispute about "self" and "not-self" doctrines has continued throughout the history of Buddhism. In Thai Buddhism, for example, states Paul Williams, some modern era Buddhist scholars have claimed that "Nirvana is indeed the true self", while other Thai Buddhists disagree. For instance, the Dhammakaya tradition in Thailand teaches that it is erroneous to subsume nirvana under the rubric of anattā (non-self); instead, nirvana is taught to be the "true self" or dhammakaya. The Dhammakaya tradition teaching that nirvana is atta, or true self, was criticized as heretical in Buddhism in 1994 by Ven. Payutto, a well-known scholar monk, who stated that 'Buddha taught Nibbana as being non-self". The abbot of one major temple in the Dhammakaya tradition, Luang Por Sermchai of Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram, argues that it tends to be scholars who hold the view of absolute non-self, rather than Buddhist meditation practitioners. He points to the experiences of prominent forest hermit monks such as Luang Pu Sodh and Ajahn Mun to support the notion of a "true self". Similar interpretations on the "true self" were put forth earlier by the 12th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand in 1939. According to Williams, the Supreme Patriarch's interpretation echoes the tathāgatagarbha sutras.
Several notable teachers of the Thai Forest Tradition have also described ideas in contrast to absolute non-self. Ajahn Maha Bua, a well known meditation master, described the citta (mind) as being an indestructible reality that does not fall under anattā. He has stated that not-self is merely a perception that is used to pry one away from infatuation with the concept of a self, and that once this infatuation is gone the idea of not-self must be dropped as well. American monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu of the Thai Forest Tradition describes the Buddha's statements on non-self as a path to awakening rather than a universal truth. Bhikkhu Bodhi authored a rejoinder to Thanissaro, agreeing that anattā is a strategy for awakening but stating that "The reason the teaching of anattā can serve as a strategy of liberation is precisely because it serves to rectify a misconception about the nature of being, hence an ontological error." Thanissaro Bhikkhu states that the Buddha intentionally set aside the question of whether or not there is a self as a useless question, and goes on to call the phrase "there is no self" the "granddaddy of fake Buddhist quotes". He points out that clinging to the idea that there is no self at all would actually prevent enlightenment. Thanissaro Bhikkhu points to the Ananda Sutta (SN 44.10), where the Buddha stays silent when asked whether there is a 'self' or not, as a major cause of the dispute.
Anātman in Mahayana Buddhism
Anātman is one of the main bedrock doctrines of Buddhism, and its discussion is found in the later texts of all Buddhist traditions.
There are many different views of anātman (; Japanese: 無我 muga; Korean: 무아 mu-a) within various Mahayana schools.
The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion of "emptiness" (śūnyatā) to anātman and nirvana. They do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: first, in the common sense of a monk's meditative state of emptiness; second, with the main sense of anātman or 'everything in the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense of Nirvana or realization of emptiness and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering. The anātman doctrine is another aspect of śūnyatā, its realization is the nature of the nirvana state and to an end to rebirths.
Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna, the founder of Madhyamaka (middle way) school of Mahayana Buddhism, analyzed dharma first as factors of experience. He, states David Kalupahana, analyzed how these experiences relate to "bondage and freedom, action and consequence", and thereafter analyzed the notion of personal self (ātman).
The Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna (~200 CE), extensively wrote about rejecting the metaphysical entity called ātman (self, soul), asserting in chapter 18 of his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā that there is no such substantial entity and that "Buddha taught the doctrine of no-self".
Nāgārjuna asserted that the notion of a self is associated with the notion of one's own identity and corollary ideas of pride, selfishness and a sense of psychophysical personality. This is all false, and leads to bondage in his Madhyamaka thought. There can be no pride nor possessiveness, in someone who accepts anātman and denies "self" which is the sense of personal identity of oneself, others or anything, states Nāgārjuna. Further, all obsessions are avoided when a person accepts emptiness (śūnyatā). Nāgārjuna denied there is anything called a self-nature as well as other-nature, emphasizing true knowledge to be comprehending emptiness. Anyone who has not dissociated from their belief in personality in themselves or others, through the concept of self, is in a state of avidya (ignorance) and caught in the cycle of rebirths and redeaths.
Yogācāra
The texts attributed to the 5th-century Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu of the Yogācāra school similarly discuss anātman as a fundamental premise of the Buddha. The Vasubandhu interpretations of no-self thesis were challenged by the 7th-century Buddhist scholar Candrakīrti, who then offered his own theories on its importance.
Tathāgatagarbha Sutras: Buddha is True Self
Some 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts suggest concepts that have been controversial because they imply a "self-like" concept. In particular are the tathāgatagarbha sūtras, where the title itself means a garbha (womb, matrix, seed) containing Tathāgata (Buddha). These Sutras suggest, states Paul Williams, that "all sentient beings contain a Tathagata" as their "essence, core or essential inner nature". The tathāgatagarbha doctrine, at its earliest probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE. Most scholars consider the tathāgatagarbha doctrine of an "essential nature" in every living being is equivalent to "self", and it contradicts the anātman doctrines in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading scholars to posit that the tathāgatagarbha sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.
The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra explicitly asserts that the Buddha used the term "self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. The Ratnagotravibhāga (also known as Uttaratantra), another text composed in the first half of 1st millennium CE and translated into Chinese in 511 CE, points out that the teaching of the tathāgatagarbha doctrine is intended to win sentient beings over to abandoning "self-love" (atma-sneha) – considered to be one of the defects by Buddhism. The 6th-century Chinese tathāgatagarbha translation states that "Buddha has shiwo (true self) which is beyond being and nonbeing". However, the Ratnagotravibhāga asserts that the "self" implied in tathāgatagarbha doctrine is actually "not-self".
According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in these sutras does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language and expression of śūnyatā "emptiness" and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. Other scholars do in fact detect leanings towards monism in these tathagatagarbha references. Michael Zimmermann sees the notion of an unperishing and eternal self in the Tathagatagarbha Sutra. Zimmermann also avers that "the existence of an eternal, imperishable self, that is, buddhahood, is definitely the basic point of the Tathāgatagarbha Sutra". He further indicates that there is no evident interest found in this sutra in the idea of Emptiness (sunyata). Williams states that the "self" in tathāgatagarbha sutras is actually "non-self", and neither identical nor comparable to the Hindu concepts of brahman and self.
Vajrayāna
The anātman doctrine is extensively discussed in and partly inspires the ritual practices of the Vajrayāna tradition. The Tibetan terms such as bdag med refer to "without a self, insubstantial, anātman". These discussions, states Jeffrey Hopkins, assert the "non-existence of a permanent, unitary and independent self", and attribute these ideas to the Buddha.
The ritual practices in Vajrayāna Buddhism employs the concept of deities, to end self-grasping, and to manifest as a purified, enlightened deity as part of the Vajrayāna path to liberation from rebirths. One such deity is goddess Nairatmya (literally, non-soul, non-self). She symbolizes, states Miranda Shaw, that "self is an illusion" and "all beings and phenomenal appearances lack an abiding self or essence" in Vajrayāna Buddhism.
Difference between Buddhism and Hinduism
Atman in Hinduism
The Buddhist concept of anattā or anātman is one of the fundamental differences between mainstream Buddhism and mainstream Hinduism, with the latter asserting that ātman (self, soul) exists.
In Hinduism, Atman refers to the essence of human beings, the observing pure consciousness or witness-consciousness. It is unaffected by ego, distinct from the individual being (jivanatman) embedded in material reality, and characterized by Ahamkara ('I-making'), mind (citta, manas), and all the defiling kleshas (impurities). Embodied personality changes over time, while Atman doesn't.
According to Jayatilleke, the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed Atman, but nevertheless assumes its existence, and Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self." In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence" states Jayatilleke. According to Harvey, in Buddhism the negation of temporal existents is applied even more rigorous than in the Upanishads:
Both Buddhism and Hinduism distinguish ego-related "I am, this is mine", from their respective abstract doctrines of "Anattā" and "Atman". This, states Peter Harvey, may have been an influence of Buddhism on Hinduism.
Anatman and Niratman
The term niratman appears in the Maitrayaniya Upanishad of Hinduism, such as in verses 6.20, 6.21 and 7.4. Niratman literally means "selfless". The niratman concept has been interpreted to be analogous to anatman of Buddhism. The ontological teachings, however, are different. In the Upanishad, states Thomas Wood, numerous positive and negative descriptions of various states – such as niratman and sarvasyatman (the self of all) – are used in Maitrayaniya Upanishad to explain the nondual concept of the "highest Self". According to Ramatirtha, states Paul Deussen, the niratman state discussion is referring to stopping the recognition of oneself as an individual soul, and reaching the awareness of universal soul or the metaphysical Brahman.
Correspondence in Pyrrhonism
The Greek philosopher Pyrrho traveled to India as part of Alexander the Great's entourage where he was influenced by the Indian gymnosophists, which inspired him to create the philosophy of Pyrrhonism. Philologist Christopher Beckwith has demonstrated that Pyrrho based his philosophy on his translation of the three marks of existence into Greek, and that adiaphora (not logically differentiable, not clearly definable, negating Aristotle's use of "diaphora") reflects Pyrrho's understanding of the Buddhist concept of anattā.
See also
Ahamkara
Anicca
Asceticism
Atman (Buddhism)
Atman (Hinduism)
Dukkha
Enlightenment (religious)
Jiva
Nirvana
Non-essentialism
Mahaparinirvana Sutra
Ship of Theseus - a related view in ancient Greek philosophy
Skandhas
Tathagatagarbha
Teletransportation paradox
Notes
References
Sources
Dalai Lama (1997), Healing Anger: The Power of Patience from a Buddhist Perspective. Translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa. Snow Lion Publications. Source: (accessed: Sunday March 25, 2007)
K. R. Norman (1981), A Note on Attā in the Alagaddūpama Sutta. Studies in Indian Philosophy LD Series, 84 – 1981
External links
Nirvana Sutra, Kosho Yamamoto's English translation of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
Buddhist philosophical concepts
Self
Nondualism
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201573
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Tranquillitatis
|
Mare Tranquillitatis
|
Mare Tranquillitatis (Latin tranquillitātis, the Sea of Tranquillity or Sea of Tranquility; see spelling differences) is a lunar mare that sits within the Tranquillitatis basin on the Moon. It is the first location on another world to be visited by humans.
The mare material within the basin consists of basalt formed in the intermediate to young age group of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The surrounding mountains are thought to be of the Lower Imbrian epoch, but the actual basin is probably Pre-Nectarian. The basin has irregular margins and lacks a defined multiple-ringed structure. The irregular topography in and near this basin results from the intersection of the Tranquillitatis, Nectaris, Crisium, Fecunditatis, and Serenitatis basins with two throughgoing rings of the Procellarum basin. Palus Somni, on the northeastern rim of the mare, is filled with the basalt that spilled over from Tranquillitatis.
This mare has a slight bluish tint relative to the rest of the Moon and stands out quite well when color is processed and extracted from
multiple photographs. The color is likely due to higher metal content in the basaltic soil or rocks.
Unlike many other maria, there is no mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, in the center of Mare Tranquillitatis. Mascons were identified in the center of other maria (such as Serenitatis or Imbrium) from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The gravity field was mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL, which unveiled an irregular pattern.
Naming
Mare Tranquillitatis was named in 1651 by astronomers Francesco Grimaldi and Giovanni Battista Riccioli in their lunar map Almagestum novum.
Michael van Langren, in his Lumina Austriaca Philippica of 1645, used the name "Mare Belgicum".
Landings
On February 20, 1965, the Ranger 8 spacecraft was deliberately crashed into the Mare Tranquillitatis at after successfully transmitting 7,137 close-range photographs of the Moon in the final 23 minutes of its mission.
Surveyor 5 landed in Mare Tranquillitatis on September 11, 1967, after transmitting 19,118 images of the Moon, and was the fifth lunar lander of the unmanned Surveyor program.
Apollo
Mare Tranquillitatis was the landing site for the first manned landing on the Moon on July 20, 1969, at 20:18 UTC. After astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made a soft landing in the Apollo 11 Lunar Module nicknamed Eagle, Armstrong told flight controllers on Earth, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." The landing area at has been designated Statio Tranquillitatis after Armstrong's name for it, and three small craters to the north of the base have been named Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong in honor of the Apollo 11 crew.
Apollo 11 landed at .
Bays
Along the periphery of the mare are several bay-shaped features that have been given names: Sinus Amoris, Sinus Asperitatis,
Sinus Concordiae, and Sinus Honoris.
Views
These are three views of Mare Tranquillitatis on the Moon, taken by the mapping camera of the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, facing south-southwest from an average altitude of 111 km on Revolution 36 of the mission. At the left is the east side of Mare Tranquillitatis, with the craters Franz (bottom right), Lyell (dark floor, right of center), and Taruntius (upper left). The "bay" of dark mare (basalt) at left is Sinus Concordiae, with "islands" of older, light highland material. At the right is the crater Cauchy, which lies between the Rupes Cauchy and Cauchy rille. The center photo shows the central mare with craters Vitruvius (lower right) and Gardner (bottom center). At the horizon are lighter highlands at the southern margin of the mare, near the Apollo 11 landing site. The crater Jansen is visible at the edges of both the center and right photos. The right photo shows the western mare, with the craters Dawes (lower left) and the large Plinius (43 km diameter), with the Plinius Rilles in the foreground. These photos were taken within minutes of each other as the command module America orbited the Moon. The Sun elevation drops from 46 degrees at left to 30 degrees at right.
In popular culture
In DC Comics, the Justice League's Watchtower is in the Sea of Tranquility.
Israeli psych-progressive rock band Jericho Jones recorded a song named "Mare Tranquilitatas" as the opening track of their UK album release (1971) Junkies, Monkeys & Donkeys. The band is also known as The Churchills.
"Mare Tranquillitatis" is the name of a composition of music by composer Vangelis on his 1976 album, Albedo 0.39 and is in reference to the selenographical term.
"Sea of Tranquility" is also a song by the progressive English rock band Barclay James Harvest, included in their 1977 album Gone to Earth. The composition was written by the band keyboardist Stuart "Woolly" Wolstenholme.
American singer-songwriter Tommy Shaw (best known for his work with the rock band Styx) is associated with a number of references to the Sea of Tranquility. Tranquility Base Songs is his publishing company. He called his farm Tranquility Base Farms. A number of his songs mention Tranquility Base or simply "tranquility." Examples include: "Boat on the River", "And all roads lead to Tranquility Base" (from the 1979 album Cornerstone), "Everything Is Cool" – "We are a Sea of Tranquillity" (from the 1999 album Brave New World), and "These Are the Times" – "We know the end will bring tranquility" (from the 2003 album Cyclorama).
Sea of Tranquillity is the title of a 1994 novel by Paul Russell.
Six Finger Satellite included a song named "Sea of Tranquility, Parts 1 & 2" from their 1998 album Law of Ruins.
The Dutch stoner rock/space rock band 35007 released a 2001 EP named Sea of Tranquility.
Dutch producer Maarten van der Vleuten/In-Existence released a song titled "Mare Tranquillitatis" on his album Vow Of Silence released on Tonefloat in 2005.
Howard Korder wrote a play called Sea of Tranquility.
The Brazilian rock band from the 80s RPM mentions the Sea of Tranquillity in their hit song "Radio Pirata".
"Sea of Tranquillity" is a song by space ambient artist, John Stanford.
The Sea of Tranquility is the name of a book by Mark Haddon, author of the best-selling The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time.
The Sea of Tranquility is the name of a book by Katja Millay.
Transmissions from The Sea of Tranquility is the name of the album by The Samples, released September 30, 1997.
The Houston, Texas based progressive metal band Galactic Cowboys recorded a song named "Sea of Tranquility" as the sixth track on their 1991 self-titled debut album.
The hardcore punk band Jeromes Dream released a song called "Remember the Sea of Tranquility on their split 7" with Usurp Synapse.
In the 1987 film Can't Buy Me Love, Ronald Miller (played by Patrick Dempsey) describes the Sea of Tranquility to Cindy Mancini (played by Amanda Peterson) while viewing it through a telescope on their final date.
In the anime Log Horizon 2, Mare Tranquillitatis is the name of the sea inside the dimension where characters go when they die.
"Mare Tranquillitatis" is the name of a 2016 song by Adam Young.
Sea of Tranquility appears in chapter 78 of Life of Pi by Yann Martel.
In Touhou 15, Legacy of Lunatic Kingdom, Mare Tranquillitatis is the setting of the final two stages of the game.
In the Alien franchise of movies, Weyland-Yutani (Often referred to as "The company") has a major corporate headquarters in the Sea of Tranquility. (Mentioned in the 1979 film Alien as seen on the opening screen of the "Mother" computer, among other sources)
"Sea of Tranquility" is a name of a song by Siouxsie on her album Mantaray.
In the book Artemis, the city Artemis is located in the Sea of Tranquility, just north of the Moltke Foothills. The Apollo 11 Visitor Center and reactor/smelter complex is also located in the Sea of Tranquility, 40 and 1 km north and south of Artemis respectively.
In John Adams' opera Nixon in China, Act 1 Scene 1, Richard Nixon references "the Earth's Sea of Tranquility".
In the Power Rangers' tenth anniversary special Forever Red, Lord Zedd's Zord of Serpentera is stated to be located in the Sea of Tranquility, which is where the last known remnants of the Machine Empire have based themselves, digging Serpentera up and planning to use it to destroy Earth in revenge for the death of their leader, King Mondo.
Tranquility Base Hotel and Casino is a 2018 album and single by Arctic Monkeys. The name is a reference to Tranquility Base, located within the Sea of Tranquility.
In Season 1 of Space Force, China lays claim to the entire Sea of Tranquility.
2021 South Korean Netflix series The Silent Sea is named after Mare Tranquilitatis.
Gallery
See also
Lists of astronomical objects
References
Tranquillitatis
Apollo 11
Tranquillitatis
Tranquillitatis
Articles containing video clips
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201574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polisario%20Front
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Polisario Front
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The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, FRELISARIO or simply POLISARIO, from the Spanish abbreviation of (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro), (in , in ), is a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara.
Tracing its origin to a Sahrawi nationalist organization known as the Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab, the Polisario Front was formally constituted in 1973 with the intention of launching an armed struggle against the Spanish occupation which lasted until 1975, when the Spanish decided to allow Mauritania and Morocco to partition and occupy the territory. The Polisario Front waged a war to drive out the two armies. It forced Mauritania to relinquish its claim over Western Sahara in 1979 and continued its military campaign against Morocco until the 1991 ceasefire, pending the holding of a UN-backed referendum which has been consistently postponed ever since. In 2020 the Polisario Front declared the ceasefire over and resumed armed conflict.
The United Nations considers the Polisario Front to be the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people and maintains that the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination. The Polisario Front is outlawed in the parts of Western Sahara under Moroccan control, and it is illegal to raise its party flag (often called the Sahrawi flag) there. It is a consultative member of the Socialist International.
History
Beginnings
In 1971 a group of young Moroccan students in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro.
After attempting in vain to gain backing from several Arab governments, including both Algeria and Morocco, but only drawing faint notices of support from Libya and Mauritania, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Spanish Sahara to start an armed rebellion.
The Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 at Ain Bentili by several Sahrawi university students, survivors of the 1968 massacres at Zouerate and some Sahrawi men who had served in the Spanish Army. They called themselves the Constituent Congress of the Polisario Front.
On May 1st 1977, the Polisario raided the city of Zouerate, Mauritania, kidnapping six French iron mining technicians and killing 2 civilians. the Polisario abducted two more civilians in October. They were freed in December.
Its first Secretary General was Brahim Gali. On 20 May, the new organization attacked El-Khanga, where there was a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas (Sahrawi-staffed auxiliary forces), which was overrun and rifles seized. Polisario then gradually gained control over large swaths of desert countryside, and its power grew from early 1975 when the Tropas Nomadas began deserting to the Polisario, bringing weapons and training with them. At this point, Polisario's manpower included perhaps 800 men and women, but they were suspected of being backed by a much larger network of supporters.
A UN visiting mission, headed by Simeon Aké, that was conducted in June 1975 concluded that Sahrawi support for independence (as opposed to Spanish rule or integration with a neighbouring country) amounted to an "overwhelming consensus" and that the Polisario Front was the most powerful political force in the country. With Algeria's help, Polisario set up headquarters in Tindouf.
Withdrawal of Spain
After Moroccan pressures through the Green March of 6 November and the Royal Moroccan Army's previous invasion of eastern Saguia el-Hamra of 31 October, Spain entered negotiations that led to the signing of the Madrid Accords whereby Spain ceded Spanish Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania; in 1976 Morocco took over Saguia El Hamra and Mauritania took control of Río de Oro. The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) on 27 February 1976, and waged a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The International Court of Justice at The Hague had issued its verdict on the former Spanish colony just weeks before, which each party interpreted as confirming its right to the disputed territory.
The Polisario kept up the guerrilla war while they simultaneously had to help guard the columns of Sahrawi refugees fleeing, but after the air bombings by the Royal Moroccan Air Force on improvised Sahrawi refugee camps in Umm Dreiga, Tifariti, Guelta Zemmur and Amgala, the Front had to relocate the refugees to Tindouf (western region of Algeria). For the next two years the movement grew tremendously as Sahrawi refugees continued flocking to the camps and Algeria and Libya supplied arms and funding. Within months, its army had expanded to several thousand armed fighters, camels were replaced by modern jeeps (most of them were Spanish Land Rover Santana jeeps, captured from Moroccan soldiers), and 19th-century muskets were replaced by assault rifles. The reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerrilla-style hit-and-run attacks against opposing forces in Western Sahara and in Morocco and Mauritania proper.
Withdrawal of Mauritania
A comprehensive peace treaty was signed on 5 August 1979, in which the new Mauritanian government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara and relinquished its own claims. Mauritania withdrew all its forces, and later formally recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, causing a massive rupture in relations with Morocco. The area of Western Sahara evacuated by Mauritania (Tiris al-Gharbiya, roughly corresponding to the southern half of Río de Oro), was annexed by Morocco in August 1979.
Moroccan wall stalemates the war
From the mid-1980s Morocco largely managed to keep Polisario troops off by building a huge berm or sand wall (the Moroccan Wall), staffed by an army, enclosing within it the economically useful parts of Western Sahara (Bou Craa, El-Aaiun, Smara, etc.) This stalemated the war, with no side able to achieve decisive gains, but artillery strikes and sniping attacks by the Polisario continued, and Morocco was economically and politically strained by the war. Today Polisario controls the part of the Western Sahara on the east of the Moroccan Wall.
Ceasefire and the referendum process
A ceasefire between the Polisario Front and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO (UN), has been in effect since 6 September 1991, on the promise of a referendum on independence the following year. However, the referendum stalled over disagreements on voter rights. Numerous attempts to restart the process (most significantly the launching of the 2003 Baker Plan) seem to have failed.
In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007, and quickly gained French and US support. Polisario had handed in its own proposal the day before, which insisted on the previously agreed referendum, but allowed for negotiating the status of Moroccans now living in the territory should the outcome of a referendum be in favor of independence. This led to the negotiations process known as the Manhasset negotiations.
Four rounds were held in 2007 and 2008; no progress was made, however, as both parties refused to compromise about what they considered core sovereignty issues. Polisario agreed to add autonomy as per the Moroccan proposal to a referendum ballot, but refused to relinquish the concept of an independence referendum itself, as agreed in 1991 and 1997. Morocco, in its turn, insisted on only negotiating the terms of autonomy offered, but refused to consider an option of independence on the ballot.
The 30-year cease-fire between Morocco and Polisario Front was broken in November 2020 as the government tried to open a road in the Guerguerat buffer zone near the border with Mauritania.
Sahrawi self-determination activist Sultana Khaya, who has been accused by Moroccan authorities of being a "supporter of violence" with the Polisario, has been under de facto house arrest since November 2020, subject to repeated home raids and sexual assault by Moroccan security forces, as reported by a number of international human rights organizations.
Political ideology
The Polisario is first and foremost a nationalist organization, whose main goal is the independence of Western Sahara. It has stated that ideological disputes should be left for a future democratic Western Sahara to deal with. It views itself as a "front" encompassing all political trends in Sahrawi society, and not as a political party. As a consequence, there is no party program. However, the Sahrawi republic's constitution gives a hint of the movement's ideological context: in the early 1970s, Polisario adopted a vaguely socialist rhetoric, in line with most national liberation movements of the time, but this was eventually abandoned in favor of a non-politicized Sahrawi nationalism. By the late 1970s, references to socialism in the republic's constitution were removed, and by 1991, the Polisario was explicitly pro-free market.
The Polisario has stated that it will, when Sahrawi self-determination has been achieved, either function as a party within the context of a multi-party system, or be completely disbanded. This is to be decided by a Polisario Front congress upon the achievement of Western Sahara's independence.
Attitudes to armed struggle
The Polisario Front has denounced terrorism and attacks against civilians, and sent condolences to Morocco after the 2003 Casablanca bombings. It describes its struggle as a "clean war of national liberation". Since 1989, when the ceasefire was first concluded, the movement has stated it will pursue its goal of Western Sahara's independence by peaceful means as long as Morocco complies with the ceasefire conditions, which include arranging a referendum on independence, while reserving the right to resume armed struggle if terms are objectively breached, for example, if the referendum is not conducted. Mohamed Abdelaziz has repeatedly stated that the Moroccan withdrawal from the 1991 Settlement Plan and refusal to sign the 2003 Baker Plan would logically lead to war from its perspective if the international community does not step in.
In contrast, Polisario-Mauritanian relations following a peace treaty in 1979 and the recognition of the SADR by Mauritania in 1984, with the latter's retreat from Western Sahara, have been quiet and generally neutral without reports of armed clashes from either side.
The series of protests and riots in 2005 by Sahrawis in "the occupied territories" received strong vocal support from Polisario as a new pressure point on Morocco. Abdelaziz characterized them as a substitute path for the armed struggle, and indicated that if peaceful protest was squashed, in its view, without a referendum forthcoming, its armed forces would intervene.
Relations with Algeria
Algeria has shown an unconditional support for the Polisario Front since 1975, delivering arms, training, financial aid, and food, without interruption for more than 30 years. In 1976, Algeria called the Moroccan takeover of Western Sahara a "'slow murderous' invasion against spirited fighting by Sahara guerrillas.
Structure
Organizational background
Until 1991, the Polisario Front's structure was much different from the present one. It was, despite a few changes, inherited from the before 1975, when the Polisario Front functioned as a small, tightly-knit guerrilla movement, with a few hundred members. Consequently, it made few attempts at a division of powers, instead concentrating most of the decision-making power in the top echelons of Polisario for maximum battlefield efficiency. This meant that most power rested in the hands of the Secretary General and a nine-man executive committee, elected at congresses and with different military and political responsibilities. A 21-man Politburo would further check decisions and connect the movement with its affiliated "mass organizations", UGTSARIO, UJSARIO and UNMS (see below).
But after the movement took on the role as a state-in-waiting in 1975, based in the refugee camps in Tindouf, Algeria, this structure proved incapable of dealing with its vastly expanded responsibilities. As a consequence, the old military structure was wedded to the new grass-roots refugee camp administration which had asserted itself in Tindouf, with its system of committees and elected camp assemblies. In 1976, the situation was further complicated by the Sahrawi Republic assuming functions of government in the camps and Polisario-held territories of Western Sahara. The SADR and Polisario institutions often overlapped, and their division of power was often hard to ascertain.
A more comprehensive merger of these different organizational patterns (military organization/refugee camps/SADR) was not achieved until the 1991 congress, when both the Polisario and SADR organizations were overhauled, integrated into the camp structure and further separated from each other. This followed protests calling for expanding the internal democracy of the movement, and also led to important shifts of personnel in the top tiers of both Polisario and SADR.
Present structure
The organizational order described below applies today, and was roughly finalized in the 1991 internal reforms of the movement, although minor changes have been made since then.
The Polisario Front is led by a Secretary General. The first Secretary General was Brahim Gali, replaced in 1974 by El-Ouali at the II Congress of the Polisario Front, followed by Mahfoud Ali Beiba as Interim Secretary General upon his death. In 1976, Mohamed Abdelaziz was elected at the III Congress of the Polisario, and held the post until his death in 2016. The Secretary General is elected by the General Popular Congress (GPC), regularly convened every four years. The GPC is composed of delegates from the Popular Congresses of the refugee camps in Tindouf, which are held biannually in each camp, and of delegates from the women's organization (UNMS), youth organization (UJSARIO), workers' organization (UGTSARIO) and military delegates from the SPLA (see below).
All residents of the camps have a vote in the Popular Congresses, and participate in the administrative work in the camp through base-level 11-person cells, which form the smallest unit of the refugee camp political structure. These typically care for distribution of food, water and schooling in their area, joining in higher-level organs (encompassing several camp quarters) to cooperate and establish distribution chains. There is no formal membership of Polisario; instead, anyone who participates in its work or lives in the refugee camps is considered a member.
Between congresses, the supreme decision-making body is the National Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General. The NS is elected by the GPC. It is subdivided into committees handling defense, diplomatic affairs, etc. The 2003 NS, elected at the 11th GPC in Tifariti, Western Sahara, has 41 members. Twelve of these are secret delegates from the Moroccan-controlled areas of Western Sahara. This is a shift in policy, as the Polisario traditionally confined political appointments to diaspora Sahrawis, for fear of infiltration and difficulties in communicating with Sahrawis in the Moroccan-controlled territories. It is probably intended to strengthen the movement's underground network in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara, and link up with the rapidly growing Sahrawi civil rights activism.
In 2004, an anti-ceasefire and anti-Abdelaziz opposition fraction, the Front Polisario Khat al-Shahid announced its existence, in the first break with the principle of "national unity" (i.e., working in one single organization to prevent internal conflict). It calls for reforms in the movement, as well as resumption of hostilities with Morocco. But it remains of little importance to the conflict, as the group had split in two factions, and Polisario has refused dialogs with it, stating that political decisions must be taken within the established political system.
Armed forces (SPLA)
Defections
Since the end of the 1980s, several members of the Polisario have decided to discontinue their military or political activities for the Polisario Front. Most of them returned from the Sahrawi refugee camps in Algeria to Morocco, among them a few founder members and senior officials. Some of them are now actively promoting Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara, which Morocco considers its Southern Provinces.
Foreign relations
Today 38 countries around the world recognize the legitimacy of the Polisario over Western Sahara. Support for the Polisario Front came mostly from newly independent African states, including Angola and Namibia. Most of the Arab world had supported Morocco; only Algeria and Libya have, at different times, given any significant support to Polisario. Iran recognized the SADR in 1980, Mauritania had recognized the SADR in 1984, and Syria and South Yemen had supported the Polisario position on the conflict when they were all members of the Front of Refusal. Additionally, many third world non-aligned countries have supported the Polisario Front. Ties with Fretilin of East Timor (occupied by Indonesia in 1975) were exceptionally strong and remain so after that country's independence; both Polisario and Fretilin have argued that there are numerous historical parallels between the two conflicts.
The movement's main political and military backers were originally Algeria and Libya, with Cuba coming a very distant third. Mauritania also attempts to avoid involvement and to balance between Morocco and Polisario's backers in Algeria, although it formally recognizes the SADR as Western Sahara's government since 1984 and has a substantial Sahrawi refugee population (around 30,000) on its territory. Support from Algeria remains strong, despite the country's preoccupation with its own civil war. The Polisario is practically dependent on its bases and refugee camps, located on Algerian soil. While Sahrawis' right to wage an armed struggle against Morocco, and has helped to equip the SPLA, the government also seems to have barred Polisario from returning to armed struggle after 1991, attempting to curry favor from the US and France and to avoid inflaming its already poor relations with Morocco.
Apart from the Algerian military, material and humanitarian aid, food and emergency resources are provided by international organizations such as the WHO and UNHCR. Valuable contributions also come from the strong Spanish solidarity organizations.
Western Sahara in the Cold War
The most intense open warfare in the conflict in Western Sahara occurred during the Cold War. However, the conflict was never fully dragged into the American–Soviet dynamics like many other conflicts. This was mainly because both sides tried to avoid overt involvement, which would necessitate a crash in relations with either Morocco or Algeria – the major North African players – and because neither viewed it as an important front. Morocco was firmly entrenched in the US camp, whereas Algeria aligned generally with the Soviet Union during the 1970s, and took a more independent "third-worldist" position after that.
The United States claimed political neutrality on the issue, but militarily backed Morocco against Polisario during the Cold War, especially during the Reagan administration. Despite this, Polisario never received counter-support from the Soviet Union (or the People's Republic of China, the third and junior player in the Cold War). Instead, the entire Eastern Bloc decided in favor of ties and trade with Morocco and refused to recognize the SADR. This made the Polisario almost wholly dependent mainly on Algeria and Libya and some African and Latin American third world countries for political support, plus some NGOs from European countries (Sweden, Norway, Spain, etc.) which generally only approached the issue from a humanitarian angle. The ceasefire coincided with the end of the Cold War. World interest in the conflict seemed to expire in the 1990s as the Sahara question gradually sank from public consciousness due to decreasing media attention.
International recognition of the SADR
A key diplomatic dispute between Morocco and Polisario is over the international diplomatic recognition of the SADR as a sovereign state and Western Sahara's legitimate government. In 2004, South Africa announced formal recognition of the SADR, delayed for ten years despite unequivocal promises by Nelson Mandela as apartheid fell. This came since the announced referendum for Western Sahara was never held. Kenya and Uruguay followed in 2005, and relations were upgraded in some other countries, while recognition of the SADR was cancelled by others (Albania, Chad, Serbia); in 2006, Kenya suspended its decision to recognize the SADR to act as a mediating party.
See also
History of Western Sahara
Independence Intifada (Western Sahara)
Morocco's foreign relations
Politics of Western Sahara
Zemla Intifada
References
Sources
Further reading
Jarat Chopra, United Nations Determination of the Western Saharan Self (Norwegian Institute of Foreign Affairs 1994)
Tony Hodges, Western Sahara. The Roots of a Desert War (Lawrence & Hill 1983)
Leo Kamil, Fueling the Fire. U.S. policy & the Western Sahara Conflict (Red Sea Press 1987)
Anthony G. Pazzanita & Tony Hodges, Historical dictionary of Western Sahara (2nd ed. Scarecrow Press 1994)
Toby Shelley, Endgame in the Western Sahara (Zed Books 2004)
Forced Migration Organization: FMO Research Guide Bibliography
External links
The Association for a Free & Fair Referendum in Western Sahara
R.A.S.D. Foreign minister critical response to the supposed independent ESISC's report
Michael Palin's visit to Smara Refugee Camp
The self determination process of the former Spanish Sahara
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Sahrawi nationalism
Political parties in Western Sahara
Rebel groups in Western Sahara
National liberation armies
National liberation movements in Africa
Organisations based in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Arab militant groups
Banned socialist parties
Democratic socialist parties in Africa
Guerrilla organizations
Left-wing militant groups
Parties of one-party systems
Politics of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Progressive Alliance
Rebel militia groups in Africa
Socialist International
Socialist parties in Africa
Political parties established in 1973
1973 establishments in Spanish Sahara
Western Sahara conflict
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] |
201575
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-tailed%20eagle
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White-tailed eagle
|
The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) is a very large species of sea eagle widely distributed across temperate Eurasia. Like all eagles, it is a member of the family Accipitridae (or accipitrids) which includes other diurnal raptors such as hawks, kites, and harriers. One of up to eleven members in the genus Haliaeetus, which are commonly called sea eagles, it is also referred to as the white-tailed sea-eagle. Sometimes, it is known as the ern or erne (depending on spelling by sources), gray sea eagle and Eurasian sea eagle.
While found across a very wide range, today breeding as far west as Greenland and Iceland across to as far east as Hokkaido, Japan, they are often scarce and very spottily distributed as a nesting species, mainly due to human activities. These have included habitat alterations and destruction of wetlands, about a hundred years of systematic persecution by humans (from the early 1800s to around World War II) followed by inadvertent poisonings and epidemics of nesting failures due to various manmade chemical pesticides and organic compounds, which have threatened eagles since roughly the 1950s and continue to be a potential concern. Due to this, the white-tailed eagle was considered endangered or extinct in several countries. However, some populations have recovered well due to some governmental protections and dedicated conservationists and naturalists protecting habitats and nesting sites and partially regulating poaching and pesticide usage, as well as careful reintroductions into parts of their former range.
White-tailed eagles usually live most of the year near large bodies of open water, including coastal saltwater areas and inland freshwater lakes, wetlands, bogs and rivers. It requires old-growth trees or ample sea cliffs for nesting, and an abundant food supply of fish and birds (largely water birds) amongst nearly any other available prey. Both a powerful apex predator and an opportunistic scavenger, it is considered a close cousin of the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), which occupies a similar niche in North America.
Taxonomy
The first formal description of the white-tailed eagle was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco albicilla. The genus Haliaeetus was introduced in 1809 by the French naturalist Marie Jules César Savigny in the Description de l'Égypte. The name Haliaeetus is New Latin for "sea-eagle", from Ancient Greek hali-, "sea-" and aetos, "eagle". The specific albicilla, "white-tailed", is from New Latin albi-, "white" and cilla, "tail". The Anglo-Saxon name erne means "soarer". It has many Gaelic names, including iolar sùil na grèine or 'eagle of the sun's eye.'
Systematics
The white-tailed eagle is a member of the genus Haliaeetus, a monophylic group comprising 11 living species, including the closely related Ichthyophaga fish eagles which may or may not be part of a separate genus. The latter group, comprised by the lesser (Haliaeetus humilis) and the grey-headed fish eagle (Haliaeetus ichthyaetus), differ mostly in life history, being more fully devoted to fish eating and habituating wooded areas, especially in mountainous areas. In appearance the two Ichthyaetus are slenderer, longer tailed and more uniform and grey in colour than typical sea eagles. This species pair may not be genetically distinct enough to warrant division into separate genera. Other than these Ichthyophaga-type species found farther north in Asia, Sanford's sea eagle (Haliaeetus sanfordi) of the Solomon Islands is the most atypical Haliaeetus, retaining rufous-brown plumage into adulthood (this particularly resembling the white-bellied sea eagle juvenile, likely a closely related species) more typical of juveniles in other species and it also dwells more so in dense, coastal forests where it feeds mostly on birds and mammals rather than fish and water birds. Outside of the genus Haliaeetus, among other extant forms, they appear to be most closely related to milvine kites and Old World vultures, based on modern forms from these subfamilies that broadly share morphological and life history traits with sea eagles: the Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) (historically sometimes referred to as the "red-backed sea eagle") and the palm-nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) (which was once widely referred to as the "vulturine fish eagle"). The relation of these species to the sea eagles is partially borne out by their genetic sequencing. Other groups, beyond milvine kites and Old World vulture, of modern accipitrid that are seemingly in some way related, albeit very distantly, to the sea eagles include Accipiters, harriers, chanting-goshawks and buteonines. Notably excluded from their relations are most other species referred to as "eagles", including booted eagles and snake and serpent eagles.
The white-tailed eagle itself forms a species pair with the bald eagle. These diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the early Miocene (c. 10 mya) at the latest, possibly (if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus) as early as the early or middle Oligocene, about 28 mya. A recent genetic study of mitochondrial DNA is consistent with this idea. Greenlandic white-tailed eagles (proposed as H. a. groenlandicus) form, on evolutionary time scales, a relatively recently founded population that has not yet accumulated many unique genetic characteristics and may not strictly fulfill the distinction of a subspecies. However, the population appears to be demographically isolated and deserves special protection. At one time an eastern subspecies (H. a. brooksi) was proposed as well but there is little evidence supporting this as more than a case of clinal variation in coloring and size (i.e. the eastern average slightly darker and smaller than more westerly ones). As in other sea-eagle species pairs, this one consists of a white-headed (the bald eagle) and a tan-headed species. They probably diverged in the North Pacific, spreading westwards into Eurasia and eastwards into North America. Like the third large northern species, Steller's sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), adults have yellow feet, beaks and eyes. Another species, likely intermediate between the white-tailed, bald and Steller's sea eagles and the Ichthyophaga type fish eagles, is the Pallas's fish eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), which in life history seems to range farther from water and to higher elevations than the three northern species normally do. Due to the similar dietary and nesting habits of sea eagles, they are mostly allopatric in distribution as competition can be considerable between these eagles.
Currently, eagles only occur in the Hawaiian Islands as vagrants, but Quaternary bones of Haliaeetus have been found on three of the major islands. An ancient DNA study published in 2015 characterized the rapidly evolving mitochondrial control region of one of these specimens. DNA from a ∼3,500-year-old sea eagle skeleton found in a lava cave on Maui was sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that the Hawaiian eagle represents a distinct (>3% divergent) mtDNA lineage that is most closely related to extant white-tailed eagles. Based on fossil calibration, the Hawaiian mtDNA lineage probably diverged around the Middle Pleistocene. Thus, although not clearly differentiated in morphology from its relatives, the Hawaiian eagle likely represented an isolated, resident population in the Hawaiian archipelago for more than 100,000 years, where it was the largest terrestrial predator. The reasons for its extinction are unknown.
Description
Size
The white-tailed eagle is one of the largest living birds of prey. It is the largest of the dozen species of eagle found in Europe and the largest eagle across its distribution, excluding the Russian Far East and (during the winter) Hokkaido, Japan, where it co-exists with its larger cousin, Steller's sea eagle. The white-tailed eagle is sometimes considered the fourth largest eagle in the world and is, on average, the fourth heaviest eagle in the world. The only extant eagle species known to be more massive in mean bulk are the Steller's sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi). The white-tailed eagle measures anywhere from in total length with a typical wingspan of . This species may have the largest wingspan of any living eagle. The Steller's sea eagle, which is larger in weight, total length and non-wing standard measurements, may be the closest rival for median wingspan amongst living eagles. Average wingspans are not known for the Steller's species, however white-tailed eagles do appear to outsize the average wingspan of the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), which is sometimes also titled the largest winged extant eagle (however one wedge-tail did possess the largest wingspan ever verified for an extant eagle). In one sample from Norway, five male white-tailed eagles were found to average and eight females were found to average . In another sample of wild birds of unspecified origin, five males were found to average and seven females averaged . Record wingspans have included a specimen from Greenland which measured while another specimen apparently spanned . The bald eagle broadly overlaps in size with the white-tailed eagle. In direct comparison, the white-tailed eagle averages somewhat larger in body mass than the bald eagle and may be marginally larger in bill and talon size, although these linear aspects can be quite similar between the two species. The white-tailed eagle does have a significantly larger wing chord and average wingspan than the bald eagle, but the latter usually possesses a longer tail, resulting in a larger total length than the white-tailed eagle and a larger mean tarsal length.
Size variation is generally a clinal trend and is normally quantified using standard measurements such as wing, tail and tarsal length, or body mass, rather than wingspan or total length. As expected for many widely distributed animals of varied lineages, the white-tailed eagle conforms to Bergmann's rule in that more northerly birds tend to outsize those found relatively closer to the Equator. Average size also decreases from west to east across its distribution. The largest white-tailed eagles appear to be found in Greenland, these being slightly larger than those from Scotland and Scandinavia and notably larger than eagles from central Europe, especially in proportions of the wing area. Those from the southerly portions of the breeding range, such as Asia Minor (principally Turkey), southern Kazakhstan, and Korea Bay, appear to be the smallest-bodied population but there have been limited measurements and published weights known for these extremely sporadic and rare Asian populations of eagle. Furthermore, weights of fully grown eagles from Greenland are not known. Unlike many accipitrids, juvenile white-tailed eagles (and seemingly other sea eagles as well) are often of similar weight to the adults, although the juveniles typically have a somewhat larger average wing and tail length than the adults. In the white-tailed eagle, body mass can typically range from in females. The slightly smaller male may typically weigh from . Average weights in European white-tailed eagles can range from in five males and in nine females to (from the reintroduced birds of Scotland of Norwegian stock) in 39 males and in 43 females. In comparison, the weight ranges for white-tailed eagles from Northeast China were claimed to be only in males and in females. The heaviest female white-tailed eagles can apparently weigh as much as and even males can sometimes weigh up to , which would make the largest males perhaps the heaviest recorded modern male eagle, as male harpy and Philippine eagles (being more sexually dimorphic in favor of the female) are not known to exceed (the highest weights for male Steller's sea eagle are not known). The global mean body mass of white-tailed eagles is estimated at approximately . The average female Steller's sea eagle may weigh just under 25% more than the average female white-tailed eagle (the average weight of male Steller's is not known) while the average European golden eagle may weigh about 11–12% less than the average European white-tailed eagle and the bald eagle species as a whole about 10% less than the white-tailed eagle species.
Standard measurements and sexual dimorphism
The most reliable method to sex birds is by tarsus width and depth and bill depth but these are infrequently measured. In some cases females are as much as 25% heavier and 15% greater in linear dimensions, though the sexes are rarely this discrepant in standard measurements. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is in males, averaging in European adults and juveniles, respectively, and in Greenland males. In females, the wing chord may measure , averaging in European adults and juveniles, respectively, and in Greenland females. Adult tail length is in males, averaging , and in females, averaging . Juvenile tail lengths can reach roughly in both sexes, however. The tarsus is , averaging . In terms of their killing apparatuses, their hallux claw, the largest talon on all accipitrids, is in length, averaging . The hallux claw averages about a centimeter less than that of a golden eagle and is more sharply curved, an adaptation to prevent escape of slippery prey such as fish, while that of a bald eagle is similarly about and of similar curvature. The exposed culmen is typically large as in all Haliaeetus, ranging from , with an average of . The average culmen length of the bald eagle is , thus averaging slightly smaller. However, the average culmen length in the large bald eagles of Alaska is considerably larger than other bald eagles as well as most white-tailed eagles at up to and can even rival the length (but perhaps not the girth) of the truly massive bill of the Steller's sea eagle.
Coloring and field appearance
The adult white-tailed eagle is a greyish mid-brown color overall. The plumage is fairly uniform over most of the body and wings, but the upper wing coverts are typically somewhat paler. In the adult, the head, neck and upper breast have a distinctly paler appearance than the rest of the plumage and most often have a buff coloration. In worn or bleached plumages these light areas can be even paler at times, ranging to almost whitish, which can render a resemblance in such eagles to a washed-out bald eagle. Some of the palest birds can appear anywhere from cream-tawny to light grayish. It is thought that in some populations perhaps paleness increases with age, although it is possible that there is an historical genetic factor to these pale variations. In contrast, some adults can also be a richer, more deeply dark brown (or somewhat rufescent) than average with perhaps a mild increase in average darkness of hue to the east of the species' range. When many of the feathers are freshly molted, they can take on a slight purplish gloss. The brownish hue of the adult overall makes the somewhat wedge-shaped white tail stand out in contrast. All the bare parts of the adult's body are yellow in color, including the bill, cere, feet and eyes. Juvenile and immature white-tailed eagles are a much darker brown than the adults and are more unevenly marked, with whitish feather edgings variably showing, mostly manifesting in some small areas of the underside and under-wing, with a narrow white axillary strip usually apparent.
The upperside is usually similarly darkish brown but variable based on extent of blackish-brown tip to otherwise buff-brown feathers of the mantle, back and upper wing. The head of the juvenile is normally a blackish-brown hue, somewhat darker and always more uniform than most of the other feathers. The juvenile's tail tends to be a washed out greyish-cream color with messy blackish color on the feather edges and on the tips. Some individual juveniles may exhibit some faint barring on the tail while others may appear largely dirty whitish on the tail. The bill of juveniles is usually almost half dark brown from the tip and half dirty, dull yellowish or gray to the base, while the feet are usually a dirty yellow and the eyes are a darkish brown. Juvenile males may average a slightly darker brown plumage with less speckling on the upper body than like-age females; their head and neck plumes may also appear shorter, which can accentuate the slighter, more angular skull possessed by males. In disposition, the male juveniles are said to be more highly strung and higher voiced than their female counterparts. The head gradually grows paler over several years. The whitish mottling may increase on the upperparts, belly and especially on the underwing area later into their third year (considered the first subadult plumage) and subadult birds can appear fairly blotched with white but much individual variation in coloring is known at this age. However, this white mottling then fades late into the fourth year and the plumage becomes less contrasting. Although sexual maturity is considered to be attained at between five and six years of age, usually the fully white tail and the uniform pale head and neck are not obtained until the eighth year. Juveniles first molt in May/June until October/November at just over one year of age. Their second molt is the following year in March or April, with two more subsequent molts usually beginning around this time for the next couple of years. Like other large raptors, feathers are molted at slow intervals so as not to inhibit food capture. Only relatively small proportions of the flight feathers are molted each year. Molting occurs more or less continuously, although it may pause in winter if food is in short supply.
White-tailed eagles of all ages typically perch in quite upright positions on exposed branch, rock or other vantage point, but tend to sit more horizontally on the ground or other level surfaces. They have an ample bill with a relatively high culmen, helping to impart a rather narrow and high crowned facial look, especially compared to Aquila eagles. The neck is at times unusually long-looking, more so than in the bald eagle, which can give the upper body a vulturine appearance. The tail is relatively short, and in some adults it can appear disproportionately stubby in relation to the massive body, and slightly wedge-shaped. All ages have a well-feathered tibia but bare tarsi. In flight, the wings are extremely broad and deeply fingered, with the usual tendency for at least six fingers to be visible. Juveniles are longer tailed than adults, which is usually more evident in flying than perched birds, with sometimes a slightly bulging section of feathers manifesting on the wing secondaries. The species tends to fly with shallow wing beats; at times the wing beats can be fairly fast for a bird of this size, but interspersed at times with gliding. At a great distance, this flight style may be suggestive of a large brown heron. The wings are held flat or slightly upraised at the tip in flight and the white-tailed eagle is well known to soar extensively. This species can be surprisingly maneuverable on the wing, usually during aerial displays or dogfights with other birds. These eagles may also maneuver by half-closing both wings or fully closing one wing.
Vocalizations
The white-tailed eagle is considered a very vocal bird of prey during the breeding season, although some authors consider their voice "not loud or impressive for the size of the bird". The male call is oft transcribed as or , while the female is a deeper or . These will increase in tempo and pitch, with about 15–30 calls in a sequence. Often pairs will duet during early spring, in flight or from a perch. When perched, the male calls with the head thrown back and upwards in the last call ended with a lower ko-ko-ko, the perched call of females is similar but deeper, a . Typically, the perched version of their calls tend to be shriller and higher than those issued in flight. In courtship display, male calls answered by females with a lower . Young in nest call a shrilly , while the female when receiving food from male calls out with or . Single or repeated or similar component of calls used in other circumstances, but this can be very variable. Alarm calls tend to be 3–4 short, loud or notes. Sometimes a different call of alarm or anger, a deep or , similar to alarm calls of a large gull, is also uttered when a nest is approached (usually recorded while directed towards humans). The young let out a monotonous when hungry (or "bored") which intensifies if the eaglets are not fed or brooded immediately.
Identification
Given reasonable view, adult white-tailed eagles are difficult to mistake for any other bird. There are no other eagles with fully white tails in their range except for in the easternmost limits of their range, their cousins the bald eagle and Steller's sea eagle, which in adults are obviously very different in all other respects of plumage. Even in poor light, the bald species shows a sharp demarcation from white to dark brown whereas the color contrast is far subtler in white-tailed eagles between their brown body (of a paler hue than that of a bald eagle) and buff-colored head. At a great distance, the adult may be potentially confusable with the Griffon vulture (Gys fulvus), as the coloring of the two species is vaguely similar and they can overlap somewhat in size although the vulture can average rather heavier and longer winged. However even at long range, the relatively tiny head, distinctly curved trailing wing-edges and more raised wings make the vulture distinctive from the white-tailed eagle.
Juveniles may be harder to distinguish, mainly from other sea eagles in few areas of overlap. In northern Mongolia (perhaps spilling over into southern Siberia), the northern part of the Caspian Sea and some central and southern parts of Kazakhstan, the white-tailed eagle may (or may not) live alongside the rarer, relatively poorly-known Pallas's fish eagle. The Pallas's juveniles are more distinctively whitish marked on the underwing. In flight or perched, the Pallas's fish eagle are usually markedly smaller and slighter than white-tailed eagles with a longer and differently marked tail. At all ages, the white-tailed eagle averages a duller, slightly darker and browner colour overall than the Pallas's fish eagle. Pallas's fish eagles are mid-brown on the body in juvenile plumage with no paler feather edging as seen in juveniles and especially subadults of the larger species. Adult Pallas's fish eagles are immediately distinctive rufous hue with a more restricted but more sharply demarked paler buffy head. Bald eagle juveniles may be found together with white-tailed eagles in the Aleutian islands (where the white-tailed eagle formerly bred until about 30 years ago) and when vagrants of white-tails occur in Alaska. Juveniles of bald and white-tailed eagles often strongly resemble each other but the bald eagles have a shorter neck, a relatively longer and squarer tail, and somewhat less broad wings. In the coloring, the bald juvenile is similarly as dark or even darker brown above as white-tailed eagle juveniles but on the underside often has more extensive whitish mottling, especially on the underwing.
Steller's sea eagles are usually distinctly larger and longer tailed, with a taller, bulkier look in eagles standing on the ground or perched. Steller's juveniles have a different wing shape (roughly paddle-shaped) and a considerably more massive and paler bill, which is yellow even in juveniles unlike in bald and white-tailed eagles. Juvenile Steller's sea eagles are a distinctly darker soot colour than juvenile white-tailed eagles with even less whitish showing on the body than the latter species but, on the other hand, the underwing often as white marked as juvenile bald eagles (dissimilarly from juvenile white-tailed eagles), albeit in different pattern. In all three large northern sea eagles, the tail color is similar at the various stages of development but the shape is more distinctive, especially the bolder wedge shape of the Steller's.
The cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) may too be considered superficially similar to the juvenile white-tailed eagle, but it is considerably larger and longer-winged and possesses a more uniform and darker hue with conspicuous paler legs and a relatively smaller head. Young white-tailed eagles are also potentially confusable with any Aquila, but should be obvious even as a silhouette in its huge wings, relatively truncated and slightly wedge-shaped tail and obvious projection of the neck and head. All Aquila lack pale the axillary band often visible on juvenile and subadult white-tailed eagles. Some greater spotted eagles (Clanga clanga) can suggest the wing shape of a white-tailed eagle but are far smaller and shorter winged and never bear a protruding head. Similarly, the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) may suggest a white-tailed eagle in its flat wing profile and relatively large head and neck but is also visibly smaller with far less broad wings and a relatively longer tail. Like all Clanga and Aquila, both greater spotted and eastern imperial eagles should be obviously distinct from white-tailed eagles by plumage characteristics. The golden eagle usually appears slightly smaller than the white-tailed eagle and tends to be more dashing in flight, which is usually done with a distinct dihedral. When perched, the golden eagle looks more sleek and compact than the rangier white-tailed eagle and tends to be a darker, richer hue of brown. Golden eagles have a much shorter neck, with a smaller head and bill and a longer, squarer tail. White wing patches of juveniles are also differently distributed in golden than juvenile white-tailed eagles.
Distribution and habitat
Breeding range
This eagle breeds in northern Europe and northern Asia. Their range extends to as far west as southern Greenland (prevented from breeding further north due to the short summers), northern and western Iceland, and the reintroduced populations in some areas of England (re-established in 2019), Ireland and Scotland, particularly conserved coastal spots. In mainland Europe the range is expanding, with birds breeding in coastal and western Norway (broadly), northern and southwestern Finland, eastern Sweden, southern Denmark (and some spots in the north), islands of the Baltic Sea, western Austria, northeastern Germany, northern and eastern Poland, the Czech Republic, much of the east Baltic countries, the non-montane areas of Ukraine, eastern Slovenia, central and southern Hungary (and adjacent northeastern Croatia), very sporadically in Greece, the Danube sections of Romania and Bulgaria to the Black Sea and western and eastern Moldova. The bird returned to the Netherlands in 2006 and in 2020 the number of breeding pairs had increased to 20. In Asia Minor, it only remains as a breeder in very sparse and small pockets of Turkey and Georgia, taken as a region there is likely to be fewer than 30 breeding pairs in this region. In the Middle East, the white-tailed eagle may still be found breeding only along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea in northern Iran and southwestern Turkmenistan. Discontinuously, they are found as residents in Kazakhstan where they live in a long strip of the southern part of the country starting at the Aral Sea and the northwestern portion (but not, as far as is known, breeding in the Kazakh part of the Caspian Sea coast). The only country in which the white-tailed eagle is found over a continuous and extremely large area is Russia. The species is found very broadly everywhere in Russia from European Russia in the west to the Bering Sea in the east, only being fully absent as a nester as far as is known from the high Arctic regions and a section bordering westernmost Kazakhstan, although it breeds to south of this in the Russian coastal part of the Caspian Sea. Their northern limits occur in Russia to the Ob river to 70 degrees north at the mouth of the Yenisei River and on the Gyda and Yamal Peninsulas, to the Kolyma, Indigirka and Lena rivers to above 72 degrees north, even to 75 degrees north on the Taymyr Peninsula. They are said to be common around the White Sea, reportedly even the most abundant bird of prey locally and found both on coasts and inland lakes, although breeding rates are low due to the frigid weather. From Russia, breeding populations spill somewhat into northernmost Mongolia, extreme northwestern China and northern North Korea. The white-tailed eagle also breeds on Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands and Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan.
Wintering range
The wintering range is less well understood for the white-tailed eagle given the extreme reductions and fluctuations of northern breeding populations over the last few centuries, so that the delineation of regular wintering areas versus areas of mere vagrancy is difficult to ascertain. It is known that a small number winter on Etang de Lindre of Lorraine, France as well as an area on the border of France to Germany around Strasbourg, with vagrants to elsewhere in France, as well as to Spain, Portugal and Malta. A well-defined wintering population may occur in much of the Netherlands, even with infrequent modern breeding in the northern coastal areas. A non-breeding population is known in western Germany from North Rhine-Westphalia to Bonn, as well as far northern Germany into southwestern Denmark. Other established wintering areas are known in Europe in west-central Italy, northern Austria, fairly broadly in southern Slovakia and northern Hungary and a few protected pockets of Southeast Europe apart from the portions in the north and east where they still breed. Intermittent forms of vagrancy and migration (most from eagles that breed in or disperse from Russia) are known to occur in several areas of Turkey, the Levant countries, Azerbaijan and Iran down to even the Persian Gulf, albeit seldom is the species to be found commonly or reliably anywhere in these regions. Further east, rare wintering areas are known in a few small, scarce pockets of Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. It is a very rare winter visitor to India, namely the extreme northwest and along the border of Nepal to Bhutan and extreme northern Bangladesh. Scattered pockets of wintering birds are known to occur too in central and southern China, into northeastern Myanmar, and more broadly and regularly in much of Northeast China. Good numbers winter too in much of South Korea and Japan down to as far as Honshu. White-tailed eagles dispersing from their breeding grounds or natal sites in the Russian Far East are known to occasionally disperse across the Bering Sea to North America in several parts of the Aleutian Islands, the Pribilof Islands and some of mainland coastal Alaska down to Kodiak Island. Some white-tailed eagles even bred in Alaska on Attu Island in the late 1970s to the early 1980s (until 1984 when the last attempts were recorded) but it was not clear whether young were ever successfully fledged.
Habitat
White-tailed eagles may be found in varied habitat but usually are closely associated with water and generally occurs in lowland areas. Although mainly a lowland species, the species is known to live at elevations of so long as there is water access in some parts of Central Asia and Siberia. In coastal areas, the species may range from high sea cliffs down to low-lying islands and archipelagos. Especially in winter, many white-tailed eagles often frequent low coastal spots, estuaries and coastal marshes. Several studies have supported that coastal areas are preferred when available during winter. In many areas, white-tailed eagles can seem to switch freely between usually cliff habitat and wooded spots for nesting sites and the center of their home range habitat. In some areas, such as Japan, this species may occur in regions with intensive human fishing activity and they may become unusually partially habituated to this human presence. Inland, white-tailed eagles usually require secluded woods, forested areas or groups of trees with tall mature trees and access to freshwater wetlands such as lakes, river systems, marshes or extensive, low-disturbance farmland. In the alluvial wetlands of Croatia, 95% of nests were found within of deep freshwater. In some areas, white-tailed eagles readily visit commercial fish farms, carp ponds and similar areas with easily accessible food but they will usually avoid areas where human disturbances (especially noisy varieties such as construction, water sporting and heavy boating activities and hunting) commonly occur. However, forestry activity and resulting lessened numbers of tall mature trees and large tree stands in Estonia was found to affect breeding white-tailed eagles less so than it seemed to affect breeding black storks (Ciconia nigra). On the other hand, from studying wintering white-tailed eagles in partially or heavily disturbed wetlands in parts of the Netherlands shows that such areas cannot support the eagles for any long-term period and may only be visited for a day or two by individual eagles.
Behaviour
White-tailed eagles spend much of their day perched on trees or crags, and may often not move for hours. Perhaps up to 90% of a day may be spent perched, especially if weather is poor. Also, they will alternate periods of soaring with perching, especially flying over water or well-watered areas, but do considerably less soaring on average than do golden eagles. Pairs regularly roost together, often near to their nest, either on a crag or tree or crevices, overhung ledges or small isolated trees on a crag.
Migration and dispersal
The white-tailed eagle may be considered a rather inconsistent and partial migrant. The species seldom migrates in the western part of its range, with eagles even breeding as far north as Greenland, Iceland and coastal Norway not moving at all for winter, but for some southward juvenile movements following dispersal. Juveniles overall are more migratory and dispersive and leave natal areas sooner, which is by August–September in northwestern Europe and return later, by March/April, than adults do. Few Norwegian juveniles, per banding studies, were recorded to travel any considerable distance. Extreme cases include one that was found south of its nest near Karlstad, Sweden, another set of four color-marked first-year juveniles were also recorded to turn up in southern Sweden but one was found down to the Wadden Sea in the Netherlands and it is likely that trickling down numbers of Norwegian post-dispersal juveniles have gone onto form much of the known Dutch white-tailed eagle population. In contrast, young from Finland and Sweden tend to distribute to the southwesterly direction to the shores of the Baltic Sea. One from Finland was recovered west in northern Norway and another was found as far south as Bulgaria. In more southerly areas, winter movements are drawn-out and irregular, with most mature pairs probably never leaving their nesting haunts year-around. Those that breed on inland waterways may migrate to sea coast. German juveniles usually do not travel far, with most recorded to travel less than from their nests and a majority staying near the Baltic coast. However, some eagles that hatched from nests in Germany have been found as far south as in Italy, away to the southeast, or to Gironde, France, to the southwest. In several parts of Russia, quite unlike many European populations, the white-tailed eagle seems to be largely migratory. In the far east, the species appear to take different migratory routes in fall and spring, traveling from north-central Kamchatka thru the Kurile islands to Hokkaido in fall, while in spring these eagles travel north through Sakhalin and the Okhotsk Coast. In the White Sea area, southward moments begin in September with most white-tailed eagles being gone by November but in mild winters some adults may remain behind. Some white-tailed eagles from the White Sea were found well over away to the west, in countries such as Hungary and Italy. Return spring migration to the White Sea is by February–March. During winter, whether long-distance migrants or short-distance dispersers, white-tailed eagles tend to become gregarious, especially younger juvenile birds. Many such groups can contain up to 10 and, in areas near large breeding populations such as in Norway, at least 30–40 individuals. Wintering congregations at the Baltic coast and on the River Elbe from 37 winters show that arrivals begin in November, with numbers peaking in January and then declining during March and early April. Although juveniles usually return to their natal area some apparently overshoot these areas, such as those returning to Romania or on the Black Sea which have been recorded north of their natal site and northeast of their natal site.
Territoriality
Territory size in white-tailed eagles may vary from , usually less than , per one estimate. However, home ranges in northeastern Germany were much smaller than this, at . While territorial behavior is known in well more than half of all modern birds, essentially all predatory birds of different lineages are particularly strongly territorial because the live prey necessary to feed a family, including the female of the pair (which must remain near the young for them to survive) and the young themselves, tends to be sparser. Furthermore, appropriate habitat is needed in which to execute this hunting and also, of course, to build a nest with some security. Although a relatively gregarious raptor, especially among wintering birds and juveniles and immature birds, they are territorial and intrusion by a male in adult plumage often provokes vigorous fighting, in which either combatant can even die. In some cases, these vicious fights can cause damage to the nest as the two fighting eagles plummet down trying to slash at each other.
Dietary biology
The white-tailed eagle's diet is varied, opportunistic and seasonal. Prey specimens can often include fish, birds and, mostly in a secondary capacity, mammals. White-tailed eagles are powerful predators and capable of attacking large prey of considerable sizes but, like most predators, prefer prey that is vulnerable and easy for them to capture. Especially during the winter (and opportunistically in all seasons), many birds of the species live largely as scavengers, usually by coming across available carrion or watching for the activity of corvids, vultures or other raptors. White-tailed eagles in northeastern Germany were shown to hunt mostly from perches, in a "sit-and-wait" style, usually from a prominent tree perch. Like other sea eagles, they can only capture fish normally in the littoral zone, seldom hunting fish when they exceed a water depth of . In addition to trees, they may also use crags, hillocks or high grassy tussocks as hunting perches so long as the perch provides a good overall view of the environment. Fish tend to be grabbed in a shallow dive after a short distance flight from a perch, usually with the eagles only getting their feet wet. Occasionally, though, white-tailed eagles have been recorded plunging right into water, usually while hunting on the wing at a height of at least . In Norway, plunge-diving is considered rare. At times they will also fish by wading into shallows, often from shores or gravel islands. The species will at times variously follow fishing boats, readily exploits commercial fisheries, stocked lakes, carp ponds and the like, and scavenges dead fish or fish-offal in a wide range of situations. When it comes to non-fish prey, it has been said that white-tailed eagles often hunt by flying low over sea coast or lakeshore and attempt to surprise victims. However, the hunting success rates on healthy birds can be low as revealed in studying wintering eagles in Sweden attempting to hunt mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). White-tailed eagles also regularly pirate food from otters and other birds including cormorants, gulls, ospreys, corvids and various other raptors. Carrion is often the primary food source during lean winter months, with fish and ungulates preferred but everything from cetaceans to livestock to even humans being eaten after death. From studies of captive white-tailed eagles, daily food requirements were estimated at , which is equivalent to about 10% of the birds' body weight, with crop contents commonly of . Some semi-captive juveniles on the isle of Rùm, Scotland could eat up to in one sitting. However, in Norway, it was estimated that a family of wild white-tailed eagles including each adult and three fledglings were consuming on average up to per bird each day. Furthermore, one male consumed an estimated in a single meal upon capturing a large fish. The crop can bulge to the size of a small grapefruit after they've consumed a large meal.
Many studies have reflected that the primary foods of white-tailed eagles are fish and water birds. These are the primary food as well for other sea eagle species. However, unlike most Haliaeetus, including the bald eagle and Steller's sea eagle, the water birds tend to take the primary position in the diet. From 26 accumulated food studies for this species, prey remains and pellets show that about 48.5% of the diet is made up of birds, 39.95% by fish, 9.95% by mammals and 1.6% by other foods. In total, more than 300 prey species are known throughout the bird's range. However, based on studies of prey remains and pellets in laboratories from Greenland white-tailed eagles, birds were shown to be biased in both kinds of remains (pellets and prey remains) whereas in situ study and direct nest observation favor fish. Going on pellet/remains alone here in Greenland from 557 items in the 1979 study, 68% of the diet would’ve been represented by birds and only 20% by fish but comprehensive observation shifted it to show fish were the primary food at 58% and birds were secondary at 30%. This study claimed this is often because the bones of fish are dissolved by the large digestive tract of the eagles upon consumption and may thus leave almost nothing in remains and to some extent in pellets. Subsequent studies here showed a much stronger preference for fish in Greenland by 1983, as fish comprised an extreme 91.8% of 660 items. However, this kind of direct continuous observation of food deliveries to nests is not always possible. Furthermore, despite similar bias for prey that is large and leaves conspicuous remains (including any larger fish, bird or mammal), in the bald eagle it was found that fish were usually detectable and dominant in remains and pellets. Most modern biologists may need to leave some fish unidentified but will account for different methodologies of prey study to get the most complete picture attainable. During winter, mammal prey can become more important in foods locally, as indicated in Scotland and shown in Norway and eastern Germany. As much as 41% of the diet can be made up of mammals, as was the case on the Kola Peninsula. There is evidence of strong seasonal shifts in food habits in several parts of the range, usually the largest portions of fish are caught during warmer months while birds and mammals are more important in the colder months, especially in coastal areas such as Norway when preferred fish prey often move to deeper water during winter. Among both fish and bird prey, it is thought that a majority that are caught weigh between . At times it has been said that "most" prey of white-tailed eagles will weigh only . However, the mean prey sizes caught can show greater variability. Three studies showed that mean prey size varied from in the Wigry National Park, Poland, in the Rybinsk Reservoir, Russia and in the Volga-Kama Nature Reserve, Russia. Thus, the mean prey size falls just slightly short of the mean prey mass of the golden eagle, which globally averages about .
Fish
Overall, nearly 70 species of fish are known to be taken from throughout the white-tailed eagle's range. White-tailed eagles can hunt fish in fresh or saltwater as well as those that prefer brackish water areas. However, they are basically restricted to taking fish in extremely shallow water, often by preference in water less than deep. Ideal fishing areas can be found in areas such as the Baltic Sea, where low coasts and archipelagos often have relatively shallow water. While healthy, large fish are often taken as well, white-tailed eagles often take out sickly, injured or already dead fish. In some cases, the fish prey will float to the surface when infected by fish tapeworm, as is often the case with some fish families such as carp. Fish are also caught after being battered, injured and killed at power plants, from large-scale fishing nets or are taken directly from human fishermen. Benthic fish tend to cling to rocks or sandy soil in shallows may be more vulnerable since they tend to look downward rather upward and are less competent at escaping predators coming from above the water's surface. Therefore, lurking benthic fish such as lumpsuckers are more vulnerable than many. Besides vulnerability, habitat and prey behaviour, fish body size may be a driver in the piscivorian dietary preferences. Studies have indicated that fish less than are taken infrequently, since they have a lower yield, fish of up to are taken secondarily and fish between are preferred since they have the highest nutritional benefit. Fish taken can exceed but since they can start to considerably exceed the weight of the eagle itself, they may be prove too difficult to overpower. One large Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) was found with the disembodied feet of a white-tailed eagle still imbedded in its back, presumed the eagle drowned after being overpowered and drug under only to rot off, leaving only feet. Since they do not have the waterproofing oils on the plumage of the more accomplished raptorial diver, the osprey (Pandion haliaetus), white-tailed eagles prefer not to get their feathers wet as it can take a long time for them to dry. This may also make them vulnerable to losing their catch to other white-tailed eagles since their flight may be impaired until the wings are dried. Therefore, when hunting fish, they will almost always take flight as soon as possible to a feeding perch or nest. The largest fish lifted in flight and flown off with have been claimed anecdotely to reach weights of as much as in the case of an Atlantic halibut in Norway. However, this is likely reported in error as no living eagle would likely be able to take flight with this heavy a load as they are more or less constrained to carrying in flight a load more or less equal to their own body weight, and even then only laboriously and in favorable wind conditions. The same Norwegian study coincided that another eagle when trying to fly with an Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) weighing about , the fish was quickly dropped as it was apparently deemed too heavy. The widely reported case of a white-tailed eagle carrying off a 3.5-year-old girl in Norway flight by the back of her dress only to drop her mostly unharmed below the eagle's eyrie, which was included in the Guinness Book of World Records, is considered most likely to be apocryphal since she weighed approximately , far too heavy for any living eagle to lift in flight. Another option when taking particularly large fish is for the eagle to stay in water and row, swimming using their wings, across the water to the nearest bank or shore. While this would leave them waterlogged, of course, the food yield from such a catch is obviously attractive. White-tailed eagles have been photographed doing this with a large fish successfully in Greenland and 35 such cases were reported in Norway alone.
The most frequently recorded prey species in 18 food studies from across the range is the northern pike (Esox lucius), present in at least 16 of those studies. Pike were found to be the main prey species in both the Baltic Sea and Lapland in Sweden, at three breeding locations in Finland, in two studies from Germany and in Belarus. The maximum representation of pike known was in Lapland, where they comprised 38.2% of 809 food items. Considered a top predator in many freshwater ecosystems (and thus with less significant anti-predator camouflage), the pike may be more conspicuous than many fish to hunting eagles due to the fish's boldly speckled flanks. While an average mature weight for a pike is around , white-tailed eagles often attack larger sized pike, with an estimated average weight range of . Some pike taken by white-tailed eagles were even estimated to weigh around , however the eagle would be unable to fly with such a large catch and would need to row it to the nearest shore. The next most widely reported fish prey species is the common bream (Abramis brama). This bream was reported in 10 of 18 dietary studies and was the main prey in the Polesie State Radioecological Reserve, Belarus, in the Ural mountains region of Russia, and in the Kostomuksha Nature Reserve, Russia. Like the pike, the relatively large size of common bream, which weigh about on average, can prove attractive to hunting eagles. They are also vulnerable to tapeworms so can be easily taken while floating close the water's surface in ill condition.
Many varieties of fish are taken opportunistically and randomly, as opposed to pike and bream, which can locally appear to be selected out of proportion to their regional population. Particularly diverse in the white-tailed eagle's prey spectrum are the family Cyprinidae, of which more than 20 species are known to be predated including the common bream. Others taken with some preference may include salmonids and cod and their allies, both families known to obtain relatively large body sizes and occasional habituate shallow water, as well as lumpsuckers, because they are benthic. In Greenland, the leading prey species is the salmonid, the Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), which comprised 27.2% of 660 prey items. The secondary prey in Greenland was recorded as two species of cod. While the Arctic char can average up to and cod can sometimes grow considerably larger than that, the average weight of cod taken here was estimated at only and the average char at . In Norway, of 524 fish prey items, the common lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus), which averages up to but is usually smaller, made up 24% of fish taken and the Atlantic wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) made up 17% of fish taken. However, fish were secondary to birds overall in Norway. Per two studies from Sweden, fish were usually the main food unlike in Norway and Finland and could comprise from 51–60% of the diet. Fish were also somewhat dominant in the foods from two studies in Belarus, making up 48.1–53.7% of the diet. Fish similarly were important to nesting eagles in Hokkaido, Japan where 54% of 533 prey items were fish, led by the Alaska pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus) at 18.4%. In different studies of the Danube Delta of Romania, from 44.6% to 79% of the diet was comprised by fish, led by the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio). In the Kostomuksha Nature Reserve of Russia, fish were strongly dominant in food remains, making 80% of the known diet.
Birds
White-tailed eagles are known to prey on about 170 species of bird, the most diverse group in their prey spectrum. While hunting birds, this massive, relatively slow-flying eagle requires an element of surprise, with often a tactful use of cover or bright sunlight upon the approach from a nearby perch. For example, grey herons (Ardea cinerea) have been caught after an eagle used a low flight over turbulent water to ambush them. However, even with a stealthy attack, the waterfowl favored in the avian diet tend to be highly wary and will more often than not escape. The white-tailed eagles must then attack birds at times of vulnerability or injury, or will often utilize the prey's escape tactics against them. Diving ducks and other diving water birds will be taken preferentially where they are available. In hunting diving birds, they utilize a technique of forcing the birds to dive repeatedly to avoid attacks, until the victim is exhausted from the efforts and can then be caught. Usually while hunting like this, the white-tailed eagle tends to circle low to stay close to the intended victim, with birds diving in shallower water being preferred. Ducks with conspicuous plumage, such as male common eiders (Somateria mollissima), with their pale plumage, may be easier to see under water and so may be taken somewhat more via this hunting method. Beyond waterfowl, both loons and grebes have been seen to be successfully hunted in this way. Eagles were recorded doing up to 12 attacks on eiders in Russia and were usually successful in procuring prey. Even as many as 65 passes have recorded in less than 45 minutes but more than a few attacks also start to exhaust the eagle, as one immature gave up after 15–28 attempts at a little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis). While bald eagles may attack diving ducks in the same way, they appear to do so somewhat less regularly and successfully. White-tailed eagles usually have less success hunting dabbling ducks because their normal predator response behavior is to take flight. In one instance, a mallard was caught while flying in mid-air, but usually the much larger eagle is unable to capture ducks in flight. While somewhat less swift in flight, healthy geese can usually outpace a heavier eagle as well and one bean goose (Anser fabalis) was even recorded to have defended itself successfully against an eagle's attack even though this goose was injured. White-tailed eagles often hunt dabbling ducks and geese most successfully when they are molted into their eclipse plumage which renders them temporarily flightless. Swans during winter may find themselves forced to land due to their bulk on a sheet of ice over water if they can find no open water, which can make their feet stuck to the ice. White-tailed eagles have been recorded utilizing this disability to attack and kill swans. They've also been seen to attack numerous waterfowl when the birds are injured by buckshot from duck hunters. Due to their status as enemy of other large birds, they are frequently mobbed by them and white-tailed eagles have been recorded utilizing violent mobbings to suddenly turn over in flight and predaceously grab one of the birds mobbing them, including large gulls and even a northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). As an opportunistic predator, it often takes young birds freely as well as adult and fledged juvenile birds. In general, due to different nesting situations, white-tailed eagles instead of dabbling or diving water birds usually attack the more conspicuous or open nests of gulls, those of several other types of seabird, large corvids or other accipitrids. In Germany and Scotland, up to 86% of gulls taken were nestlings and juveniles. Cases of white-tailed eagles eating eggs, instead of nestlings or older birds, is considered rare. Nonetheless, they have been recorded eating a few eggs, which they may carry in their beaks rather in their feet, of some seabirds such as kittiwakes, eiders, cormorants and gulls.
The most widely recorded avian prey species and, second most widely recorded prey species behind the pike, is the mallard, due to its circumpolar range and commonality in many wetlands areas. However, as aforementioned, healthy mallards are difficult for white-tailed eagles due to their tendency to fly at first sign of danger. However, exploiting the mallard's flightlessness during eclipse plumage may result in eagles hunting them intensely only in late summer. Due to this mallards are usually a secondary prey species year around. The largest known representation of mallards in the diet were from Müritz National Park in Germany, where mallards were the third best represented prey species at 10.1% of 247 items and from Augustów Primeval Forest in Poland, where mallards were the second most numerous prey and made up 9.84% of 803 items. Taken more preferentially where they occur are common eiders. When hunting eiders, perhaps the largest of diving ducks at a mean weight of , white-tailed eagles frequently force the eider to dive repeatedly until it is exhausted and can be captured. When sitting on the nest, the female common eider will try to escape in flight but is a relatively weak and ponderous flier and so too may be often victimized by the eagles. Otherwise the pale plumage of adult male common eiders while they're diving is reported to make them more vulnerable to eagle attacks. Eiders were the leading prey species in Norway making 18.8% of 1612 prey items, as well as in Åland, Finland where the eider comprised 18.63% of 5161 prey items (thus nearly a thousand eiders were taken here). Eiders also appeared to be the main prey species in Iceland. There is evidence that a growing white-tailed eagle population is having a net negative effect on eider numbers in some areas, and locally eiders have altered to partial nocturnal foraging apparently to avoid hunting eagles. In inland regions, an avian prey species preferred by white-tailed eagles is the Eurasian coot (Fulica atra). The coot is the second most widely represented bird prey species (and fourth species of any class known overall) in 18 dietary studies. Coots bunch together in marshy spots when approached by a flying eagle and as many as five eagles at once have been recorded attacking large flocks on the water. Coots behaviour often endangers them to large raptors: they seldom dive, are weaker and slower fliers than most water birds and are collectively often less wary and more approachable than most waterfowl are. Coot were strongly the dominant food in Wigry National Park, Poland where they made up 44.1% of 299 items, and were also the leading prey in Augustów Primeval Forest (Poland) where they made up 11.59% of the foods. Overall at Wigry and Augustów, birds altogether made up 66.2% and 47.83% of the diets, respectively. In the Danube Delta, Romania, birds climbed in importance of the diet from 21% in 1970 to 50% by 2015, thanks largely to increased numbers of coots.
In total, about 38 species of waterfowl are known to be hunted, as well as all available species of loons and grebes, several types of rails, tubenoses as well as herons, storks and other assorted large waders. White-tailed eagles also are known to hunt some 42 species of shorebird, most significantly gulls and alcids. Even shorebirds as small as little stint (Calidris minuta), wood sandpiper (Tringa glareola) and common ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula) are known to be preyed upon, albeit quite rarely. More than a dozen gulls are known in the prey spectrum from the smallest to all four largest extant species. In the United Kingdom, northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) are noted as a common prey species and as such may contribute to locally high levels of DDT and PCB chemicals in nesting eagles. However, fulmars defend themselves by regurgitating a smelly, tar-like oily substance that can impair the flight of predators and may even kill some intended predators when it is in large quantity, and young juvenile eagles, being less cautious and experienced, are most prone to being severely "oiled". Alcids such as murres tend to become especially important in the diet of eagles in coastal Norway during winter, especially near offshore islands, when coastal fish tend to move to deeper waters. At least eight species of dabbling duck are known in the prey spectrum. Due to the social inclination of dabbling ducks, they perhaps have the most success hunting isolated birds but they've also been taken from panic-stricken flocks as well. Despite the difficulty of taking them, dabbling ducks of unidentified species were found to be the main food of white-tailed eagles in Lake Baikal, where they comprised 51.8% of 199 prey items. In Fennoscandia, they are attracted to coastal waters during winter to attack large numbers of diving ducks including eiders, common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), common (Mergus merganser) and red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator), tufted ducks (Aythya fuligula) and scoters. Year around in Åland, 66.2% of 5161 food items were birds, while in the three sites in different parts of Finland birds made up 51.1% of 3152 food items. In Germany, 52.4% of 1637 prey items were birds, mostly coots and unidentified waterfowl. More locally in Germany, in Müritz National Park the percentage of birds in the diet climbs to 65.73% Birds were strongly dominant in food records from Scotland, making up 73.53% of 1930 prey items, and in Kandalaksha Nature Reserve, where they comprised 75% of 523 prey items.
While most of the aforementioned water birds are modest of size and taken largely due to ease (diving water birds, whether healthy or infirm, and usually infirm or molting dabbling water birds), white-tailed eagles routinely attack larger water birds as well. In many areas, large numbers of graylag geese (Anser anser), Europe's largest native wild goose, are taken. For example, they were the main prey, making up 28.2% of 192 prey items, for wintering eagles in Oostvaardersplassen, Netherlands, and the second most often recorded prey species in both Müritz National Park (Germany), where they made up 16.42% of 247 prey items, and in Austria, where they made up 9.5% of 349 items. White-tailed eagles are known to prey on at least 10 species of geese, ranging in size from the red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) to the non-native Canada goose (Branta canadensis). They will take many goslings during summer, as greylag goslings alone can comprise up 23% of the seasonal bird prey, and fully-grown geese in other seasons. Large waders are taken when possible, including a half dozen heron species, and, larger still, both the young and adults of common cranes (Grus grus) and both the black and the white stork (Ciconia ciconia). Black and white storks are primary prey species in the Polesie State Radioecological Reserve, Belarus, where they comprised 12.6% (second most regular prey species) and 6.3% (fourth most regular) of the diet, respectively. Large numbers of black stork were also taken in Augustów Primeval Forest where nearly 50 were found around eagle nests. They are reported to have attacked and eaten the largest seabirds they encounter, such as great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) and in some cases, such as in the Baltic Sea, have nearly destroyed whole colonies, from the eggs to the adults which average about . In the Estonian island of Hiiumaa, home to at least 25 pairs of sea eagles, as many as 26 individuals have been observed simultaneously culling a single cormorant colony. Similarly large numbers were taken of the Japanese cormorant (Phalacrocorax capillatus), which was the second most numerous prey species, making up 11.63% of 533 prey items in Hokkaido, and opportunistically, when their north Atlantic colonies are accessed, great numbers of northern gannets (Morus bassanus). Vagrant white-tailed eagles in Hawaii were recorded to prey on several Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) and were suspected to prey on black-footed albatross (Phoebastria nigripes), both weighing about . Another large water bird taken as adults are common loons (Gavia immer). However, the largest water birds they are known to kill are adult swans, including mute (Cygnus olor), whooper (Cygnus cygnus) and Bewick's swans (Cygnus columbianus bewickii). While cygnets and disabled birds (either by natural conditions such as ice or by human hunters) are at the greatest risk for eagle predation, white-tailed eagles have prey upon even healthy adult swans weighing at least .
While land birds are a more infrequently part of the diet, at least 60 species have been recorded in the white-tailed eagles prey spectrum. For the most part, land birds are taken so infrequently as to not warrant much mention. However, variable numbers of gamebirds are taken opportunistically, and in Belarus and Russia, especially around the White Sea where ptarmigan are not infrequent prey, they will take a few grouse. White-tailed eagles are known to prey on some numbers of ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in Austria. They will at times attack adult male western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), of note for their large size at . However, this is dwarfed by the largest avian prey credited to a white-tailed eagle, an adult male great bustard (Otis tarda), which weighed an estimated (which, much like exceptionally large fish taken, must have been consumed in the killing spot or subsequently dismantled as too large to fly with). Among the land birds taken, more than 20 passerines are included in the prey spectrum but most are obviously too small and swift to be anything but incidental prey. The smallest avian prey known for white-tailed eagles was a great tit (Parus major), a species which weighs on average. On one hand, small bird prey may be under-recorded since they leave few conspicuous remains but, on the other, are unlikely worthy of much pursuit as they have little food value. However, in one case, a white-tailed eagle was seen to fly into a murmuration of Eurasian starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and come away with a starling in hand. The only passerine family taken in numbers would be the larger corvids, of which eight species are known in the prey spectrum. In Hokkaido, Japan, two species of corvid were well-represented in the diet, the large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) and the carrion crow (Corvus corone), which together comprised 14.8% of 533 prey items.
Mammals and other prey
Mammals are usually a quite secondary component of the diet. Although usually better represented than other non-fish and bird prey, their regional importance is variable. In known dietary studies, the mammalian contribution can vary from 0.49% to 41% of prey by number. When mammals are most significant to the diet, it usually due to local white-tailed eagles preying on rabbits and hares with some regularity. In some studies from Scotland, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and mountain hare (Lepus timidus) were found to contribute as much as nearly 25% of the diet. A similar contribution of European hares (Lepus europaeus) was found in the diet from Austria, where hares were the leading prey species making up 24.35% of 349 prey items (with mammals making up 34.67% of the overall diet). In studies from Germany, European hares were taken fairly often but were numerically secondary prey. Given that these rabbits and hares have average mature weights from in rabbits to in European and Arctic hares (Lepus arcticus), they can make a hearty contribution to the prey biomass when available (although certainly juveniles are attacked as much if not more so than adult rabbits and hares). Other large mammalian prey can include foxes, with Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) being the sixth most regular prey species in Greenland and about a dozen red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) recorded as taken or scavenged in Norway (predaceous attacks on adult red foxes have been reportedly witnessed). In both the offshore islands of Norway, where Arctic hare can be important prey, and Greenland, where the Arctic fox are prey, large numbers of both are taken when their pelage remains white but snow melts prematurely. A white-tailed eagle was once observed to kill and feed on a live adult golden jackal (Canis aureus) that was trapped in a furbearer's trap. White-tailed eagles are known to prey on seal pups but most are likely sickly and perhaps both adult and pup seals are most likely to be eaten as carrion. Four Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica) pups were taken in Lake Baikal. They are considered a predator even for live grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) pups that weigh at birth. In one instance, a white-tailed eagle reportedly tried to attack an adult harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) but was immediately dragged into the water and soon surfaced dying with a broken wing. Similarly, in one anecdote, an eagle drowned while apparently attacking an adult harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). At least seven species of mustelid have been recorded in the white-tailed eagle's diet, from the smallest weasel to, rarely, even adult European otters (Lutra lutra). Another mustelid, the American mink (Neogale vison) was introduced as a furbearer to Finland but then became an invasive pest, as a fast-breeding killer that threatens many native species. In turn, Finnish white-tailed eagles have become the main natural control and may inhibit the mink from breeding via heavy predation. Conversely, the white-tailed eagle have not been known to prey on the critically endangered, native European mink (Mustela lutreola) (perhaps due to its shier habits) which the American mink are known to have been outcompeting in some areas (but the European has mainly declined due to massive overhunting by humans as a furbearer). Kits of larger mammals such as Eurasian (Castor fiber) and North American beavers (Castor canadensis) (introduced) and of European badger (Meles meles) have been found as prey.
The most widely reported mammalian prey known (albeit usually as a supplemental prey species) in the non-native muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), which averages about , and may be taken from "muskrat farms" or feral wetland populations. While largely a supplemental prey item, a respectable number of 137 were recorded in the diet from Finland. Also, a study on the Ili delta in Kazakhstan has shown up to 30–43% of prey remains at eyries to consist of muskrat in spring and fall but only 14% in summer (for unknown reasons). In total, about 20 rodent species are known in the white-tailed eagle's prey spectrum. In some of the coldest climes of Russia, such as in the Ural mountains or the Kola peninsula, white-tailed eagles have been recorded to live on surprisingly high numbers of small rodents, comprising 13.8% and more than 21% of all prey remains, respectively. Even agile red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) may be caught from trees in some cases. The smallest rodents known in the prey spectrum are the common vole (Microtus arvalis) and the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) but mammalian prey down to the size of common shrews (Sorex araneus), indeed the smallest vertebrate known to have been preyed upon, has been recorded. On the other end of the size scale from rodents, more than a dozen ungulate species have been found in the foods of white-tailed eagles, but a very large proportion of this is likely from carrion found already dead. Very large food sources such as horses (Equus ferus caballus), moose (Alces alces), cattle (Bos taurus) and European bison (Bison bosanus) are certainly visited as carrion always. Wild ungulate species known to have their young attacked by white-tailed eagles in variable numbers may include deer such as reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Boar made up 7.1% of the prey remains at Polesski Reserve, Belarus. At least two successful attacks on adult roe deer have been reported, which could potentially weigh around (their average mature weight), in addition to several cases of predation on young roe deer. A yearling juvenile male eagle scaling , newly reintroduced into the wild on the isle of Rùm killed a healthy, red deer calf within a couple of days. One of the primary causes of the white-tailed eagles persecution by humans is that white-tailed eagles often feed on domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra aegagrus hircus), especially lambs and kids. However, they do not necessarily take healthy specimens and often feed on them after death, instead. Of 36 cases of feeding on lambs and kids by white-tailed eagles in Norway, only 12 could be proven to have been taken alive by the eagles.
Prey of other animal classes is rarely taken by white-tailed eagles. Particularly, the diversity of reptiles known in the prey spectrum, at only six species, is quite paltry when compared to the many species known to be hunted by the bald eagle. Further among amphibians only two species of toad are known to be taken. The Ural mountains is the only region where some diversity of reptile and amphibian species have been reported in their diet. In only the white-tailed eagles nesting in Hokkaido, they've been known to hunt large cephalopods such as robust clubhook squid (Onykia robusta) and giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini), though likely mainly younger specimens and those collected and perhaps injured by large-scale fishing operations. White-tailed eagle juveniles have been seen rarely foraging for unidentified clams and mussels on the Rhine. However, the miscellaneous shells of marine mussels and snails found in Norway are probably usually consumed secondarily from the stomachs of eiders. An exceptional number of insects, amounting to 24% of food items by number, were found in the foods of white-tailed eagles in Augustów Primeval Forest, almost entirely Odonata. The source of this food is not clear as the white-tailed eagle is far too large and bulky a raptor to invest much time in pursuit of insects.
Interspecies predatory relationships
As the largest eagle in the majority of its distribution, the white-tailed eagle is an apex predator in its range. In some areas it may compete with other large raptors, especially golden eagles. Relations between these two species are complex and variable. In Scotland, where both eagles have been reintroduced or re-established, competition is considerable. This is, in part, due to their diets being more similar here than elsewhere in their range, with both species preying heavily on rabbits and hares and being reliant on carrion all year round, whereas in most other areas both favor carrion mostly only in winter. As much as 90% of their diets in Scotland can overlap. The white-tailed eagle elsewhere usually prefers fish and water birds. Another factor is the reintroduction of white-tailed eagles occurred after golden eagles had been re-established in Scotland and that some of the golden eagles began to nest beyond their usually rocky, mountainous habitats, in or near trees in coastal or near lowland wet areas historically occupied by white-tailed eagles. More territorial conflicts between the species have been recorded in the last few decades. Given appropriate healthy populations and ample habitat, as in Norway, the golden and white-tailed eagles are considerably segregated in nesting regions and direct competition is much milder. In spite of a size advantage for the white-tailed eagle, the golden eagle is reportedly "strongly dominant" over the white-tailed in food conflicts and, perhaps, in direct nesting competition. This is in part because of the swifter, more agile flight of golden eagles, as well as their greater overall aggression towards other raptors and perhaps due to their somewhat longer toes and larger talons, although there is little evidence that the golden and white-tailed eagles are notably different in strength. In many intraguild diurnal raptor assemblages, a slightly smaller, swifter-flying species often dominate their heavier competitors unless size differences become extreme, to the contrary of owls and several other predators which often adhere fairly strictly to a size-based dominance hierarchy. Golden eagles won all food conflicts over carrion observed by one author over the course of two winters in Norway, with the white-tailed eagles only displacing goldens after the golden eagles had already fed for some time. However, cases of white-tailed eagles winning food conflicts have been reported as well and perhaps more assured mature white-tailed eagles may fare better in such conflicts. Some territorial conflicts in Scotland have escalated, albeit rarely, to both eagle species killing the other. White-tailed eagles are said to be "dominant", however, in population ecology as they can exist at higher population densities and typically outnumber golden eagles because of their longer gut and more efficient digestive system, being able to live better with less food. Notably, in competition in North America, neither the golden or bald eagle are said to be dominant and either species may win conflicts. Furthermore, bald eagles may succeed in procuring up to 25% of fresh golden eagle kills in winter and golden eagles are reported to decidedly avoid active nesting areas of bald eagles.
Beyond golden eagles, white-tailed eagles may live alongside a wide range of other large raptors, but other eagles are considerably different in dietary and habitat preferences, so there is almost no competitive effect. For example, in Kazakhstan, white-tailed eagles were recorded to nest in proximity to golden eagles, eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca) and steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis) and all four eagles appear almost entirely indifferent to the presence of the other species, given their considerable partitioning in diet and habitat preferences. More significantly than the Aquila species, the white-tailed eagle seemed to have no issue nesting within a few hundred metres of the other eagles. A more direct effect may be detected on other fish-eating birds, for example recovering numbers of white-tailed eagles in Lithuania was thought to limit local osprey populations. However, in similar habitats, white storks and lesser spotted eagles (Clanga pomarina) appeared to not be competitively effected. Besides competitive effects, white-tailed eagles may adversely effect ospreys by habitually robbing them of their catches. Besides the poorly studied relations between the Pallas's fish eagle and white-tailed eagle in the southern limits of the latter's Asian distribution, the only other Haliaeetus to live broadly alongside white-tailed eagles are Steller's sea eagles. Being larger and heavier, the Steller's is often characterized as a more powerful predator. Nonetheless, studies of the species ecologies show that the Steller's is a more restricted feeder on salmonids and that the Steller's tended to defend a smaller home range area than white-tailed eagles do in the Russian Far East. However, the Steller's appeared to be more flexible in readily switching nest sites between trees and rocky areas, whereas white-tailed eagles of this area exclusively nested in trees. Both species seemed to avoid active territories of the other but little direct conflict during breeding was detected. Although the Steller's sea eagle may be somewhat favored in wintertime food conflicts given its sometimes considerably larger size, both it and the white-tailed eagles have been observed to win conflicts over fish, with golden eagles sometimes entering the fray and sometimes losing or winning conflicts. Given their larger population and farther current range into warmer areas (whereas the modern white-tailed eagle is only common in cold, northern climes), bald eagles (the ecological equivalent of the white-tailed eagle in North America) have a considerably broader prey spectrum than white-tailed eagles that ranges well over 400 species, with more species recorded from nearly all animal taxon. Although about 56% of the bald eagle's diet is comprised by fish, bald eagles often take a higher diversity and numbers of alternate prey such as mammals, reptiles and amphibians than do white-tailed eagles.
Although other birds of prey are seldom caught, given that they are wary, fast and can defend themselves well, the white-tailed eagle can be characterized as an opportunistic predator of such birds. Indicating that they are regarded as a threat to raptors is that they are frequently mobbed by a wide range of raptor species when displaying active flights, to a similar regard that the perhaps more aggressively predatory golden eagle is. Given the difficulty of this prey type, white-tailed eagles are likely to attack other birds of prey when the victims are distracted, whether by migration on windy days, nesting duties or when trying to capture their own prey, are previously injured or they may even capture one while the raptor tries to mob the eagle. Certainly, nestlings and fledglings can certainly comprise a large fraction of the birds of prey caught as well as adult ones. Other accipitrids they are known to have preyed upon, in increasing order of size are the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), black kite (Milvus migrans), European honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), northern goshawk, red kite (Milvus milvus), lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina) and eastern imperial eagle, in addition to osprey. Non-accipitrid raptorial birds, these more likely restricted to fully independent birds due to their less conspicuous nests, known to fall prey to white-tailed eagles include Eurasian pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum), boreal owl (Aegolius funereus), Eurasian hobby (Falco subbuteo), long-eared owl (Asio otus), northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus) and Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo). Accipitrid prey size ranges by body mass ranges from for a sparrowhawk to in the imperial eagle and that of non-accipitrid raptors ranges from for the pygmy owl to for the eagle owl and apparently both imperial eagles and eagle owls that were caught were adults. As true apex predators, healthy adult white-tailed eagles have no known natural predators.
Breeding
Courtship and mating
The breeding season is from January to July in the south of the white-tailed eagles range, and from April to September in the northern part of their range. They pair for life, though if one dies replacement can occur quickly. A bond is formed when a permanent home range is chosen. White-tailed eagles frequently engage during early spring variously in soaring, sky-dancing and other aerial displays, all with much loud calling, often performed by pair members together, including spectacular mutual cartwheel downwards where talons touch or interlock. Nuptial displays may occur almost year-around in some parts of the range, increasing after young disperse in autumn, thence at rare intervals until spring when such behavior, of course, peaks. Courtship often begins with a bird, often the male, "sky pointing" or "long calling" by throwing their head back. Soaring by pairs follows, with either partner leading by or soaring opposite directions. One may swoop upon the other who responds by tilting to one side or may roll over to touch talons momentarily before separating. This may be repeated or gain intensity until they are talon-grappling or "mutual cartwheeling", consisting of the pair locking talons mid-air and whirling earthwards in series of spectacular cartwheels. When doing this, the pair may stop only a few feet above the ground. Talon grappling is usually associated with territorial clashes in most accipitrids, especially between males, but in Haliaeetus such behaviour also seems to be related to courtship and is engaged by pairs as well as males attacking intruding males. When locally common, 2–3 pairs can be seen displaying in the sky quite near each other but each pair in fact are within a border of a well-defined territory. In Greenland, recorded pair densities were 0.3–0.6 occupied territories per . In eastern Germany, densities were reported as 1.6–2 pairs per . Norwegian nests appear at no closer than ; territory size on Norwegian coasts were reported as roughly . Fischer noted 8–9 pairs on the small Norwegian island of Fugloy due to its huge seabird colonies, with late summer numbers boosting to 75 eagles, all within an area of only . Five occupied nests were noted on an stretch of the Russian Yenisei River. Mating chiefly occurs between mid-March and mid-April in most parts of the range. The pair may copulate be about once every 20 minutes for several hours. Prior to mating, a more skilled and graceful flying than usual may be undertaken by the male as the final stage of courtship. After his final display, the female crouches low, almost flat, with her head and neck outstretched, wings half open, and tail held level with the rest of the body. Mating has been recorded in white-tailed eagles to occur almost anywhere including a low perch, on the nest, on the ground or even on frozen lake surfaces, usually close to the nest at least but also at as far away from the nest as in Norway. Sometimes both members of the pair will assume the female's typical mating position simultaneously side-by-side until he jumps on her back. Once the male mounts he often calls loudly and flaps both wings to maintain his balance. After about 12 seconds he dismounts and sits quietly, ultimately will do so about 5 to 6 in 1.5 hours and at nearly any time of the day.
Nest characteristics
White-tailed eagles most often nest in large trees, with perhaps coniferous trees preferred and nests may be in a high main fork, on the canopy or a large side branch. Access to food is a key consideration in the nest's location in white-tailed eagles. In Germany, 75% of eyries were within of a lake, although one was away from any lake though was somewhat closer to the Baltic Sea. 80% of German nests were described as being in forests but eagles exhibited preferences for wooded islands or promontories and most nests were usually towards edge of open space: a clearing, marshy ground or even agricultural land. Among the few eyries in open land were never more than away from woods. Only one cliff nest was recorded in Germany, on the Baltic island of Rugen. Older records indicated ground nests also recorded in the German Baltic region. Most German nests were at heights from off ground in the main fork of trees, rarely on ample horizontal tree branches. Tree nest height is partially based on tree species, i.e. in Romania, on black poplars (Populus nigra) and willows nest height would was recorded at of the ground but one was on a broken tree at only from the ground. There in the lower Danube of Romania beyond the mainly utilized black poplars and willows, one was on "a weak oak sapling", six on high, thick oaks, five in white poplars (Populus alba), two in beeches and one in a wild pear tree. Another quote on eyrie height along the Danube was at above the ground. Trees used for nests in Hokkaido were often the tallest in a stand, averaging higher than the average tree height in their stand. Tree species preferred here were Picea glehnii and Alnus japonica. Nest height in Hokkaido was similar to that in Europe at above the ground. In eastern Germany, among 177 nests, 65% were in mature pines, 22% in copper beeches (Fagus sylvatica), 8% in oak with the remainder in alder, elm, poplar and birch. The German eyries ranged in height from , averaging , usually in tallest trees available. Nests can be on crags, whether or not trees may be available, depending on regional habitat. In 98 Norwegian eyries, only eight were in trees, the rest were on cliffs. In comparison, against the 86% nests that were on cliffs in Norway, 79% known in Scotland were too, 77% in Iceland and all known Greenlandic nests were in cliffs or other rocky spots. Nest height on cliffs can be over above the nearest flat ground. Rarely, they may nest on the ground or a low hummock, as well as smaller trees, low bushes, on sand banks or among reed beds. Showing their adaptability, one pair even nested on a buoy on a Norwegian shipping route.
Nests are usually huge, constructed of sticks and branches, averaging roughly across and up to deep, but can be several metres in width & depth, lined variously with moss, greenery, seaweed or wool. The nest must have easy access for the eagles with a clear view of the surrounding environment, shelter from the elements and protection from nest predators. In forest of Finland, it has been estimated that perhaps only one in a thousand trees will prove attractive to white-tailed eagles. Cliff nests often include lesser materials, some may be only a scooped shallow depression of soil, or pile of heather or juniper stems with stipes of dried Laminaria, but also sticks up to and several cm thick may be incorporated; almost any material available may line the nests such as seaweed, driftwood, even glass or metal floats and, in one to two cases, the dried skeleton a sheep. In tree nests, the average nest diameter is about , with nests in trees tending to be larger, more rigid and stronger. A relatively new four-year-old nest weighed and one about twice that age can exceed in mass. Some tree nests may range easily up to in diameter and deep after many repairs over years, with extreme sizes of perhaps another metre in diameter and depth, or "twice the height of a man". Tree nests may be lined with lichen, moss, seaweed, ferns, grass, woodrush, heather or Empetrum; many tree nests may be lined with sheep's wool. The male of the pair more often brings nesting branches, while female takes the primary role in construction. A nest may be added to by the resident pair at as early as December onwards, but usually do so starting in March at high latitudes. A new nest may take several months to construct, but if an old nest is lost in late winter, pairs have been known to build a new nest faster than average in less than a month, however egg laying may be inhibited in such cases. Repair to an existing nest can take about 18 days. White-tailed eagles have also used nests built by other species: black kite, common buzzard, common raven (Corvus corax) and, subsequent to the eagles evicting them, ospreys and red kites. Eastern imperial eagles, saker (Falco cherrug) and peregrine falcons have used old white-tailed eagles nests, in the two swift falcon species they've been recorded in evicting pairs of white-tailed eagles from their eyries with persistent dive-bombing. In one case, after having been displaced by humans from an eyrie that had seen 30 years of white-tailed eagle use, an eagle pair returned to find the nest occupied by peregrine falcons. Despite many dogfights, the eagles constructed a nest higher up in the same tree. Although fighting continued, both species succeeded in raising one fledgling each. In Norway, pairs of ravens, peregrines and white-tailed eagles have been known to successfully nest on the same cliff face. Many small species of bird may nest in the immediate area of white-tailed eagle eyries, presumably due to incidental protection: Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), white wagtail (Motacilla alba), Eurasian treecreepers (Certhia familiaris), common redstarts (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), European crested tits (Lophophanes cristatus), Eurasian starlings and stock doves (Columba oenas). Like in the golden eagle, pairs of white-tailed eagles often build multiple nests on their home range over time and use them randomly over different years (sometimes using one for several consecutive years or changing nests every year over several years). The species may build from 1 to 11 nests, averaging 2.5 in Norway with pairs with up to five nests being not uncommon in that country.
Eggs and incubation
Individual white-tailed eagles tend to be remarkably consistent on egg-laying times from year to year, seemingly regardless of surrounding weather conditions. Egg laying does vary of course by latitude. Historic breeders from Israel and Iran (where they still usually breed) were reported to lay eggs in January, while in Greece and the lower Volga river it is during February, in Germany mostly during March and in the subarctic of Lapland, Finland and northern Russia, to as late as late April to early May. White-tailed eagles in Scotland seem to have average egg laying about three weeks later, late March to early April, than those in coastal Norway. Even near Arctic in Finland, eggs were found as early as 5 March despite ranging often to as late as May. Younger pairs may nest later on average than older ones. In white-tailed eagles, many (perhaps a majority) of clutches consist of two eggs, especially in Irish and Scottish nests, with three egg clutches being considered uncommon to rare there. Four egg clutches have been recorded on the Isle of Skye, as well as in at least Poland, Romania and Norway. Clutch size in Scotland averages 1.56, while in Norway it is 2.16. The eggs are a broad oval shape and dull white in colour, sometimes with a glossy sheen and are usually unmarked but for occasional yellowish stain. Fresh egg weigh from , with an average of approximately for the first egg and for the second. If replacement clutch is laid, usually a single egg is laid which may weigh as little as . Average egg dimension seem to keep in accordance with the female body size, smallest mean size known were from Turkey where the average dimensions were to the largest in three surveys from Greenland, where they were . In 54 eggs from Scotland they ranged from , averaging , in height by , averaging , in width. In comparison, 90 eggs from mainland Europe ranged from , averaging , by , averaging . Eggs may be compromised quickly by frost and snow in relatively early clutches. Incubation starts as soon as the first egg is laid. In the species, a 2–3 day interval between the first and second egg being laid (as well as hatching) is recorded. The female does up to 80–90% of incubation and all known nighttime incubating. However, in Norway, the male of a pair could contribute up to about 27% of incubation to daylight hours. There may be as many as 11 changes of the incubating individual within a day. The longest period recorded the clutch was unguarded was 20 minutes, although one pair perched nearby the nest without incubating for 48 minutes. The clutches in Norway left alone only 2–4% of the time. In some cases female may do all the incubation alone, however. When the female is off the nest, she sometimes kills prey and returns with a full crop, but prey capture during incubation is often up to the male. Late into incubation, shift changes decreases and the female will sit tight and will crouch down at the approach of a human rather than leave the nest. Calling and displaying are reduced during incubation, but occasionally both may leave the clutch and display still. The time range for incubation can vary from 34 to 46 days, but usually are between 38 and 42 days. A calculated mean time range for incubation of 38.3 days.
Hatching, development and fledgling
In 1983, it was listed that brood size is one 56.5% of the time and two 40.8% of the time in eight studies from different parts of the range; only 2.5% of these studies had a brood size of three and only one from Norway was a brood size of four recorded. From 14 studies, the mean number of chicks in a brood may range from 1.1 in western Germany to 1.9 in southern Kazakhstan, with average overall brood size of 1.52. However, these datasets may be skewered lower than natural brood size as a majority these are from the mid to late 20th century when pesticide use considerably lowered the mean number of hatchlings in many parts of the range. New hatchlings will weigh about but in Hokkaido new hatchlings were surprisingly notably heavier at . The sex of nestlings can be identified using field methods, or using DNA. Initially, the hatchlings have a creamy white down which is longest and whitest on the head and often dirty grayish on wings and rump. Before they start walking about the nest, their underside may have several bare patches. The nestlings first become audible at around 2–3 days and have become active enough to move around the nest and excrete over the nest edge by 10 days old. The initial down is replaced by a thick woolly coat of longer, coarser grayish down, which is usually darker on the crown, underparts and flanks. The legs and cere at this young nestling age can range from pinkish to pale yellow. By about 30 days the first feathers poke through the down. The eaglets can feed themselves starting at 35–40 days. At six weeks (40 days) they are more firm on their feet and between this and the following week feathers take over the down, with patches of down remaining but usually gone by the seventh week. Wing flapping begins only when the wings are partially feathered at 42 days. Around seven weeks of age, the eaglet is more alert and stronger and frequently manipulates sticks and walks more so. At eight weeks, only the long feathers of the wing and tail have yet to develop fully and eaglets tend to start exploring the surrounding branches. The eaglets will attempt their first flight at about 70 days and will usually be flying well by about 90 days of age. Fledgling occurs around mid- to late July in Norway, and about 3–4 weeks later in Russian White Sea.
The female of the white-tailed eagle pair seems to do all the brooding early on and will be especially reluctant to leave the nest as well. Thereafter, at 14 to 28 days, brooding behaviour by the female gradually declines. The male may start to brood occasionally around this time period but will not do so at night. Females may sit on the nest or shelter the fledglings from rain even 28 days after fledging but usually such behavior is much reduced. Chicks may be fed as many as 11 times in 24 hours by the female who usually dismantles prey brought by the male. To 28 days, male continues to do most of the prey capture but thereafter female does much of it and both parents begin to leave kills on the nest for the eaglets to consume. As the chicks grow older, favored food often switches from fish to birds to meet their increasing food requirements as well as prey behavior as waterfowl may be flightless during eclipse. Caches are often depleted quickly late into nestling development. At start of fledgling, 4–5 carcasses may be brought in a week but by the end of fledgling, only one or two are usually brought, probably to encourage the young to start their own prey captures. After leaving the nest, the young usually stay nearby for another 35–40 days and may still be largely fed by their parents but gradually learn to take their own prey. In continental Europe, the young eagles are gone from the nest as early as the beginning of July to about 10 August and fully independent by late August. In this late summer stage, they may learn quickly to feed on stranded fish or to capture ducks flightless in eclipse. Juvenile eagles may remain for a long time on their parents range and apparently are not resented or repelled even to the ages of 1–3 years. However, usually by their first winter they will have congregated with other unrelated juveniles. Communal juvenile roosts in Norway can maintain 30–40 white-tailed eagles usually in trees or steep slopes of offshore islands. Sexual maturity is reached at 5–6 years of age.
Nesting failures and longevity
Normally, white-tailed eagles succeed in raising one or two young from a clutch of two, and two from a clutch of three. The average breeding success seems to be about 1.1–1.6 young per annum (i.e. 45–48 young from 40 observed cases, with 16 failures) (1.6 young per pair in 93 recorded Norwegian nests). About 33% of nesting attempts will fail to produce any young, and this is sometimes as many as 75% (at times of heavy persecution or pesticide use). Beyond manmade threats to white-tailed eagle nestlings, starvation and nest collapse are considerable causes of nestling deaths. Natural threats in the nest may also include siblicide (or "cainism") wherein the largest nestling behave aggressively and gradually kill their smaller sibling, which is often consumed. Despite claims to contrary, siblicide in white-tailed eagle does occur with some regularity in some parts of the range, from Germany to Hokkaido although is certainly less frequent than in some eagle species, including the golden eagle. Single cases were reported in the White Sea and Iceland, and it may occur situationally as in many birds of prey when prey populations are low or prey capture is inhibited by poor weather. Siblicide can be avoided in white-tailed eagles with manipulative techniques, which may include taking out and hand-rearing the runt, put a chick into a nest with slightly younger brood which it is about the same size as, or taking the first egg out and putting it back in later so it develops evenly with its younger sibling. Surplus chicks are sometimes removed from nests to use in reintroduction programs in areas where the species has died out. If left in the nest, they often die sooner or later, as with most large eagles. In such programs the birds are raised in boxes on platforms in the tree canopy and fed in such a way that they cannot see the human supplying their food, until they are old enough to fly and thus find their own food.
Known natural predators of white-tailed eagle eggs and nestlings include red foxes, martens and bears, especially if nesting in overly accessible rock formations, while wild boars have been recorded eating eggs and nestlings that’ve fallen out of the nest too early. Avian predation, overall a seemingly rare occurrence, of white-tailed eagle eggs and nestlings have been reported as crows, common ravens and western marsh harriers, which are likely to succeed in cases where nest attendance is low or if successful in driving away the parents via fierce mobbing. Furthermore, Eurasian eagle owls have been reported to prey upon "fairly large" nestlings of white-tailed eagle in nighttime ambushes. Many juveniles do not survive their first year post-independence. In the 1970s, an average of 56% banded first-year white-tailed eagles in Norway, Sweden and Greenland were found dead, most often having been shot. In eastern Germany, of 194 white-tailed eagles found dead between 1946 and 1972, of those where cause of death could be determined, 39% had been shot, accidents (especially powerlines) accounted for 6%, territorial disputes 7.5% and conservatively 13% were from poisoning. It is estimated that the survival of those that reach adulthood at 70%. Another estimate of average lifespan for those who reach adulthood is just over 12 years. Widely reported individuals have been found to live for 25 years or more, Another estimate of mean lifespan (presumably without persecution) is 21 years. At one point, the oldest banded white-tailed eagle known in the wild known lived for 27 years. However, a wild eagle of the species was subsequently recorded to life for 33.1 years. White-tailed eagles in captivity have lived for more than 40 years, though their exactly captive longevity record is not known. A male white-tailed eagle that was ringed as a chick on the Isle of Skye in 1994, was recorded on the Isle of Mull in early 2022 at the advanced age of 28 years old. His mate, a female white-tailed eagle that hatched in 1992 on Mull, will now be 30 years old although her identity has not been confirmed.
Relationship with humans
Extirpations
The white-tailed eagle formerly bred over much wider area, extending west to much of western Europe and perhaps south almost continuously in that region to the Mediterranean. From the 19th century, the species underwent a huge, well-documented decline. Ultimately the white-tailed eagle was almost extinct in Europe, extirpated from all but Scandinavia (mainly remaining in Norway) and some sparse patches of eastern Europe. They were extinct in the entire British Isles by the early 1900s. At one time, the white-tailed eagle bred down to Egypt in Africa, particularly around Lake Manzala with individuals wandering rarely to Algeria and Tunisia. It is likely that habitat degradation and drying conditions caused the extirpation of the species as all but a vagrant in Egypt. Two pairs that nested in the Jordan Valley ceased to breed, apparently due to agricultural chemicals, in the early 1950s. The species also once bred in northern Syria but is not found reliably there even in winter in modern times.
Causes of decline
In Britain, the opinion towards white-tailed eagles became negative in sync with the creation of farmland and commercial fishing, as it was quickly perceived that they were competitors for resources and could deplete the livelihood of flocks for shepherds (despite this being largely untrue) and game animals for gamekeepers. Therefore, laws were passed to facilitate their destruction. Already by the end of the 18th century, down from breeding in all appropriate habitat, the English population was down to only localized breeding, namely in the Isle of Wight, Lundy, Isle of Man and (probably) near Plymouth; within a couple of decades the species only remained in the Lake District. Before the advent of firearms, few people in England and Scotland were highly motivated to kill eagles since this could be time-consuming and hazardous process, therefore the British government rose the bounty on eagles to a very high 5 shillings a head by the turn of the 18th century. Unfortunately, eyries in many coastal sites were found to be easily accessible so that destroying or selling eggs was common. Subsequent to systematic persecution, in Greenland 62% of eyries found to be "easily accessible" and only 13% foiled all attempts to reach them. Similar findings were found in sea cliff nests in Iceland, Norway and Scotland. White-tailed eagles are more vulnerable to direct persecution than golden eagles since most nests are highly accessible for white-tailed eagle but not for golden eagles which usually nest in mountainous, precipitously rocky terrain, in contrast to sea cliff nests of which 67–87% were found to be accessible. Before firearms were widely available in Scotland and Norway automatic traps were utilized wherein carrion was laid out to entice an eagle with a person hiding in a near subterranean trap waited until the eagle was distracted, at that point grabbing the eagle by the leg. Petrified by the darkness once dragged below, white-tailed eagles apparently offer no resistance once caught. However, habitat had to be favorable and even when conditions were correct, success at capture as such was low. The main driver of declines before firearms and industrialized poisons was habitat alterations. After about the 1840s, firearms became available and declines accelerated considerably, by 1916 the last nesting pair in all of Britain attempted to raise a brood on the isle of Skye. While other ecological factors have been considered in this decline, stringent research has shown the extirpation here was fully correlated to intentional, rapacious predation by man. Many gamekeepers poisoned and shot eagles and destroyed nearly any nest they encountered. A few more enlightened landowners forbade the killing of eagles but there's evidence that the gamekeepers sometimes chose to destroy eagles regardless of the rule of law. On deer forest, eagles were tolerated later than in other British areas, but destructions accelerated there by the late 1800s. Also many white-tailed eagles were poisoned by shepherds who considered it enemy of the flock. Elsewhere in Europe, persecution rates in the 19th and 20th century were just as drastic. In Romania, more than 400 white-tailed eagles were killed in two decades by a single hunter. In Norway between 1959 and 1968, an average of 169 eagles were killed annually; with a maximum of 221 in 1961. Around the year 1860, an author estimated that about 400 were being killed annually throughout Germany. Between 1946 and 1972 in eastern Germany, a total of 194 dead white-tailed eagles were found, about half of them shot, after governmental protection of the species had been instituted there.
Top predators, especially those that are aquatic and coastal, are almost immediately vulnerable upon exposure to DDT. Therefore, white-tailed eagles are highly susceptible to this pesticide, as are similar fish eaters, such as otters, and bird eaters, such as peregrine falcons. Distributed by man nearly across the developed world as an insecticide in the 1950s, by the early 1970s, authors found many species of bird experienced reduced egg shell thickness. Thus the incubating parents inadvertently crushed their normally hardy eggs and, in turn, many water birds and raptors had their nesting success dropped precipitously. In fact, the species was found to have the highest concentration of DDT of any European raptor. Egg shell thickness was found down from prior to 1935 from 1969 to 1975 down to only , a 16% reduction. In Sweden, coastal birds were considerably more effected by DDT than the inland birds of Lapland, Sweden. In eastern Germany, where pesticide use was heavy, only 1 out of 28 nesting attempts were known to succeed in 1976. Overall, about 75% nesting attempts failed in western Germany, Finland and the Swedish Baltic area. Other environmental pollutants affecting the species include heavy metals which affect individuals through bioaccumulation. The amount of white-tailed eagles killed by mercury poisoning rose from 6.4% during 1946–1957 to 24.6% in 1958–1965 in Germany. It was estimated that pesticides and metal contaminations reduced the white-tailed eagle population in Hungary from 1957 to 1967 by about 50–60%. Lead poisoning, caused by lead bullets left in carcasses that the white-tailed eagles will eat in winter, is also another issue faced by the species. Fatal and near fatal levels of lead exposure continues to be a major issue in the 21st century in many parts of the range, at least from Poland to Hokkaido. Despite regulations on their usage, lead and mercury poisonings were found to be the cause of death of 61 white-tailed eagles found in Germany from 1993 to 2000.
Conservation measures
In order to offset the numerous chemical and metal based poisoning that humans were inadvertently exposing the species to, a widespread operation was undertaken to feed white-tailed eagles uncontaminated foods in Sweden. Here, carcasses from slaughterhouses placed in areas free of human disturbance, usually fields, bogs, marshes or frozen lakes, from October to March (after these months, the eagles will ignore carrion in favor of capture of live prey). Apparently, breeding success improved from 29% to 44% when the program began. In southern Sweden subsequent to the feedings, 5 of 11 breeding pairs were successful and two previously unoccupied territories were taken over by new pairs, thus winter feeding was seemingly highly beneficial to local eagles. Similar winter feeding stations set up in Finland from 1972 to 1978. In Sweden, brood size has varied from 1.3 per nest prior to 1950, down to 0.3 in 1965–1985. Now the brood sizes have increased, at somewhat less than one brood size on average, but still somewhat less productivity than historical numbers. In several parts of the European range, especially southern Scandinavia and central Europe, protections have allowed white-tailed eagles to recolonize former parts of their range. Since recolonizing Schleswig-Holstein, Germany in 1947, numbers have increased slowly; from 1975–2008, increases were recorded at 6.7% in population per annum and enjoyed much higher productivity. Perhaps particularly key has been conserving white-tailed eagle habitats. In the 1970s, 75% of the potential and current white-tailed eagle territories became protected in Schleswig-Holstein. In Poland, 78% of forests are state owned and clusters of 10 or more trees are preserved around each white-tailed eagle eyrie. The Swedish Forest Service limits logging activities to within of a nest tree which expands to within during breeding season; however this acts not as a law but only as an advisory where the eyries are located on private land. Limits on recreational activity were established as these can disturb white-tailed eagle nests especially in well-trodden countries such as Germany and Sweden, but even in the remote Russian Kandalaksha. In northern Finland, artificial eyries were constructed for their use. Out of 19, 14 were visited by white-tailed eagle, eggs laid in at least nine, and two ultimately fledged young. Regulations have been established on direct use of pesticides that harm white-tailed eagles such as DDT, however because of political variances, despite widespread monitoring, not at all areas are strictly protected. Similarly, regulations on lead usage in hunting has been inconsistent in comparison with the stronger efforts to ban lead bullet fragments in North America. The residuals of mercury from various fungicides (now banned), air particles and pollution run-off water have caused huge concentrations in fish of many different areas, which continues to effect humans as well as entire ecosystems of wildlife. Unfortunately, methylmercury is still difficult to manage in Europe as it is elsewhere.
Reintroduction
The first attempts at reintroduction in Scotland were in 1959 in Glen Etive, Argyll abortively, followed by a better informed but also ultimately unsuccessful attempt on Fair Isle in 1968. Successful reintroduction into Scotland did not occur until the 1970s, with the isle of Rùm in the inner Hebrides being chosen because of its large size () with access to the isle of Skye (where last native pair known in Britain last bred in 1916) and it is only from the mainland. Also Rùm hosts large seabird colonies that make for viable prey, including eider (Somateria mollissima), shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), auks and gulls; as well as one of the few in Britain of manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus). Furthermore, mainly as a source of carrion, were a population of around 1500 red deer and 200 feral goats; otters and gulls were also numerous and available to kleptoparasitize. The birds to be used for reintroduction were gathered as nestlings from western Norway, as this is the nearest native breeding population. The young eagles were either kept in high grade fowl cages or tethered all within reach of an artificial eyrie, cover and feeding stations. Direct human contact, which the naturally wild young eagles tended to shun anyway, is minimal short of veterinary care. Releases were carried by taking bird out tethered, wearing a leather hood to prevent imprinting and then releasing with a radio-monitor. Most of the eagles, despite no direct parenting, turned out to be competent hunters within a couple of weeks or do well at stealing meals, including from other released eagles. Despite some dying before release due to illness and some found dead subsequent to release, most survived. A total of 95 birds were received for the Rùm reintroductions and 82 were successfully released between 1975 and 1987. The white-tailed eagle now breeds throughout the Western Isles and the mainland coast of Wester Ross. However, a low reproductive output of reintroduced Scottish eagles was recorded in 1996, and it was advocated that additional releases were needed. In August 2008, an additional fifteen chicks raised in Norway were released at a secret location in Fife, in expectation of reintroducing the species to the east coast of Scotland as well. Breeding success of reintroduced birds in Scotland (from 1975–1985 & 1993–1998) is moderate compared overall in species, in 1982–1992: productivity was 0.38, with a mean fledgling number 1.61. In comparison, for the years 1993 to 2000, productivity was 0.61 and fledgling number was 1.48, while in 2000–2007, productivity was 0.7 and mean fledgling number 1.44. Overall in Britain, there are estimated 36 breeding pairs in 2006 and 40 in 2008. Juvenile survival rates are somewhat low overall compared to other areas. Reintroduction efforts succeeded in the Bohemia area of the Czech Republic as well, where the biologists similarly followed the guidelines of guarding of occupied eyries and provision of safe foods.
The white-tailed eagle is also being reintroduced to Ireland, where its Irish name of Iolar Mara (sea eagle) reflects its historic association with the island's long coast. The Irish program was begun in the summer of 2007. Fifteen to twenty young eagles from Norway are being released each spring into the Killarney National Park in the south-west of Ireland. This comprehensive project will last a number of years, with many more eagles being released. The species has a rich history on the island but became extinct in Ireland in the 1900s due to persecution from landowners. The last pair bred on the coast of Mayo in 1912. In 2007, a hundred local sheep farmers gathered at Kerry airport to protest the eagles' arrival. Irish Farming Association Hill Committee chairman Mr O'Leary said he had no doubt the eagles would take lambs. Since their reintroduction seven eagles have been confirmed poisoned in County Kerry, two suspected of having been poisoned, and one shot. A 13th eagle released in Kerry was shot in Northern Ireland. Twenty more eagles were due for release in 2010. However, Dr Allan Mee, in charge of the sea eagle project, stated "the continuing loss of eagles to poisoning had cast a shadow over the future of the ambitious programme." The first white-tailed eagle breeding pair since 1912 nested one hundred years later on Lough Derg (Loch Deirgeirt), marking a great success for the Irish reintroduction programme. In early May 2013, the first eaglets were born in Ireland since the re-introduction programme began; one in the Killarney National Park and two in County Clare. In Spring 2015, five nests hatched chicks in four counties in Ireland – Clare, Cork, Galway and Kerry.
In 2019, a reintroduction project on the Isle of Wight was approved by the British government. It is hoped that establishing a breeding population in the coastal county will lead to the species re-colonising the South Coast. Following the release of six juveniles on the island in 2019, individuals were sighted across Southern England, and one of the six, a male named Culver (after Culver Down, a local landmark on the Isle of Wight near the town of Sandown) embarked on a tour of South-East England shortly after being released, and was sighted over Central London after ranging through Hampshire, East Sussex and Surrey, continuing through Essex, Kent and West Sussex.
In May 2021, the group leading the Isle of Wight reintroduction project, the Roy Dennis Wildlife Foundation, were given permission by Natural England to start a second reintroduction project, this time in Norfolk, thus reintroducing the white-tailed eagle to East Anglia. Up to 60 birds are to be released over a span of 10 years at Wild Ken Hill in West Norfolk.
Current status
Densities of white-tailed eagles have greatly increased in some parts of the range due to conservation efforts. Some threats still remain, notably illegal persecution by gamebird shooting and egg thieves in Scotland. In prime habitat in north Europe, distance between breeding pairs can be only (even as little as locally) such as in Norway, density at one Polish forest were even reported at 6–7 in each square kilometer. In the late 1990s, it was estimated that Russia held as many as 5,000 to 7,000 pairs, with around 175 pairs in Greenland and almost 3,500 pairs in Europe, led by Norway (1,500+ pairs), European Russia (900–1,100), Poland (180–240), Germany (140–150) and Sweden (100–150). The largest population in Europe is found along the coast of Norway. The Norwegian population in 2008 was claimed to have stood at 9,000–11,000 pairs, much larger than prior estimates, and indeed this may refer to the total number of individuals rather than total breeding pairs. Even in the early 1980s, Norway maintained a population greater than all other European white-tailed eagle populations combined. In isolation, Turkey holds merely 10–30 pairs. Over 500 winter in Japan, mainly Hokkaido, but this island may have only 20 pairs breeding. Strong increases were recorded in Croatia, with no less than 135 breeding pairs estimated in Croatia by 2009, up from only 25–30 in 2007.
Beyond the threat of chemical poisonings, a new threat from wind turbines is emerging with significant mortality (considerably in excess of the area's population productivity) occurring at the Smøla Wind Farm in Norway. From 2005 to 2010, 36 birds were killed by wind farm on the isle of Smøla, including four of the 45 recent radio-tagged fledglings. Breeding attempts within of the wind farm were considerably reduced in success. The white-tailed eagles of the region seem to have no behavioral avoidance capabilities, as in many raptors, since the blades are not visible at close range. In a recovering population in north-east Germany, a trade-off between the distance to neighbouring breeding pairs and to the nearest water body (the birds' favoured foraging habitat) was found. This indicates that pairs may be increasingly selecting suboptimal habitats to reduce competition as the population increases, and has implications in the management of such populations.
White-tailed eagles have apparently re-established themselves as a native breeding species in numerous countries: Austria (now breeding in extreme northwestern portions), Denmark (where broadly re-established as breeders), the Czech Republic and Slovakia (scattered pairs in both now with reintroductions factoring in the Czech Republic), Hungary, and Bulgaria. In Denmark (excluding Greenland where the species never was extirpated as a breeder and there are 150–200 pairs in the south), in just 16 years, the breeding population increased from none to at least 37 pairs by 2011. In 2019, about 130 young were successfully reared by 80 pairs in Denmark (another five pairs did not fledge any young), far surpassing the initial goals of the species' recovery program in the country. In Hungary, re-establishment (starting from none in the 1970s) has also been a success, where 114 out of 166 breeding pairs by 2007 were successful producing altogether 182 fledged young. Wintering Hungarian population may now reach about a thousand eagles. In Lithuania, back in 1985 no pairs were known to have bred but established pairs numbered 90 by 2007 and swelled to 120 by 2011. On 22 May 2006, it was announced that a pair of white-tailed eagles breeding in the Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve in the Netherlands had arrived on their own, not as a reintroduction. This was the first time the bird has bred in the Netherlands in living memory. In 2007, 2008 and 2009 the eagles returned to their nest. The Dutch national forestry, which owns the reserve, installed a webcam trained on the nesting eagles. In 2010, it turned out that the white-tailed eagle was also breeding in the Zwarte Meer nature district and in the Lauwersmeer area. There is also a confirmed case of breeding white-tailed eagles in the Biesbosch. Currently (2017), there are around ten pairs breeding spread over Dutch country.
Studies of microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA in white-tailed eagles from north-central Europe have shown that the recovering European population has retained appreciable amounts of genetic diversity, implying low risk of inbreeding depression (a serious concern in species with low population density). Therefore, recovery of this formerly endangered species is a true success story for nature conservation. The story also shows how local protection of a species can be successful and important for preserving the species' evolutionary potential. In total, as of 2013, the IUCN estimated the world population of white-tailed eagles at 20,000–49,999 individuals.
Heraldry
White-tailed eagle are prominent in ancient Saxon folklore and artwork with many landmarks named after the species.
It is believed to be the White eagle shown in the German Coat of arms, Polish coat of arms and in the Serbian coat of arms. The sea eagle is often blazoned grasping a fish (usually a pike) in its talons, distinguishing it from an ordinary eagle.
Prehistory
On Orkney, Scotland, sea eagle bones have been found in 6,000-year-old burial mounds, among them the Tomb of the Eagles, suggesting that the birds were revered by the prehistoric people there, a belief strengthened by the Pictish stone carvings of sea eagles from Orkney. Cut marks have been found in white-tailed eagle talons in Krapina, suggesting Neanderthals' use of jewellery.
Folklore
In the Shetland Isles, Scotland, fishermen believed that as soon as a sea eagle appeared fish would rise to the surface, belly up; this led to some fishermen using eagle fat, smeared on their bait, to increase their catch.
References
Citations
Cited works
. The authors' reservations about using the generalised "2%" rate of molecular evolution have since proven to be well founded.
Further reading
Identification
Extinction in Scotland
External links
White-tailed Eagle Webcam - Smøla, Norway
White-tailed Eagle at RSPB: Birds by Name
Live webcam nest White-tailed Eagle, Oostvaardersplassen, Netherlands.
Fieldguide page on Flickr
White-tailed Eagles in Scotland. BBC website.
white-tailed eagle
Articles containing video clips
Birds of prey of Eurasia
Birds of Russia
white-tailed eagle
white-tailed eagle
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] |
201577
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20fiber%2C%20nonconductive%2C%20riser
|
Optical fiber, nonconductive, riser
|
Optical fiber, nonconductive, riser (OFNR) is a type of optical fiber cable.
As designated by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), this name is used for interior fiber-optic cables which contain no electrically conductive components, and which are certified for use in riser applications; they are engineered to prevent the spread of fire from floor to floor in a building. Typically they are tested for compliance with ANSI/UL 1666–1997, Standard Test for Flame Propagation Height of Electrical and Optical-Fiber Cable Installed Vertically in Shafts. NFPA NEC 2005 Art 770.51(B) FPN.
They are distinct from optical fiber, nonconductive, plenum cable (OFNP), and general-purpose optical cable.
Related abbreviations
Underwriters Laboratories defines the following related abbreviations:
OFC: Optical fiber, conductive
OFN: Optical fiber, nonconductive
OFCG: Optical fiber, conductive, general use
OFNG: Optical fiber, nonconductive, general use
OFCP: Optical fiber, conductive, plenum
OFNP: Optical fiber, nonconductive, plenum
OFCR: Optical fiber, conductive, riser
OFNR: Optical fiber, nonconductive, riser
References
Optical fiber
|
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] |
201580
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Macedonian
|
USS Macedonian
|
Two ships in the United States Navy have been named USS Macedonian.
The first was a 38-gun sailing frigate, originally of the Royal Navy, captured by Stephen Decatur in the War of 1812.
The second was rebuilt from the keel of the first Macedonian and placed in service in 1836.
United States Navy ship names
|
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201582
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narashino
|
Narashino
|
is a city located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.
, the city had an estimated population of 175,292 in 81,985 households and a population density of 8400 persons per km². The total area of the city is
Geography
Narashino is located in far northwestern Chiba Prefecture, bordered by Tokyo Bay to the southwest, and the prefectural capital of Chiba to the east. It is approximately 20 to 30 kilometers from central Tokyo.
The city is located on the Shimōsa Plateau and reclaimed land fill on Tokyo Bay, with a large difference in elevation from the inland area to the coastal area.
Surrounding municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
Chiba
Funabashi
Yachiyo
Climate
Narashino has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Narashino is 15.4 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1410 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.9 °C.
Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Narashino increased rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, and at a slower pace since.
History
The area around Narashino has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeologists have found shell middens and numerous other remains from Jōmon period, as well as burial tumuli from the Kofun period. However, for most of its history, the area was a sparsely populated wetland and swamp along the northern shore of Edo Bay.
After the Meiji Restoration, was founded within Chiba District on April 1, 1889 on the merger of five small hamlets with a total population of 4500 people. The area only began to develop with the coming of the railway, and Tsudanuma was raised to town status on March 3, 1903, with a population of 6000.
The Narashino area of Tsudanuma was used for cavalry maneuvers by the Imperial Guard and the early Imperial Japanese Army, and was visited by the Meiji Emperor early in the Meiji period (1868 – 1912). A prisoner of war camp was built in 1904 to house POWs from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and World War I. The Imperial Japanese Army Narashino School was the main training school for cavalry, and later for tank warfare.
On August 1, 1954, Tsudanuma merged with a portion of the neighboring city of Chiba (the former town of Makuhari) to form the new city of Narashino.
Neighborhoods
Akanehama
Akitsu
Fujisaki
Hanasaki
Higashi-Narashino
Izumicho
Kanadenomori
Kasumi
Mimomi
Moto-Okubo
Okubo
Saginuma
Saginumadai
Shibazono
Shin-ei
Sodegaura
Tsudanuma
Yashiki
Yatsu
Yatsumachi
Government
Narashino has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 30 members. Narashino contributes two members to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Chiba 2nd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.
Economy
Narashino is a regional commercial center and a bedroom community for nearby Chiba and Tokyo, with 32,7% of the residents commuting to Tokyo per the 2010 census, and 11.7% to Funabashi and 10.5% to Chiba. The coastal area, mostly on reclaimed land is part of the Keiyō Industrial Zone and is home to much heavy industry, especially related to chemical processing.
Transportation
Railways
JR East – Sōbu Main Line
JR East – Keiyō Line
-
Keisei Electric Railway - Main Line
- - -
Keisei Electric Railway - Chiba Line
Keisei Tsudanuma
Shin-Keisei Electric Railway - Shin-Keisei Line
Keisei Tsudanuma -
Highways
Education
Chiba Institute of Technology
Narashino has 16 public elementary schools and eight public middle schools operated by the city government, and four public high schools operated by the Chiba Prefectural Board of Education.
Local attractions
Akitsu Baseball Stadium
Frontier Soccer Field (naming rights from April 1, 2015 to March 31, 2018), formerly known as Akitsu Soccer Stadium.
Chiba International General Swimming Center
Ōnomatsu stable
Notable places
Yatsu-higata (谷津干潟), a Ramsar Site and protected wetlands for migratory birds. The spring and summer months see an increase of jellyfish and small crabs to the wetlands.
Yatsu Rose Garden (谷津バラ園), a rose garden which displays over 6,000 individual blossoms in May and October. The garden was founded with Yatsu Yūen (谷津遊園), an amusement park which was managed by Keisei Electric Railway and closed in 1982. When the park was closed, the city bought the garden, and has managed it since that time.
Sister city relations
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States
Noted people from Narashino
Daiki Arioka, Hey! Say! JUMP
Kazuya Fukuura, professional baseball player for the Chiba Lotte Marines (1994–present)
Kota Hattori, professional soccer player
Hideaki Kitajima,– professional soccer player for Kashiwa Reysol (1997-2002, 2006-2012)
Makoto Sunakawa, professional soccer player
Daichi Suzuki, swimmer, Olympic gold medalist in 100m backstroke at 1988 Summer Olympics
Masaaki Takada, professional soccer player
References
External links
Official Website
Cities in Chiba Prefecture
Populated coastal places in Japan
|
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201584
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan%C5%8D%20Eitoku
|
Kanō Eitoku
|
was a Japanese painter who lived during the Azuchi–Momoyama period of Japanese history and one of the most prominent patriarchs of the Kanō school of Japanese painting.
Life and works
Born in Kyoto, Eitoku was the grandson of Kanō Motonobu (1476–1559), an official painter for the Ashikaga shogunate. He was recognized for his artistic talent at a very young age. Under Motonobu's guidance, he developed his grandfather's style, which had influence from Chinese painting.
Collaborating with his father Shōei (1519–92), Eitoku painted the wall panels of the abbot's quarters in Jukō-in, a subtemple of the Daitoku-ji Zen monastic complex in Kyoto.
Eitoku's patrons included Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. His standing screen, sliding door, wall, and ceiling paintings decorated Nobunaga's Azuchi castle and Hideyoshi's residence in Kyoto and Osaka Castle. Contemporary accounts indicate that Eitoku was one of the most highly sought-after artists of his time, and received many wealthy and powerful patrons. Maintaining the preeminence of the Kanō School was not merely an artistic feat, but an organizational and political one also. Eitoku was able to secure a steady stream of commissions and an efficient workshop of students and assistants, and at one point successfully intercepted a warlord's commission of the rival Hasegawa studio.
Style
His signal contribution to the Kanō repertoire was the so-called "monumental style" (taiga), characterized by bold, rapid brushwork, an emphasis on foreground, and motifs that are large relative to the pictorial space. The traditional account for this style, codified by Eitoku's great-grandson Einō (1631–97) in his History of Japanese Painting (Honcho gashi), is that it resulted partly from the exigencies of Eitoku's busy schedule, and that it embodied the martial and political bravura of the warlords, Nobunaga and Hideyoshi.
Unfortunately, most of his works were destroyed in the turmoil of the Sengoku period. However, those that do still exist provide testimony to his talent, to the power and wealth of his patrons Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and to the magnificence of Azuchi-Momoyama culture. Symbolic representations, like pheasants, phoenixes and trees are often depicted in the works. The pheasant, for example is the national symbol of Japan, are mythological messengers of the sun goddess Amaterasu.
Works
See also
Kanō Sanraku
Japanese art
References
External links
National Archives of Japan: Ryukyu Chuzano ryoshisha tojogyoretsu, scroll illustrating procession of Ryukyu emissary to Edo, 1710 (Hōei 7).
Momoyama, Japanese Art in the Age of Grandeur, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Kanō Eitoku
Bridge of dreams: the Mary Griggs Burke collection of Japanese art, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Kanō Eitoku (see index)
1543 births
1590 deaths
Artists from Kyoto
16th-century Japanese people
16th-century Japanese artists
16th-century Japanese painters
Kanō school
|
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201586
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lark%20Voorhies
|
Lark Voorhies
|
Lark Voorhies (born Lark Holloway; March 25, 1974) is an American actress, singer, spokeswoman and model. Voorhies rose to fame playing Lisa Marie Turtle on the NBC sitcom Saved by the Bell (1989–1993). Voorhies was nominated for the Young Artist Award six times, winning in 1990 and 1993 for her work on the show.
Early life
Born Lark Holloway to Wayne and Tricia Holloway in Nashville, Tennessee, she later adopted "Voorhies" as a stage name. Her mother named her "Lark" after the character in the 1972 film Cool Breeze, played by Margaret Avery. By the time Voorhies was two years old, the family had moved to Pasadena, California. During this period, her mother took her to a talent agent, because of her belief that Voorhies was "a natural-born ham." However, her first audition ended poorly when she froze up. She appeared in a national television commercial for Universal Studios Tour at age 12, advertising its upcoming King Kong attraction. She said of the experience: "I was on this tram screaming with all these other people. I had such a great time doing that."
Entertainment career
Acting
Voorhies made her acting debut at the age of two. Though photogenic, she was shy, and her mother put Voorhies' acting career on hold until she was more comfortable in front of the cameras. Later, at the age of fourteen, Voorhies reappeared on an episode of Small Wonder in 1988. In June of that same year, she landed the role of Lisa Turtle in Disney Channel's television series Good Morning, Miss Bliss and appeared in thirteen episodes from 1988 to 1989. She remained as the same character, as did Zack, Screech, and Mr. Belding, after Disney dropped the series and it was picked up and retooled by NBC and renamed Saved by the Bell.
Voorhies has since appeared in several television sitcoms and soap operas. She played the role of single mom Wendy Reardon on Days of Our Lives in 1993. On The Bold and the Beautiful Voorhies played the role of amiable intern fashion-designer, Jasmine Malone beginning in September 1995. She was released from her contract in November 1996 when her role required her to act in sex scenes, which the actress refused to do citing her religious beliefs as a Jehovah's Witness.
In 1995, Voorhies guest-starred in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Life Support". During the same year, Voorhies guest-starred in the Family Matters season six episode "Home Sweet Home", as Eddie's upstairs dream girl. She has continued to act in various roles since then, such as In the House, in which she played the girlfriend-turned-wife of Alfonso Ribeiro’s character, Dr. Max Stanton. Previously, she played Ribeiro's love interest twice on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. Besides sitcoms, Voorhies also appeared in movies and direct-to-video films. In 2001, Voorhies played a major role in the film How High as Lauren, a Harvard student. She was involved in a 1990 movie adaptation of the book The Black Man's Guide to Understanding Black Women and played Ana Smith in the 2008 movie The Next Hit. Although she only has two acting credits since 2008, and none since 2012, Voorhies' representatives cited a busy work schedule when she did not appear in a SBTB-based mini-reunion sketch on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" alongside Gosselaar, Lopez, Thiessen, and Dennis Haskins in 2015. Voorhies publicly stated in 2020 that she was "hurt" that she was not invited to participate in the Saved by the Bell sequel series on Peacock. Later that year, however, NBC announced that Voorhies would in fact reprise her role as Lisa Turtle for the new show.
Music
Voorhies has appeared in several music videos. She plays Kenny Lattimore's love interest in his debut video "Never Too Busy", from his 1996 self-titled debut album. In Boyz II Men's music video "On Bended Knee", she plays Wanya's girlfriend. She is featured in Montell Jordan's "Somethin' for the Honeyz" and in Dru Hill's "These Are the Times". In 1994, Voorhies was in a group originally called the X-Girls (now known as Geneva) with Stacee and Yashi Brown (the daughters of singer and oldest Jackson family sibling, Rebbie Jackson). Voorhies founded and was the lead singer in Third Degree, an alternative band.
Writing
Over 2010 and 2011, Voorhies self-published three books she authored: Reciprocity, Trek of the Cheshire, and A True Light.
Personal life
Voorhies dated her Saved by the Bell co-star Mark-Paul Gosselaar for three years during the show's run. Voorhies was engaged to actor Martin Lawrence in 1993 but it was later called off in 1994. Voorhies married Miguel Coleman in 1996. They separated in 2001, and divorced in 2004. Voorhies met music engineer Jimmy Green at a networking event in 2014. After a year of dating, Voorhies and Green married on April 30, 2015, at a chapel in Las Vegas, Nevada. Voorhies filed for divorce in October 2015 after six months of marriage.
Voorhies has schizoaffective disorder.
Dealings with media
On May 30, 2006, Voorhies filed a lawsuit against The National Enquirer for libel over an article that included claims published in June 2005 that she had a drug problem. The case was dropped in less than two months.
Books authored
Filmography
Television
Film
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1974 births
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American actresses
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American people
Actresses from Tennessee
African-American actresses
American child actresses
American film actresses
American Jehovah's Witnesses
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
Living people
People from Nashville, Tennessee
Actresses from Pasadena, California
People with bipolar disorder
People with schizoaffective disorder
|
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] |
201588
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20religious%20movement
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New religious movement
|
A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion or an alternative spirituality, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins but is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or they can be part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal with the challenges which the modernizing world poses to them by embracing individualism, while other NRMs deal with them by embracing tightly knit collective means. Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia and Africa. Most NRMs only have a few members, some of them have thousands of members, and a few of them have more than a million members.
There is no single, agreed-upon criterion for defining a "new religious movement". There is debate as to how the term "new" should be interpreted in this context. One perspective is that it should designate a religion that is more recent in its origins than large, well-established religions like Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. An alternate perspective is that "new" should mean that a religion is more recent in its formation. Some scholars view the 1950s or the end of the Second World War in 1945 as the defining time, while others look as far back as from the middle of the 19th century or the founding of the Latter Day Saint movement in 1830 and Tenrikyo in 1838.
New religions have often faced a hostile reception from established religious organisations and various secular institutions. In Western nations, a secular anti-cult movement and a Christian countercult movement emerged during the 1970s and 1980s to oppose emergent groups. In the 1970s, the distinct field of new religions studies developed within the academic study of religion. There are now several scholarly organisations and peer-reviewed journals devoted to the subject. Religious studies scholars contextualize the rise of NRMs in modernity, relating it as a product of and answer to modern processes of secularization, globalization, detraditionalization, fragmentation, reflexivity, and individualization.
History
In 1830 the Latter Day Saint movement was founded by Joseph Smith. It is now one of the largest new religious movements in terms of membership. In Japan, 1838 marks the beginning of Tenrikyo. In 1844 Bábism was established in Iran, from which the Baháʼí Faith was founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863. In 1860 Donghak, later Cheondoism, was founded by Choi Jae-Woo in Korea. It later ignited the Donghak Peasant Revolution in 1894. In 1889, Ahmadiyya, an Islamic branch, was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. In 1891, the Unity Church, the first New Thought denomination, was founded in the United States.
In 1893, the first Parliament of the World's Religions was held in Chicago. The conference included NRMs of the time such as spiritualism, Baháʼí Faith, and Christian Science. The latter was represented by its founder Mary Baker Eddy. Henry Harris Jessup, who addressed the meeting, was the first to mention the Baháʼí Faith in the United States. Also attending were Soyen Shaku, the "First American Ancestor" of Zen, the Theravāda Buddhist preacher Anagarika Dharmapala, and the Jain preacher Virchand Gandhi. This conference gave Asian religious teachers their first wide American audience.
In 1911, the Nazareth Baptist Church, the first and one of the largest modern African initiated churches, was founded by Isaiah Shembe in South Africa. The early 20th century also saw a rise in interest in Asatru. The 1930s saw the rise of the Nation of Islam and the Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States; the rise of the Rastafari movement in Jamaica; the rise of Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo in Vietnam; the rise of Soka Gakkai in Japan; and the rise Zailiism and Yiguandao in China. In the 1940s, Gerald Gardner began to outline the modern pagan religion of Wicca.
New religious movements expanded in many nations in the 1950s and 1960s. Japanese new religions became very popular after the Shinto Directive (1945) forced the Japanese government to separate itself from Shinto, which had been the state religion of Japan, bringing about greater freedom of religion. In 1954 Scientology was founded in the United States and the Unification Church was founded in South Korea. In 1955 the Aetherius Society was founded in England. It and some other NRMs, have been called UFO religions because they combine the belief in extraterrestrial life with traditional religious principles. In 1965, Paul Twitchell founded Eckankar, an NRM derived partially from Sant Mat. In 1966 the International Society for Krishna Consciousness was founded in the United States by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and Anton LaVey founded the Church of Satan. In 1967, The Beatles' visit to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in India brought public attention to the Transcendental Meditation movement.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the decline of communism and the revolutions of 1989 opened up new opportunities for NRMs. Falun Gong was first taught publicly in Northeast China in 1992 by Li Hongzhi. At first it was accepted by the Chinese government and by 1999 there were 70 million practitioners in China, but in July 1999 the government started to view the movement as a threat and began attempts to eradicate it.
In the 21st century, many NRMs are using the Internet to give out information, to recruit members, and sometimes to hold online meetings and rituals. That is sometimes referred to as cybersectarianism. Sabina Magliocco, professor of Anthropology and Folklore at California State University, Northridge, has discussed the growing popularity of new religious movements on the Internet.
In 2006 J. Gordon Melton, executive director of the Institute for the Study of American Religions at the University of California, Santa Barbara, told The New York Times that 40 to 45 new religious movements emerge each year in the United States. In 2007, religious scholar Elijah Siegler said that, though no NRM had become the dominant faith in any country, many of the concepts they first introduced (often referred to as "New Age" ideas) have become part of worldwide mainstream culture.
Beliefs and practices
As noted by Barker, NRMs cannot all be "lumped together" and differ from one another on many issues.
Virtually no generalisation can be made about NRMs that applies to every single group, with Barrett noting that "generalizations tend not to be very helpful" when studying NRMs. Melton expressed the view that there is "no single characteristic or set of characteristics" that all new religions share, "not even their newness." Bryan Wilson wrote, "Chief among the miss-directed assertions has been the tendency to speak of new religious movements as if they differed very little if at all, one from another. The tendency has been to lump them altogether and indiscriminately to attribute to all of the characteristics which are, in fact, valid for only one or two." NRMs themselves often claim that they exist at a crucial place in time and space.
Scriptures
Some NRMs have their own unique scriptures, while others reinterpret existing texts, utilizing a range of older elements. They frequently claim that these are not new, but rather had been forgotten truths that are only now being revived. NRM scriptures often incorporate modern scientific knowledge, sometimes with the claim that they are bringing unity to science and religion. Some NRMs believe that their scriptures are received through the process of mediumship. The Urantia Book, the core scripture of the Urantia Movement, was published in 1955 and is said to be the product of a continuous process of revelation from "celestial beings" which began in 1911. Some NRMs, particularly those that are forms of occultism, have a prescribed system of courses and grades through which members can progress.
Celibacy
Some NRMs promote celibacy, the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both. Some, including the Shakers and more recent NRMs, inspired by Hindu traditions, see it as a lifelong commitment. Others, including the Unification Church, as a stage in spiritual development. In some Buddhist NRMs celibacy is practiced mostly by older women who become nuns. Some people join NRMs and practice celibacy as a rite of passage in order to move beyond previous sexual problems or bad experiences. Groups that promote celibacy require a strong recruitment drive to survive; the Shakers established orphanages to bring new individuals into their community.
Violence
Violent incidents involving NRMs are extremely rare. In those cases where a large number of casualties resulted, the new religion in question was led by a charismatic leader. Beginning in 1978 with the deaths of 913 members of the Peoples Temple in Jonestown, Guyana by both murder and suicide an image of "killer cults" came to public attention. A number of subsequent events contributed to this. In 1994, members of the Order of the Solar Temple committed suicide in Canada and Switzerland. In 1995 members of the Japanese new religion Aum Shinrikyo murdered a number of people, including through a sarin attack on the Tokyo subway. In 1997, 39 members of the Heaven's Gate group committed suicide in the belief that their spirits would leave the Earth and join a passing comet. There have also been cases in which members of NRMs have been killed after they engaged in dangerous actions due to their mistaken belief in their own invincibility. For example, in Uganda, several hundred members of the Holy Spirit Movement were killed as they approached gunfire because its leader, Alice Lakwena, told them that they would be protected from bullets by the oil of the shea tree.
Leadership and succession
Many NRMs are founded and led by a charismatic leader. The death of any religion's founder represents a significant moment in its history. Over the months and years following its leader's death, the movement can die out, fragment into multiple groups, consolidate its position, or change its nature to become something quite different than what its founder intended. In some cases, an NRM moves closer to the religious mainstream after the death of its founder.
A number of founders of new religions established plans for succession to prevent confusion after their deaths. Mary Baker Eddy, the American founder of Christian Science, spent fifteen years working on her book The Manual of the Mother Church, which laid out how the group should be run by her successors.
The leadership of the Baháʼí Faith passed through a succession of individuals until 1963, when it was assumed by the Universal House of Justice, members of which are elected by the worldwide congregation. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, appointed 11 "Western Gurus" to act as initiating gurus and to continue to direct the organisation. However, according to British scholar of religion Gavin Flood, "many problems followed from their appointment and the movement has since veered away from investing absolute authority in a few, fallible, human teachers.”
Membership
Demographics
NRMs typically consist largely of first-generation believers, and thus often have a younger average membership than mainstream religious congregations. Some NRMs have been formed by groups who have split from a pre-existing religious group. As these members grow older, many have children who are then brought up within the NRM.
In the Third World, NRMs most often appeal to the poor and oppressed sectors of society. Within Western countries, they are more likely to appeal to members of the middle and upper-middle classes, with Barrett stating that new religions in the UK and US largely attract "white, middle-class late teens and twenties." There are exceptions, such as the Rastafari movement and the Nation of Islam, which have primarily attracted disadvantaged black youth in Western countries.
A popular conception, unsupported by evidence, holds that those who convert to new religions are either mentally ill or become so through their involvement with them. Dick Anthony, a forensic psychologist noted for his writings on the brainwashing controversy, has defended NRMs, and in 1988 argued that involvement in such movements may often be beneficial: "There's a large research literature published in mainstream journals on the mental health effects of new religions. For the most part, the effects seem to be positive in any way that's measurable."
Joining
Those who convert to an NRM typically believe that in doing so they are gaining some benefit in their life. This can come in many forms, from an increasing sense of freedom to a release from drug dependency, and a feeling of self-respect and direction. Many of those who have left NRMs report that they have gained from their experience. There are various reasons as to why an individual would join and then remain part of an NRM, including both push and pull factors. According to Marc Galanter, professor of psychiatry at NYU, typical reasons why people join NRMs include a search for community and a spiritual quest. Sociologists Stark and Bainbridge, in discussing the process by which people join new religious groups, have questioned the utility of the concept of conversion, suggesting that affiliation is a more useful concept.
A popular explanation for why people join new religious movements is that they have been "brainwashed" or subject to "mind control" by the NRM itself. This explanation provides a rationale for "deprogramming", a process in which members of NRMs are illegally kidnapped by individuals who then attempt to convince them to reject their beliefs. Professional deprogrammers, therefore, have a financial interest in promoting the "brainwashing" explanation. Academic research, however, has demonstrated that these brainwashing techniques "simply do not exist".
Leaving
Many members of NRMs leave these groups of their own free will. Some of those who do so retain friends within the movement. Some of those who leave a religious community are unhappy with the time that they spent as part of it. Leaving a NRM can pose a number of difficulties. It may result in their having to abandon a daily framework that they had previously adhered to. It may also generate mixed emotions as ex-members lose the feelings of absolute certainty that they had held while in the group.
Reception
Academic scholarship
The academic study of new religious movements is known as 'new religions studies' (NRS).
The study draws from the disciplines of anthropology, psychiatry, history, psychology, sociology, religious studies, and theology. Barker noted that there are five sources of information on NRMs: the information provided by such groups themselves, that provided by ex-members as well as the friends and relatives of members, organisations that collect information on NRMs, the mainstream media, and academics studying such phenomena.
The study of new religions is unified by its topic of interest, rather than by its methodology, and is therefore interdisciplinary in nature. A sizeable body of scholarly literature on new religions has been published, most of it produced by social scientists. Among the disciplines that NRS utilises are anthropology, history, psychology, religious studies, and sociology. Of these approaches, sociology played a particularly prominent role in the development of the field, resulting in it being initially confined largely to a narrow array of sociological questions. This came to change in later scholarship, which began to apply theories and methods initially developed for examining more mainstream religions to the study of new ones.
Most research has been directed toward those new religions that attract public controversy. Less controversial NRMs tend to be the subject of less scholarly research. It has also been noted that scholars of new religions often avoid researching certain movements that scholars from other backgrounds study. The feminist spirituality movement is usually examined by scholars of women's studies, African-American new religions by scholars of Africana studies, and Native American new religions by scholars of Native American studies.
Definitions and terminology
J. Gordon Melton argued that "new religious movements" should be defined by the way dominant religious and secular forces within a given society treat them. According to him, NRMs constituted "those religious groups that have been found, from the perspective of the dominant religious community (and in the West that is almost always a form of Christianity), to be not just different, but unacceptably different." Barker cautioned against Melton's approach, arguing that negating the "newness" of "new religious movements" raises problems, for it is "the very fact that NRMs are new that explains many of the key characteristics they display".
George Chryssides favors "simple" definition, for him, NRM is an organization founded within the past 150 or so years, which cannot be easily classified within one of the world's main religious traditions.
Scholars of religion Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein argued that "new religions are just young religions" and as a result, they are "not inherently different" from mainstream and established religious movements, with the differences between the two having been greatly exaggerated by the media and popular perceptions. Melton has stated that those NRMs that "were offshoots of older religious groups... tended to resemble their parent groups far more than they resembled each other." One question that faces scholars of religion is when a new religious movement ceases to be "new." As noted by Barker, "In the first century, Christianity was new, in the seventh century Islam was new, in the eighteenth century Methodism was new, in the nineteenth century the Seventh-day Adventists, Christadelphians, and Jehovah's Witnesses were new; in the twenty-first century the Unification Church, the ISKCON, and Scientology are beginning to look old."
Some NRMs are strongly counter-cultural and 'alternative' in the society where they appear, while others are far more similar to a society's established traditional religions. Generally, Christian denominations are not seen as new religious movements; nevertheless, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Science, and the Shakers have been studied as NRMs. The same situation with Jewish religious movements, when Reform Judaism and newer divisions have been named among NRM.
There are also problems in the use of "religion" within the term "new religious movements". This is because various groups, particularly active within the New Age milieu, have many traits in common with different NRMs but emphasise personal development and humanistic psychology, and are not clearly "religious" in nature.
Since at least the early 2000s, most sociologists of religion have used the term "new religious movement" in order to avoid the pejorative undertones of terms like "cult" and "sect". These are words that have been used in different ways by different groups. For instance, from the nineteenth century onward a number of sociologists used the terms "cult" and "sect" in very specific ways. The sociologist Ernst Troeltsch for instance differentiated "churches" from "sect" by claiming that the former term should apply to groups that stretch across social strata while "sects" typically contain converts from socially disadvantaged sectors of society.
The term "cult" is used in reference to devotion or dedication to a particular person or place. For instance, within the Roman Catholic Church devotion to Mary, mother of Jesus is usually termed the "Cult of Mary". It is also used in non-religious contexts to refer to fandoms devoted to television shows like The Prisoner, The X-Files, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. In the United States, people began to use "cult" in a pejorative manner, to refer to Spiritualism and Christian Science during the 1890s. As commonly used, for instance in sensationalist tabloid articles, the term "cult" continues to have pejorative associations.
The term "new religions" is a calque of , a Japanese term developed to describe the proliferation of Japanese new religions in the years following the Second World War. From Japan this term was translated and used by several American authors, including Jacob Needleman, to describe the range of groups that appeared in the San Francisco Bay Area during the 1960s. This term, amongst others, was adopted by Western scholars as an alternative to "cult". However, "new religious movements" has failed to gain widespread public usage in the manner that "cult" has. Other terms that have been employed for many NRMs are "alternative religion" and "alternative spirituality", something used to convey the difference between these groups and established or mainstream religious movements while at the same time evading the problem posed by groups that are not particularly new.
The 1970s was the era of the so-called "cult wars," led by "cult-watching groups." The efforts of the anti-cult movement condensed a moral panic around the concept of cults. Public fears around Satanism, in particular, came to be known as a distinct phenomenon, the "Satanic Panic." Consequently, scholars such as Eileen Barker, James T. Richardson, Timothy Miller and Catherine Wessinger argued that the term "cult" had become too laden with negative connotations, and "advocated dropping its use in academia." A number of alternatives to the term "new religious movement" are used by some scholars. These include "alternative religious movements" (Miller), "emergent religions" (Ellwood) and "marginal religious movements" (Harper and Le Beau).
Opposition
There has been opposition to NRMs throughout their history. Some historical events have been: Anti-Mormonism, the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses, the persecution of Baháʼís, and the persecution of Falun Gong. There are also instances in which violence has been directed at new religions. In the United States the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, was killed by a lynch mob in 1844. In India there have been mob killings of members of the Ananda Marga group. Such violence can also be administered by the state. In Iran, followers of the Baháʼí Faith have faced persecution, while the Ahmadiyya have faced similar violence in Pakistan. Since 1999, the persecution of Falun Gong in China has been severe. Ethan Gutmann interviewed over 100 witnesses and estimated that 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008.
Christian countercult movement
In the 1930s, Christian critics of NRMs began referring to them as "cults". The 1938 book The Chaos of Cults by Jan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America, was especially influential. In the US, the Christian Research Institute was founded in 1960 by Walter Martin to counter opposition to evangelical Christianity and has come to focus on criticisms of NRMs. Presently the Christian countercult movement opposes most NRMs because of theological differences. It is closely associated with evangelical Christianity. The UK-based Reachout Trust was initially established to oppose the Jehovah's Witnesses and what it regarded as "counterfeit Christian groups", but it came to wider attention in the late 1980s and 1990s for its role in promoting claims about Satanic ritual abuse.
Anti-cult movement
In the 1970s and 1980s some NRMs, as well as some non-religious groups, came under opposition by the newly organized anti-cult movement, which mainly charged them with psychological abuse of their own members. It actively seeks to discourage people from joining new religions (which it refers to as "cults"). It also encourages members of these groups to leave them, and at times seeking to restrict their freedom of movement.
Family members are often distressed when a relative of theirs joins a new religion. Although children break away from their parents for all manner of reasons, in cases where NRMS are involved it is often the latter that are blamed for the break. Some anti-cultist groups emphasise the idea that "cults" always use deceit and trickery to recruit members. The anti-cult movement adopted the term brainwashing, which had been developed by the journalist Edward Hunter and then used by Robert J. Lifton to apply to the methods employed by Chinese to convert captured US soldiers to their cause in the Korean War. Lifton himself had doubts about the applicability of his 'brainwashing' hypothesis to the techniques used by NRMs to convert recruits. A number of ex-members of various new religions have made false allegations about their experiences in such groups. For instance, in the late 1980s a man in Dublin, Ireland was given a three-year suspended sentence for falsely claiming that he had been drugged, kidnapped, and held captive by members of ISKCON.
Scholars of religion have often critiqued anti-cult groups of un-critically believing anecdotal stories provided by the ex-members of new religions, of encouraging ex-members to think that they are the victims of manipulation and abuse, and of irresponsibly scare-mongering about NRMs. Of the "well over a thousand groups that have been or might be called cults" listed in the files of INFORM, says Eileen Barker, the "vast majority" have not engaged in criminal activities.
Popular culture and news media
New religious movements and cults have appeared as themes or subjects in literature and popular culture, while notable representatives of such groups have produced a large body of literary works. Beginning in the 1700s authors in the English-speaking world began introducing members of "cults" as antagonists. In the twentieth century, concern for the rights and feelings of religious minorities led authors to most often invent fictional cults for their villains to be members of. Fictional cults continue to be popular in film, television, and gaming in the same way, while some popular works treat new religious movements in a serious manner.
An article on the categorization of new religious movements in US print media published by The Association for the Sociology of Religion (formerly the American Catholic Sociological Society), criticizes the print media for failing to recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of new religious movements, and its tendency to use popular or anti-cultist definitions rather than social-scientific insight, and asserts that "The failure of the print media to recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of religious movement organizations impels us to add yet another failing mark to the media report card Weiss (1985) has constructed to assess the media's reporting of the social sciences."
See also
Chinese salvationist religions
History of religion
List of new religious movements
Religious pluralism
Sociological classifications of religious movements
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Encyclopedias
Barrett, David B., George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the Modern World, 2 vols. 2nd ed. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Mead, Frank S.; Hill, Samuel S. (1995). Handbook of Denominations in the United States. Abingdon Press.
Melton, J. Gordon (1978). Encyclopedia of American Religions. [2016, 9th ed.]. Gale Research.
Melton, J. Gordon (1999). Religious leaders of America: a biographical guide to founders and leaders of religious bodies, churches, and spiritual groups in North America. Gale Research.
Partridge, Christopher, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of New Religions: New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. Oxford: Lion.
Monographies
Arweck, Elisabeth and Peter B. Clarke, New Religious Movements in Western Europe: An Annotated Bibliography, Westport & London: Greenwood Press, 1997.
Barker, Eileen and Margit Warburg, eds. (1998). New Religions and New Religiosity, Aarhus, Denmark: Aargus University Press.
Beck, Hubert F. How to Respond to the Cults, in The Response Series. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, 1977. 40 p. N.B.: Written from a Confessional Lutheran perspective.
Beckford, James A. (ed) New Religious Movements and Rapid Social Change, Paris: UNESCO/London, Beverly Hills & New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1986.
Clarke, Peter B. (2000). Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective. Richmond : Curzon.
Ferm, Vergilius Ture Anselm (1948). Religion in the twentieth century. New York, Philosophical Library.
Hexham, Irving and Karla Poewe, New Religions as Global Cultures, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997.
Hexham, Irving, Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead (eds) Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach, Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2004.
Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk?: Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag/A new perspective on the church: Contributions by NRMs for today's church Published by het Boekencentrum, (a Christian publishing house), the Hague, 1984. .
Stark, Rodney (ed) Religious Movements: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, New York: Paragon House, 1985.
Chryssides, George D., Exploring New Religions, London & New York: Cassell, 1999.
Davis, Derek H., and Barry Hankins (eds) New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America, Waco: J. M. Dawson Institute of Church-State Studies and Baylor University Press, 2002.
Enroth, Ronald M., and J. Gordon Melton. Why Cults Succeed Where the Church Fails. Elgin, Ill.: Brethren Press, 1985. v, 133 p.
Jenkins, Philip, Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Kephart, William M; Zellner, W. W. (1994). Extraordinary groups: an examination of unconventional life-styles. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Kohn, Rachael, The New Believers: Re-Imagining God, Sydney: Harper Collins, 2003.
Loeliger, Carl and Garry Trompf (eds) New Religious Movements in Melanesia, Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific & University of Papua New Guinea, 1985.
Meldgaard, Helle and Johannes Aagaard (eds) New Religious Movements in Europe, Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1997.
Needleman, Jacob and George Baker (eds) Understanding the New Religions, New York: Seabury Press, 1981.
Possamai, Adam, Religion and Popular Culture: A Hyper-Real Testament, Brussels: P.I.E. – Peter Lang, 2005.
Saliba, John A., Understanding New Religious Movements, 2nd edition, Walnut Creek, Lanham: Alta Mira Press, 2003.
Staemmler, Birgit, Dehn, Ulrich (ed.): Establishing the Revolutionary: An Introduction to New Religions in Japan. LIT, Münster, 2011.
Thursby, Gene. "Siddha Yoga: Swami Muktanada and the Seat of Power." When Prophets Die: The Postcharismatic Fate Of New Religious Movements. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991 pp. 165–182.
Toch, Hans. The Social Psychology of Social Movements, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965.
Towler, Robert (ed) New Religions and the New Europe, Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1995.
Trompf, G.W. (ed) Cargo Cults and Millenarian Movements: Transoceanic Comparisons of New Religious Movements, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990.
Wilson, Bryan and Jamie Cresswell (eds) New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response, London & New York: Routledge, 1999.
External links
Hartford Institute of Religious Research: New religious movements
Skepsis – Online texts about NRMs
Cults
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201590
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Neerwinden%20%281793%29
|
Battle of Neerwinden (1793)
|
The Battle of Neerwinden (18 March 1793) saw a Republican French army led by Charles François Dumouriez attack a Coalition army commanded by Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. The Coalition army of the Habsburg Monarchy together with a small contingent of allied Dutch Republic troops repulsed all French assaults after bitter fighting and Dumouriez conceded defeat, withdrawing from the field. The French position in the Austrian Netherlands swiftly collapsed, ending the threat to the Dutch Republic and allowing Austria to regain control of its lost province. The War of the First Coalition engagement was fought at Neerwinden, located east of Brussels in present-day Belgium.
After Dumouriez's victory at Jemappes in November 1792, the French armies rapidly overran most of the Austrian Netherlands. Rather than driving the Austrians to the west bank of the Rhine River, Dumouriez and the French government became preoccupied with a war with the Dutch Republic. During the breathing space offered by her enemy, Austria assembled an army under the Prince of Coburg and struck back. After a French covering force was routed by Coburg at Aldenhoven, Dumouriez began gathering his army for a counterstroke.
Coburg took up a defensive position at Neerwinden and awaited the confident Dumouriez's attack. The Coalition army was outnumbered in infantry but possessed a two-to-one superiority in cavalry. After intense fighting, Coburg's troops repulsed the attacks of the French center and right wing. When Dumouriez found that his left wing was driven off the battlefield, he began retreating. The defeat led to mass desertions from the discouraged French volunteers. In the face of the military collapse, Dumouriez negotiated a free withdrawal of French troops in return for the surrender of Belgium and Dutch territory. Soon, Dumouriez was plotting against his own government and when his plans failed, he defected to the Austrians, leaving the French army in chaos.
Background
French conquer Belgium
On 6 November 1792, a French army under Charles François Dumouriez defeated the Austrian army of Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen at the Battle of Jemappes. The French enjoyed an enormous numerical superiority with 40,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 100 guns against an Austrian army counting 11,628-foot soldiers, 2,168 horsemen and 56 guns. Within one month the French armies overran most of the Austrian Netherlands, a territory known today as the nation of Belgium. On the right flank, the Army of the Ardennes led by Jean-Baptiste Cyrus de Valence advanced down the Meuse River toward Huy. On the way, Valence dropped off a force under Louis-Auguste Juvénal des Ursins d'Harville to besiege Namur. Dumouriez himself with the Army of Belgium captured Liège. The Army of the North commanded by Francisco de Miranda laid siege to Antwerp. It was joined by a column under Benôit Guérin de Berneron that marched first from Ath northeast to Leuven (Louvain).
Mechelen (Malines) capitulated to Henri Christian Michel de Stengel and 6,000 Frenchmen on 16 November 1792 and its garrison of one battalion of the Austrian Württemberg Infantry Regiment Nr. 38 was allowed to go free. On the 27th Stengel with 8,000 soldiers from the Army of Belgium won a minor action at Voroux-lez-Liers near Liège over Anton Sztáray and four battalions of Austrians. Antwerp fell on 29 November to Miranda's 17,600 infantry and 1,245 cavalry. The Austrian garrison of the 1st Battalion of the Hohenlohe Nr. 17, two companies of the Vierset Nr. 59 and four companies of the Würzburg Infantry Regiments, plus 140 gunners surrendered after losing two dead and four wounded. The French captured 57 cannons, 50 additional 3-pound regimental cannons, 3,150 muskets and 1,523 hundredweight of gunpowder. The 2,599-man garrison of Namur under Johann Dominik von Moitelle surrendered on 2 December to Valence and Harville after a four-week siege. The Austrian defenders included two battalions of the Kinsky Infantry Regiment Nr. 36, one battalion of the Vierset, two companies of the Le Loup Jäger Battalion, a half-squadron of the Esterhazy Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 and 90 gunners. Harville's division counted 13,256 infantry, 1,425 cavalry and 266 artillerists.
Invasion of Dutch Republic and Austrian counterattack
Dumouriez had an opportunity to drive the Austrians from the west bank of the Rhine in conjunction with the Army of the Center. Instead he pursued a pet project of his, the invasion of the Dutch Republic. He hoped to go to war with the Dutch while keeping the Kingdom of Great Britain neutral. But the French government forced his hand, declaring war on Great Britain on 1 February 1793 and ordering him to overrun the Dutch Republic. Dumouriez undertook the invasion with 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, soon reinforced. Leaving Miranda to besiege Maastricht, covered by Valence's army and Harville's corps, Dumouriez pushed north. At this time the Army of the North counted 18,322 men, the Army of Belgium numbered 30,197, the Army of the Ardennes consisted of 23,479 soldiers, Harville's corps was 12,051 strong, the Army of Holland had 23,244 troops and there were 15,000 men in Belgian garrisons. All told, the strength of the French army in the Low Countries was 122,293 men. The French army became overconfident, believing itself invincible. Meanwhile, the National Convention was riven by bitter political struggles between the moderate Girondists and the extreme Jacobins. During this period the army supply system fell apart through neglect.
Dumouriez crossed the Dutch frontier on 16 February 1793. The fortress of Breda fell after a quick siege from 21 to 24 February 1793. The 3,000 Dutch defenders, which included 2,500 infantry and a dragoon regiment, surrendered the city with its 250 cannon and were allowed to go free. Also on the 21st, Maastricht was invested by 10,000 troops of Miranda's army. There were 8,000 Austrian and Dutch defenders under Prince Karl Wilhelm Georg of Hesse-Darmstadt, an Austrian General-major. The siege work at Maastricht in winter weather was too much for the French volunteers and many deserted their units and went home. The fortress of Geertruidenberg with 150 guns capitulated after a siege from 1 to 4 March. The Dutch garrison of two battalions and two squadrons were allowed to go free. Both Breda and Geertruidenberg had been bluffed into giving up by the military engineer Jean Claude le Michaud d'Arcon, who had designed the floating batteries at the Great Siege of Gibraltar. A small fort at Klundert was captured on 4 March by 4,000 men under Berneron. The tiny garrison put up a stiff fight and lost 60 killed before the 73 survivors gave up.
Poised at the edge of Hollands Diep, Dumouriez planned to cross and march through Rotterdam, Delft, The Hague and Leiden to seize Amsterdam. After capturing Maastricht, Miranda would join him by advancing through Nijmegen and Utrecht. Preoccupied with the Dutch Republic, the French commander had given the Austrians too much time to recover. Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld massed an Austrian army on the west bank of the Rhine. He was assisted by a promising staff officer named Karl Mack von Leiberich. On 1 March, Coburg swept aside René Joseph de Lanoue's covering army at the Battle of Aldenhoven. The French abandoned the siege of Maastricht on 3 March. Coburg pursued slowly and the French forces regrouped at Leuven on the 9th. Dumouriez was slow to give up his Dutch project but the French government insisted that he take charge in Belgium. Leaving Louis-Charles de Flers in command of the Army of Holland, Dumouriez arrived at Leuven on 11 March.
Dumouriez thought his soldiers' morale was too shaky for a retreat so he advanced on Coburg's army, seeking battle. In his haste, the French commander failed to call up Harville's corps or the Army of Holland as reinforcements. Earlier, François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche had been driven out of Tienen (Tirlemont), but on 16 March the French recaptured it after a vigorous combat. The French attacked Tienen with 10,000 troops while Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen defended the town with 6,000 soldiers, six guns and two mortars. French casualties numbered 500 while their opponents sustained losses of 800 killed, wounded and missing. Coburg pulled his army back behind the Little Gete River. Believing that he outnumbered his enemies, Dumouriez was very confident of success. A century before, the French had won the Battle of Landen on the same ground.
Battle
Forces
The strengths given for the two armies vary somewhat. Historian Digby Smith credited the French with between 40,000 and 45,000 men while stating Austro-Dutch numbers as 43,000. Ramsay Weston Phipps asserted that the French had 40,000-foot and 4,500 horse while the Coalition counted 30,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote that Dumouriez put 42,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry into battle against Coburg's 30,000-foot and 10,000 horse. According to Gunther E. Rothenberg Dumouriez was outnumbered 43,000 to 41,000.
Lamarche's Advance Guard counted 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. Auguste Marie Henri Picot de Dampierre led the Flankers of the Right, 2,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. Valence's Right Wing numbered 7,000 in 18 battalions and was divided into the divisions of Joachim Joseph Neuilly, Alexis Paul Michel Le Veneur and Valence. Duke Louis of Chartres led the Center which included 7,000-foot soldiers in 18 battalions and 1,000 horsemen. The subordinate generals of the Center were Jacques Thouvenot and Dominique Dietmann. Miranda's Left Wing was made up of Jean Alexandre Ihler's 7,000 men and Felix Marie Pierre Chesnon de Champmorin's 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. Joseph Miaczinski led the Flankers of the Left, 2,000-foot and 1,000 horse. Jean Nestor de Chancel commanded the eight battalion Reserve in the strength of 4,000 men. These figures total 38,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry.
The Advance Guard of Archduke Charles with 11 battalions and 11 squadrons was divided into a number of brigades under the command of colonels. Joseph von Gruber commanded two battalions of the Sztáray Infantry Regiment Nr. 33. Stephan von Mihaljevich led three battalions of the Mahony Jägers, one battalion of the O'Donnell Freikorps, 1/3 battalion of the Branovaczky (Serb) Freikorps and one squadron of the Esterhazy Hussar Regiment Nr. 32. Anton Ulrich Joseph von Mylius directed one battalion of the Grün-Laudon Freikorps, 1/3 battalion of Tyrolean Sharpshooters and one squadron of the Esterhazy Hussars. Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg directed one and 1/3 battalion of Tyrolean Sharpshooters, one battalion of the O'Donnell Freikorps, 1/3 battalion of the Branovaczky Freikorps and three squadrons of the Uhlan Regiment. Paul De Briey led the Barthodeisky, Briey and Pückler Grenadier battalions and six squadrons of the Esterhazy Hussars.
Joseph de Ferraris led the eight battalions and 16 squadrons of the 1st Rank with Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg as his division commander. There were two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Kheul Nr. 10, Wartensleben Nr. 28 and Brentano Nr. 35, one battalion each of the Archduke Charles Nr. 3 and Jordis Nr. 59, six squadrons each of the Kavanagh Nr. 12 and Nassau Nr. 14 Cuirassier Regiments and two squadrons each of the Kaiser Nr. 1 and Duke Albert Nr. 5 Carabinier Regiments. Wenzel Joseph von Colloredo directed the six battalions and 10 squadrons of the 2nd Rank, seconded by division commander Johann Andreas Benjowski and brigadier Franz Vincenz Ferrer von Hoditz und Wolfranitz. The units included two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Brechainville Nr. 25 and Callenberg Nr. 54, one battalion each of the Alton Nr. 15 and Joseph Colloredo Nr. 57, six squadrons of the Zeschwitz Nr. 10 Cuirassiers and two squadrons each of the Karaczay Nr. 18 Chevau-léger and Coburg Nr. 37 Dragoon Regiments.
François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt led 11 battalions and 14 squadrons of the Reserve, with József Alvinczi as his division commander and Johann Nepomuk Gottfried von Lützow as his brigadier. The units were two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Ligne Nr. 30, Esterhazy Nr. 34 and Württemberg Nr. 38, one battalion each of the Murray Nr. 55 and Vierset Nr. 58, the Leuven, Morzin and Rousseau Grenadier battalions, eight squadrons of the Latour Chevau-légers Nr. 31 and six squadrons of the Blankenstein Hussars Nr. 16. The Dutch Republic contributed six battalions, consisting of two battalions each of the Stokkar and Waldeck and one battalion each of the May and Welderen Infantry Regiments.
Combat
Coburg's Advance Guard under Archduke Charles was drawn up on the right flank, Graf Colloredo and the Duke of Württemberg stood in the center and the Count of Clerfayt with the Reserve defended the left flank. The village of Halle was at the far right of the line while Neerwinden village was in the left-center. A screen of Coalition light troops was posted in all the hamlets along the Little Gete. Dumouriez organized eight columns of attack. Valence on the right led three attack columns against Racour and Oberwinden, the Duke of Chartres directed two columns in the center via Laer and Miranda commanded three columns on the left along the main road to Halle. The French reserve formed a final column on the far left where it was to first capture Zoutleeuw (Leau) and then swing south against Halle. Lamarche's Advance Guard operated with the Right Wing.
Dumouriez believed that Coburg would put his main strength on the right wing to protect the Austrian line of communications. Therefore, he planned to throw his heaviest blow against Coburg's left wing. Clerfayt's line stretched from Neerwinden, across Mittelwinden hill to Oberwinden village on the left. Dumouriez directed Valence to outflank Oberwinden with one column, attack Oberwinden frontally with the second and seize the Mittelwinden hill with the third. On Valence's left, Chartres was ordered to attack Neerwinden with his columns. At 7:00 am, the French swarmed across the Little Gete but Valence was unable to capture the Mittelwinden hill until noon. The French seized Racour, Oberwinden and finally Neerwinden.
The Coalition forces launched attack after attack on the villages which were stubbornly defended by the French. Meanwhile, Austrian cavalry charges were highly effective in the open ground between the settlements. After bitter fighting in which Oberwinden and Racour changed hands repeatedly, the two villages and Neerwinden were recaptured by Clerfayt's troops. An Austrian cavalry charge pressed back the French even farther. Dumouriez attempted one more all-out attack with his right but it failed. The French cavalry covered the retreat of the infantry, with Chartres and Valence maintaining a position along the Little Gete.
When Miranda attacked that morning, Coburg's first reaction was to draw substantial troops from his center to reinforce his right flank. Initially, Archduke Charles' men were driven back to Dorsmael but then they held on to the village. The French Reserve captured Leau and threatened Halle but was soon thrown back. The main fighting occurred between 3:00 and 6:00 PM when Miaczinski's column seized Dorsmael but counterattacks drove his soldiers out. Other attacks withered in the face of the strong Coalition defenses. Charles saw an opportunity and hurled his cavalry on the tired French soldiers. The Left Wing became so demoralized that its troops were driven back to Tienen before Miranda could rally them. When Dumouriez heard of the defeat of Miranda's wing on the morning of the 19th he was forced to order a retreat.
Results
On the Coalition side, Mack was given much of the credit for Coburg's triumph. Blamed for the defeat, Miranda traveled to Paris to intrigue against Dumouriez. The Austro-Dutch reported losses of 97 officers, 2,762 rank and file and 779 horses. The French lost 4,000 killed and wounded, plus 1,000 men and 30 artillery pieces captured. General of Brigade Georges Guiscard de Bar was killed and four generals were wounded. Another source estimated Austrian losses as 2,600 killed and wounded and 400 missing while French casualties were 3,000 killed and wounded plus 1,000 missing or prisoners. Immediately after the battle, about 6,000 French volunteers deserted the colors and went home. Three days later, Dumouriez's army only numbered about 20,000 troops as the men deserted in hundreds. On 23 March there was a clash at Pellenberg where Coburg with 38,000 soldiers defeated Dumouriez with 22,000. The Austrians sustained 900 casualties while inflicting 2,000 on the French.
On 24 March the French army retreated through Brussels. Dumouriez began calling in his detachments such as Harville's corps. At this point Dumouriez opened negotiations with the Austrians. He offered to evacuate Belgium if his armies were allowed an unmolested retreat. The terms were accepted and the French armies withdrew to camps behind the border. The Army of Holland was allowed to march through enemy lines and took position near Lille. The Army of the Ardennes was posted at Maulde, the Army of the North at Bruille-Saint-Amand, and the Army of Belgium at Condé-sur-l'Escaut and Valenciennes. Geertruidenberg was evacuated on 2 April and Breda on 3 April.
Dumouriez was a monarchist at heart and he despaired when King Louis XVI went to the guillotine on 21 January 1793. He found the political situation in Paris to be chaotic. He was appalled at the tendency of radicals to interfere with army commanders. Having already negotiated with the enemy, Dumouriez offered to treat and the Austrians sent Mack on 25 March. The French commander proposed to take the army and march on Paris. He would overthrow the National Convention, crush the Jacobins and restore the Constitution of 1791. For their part, the Austrians pledged to halt their advance while he carried out his coup. But Dumouriez moved too slowly. On 1 April, four commissioners and the War Minister Pierre de Ruel, marquis de Beurnonville arrived at his headquarters to demand that the commander explain himself in Paris. They were seized and handed over to the Austrians.
Dumouriez tried to put the frontier fortresses in the hands of his adherents but failed. Miaczinski botched the attempted seizure of Lille and was later executed. Dumouriez believed that he could control the regular infantry and cavalry regiments. On the other hand, the volunteers and the artillery remained devoted to the National Convention. In one incident, Dumouriez was fired on and nearly arrested by Louis-Nicolas Davout's volunteer battalion. He then made the mistake of being seen with an Austrian escort and the gunners took the lead in refusing to obey him. Seeing that his plot had fallen apart, Dumouriez defected to the Austrians on 5 April 1793. He was accompanied by the Duke of Chartres, Valence, several more generals and some cavalry. No longer bound by the previous agreement, Coburg prepared to invade France.
Ironically, the treason and defection of Dumouriez gave the Jacobins full scope to take control of the armies. Before Neerwinden, the army obeyed its commanders. Afterward, the representatives on mission were given extraordinary powers over army commanders. The generals might pay with their lives for defeat, but the real authority lay with the political operatives. Meanwhile, the new War Minister sent his agents to spy on the generals. These men were quick to report any complaint against officers, which could result in disgrace or execution. Elements of this system stayed in force even after Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown and guillotined.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
This source is useful for finding the full names and dates of promotion of French generals.
Battles of the War of the First Coalition
Conflicts in 1793
Battles involving Austria
1793 in the Austrian Netherlands
Battles involving the Dutch Republic
Battles involving France
Battles in Flanders
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] |
201593
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Princeton
|
USS Princeton
|
USS Princeton may refer to:
, a screw sloop, launched and commissioned in 1843, the first screw-driven vessel in the Navy and the subject of a fatal gun explosion in 1844
, a transport and training ship, launched in 1851 and commissioned in 1852
, a gunboat launched in 1897 and commissioned in 1898
, a light aircraft carrier, commissioned in 1943, sunk at Leyte Gulf in 1944
, an aircraft carrier commissioned in 1945, serving in the Korean War and Vietnam War, reclassified LPH-5 in 1959, decommissioned 1970
, a guided missile cruiser commissioned in 1989, currently in active service
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
201597
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%20R.%20Dickson
|
Gordon R. Dickson
|
Gordon Rupert Dickson (November 1, 1923 – January 31, 2001) was a Canadian-American science fiction writer. He was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2000.
Biography
Dickson was born in Edmonton, Alberta, in 1923. After the death of his father, he moved with his mother to Minneapolis in 1937. He served in the United States Army, from 1943 to 1946, and received a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Minnesota, in 1948. From 1948 through 1950 he attended the University of Minnesota for graduate work. His first published speculative fiction was the short story "Trespass!", written jointly with Poul Anderson, in the Spring 1950 issue of Fantastic Stories Quarterly (ed. Sam Merwin), the inaugural number of Fantastic Story Magazine as it came to be titled. Next year three of his solo efforts were published by John W. Campbell in Astounding Science Fiction and one appeared in Planet Stories. Anderson and Dickson also inaugurated the Hoka series with "The Sheriff of Canyon Gulch" (Other Worlds Science Stories, May 1951).
Dickson's series of novels include the Childe Cycle (sometimes called the Dorsai series) and the Dragon Knight. He won three Hugo Awards and one Nebula Award.
For a great part of his life, he suffered from the effects of asthma. He died of complications from severe asthma.
Personality
John Clute has characterized Dickson as a "gregarious, engaging, genial, successful man of letters" who had not been an introvert. Clute considers Dickson a science fiction romantic. Nevertheless, Clute stresses in connection to Dickson that science fiction welcomes "images of heightened solitude, romantically vague, limitless landscapes, and an anguished submission to afflatus", due to its origin in Gothic fiction.
Style
Clute has pointed out that Dickson, like Poul Anderson, with whom he collaborated in the Hoka series, "[tends] to infuse an austere Nordic pathos into wooded, rural midwestern American settings.' His works often have mercenaries as their protagonists and deal with aliens that are "less deracinated and more lovable than humans" (Clute). They "are inclined to take on a heightened, sagalike complexion" (Clute), particularly by the insertion of lyric poetry that is sometimes inferior.
Lightsaber
In the novel Wolfling (1969), Dickson described an advanced alien weapon, "the rod", which bears a striking resemblance to the lightsaber of Star Wars. Dickson's Wolfling was published in three parts in the magazine Analog, January 1969 – March 1969. The cover for the January 1969, which contained the first part, depicts an alien holding a rod.
In a 1977 interview, George Lucas stated "As a kid, I read a lot of science fiction,…I was interested in Harry Harrison…”. The March 1969 issue of Analog ends a Harry Harrison story on the back of a double-page drawing of a duel with "rods", illustrating the third, and last, part of Dickson's Wolfling. Dickson described the duel thus, "… something in appearance like a cross between the flame of a welding torch and the arc of a static electricity charge crackled from the end of the rod … even as it burst from the end of the rod … the discharge from Galyan's rod met the discharge from Slothiel's head on, and the two lines of white fire splashed harmlessly into an aurora of sparks, …".
Selected works
Childe Cycle
The Genetic General (1960) (restored variant title: Dorsai!, 1976)
Necromancer (1962) (variant title: No Room for Man)
"Warrior" (1965) (short story) included in Lost Dorsai
Soldier, Ask Not (1967)
Tactics of Mistake (1971)
The Spirit of Dorsai (1979)
Lost Dorsai (1980)
The Final Encyclopedia (1984)
The Dorsai Companion (1986)
The Chantry Guild (1988)
Young Bleys (1991)
Other (1994)
Antagonist (with David W. Wixon) (2007)
Dragon Knight series
The Dragon and the George (1976)
The Dragon Knight (1990)
The Dragon on the Border (1992)
The Dragon at War (1992)
The Dragon, the Earl, and the Troll (1994)
The Dragon and the Djinn (1996)
The Dragon and the Gnarly King (1997)
The Dragon in Lyonesse (1998)
The Dragon and the Fair Maid of Kent (2000)
Hoka series
Earthman's Burden (1957) (with Poul Anderson) (contents different under variant title: Hoka! Hoka! Hoka!) (1998) —collection of stories published 1951 to 1956
Hoka! (1983) (with Poul Anderson)
Star Prince Charlie (1983) (with Poul Anderson)
Hokas Pokas! (2000) (with Poul Anderson) (includes Star Prince Charlie)
Novels
Alien from Arcturus (1956) (expanded as Arcturus Landing)
Mankind on the Run (1956) (variant title: On the Run, 1979)
Time to Teleport (1960)
Naked to the Stars (1961)
Spacial Delivery (1961)
Delusion World (1961)
The Alien Way (1965)
Space Winners (1965)
Mission to Universe (1965) (rev. 1977)
The Space Swimmers (1967)
Planet Run (1967) (with Keith Laumer)
Spacepaw (1969)
Wolfling (1969)
None But Man (1969)
Hour of the Horde (1970)
Sleepwalkers’ World (1971)
The Outposter (1972)
The Pritcher Mass (1972)
Alien Art (1973)
The R-Master (1973) (revised as The Last Master, 1984)
Gremlins, Go Home (1974) (with Ben Bova)
The Lifeship (variant title: Lifeboat) (1977) (with Harry Harrison)
Time Storm (1977)
The Far Call (1978)
Home from the Shore (1978)
Pro (1978) (illustrated by James R. Odbert) (Ace Illustrated Novel)
Masters of Everon (1980)
The Last Master (1984)
Jamie the Red (1984) (with Roland Green)
The Forever Man (1986)
Way of the Pilgrim (1987)
The Earth Lords (1989)
Wolf and Iron (1990)
The Magnificent Wilf (1995)
The Right to Arm Bears (2000) omnibus of Spacial Delivery, Spacepaw, "The Law-Twister Shorty"
Short story collections
Danger—Human (1970) (as The Book of Gordon Dickson, 1973)
Mutants (1970)
The Star Road (1973)
Ancient, My Enemy (1974)
Gordon R. Dickson's SF Best (1978) (revised as In the Bone, 1987)
In Iron Years (1980)
Love Not Human (1981)
The Man from Earth (1983)
Dickson! (1984) (revised as Steel Brother {1985})
Survival! (1984)
Forward! (1985)
Beyond the Dar Al-Harb (1985)
Invaders! (1985)
Steel Brother (1985)
The Man the Worlds Rejected (1986)
Mindspan (1986)
The Last Dream (1986)
The Stranger (1987)
Guided Tour (1988)
Beginnings (1988)
Ends (1988)
The Human Edge (2003)
Children's books
Secret under the Sea (1960)
Secret under Antarctica (1963)
Secret under the Caribbean (1964)
Secrets of the Deep (1985) omnibus of the three above
Awards
Dickson received the 1977 Skylark —Edward E. Smith Memorial Award for Imaginative Fiction from NESFA— for his contribution to SF and he was inducted by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2000.
He won several annual literary awards for particular works.
Hugo Award
"Soldier, Ask Not" for best short story, 1965
"Lost Dorsai" for best novella, 1981
"The Cloak and the Staff" for best novelette, 1981
Nebula Award
"Call Him Lord" for best novelette, 1966
August Derleth Award (best novel, British Fantasy Society)
The Dragon and the George, 1977
References
Citations
External links
Bibliography at SciFan
Gordon R. Dickson's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online''
Interview by Kay Drache of Hennepin County Library, Northern Lights Minnesota Author Interview TV Series #175 (1991)
1923 births
2001 deaths
University of Minnesota alumni
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American fantasy writers
United States Army personnel of World War II
American science fiction writers
American short story writers
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian expatriate writers in the United States
Filkers
Hugo Award-winning writers
Nebula Award winners
Writers from Edmonton
Writers from Minneapolis
Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
American male short story writers
Novelists from Minnesota
20th-century American male writers
|
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] |
201602
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda%20Nagata
|
Linda Nagata
|
Linda Nagata (born November 7, 1960 in San Diego, California) is a Hawaii-based American author of speculative fiction, science fiction, and fantasy novels, novellas, and short stories. Her novella Goddesses was the first online publication to win the Nebula Award. She frequently writes in the Nanopunk genre, which features nanotechnology and the integration of advanced computing with the human brain.
Life and career
Nagata was born in San Diego and moved with her family to Oahu, Hawai'i when she was ten years old. She earned a bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa before moving to the island of Maui, where she still lives with her family.
Nagata began writing after graduating from university, and published her first short story in 1987. She now publishes under her independent imprint, Mythic Island Press, LLC., which publishes e-books and trade paperbacks. She is perhaps most recognized for her Nanotech Succession series, which is considered exemplary of the Nanopunk genre.
Bibliography
Novels
The Nanotech Succession
Tech-Heaven (1995)
The Bohr Maker (1995)
Deception Well (1997)
Vast (1998)
Inverted Frontier
Edges (2019)
Silver (2019)
Limit of Vision (2001)
Memory (2003)
Skye Object 3270a (2011)
Stories of the Puzzle Lands (as Trey Shiels)
The Dread Hammer (2012)
Hepen the Watcher (2012)
The Red
The Red: First Light (2013)
The Trials (2015)
Going Dark (2015)
The Last Good Man (2017)
Pacific Storm (2020)
The Wild Trilogy
The Snow Chanter (2021)
The Long War (2021)
Days of Storm (2021)
Short fiction
Collections
Goddesses and Other Stories (2011)
Two Stories: Nahiku West & Nightside on Callisto (2013)
Light and Shadow: Eight Short Stories (2016)
List of stories
Awards
Locus Award for Best First Novel for The Bohr Maker, 1996.
Nebula Award for Best Novella for Goddesses, 2000.
References
External links
Interview by Wayne Gerard Trotman, Red Moon Chronicle, August 2011
Linda Nagata interview at Locus magazine, November 2014
1960 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American women writers
American science fiction writers
American women novelists
American women short story writers
Asimov's Science Fiction people
Nebula Award winners
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Writers from California
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa alumni
Novelists from Hawaii
People from Maui
|
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201605
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling%20%28signal%20processing%29
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Sampling (signal processing)
|
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave to a sequence of "samples".
A sample is a value of the signal at a point in time and/or space; this definition differs from the usage in statistics, which refers to a set of such values.
A sampler is a subsystem or operation that extracts samples from a continuous signal. A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the desired points.
The original signal can be reconstructed from a sequence of samples, up to the Nyquist limit, by passing the sequence of samples through a type of low pass filter called a reconstruction filter.
Theory
Sampling can be done for functions varying in space, time, or any other dimension, and similar results are obtained in two or more dimensions.
For functions that vary with time, let s(t) be a continuous function (or "signal") to be sampled, and let sampling be performed by measuring the value of the continuous function every T seconds, which is called the sampling interval or the sampling period. Then the sampled function is given by the sequence:
s(nT), for integer values of n.
The sampling frequency or sampling rate, fs, is the average number of samples obtained in one second, thus fs = 1/T. Its units are samples per second or hertz e.g. 48 kHz is 48,000 samples per second.
Reconstructing a continuous function from samples is done by interpolation algorithms. The Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula is mathematically equivalent to an ideal low-pass filter whose input is a sequence of Dirac delta functions that are modulated (multiplied) by the sample values. When the time interval between adjacent samples is a constant (T), the sequence of delta functions is called a Dirac comb. Mathematically, the modulated Dirac comb is equivalent to the product of the comb function with s(t). That purely mathematical abstraction is sometimes referred to as impulse sampling.
Most sampled signals are not simply stored and reconstructed. But the fidelity of a theoretical reconstruction is a customary measure of the effectiveness of sampling. That fidelity is reduced when s(t) contains frequency components whose periodicity is smaller than two samples; or equivalently the ratio of cycles to samples exceeds ½ (see Aliasing). The quantity ½ cycles/sample × fs samples/sec = fs/2 cycles/sec (hertz) is known as the Nyquist frequency of the sampler. Therefore, s(t) is usually the output of a low-pass filter, functionally known as an anti-aliasing filter. Without an anti-aliasing filter, frequencies higher than the Nyquist frequency will influence the samples in a way that is misinterpreted by the interpolation process.
Practical considerations
In practice, the continuous signal is sampled using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a device with various physical limitations. This results in deviations from the theoretically perfect reconstruction, collectively referred to as distortion.
Various types of distortion can occur, including:
Aliasing. Some amount of aliasing is inevitable because only theoretical, infinitely long, functions can have no frequency content above the Nyquist frequency. Aliasing can be made arbitrarily small by using a sufficiently large order of the anti-aliasing filter.
Aperture error results from the fact that the sample is obtained as a time average within a sampling region, rather than just being equal to the signal value at the sampling instant. In a capacitor-based sample and hold circuit, aperture errors are introduced by multiple mechanisms. For example, the capacitor cannot instantly track the input signal and the capacitor can not instantly be isolated from the input signal.
Jitter or deviation from the precise sample timing intervals.
Noise, including thermal sensor noise, analog circuit noise, etc.
Slew rate limit error, caused by the inability of the ADC input value to change sufficiently rapidly.
Quantization as a consequence of the finite precision of words that represent the converted values.
Error due to other non-linear effects of the mapping of input voltage to converted output value (in addition to the effects of quantization).
Although the use of oversampling can completely eliminate aperture error and aliasing by shifting them out of the passband, this technique cannot be practically used above a few GHz, and may be prohibitively expensive at much lower frequencies. Furthermore, while oversampling can reduce quantization error and non-linearity, it cannot eliminate these entirely. Consequently, practical ADCs at audio frequencies typically do not exhibit aliasing, aperture error, and are not limited by quantization error. Instead, analog noise dominates. At RF and microwave frequencies where oversampling is impractical and filters are expensive, aperture error, quantization error and aliasing can be significant limitations.
Jitter, noise, and quantization are often analyzed by modeling them as random errors added to the sample values. Integration and zero-order hold effects can be analyzed as a form of low-pass filtering. The non-linearities of either ADC or DAC are analyzed by replacing the ideal linear function mapping with a proposed nonlinear function.
Applications
Audio sampling
Digital audio uses pulse-code modulation (PCM) and digital signals for sound reproduction. This includes analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), digital-to-analog conversion (DAC), storage, and transmission. In effect, the system commonly referred to as digital is in fact a discrete-time, discrete-level analog of a previous electrical analog. While modern systems can be quite subtle in their methods, the primary usefulness of a digital system is the ability to store, retrieve and transmit signals without any loss of quality.
When it is necessary to capture audio covering the entire 20–20,000 Hz range of human hearing, such as when recording music or many types of acoustic events, audio waveforms are typically sampled at 44.1 kHz (CD), 48 kHz, 88.2 kHz, or 96 kHz. The approximately double-rate requirement is a consequence of the Nyquist theorem. Sampling rates higher than about 50 kHz to 60 kHz cannot supply more usable information for human listeners. Early professional audio equipment manufacturers chose sampling rates in the region of 40 to 50 kHz for this reason.
There has been an industry trend towards sampling rates well beyond the basic requirements: such as 96 kHz and even 192 kHz Even though ultrasonic frequencies are inaudible to humans, recording and mixing at higher sampling rates is effective in eliminating the distortion that can be caused by foldback aliasing. Conversely, ultrasonic sounds may interact with and modulate the audible part of the frequency spectrum (intermodulation distortion), degrading the fidelity. One advantage of higher sampling rates is that they can relax the low-pass filter design requirements for ADCs and DACs, but with modern oversampling sigma-delta converters this advantage is less important.
The Audio Engineering Society recommends 48 kHz sampling rate for most applications but gives recognition to 44.1 kHz for Compact Disc (CD) and other consumer uses, 32 kHz for transmission-related applications, and 96 kHz for higher bandwidth or relaxed anti-aliasing filtering. Both Lavry Engineering and J. Robert Stuart state that the ideal sampling rate would be about 60 kHz, but since this is not a standard frequency, recommend 88.2 or 96 kHz for recording purposes.
A more complete list of common audio sample rates is:
Bit depth
Audio is typically recorded at 8-, 16-, and 24-bit depth, which yield a theoretical maximum signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) for a pure sine wave of, approximately, 49.93 dB, 98.09 dB and 122.17 dB. CD quality audio uses 16-bit samples. Thermal noise limits the true number of bits that can be used in quantization. Few analog systems have signal to noise ratios (SNR) exceeding 120 dB. However, digital signal processing operations can have very high dynamic range, consequently it is common to perform mixing and mastering operations at 32-bit precision and then convert to 16- or 24-bit for distribution.
Speech sampling
Speech signals, i.e., signals intended to carry only human speech, can usually be sampled at a much lower rate. For most phonemes, almost all of the energy is contained in the 100 Hz–4 kHz range, allowing a sampling rate of 8 kHz. This is the sampling rate used by nearly all telephony systems, which use the G.711 sampling and quantization specifications.
Video sampling
Standard-definition television (SDTV) uses either 720 by 480 pixels (US NTSC 525-line) or 720 by 576 pixels (UK PAL 625-line) for the visible picture area.
High-definition television (HDTV) uses 720p (progressive), 1080i (interlaced), and 1080p (progressive, also known as Full-HD).
In digital video, the temporal sampling rate is defined the frame rate or rather the field rate rather than the notional pixel clock. The image sampling frequency is the repetition rate of the sensor integration period. Since the integration period may be significantly shorter than the time between repetitions, the sampling frequency can be different from the inverse of the sample time:
50 Hz – PAL video
60 / 1.001 Hz ~= 59.94 Hz – NTSC video
Video digital-to-analog converters operate in the megahertz range (from ~3 MHz for low quality composite video scalers in early games consoles, to 250 MHz or more for the highest-resolution VGA output).
When analog video is converted to digital video, a different sampling process occurs, this time at the pixel frequency, corresponding to a spatial sampling rate along scan lines. A common pixel sampling rate is:
13.5 MHz – CCIR 601, D1 video
Spatial sampling in the other direction is determined by the spacing of scan lines in the raster. The sampling rates and resolutions in both spatial directions can be measured in units of lines per picture height.
Spatial aliasing of high-frequency luma or chroma video components shows up as a moiré pattern.
3D sampling
The process of volume rendering samples a 3D grid of voxels to produce 3D renderings of sliced (tomographic) data. The 3D grid is assumed to represent a continuous region of 3D space. Volume rendering is common in medical imaging, X-ray computed tomography (CT/CAT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) are some examples. It is also used for seismic tomography and other applications.
Undersampling
When a bandpass signal is sampled slower than its Nyquist rate, the samples are indistinguishable from samples of a low-frequency alias of the high-frequency signal. That is often done purposefully in such a way that the lowest-frequency alias satisfies the Nyquist criterion, because the bandpass signal is still uniquely represented and recoverable. Such undersampling is also known as bandpass sampling, harmonic sampling, IF sampling, and direct IF to digital conversion.
Oversampling
Oversampling is used in most modern analog-to-digital converters to reduce the distortion introduced by practical digital-to-analog converters, such as a zero-order hold instead of idealizations like the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula.
Complex sampling
Complex sampling (I/Q sampling) is the simultaneous sampling of two different, but related, waveforms, resulting in pairs of samples that are subsequently treated as complex numbers. When one waveform is the Hilbert transform of the other waveform the complex-valued function, is called an analytic signal, whose Fourier transform is zero for all negative values of frequency. In that case, the Nyquist rate for a waveform with no frequencies ≥ B can be reduced to just B (complex samples/sec), instead of 2B (real samples/sec). More apparently, the equivalent baseband waveform, also has a Nyquist rate of B, because all of its non-zero frequency content is shifted into the interval [-B/2, B/2).
Although complex-valued samples can be obtained as described above, they are also created by manipulating samples of a real-valued waveform. For instance, the equivalent baseband waveform can be created without explicitly computing by processing the product sequence through a digital low-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is B/2. Computing only every other sample of the output sequence reduces the sample-rate commensurate with the reduced Nyquist rate. The result is half as many complex-valued samples as the original number of real samples. No information is lost, and the original s(t) waveform can be recovered, if necessary.
See also
Crystal oscillator frequencies
Downsampling
Upsampling
Multidimensional sampling
Sample rate conversion
Digitizing
Sample and hold
Beta encoder
Kell factor
Bit rate
Normalized frequency
Notes
References
Further reading
Matt Pharr, Wenzel Jakob and Greg Humphreys, Physically Based Rendering: From Theory to Implementation, 3rd ed., Morgan Kaufmann, November 2016. . The chapter on sampling (available online) is nicely written with diagrams, core theory and code sample.
External links
Journal devoted to Sampling Theory
I/Q Data for Dummies a page trying to answer the question Why I/Q Data?
Sampling of analog signals an interactive presentation in a web-demo at the Institute of Telecommunications, University of Stuttgart
Digital signal processing
Signal processing
|
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201608
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t%20It%20Cool%20News
|
Ain't It Cool News
|
Ain't It Cool News (AICN) is an entertainment news website founded by Harry Knowles and run by his sister Dannie Knowles since September 2017, dedicated to news, rumors, and reviews of upcoming and current films, television, and comic book projects, with an emphasis on science fiction, superhero, fantasy, horror, and action genres.
History
Ain't It Cool News was launched in 1996, and its name is attributed to a quote from John Travolta's character in the film Broken Arrow. Knowles began surfing the internet while recovering from a debilitating accident in 1994. He spent a lot of time in newsgroups exchanging gossip and rumors about upcoming films, eventually creating his own website as part of his internet hobby. A principal offering was Knowles' colorful movie reviews, but the primary distinction from other sites was the (ostensible) insider news articles. Production assistants, people in the industry, secretaries, and other behind-the-scenes folk would submit news such as casting decisions, scripts, and release dates, though Knowles himself has admitted that in the beginning, some of the articles from these alleged "spies" were his own work generated from scouring the newsgroups.
Over the next few years the site expanded by adding associate contributors across the globe, most of whom would go by pseudonyms, such as Chicago movie critic Steve Prokopy, who goes by the name "Capone" on AICN; Eric Vespe ("Quint"); Moises Chiullan ("Monty Cristo"); and UK-based critic Adam Stephen Kelly ("Britgeek").
The website garnered national attention in 1997 with the release of Batman & Robin. Knowles posted several negative reviews from preview screenings. When the film performed poorly at the box office, studio executives complained that it had been sabotaged by the leaks to the Internet. However, negative reviews from other, more traditional, media confirmed what Knowles had posted. From there, the site's popularity rapidly expanded. National magazines such as People and Newsweek called for interviews with Knowles.
The site was parodied in the film Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back when the lead characters look at the Movie Poop Shoot site. That site was created at MoviePoopShoot.com as part of the film's publicity, and existed as a similar site for some time. However, after the release of Clerks II, the site was shut down. A site has since been put back up at that same URL, now run by Quick Stop Entertainment, a company probably best known for running the semi-official site for the TV series Scrubs and the official sites for the other films by Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back writer/director Kevin Smith.
Occasionally, filmmakers interact with fans on the site. Sylvester Stallone answered numerous questions from fans in the site's message boards while publicizing the release of Rocky Balboa as well as The Expendables. Bruce Willis also posted on the website briefly to promote his film Live Free or Die Hard.
On April 5, 2012, the first episode of Ain't It Cool with Harry Knowles was posted on YouTube. This scripted film news show, presented by Harry Knowles, is intended "to translate the fantasy-esque world of Ain't It Cool News to a different medium". In this episode, Knowles reviewed what he claimed to be the script for Ridley Scott's highly anticipated film Prometheus; however, screenwriter Damon Lindelof announced that Knowles must have been "duped", as the script was a fake that had been posted on the Internet almost a month before. Knowles then updated the story on the site and attempted an explanation.
Decline of AICN in popularity
According to an April 5, 2013, article in The Hollywood Reporter, Knowles' site made $700,000 per year in revenue in its early 2000s prime. However, by 2013, traffic had dwindled and ad revenue had dropped to the low six figures. The Hollywood Reporter also noted that Knowles owed $300,000 in back taxes to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service by that point, and the inability of AICN to adapt beyond a dated '90s web template, being outpaced by newer sites, and its continuing difficulty generating the scoops and headlines it was known for in its prime.
Sexual assault allegations against Harry Knowles
On September 23, 2017, it was reported on IndieWire and circulated in other national media that Knowles had allegedly sexually assaulted a woman named Jasmine Baker on two occasions in 1999 and 2000 at official Alamo Drafthouse events in Austin, Texas, and that when informed of the incidents by Baker, Drafthouse owners took no action. Knowles denied the allegations.
In response to the story, a number of Ain't It Cool News contributors resigned from the site. Blogger Horrorella announced her departure on September 24. Longtime writers Steve Prokopy, who used the pseudonym "Capone," and Eric Vespe, who as "Quint," had been with the site since its beginnings, announced that they were leaving AICN. Alamo Drafthouse owner Tim League announced that the company, whose theater had served as home to the annual Butt-Numb-a-Thon film fest Knowles organized to commemorate his own birthday, had severed all ties with Knowles as a result of the controversy, and the Austin Film Critics Association voted to remove Knowles as a member of the group.
By September 26, four more women had made accusations of sexual assault and harassment. Knowles announced that he was stepping down from the site for "therapy, detox, and getting to a better place." He placed his sister, Dannie, who used the moniker "Pekosa Peligrosa," in control, and suggested that he was training her to run the site. Dannie herself started posting September 26, claiming a period of "female control" and intimating that there would be more female-accessible content for the foreseeable future.
References
Further reading
External links
A podcast interview with Harry Knowles
Internet properties established in 1996
American entertainment news websites
|
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201611
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonalization
|
Orthogonalization
|
In linear algebra, orthogonalization is the process of finding a set of orthogonal vectors that span a particular subspace. Formally, starting with a linearly independent set of vectors {v1, ... , vk} in an inner product space (most commonly the Euclidean space Rn), orthogonalization results in a set of orthogonal vectors {u1, ... , uk} that generate the same subspace as the vectors v1, ... , vk. Every vector in the new set is orthogonal to every other vector in the new set; and the new set and the old set have the same linear span.
In addition, if we want the resulting vectors to all be unit vectors, then we normalize each vector and the procedure is called orthonormalization.
Orthogonalization is also possible with respect to any symmetric bilinear form (not necessarily an inner product, not necessarily over real numbers), but standard algorithms may encounter division by zero in this more general setting.
Orthogonalization algorithms
Methods for performing orthogonalization include:
Gram–Schmidt process, which uses projection
Householder transformation, which uses reflection
Givens rotation
Symmetric orthogonalization, which uses the Singular value decomposition
When performing orthogonalization on a computer, the Householder transformation is usually preferred over the Gram–Schmidt process since it is more numerically stable, i.e. rounding errors tend to have less serious effects.
On the other hand, the Gram–Schmidt process produces the jth orthogonalized vector after the jth iteration, while orthogonalization using Householder reflections produces all the vectors only at the end. This makes only the Gram–Schmidt process applicable for iterative methods like the Arnoldi iteration.
The Givens rotation is more easily parallelized than Householder transformations.
Symmetric orthogonalization was formulated by Per-Olov Löwdin.
Local orthogonalization
To compensate for the loss of useful signal in traditional noise attenuation approaches because of incorrect parameter selection or inadequacy of denoising assumptions, a weighting operator can be applied on the initially denoised section for the retrieval of useful signal from the initial noise section. The new denoising process is referred to as the local orthogonalization of signal and noise.
It has a wide range of applications in many signals processing and seismic exploration fields.
See also
Orthogonality
Biorthogonal system
Orthogonal basis
References
Linear algebra
|
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] |
201618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne%201
|
Osborne 1
|
The Osborne 1 is the first commercially successful portable computer, released on April 3, 1981 by Osborne Computer Corporation. It weighs , cost US$1,795, and runs the CP/M 2.2 operating system. It is powered from a wall socket, as it has no on-board battery, but it is still classed as a portable device since it can be hand-carried when the keyboard is closed.
The computer shipped with a large bundle of software that was almost equivalent in value to the machine itself, a practice adopted by other CP/M computer vendors. Competitors quickly appeared, such as the Kaypro II.
History
The Osborne 1 was developed by Adam Osborne and designed by Lee Felsenstein, first announced in early 1981. Osborne, an author of computer books decided that he wanted to break the price of computers. The computer's design was based largely on the Xerox NoteTaker, a prototype developed at Xerox PARC in 1976 by Alan Kay. It was designed to be portable, with a rugged ABS plastic case and a handle. The Osborne 1 is about the size and weight of a sewing machine and was advertised as the only computer that would fit underneath an airline seat. It is now classified as a "luggable" computer when compared to those later "laptop" designs such as the Epson HX-20.
The Osborne 1 was described as "a cross between a World War II field radio and a shrunken instrument panel of a DC-3", and Felstenstein admitted that carrying two of them to a trade show "nearly pulled my arms out of their sockets". The computer nonetheless amazed observers; InfoWorld reported that "By far the most frequently asked question at" the West Coast Computer Faire "was, 'What do you think of the new Osborne computer?'" BYTE Magazine wrote: "(1) it will cost $1795, and (2) it's portable!" The word processing, spreadsheet, and other bundled software alone was worth $1,500; as InfoWorld stated in an April 1981 front-page article on the new computer after listing the included software, "In case you think the price printed above was a mistake, we'll repeat it: $1795".
West Coast Computer Faire attendees stated, InfoWorld said, that the Osborne 1 "represented an advancement of the price/performance ratio for microcomputers". Adam Osborne agreed but emphasized the price, stating that its performance was "merely adequate": "It is not the fastest microcomputer, it doesn't have huge amounts of disk storage space, and it is not especially expandable." Beyond the price, advertisements emphasized the computer's portability and bundled software. The company sold 11,000 units in the first eight months of sales, and sales at their peak reached 10,000 units per month.
The Osborne 1's principal deficiencies are a tiny display screen, use of single-sided, single-density floppy disk drives which store 90 kB per disk, and considerable unit weight. Adam Osborne decided to use single-sided disk drives out of concern about double-sided drives suffering head damage from rough handling. A single-density disk controller was used to keep costs down.
In September 1981, Osborne Computer Company had its first $1 million sales month. Sales were hurt by the company's premature announcement of superior successor machines such as the Osborne Executive, which replaced the Osborne 1's 52 character screen with an 80 character screen. This phenomenon was later called the Osborne effect. From 1982 to 1985, the company published The Portable Companion, a magazine for Osborne users.
Early production
The company initially had ten prototypes produced, as described in an email by Felstenstein:
Competition
The computer was widely imitated as several other computer companies began offering low-priced portable computers with bundled software. The Osborne's popularity was surpassed by the similar Kaypro II which has a larger, CRT that can display 80 characters on 24 lines, and double density floppies that can store twice as much data. Osborne Computer Corporation was unable to effectively respond to Kaypro until after 8-bit, CP/M-based computers were obsolete.
In 1981, IBM released the IBM PC which is significantly more powerful and expandable. Following the release of the IBM-compatible Compaq Portable in 1983, the market for CP/M computers shrank and Osborne was unable to compete.
Architecture
The 64 KB main memory is made of four rows of eight type 4116 dynamic RAM chips, each with 16,384 bits. Memory is shared, with 60 KB available for software and 4 KB reserved for video memory. No parity is provided and no provision for memory expansion exists on the motherboard. The boot program loader and significant parts of the BIOS are stored in a 4 kilobyte EPROM, which is bank-switched. A second EPROM is used as a fixed character generator, providing 96 upper and lower case ASCII characters and 32 graphic symbols; the character generator is not accessible to the CPU. The eighth bit of an ASCII character is used to select underlined characters. Serial communications is through a memory-mapped Motorola MC6850 Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter (ACIA); a jumper on the motherboard allows the MC6850 to be set for either 300 and 1200 baud or 600 and 2400 baud communications, but other bit rates are not available.
The floppy disk drives are interfaced through a Fujitsu 8877 disk controller integrated circuit, a second-source of the Western Digital 1793. The parallel port is connected through a memory-mapped Motorola MC6821 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) which allows the port to be fully bidirectional; the Osborne manuals claim that the port implemented the IEEE-488 interface bus but this is rarely used. The parallel port use a card-edge connector etched on the main board, exposed through a hole in the case; any IEEE-488 or printer cable has to be modified for the Osborne.
The diskette drives installed in the Osborne 1 are Siemens FDD 100-5s (MPI drives were also used later), which were actually manufactured in California by GSI, a drive manufacturer that the German firm had purchased. They utilize a custom controller board that Osborne produced, which among other things has a single connector for the power and data lines. The FDD 100-5 was trouble-prone as Osborne's quality control was lacking, and many of the controller boards have soldering defects. In addition, the drive cable is not keyed and can be easily installed upside-down, which shorts out components in the computer. There are also problems with the drive head going past track 0 and getting stuck in place. The combo power/data cable also has a tendency of overheating.
The video system use part of the main memory and TTL logic to provide video and sync to an internal 5-inch monochrome monitor. The same signals are provided on a card edge connector for an external monitor; both internal and external monitor display the same video format. The internal monitor is specified as 3.55" horizontal, and 2.63" vertical making the actual viewing size even smaller at 4.42". Osborne also provided a 12" GM-12 external monitor.
The processor, memory, floppy controller, PIA, ACIA and EPROMs are interconnected with standard TTL devices.
The Osborne 1 has bank switched memory. Unusually for a system based on the Z80, all I/O is memory mapped, and the Z80 I/O instructions are only used to select memory banks. Bank 1 is "normal" mode, where user programs ran; this includes a 4 kB area at the top of the address space which is video memory. Bank 2 is called "shadow". The first 4 kB of this address space is the ROM, and 4 kB is reserved for the on-board I/O ports: The disk controller, the keyboard, the parallel port PIA, the serial port ACIA, and a second PIA chip used for the video system. All memory above the first 16 KB is the same memory as Bank 1. This is the mode of the system on power up, because this is where the boot ROM was mapped. Bank 3 has only 4 kb by 1 bit of memory, used solely to hold the "dim" attribute of the video system.
Operating system
The computer runs on the CP/M 2.2 operating system. A complete listing of the ROM BIOS is in the Osborne technical manual.
Software
The Osborne 1 came with a bundle of application software with a retail value of more than US$1500, including the WordStar word processor, SuperCalc spreadsheet, and the CBASIC and MBASIC programming languages. The exact contents of the bundled software varied depending on the time of purchase; for example, dBASE II was not included with the first systems sold.
Hardware
Dual 5¼-inch, single-sided, single-density 40 track floppy disk drives ("dual-density" upgrade available)
4 MHz Z80 CPU
64 KB main memory
Fold-down 69 key detachable keyboard doubling as the computer case's lid
5-inch, 52 character × 24 line monochrome CRT display, mapped as a window on 128 × 32 character display memory
Parallel printer port configurable as an IEEE-488 port
RS-232 compatible 1200 or 300 baud Serial port for use with external modems or serial printers
The Osborne 1 is powered by a wall plug with a switched-mode power supply, and has no internal battery. An aftermarket battery pack offering 1-hour run-time is available, and connected to the system through a front panel socket. OCC also sold the POWR-PAC inverter that allows running an Osborne from a 12 volt car cigarette lighter. Early models (tan case) are wired for 120 V or 240 V only. Later models (blue case, AKA Osborne 1A/1B, shipping after May 1982) can be switched by the user to run on either 120 V or 230 V, 50 or 60 Hz. There is no internal fan; a hatch at the top of the Osborne 1A/1B (blue case) can be slid open for ventilation.
Peripherals
Osborne and other companies produced many Osborne 1 accessories:
External Monochrome display. This uses separate monochrome synch and video connections driven by the motherboard video circuitry.
Parallel Dot matrix printer. Manufactured by Star.
"Osborne DATACOM" 300 baud modem. Fits into the left diskette storage pocket and powered from the motherboard. Sold by OCC as the COMM-PAC which also included the AMCALL software.
Aftermarket vendors offered several other upgrades to the basic model, including third-party double density disk drives, external hard disks, and a battery-backed RAM disk that fits in a disk storage compartment.
Osborne Computer Corporation offered a "Screen-Pac" column upgrade that could be switched between original 52 column, 80 column and 104 column modes. Osborne 1 systems with the Screen-Pac upgrade have an RCA jack installed on the front panel to allow users to connect an external composite video monitor. This modification was developed in Australia by Geoff Cohen and Stuart Ritchie, and taken to the US by Stuart who turned up unannounced and sat outside Adam Osborne's office for two days. Osborne bought the mod and both of them worked with the company to implement the mod. As a nod toward where it came from, it was called the "Koala Project". Geoff developed other upgrades for Osborne's and was regarded as the Australian expert on the computers.
Games
Since, like most CP/M systems, the display of the Osborne does not support bit-mapped graphics, games are typically character based games, like Hamurabi or text adventures (the 1982 game Deadline, for example, packaged in a dossier type folder and came on two 5" diskettes.). Compiled and MBASIC interpreted versions of Colossal Cave Adventure are available for the Osborne. Some type in games use the Osborne's character-mode graphics.
Reception
InfoWorld reported that Osborne's booth at the April 1981 West Coast Computer Faire "was packed for the entire show". Although attendees' opinions were divided—some praised the computer, while others said that the screen was too small—many agreed "that the Osborne 1 represented an advancement of the price/performance ratio for microcomputers", the magazine said. Jerry Pournelle wrote that the small size of the Osborne's screen surprised him by not being a problem, and stated that after using it at Caltech when Voyager 1 arrived at Saturn, "a dozen science writers were ready to go buy an Osborne 1". He added, "I was able to type ... without disrupting the meeting at all. The Osborne 1 is quiet and efficient and not at all distracting ... You can't beat it for the price, under $2000 bucks with over a thousand dollars' worth of software. An Osborne and an Epson printer will put you in the computing/word-processing business cheaper than anything I can think of". BYTE stated "If you need a solid, well-supported, well-documented business system at a reasonable price, you should give [the Osborne 1] a great deal of consideration". The reviewer calculated that after subtracting $1530 for the retail price of the bundled software the price of the computer was "only $265 ... in a way you are getting a software package with a computer thrown in for (almost) free". He praised the quality of the documentation, and agreed with Pournelle that the screen's size did not cause difficulty. James Fallows agreed that the screen, although "the size of a postcard ... is much easier to read than that would suggest", and described the computer as "the best bargain on computer power in the business".
In 1981, the daily Israeli newspaper Maariv, provided several Osborne 1 to its reporters. The computers were equipped with acoustic couplers. This configuration allowed a reporter to submit an article digitally directly from the field to the newsroom. Maariv used a localized version of Osborne 1 that supported Hebrew. Freelance journalist David Kline praised the Osborne 1's durability, reporting in 1982 that the "damage inflicted by arrogant customs officers, airport police, vengeful Paris bellhops and opium-fogged Pakistani cabbies were entirely cosmetic". Stating that a computer that weighs 30 pounds "really isn't very portable", Creative Computing in 1984 concluded that "the main reason that the Osborne was a success was not that it was transportable, but that it came with a pile of bundled software".
References
Further reading
External links
Osborne 1
At the Old Computer Museum
Portable computers
Personal computers
Products introduced in 1981
Z80-based home computers
Computer-related introductions in 1981
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] |
201624
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servas%20International
|
Servas International
|
Servas International ("we serve (peace)" in Esperanto) is a non-profit organization proving a hospitality exchange service.
Servas was founded in 1949, in the aftermath of World War II, by Bob Luitweiler and other Danish students as an international network for people to meet and where suitable, to be offered a short stay, as part of the peace movement.
The organisation may now be described as a platform, part of a gift economy. Members can be both hosts and travellers, and hosts do not charge for lodging.
People wishing to join SERVAS can access the website, and complete an application form and supply letters of recommendation, and be interviewed to ensure that they understand the purpose and protocol of being a Servas member, whether as a traveller or host. Members pay an annual fee to the organization, which is determined locally by country. There is an international executive and each country has an elected board or committee to manage membership (including interviews for new applicants), determine membership fees, organise social events, support various peace-related activities. .
Servas is owned by an accredited Non-governmental organization and has been affiliated with the United Nations since 1973.
References
Hospitality exchange services
Ecotourism
Organizations established in 1949
Peace organizations
|
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] |
201627
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osbourne
|
Osbourne
|
Osbourne may refer to:
Osbourne (name), including a list of people with the name
The Osbournes, a reality television program featuring Ozzy Osbourne and family
Osbournes Reloaded, a variety television program also featuring the Osbourne family
Osborne House, a former royal residence in East Cowes, Isle of Wight, United Kingdom
Osbourne Canyon Formation, a geologic formation in California
See also
Osborn (disambiguation)
Osborne (disambiguation)
Osbern (disambiguation)
|
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201629
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradian
|
Gradian
|
In trigonometry, the gradian, also known as the gon (from ), grad, or grade, is a unit of measurement of an angle, defined as one hundredth of the right angle; in other words, there are 100 gradians in 90 degrees. It is equivalent to of a turn, of a degree, or of a radian. Measuring angles in gradians is said to employ the centesimal system of angular measurement, initiated as part of metrication and decimalisation efforts.
In continental Europe, the French word centigrade, also known as centesimal minute of arc, was in use for one hundredth of a grad; similarly, the centesimal second of arc was defined as one hundredth of a centesimal arc-minute, analogous to decimal time and the sexagesimal minutes and seconds of arc. The chance of confusion was one reason for the adoption of the term Celsius to replace centigrade as the name of the temperature scale.
Gradians are principally used in surveying (especially in Europe),
and to a lesser extent in mining and geology.
the gon is officially a legal unit of measurement in the European Union and in Switzerland.
The gradian is not part of the International System of Units (SI).
History and name
The unit originated in connection with the French Revolution in France as the grade, along with the metric system, hence it is occasionally referred to as a metric degree. Due to confusion with the existing term grad(e) in some northern European countries (meaning a standard degree, of a turn), the name gon was later adopted, first in those regions, and later as the international standard. In German, the unit was formerly also called Neugrad (new degree), likewise nygrad in Danish, Swedish and Norwegian (also gradian), and nýgráða in Icelandic.
Although attempts at a general introduction were made, the unit was only adopted in some countries, and for specialised areas such as surveying, mining and geology. The French artillery has used the grad for decades. Today, the degree, of a turn, or the mathematically more convenient radian, of a turn (used in the SI system of units) is generally used instead.
In the 1990s, most scientific calculators offered the grad, as well as radians and degrees, for their trigonometric functions. In the 2010s, some scientific calculators lack support for gradians.
Symbol
The international standard symbol for this unit today is "gon" (see ISO 31-1). Other symbols used in the past include "gr", "grd", and "g", the last sometimes written as a superscript, similarly to a degree sign: 50g = 45°.
A metric prefix sometimes is used, as in "dgon", "cgon", "mgon", respectively, 0.1 gon, 0.01 gon, 0.001 gon.
Centesimal arc-minutes and centesimal arc-seconds were also denoted with superscripts c and cc, respectively.
Advantages and disadvantages
Each quadrant is assigned a range of 100 gon, which eases recognition of the four quadrants, as well as arithmetic involving perpendicular or opposite angles.
{|
|-
|align="right"| 0° ||align="center"| = ||align="right"| 0 gradians
|-
|align="right"| 90° ||align="center"| = ||align="right"| 100 gradians
|-
|align="right"| 180° ||align="center"| = ||align="right"| 200 gradians
|-
|align="right"| 270° ||align="center"| = ||align="right"| 300 gradians
|-
|align="right"| 360° ||align="center"| = ||align="right"| 400 gradians
|}
One advantage of this unit is that right angles to a given angle are easily determined. If one is sighting down a compass course of 117 grad, the direction to one's left is 17 grad, to one's right 217 grad, and behind one 317 grad. A disadvantage is that the common angles of 30° and 60° in geometry must be expressed in fractions (as grad and grad, respectively).
Similarly, in one hour ( day), Earth rotates by 15° or gon (see also decimal time). These observations are a consequence of the fact that the number 360 has more divisors than the number 400 does; notably, 360 is divisible by 3, while 400 is not. There are twelve factors of 360 less than or equal to its square root: . However, there are only eight for 400: .
Conversion
Relation to the metre
In the 18th century, the metre was defined as the 10-millionth part of a quarter meridian.
Thus, one grad corresponds to an arc length along the Earth's surface of approximately 100 kilometres; 1 centigrad to 1 kilometre; 10 micrograd to 1 metre.
Relation to the SI system of units
The gradian is not part of the International System of Units (SI). The EU directive on the units of measurement notes that the gradian does not appear in the lists drawn up by the CGPM, CIPM or BIPM. The most recent, 9th edition of the SI Brochure does not mention the gradian at all. The previous edition mentioned it only in a footnote, which said the following:
See also
Angular frequency
Angular mil (military measurement)
Harmonic analysis
Jean-Charles de Borda
Repeating circle
Spread (rational trigonometry)
Steradian (the "square radian")
Notes
References
External links
Ask Dr Math
Definitions of grade, gon and centigrade on sizes.com
Dictionary of Units
Units of plane angle
Decimalisation
Metrication
Non-SI metric units
|
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201632
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarkable%20%28stationery%29
|
Remarkable (stationery)
|
Remarkable Recycled Ltd (05394545 - Incorporated on 16 March 2005) is a UK company that makes stationery products out of recycled materials. With its sister company, Edvironment Ltd, it sells a range of recycled products, such as the recycled CD and vending cup pencil.
History
In 1996, Edward Douglas Miller founded the company with the aim to value waste as a resource. In 1998, it won UK Invention of the Year and a year later won UK environmental company of the year and UK recycled product of the year.
In 2000, as part of the UK millennium celebrations a Remarkable product was announced as a 'Millennium Product' by the Design Council’s Cool Britannia awards. For an exhibition in the Millennium Dome the company made 3.75 million pencils, recycled from plastic cups. In 2011, Edward Douglas Miller appeared on Channel 4's ''The Secret Millionaire.
In 2002, the company was granted £20,000 by London Remade, and bought brand new binding machines to bind the recycled notepads. This helped Remarkable to be able to create a greater range of products including plastic rulers (also made from vending machine cups), recycled rubber tyres; to make mouse mats and pencil cases.
In 2013, the company set the Guinness World Record for the longest pencil, by producing one 323.51 meters long. However, that length has since been surpassed.
Remarkable worked with Keep Britain Tidy (KBT), educating and linking the value of recycling waste and its conversion into recycled products. Products are co branded with the remarkable and KBT logo, with royalties going to support KBT.
Remarkable Eco solutions Ltd was dissolved in 2016 with the closure of the factory in Worcester in 2014, with the loss of some employees, because of a contract being cancelled with a major wholesaler. Some machinery was sold off, with the trade marks and IPR still remaining with the founder and inventor.
In 2017 production continues, turning UK waste into recycled products.
References
External links
Remarkable.co.uk
Manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom
Recycling organizations
Stationers of the United Kingdom
|
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201634
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-bellied%20sea%20eagle
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White-bellied sea eagle
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The white-bellied sea eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), also known as the white-breasted sea eagle, is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, it is closely related to Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands, and the two are considered a superspecies. A distinctive bird, the adult white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, breast, under-wing coverts and tail. The upper parts are grey and the black under-wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts. The tail is short and wedge-shaped as in all Haliaeetus species. Like many raptors, the female is slightly larger than the male, and can measure up to long with a wingspan of up to , and weigh . Immature birds have brown plumage, which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years. The call is a loud goose-like honking.
Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways, the white-bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water, and fish form around half of its diet. Opportunistic, it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals. Although rated as Least Concern globally, it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand, and southeastern Australia. It is ranked as Threatened in Victoria and Vulnerable in South Australia and Tasmania. Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat, both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success, and from removal of suitable trees for nesting. The white-bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia, and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range.
Taxonomy
The white-bellied sea eagle was first described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, although John Latham had made notes on the species in 1781, from a specimen obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook's last voyage. Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- 'white', and gaster 'belly'. Its closest relative is the little-known Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands. These form a superspecies, and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies, one (the white-bellied sea eagle) has a white head, as opposed to the other species' dark head. The bill and eyes are dark, and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles. Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails, though this may not always be clearly visible in the white-bellied sea eagle. The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study. Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology, their genetic divergence of 0.3% indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150,000 years ago. The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies, the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species. Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford's sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea-based white-bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands.
The white-bellied sea eagle's affinities beyond the Sanford's sea eagle are a little less clear; molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle (along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle), while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere. A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white-bellied and Sanford's sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles (the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus Ichthyophaga).
As well as white-bellied sea eagle and white-breasted sea eagle, other recorded names include white-bellied fish-hawk, white-eagle, and grey-backed sea eagle.
Description
The white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, rump and underparts, and dark or slate-grey back and wings. In flight, the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below. The large, hooked bill is a leaden blue-grey with a darker tip, and the irides are dark brown. The cere is also lead grey. The legs and feet are yellow or grey, with long black talons (claws). Unlike those of eagles of the genus Aquila, the legs are not feathered. The sexes are similar. Males are long and weigh . Females are slightly larger, at and . The wingspan ranges from . A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea (3 °S to 50 °S) found that birds could be sexed reliably on size, and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north. There is no seasonal variation in plumage. The moulting pattern of the white-bellied sea eagle is poorly known. It appears to take longer than a year to complete, and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption.
The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle, but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan. In silhouette, the comparatively long neck, head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind. For active flight, the white-bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing-beats with short periods of gliding.
A young white-bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown, with pale cream-streaked plumage on their head, neck, nape and rump areas. The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year. The species breeds from around six years of age onwards. The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years.
The loud goose-like honking call is a familiar sound, particularly during the breeding season; pairs often honk in unison, and often carry on for some time when perched. The male's call is higher-pitched and more rapid than that of the female. Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest-carrying of all Australian bird calls, in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge-tailed eagle.
Adult white-bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird. Immature birds can be confused with wedge-tailed eagles. However, the plumage of the latter is darker, the tail longer, and the legs feathered. They might also be confused with the black-breasted buzzard (Hamirostra melanosternon), but this species is much smaller, has white patches on the wings, and has a more undulating flight. In India, the Egyptian vulture has white plumage, but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings. The white tail of the white-bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles. In the Philippines, it can be confused with the Philippine eagle, which can be distinguished by its crest; immature white-bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey-headed fish eagles, but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers, and wedge-shaped tail.
Distribution and habitat
The white-bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai (sometimes north to Gujarat, and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands) eastwards in India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka in southern Asia, through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Indochina, the main and offshore islands of the Philippines, and southern China including Hong Kong, Hainan and Fuzhou, eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago, and Australia. In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island, and replaced elsewhere by Sanford's sea eagle. In Victoria, where it is otherwise scarce, it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes. Similarly in South Australia, it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island. The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania, and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland. There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand.
They are a common sight in coastal areas, but may also be seen well inland (It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India, nearly away from the sea shore) The white-bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial, although it may travel long distances. They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes (Pteropus). Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up. In one instance, a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years. The species is easily disturbed by humans, especially when nesting, and may desert nesting sites as a result. It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference.
Behaviour
The white-bellied sea eagle is generally territorial; some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year, while others are nomadic. The species is monogamous, with pairs remaining together until one bird dies, after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate. This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years (one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years). Immature birds are generally dispersive, with many moving over away from the area they were raised. One juvenile raised in Cowell, South Australia was reported away at Fraser Island in Queensland. A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn, although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or (as was considered more likely) an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia. Birds are often seen perched high in a tree, or soaring over waterways and adjacent land. They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs. Small groups of white-bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship. Much of the white-bellied sea eagle's behaviour, particularly breeding, remains poorly known.
Breeding
The breeding season varies according to location—it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans-Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea, and from June to August in Australia. A pair of white-bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation: diving, gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly. They may mirror each other, flying apart and copying each other swooping and swerving. A talon-grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other's talons with its own. If successful, the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground. This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge-tailed eagle.
The white-bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man-made pylons to nest in. Often, locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area, which is generally a low-lying locale near water with some forest cover. The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area. The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches, and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed. Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger. Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water. Old nests of wedge-tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used. Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites, and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground. A breeding pair, with the male being more active, spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs. Normally a clutch of two dull, white, oval eggs are laid. Measuring 73×55 mm, they are incubated over six weeks before hatching. The young are semi-altricial, and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg. Initially, the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks, but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger. Although two eggs are laid, it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging (leaving the nest). One egg may be infertile, or the second chick may die in the nest. If the first clutch is lost, the parents may attempt a second brood. Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old, and remaining around the parents' territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season.
Feeding
The white-bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey, including carrion. It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons. It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward (almost under its chin) and then strikes backwards while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards. Generally only one foot is used to seize prey. The white-bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45-degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface. While hunting over water on sunny days, it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it, seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey.
The white-bellied sea eagle hunts mainly aquatic animals, such as fish, turtles and sea snakes, but it takes birds, such as little penguins, Eurasian coots and shearwaters, and mammals (including flying foxes) as well. In the Bismarck Archipelago it has been reported feeding on two species of possum, the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus. It is a skilled hunter, and will attack prey up to the size of a swan. They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep, birds and fish found along the waterline, as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters.
They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers, whistling kites, brahminy kites and ospreys, forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying. Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls, cormorants and Australasian gannets. There is one record of a white-bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey. They may even steal food from their own species, including their mates. The white-bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey, all the while screeching shrilly. Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish.
White-bellied sea eagles feed alone, in pairs, or in family groups. A pair may cooperate to hunt. Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest. The white-bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it. It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food, and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone, fur and feathers.
A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge-tailed eagles and white-bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken. Wedge-tailed eagles took rabbits, various macropods, terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots, and various passerines including magpies and starlings. White-bellied sea eagles caught fish, water-dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long-necked turtle and Australian water dragon, and waterbirds such as ducks, grebes and coots. Both species preyed on the maned duck. Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white-bellied sea eagle's diet. Despite nesting near each other, the two species seldom interacted, as the wedge-tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white-bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores. However, conflict with wedge-tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania.
Conservation status
The white-bellied sea eagle is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN. There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals, although there seems to be a decline in numbers. They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia. They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong, where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009. A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance (as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity) had lower breeding success rates. In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles' territories. Elsewhere, the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally, such as the removal of stands of Casuarina equisetifolia in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India. In India, nest densities of about one per 4.32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3.57 km (45 nests along 161 km) in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. They also nest on Netrani Island, where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 (then known as Pigeon Island) by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species. In 2000, the disturbance to the island from torpedo-firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat. Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island.
DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife, particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey. A review of DDT's impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg-shell thickness had decreased by 6%. This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall, however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken. The white-bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species, probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps. DDT use peaked in 1973, but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989.
Australia
The white-bellied sea eagle is listed under the marine and migratory categories which give it protected status under Australia's federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. As a mainly coastal species, it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia's increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas, particularly in the south and east of the country, where it appears to have declined in numbers. However, there may have been an increase in population inland, secondary to the creation of reservoirs, dams and weirs, and the spread of the introduced common carp (Cyprinus carpio). However, it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common. It is also listed as Threatened under Victoria's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988), with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state. On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-bellied sea eagle is listed as vulnerable.
There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania, where the species is listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 3.1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance, loss of suitable nesting habitat, shooting, poisoning, trapping, and collision with power lines and wind turbines, as well as entanglement and environmental pollution. Estuaries are a favoured habitat, and these are often subject to environmental disturbance. white-bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms, but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown.
Cultural significance
The white-bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia. The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community, it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory. The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it. A local Sydney name was gulbi, and the bird was the totem of Colebee, the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people. The white-bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory, who recognised its connection with "good country". It is their totem and integrally connected to their land. The term Mak Mak is their name for both the species and themselves. The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird, in this area known as Kuna-ngarrk-ngarrk. It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people—Nairanaa was one name used there.
Known as Manulab to the people of Nissan Island, the white-bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden. Its calls at night are said to foretell danger, and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died. Local Malay folk tales tell of the white-bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides, and a local name burung hamba siput translates as "slave of the shellfish". Called Kaulo in the recently extinct Aka-Bo language, the white-bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale. On the Maharashtra coast, their name is kakan and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea. They sometimes nest on coconut trees. Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts.
The white-bellied sea eagle is featured on the $10,000 Singapore note, which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980. It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor. Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white-bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru. Taken in February 1949, the resulting photographs appeared in The Illustrated London News in 1954. The bird is the emblem of the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team, chosen at the club's inception in 1947. From 2010, a nesting pair of white-bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on "EagleCam", with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park, New South Wales. After raising one brood, however, their nest collapsed in February 2011. The story attracted statewide attention.
Citations
General references
External links
White-bellied Sea Eagle at Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan
white-bellied sea eagle
white-bellied sea eagle
Birds of Bangladesh
Birds of India
Birds of Southeast Asia
Birds of Australia
Diurnal raptors of Australia
white-bellied sea eagle
white-bellied sea eagle
|
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201635
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinereous%20vulture
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Cinereous vulture
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The cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) is a large raptor in the family Accipitridae and distributed through much of temperate Eurasia. It is also known as the black vulture, monk vulture and Eurasian black vulture. With a body length of , across the wings and a maximum weight of , it is among the largest Old World vultures.
Taxonomy
The genus name Aegypius is a Greek word (αἰγυπιός) for 'vulture', or a bird not unlike one; Aelian describes the aegypius as "halfway between a vulture (gyps) and an eagle". Some authorities think this a good description of a lammergeier; others do not. Aegypius is the eponym of the species, whatever it was in ancient Greek. The English name 'black vulture' refers to the plumage colour, while 'monk vulture', a direct translation of its German name Mönchsgeier, refers to the bald head and ruff of neck feathers like a monk's cowl. 'Cinereous vulture' (Latin cineraceus, ash-coloured; pale, whitish grey), was a deliberate attempt to rename it with a new name distinct from the American black vulture.
This bird is an Old World vulture, and as such is only distantly related to the New World vultures, which are in a separate family, Cathartidae, of the same order. It is, therefore, not closely related to the much smaller American black vulture (Coragyps atratus) despite the similar name and coloration.
Description
The cinereous vulture measures in total length with a wingspan. Males can weigh from , whereas females can weigh from . It is thus one of the world's heaviest flying birds. Average weights are not known to have been published for this species but the median weight figures from two sources were and . In Korea, a large survey of wild cinereous vultures was found to have weighed a mean of with a mean total length of , this standing as the only attempt to attain the average sizes of free-flying mature birds of the species, as opposed to nestlings or captive specimens. Unlike most accipitrids, males can broadly overlap in size with the females, although not uncommonly the females may be slightly heavier. These are one of the two largest extant Old World vultures and accipitrids, with similar total length and perhaps wingspans recorded in the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) , as indicated by broadly similar wing and tail proportions, but the cinereous appears to be slightly heavier as well as slightly larger in tarsus and bill length. Superficially similar but unrelated New World condors can either be of similar wing area and bulk or slightly larger in these aspects. Despite limited genetic variation in the species, body size increases from west to east based on standard measurements, with the birds from southwest Europe (Spain and south France) averaging about 10% smaller than the vultures from central Asia (Manchuria, Mongolia and northern China). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is and the tarsus is .
The cinereous vulture is distinctly dark, with the whole body being brown excepting the pale head in adults, which is covered in fine blackish down. This down is absent in the closely related lappet-faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotos). The skin of the head and neck is bluish-gray and a paler whitish color above the eye. The adult has brown eyes, a purplish cere, a blue-gray bill and pale blue-gray legs. The primary quills are often actually black. From a distance, flying birds can easily appear all black. The immature plumage is sepia-brown above, with a much paler underside than in adults. Immature cinereous vultures have grey down on the head, a pale mauve cere and grey legs. The massive bill is one of the largest of any living accipiterid, a feature enhanced by the relatively small skull of the species. The exposed culmen of the cinereous vulture measures . Only their cousin, the lappet-faced vulture, with a bill length of up to about , can rival or outsize the bill of the cinereous. The wings, with serrated leading edges, are held straight or slightly arched in flight and are broad, sometimes referred to as "barn door wings". Their flight is slow and buoyant, with deep, heavy flaps when necessary. The combination of huge size and dark coloration renders the cinereous vulture relatively distinct, especially against smaller raptors such as eagles or buzzards. The most similar-shaped species, the lappet-faced vulture (with which there might be limited range overlap in the southern Middle East), is distinguished by its bare, pinkish head and contrasting plumage. On the lappet-face, the thighs and belly are whitish in adult birds against black to brownish over the remainder of the plumage. All potential Gyps vultures are distinguished by having paler, often streaky plumage, with bulging wing primaries giving them a less evenly broad-winged form. Cinereous vultures are generally very silent, with a few querulous mewing, roaring or guttural cries solely between adults and their offspring at the nest site.
Distribution and habitat
The cinereous vulture is a Eurasian species. The western limits of its range are in Spain and inland Portugal, with a reintroduced population in south France. They are found discontinuously to Greece, Turkey and throughout the central Middle East. Their range continues through Afghanistan eastwards to northern India to its eastern limits in central Asia, where they breed in northern Manchuria, Mongolia and Korea. Their range is fragmented especially throughout their European range. It is generally a permanent resident except in those parts of its range where hard winters cause limited altitudinal movement and for juveniles when they reach breeding maturity. In the eastern limits of its range, birds from the northernmost reaches may migrate down to southern Korea and China. A limited migration has also been reported in the Middle East but is not common.
This vulture is a bird of hilly, mountainous areas, especially favoring dry semi-open habitats such as meadows at high altitudes over much of the range. Nesting usually occurs near the tree line in the mountains. They are always associated with undisturbed, remote areas with limited human disturbance. They forage for carcasses over various kinds of terrain, including steppe, other grasslands, open woodlands, along riparian habitats or any kind or gradient of mountainous habitat. In their current European range and through the Caucasus and Middle East, cinereous vultures are found from in elevation, while in their Asian distribution, they are typically found at higher elevations. Two habitat types were found to be preferred by the species in China and Tibet. Some cinereous vultures in these areas live in mountainous forests and shrubland from , while the others preferred arid or semi-arid alpine meadows and grasslands at in elevation. This species can fly at a very high altitude. One cinereous vulture was observed at an elevation of on Mount Everest. It has a specialised haemoglobin alphaD subunit of high oxygen affinity which makes it possible to take up oxygen efficiently despite the low partial pressure in the upper troposphere. Juvenile and immature cinereous vultures, especially those in the northern stretches of the species range, may move large distances across undeveloped open-dry habitats in response to snowfall or high summer temperatures.
Behaviour
The cinereous vulture is a largely solitary bird, being found alone or in pairs much more frequently than most other Old World vultures. At large carcasses or feeding sites, small groups may congregate. Such groups can rarely include up to 12 to 20 vultures, with some older reports of up to 30 or 40.
Breeding
In Europe, the cinereous vulture return to the nesting ground in January or February. In Spain and Algeria, they start nesting in February in March, in Crimea in early March, in northwestern India in February or April, in northeastern India in January, and in Turkestan in January. They breed in loose colonies, with nests rarely being found in the same tree or rock formation, unlike other Old World vultures which often nest in tight-knit colonies. In Spain, nests have been found from to apart from each other. The cinereous vulture breeds in high mountains and large forests, nesting in trees or occasionally on cliff ledges. The breeding season lasts from February until September or October. The most common display consists of synchronous flight movements by pairs. However, flight play between pairs and juveniles is not unusual, with the large birds interlocking talons and spiraling down through the sky. The birds use sticks and twigs as building materials, and males and females cooperate in all matters of rearing the young. The huge nest is across and deep. The nest increases in size as a pair uses it repeatedly over the years and often comes to be decorated with dung and animal skins. The nests can range up to high in a large tree such as an oak, juniper, wild pear, almond or pine trees. Most nesting trees are found along cliffs. In a few cases, cinereous vultures have been recorded as nesting directly on cliffs. One cliff nest completely filled a ledge that was wide and in depth. The egg clutch typically only a single egg, though two may be exceptionally laid. The eggs have a white or pale buff base color are often overlaid with red, purplish or red-brown marks, being almost as spotted as the egg of a falcon. Eggs measure from in height and in width, with an average of . The incubation period can range from 50 to 62 days, averaging 50–56 days. Normally hatching occurs in April or May in Europe. The newly hatched young are semi-altricial. The young are covered in greyish-white to grey-brown colored down which becomes paler with age. The first flight feathers start growing from the same sockets as the down when the nestling is around 30 days old and completely cover the down by 60 days of age. The parents feed the young by regurgitation and an active nest reportedly becomes very foul and stinking. Weights of nestlings in Mongolia increased from as little as when they are around a month old in early June to being slightly more massive than their parents at up to nearly shortly before fledging in early autumn. Fledging is reported when the nestlings are 104–120 days old, though dependence on parents can continue for another two months. Radio-satellite tracking suggests the age of independence of juveniles from their parents to be 5.7–7 months after hatching (i.e. 2–3 months after fledging).
The nesting success of cinereous vultures is relatively high, with around 90% of eggs successfully hatching and more than half of yearling birds known to survive to adulthood. They are devoted, active parents, with both members of a breeding pair protecting the nest and feeding the young in shifts via regurgitation. In Mongolia, Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) and the common raven (Corvus corax) are considered potential predators of eggs in potentially both tree and cliff nests. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) and foxes are also mentioned as potential nest predators, but since neither one can climb trees and there are also no incidents of predation on inaccessible cliff nests, this seems unlikely. There have been witnessed accounts of bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) and Spanish imperial eagles (Aquila adalberti) attempting to kill nestlings, but in both cases they were chased off by the parents. There is a single case of a Spanish imperial eagle attacking and killing a cinereous vulture in an act of defense of its own nest in Spain. Golden eagles and Eurasian eagle-owls may rarely attempt to dispatch an older nestling or even adults in an ambush, but the species is not verified prey for either and it would be a rare event in all likelihood if it does occur. This species may live for up to 39 years, though 20 years or less is probably more common, with no regular predators of adults other than man.
Feeding
Like all vultures, the cinereous vulture eats mostly carrion. The cinereous vulture feeds on carrion of almost any type, from the largest mammals available to fish and reptiles. In Tibet, commonly eaten carcasses can include both wild and domestic yaks (Bos mutus and Bos grunniens), Bharal, Tibetan gazelles (Pseudois nayaur), kiangs (Equus kiang), woolly hares (Lepus oiostolus), Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana), domestic sheep (Ovis aries), and even humans, mainly those at their celestial burial grounds. Reportedly in Mongolia, Tarbagan marmots (Marmota sibirica) comprised the largest part of the diet, although that species is now endangered as it is preferred in the diet of local people, wild prey ranging from corsac fox (Vulpes corsac) to Argali (Ovis ammon) may be eaten additionally in Mongolia. Historically, cinereous vultures in the Iberian Peninsula fed mostly on European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) carcasses, but since viral hemorrhagic pneumonia (VHP) devastated the once abundant rabbit population there, the vultures now rely on the carrion of domestic sheep, supplemented by pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) and deer. In Turkey, the dietary preferences were argali (Ovis ammon) (92 carrion items), wild boar (Sus scrofa) (53 items), chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) (27 items), gray wolves (13 items) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (13 items). Unusually, a large amount of plant material was found in pellets from Turkey, especially pine cones. Among the vultures in its range, the cinereous is best equipped to tear open tough carcass skins thanks to its powerful bill. It can even break apart bones, such as ribs, to access the flesh of large animals. It is dominant over other scavengers in its range, even over other large vultures such as Gyps vultures, bearded vultures or fierce ground predators such as foxes. While the noisy Gyps vultures squawk and fly around, the often silent cinereous vultures will keep them well at bay until they are satisfied and have had their own fill. A series of photos taken recently show a cinereous vulture attacking a Himalayan griffon in flight for unknown reasons, although the griffon was not seriously injured. Cinereous vultures frequently bully and dominate steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis) when the two species are attracted to the same prey and carrion while wintering in Asia. A rare successful act of kleptoparasitism on a cinereous vulture was filmed in Korea when a Steller's sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) stole food from the vulture.
Its closest living relative is probably the lappet-faced vulture, which takes live prey on occasion. Occasionally, the cinereous vulture has been recorded as preying on live prey as well. Live animals reportedly taken by cinereous vultures include calves of yaks and domestic cattle (Bos primigenius taurus), piglets, domestic lambs and puppies (Canis lupus familiaris), foxes, lambs of wild sheep, together with nestling and fledglings of large birds such as geese, swans and pheasants, various rodents and rarely amphibians and reptiles. This species has hunted tortoises (which the vultures are likely to kill by carrying in flight and dropping on rocks to penetrate the shell; cf. Aeschylus#Death) and lizards. Although rarely observed in the act of killing ungulates, cinereous vultures have been recorded as flying low around herds and feeding on recently killed wild ungulates they are believed to have killed. Mainly neonatal lambs or calves are hunted, especially sickly ones. Although not normally thought to be a threat to healthy domestic lambs, rare predation on apparently healthy lambs has been confirmed. Species believed to be hunted by cinereous vultures have included argali, saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) and Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii).
Status and conservation
The cinereous vulture has declined over most of its range in the last 200 years in part due to poisoning by eating poisoned bait put out to kill dogs and other predators, and to higher hygiene standards reducing the amount of available carrion; it is currently listed as Near Threatened. Vultures of all species, although not the target of poisoning operations, may be shot on sight by locals. Trapping and hunting of cinereous vultures is particularly prevalent in China and Russia, although the poaching for trophy hunting are also known for Armenia, and probably other countries in Caucasus. Perhaps an even greater threat to this desolation-loving species is development and habitat destruction. Nests, often fairly low in the main fork of a tree, are relatively easy to access and thus have been historically compromised by egg and firewood collectors regularly. The decline has been the greatest in the western half of the range, with extinction in many European countries (France, Italy, Austria, Poland, Slovakia, Albania, Moldova, Romania) and its entire breeding range in northwest Africa (Morocco and Algeria). They no longer nest in Israel. Turkey holds the second largest population of this species in the Western Palearctic. Despite the recent demographic bottleneck, this population has maintained moderate levels of genetic diversity, with no significant genetic structuring indicating that this is a single meta-population connected by frequent dispersal. More recently, protection and deliberate feeding schemes have allowed some local recoveries in numbers, particularly in Spain, where numbers increased to about 1,000 pairs by 1992 after an earlier decline to 200 pairs in 1970. This colony have now spread its breeding grounds to Portugal. Elsewhere in Europe, very small but increasing numbers breed in Bulgaria and Greece, and a re-introduction scheme is under way in France. Trends in the small populations in Ukraine (Crimea) and European Russia, and in Asian populations, are not well recorded. In the former USSR, it is still threatened by illegal capture for zoos, and in Tibet by rodenticides. It is a regular winter visitor around the coastal areas of Pakistan in small numbers. As of the turn of the 21st century, the worldwide population of cinereous vultures is estimated at 4,500–5,000 individuals.
The most recent global population estimate for Cinereous Vulture (according to Bird Life International (2017)) is 7,800-10,500 pairs, roughly equating to
15,600-21,000 mature individuals. This consists of 2,300-2,500 pairs in Europe (2004) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia.
Culture and mythology
The Hebrew word for "eagle" is also used for the cinereous vulture. As such, Biblical passages alluding to eagles might actually be referring to this bird instead.
References
cinereous vulture
cinereous vulture
Birds of prey of Eurasia
cinereous vulture
cinereous vulture
|
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] |
201641
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webbed%20neck
|
Webbed neck
|
A webbed neck, or pterygium colli, is a congenital skin fold that runs along the sides of the neck down to the shoulders.
There are many variants.
Signs and symptoms
On babies, webbed neck may look like loose folds of skin on the neck. As the child grows, the skin may stretch out to look like there is little or no neck.
Associated conditions
It is a feature of Turner syndrome (only found in girls) and Noonan syndrome, as well as the rarer Klippel–Feil syndrome, or Diamond–Blackfan anemia
References
External links
Congenital disorders of eye, ear, face and neck
|
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201655
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco%20Pantani
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Marco Pantani
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Marco Pantani (; 13 January 1970 – 14 February 2004) was an Italian road racing cyclist, widely regarded among the greatest, if not the greatest, climbing specialist in the history of the sport by measures of his legacy, credits from other riders, and records. He recorded the fastest ever climbs up the Tour’s iconic venues of Mont Ventoux (46:00) and Alpe d'Huez (36:50), and all-time greats including Lance Armstrong and Charly Gaul have hailed Pantani’s superior climbing skills. He won both the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia in 1998, being the sixth Italian after Ottavio Bottecchia, Gino Bartali, Fausto Coppi, Felice Gimondi and Gastone Nencini to win the Tour de France. He is the last cyclist, and one of only seven, to win the Giro and the Tour in the same year.
Pantani's attacking style and aggressive riding turned him into a fan favorite in the late 1990s. He was known as "Il Pirata" (English: "The Pirate") because of his shaven head and the bandana and earrings he wore. At and , he was said to have the classic build for a mountain climber. His style has been contrasted with that of time-trialling experts such as the five-times Tour winner Miguel Indurain.
Although Pantani never tested positive during his career, his career was beset by doping allegations. In the 1999 Giro d'Italia, he was expelled due to his irregular blood values. Although he was disqualified for "health reasons", it was implied that Pantani's high haematocrit was the product of EPO use. Following later accusations, Pantani went into a severe depression from which he never fully recovered. He died of acute cocaine poisoning in 2004.
Early life and amateur career
Pantani was born on 13 January 1970 in Cesena, Romagna, the son of Ferdinando (referred to as Paolo) and Tonina. He joined the Fausto Coppi cycling club of Cesenatico at the age of eleven. As an amateur, he won the 1992 Girobio, the amateur version of the Giro d'Italia, after finishing third in 1990 and second in 1991.
Professional career
1992–1996: Early years
His success at the Girobio led to his turning professional for the remainder of the 1992 season with Davide Boifava's . While signing the contract, barely above the minimum established, he asked Boifava what would happen if he were to win the Giro d'Italia or the Tour de France, requesting a change in the contract. He finished 12th in his first professional race, the Gran Premio Città di Camaiore. In 1993, his first full season as a professional, he finished fifth at the mountainous course of Giro del Trentino and debuted at the Giro d'Italia in order to help his team leader, Claudio Chiappucci. He was forced to abandon the race in the 18th stage due to tendinitis.
In 1994, he finished fourth at the Giro del Trentino and the Giro di Toscana before his second participation at the Giro d'Italia, where he was supposed to help Chiappucci. He won two consecutive mountain stages, earning his first victory as a professional in the fourteenth stage to Merano. In the following stage to Aprica, which featured the renowned Stelvio Pass and the Mortirolo Pass, Pantani attacked at the base of Mortirolo and broke free at the Valico di Santa Cristina to win the stage at Aprica and place second in the overall classification. He ultimately finished the race behind Eugeni Berzin but ahead of Miguel Indurain, who had won the two previous Giros. That same year Pantani made his Tour de France debut, coming in third and winning the young rider classification along the way. In 1995, he was hit by a car while training, preventing him from riding the Giro, but he rode the Tour and won stages at Alpe d'Huez and Guzet-Neige. He also finished thirteenth and claimed his second successive best young rider prize. He also won a stage at the Tour de Suisse and finished third in the 1995 World Championships road race in Duitama, Colombia, behind Spaniards Abraham Olano and Miguel Indurain. Shortly after returning to Italy, he collided head-on with a car during the Italian Milano–Torino race, sustaining multiple fractures to the left tibia and fibula, injuries that threatened his career and forced him to miss most of the 1996 season.
1997: Move to Mercatone Uno
When Carrera Jeans manufacturers stopped sponsoring the renowned Italian cycling team at the end of 1996, a new team based in Italy was formed with Marco Pantani as the team leader. Luciano Pezzi founded , taking with him as directeur sportifs Giuseppe Martinelli, Davide Cassani and Alessandro Giannelli and ten of the riders from Carrera. Pantani returned to the Giro in 1997, but he was injured when a black cat caused an accident in front of him during one of the first stages. Even though he completed the stage, he was treated at a hospital for a muscle injury in the same leg he had hurt in 1995. He returned to action at the 1997 Tour de France and won two stages in the Alps, establishing a record time for the climb of Alpe d'Huez and winning two days later at Morzine. Jan Ullrich won, with Pantani third behind Richard Virenque. In 1997, Pantani rode the final 14.5 km to L`Alpe d`Huez in 37'35" minutes, which is the record to this day based on 14.5 km. Since the actual climb is just 13.8 km long, Pantani's time in 1997 was 36'55" minutes based on 13.8 km. His personal record for 13.8 km was in 1995, when he rode the climb in 36'50" minutes, which remains the fastest ascent time to this day. He also holds the second and third fastest time at 36'55" in 1997 and 37'15" in 1994, followed by Lance Armstrong at 37'36" in 2004 and Jan Ullrich at 37'41" in 1997.
1998: Giro and Tour wins
In 1998, Pantani was considered a favorite to win the Giro d'Italia. Other contenders included Alex Zülle, 1996 winner Pavel Tonkov and 1997 winner Ivan Gotti. Zülle won the initial prologue in Nice and also won the sixth stage to Lago Laceno, but Pantani recovered some time in the mountain stage to Piancavallo. Pantani lost further time to his main rivals during the fifteenth stage, an individual time trial in Trieste. By that point, Pantani faced a disadvantage of almost four minutes to Zülle before the Dolomites mountain stages and an individual time trial on the penultimate stage, a discipline that favored Zülle and Tonkov. In the seventeenth stage to Selva di Val Gardena, Pantani took the maglia rosa, the leader's jersey, for the first time in his career after attacking Zülle on the Marmolada climb. Although Pantani crossed the finish line behind Giuseppe Guerini, he finished over four minutes ahead of Zülle, maintaining an advantage of thirty seconds on the general classification over Tonkov, thirty-one seconds on Guerini and over a minute on Zülle. In the following stage to Alpe di Pampeago, he finished second behind Tonkov but maintained the general classification lead over him and gained further time on Zülle and Guerini. In the eighteenth stage to Plan di Montecampione, he repeatedly attacked Tonkov, dropping him in the last three kilometers and winning the stage to face the individual time trial on the penultimate stage with a lead of almost a minute and a half. Zülle lost contact with the favorites in the first climb and ended up losing over thirty minutes. Having won over two minutes on Pantani in the previous time trial, Tonkov was considered superior to Pantani on the time trial discipline, but the Italian finished third in the penultimate stage, gaining an additional five seconds on Tonkov. Pantani was thus able to maintain his lead to win the Giro d'Italia with a minute and a half over Tonkov and more than six minutes over Guerini. He also won the Mountains classification and finished second in the Points classification.
In the Tour de France, Pantani started the race by finishing 181st of 189 riders in the opening prologue, and losing over four minutes in the first individual time trial to 1997 Tour de France winner Jan Ullrich. Pantani pulled back these early time losses to Ullrich, first in the Pyrenees by taking 23 seconds off Ullrich in the stage to Luchon and winning the stage to Plateau de Beille, where he took an additional minute and forty seconds from Ullrich. Although he was still three minutes behind Ullrich after the Pyrenees, he defeated him by almost nine minutes in the first mountain stage in the Alps, from Grenoble to Les Deux Alpes, via the Col de la Croix de Fer and Col du Galibier. Pantani launched an attack on the ascent of Galibier, forty-eight kilometers from the finish. He stopped to put on a rain jacket at the summit to win on the final ascent to Deux Alpes. Pantani turned his three-minute deficit on Ullrich into a six-minute advantage that he maintained in the following stages to win the Tour de France ahead of Jan Ullrich and Bobby Julich. Pantani became the first Italian since Felice Gimondi in 1965 to win the Tour and the seventh rider in history to achieve the Giro-Tour double, a feat which no one had achieved since Miguel Indurain succeeded in 1993. As of 2021, he is the last rider to win the Giro and the Tour in the same year. Following his success in the Tour, he stated that he may have won the cleanest Tour because of the fear of police following the Festina affair. Although he had just ended what would be his most successful season and he had always dreamed about winning the yellow jersey, he later stated that he felt more alone than ever. French cycling magazine Vélo Magazine awarded him the Velo d'Or as the best rider of 1998.
1999: Expelled at Madonna di Campiglio
In 1999, Pantani started the season by winning a stage and the overall classification of Vuelta a Murcia as well as a stage at the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme. Pantani was leading the Giro d'Italia, with only one mountain stage left, when a blood test at Madonna di Campiglio showed that he had a 52-percent hematocrit reading, above the 50-percent upper limit set by UCI. He was expelled from the race and forced to take a two-week break from racing, with no further action taken. Although the hematocrit test is officially branded as a "health check", a high reading suggests that a rider may have been blood doping with EPO. At the time of his disqualification, Pantani had won four stages and held a comfortable lead of five minutes and thirty-eight seconds over Paolo Savoldelli and also led in the points and mountains classifications. As a result, the entire team withdrew from the race. Pantani stayed away from the rest of the year's races.
Years later news emerged that said drug test may have been rigged by Italian organised crime running illegal bets and interested in having Pantani not winning the Giro. The technique used was deplasmation, the removal of plasma that increases hematocrit but decreased the platelets to a number out of the normal possible range for Pantani.
2000–2003: Late years
In 2000, he was back in the Giro after deciding to ride only the day before the race started. He lost time and could not attack until the last mountain stage to Briançon, in which he helped his teammate Stefano Garzelli to win. Pantani rode the 2000 Tour de France. He was off the pace in the Pyrenees, but matched Lance Armstrong on Mont Ventoux, leaving the field behind. Armstrong eased and appeared to allow Pantani the stage victory. Pantani said that he felt insulted by the gesture, causing bad feelings between the two which were exacerbated when Armstrong referred to him as Elefantino (Italian for "Little Elephant"), a reference to his prominent ears. In that same Tour, he won another stage, to Courchevel, that turned out to be his last victory as a professional. At that point, he was sixth in the overall classification, facing a disadvantage of nine minutes to Armstrong. On the next stage, which featured the hors categorie Col de Joux-Plane to Morzine, Pantani broke away with 120 km to go, trying to crush Armstrong, but he suffered stomach problems and withdrew the next day. He never raced the Tour again. Later in the year, he represented Italy in the Sydney Olympics Road Race, finishing 69th.
After that, he raced sporadically in 2001 and 2002, although he was demoralised from doping suspicions and had poor results. During the 2001 Giro d'Italia, Italian police raided the rooms of riders from all 20 teams and a syringe containing traces of insulin was found in Pantani's room. He was banned for eight months by the Italian Cycling Federation but later won an appeal due to an absence of proof. In 2003, Pantani made another comeback in the Giro d'Italia, finishing 14th overall. His best stage result was a fifth position after launching an unsuccessful attack on the slopes of Monte Zoncolan, while he launched his last attacks on the nineteenth stage to Cascata del Toce. It was the last time he rode a professional cycling race. After his team was not invited to the 2003 Tour de France, it was speculated that he would join Bianchi in order to ride the Tour, but he made a plea for privacy in late June following his admission to a psychiatric clinic which specialised in nervous disorders, drug addiction and alcoholism. After being released from the clinic, he was acquitted of a pending court case for sporting fraud regarding his blood values in 1999 Giro d'Italia because doping was not considered a crime in 1999. Pantani told an Italian newspaper that cycling fans had to forget about Pantani as an athlete, while stating that cycling was the last thing on his mind and that he had gained weight.
Doping
After being disqualified at the 1999 Giro d'Italia for a hematocrit reading of 52 percent, above the 50-percent upper limit set by UCI, Pantani faced persistent allegations of doping throughout the rest of his career.
The trial for the 1999 Giro d'Italia irregular blood values began in April 2003 and Pantani was eventually acquitted because doping was not considered a crime by the law at that time. In early June 1999, a few days after Pantani was expelled from the 1999 Giro d'Italia, a court condemned the city of Turin to compensate him for an accident in the 1995 edition of the Milano–Torino, which forced Pantani to undergo several surgeries and a long recovery to get back on his bike. A few days later, Italian prosecutor Raffaele Guariniello accused Pantani of a "sporting offence" after he discovered, by looking through trial and medical records, that Pantani's hematocrit after the accident was over 60 percent. Although the results did not surface until 1999, the UCI had decided to implement blood testing in early 1997, imposing a 50-percent upper limit for hematocrit. A rider with a value above 50 percent was given a compulsory two-week suspension. The test was designated as a "health test", although it was administered on suspicion that the athlete was using the banned blood-boosting drug, EPO. During the proceeding, investigators tried to find a reason for Pantani's high hematocrit values, including an hematocrit value of 57.6% recorded on 1 May 1995, at a hospital after he had an accident while training, an investigation in which the doctor pointed out the presence of abnormal hematological values. Upon Guariniello's request to see Pantani's medical record after his accident at the 1997 Giro d'Italia, it was revealed that the blood test results had disappeared from the folder at the hospital and the police did not rule out "intentional removal". Pantani was eventually indicted on a so-called "fraud in sport", but his lawyers argued that Pantani's hematocrit may have been elevated by a combination of training at high altitude in September, suffering from dehydration during the race, trauma of his accident and a margin of error for the sampling method. The original case started in Turin but was moved to Forlì upon Pantani's lawyers' requests. Although he initially received a three-month suspended sentence, Pantani's lawyers appealed and the case was dismissed in late 2001 because the law itself had been passed only in 1999.
In 1999, the Italian newspaper la Repubblica published information that linked Pantani to an investigation on the use of performance-enhancing substances in Italian sports. According to the information released by the newspaper, Francesco Conconi administered EPO to Italian athletes from 1993 to 1998, including Pantani and other cyclists of . It was revealed that Pantani's name appeared on a file marked "Dblab", seized from Conconi's Biomedical Research Institute at Ferrara, which detailed athlete's hematocrit levels between 1993 and 1995. In 1994, his haematocrit values fluctuated from 40.7% on 16 March, early in the season, to 54.55% on 23 May, during the first stages of the Giro d'Italia. His values reached 58% on 8 June, after winning two stages of the race, and were 57.4% on 27 July, after the Tour de France. In March 1995, his hematocrit values had dropped to 45%, but they reached 56% in July during the Tour de France, where he won two stages; and over 60% in October, after the accident in the Milano–Torino. In 2004, Conconi and his two assistants were acquitted by judge Franca Oliva because the actions were not deemed illegal at the time, although they were deemed "morally guilty" of promoting doping.
During the 2001 Giro d'Italia, a syringe containing traces of insulin was found in Pantani's room. Pantani claimed that the insulin had been planted and that he did not stay in the room that night. In 2002, he was banned for eight months by the Italian Cycling Federation, but he later won an appeal due to an absence of proof.
In 2006, two years after his death, Pantani was linked to the Operación Puerto doping case. According to documentation released by Spanish radio network Cadena SER, Pantani was allegedly given the code name "PTNI" by Eufemiano Fuentes, with a detailed program in 2003, his last season, including EPO, growth hormone, Insulin, Levothroid and IGF-1. Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera indicated that he was administered over 40,000 units of EPO, seven doses of growth hormone, thirty doses of anabolic steroids and four doses of hormones used to treat menopause. In 2006, Jesús Manzano, a Spanish professional road racing cyclist whose statements led the Guardia Civil to conduct the Operación Puerto investigation, disclosed in an interview with French television channel France 3 that Pantani was a client of Fuentes.
On the penultimate stage of 1998 Giro d'Italia, Pantani's teammate Riccardo Forconi was expelled from the race for an haematocrit value above 50 percent. Ivano Fanini, the manager of , suggested during the early stages of 1999 Giro d'Italia that Pantani and Forconi had exchanged their blood samples in order to avoid Pantani's disqualification. According to Fanini, Forconi's haematocrit value was only 47 percent the previous day. In 2008, Fanini further claimed that Forconi had received a house for the exchange but Forconi refuted these claims.
Matt Rendell's biography of Pantani suggests he used recombinant erythropoietin (rEPO) throughout his professional career. It alleges that seasonal hematocrit levels from several sources showed variations which exceeded those possible naturally, and that Pantani's main victories were probably won also thanks to blood hematocrit levels which could have been up to 60%.
A French senate report into doping released in July 2013 confirmed that Pantani had tested positive for EPO during retroactive testing of samples from the 1998 Tour de France conducted in 2004.
Death
In the early evening of 14 February 2004, Pantani was found dead at a hotel in Rimini, Italy. An autopsy revealed he had cerebral edema and heart failure, and a coroner's inquest revealed acute cocaine poisoning. Pantani spent the last days of his life isolated from his friends and family and barricaded himself inside his hotel room. Pantani's ex-girlfriend Christina Jonsson, in an April 2004 interview to Swiss news magazine L'Hebdo, indicated that following his expulsion from the 1999 Giro d'Italia, Pantani had confessed to her he had started using cocaine. In 2008, Fabio Carlino was convicted of supplying Pantani with a dose of ultra-pure cocaine that caused his death. The conviction was overturned in 2011 by the Court of Cassation after the acting Prosecutor expressed doubts regarding the verdict, while stating that he "had the impression that the exaggerated media publicity surrounding Mr. Pantani's death led the judges to an excessive attribution of responsibility." In 2016 the case was opened again, but shelved, and then yet again; with Italian prosecutors citing about fifty pages of new evidence to consider, in November 2021.
Pantani was buried in his hometown, Cesenatico. Twenty thousand mourners were at his funeral, which was attended by Franco Ballerini, Alberto Tomba, Azeglio Vicini, Mario Cipollini and Diego Maradona among others. During the funeral, his manager Manuela Ronchi read notes that Pantani had written in his passport during a trip to Cuba:
Miguel Indurain, five-times Tour de France winner, praised Pantani by saying: "He got people hooked on the sport. There may be riders who have achieved more than him, but they never succeeded in drawing in the fans like he did."
Legacy
In the years following his death, Pantani was the subject of several articles, books, songs and a film. Biographies and accounts on the life of Pantani have been written by sports journalists John Wilcockson and Matt Rendell, among others. Manuela Ronchi, Pantani's manager for five years, published an account on the last few years of Pantani's life titled Man on the Run. His mother Tonina Pantani also published a book in 2008 titled Era mio figlio (English: He Was My Son). A graphic novel titled Gli ultimi giorni di Marco Pantani (English: The Last Days of Marco Pantani) was released in 2011, chronicling the events that led up to Pantani's death. It was based on a book published by French journalist Philippe Brunel, a friend of Pantani, suggesting that Pantani may have been murdered. Italian television RAI aired a television film in 2007 titled Il Pirata: Marco Pantani, a biographical film which starred Rolando Ravello as Marco Pantani. A documentary on Pantani's life titled Pantani: The Accidental Death of a Cyclist was released in May 2014 in cinemas.
The Memorial Marco Pantani has been organised annually since 2004 in his memory. The race starts in Cesenatico, Pantani's hometown, and follows a route towards his birthplace, Cesena. Giro d'Italia's organisers decided to dedicate a mountain pass to Pantani's memory every year. In the 2004 edition, the first Cima Pantani was Mortirolo Pass, a mountain that played a key role in Pantani's history. When Mortirolo was included in the Giro for the third time in 1994, Pantani attacked and left everyone behind to earn a win at Aprica. The 16th stage of 2004 Tour de France was dedicated to Pantani's memory. This stage was an individual time trial up to Alpe d'Huez, where Marco Pantani won in 1995 and 1997.
A number of monuments and memorials have been erected in his honor at, among other places, Mortirolo Pass, Colle Fauniera, Col du Galibier, and his hometown Cesenatico.
Career achievements
Major results
Source:
1990
3rd Overall Girobio
1991
1st Gran Premio di Poggiana
2nd Overall Girobio
1st Stage 10
1992
1st Overall Girobio
1st Stages 9 & 10
3rd Memorial Gastone Nencini
1993
5th Overall Giro del Trentino
1994
2nd Overall Giro d'Italia
1st Stages 14 & 15
3rd Overall Tour de France
1st Young rider classification
4th Overall Giro del Trentino
4th Giro di Toscana
1995
Tour de France
1st Young rider classification
1st Stages 10 & 14
1st Stage 8 Tour de Suisse
3rd Road race, UCI Road World Championships
3rd Polynormande
5th Giro dell'Appennino
6th Subida a Urkiola
7th Gran Premio Città di Camaiore
1997
1st Rominger Classic
2nd Overall À travers Lausanne
3rd Overall Tour de France
1st Stages 13 & 15
3rd Overall Tour of the Basque Country
1st Stage 5b
4th Overall Critérium International
5th La Flèche Wallonne
8th Liège–Bastogne–Liège
10th Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme
1998
1st Overall Tour de France
1st Stages 11 & 15
1st Overall Giro d'Italia
1st Mountains classification
1st Stages 14 & 19
1st Overall À travers Lausanne
1st Stages 1 (ITT) & 2
1st Rominger Classic
1st Boucles de l'Aulne
3rd Overall Vuelta a Murcia
4th Overall Giro del Trentino
1999
1st Overall Vuelta a Murcia
1st Stage 4
Giro d'Italia
1st Stages 8, 15, 19 & 20
1st Stage 2 Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme
3rd Overall Giro del Trentino
8th Clásica de Almería
8th Overall Tour of the Basque Country
2000
Tour de France
1st Stages 12 & 15
2003
10th Overall Settimana Internazionale di Coppi e Bartali
Grand Tour general classification results timeline
Source:
Awards
Vélo d'Or: 1998
See also
Pink jersey statistics
Yellow jersey statistics
List of Grand Tour general classification winners
List of Giro d'Italia general classification winners
List of Giro d'Italia classification winners
List of Tour de France general classification winners
List of Tour de France secondary classification winners
List of doping cases in cycling
List of Italians
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
Marco Pantani Foundation
Italian male cyclists
Tour de France winners
Italian Tour de France stage winners
Giro d'Italia winners
Olympic cyclists of Italy
Cyclists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Doping cases in cycling
People from Cesena
1970 births
2004 deaths
Drug-related deaths in Italy
Cocaine-related deaths
Tour de Suisse stage winners
Sportspeople from Emilia-Romagna
Italian Roman Catholics
Italian Giro d'Italia stage winners
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201657
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20evidence
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Scientific evidence
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Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis, although scientists also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. Such evidence is expected to be empirical evidence and interpretable in accordance with scientific methods. Standards for scientific evidence vary according to the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence is generally based on the results of statistical analysis and the strength of scientific controls.
Principles of inference
A person's assumptions or beliefs about the relationship between observations and a hypothesis will affect whether that person takes the observations as evidence. These assumptions or beliefs will also affect how a person utilizes the observations as evidence. For example, the Earth's apparent lack of motion may be taken as evidence for a geocentric cosmology. However, after sufficient evidence is presented for heliocentric cosmology and the apparent lack of motion is explained, the initial observation is strongly discounted as evidence.
When rational observers have different background beliefs, they may draw different conclusions from the same scientific evidence. For example, Priestley, working with phlogiston theory, explained his observations about the decomposition of mercuric oxide using phlogiston. In contrast, Lavoisier, developing the theory of elements, explained the same observations with reference to oxygen. Note that a causal relationship between the observations and hypothesis does not exist to cause the observation to be taken as evidence, but rather the causal relationship is provided by the person seeking to establish observations as evidence.
A more formal method to characterize the effect of background beliefs is Bayesian inference. In Bayesian inference, beliefs are expressed as percentages indicating one's confidence in them. One starts from an initial probability (a prior), and then updates that probability using Bayes' theorem after observing evidence. As a result, two independent observers of the same event will rationally arrive at different conclusions if their priors (previous observations that are also relevant to the conclusion) differ. However, if they are allowed to communicate with each other, they will end in agreement (per Aumann's agreement theorem).
The importance of background beliefs in the determination of what observations are evidence can be illustrated using deductive reasoning, such as syllogisms. If either of the propositions is not accepted as true, the conclusion will not be accepted either.
Utility of scientific evidence
Philosophers, such as Karl R. Popper, have provided influential theories of the scientific method within which scientific evidence plays a central role. In summary, Popper provides that a scientist creatively develops a theory that may be falsified by testing the theory against evidence or known facts. Popper's theory presents an asymmetry in that evidence can prove a theory wrong, by establishing facts that are inconsistent with the theory. In contrast, evidence cannot prove a theory correct because other evidence, yet to be discovered, may exist that is inconsistent with the theory.
Philosophical versus scientific views
In the 20th century, many philosophers investigated the logical relationship between evidence statements and hypotheses, whereas scientists tended to focus on how the data used for statistical inference are generated. But according to philosopher Deborah Mayo, by the end of the 20th century philosophers had come to understand that "there are key features of scientific practice that are overlooked or misdescribed by all such logical accounts of evidence, whether hypothetico-deductive, Bayesian, or instantiationist".
There were a variety of 20th-century philosophical approaches to decide whether an observation may be considered evidence; many of these focused on the relationship between the evidence and the hypothesis. In the 1950s, Rudolf Carnap recommended distinguishing such approaches into three categories: classificatory (whether the evidence confirms the hypothesis), comparative (whether the evidence supports a first hypothesis more than an alternative hypothesis) or quantitative (the degree to which the evidence supports a hypothesis). A 1983 anthology edited by Peter Achinstein provided a concise presentation by prominent philosophers on scientific evidence, including Carl Hempel (on the logic of confirmation), R. B. Braithwaite (on the structure of a scientific system), Norwood Russell Hanson (on the logic of discovery), Nelson Goodman (of grue fame, on a theory of projection), Rudolf Carnap (on the concept of confirming evidence), Wesley C. Salmon (on confirmation and relevance), and Clark Glymour (on relevant evidence). In 1990, William Bechtel provided four factors (clarity of the data, replication by others, consistency with results arrived at by alternative methods, and consistency with plausible theories of mechanisms) that biologists used to settle controversies about procedures and reliability of evidence.
In 2001, Achinstein published his own book on the subject titled The Book of Evidence, in which, among other topics, he distinguished between four concepts of evidence: epistemic-situation evidence (evidence relative to a given epistemic situation), subjective evidence (considered to be evidence by a particular person at a particular time), veridical evidence (a good reason to believe that a hypothesis is true), and potential evidence (a good reason to believe that a hypothesis is highly probable). Achinstein defined all his concepts of evidence in terms of potential evidence, since any other kind of evidence must at least be potential evidence, and he argued that scientists mainly seek veridical evidence but they also use the other concepts of evidence, which rely on a distinctive concept of probability, and Achinstein contrasted this concept of probability with previous probabilistic theories of evidence such as Bayesian, Carnapian, and frequentist.
Simplicity is one common philosophical criterion for scientific theories. Based on the philosophical assumption of the strong Church-Turing thesis, a mathematical criterion for evaluation of evidence has been conjectured, with the criterion having a resemblance to the idea of Occam's razor that the simplest comprehensive description of the evidence is most likely correct. It states formally, "The ideal principle states that the prior probability associated with the hypothesis should be given by the algorithmic universal probability, and the sum of the log universal probability of the model plus the log of the probability of the data given the model should be minimized." However, some philosophers (including Richard Boyd, Mario Bunge, John D. Norton, and Elliott Sober) have adopted a skeptical or deflationary view of the role of simplicity in science, arguing in various ways that its importance has been overemphasized.
Emphasis on hypothesis testing as the essence of science is prevalent among both scientists and philosophers. However, philosophers have noted that testing hypotheses by confronting them with new evidence does not account for all the ways that scientists use evidence. For example, when Geiger and Marsden scattered alpha particles through thin gold foil, the resulting data enabled their experimental adviser, Ernest Rutherford, to very accurately calculate the mass and size of an atomic nucleus for the first time. Rutherford used the data to develop a new atomic model, not only to test an existing hypothesis; such use of evidence to produce new hypotheses is sometimes called abduction (following C. S. Peirce). Social-science methodologist Donald T. Campbell, who emphasized hypothesis testing throughout his career, later increasingly emphasized that the essence of science is "not experimentation per se" but instead the iterative competition of "plausible rival hypotheses", a process that at any given phase may start from evidence or may start from hypothesis. Other scientists and philosophers have emphasized the central role of questions and problems in the use of data and hypotheses.
Concept of scientific proof
While the phrase "scientific proof" is often used in the popular media, many scientists have argued that there is really no such thing. For example, Karl Popper once wrote that "In the empirical sciences, which alone can furnish us with information about the world we live in, proofs do not occur, if we mean by 'proof' an argument which establishes once and for ever the truth of a theory." Albert Einstein said:
See also
Anecdotal evidence
Scientific evidence (law)
Science
Opinion
References
Scientific method
Sources of knowledge
Evidence
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201658
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20J.%20Cronin
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A. J. Cronin
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Archibald Joseph Cronin (19 July 1896 – 6 January 1981), known as A. J. Cronin, was a Scottish physician and novelist. His best-known novel The Citadel (1937) tells of a Scottish doctor in a Welsh mining village, who then shoots up the medical ladder in London. Cronin knew both venues, as a medical inspector of mines and as a doctor in Harley Street. The book describes some medical ethics that helped to inspire the National Health Service. Another popular mining novel of his, set in the North East of England, is The Stars Look Down. Both have been filmed, as have Hatter's Castle, The Keys of the Kingdom and The Green Years. His 1935 novella Country Doctor inspired a long-running BBC radio and TV series, Dr. Finlay's Casebook (1962–1971), set in the 1920s. There was a follow-up series in 1993–1996.
Early life
Cronin was born in Cardross, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, the only child of a Presbyterian mother, Jessie Cronin (née Montgomerie), and a Catholic father, Patrick Cronin. Cronin often wrote of young men from similarly mixed backgrounds. His paternal grandparents had emigrated from County Armagh, Ireland, and become glass and china merchants in Alexandria. Owen Cronin, his grandfather, had had his surname changed from Cronague in 1870. His maternal grandfather, Archibald Montgomerie, was a hatter who owned a shop in Dumbarton. After their marriage Cronin's parents moved to Helensburgh, where he attended Grant Street School. When he was seven years old, his father, an insurance agent and commercial traveller, died of tuberculosis. He and his mother moved to her parents' home in Dumbarton, and she soon became a public health inspector in Glasgow.
Cronin was not only a precocious student at Dumbarton Academy, who won prizes in writing competitions, but an excellent athlete and association footballer. From an early age he was an avid golfer, and he enjoyed the sport throughout his life. He also loved salmon fishing.
The family later moved to Yorkhill, Glasgow, where Cronin attended St Aloysius' College in the Garnethill area of the city. He played football for the First XI there, an experience he included in one of his last novels, The Minstrel Boy. A family decision that he should study either to join the church or to practise medicine was settled by Cronin himself when he chose "the lesser of two evils". He won a Carnegie scholarship to study medicine at the University of Glasgow in 1914. Having been absent in 1916–1917 for naval service, he graduated in 1919 with highest honours in the degree of MBChB. Later that year he visited India as ship's surgeon on a liner. Cronin went on to earn additional qualifications, including a Diploma in Public Health (1923) and Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (1924). In 1925 he gained an MD at the University of Glasgow with a dissertation entitled "The History of Aneurysm".
Medical career
During the First World War, Cronin served as a surgeon sub-lieutenant in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve before graduating from medical school. After the war he trained at hospitals that included Bellahouston Hospital and Lightburn Hospital in Glasgow and the Rotunda Hospital in Dublin. He undertook general practice at Garelochhead, a village on the Clyde, and in Tredegar, a mining town in South Wales. In 1924 he was appointed Medical Inspector of Mines for Great Britain. His survey of medical regulations in collieries and his reports on the correlation between coal-dust inhalation and pulmonary disease were published over the next few years. Cronin drew on his medical experience and research into the occupational hazards of the mining industry for his later novels – The Citadel, set in Wales, and The Stars Look Down, set in Northumberland. He subsequently moved to London, where he practised in Harley Street before opening a busy medical practice of his own in Notting Hill. Cronin was also the medical officer for the Whiteleys department store at the time and had an increasing interest in ophthalmology.
Writing career
In 1930 Cronin was diagnosed with a chronic duodenal ulcer and told to take six months' complete rest in the country on a milk diet. At Dalchenna Farm by Loch Fyne he was finally able to indulge a lifelong desire to write a novel, having previously "written nothing but prescriptions and scientific papers." From Dalchenna Farm he travelled to Dumbarton to research the background of his first novel, using files from Dumbarton Library, which still has a letter from him requesting advice. He composed Hatter's Castle in the span of three months and quickly had it accepted by Gollancz, the only publisher to which he submitted it, apparently after his wife had randomly stuck a pin in a list of publishers. It was an immediate success and launched Cronin's career as a prolific author. He never returned to medicine.
Many of Cronin's books were bestsellers in their day and translated into many languages. Some of his stories draw on his medical career, dramatically mixing realism, romance and social criticism. Cronin's works examine moral conflicts between the individual and society, as his idealistic heroes pursue justice for the common man. One of his early novels, The Stars Look Down (1935), chronicles transgressions in a mining community in north-east England and an ambitious miner's rise to be a Member of Parliament (MP).
A prodigiously fast writer, Cronin liked to average 5,000 words a day, meticulously planning the details of his plots in advance. He was known to be tough in business dealings, although in private life he was a person whose "pawky humour... peppered his conversations," according to one of his editors, Peter Haining.
Cronin also contributed stories and essays to various international publications. During the Second World War he worked for the British Ministry of Information, writing articles as well as participating in radio broadcasts to foreign countries.
Influence of The Citadel
The Citadel (1937), a tale of a mining company doctor's struggle to balance scientific integrity with social obligations, helped to promote the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom by exposing the inequity and incompetence of medical practice at the time. In the novel Cronin advocated a free public health service to defeat the wiles of doctors who "raised guinea-snatching and the bamboozling of patients to an art form." Cronin and Aneurin Bevan had both worked at the Tredegar Cottage Hospital in Wales, which served as one of the bases for the NHS. The author quickly made enemies in the medical profession, and there was a concerted effort by one group of specialists to get The Citadel banned. Cronin's novel, which became the highest-selling book ever published by Gollancz, informed the public about corruption in the medical system, which eventually led to reform. Not only were the author's pioneering ideas instrumental in creating the NHS, but according to the historian Raphael Samuel, the popularity of Cronin's novels played a major role in the Labour Party's landslide victory in 1945.
By contrast, one of Cronin's biographers, Alan Davies, called the book's reception mixed. A few of the more vociferous medical practitioners of the day took exception to one of its many messages: that a few well-heeled doctors in fashionable practices were extracting large amounts of money from their equally well-off patients. Some pointed to a lack of balance between criticism and praise for hard-working doctors. The majority accepted it for what it was, a topical novel. The press tried to incite passions within the profession in an attempt to sell copy, while Victor Gollancz followed suit in an attempt to promote the book – both overlooking that it was a work of fiction, not a scientific piece of research, and not autobiographical.
In the United States The Citadel won the National Book Award, Favorite Fiction of 1937, voted by members of the American Booksellers Association. According to a Gallup poll taken in 1939, The Citadel was voted the most interesting book readers had ever read.
Religion
Some of Cronin's novels also deal with religion, which he had grown away from during his medical training and career, but to which he became reacquainted in the 1930s. At medical school, as he recounts in his autobiography, he had become an agnostic: "When I thought of God it was with a superior smile, indicative of biological scorn for such an outworn myth." During his practice in Wales, however, the deep religious faith of the people he worked among made him start to wonder whether "the compass of existence held more than my text-books had revealed, more than I had ever dreamed of. In short I lost my superiority, and this, though I was not then aware of it, is the first step towards finding God."
Cronin also came to feel, "If we consider the physical universe... we cannot escape the notion of a primary Creator.... Accept evolution with its fossils and elementary species, its scientific doctrine of natural causes. And still you are confronted with the same mystery, primary and profound. Ex nihilo nihil, as the Latin tag of our schooldays has it: nothing can come of nothing." This was brought home to him in London, where in his spare time he had organised a working boys' club. One day he invited a distinguished zoologist to deliver a lecture to the members. The speaker, adopting "a frankly atheistic approach", described the sequence of events leading to the emergence, "though he did not say how," of the first primitive life-form from lifeless matter. When he concluded, there was polite applause. Then, "a mild and very average youngster rose nervously to his feet," and with a slight stammer asked how there came to be anything in the first place. The naïve question took everyone by surprise. The lecturer "looked annoyed, hesitated, slowly turned red. Then, before he could answer, the whole club burst into a howl of laughter. The elaborate structure of logic offered by the test-tube realist had been crumpled by one word of challenge from a simple-minded boy."
Family
It was at university that Cronin met his future wife, Agnes Mary Gibson (May, 1898–1981), who was also a medical student. She was the daughter of Robert Gibson, a master baker, and Agnes Thomson Gibson (née Gilchrist) of Hamilton, Lanarkshire. The couple married on 31 August 1921. As a physician, May worked with her husband briefly in the dispensary while he was employed by the Tredegar Medical Aid Society. She also assisted him with his practice in London. When he became an author, she would proofread his manuscripts. Their first son, Vincent, was born in Tredegar in 1924. Their second, Patrick, was born in London in 1926, and Andrew, their youngest, in London in 1937.
With his stories being adapted for Hollywood films, Cronin and his family moved to the United States in 1939, living in Bel Air, California, Nantucket, Massachusetts, Greenwich, Connecticut, and Blue Hill, Maine. In 1945, the Cronins sailed back to England aboard the RMS Queen Mary, staying briefly in Hove and then in Raheny, Ireland, before returning to the US the following year. They took up residence at the Carlyle Hotel in New York City and then in Deerfield, Massachusetts, before settling in New Canaan, Connecticut, in 1947. Cronin also travelled frequently to summer homes in Bermuda and Cap-d'Ail, France.
Later years
Ultimately Cronin returned to Europe, to reside in Lucerne and Montreux, Switzerland, for the last 25 years of his life. He continued to write into his eighties. He included among his friends Laurence Olivier, Charlie Chaplin and Audrey Hepburn, to whose first son he was a godfather.
Although the latter part of his life was spent entirely abroad, Cronin retained great affection for the district of his childhood, writing in 1972 to a local teacher: "Although I have travelled the world over I must say in all sincerity that my heart belongs to Dumbarton.... In my study there is a beautiful 17th-century coloured print of the Rock.... I even follow with great fervour the fortunes of the Dumbarton football team." Further evidence of Cronin's lifelong support of Dumbarton F.C. comes from a framed typewritten letter hanging in the foyer of the club's stadium. The letter, written in 1972 and addressed to the club's then secretary, congratulates the team on its return to the top division after a gap of 50 years. He recalls his childhood support for it, and on occasion being "lifted over" the turnstiles (a common practice in times past so that children did not have to pay).
Cronin died on 6 January 1981 in Montreux and is interred at La Tour-de-Peilz. Many of Cronin's writings, including published and unpublished literary manuscripts, drafts, letters, school exercise books and essays, laboratory books and his M.D. thesis, are held at the National Library of Scotland and at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas.
Cronin's widow Agnes followed him on June 10, 1981, and after cremation, her ashes were buried next to him.
Honours
National Book Award (U.S.), Favorite Novel of 1937, for The Citadel
Litt.D. from Bowdoin College (1942) and Lafayette College (1954).
On 27 March 2015 a blue plaque was unveiled by the RCGP at 152 Westbourne Grove in Notting Hill
Bibliography
Hatter's Castle (novel, 1931),
Three Loves (novel, 1932),
Kaleidoscope in "K" (novella, 1933)
Grand Canary (serial novel, 1933),
Woman of the Earth (novella, 1933)
Country Doctor (novella, 1935)
The Stars Look Down (novel, 1935),
Lady with Carnations (serial novel, 1935),
The Citadel (novel, 1937),
Vigil in the Night (serial novella, 1939)
Jupiter Laughs (play, 1940), ISBN B000OHEBC2
Child of Compassion (novelette, 1940),
Enchanted Snow (novel, 1940),
The Valorous Years (serial novella, 1940)
The Keys of the Kingdom (novel, 1941),
Adventures of a Black Bag (short stories, 1943, rev. 1969),
The Green Years (novel, 1944),
The Man Who Couldn't Spend Money (novelette, 1946),
Shannon's Way (novel, 1948; sequel to The Green Years),
Gracie Lindsay (serial novel, 1949),
The Spanish Gardener (novel, 1950),
Beyond This Place (novel, 1950),
Adventures in Two Worlds (autobiography, 1952),
Escape from Fear (serial novella, 1954),
A Thing of Beauty (novel, 1956), ; also published as Crusader's Tomb (1956),
The Northern Light (novel, 1958),
The Innkeeper's Wife (short story republished as a book, 1958),
The Cronin Omnibus (three earlier novels, collected in 1958),
The Native Doctor; also published as An Apple in Eden (novel, 1959),
The Judas Tree (novel, 1961),
A Song of Sixpence (novel, 1964),
Adventures of a Black Bag (short stories, 1969),
A Pocketful of Rye (novel, 1969; sequel to A Song of Sixpence),
Desmonde (novel, 1975), ; also published as The Minstrel Boy (1975),
Doctor Finlay of Tannochbrae (short stories, 1978),
Dr Finlay's Casebook (omnibus edition – 2010),
Further Adventures of a Country Doctor (twelve late-1930s short stories, collected in 2017),
Selected periodical publications
"Lily of the Valley," Hearst's International-Cosmopolitan, (February 1936),
"The Citadel..." The Australian Women's Weekly, (9 October 1937) Vol.5 # 18, begin serialization.
"Mascot for Uncle," Good Housekeeping, (February 1938),
"The Most Unforgettable Character I Ever Met: The Doctor of Lennox," Reader's Digest, 35 (September 1939): 26–30.
"The Portrait," Hearst's International-Cosmopolitan, (December 1940),
"Turning Point of My Career," Reader's Digest, 38 (May 1941): 53–57.
"Diogenes in Maine," Reader's Digest, 39 (August 1941): 11–13.
"Reward of Mercy," Reader's Digest, 39 (September 1941): 25–37.
"How I Came to Write a Novel of a Priest," Life, 11 (20 October 1941): 64–66.
"Drama in Everyday Life," Reader's Digest, 42 (March 1943): 83–86.
"Candles in Vienna," Reader's Digest, 48 (June 1946): 1–3.
"Star of Hope Still Rises," Reader's Digest, 53 (December 1948): 1–3.
"Johnny Brown Stays Here," Reader's Digest, 54 (January 1949): 9–12.
Two Gentlemen of Verona," Reader's Digest, 54 (February 1949): 1–5.
"Greater Gift," Reader's Digest, 54 (March 1949): 88–91.
"The One Chance," Redbook, (March 1949),
"An Irish Rose," Reader's Digest, 56 (January 1950): 21–24.
"Monsieur le Maire," Reader's Digest, 58 (January 1951): 52–56.
"Best Investment I Ever Made," Reader's Digest, 58 (March 1951): 25–28.
"Quo Vadis?", Reader's Digest, 59 (December 1951): 41–44.
"Tombstone for Nora Malone," Reader's Digest, 60 (January 1952): 99–101.
"When You Dread Failure," Reader's Digest, 60 (February 1952): 21–24.
"What I Learned at La Grande Chartreuse," Reader's Digest, 62 (February 1953): 73–77.
"Grace of Gratitude," Reader's Digest, 62 (March 1953): 67–70.
"Thousand and One Lives," Reader's Digest, 64 (January 1954): 8–11.
"How to Stop Worrying," Reader's Digest, 64 (May 1954): 47–50.
"Don't Be Sorry for Yourself!," Reader's Digest, 66 (February 1955): 97–100.
"Unless You Deny Yourself," Reader's Digest, 68 (January 1956): 54–56.
"Resurrection of Joao Jacinto," Reader's Digest, 89 (November 1966): 153–157.
Film adaptations
1934 – Once to Every Woman (from short story, Kaleidoscope in "K"), directed by Lambert Hillyer, featuring Ralph Bellamy, Fay Wray, Walter Connolly, Mary Carlisle, and Walter Byron
1934 – Grand Canary, directed by Irving Cummings, featuring Warner Baxter, Madge Evans, Marjorie Rambeau, Zita Johann, and H. B. Warner
1938 – The Citadel, directed by King Vidor, featuring Robert Donat, Rosalind Russell, Ralph Richardson, and Rex Harrison
1940 – Vigil in the Night, directed by George Stevens, featuring Carole Lombard, Brian Aherne, Anne Shirley, and Robert Coote
1940 – The Stars Look Down, directed by Carol Reed, narrated by Lionel Barrymore (US version), featuring Michael Redgrave, Margaret Lockwood, Emlyn Williams, Nancy Price, and Cecil Parker
1941 – Shining Victory (from play, Jupiter Laughs), directed by Irving Rapper, featuring James Stephenson, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Donald Crisp, Barbara O'Neil, and Bette Davis
1942 – Hatter's Castle, directed by Lance Comfort, featuring Robert Newton, Deborah Kerr, James Mason, Emlyn Williams, and Enid Stamp Taylor
1944 – The Keys of the Kingdom, directed by John M. Stahl, featuring Gregory Peck, Thomas Mitchell, Vincent Price, Rose Stradner, Edmund Gwenn, Benson Fong, Cedric Hardwicke, Jane Ball, and Roddy McDowall
1946 – The Green Years, directed by Victor Saville, featuring Charles Coburn, Tom Drake, Beverly Tyler, Hume Cronyn, Gladys Cooper, Dean Stockwell, Selena Royle, and Jessica Tandy
1953 – Ich suche Dich ("I Seek You" – from play, Jupiter Laughs), directed by O. W. Fischer, featuring O.W. Fischer, Anouk Aimée, Nadja Tiller, and Otto Brüggemann
1955 – Sabar Uparey (from novel, Beyond This Place), directed by Agradoot, featuring Uttam Kumar, Suchitra Sen, Chhabi Biswas, Pahari Sanyal and Nitish Mukherjee
1957 – The Spanish Gardener, directed by Philip Leacock, featuring Dirk Bogarde, Jon Whiteley, Michael Hordern, Cyril Cusack, and Lyndon Brook
1958 – Kala Pani ("Black Water" – from novel, Beyond This Place)–directed by Raj Khosla, featuring Dev Anand, Madhubala, Nalini Jaywant, and Agha
1959 – Web of Evidence (from novel, Beyond This Place), directed by Jack Cardiff, featuring Van Johnson, Vera Miles, Emlyn Williams, Bernard Lee, and Jean Kent
1967 – Poola Rangadu (from novel, Beyond This Place), directed by Adurthi Subba Rao, featuring ANR, Jamuna, and Nageshwara Rao Akkineni
1971 – Tere Mere Sapne ("Our Dreams" – from the novel The Citadel), directed by Vijay Anand, featuring Dev Anand, Mumtaz, Hema Malini, Vijay Anand, and Prem Nath
1972 – Jiban Saikate (from novel, The Citadel)–directed by Swadesh Sarkar, featuring Soumitra Chatterjee and Aparna Sen
1975 – Mausam ("Seasons", from the novel The Judas Tree), directed by Gulzar, featuring Sharmila Tagore, Sanjeev Kumar, Dina Pathak, and Om Shivpuri
1982 – Madhura Swapnam (from the novel The Citadel), directed by K. Raghavendra Rao, featuring Jaya Prada, Jayasudha, and Krishnamraju
Selected television credits
1955 – Escape From Fear (CBS), featuring William Lundigan, Tristram Coffin, Mari Blanchard, Howard Duff, and Jay Novello
1957 – Beyond This Place (CBS), featuring Farley Granger, Peggy Ann Garner, Max Adrian, Brian Donlevy, and Shelley Winters
1958 – Nicholas (TV Tupi), featuring Ricardinho, Roberto de Cleto, and Rafael Golombeck
1960 – The Citadel (ABC), featuring James Donald, Ann Blyth, Lloyd Bochner, Hugh Griffith, and Torin Thatcher
1960 – The Citadel, featuring Eric Lander, Zena Walker, Jack May, Elizabeth Shepherd, and Richard Vernon
1962–1971 – Dr Finlay's Casebook (BBC), featuring Bill Simpson, Andrew Cruickshank, and Barbara Mullen
1962 and 1963 – The Ordeal of Dr Shannon (NBC & ITV), featuring Rod Taylor, Elizabeth MacLennan, and Ronald Fraser
1963–1965 – Memorandum van een dokter, featuring Bram van der Vlugt, Rob Geraerds, and Fien Berghegge
1964 – La Cittadella (RAI), featuring Alberto Lupo, Anna Maria Guarnieri, Fosco Giachetti, Loretta Goggi and Eleonora Rossi Drago
1964 – Novi asistent, featuring Dejan Dubajić, Ljiljana Jovanović, Nikola Simić and Milan Srdoč
1967 – O Jardineiro Espanhol (TV Tupi), featuring Ednei Giovenazzi and Osmano Cardoso
1971 – E le stelle stanno a guardare (RAI), featuring Orso Maria Guerrini, Andrea Checchi, and Giancarlo Giannini
1975 – The Stars Look Down (Granada), featuring Ian Hastings, Susan Tracy, Alun Armstrong, and Christian Rodska
1976 – Slecna Meg a talír Ming (Československá Televise), featuring Marie Rosulková, Eva Svobodová, Petr Kostka, and Svatopluk Benes
1977 – Les Années d'illusion (TF1), featuring Yves Brainville, Josephine Chaplin, Michel Cassagne, and Laurence Calame
1983 – The Citadel (BBC and PBS), featuring Ben Cross, Clare Higgins, Tenniel Evans, and Gareth Thomas
1993–1996 – Doctor Finlay (ITV and PBS), featuring David Rintoul, Annette Crosbie, Ian Bannen, Jessica Turner, and Jason Flemyng
2003 – La Cittadella (Titanus), featuring Massimo Ghini, Barbora Bobuľová, Franco Castellano, and Anna Galiena
Selected radio credits
1940 – The Citadel (The Campbell Playhouse CBS), featuring Orson Welles, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Ernest Chappell, Everett Sloane, George Coulouris, and Ray Collins
1970–1978 – Dr Finlay's Casebook (BBC Radio 4), featuring Bill Simpson, Andrew Cruickshank, and Barbara Mullen (rebroadcast in 2003 on BBC 7)
2001–2002 – Adventures of a Black Bag (BBC Radio 4), featuring John Gordon Sinclair, Brian Pettifer, Katy Murphy, and Celia Imrie
2007–2009 – Doctor Finlay: The Further Adventures of a Black Bag (BBC Radio 7), featuring John Gordon Sinclair, Brian Pettifer, and Katy Murphy
See also
Physician writer
References
Further reading
Salwak, Dale."" A. J. Cronin. Boston: Twayne's English Authors Series, 1985.
Davies, Alan. A. J. Cronin: The Man Who Created Dr Finlay. Alma Books, April 2011.
External links
Text of Cronin's autobiography, Adventures in Two Worlds
Partial list of Cronin's short stories at The FictionMags Index
Article about Cronin and the NHS
"A. J. Cronin Goes to Hollywood"
National Portrait Gallery
1896 births
1981 deaths
20th-century English novelists
People educated at St Aloysius' College, Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
British expatriates in Switzerland
Christian humanists
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Medical fiction writers
National Book Award winners
National Health Service people
People educated at Dumbarton Academy
People from Cardross, Argyll and Bute
Medical doctors from Glasgow
Roman Catholic writers
British medical writers
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War I
Scottish autobiographers
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish essayists
Scottish expatriates in the United States
20th-century Scottish medical doctors
Scottish non-fiction writers
Scottish novelists
Scottish people of English descent
Scottish people of Irish descent
Scottish Roman Catholics
Scottish screenwriters
Scottish short story writers
Scottish surgeons
Scottish television writers
Writers from Glasgow
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century essayists
20th-century English male writers
Scottish Renaissance
British male television writers
Royal Navy officers of World War I
20th-century British screenwriters
Christian novelists
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201661
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Patkul
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Johann Patkul
|
Johann Reinhold Patkul (27 July 1660 – 10 October 1707) was a Livonian nobleman, politician and agitator of Baltic German extraction. Born as a subject to the Swedish Crown, he protested against the manner of King Charles XI of Sweden's reduction in Livonia, enraging the king, who had him arrested and sentenced to mutilation and death (1694). Patkul fled from the Swedish Empire to continental Europe, and played a key role in the secret diplomacy (1698-1699) allying Peter I of Russia, Augustus II the Strong of Saxony and the Poland–Lithuania - as well as Christian V and his successor Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway - against Charles XII of Sweden, triggering the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. Patkul was close friends with the Danish Privy Councillor Knud Thott who had been driven away from his home province Scania during the Scanian War. During the 1690s and early 1700s the two of them worked actively for Danish intervention against Sweden so that Livonia and Scania might be freed from Swedish overlordship. During the first war years, Patkul retained a key role in the communication between the allies and other European courts, holding positions at king Augustus's court first in Augustus's interests (1698-1700), then in tsar Peter's service (1702- ). In late 1705 Patkul fell from Augustus's favor and was arrested and charged with high treason. Throughout the following year he was detained first in Sonnenstein, then in Königstein (both in Saxony), before Charles XII forced Augustus to extradite him by the Treaty of Altranstädt in late 1706. Patkul spent another year in Swedish detention before Charles XII had him broken on the wheel and decapitated.
Youth
Patkul was born in prison at Stockholm, where his father had been imprisoned under suspicion of treason. He entered the Swedish Army at an early age and was subsequently promoted captain.
Dispute over reduction
In 1689, at the head of a deputation of Livonian gentry, he went to Stockholm to protest against the rigour with which the land-recovery project of Charles XI of Sweden was being carried out in his native province. His eloquence impressed Charles XI, but his representations were disregarded. When he submitted another petition in more offensive language to the king three years later, his renewed complaints involved him in a government prosecution. To save himself from the penalties of high treason, Patkul fled from Stockholm to Switzerland, and was condemned in absentia to lose his right hand and his head. His estates were at the same time confiscated.
Role in planning the Great Northern War
For the next four years, Patkul led a vagabond life, but in 1698, after vainly petitioning the new king, Charles XII of Sweden, for pardon, he entered the service of Augustus II the Strong of Saxony and Poland, with the deliberate intention of wresting Livonia from Sweden, to which he had now no hope of returning so long as that province belonged to the Swedish Crown. The aristocratic republic of Poland was obviously the most convenient suzerain for a Livonian nobleman; so in 1698, Patkul proceeded to the court of the king-elector at Dresden and bombarded Augustus with proposals for the partition of Sweden. His first plan was a combination against her of Saxony, Denmark and Brandenburg; but, Brandenburg failing him, he was obliged very unwillingly to admit Russia into the partnership.
The tsar was to be content with Ingria and Estonia while Augustus was to take Livonia, nominally as a fief of Poland, but really as a hereditary possession of the Saxon house. Military operations against Sweden's Baltic provinces were to be begun simultaneously by the Saxons and Russians. After thus forging the first link of the partition treaty, Patkul proceeded to Moscow, and, at a secret conference held at Preobrazhenskoye, easily persuaded Peter the Great to accede to the league on 18 November 1699.
In Saxon and Russian service
Throughout the earlier, unluckier days of the Great Northern War, Patkul was the mainstay of the confederates. At Vienna, in 1702, he picked up the Scottish general George Benedict Ogilvie, and enlisted him in Peter's service.
The same year, recognizing the unprofitableness of serving such a master as Augustus, he exchanged the Saxon for the Russian service. Peter was glad enough to get a man so famous for his talents and energy, but Patkul speedily belied his reputation. His knowledge was too local and limited. On 19 August 1704, he succeeded, at last, in bringing about the alliance of Narva between Russia and the Polish republic to strengthen the hands of Augustus, but he failed to bring Prussia also into the anti-Swedish league because of Frederick I's fear of Charles and jealousy of Peter. From Berlin, Patkul went on to Dresden to conclude an agreement with the imperial commissioner Stratmann for renting a Russian auxiliary contingent in Saxon service to the Habsburgs.
Arrest and execution
The Saxon ministers, after protesting against the new arrangement, arrested Patkul and shut him up in the fortress of Sonnenstein on 19 December 1705, altogether disregarding the remonstrances of Peter against such a gross violation of international law. After the Treaty of Altranstädt on 24 September 1706, he was delivered up to Charles, who ordered his execution through the breaking wheel. Charles rejected an appeal for mercy from his sister, the princess Ulrica, on the ground that Patkul, as a traitor, could not be pardoned for example's sake. In October 1707, Patkul was broken alive on the wheel at Kazimierz Biskupi (Casimir) in Poland.
The circumstances of Patkul's death were documented first by chaplain Loren(t)z Hagen, who accompanied Patkul in his last two days, in his 1707 book titled Das schmertzliche doch seelige Ende, Des Welt-Bekandten Joh. Reinhold Patkuls (English translation in 1761 under the title Anecdotes concerning the famous John Reinhold Patkul). Another account of Patkul's execution is a 1708 leaflet of unknown origin titled Kurtze Beschreibung der merck- und denckwürdigen Execution Des tapffern und Welt-bekanten General Patkuls, Wie selbiger den 10. October. 1707. zu Casimir in Pohlen erbärmlich hingerichtet worden [in English: Short description of the notable and memorable execution of the brave and world-famous general Patkul, how the same on 10 October 1707 in Casimir in Poland was executed miserably]. Differing slightly, the accounts agree that Patkul, after a prolonged process of breaking his bones with the wheel, begged for his decapitation (crying "Kopf ab!") and rolled to the block on his own; the following decapitation did however not succeed until after several strikes.
See also
Otto Arnold von Paykull
References
1660 births
1707 deaths
Baltic-German people
People executed by breaking wheel
People from Livonia
Swedish military personnel
Executed German people
People executed by the Swedish Empire
18th-century executions by Sweden
People executed for treason against Sweden
Executed Swedish people
Politicians from Stockholm
Ambassadors of the Tsardom of Russia to Poland
|
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] |
201662
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patkul
|
Patkul
|
Patkul may refer to:
Johann Patkul, Livonian politician and agitator of Baltic German extraction
German exonym for Patkule, a village in Latvia
|
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] |
201663
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GATOR%20mine%20system
|
GATOR mine system
|
The GATOR mine system is a United States military system of air-dropped anti-tank and anti-personnel mines developed in the 1980s to be compatible with existing cluster dispensers. It is used with two dispenser systems—the Navy CBU-78/B and the Air Force CBU-89/B. Additionally the mines are used with the land- and helicopter-based Volcano mine system.
In use the bombs are dropped from aircraft flying at speeds between , and at altitudes of between 100 and 1,200 meters. An FMU-140/B fuze controls the opening of the dispenser at one of 10 predetermined altitudes between 90 m and 900 m using a doppler ranging radar or alternatively a 1.2 second time fuse. Mine arming begins when the dispenser opens with the activation of the mines' vanadium pentoxide batteries. The circular mines have a rectangular plastic "aeroballistic" adaptor. Once the mines reach the ground they become armed between 1.2 and 10 seconds.
The mines self-destruct after a preset time which can be set to 4 hours, 15 hours or 15 days. Any that do not will become disabled after 40 days when the batteries discharge fully. The self-destruct time is set just prior to aircraft takeoff using a simple selector switch on the dispenser. During the Gulf War the dud rate for this system was significant, in one of seven Kuwaiti battlefield sectors there were 205 BLU-91 and 841 BLU-92 duds. Given that 89,235 BLU-91 and 27,535 BLU-92 mines were used during the Gulf War, this represents a dud rate of somewhere between 0.5 and 2% for the BLU-91 and to 6 to 21% for the BLU-92. Additionally, Conventional Munition Systems Inc. minefield clearing personnel reported dud GATOR mines detonating with no apparent triggering event, and speculated that the extreme heat of the Kuwait desert may have triggered detonation.
The GATOR system provides a means to emplace minefields on the ground rapidly using high-speed tactical aircraft. A typical GATOR minefield is 650 m long and 200 m wide and contains 432 anti-tank mines and 132 anti-personnel mines. The minefields are used for area denial, diversion of moving ground forces, or to immobilize targets to supplement other direct attack weapons. In the 1991 Gulf War the US Air Force employed 1,105 CBU-89s. One reported task was to hamper the movements of Iraqi Scud missile launchers.
Air Force CBU-89/B
The Air Force CBU-89/B is a cluster munition containing 72 antitank and 22 antipersonnel mines, consists of an SUU-64 Tactical Munitions Dispenser with an optional FZU-39 proximity sensor. The TMD is the same general configuration used for the CBU-87/B Combined Effects Munition. This commonality allows for high-rate, low-cost production of the dispenser.
When the CBU-89 is used in conjunction with the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser guidance tail kit, it became a precision-guided munition designated as CBU-104.
Navy CBU-78/B
The Navy CBU-78/B is a cluster munition containing 45 antitank and 15 antipersonnel mines. It uses the same dispenser as the Mk7 Rockeye.
Mines
BLU-91/B anti-tank mine
The BLU-91 /B AT mine is a low flat cylinder with a rectangular aeroballistic shell. A magnetic sensor in the mine detects potential targets. When a suitable target reaches the most vulnerable approach point it detonates the mine. The mine is also triggered if the mine is moved, or if the battery reaches a certain low voltage point.
Once the fuse is triggered, a small clearing charge is fired that clears any debris that may be on top of the mine. A second larger charge is triggered 30 ms later, creating an Explosively Formed Penetrator capable of penetrating 70 mm of armour, using the Misznay-Schardin effect. The charge is capable of penetrating most armoured vehicles from below.
The mine weighs 1.95 kilograms and is 127 millimeters in diameter, with 580 grams of an RDX/Estane explosive mix.
BLU-92/B anti-personnel mine
After the mine reaches the ground, and the arming delay has passed, a squib is fired launching eight tripwires from the mine. Tension on any of the wires triggers the mine electronically; it also has an anti-handling "ball and can" switch. The mine has an effective fragmentation radius of about 20 meters.
The mine is approximately 127 millimeters in diameter and weighs 1.68 kilograms. The mine's main charge consists of 420 grams of Composition B-4.
References
See also
Family of Scatterable Mines (FASCAM)
Cluster munition
Aerial bombs of the United States
Land mines of the United States
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] |
201665
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-10%20Paveway%20II
|
GBU-10 Paveway II
|
The GBU-10 Paveway II is an American Paveway-series laser-guided bomb, based on the Mk 84 general-purpose bomb, but with laser seeker and wings for guidance. Introduced into service c. 1976. Used by USAF, US Navy, US Marine Corps, Royal Australian Air Force and various NATO air forces.
Description
The GBU-10 has been built in more than a half-dozen variants with different wing and fuse combinations. Weight depends on the specific configuration, ranging from 2,055 lb (934 kg) to 2,103 lb (956 kg).
GBU-10 bombs (along with the balance of the Paveway series) are produced by defense contractors Lockheed Martin and Raytheon. Raytheon began production after purchasing the product line from Texas Instruments. Lockheed Martin was awarded a contract to compete with Raytheon when there was a break in production caused by transferring manufacturing out of Texas.
Raytheon production of the Paveway II is centered in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico. Lockheed Martin production is centered in Pennsylvania.
Laser-guided bombs are often labeled as "smart bombs", despite requiring external input in the form of laser designation of the intended target. According to Raytheon's fact sheet for the Paveway 2, 99 deliveries of guided munitions will yield a circular error probable (CEP) of only , compared to a CEP of for 99 unguided bombs dropped under similar conditions.
On 14 February 1991, an air-to-air kill was scored by a GBU-10 when an F-15E Strike Eagle of the 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron hit an Iraqi Air Force Mil Mi-24 Hind. 30 seconds after firing, the F-15E crew thought the bomb had missed and was about to fire an AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile when the helicopter suddenly exploded.
Both Lockheed Martin and Raytheon have developed GPS-guided versions of the GBU-10. Lockheed Martin calls its version the DMLGB (Dual-Mode LGB) GPS/INS, and the U.S. Navy issued Lockheed Martin a contract in 2005 for further development of the weapon system. The GPS/INS-equipped version of the GBU-10 produced by Raytheon is the GBU-50/B, also informally also known as the EGBU-10 (GPS/INS-enabled LGBs are frequently referred to as Enhanced GBUs or EGBUs). So far, Raytheon-built Paveway II EGBUs have only been produced for export, and have been used in combat by the British Royal Air Force over Afghanistan and Iraq.
References
External links
Raytheon's official Paveway fact page
Globalsecurity.org Paveway fact page
Lockheed Martin Paveway fact page
Designation-Systems.net Paveway II fact page
Guided bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s
|
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201666
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-12%20Paveway%20II
|
GBU-12 Paveway II
|
The GBU-12 Paveway II is an American aerial laser-guided bomb, based on the Mk 82 500-pound (227 kg) general-purpose bomb, but with the addition of a nose-mounted laser seeker and fins for guidance. A member of the Paveway series of weapons, Paveway II entered into service c. 1976. It is currently in service with the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and various other air forces.
Development and deployment
The development of the GBU-12 traces back to the Vietnam War. The U.S. Air Force wanted a greater variety of laser-guided bombs, especially a lighter and more maneuverable one to be able to hit moving targets on the Ho Chi Minh trail. Earlier designs of guided bombs such as the BOLT-117 were quickly superseded by the Paveway series of add-on kits for conventional bombs.
GBU-12 bombs (along with the balance of the Paveway series) are produced by defense contractors Lockheed Martin and Raytheon. Raytheon began production after purchasing the product line from Texas Instruments. Lockheed Martin was awarded a contract to compete with Raytheon when there was a break in production caused by transferring manufacturing out of Texas. "Paveway II" refers specifically to the guidance kit, rather than to the weapon itself. See also GBU-16 Paveway II, where the same guidance unit is fitted to a Mk 83 1,000-lb bomb (454 kg).
The GBU-12 has been used in numerous conflicts such as the Gulf War where the U.S. Air Force reports an 88% hit rate. It is among the most commonly used guided munitions, and as such is able to be dropped from a very wide variety of aircraft, such as the B-52, A-10, F-15E, and F/A-18.
Guidance
The US Department of Defense has upgraded GBU-12 production versions to include GPS guidance modes. Lockheed Martin is the sole source for US Navy purchases of this version. Raytheon sells upgraded GBU-12s to the US Government and 23 other nations.
Laser-guided bombs are often labeled "smart bombs" because they are able to follow a non-ballistic trajectory when laser designation of the intended target is undertaken. According to Raytheon's fact sheet for the Paveway 2, 99 deliveries of guided munitions will yield a circular error probable (CEP) of only , versus a CEP of for 99 unguided bombs dropped under similar conditions.
Paveway II laser-guided bombs use what is known as "bang bang" guidance. This means the bomb's fins deflect fully, rather than proportionally when it is attempting to guide to the laser spot. For example, if it sees the laser spot and determines that it should make a change it deflects its fins until it has over-corrected and then it deflects back the opposite direction, creating a sinusoidal type of flight path. This type of guidance may be less efficient at times, however is more cost-effective and allows the use of simpler electronics in the guidance system.
References
External links
Raytheon's official Paveway fact page
Globalsecurity.org Paveway fact page
Lockheed Martin Paveway fact page
Guided bombs of the United States
Texas Instruments
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s
|
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] |
201667
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-28
|
GBU-28
|
The GBU-28 is a 5,000-pound (2,268 kg) class laser-guided "bunker busting" bomb produced originally by the Watervliet Arsenal, Watervliet, New York. It was designed, manufactured, and deployed in less than three weeks due to an urgent need during Operation Desert Storm to penetrate hardened Iraqi command centers located deep underground. Only two of the weapons were dropped in Desert Storm, both by F-111Fs. One GBU-28 was dropped during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
The Enhanced GBU-28 augments the laser-guidance with inertial navigation and GPS guidance systems.
Design and development
In August 1990, the U.S. military began planning an air offensive campaign against Iraq. Planners noticed that a few command and control bunkers in Baghdad were located deep underground to withstand heavy fire. Doubts were raised about the ability of the BLU-109/B to penetrate such fortified structures, so the US Air Force Air Armament Division at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida was asked to create a weapon that could, and engineer Al Weimorts sketched improved BLU-109 variants. By January 1991, as the Persian Gulf War was well underway, it was determined that the BLU-109/B-equipped laser-guided bombs (LGB) would be unable to penetrate fortified bunkers deep underground.
The initial batch of GBU-28s was built from modified 8 inch/203 mm artillery barrels (principally from deactivated M110 howitzers), but later examples are purpose-built with the BLU-113 bomb body made by National Forge of Irvine, Pennsylvania. They weigh 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) and contain 630 pounds (286 kg) of high explosive.
The GBU-28 C/B version uses the 5,000-pound BLU-122 bomb body, which contains AFX-757 explosive in a 4,000-pound casing machined from a single piece of ES-1 Eglin steel alloy.
The operator illuminates a target with a laser designator and the munition guides itself to the spot of laser light reflected from the target. When the GBU-28 hits the ground, a short-delay time fuze is activated which triggers detonation when it has penetrated deeply enough to completely destroy the target.
The bomb underwent testing at the Tonopah Test Range, Nevada, a test facility for United States Department of Energy funded weapon programs. An F-111F of the 431st Test and Evaluation Squadron based at McClellan AFB in California dropped the first GBU-28 at Tonopah on February 24th 1991. It proved capable of penetrating over 50 meters (150 ft) of earth or 5 meters (15 ft) of solid concrete; this was demonstrated when a test bomb, bolted to a missile sled, smashed through 22 ft (6.7 m) of reinforced concrete and still retained enough kinetic energy to travel a mile downrange. The GBU-28 is unique in that time between the finalized design being approved to its first use in combat test took only two weeks between the 13th and 27th of February 1991.
Operational history
On the night of 27/28 February 1991, just hours before the ceasefire, two General Dynamics F-111Fs, loaded with one GBU-28 each, headed towards a target on the outskirts of Baghdad. The al-Taji Airbase, located 15 mi (24 km) northwest of the Iraqi capital, had been hit at least three times by GBU-27/Bs from F-117 Nighthawks, "digging up the rose garden". The first GBU-28 was dropped off-target due to target misidentification. The second GBU-28 was a direct hit and penetrated the thick reinforced concrete before detonating, killing everyone inside.
The bomb was used during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 by USAF F-15Es, notably against Straževica Command Center but without success.
The bomb was used during Operations Enduring Freedom in 2002 and Invasion of Iraq in 2003 by USAF F-15Es.
The first foreign sale of the GBU-28 was the acquisition of 100 units by Israel, authorized in April 2005. Delivery of the weapons was accelerated at the request of Israel in July 2006. Delivery was described as "upcoming" in a cable dated November 2009 which suggested that the weapon could be used against Iran's nuclear facilities. Fifty-five GBU-28's were delivered to Israel in 2009. There were unconfirmed reports that Israel used the GBU-28 during the 2008–2009 Gaza War.
In June 2009 United States agreed to sell the GBU-28s to South Korea, following the nuclear test conducted on 25 May 2009 by North Korea. The bombs were to be delivered between 2010 and 2014.
According to the Jerusalem Post on 23 December 2011 the US Justice Department announced that it had reached a settlement with Kaman Corp. which allegedly substituted a fuze in four lots of fuzes made for the bombs. Under the settlement, Kaman Corp. will pay the government $4.75 million. Israel raised concerns, it had also received GBU-28 bombs fuzed to prematurely detonate before penetration or at other times. In bombardment of Gaza in May 2021, referred to by the Israeli military as the Guardian of the Walls operation, the GBU-28 was used extensively.
In October 2021, the USAF completed assessments of the GBU-72 Advanced 5K Penetrator (A5K), a 5,000 lb penetrator bomb consisting of a BLU-138 penetrator warhead combined with a JDAM GPS guidance kit. In development since 2017, the GBU-72 is expected to cause significantly more damage against hardened, buried targets and is fitted with a more durable and efficient smart electronic fuse that can activate at a preprogrammed location. The Air Force plans to begin buying the weapon in 2022 to replace the GBU-28.
See also
HOPE/HOSBO
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Anti-fortification weapons
Guided bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1990s
|
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] |
201668
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%2084%20bomb
|
Mark 84 bomb
|
The Mark 84 or BLU-117 is an American general-purpose bomb. It is the largest of the Mark 80 series of weapons. Entering service during the Vietnam War, it became a commonly used US heavy unguided bomb (due to the amount of high-explosive content packed inside) to be dropped. At the time, it was the third largest bomb by weight in the US inventory behind the BLU-82 "Daisy Cutter" and the M118 "demolition" bomb. It is currently sixth in size due to the addition of the GBU-28 in 1991, the GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb (MOAB) in 2003, and the Massive Ordnance Penetrator.
Development
The Mark 84 has a nominal weight of , but its actual weight varies depending on its fin, fuze options, and retardation configuration, from . It is a streamlined steel casing filled with of Tritonal high explosive.
The Mark 84 is capable of forming a crater wide and deep. It can penetrate up to of metal or of concrete, depending on the height from which it is dropped, and causes lethal fragmentation to a radius of .
Many Mark 84s have been retrofitted with stabilizing and retarding devices to provide precision guidance capabilities. They serve as the warhead of a variety of precision-guided munitions, including the GBU-10/GBU-24/GBU-27 Paveway laser-guided bombs, GBU-15 electro-optical bomb, GBU-31 JDAM and Quickstrike sea mines. The HGK is a Turkish guidance kit used to convert 2000-lb Mark 84 bombs into GPS/INS guided smart bombs.
According to a test report conducted by the United States Navy's Weapon System Explosives Safety Review Board (WSESRB) established in the wake of the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, the cooking off time for a Mk 84 is approximately 8 minutes 40 seconds.
See also
BLU-109 bomb
BLU-116
Mark 81 bomb
Mark 82 bomb
Mark 83 bomb
References
External links
Mk65 Quick Strike Mine
Mk84 General Purpose Bomb
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s
|
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] |
201669
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%2083%20bomb
|
Mark 83 bomb
|
The Mark 83 is part of the Mark 80 series of low-drag general-purpose bombs in United States service.
Development and deployment
The nominal weight of the bomb is 1,000 lb (454 kg), although its actual weight varies between 985 lb (447 kg) and 1,030 lb (468 kg), depending on fuze options, and fin configuration. The Mk 83 is a streamlined steel casing containing 445 lb (202 kg) of tritonal high explosive. When filled with PBXN-109 thermally insensitive explosive, the bomb is designated BLU-110.
The Mk 83/BLU-110 is used as the warhead for a variety of precision-guided weapons, including the GBU-16 Paveway laser-guided bombs, the GBU-32 JDAM and Quickstrike sea mines.
This bomb is most typically used by the United States Navy but is used by the USAF in the F-22A in a JDAM configuration. According to a test report conducted by the United States Navy's Weapon System Explosives Safety Review Board (WSESRB) established in the wake of the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, the cooking-off time for a Mk 83 is approximately 8 minutes 40 seconds.
See also
Mark 81 bomb
Mark 82 bomb
Mark 84 bomb
FAB-500 – Soviet counterpart
References
External links
Mk83 General-Purpose Bomb
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s
|
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] |
201670
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-27%20Paveway%20III
|
GBU-27 Paveway III
|
The GBU-27 Paveway III (Guided Bomb Unit) is a laser-guided bomb with bunker buster capabilities, it is a GBU-24 Paveway III (fitted on the warhead of the BLU-109 bomb body) that has been redesigned to be used by the F-117A Nighthawk stealth ground attack aircraft. The pilots flying over Iraq during the First Gulf War nicknamed it the "Hammer", for its considerable destructive power and blast radius.
Combat history
The GBU-27 was used in Operation Desert Storm. It was the weapon used in the February 13, 1991 attack on the Amiriyah shelter, which resulted in the deaths of more than 400 Iraqi civilians. It was also used in a series of strikes on the Muthanna State Enterprise site during February 1991.
During the 1999 NATO attack on FR Yugoslavia, two of these bombs were used to destroy the Avala Tower, a symbol of Belgrade.
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the US Air Force dropped 98 EGBU-27s on Iraqi targets.
The first foreign sale of the GBU-27 was the acquisition by Israel of 500 units equipped with BLU-109 penetrating warheads, authorized in September 2004. (Raas and Long 2006) Delivery of such precision guided weaponry was accelerated at the request of Israel in July 2006, though the exact munition were not specified. Israeli Defense Forces officials state that other precision-guided munitions have been used to attack Hezbollah facilities in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.
However, the bunker busting technology in the GBU-27 could be directed, according to Israeli military sources, at Iran or possibly Syria.
As of 2011 the UK's RAF have also ordered the GBU-27 for use in Libya.
See also
Paveway
JDAM
BLU-109
References
Notes
Bibliography
Whitney Raas and Austin Long, Osirak Redux? Assessing Israeli Capabilities to Destroy Iranian Nuclear Facilities, MIT Security Studies Program Working Paper, April 2006.
External links
FAS
Raytheon (Texas Instruments) Paveway III - Designation Systems
Guided bombs of the United States
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1990s
Raytheon Company products
Texas Instruments
|
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] |
201671
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-24%20Paveway%20III
|
GBU-24 Paveway III
|
GBU-24 Paveway III or simply GBU-24 is a family of laser-guided bombs, a sub-group of the larger Raytheon Paveway III family of weapons. The Paveway guidance package consists of a seeker package attached to the nose of the weapon, and a wing kit attached to the rear to provide stability and greater range.
Warhead options consist of:
Mk. 84 – General Purpose
BLU-109 – Penetrator
BLU-116 – Advanced Unitary Penetrator
CPE-800 – Used in the BPG-2000, a similar, indigenous Spanish weapon
Compared to the GBU-10 family, or the Paveway II family, the GBU-24 glides farther as a result of more efficient guidance technology. The Paveway III guidance kit is more expensive, however, making the GBU-24 suitable against well-defended, high-value targets. It was introduced into service c. 1983. This weapon is in service with the USAF, US Navy, US Marine Corps, and various NATO air forces.
The bomb requires a spot of pulse-coded laser energy to home on; this can be supplied by the delivery aircraft, another aircraft (Buddy Lasing), or by a Ground Laser Designator. After release from the delivery aircraft, the thermal battery for the Guidance Computer Group fires to supply power; the arming wire for the fuze is withdrawn; the wings are released; and depending on the configuration, either the turbine generator or the safety switch (to power the fuze) is activated.
Once this has happened, the seeker guides the bomb toward the designated impact point. If the laser illumination is lost, the bomb stops guiding and follows a roughly ballistic path, although interference from the guidance kit can lead to the weapon wandering off course. While the GBU-24 is guided, it is not a powered weapon—i.e., it has no propulsion. Its range, therefore, depends on aircraft speed, altitude, wind speed, etc. The GBU-24 is precise enough to be able to fly down ventilation shafts into hardened targets, although accuracy is usually dependent on the ability to point the laser correctly rather than the bomb's ability to hit the impact point. The GBU-24 is cleared on aircraft such as the F-15E, F-16A MLU, F-16C Block 40/42, F-16C Block 50/52 CCIP, F-16C+ Block 30 SCU8, F/A-18, Panavia Tornado, Eurofighter Typhoon, Mirage 2000, Rafale, F-14 Tomcat (prior to the Tomcat's retirement from US Navy service), F-4E AUP, F-111C AUP and the Predator C UAVs.
Twenty-three GBU-24s were dropped by the US Navy during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
References
External links
Guided bombs of the United States
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1980s
Raytheon Company products
Texas Instruments
|
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201672
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%2082%20bomb
|
Mark 82 bomb
|
The Mark 82 (Mk 82) is an unguided, low-drag general-purpose bomb, part of the United States Mark 80 series. The explosive filling is usually tritonal, though other compositions have sometimes been used.
Development and deployment
With a nominal weight of 500 lb (227 kg), it is one of the smallest in current service, and one of the most common air-dropped weapons in the world. Although the Mk 82's nominal weight is 500 lb (227 kg), its actual weight varies depending on its configuration, from 510 lb (232 kg) to 570 lb (259 kg). It is a streamlined steel casing containing 192 lb (89 kg) of Tritonal high explosive. The Mk 82 is offered with a variety of fin kits, fuzes, and retarders for different purposes.
The Mk 82 is the warhead for the GBU-12 laser-guided bombs and for the GBU-38 JDAM.
Currently only the General Dynamics plant in Garland, Texas and Nitro-Chem in Bydgoszcz, Poland are Department of Defense-certified to manufacture bombs for the US Armed Forces.
The Mk 82 is currently undergoing a minor redesign to allow it to meet the insensitive munitions requirements set by Congress.
According to a test report conducted by the United States Navy's Weapon System Explosives Safety Review Board established in the wake of the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, the cooking off time for a Mk 82 is approximately 2 minutes 30 seconds.
More than 4,500 GBU-12/Mk 82 laser-guided bombs were dropped on Iraq during the Persian Gulf War. France requested 1,200 Mk 82s in 2010 to Société des Ateliers Mécaniques de Pont-sur-Sambre (SAMP) which builds Mk 82s under licence. Saudi Arabia requested 8,000 Mk 82s in 2015, along with guidance kits and other weapons.
Low-level delivery
In low-level bombing, it is possible for the delivering aircraft to sustain damage from the blast and fragmentation effects of its own munitions since the aircraft and ordnance arrive at the target almost simultaneously. To address this issue, the standard Mk 82 General-Purpose bomb can be fitted with a special high-drag tail fin unit. In this configuration, it is referred to as the Mk 82 Snake Eye.
The tail unit has four folded fins which spring open into a cruciform shape when the bomb is released. The fins increase the drag of the bomb, slowing its forward progress and allowing the delivery aircraft to safely pass over the target before the bomb explodes.
Variants
BLU-111/B – Mk 82 casing filled with PBXN-109 (instead of Composition H6); item weighs 218 kg (480 lbs). PBXN-109 is a less sensitive explosive filler when compared to H6. The BLU-111/B also is the warhead of the A-1 version of the Joint Stand-Off Weapon.
BLU-111A/B – Used by the U.S. Navy, this is the BLU-111/B with a thermal-protective coating added to reduce cook-off in (fuel-related) fires.
BLU-126/B – Designed following a U.S. Navy request to lower collateral damage in air strikes. Delivery of this type started in March 2007. Also known as the Low Collateral Damage Bomb (LCDB), it is a BLU-111 with a smaller explosive charge. Inert ballast is added to match the original weight of the BLU-111, which gives it the same trajectory when dropped.
BLU-129/B – U.S. Air Force Mark 82 version with a composite warhead case which disintegrates upon detonation to minimize fragmentation, decreasing damage to nearby structures and reducing the chances of collateral damage. The carbon fiber composite shell achieves three-times less collateral damage by keeping the blast radius tight, while the tungsten-laden case high explosive has greater lethality in that blast radius. Entered service in 2011 with some 800 units produced until early 2015. USAF is looking to restart production for domestic and international consumption.
Mark 62 Quickstrike mine – A naval mine, which is a conversion of the Mark 82 bomb.
Mark 82 Mod 7 – Near-term solution for cluster bomb replacement that replaces the forged steel casing with a unitary "cast ductile iron" warhead and reconfigured burst height and fuze locations, dispersing iron fragmentation over a large area to fulfill area-attack requirements with less chance of unexploded ordnance. To enter service by 2018.
MK82-T (Tendürek) –Turkish variant of MK82 with a thermobaric warhead, can be fitted with locally produced HGK, LGK and KGK guidance kits.
See also
Mark 81 bomb
Mark 83 bomb
Mark 84 bomb
Paveway IV
Armement Air-Sol Modulaire
FAB-250 – Soviet counterpart
References
External links
Mk82 General-Purpose Bomb
Bombs, Fuzes, and associated Components
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1950s
|
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] |
201673
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figaro
|
Figaro
|
Figaro may refer to:
Literature
Figaro, the central character in:
The Barber of Seville (play), a 1775 play by Pierre Beaumarchais
The Barber of Seville (Paisiello), a 1782 opera by Paisiello based on the play
The Barber of Seville, an 1816 opera by Rossini based on the play
Figaro qua, Figaro là, 1950 Italian comedy film directed by Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia
The Guilty Mother, a 1792 play by Beaumarchais
La mère coupable, a 1966 opera by Milhaud based on the play
The Marriage of Figaro (play), a 1784 play by Beaumarchais
The Marriage of Figaro, a 1786 opera by Mozart based on the play
Figaro, a comic strip character in The Topper
Publications
Le Figaro, the oldest extant newspaper in France
Figaro in London, an early Victorian comic magazine published in England
London Figaro, a late Victorian satirical magazine published in England
Queensland Figaro, a weekly newspaper published from 1883 to 1936 in Australia
Figaro (Vienna), a Viennese satirical magazine published 1857–1919 (de)
Entertainment
The Crazy Day or The Marriage of Figaro, a 2004 comedy musical staged by Russian and Ukrainian television channels NTV (Russia) and Inter
Figaro (Disney), a kitten created by The Walt Disney Company, which first appeared in the 1940 film Pinocchio
Figaro, a kingdom in the video game Final Fantasy VI
Galileo Figaro, character from the stage musical We Will Rock You
MDR Figaro, German broadcaster Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk's cultural radio channel
Figaro (film), a 1929 French silent historical comedy film
Figaro, movie production company of Joseph L. Mankiewicz
The Abduction of Figaro, an opera parody by Peter Schickele
Music
"Figaro" (song), a 1978 UK number-one song by Brotherhood of Man
"Figaro", a song by Madvillain from their album Madvillainy
"Figaro", a song by Nine Muses from their 2012 album Sweet Rendezvous
People
Pen-name of Henry Clapp, Jr. editor of The Saturday Press
Figaro, nickname of Spanish author Mariano José de Larra
Other
Figaro chain, a type of chain used in jewelry
Figaro Coffee Company, a chain of coffee shops in Philippines
Figaro (genus), a genus of catsharks
Nissan Figaro, a retro-styled compact car produced by Nissan in a limited production run in 1991
Bénéteau Figaro, a design of sailing yacht used for French Offshore Racing
Bénéteau Figaro 2, a design of sailing yacht used for French Offshore Racing
Bénéteau Figaro 3, a design of sailing yacht used for French Offshore Racing
Solitaire du Figaro, a sailing race, taking place every summer between France, England, Ireland, and Spain
|
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] |
201675
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBU-15
|
GBU-15
|
The Rockwell International Guided Bomb Unit 15 is an unpowered glide weapon used to destroy high-value enemy targets. It was designed for use with F-15E Strike Eagle, F-111 'Aardvark' and F-4 Phantom II aircraft. The GBU-15 has long-range maritime anti-ship capability with the B-52 Stratofortress.
Overview
The weapon consists of modular components that are attached to either a general purpose Mark 84 bomb or a penetrating-warhead BLU-109 bomb. Each weapon has five components—a forward guidance section, warhead adapter section, control module, airfoil components, and a weapon data link.
The guidance section is attached to the nose of the weapon and contains either a television guidance system for daytime or an imaging infrared system for night or limited, adverse weather operations. A data link in the tail section sends guidance updates to the control aircraft that enables the weapon systems operator to guide the bomb by remote control to its target.
An external electrical conduit extends the length of the warhead which attaches the guidance adapter and control unit. The conduit carries electrical signals between the guidance and control sections. The umbilical receptacle passes guidance and control data between cockpit control systems of the launching aircraft and the weapon prior to launch.
The rear control section consists of four wings that are in an "X"-like arrangement with trailing edge flap control surfaces for flight maneuvering. The control module contains the autopilot, which collects steering data from the guidance section and converts the information into signals that move the wing control surfaces to change the weapon's flight path.
Uses
The GBU-15 may be used in either a direct or an indirect attack. In a direct attack, the pilot selects a target before launch, locks the weapon guidance system onto it and launches the weapon. The weapon automatically guides itself to the target, enabling the pilot to leave the area. In an indirect attack, the weapon is guided by remote control after launch. The pilot releases the weapon and, via remote control, searches for the target. Once the target is acquired, the weapon can be locked to the target or manually guided via the Hughes Aircraft AN/AXQ-14 data-link system.
This highly maneuverable weapon has an optimal, low-to-medium altitude delivery capability with pinpoint accuracy. It also has a standoff capability. During Desert Storm, all 71 GBU-15 modular glide bombs used were dropped from F-111F aircraft. Most notably, EGBU-15s were the munitions used for destroying the oil manifolds on the storage tanks to stop oil from spilling into the Persian Gulf . These EGBU-15s sealed flaming oil pipeline manifolds sabotaged by Saddam Hussein's troops.
The Air Force Development Test Center, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, began developing the GBU-15 in 1974. The Air Force originally asked for the missile designations AGM-112A and AGM-112B for two versions of the system. This was declined because the weapon was an unpowered glide bomb and GBU designation was allotted instead. The M-112 designation remains unassigned as a result.
It was a product improvement of the early guided bomb used during the Vietnam War called the GBU-8 HOBOS. The GBU-8 could not be controlled after the bomb was released. Instead, the aircraft was forced to fly very close to the target so the WSO could acquire it. Once locked on, the weapon could be released and the aircraft could return to base.
Flight testing of the weapon began in 1975. The GBU-15 with television guidance, completed full-scale operational test and evaluation in November 1983. In February 1985, initial operational test and evaluation was completed on the imaging infrared guidance seeker.
In December 1987, the program management responsibility for the GBU-15 weapon system transferred from the Air Force Systems Command to the Air Force Logistics Command. The commands merged to become the Air Force Materiel Command in 1992.
During the integrated weapons system management process, AGM-130 and GBU-15 were determined to be a family of weapons because of the commonality of the two systems. The Precision Strike Program Office at Eglin AFB became the single manager for the GBU-15, with the Air Logistics Center at Hill Air Force Base, Utah providing sustainment support.
Notes
External links
GBU-15 CWW - APA
Guided bombs of the United States
Cold War aerial bombs of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s
|
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201676
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationery
|
Stationery
|
Stationery refers to commercially manufactured writing materials, including cut paper, envelopes, writing implements, continuous form paper, and other office supplies. Stationery includes materials to be written on by hand (e.g., letter paper) or by equipment such as computer printers.
History of stationery
Originally, the term 'stationery' referred to all products sold by a stationer, whose name indicated that his book shop was on a fixed spot. This was usually somewhere near a university, and permanent, while medieval trading was mainly carried on by itinerant peddlers (including chapmen, who sold books) and others (such as farmers and craftsmen) at markets and fairs. It was a unique term used between the 13th and 15th centuries in the manuscript culture. Stationers' shops were places where books were bound, copied, and published. These shops often loaned books to nearby-university students for a fee. The books were loaned out in sections, allowing students to study or copy them, and the only way to get the next part of the book was to return the previous section. In some cases, stationers' shops became the preferred choice for scholars to find books, instead of university libraries due to stationers' shops' wider collection of books. The Stationers' Company formerly held a monopoly over the publishing industry in England and was responsible for copyright regulations.
Uses of stationery
Printing
Printing is the process of applying a colouring agent to a surface to create a body of text or illustrations. This is often achieved through printing technology, but can be done by hand using more traditional methods. The earliest form of printing is wood blocking.
Letterpress
Letterpress is a process of printing several identical copies that presses words and designs onto the page. The print may be inked or blind, but is typically done in a single color. Motifs or designs may be added as many letterpress machines use movable plates that must be hand-set. Letterpress printing remained the primary method of printing until the 19th century.
Single documents
When a single document needs to be produced, it may be handwritten or printed typically by a computer printer. Several copies of one original paper can be produced by some printers using multipart stationery. Typing with a typewriter is obsolete, having been largely superseded by preparing a document with a word processor and printing the document.
Thermographic
Thermographic printing is a process that involves several stages but can be implemented in a low-cost manufacturing process. The process involves printing the desired designs or text with an ink that remains wet, rather than drying on contact with the paper. The paper is then dusted with a powdered polymer that adheres to the ink. The paper is vacuumed or agitated, mechanically or by hand, to remove excess powder, and then heated to near combustion. The wet ink and polymer bond and dry, resulting in a raised print surface similar to the result of an engraving process.
Embossing
Embossing is a printing technique used to create raised surfaces in the converted paper stock. The process relies upon mated dies that press the paper into a shape that can be observed on both the front and back surfaces. Two things are required during the process of embossing- a die and a stock. The result is a three-dimensional (3D) effect that emphasizes a particular area of the design.
Engraving
Engraving is a process that requires a design to be cut into a plate made of relatively hard material. The metal plate is first polished so that the design cut can be easily visible to the person. This technology has a long history and requires a significant amount of skill, experience, and expertise. The finished plate is usually covered in ink, and then the ink is removed from all of the un-etched portions of the plate. The plate is then pressed into paper under substantial pressure. The result is a design that is slightly raised on the surface of the paper and covered in ink. Due to the cost of the process and expertise required, many consumers opt for thermographic printing, a process that results in a similarly raised print surface, but through different means at less cost.
Classifications
Business Stationery: Business card, letterhead, invoices, receipts
Desktop instruments: hole punch, stapler and staples, tapes and tape dispensers,
Drawing instruments: brushes, colour pencils, crayons, water colour,
Erasers
Ink and toner:
Dot matrix printer's ink ribbon
Inkjet cartridge
Laser printer toner
Photocopier toner
Filing and storage:
Expandable file
File folder
Hanging file folder
Index cards and files
Two-pocket portfolios
Mailing and shipping supplies:
Envelope
Paper and pad:
Notebooks, wirebound notebook, writing pads, college ruled paper, wide-ruled paper,
Office paper: dot matrix paper, inkjet printer paper, laser printer paper, photocopy paper.
Writing instruments: ballpoint pen, fountain pen, pencil, porous point pen, rollerball pen, highlighter pen
School supplies
Many shops that sell stationery also sell other school supplies for students in primary and secondary education, including pocket calculators, display boards, compasses and protractors, lunchboxes, and the like.
See also
Office supplies
List of stationery topics
New Zealand standard for school stationery
References
External links
Office equipment
|
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201677
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20Magnus%20Sprengtporten
|
Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten
|
Baron Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten (1727, in Finland – 2 April 1786, in Biskopsudden, Stockholm) was a Swedish and Finnish officer and politician, and half-brother of Georg Magnus Sprengtporten.
Life and career
In his twelfth year Sprengtporten chose the profession of arms, and served his country with distinction. The few and miserable triumphs of Sweden during the Seven Years' War were due almost entirely to young Sprengtporten, and he emerged from it with a lieutenant-colonelcy, a pension and the reputation of being the smartest officer in the service.
Sprengtporten had too hearty a contempt for "Hats" and "Caps", the two main political factions during the Age of Liberty (1719–1772) in Sweden, to belong to either. He made no secret of his sentiments, and soon gathered round him a band of young officers of strong royalist proclivities, whom he formed into a club, the so-called Svenska Botten (Sweden's groundwork). The club was suppressed by the dominant "Caps" who also sought to ruin Sprengtporten financially by inciting his tenants in Finland to bring actions against him for alleged extortion, not in the ordinary courts but in the Riksdag itself, where Sprengtporten's political adversaries would be his judges. The enraged Finnish colonel thereupon approached Gustav III of Sweden with the project of a revolution against the "Caps". It was to begin in Finland where Sprengtporten's regiment the Nylandia dragoons, was stationed. He undertook to seize the impregnable fortress of Sveaborg by a coup de main. The submission of the whole grand duchy would be the natural consequence of such a success, and, Finland once secured, Sprengtporten proposed at the head of his Finns to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night attack. This plan, subsequently enlarged by a suggestion of a fellow plotter, Johan Christopher Toll, was warmly approved of by the king.
On 22 July 1772 Sprengtporten left Stockholm. On 9 August he reached Helsingfors. On 16 August he persuaded to submit to him fortress of Sveaborg, soon followed by that of Helsingfors. A week later all Finland was under the colonel's control. By 23 August Sprengtporten was ready to re-embark for Stockholm with 780 men, but contrary winds kept him back, and in the meantime Gustav III himself had carried out his revolution unaided. On his return to Sweden, however, Sprengtporten was received with the greatest distinction and made a lieutenant-general and colonel of the guards. He was also appointed the president of a commission for strengthening the defences of Finland. But Sprengtporten was still dissatisfied. He could never forgive Gustav for having forestalled the revolution, and his morbidly irritable and suspicious temper saw slights and insults in the most innocent conjunctures. His first quarrel with Gustav happened in 1774 when he refused to accept the post of commander-in-chief in Finland on the eve of threatened war with Imperial Russia. The king good-naturedly overlooked his outrageous insolence on this occasion, but the inevitable rupture was only postponed. A most trumpery affair brought matters to a head. Sprengtporten had insulted the guards by giving precedence over them at a court-martial to some officers of his own dragoons. The guards complained to the king, who, after consulting with the senate, mildly remonstrated with Sprengtporten by letter.
Sprengtporten thereupon tendered his resignation as colonel of the guard, and at a personal interview with Gustav was so violent and insolent that anything like agreement between them became impossible. Sprengtporten was haunted by the fixed idea that the "jeunesse dorée" of the court was in league with his old enemies to traduce and supplant him, and not all the forbearance of the king could open his eyes. He received a pension on his retirement and was allowed the extraordinary privilege of a guard of honour as long as he lived. Nevertheless, to the end of his career, he continued to harass and annoy his long-suffering benefactor with fresh impertinences.
References
1727 births
1786 deaths
Swedish generals
Swedish politicians
Finnish politicians
18th-century Swedish military personnel
18th-century Finnish military personnel
Commanders of the Order of the Sword
Swedish monarchists
Finnish generals
|
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201678
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Magnus%20Sprengtporten
|
Georg Magnus Sprengtporten
|
Count Georg Magnus Sprengtporten (, ; ; ; 16 December 1740 – 13 October 1819), was a Finland-Swedish politician, younger brother of Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten. Since he defected to Russia, he went down in Swedish history as a traitor.
Early life
Sprengtporten was born in Porvoo (), Uusimaa (), Kingdom of Sweden (now Finland). He entered the army and rose to the rank of captain during the Seven Years' War. He assisted his brother in the revolution of 1772, and in 1775 was made a colonel and brigadier of the Savolax brigade in east Finland. Here he distinguished himself greatly as an organizer and administrator. The military school which he founded at Haapaniemi (then Tuhkaniemi), Kuopio (1 August 1780 until 1 May 1781 when it was moved to Haapaniemi estate in Rantasalmi, where it operated until a transfer to Hamina in 1819) subsequently became a state institution (Hamina Cadet School).
1779–81
Like his brother he also came to the conclusion that his services had not been adequately appreciated, and the flattering way in which he was welcomed by the Russian court during a visit to Saint Petersburg in 1779 still further incensed him against the perceived ingratitude of his own sovereign. For the next two years he was in the French service, returning to Finland in 1781. Due in part to contacts with Benjamin Franklin who was there contemporaneously he conceived of the idea of separating the grand duchy from Sweden. This aim was first approached through the Walhalla-orden subversive secret society and scheming with the king's brother, Charles XIII of Sweden. This scheming was apparently stillborn, as Charles informed his brother of the schemers' approaches.
1786
The chosen Plan B was to establish an independent state under the protection of Russia. During the Riksdag of 1786 he openly opposed Gustav III of Sweden, at the same time engaging in a secret and treasonable correspondence with the Russian ministers with the view of inducing them to assist his plans for an independent Finland by force of arms.
1788–1808
In the following year, at the invitation of Catherine II of Russia, he formally entered the Russian service. When the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790 began, Sprengtporten received the command of a Russian army corps directed against Finland. He took no direct part in the Anjala conspiracy but urged Catherine to support it more energetically. His own negotiations with his fellow countrymen, especially after Gustav III of Sweden had brought the treacherous army officers of the Anjala conspiracy back to their allegiance, failed utterly. Nor was he able to serve Russia very effectively in the field for he was seriously wounded at the battle of Porrassalmi 1789. At the end of the war, indeed, his position was somewhat precarious, as the High Court of Turku condemned him as a traitor, while Catherine regarded him as an incompetent impostor who could not perform his promises. For the next five years, therefore 1793–1798, he thought it expedient to quit Russia and live at Teplice in Bohemia. He was re-employed by the emperor Paul of Russia who, in 1800, sent him to negotiate with Napoleon concerning the Maltese Order and the interchange of prisoners. After Paul's death Sprengtporten was again in disgrace for seven years, but was consulted in 1808 on the eve of the outbreak of hostilities with France. On 1 December 1808 he was appointed the first Russian Governor-General of Finland with the title of count, but was so unpopular that he had to resign his post the following year.
Retirement
The last ten years of his life were lived in retirement. Sprengtporten died in Saint Petersburg in 1819.
Memorial stones
Georg Magnus Sprengtporten's Memorial stones are located in Harbour park (Satamapuisto) of Kuopio, near the port of Kuopio and near the place where his military school was originally located. While staying in Teplice, Sprengtporten was in regular contact with the Count Waldstein's librarian, Giacomo Casanova. Their correspondence has been saved and is well known to scholars.
References
External links
Sprengtporten, Georg Magnus. The National Biography of Finland.
|-
1740 births
1819 deaths
People from Porvoo
Swedish-speaking Finns
Swedish generals
Finnish politicians
Swedish military personnel of the Finnish War
18th-century Finnish military personnel
19th-century Finnish people
Gustavian era people
Governors of the Grand Duchy of Finland
Finnish people of the Russian Empire
Barons of the Russian Empire
Counts of the Russian Empire
|
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201680
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald%20Wavell%2C%201st%20Earl%20Wavell
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Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
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Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, (5 May 1883 – 24 May 1950) was a senior officer of the British Army. He served in the Second Boer War, the Bazar Valley Campaign and the First World War, during which he was wounded in the Second Battle of Ypres. In the Second World War, he served initially as Commander-in-Chief Middle East, in which role he led British forces to victory over the Italians in western Egypt and eastern Libya during Operation Compass in December 1940, only to be defeated by the German Army in the Western Desert in April 1941. He served as Commander-in-Chief, India, from July 1941 until June 1943 (apart from a brief tour as Commander of ABDACOM) and then served as Viceroy of India until his retirement in February 1947.
Early life
Born the son of Archibald Graham Wavell (who later became a major-general in the British Army and military commander of Johannesburg after its capture during the Second Boer War) and Lillie Wavell (née Percival), Wavell attended Eaton House, followed by the leading preparatory boarding school Summer Fields near Oxford, Winchester College, where he was a scholar, and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. His headmaster, Dr. Fearon, had advised his father that there was no need to send him into the Army as he had "sufficient ability to make his way in other walks of life".
Early career
After graduating from Sandhurst, Wavell was commissioned into the British Army on 8 May 1901 as a second lieutenant in the Black Watch, and joined the 2nd battalion of his regiment in South Africa to fight in the Second Boer War. The battalion stayed in South Africa throughout the war, which formally ended in June 1902 after the Peace of Vereeniging. Wavell was ill, and did not immediately join the battalion as it transferred to British India in October that year; he instead left Cape Town for England on the SS Simla at the same time. In 1903 he was transferred to join the battalion in India and, having been promoted to lieutenant on 13 August 1904, he fought in the Bazar Valley Campaign of February 1908. In January 1909 was seconded from his regiment to be a student at the Staff College. He was one of only two in his class to graduate with an A grade. In 1911, he spent a year as a military observer with the Russian Army to learn Russian, returning to his regiment in December of that year. In April 1912 he became a General Staff Officer Grade 3 (GSO3) in the Russian Section of the War Office. In July, he was granted the temporary rank of captain and became GSO3 at the Directorate of Military Training. On 20 March 1913 Wavell was promoted to the substantive rank of captain. After visiting manoeuvres at Kiev in summer 1913, he was arrested at the Russo-Polish border as a suspected spy, following a search of his Moscow hotel room by the secret police, but managed to remove from his papers an incriminating document listing the information wanted by the War Office.
Wavell was working at the War Office during the Curragh incident. His letters to his father record his disgust at the Government's behaviour in giving an ultimatum to officers – he had little doubt that the Government had been planning to crush the Ulster Scots, whatever they later claimed. However, he was also concerned at the Army's effectively intervening in politics, not least as there would be an even greater appearance of bias when the Army was used against industrial unrest.
First World War
Wavell was working as a staff officer when the First World War began. As a captain, he was sent to France to a posting at General HQ of the British Expeditionary Force as General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2), but shortly afterwards, in November 1914, was appointed brigade major of 9th Infantry Brigade. He was wounded in the Second Battle of Ypres of 1915, losing his left eye and winning the Military Cross. In October 1915 he became a GSO2 in the 64th Highland Division.
In December 1915, after he had recovered, Wavell was returned to General HQ in France as a GSO2. He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 8 May 1916. In October 1916 Wavell was graded General Staff Officer Grade 1 (GSO1) as an acting lieutenant-colonel, and was then assigned as a liaison officer to the Russian Army in the Caucasus. In June 1917, he was promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel and continued to work as a staff officer (GSO1), as liaison officer with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force headquarters.
In January 1918 Wavell received a further staff appointment as Assistant Adjutant & Quartermaster General (AA&QMG) working at the Supreme War Council in Versailles. In March 1918 Wavell was made a temporary brigadier general and returned to Palestine where he served as the brigadier general of the General Staff (BGGS) with XX Corps, part of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.
Between the world wars
Wavell was given a number of assignments between the wars, though like many officers he had to accept a reduction in rank. In May 1920 he relinquished the temporary rank of Brigadier-General, reverting to lieutenant-colonel. In December 1921, he became an Assistant Adjutant General (AAG) at the War Office and, having been promoted to full colonel on 3 June 1921, he became a GSO1 in the Directorate of Military Operations in July 1923.
Apart from a short period unemployed on half pay in 1926, Wavell continued to hold GSO1 appointments, latterly in the 3rd Infantry Division, until July 1930 when he was once again granted the rank of temporary brigadier and was given command of 6th Infantry Brigade. In March 1932, he was appointed ADC to the King, a position he held until October 1933 when he was promoted to Major-General. However, there was a shortage of jobs for Major-Generals at this time and in January 1934, on relinquishing command of his brigade, he found himself unemployed on half pay once again.
By the end of the year, although still on half pay, Wavell had been designated to command 2nd Division and appointed a CB. In March 1935, he took command of his division. In August 1937 he was transferred to Palestine, where there was growing unrest, to be General Officer Commanding (GOC) British Forces in Palestine and Trans-Jordan and was promoted to Lieutenant-General on 21 January 1938.
In April 1938 Wavell became General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) Southern Command in the UK. In July 1939, he was named as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of Middle East Command with the local rank of full General. Subsequently, on 15 February 1940, to reflect the broadening of his oversight responsibilities to include East Africa, Greece and the Balkans, his title was changed to Commander-in-Chief Middle East.
Second World War military commands
Middle East Command
The Middle Eastern theatre was quiet for the first few months of the war until Italy's declaration of war in June 1940. The Italian forces in North and East Africa greatly outnumbered the British and Wavell's policy was therefore one of "flexible containment" to buy time to build up adequate forces to take the offensive. Having fallen back in front of Italian advances from Libya, Eritrea and Ethiopia, Wavell mounted successful offensives into Libya (Operation Compass) in December 1940 and Eritrea and Ethiopia in January 1941. By February 1941, his Western Desert Force under Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor had defeated the Italian Tenth Army at Beda Fomm taking 130,000 prisoners and appeared to be on the verge of overrunning the last Italian forces in Libya, which would have ended all direct Axis control in North Africa. His troops in East Africa also had the Italians under pressure and at the end of March his forces in Eritrea under William Platt won the decisive battle of the campaign at Keren which led to the occupation of the Italian colonies in Ethiopia and Somaliland.
However, in February Wavell had been ordered to halt his advance into Libya and send troops to Greece where the Germans and Italians were attacking. He disagreed with this decision but followed his orders. The result was a disaster. The Germans were given the opportunity to reinforce the Italians in North Africa with the Afrika Korps and by the end of April the weakened Western Desert Force had been pushed all the way back to the Egyptian border, leaving Tobruk under siege. In Greece General Wilson's Force W was unable to set up an adequate defence on the Greek mainland and were forced to withdraw to Crete, suffering 15,000 casualties and leaving behind all their heavy equipment and artillery. Crete was attacked by German airborne forces on 20 May and as in Greece, the British and Commonwealth troops were forced once more to evacuate.
Events in Greece provoked a pro-Axis faction to take over the government of Iraq. Wavell, hard pressed on his other fronts, was unwilling to divert precious resources to Iraq and so it fell to Claude Auchinleck's India Command to send troops to Basra. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, saw Iraq as vital to Britain's strategic interests and in early May, under heavy pressure from London, Wavell agreed to send a division-sized force across the desert from Palestine to relieve the besieged British air base at Habbaniya and to assume overall control of troops in Iraq. By the end of May Quinan's forces in Iraq had captured Baghdad and the Anglo-Iraqi War had ended with troops in Iraq once more reverting to the overall control of GHQ in Delhi. However, Churchill had been unimpressed by Wavell's reluctance to act.
In early June Wavell sent a force under General Wilson to invade Syria and Lebanon, responding to the help given by the Vichy France authorities there to the Iraq Government during the Anglo-Iraqi War. Initial hopes of a quick victory faded as the French put up a determined defence. Churchill determined to relieve Wavell and after the failure in mid June of Operation Battleaxe, intended to relieve Tobruk, he told Wavell on 20 June that he was to be replaced by Auchinleck, whose attitude during the Iraq crisis had impressed him. Rommel rated Wavell highly, despite Wavell's lack of success against him.
Of Wavell, Auchinleck wrote: "In no sense do I wish to infer that I found an unsatisfactory situation on my arrival – far from it. Not only was I greatly impressed by the solid foundations laid by my predecessor, but I was also able the better to appreciate the vastness of the problems with which he had been confronted and the greatness of his achievements, in a command in which some 40 different languages are spoken by the British and Allied Forces."
India Command
Wavell in effect swapped jobs with Auchinleck, transferring to India where he became Commander-in-Chief, India and a member of the Governor General's Executive Council. Initially his command covered India and Iraq so that within a month of taking charge he launched Iraqforce to invade Persia in co-operation with the Russians in order to secure the oilfields and the lines of communication to the Soviet Union.
Wavell once again had the misfortune of being placed in charge of an undermanned theatre which became a war zone when the Japanese declared war on the United Kingdom in December 1941. He was made Commander-in-Chief of ABDACOM (American-British-Dutch-Australian Command).
Late at night on 10 February 1942, Wavell prepared to board a flying boat, to fly from Singapore to Java. He stepped out of a staff car, not noticing (because of his blind left eye) that it was parked at the edge of a pier. He broke two bones in his back when he fell, and this injury affected his temperament for some time.
On 23 February 1942, with Malaya lost and the Allied position in Java and Sumatra precarious, ABDACOM was closed down and its headquarters in Java evacuated. Wavell returned to India to resume his position as C-in-C India where his responsibilities now included the defence of Burma.
On 23 February British forces in Burma had suffered a serious setback when Major-General Jackie Smyth's decision to destroy the bridge over the Sittang river to prevent the enemy crossing had resulted in most of his division being trapped on the wrong side of the river. The Viceroy Lord Linlithgow sent a signal criticising the conduct of the field commanders to Churchill who forwarded it to Wavell together with an offer to send Harold Alexander, who had commanded the rearguard at Dunkirk. Alexander took command of Allied land forces in Burma in early March with William Slim arriving shortly afterwards from commanding a division in Iraq to take command of its principal formation, Burma Corps. Nevertheless, the pressure from the Japanese Armies was unstoppable and a withdrawal to India was ordered which was completed by the end of May before the start of the monsoon season which brought Japanese progress to a halt.
In order to wrest some of the initiative from the Japanese, Wavell ordered the Eastern Army in India to mount an offensive in the Arakan, which commenced in September. After some initial success the Japanese counter-attacked, and by March 1943 the position was untenable, and the remnants of the attacking force were withdrawn. Wavell relieved the Eastern Army commander, Noel Irwin, of his command and replaced him with George Giffard.
In January 1943, Wavell was promoted to field marshal and on 22 April he returned to London. On 4 May he had an audience with the King, before departing with Churchill for America, returning on 27 May. He resided with (Sir) Henry 'Chips' Channon MP in Belgrave Square and was reintroduced into Society. Churchill nursed "an uncontrollable and unfortunate disapproval – indeed jealous dislike – of Wavell" and had several spats with him in America.
Viceroy of India
On 15 June, Churchill invited Wavell to dinner and offered him the Viceroyalty of India in succession to Linlithgow. Lady Wavell joined him in London on 14 July, when they took up a suite at the Dorchester. Shortly afterwards it was announced that he had been created a viscount (taking the style Viscount Wavell of Cyrenaica and of Winchester, in the county of Southampton) He addressed an all-party meeting at the House of Commons on 27 July, and on 28 July took his seat in the House of Lords as "the Empire's hero". In September, he was formally named Governor-General and Viceroy of India.
One of Wavell's first actions in office was to address the Bengal famine of 1943 by ordering the army to distribute relief supplies to the starving rural Bengalis. He attempted with mixed success to increase the supplies of rice to reduce the prices. During his reign, Gandhi was leading the Quit India campaign, Mohammad Ali Jinnah was working for an independent state for the Muslims and Subhas Chandra Bose befriended Japan "and were pressing forward along India's Eastern border".
Although Wavell was initially popular with Indian politicians, pressure mounted concerning the likely structure and timing of an independent India. He attempted to move the debate along—with the Wavell Plan and the Simla Conference—but received little support from Churchill (who was against Indian independence), nor from Clement Attlee, Churchill's successor as prime minister. He was also hampered by the differences between the various Indian political factions. At the end of the war, rising Indian expectations continued to be unfulfilled, and inter-communal violence increased. Eventually, in 1947, Attlee lost confidence in Wavell and replaced him with Lord Mountbatten of Burma.
Later life
In 1947 Wavell returned to England and was made High Steward of Colchester. The same year, he was created Earl Wavell and given the additional title of Viscount Keren of Eritrea and Winchester.
Wavell was a great lover of literature, and while Viceroy of India he compiled and annotated an anthology of great poetry, Other Men's Flowers, which was published in 1944. He wrote the last poem in the anthology himself and described it as a "...little wayside dandelion of my own". He had a great memory for poetry and often quoted it at length. He is depicted in Evelyn Waugh's novel Officers and Gentlemen, part of the Sword of Honour trilogy, reciting a translation of Callimachus' poetry in public. He was also a member of the Church of England and a deeply religious man.
Wavell died on 24 May 1950 after a relapse following abdominal surgery on 5 May. After his death, his body lay in state at the Tower of London where he had been Constable. A military funeral was held on 7 June 1950 with the funeral procession travelling along the Thames from the Tower to Westminster Pier and then to Westminster Abbey for the funeral service. This was the first military funeral by river since that of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson in 1806. The funeral was attended by the then Prime Minister Clement Attlee as well as Lord Halifax and fellow officers including Field Marshals Alanbrooke and Montgomery. Winston Churchill did not attend the service.
Wavell is buried in the old mediaeval cloister at Winchester College, next to the Chantry Chapel. His tombstone simply bears the inscription "Wavell". A plaque was placed in the north nave aisle of Winchester Cathedral to commemorate both Wavell and his son. St Andrew's Garrison Church, Aldershot, an Army church, contains a large wooden plaque dedicated to Lord Wavell.
Family
Wavell married Eugenie Marie Quirk, only daughter of Col. J. O. Quirk CB DSO, on 22 April 1915. She survived him and died, as Dowager Countess Wavell, on 11 October 1987, aged 100 years.
Children:
Archibald John Arthur Wavell, later 2nd Earl Wavell, b. 11 May 1916; d. 24 December 1953, killed in Kenya, in an action against Mau Mau rebels. Since he was unmarried and without issue, the titles became extinct on his death.
Eugenie Pamela Wavell, b. 2 December 1918, married 14 March 1942 Lt.-Col. A. F. W. Humphrys MBE.
Felicity Ann Wavell, b. 21 July 1921, married at the Cathedral Church of the Redemption, New Delhi, 20 February 1947 Capt. P. M. Longmore MC, son of Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Longmore.
Joan Patricia Quirk Wavell, b. 23 April 1923, married
(1) 27 January 1943 Maj. Hon. Simon Nevill Astley (b. 13 August 1919; d. 16 March 1946), 2nd son of Albert Edward Delaval [Astley], 21st Baron Hastings, by his wife Lady Margueritte Helen Nevill, only child by his second wife of Henry Gilbert Ralph [Nevill], 3rd Marquess of Abergavenny.
(2) 19 June 1948 Maj. Harry Alexander Gordon MC (d. 19 June 1965), 2nd son of Cdr. Alastair Gordon DSO RN.
(3) Maj. Donald Struan Robertson (d. 1991), son of the Rt. Hon. Sir Malcolm Arnold Robertson GCMG KBE.
Honours and awards
Ribbon bar (as it would look today)
British
Military Cross – 3 June 1915
Mention in Despatches 22 June 1915, 4 January 1917, 22 January 1919
Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) – 1 January 1919
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) – 4 March 1941 (KCB: 2 January 1939; CB: 1 January 1935)
Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) – 18 September 1943
Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) – 18 September 1943
Knight of the Order of St. John – 4 January 1944
Others
Order of St Stanislaus, 3rd class with Swords (Russia) (12 September 1916)
Order of St. Vladimir (Russia) 1917
Croix de Guerre (Commandeur) (France) – 4 May 1920
Commandeur, Légion d'honneur (France) – 7 May 1920
Order of El Nahda, 2nd Class (Hejaz) – 30 September 1920
Grand Cross, Order of George I with Swords (Greece) – 9 May 1941
Virtuti Militari, 5th Class (Poland) – 23 September 1941
War Cross, 1st Class (Greece) – 10 April 1942
Commander, Order of the Seal of Solomon (Ethiopia) – 5 May 1942
Grand Cross, Order of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands) – 15 January 1943
War Cross (Czechoslovakia) – 23 July 1943
Legion of Merit degree of Chief Commander (United States) – 23 July 1948
Quotes
"I think he (Benito Mussolini) must do something, if he cannot make a graceful dive he will at least have to jump in somehow; he can hardly put on his dressing-gown and walk down the stairs again."
"After the 'war to end war', they seem to have been pretty successful in Paris at making the 'Peace to end Peace. (commenting on the treaties ending the First World War; this quotation was the basis for the title of David Fromkin's A Peace to End All Peace, New York: Henry Holt, (1989) )
"Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles and all wars are won in the end by the infantryman. Secondly, the infantryman always bears the brunt. His casualties are heavier, he suffers greater extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman is less stereotyped and far harder to acquire in modern war than that of any other arm."
Publications
Books
; "this first paperback edition contains not only Lord Wavell's own introduction and annotations, but also the introduction written by his son, to whom the book was originally dedicated".
Contributions to periodicals
Official Middle East Despatches December 1940 to February 1941 published in
Official Middle East Despatches February 1941 to July 1941 published in
Official Iran, Iraq and Syria Despatches April 1941 to January 1942 published in
Official India Despatches March 1942 to December 1942 published in
See also
The Wavell School
Citations
General sources
Chips, the Diaries of Sir Henry Channon, ed. R. Rhodes James, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1987 - especially Ch. 8.
Fort, Adrian. Archibald Wavell: The Life and Death of the Imperial Servant (2009)
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Generals of World War II
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] |
201682
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gilbert%20%28actor%29
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John Gilbert (actor)
|
John Gilbert (born John Cecil Pringle; July 10, 1897 – January 9, 1936) was an American actor, screenwriter and director. He rose to fame during the silent film era and became a popular leading man known as "The Great Lover". His breakthrough came in 1925 with his starring roles in The Merry Widow and The Big Parade. At the height of his career, Gilbert rivaled Rudolph Valentino as a box office draw.
Gilbert's career declined precipitously when silent pictures gave way to talkies. Though Gilbert was often cited as one of the high-profile examples of an actor who was unsuccessful in making the transition to sound films, his decline as a star had far more to do with studio politics and money than with the sound of his screen voice, which was rich and distinctive.
Early life and stage work
Born John Cecil Pringle in Logan, Utah, to stock-company actor parents, John George Pringle (1865–1929) and Ida Adair Apperly Gilbert (1877–1913), he struggled through a childhood of abuse and neglect, with his family moving frequently and young "Jack" having to attend assorted schools throughout the United States. When his family finally settled in California, he attended Hitchcock Military Academy in San Rafael. After he left school, Gilbert worked as a rubber goods salesman in San Francisco, then performed with the Baker Stock Company in Portland, Oregon, in 1914. He subsequently found work the following year as a stage manager in another stock company in Spokane, Washington, but he soon lost that job when the company went out of business.
Film career
After losing his stage job in 1915, Gilbert decided to try screen acting, and he quickly gained work as a film extra through Herschell Mayall. Gilbert first appeared in The Mother Instinct (1915), a short directed by Wilfred Lucas. He then found work as an extra with the Thomas Ince Studios in productions such as The Coward (1915), Aloha Oe (1915), Civilization (1915), The Last Act (1916), and William Hart's Hell's Hinges (1916).
Kay-Bee Company
During his initial years in films, Gilbert also performed in releases by Kay-Bee Company such as Matrimony (1915), The Corner (1915), Eye of the Night (1916), and Bullets and Brown Eyes (1916). His first major costarring role was as Willie Hudson in The Apostle of Vengeance, also with William S. Hart. Viewed by studio executives as a promising but still "juvenile" actor at this stage of his career, Gilbert's contract salary was $40 a week ($ today), fairly ample pay for most American workers in the early 1900s. Gilbert continued to get more substantial parts at Kay-Bee, which billed him as "Jack Gilbert" in The Aryan (1916), The Phantom (1916), Shell 43 (1916), The Sin Ye Do (1917), The Weaker Sex (1917), and The Bride of Hate (1917). His first true leading role was in Princess of the Dark (1917) with Enid Bennett, but the film was not a big success and he went back to supporting roles in The Dark Road (1917), Happiness (1917), The Millionaire Vagrant (1917), and The Hater of Men (1917).
Triangle Films and other studios
Gilbert went over to Triangle Films where he was in The Mother Instinct (1917), Golden Rule Kate (1917), The Devil Dodger (1917) (second billed), Up or Down? (1917), and Nancy Comes Home (1918). For Paralta Plays, Gilbert did Shackled (1918), One Dollar Bid (1918), and Wedlock (1918) and More Trouble (1918) for Anderson, but the company went bankrupt. He also was cast in Doing Their Bit (1918) at Fox and then returned to Triangle for The Mask (1918). Gilbert also did Three X Gordon (1918) for Jesse Hampton, The Dawn of Understanding (1918), The White Heather (1919) for Maurice Tourneur, The Busher (1919) for Thomas Ince, The Man Beneath for Haworth, A Little Brother of the Rich (1919) for Universal, The Red Viper (1919) for Tyrad, For a Woman's Honor (1919) for Jess Hampton, Widow by Proxy (1919) for Paramount, Heart o' the Hills (1919) for Mary Pickford, and Should a Woman Tell? (1919) for Screen Classics.
Actor, screenwriter and director for Tourneur
Maurice Tourneur signed him to a contract to both write and act in films. Gilbert performed in and co-wrote The White Circle (1920), The Great Redeemer (1921), and Deep Waters (1921). As a writer only, he worked on The Bait (1921), which starred and was produced by Hope Hampton. For Hampton, Gilbert wrote and directed as well, but he did not appear in Love's Penalty (1921).
Fox and stardom
In 1921, Gilbert signed a three-year contract with Fox Film Corporation, which subsequently cast him in romantic leading roles and promoted him now as "John Gilbert". The actor's first starring part for the studio was in Shame (1921). He followed it with leading roles in Arabian Love (1922), Gleam O'Dawn (1922), The Yellow Stain (1922), Honor First (1922), Monte Cristo (1922), Calvert's Valley (1922), The Love Gambler (1922), and A California Romance (1922). Many of the scenarios for these films were written by Jules Furthman.
Gilbert returned temporarily to Tourneur to costar with Lon Chaney in While Paris Sleeps (1923). Back at Fox, he starred in Truxton King (1923), Madness of Youth (1923), St. Elmo (1923), and The Exiles (1923). The same year he starred in Cameo Kirby (1923), directed by John Ford, co starring Jean Arthur. He went into The Wolf Man (1923) with Norma Shearer, not a horror film, but the story of a man who believes he murdered his fiancée's brother while drunk. Gilbert also performed in his last films for Fox in 1924, including Just Off Broadway, A Man's Mate, The Lone Chance, and Romance Ranch.
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Under the auspices of movie producer Irving Thalberg, Gilbert obtained a release from his Fox contract and moved to MGM, where he became a full-fledged star cast in major productions. First starring in His Hour (1924) directed by King Vidor and written by Elinor Glyn his film career entered its ascendancy. He followed this success with He Who Gets Slapped (1924) co-starring Chaney and Shearer and directed by Victor Sjöström; The Snob (1924) with Shearer; The Wife of the Centaur (1924) for Vidor.
The next year, Gilbert would star in two of MGM's most critically acclaimed and popular film productions of the silent era: Erich von Stroheim's The Merry Widow and King Vidor's The Big Parade.
The Merry Widow (1925)
Gilbert was assigned to star in Erich von Stroheim's The Merry Widow by Irving Thalberg, over the objections of the Austrian-American director. Von Stroheim expressed his displeasure bluntly to his leading man: "Gilbert, I am forced to use you in my picture. I do not want you, but the decision was not in my hands. I assure you I will do everything in my power to make you comfortable." Gilbert, mortified, soon stalked off the set in a rage, tearing off his costume. Von Stroheim followed him to his dressing room and apologized. The two agreed to share a drink. Then Gilbert apologized and they had another drink. The tempest subsided and was resolved amicably. According to Gilbert, the contretemps served to "cement a relationship which for my part will never end."
The public adulation that Gilbert experienced with his growing celebrity astounded him: "Everywhere I hear whispers and gasps in acknowledgment of my presence...[t]he whole thing became too fantastic for me to comprehend. Acting, the very thing I had been fighting and ridiculing for seven years, had brought me success, riches and renown. I was a great motion picture artist. Well, I’ll be damned!"
The Big Parade (1925)
Gilbert was next cast by Thalberg to star in the King Vidor's war-romance The Big Parade (1925), which became the second-highest grossing silent film and the most profitable film of the silent era. Gilbert's "inspired performance" as an American doughboy in France during World War I was the high point of his acting career. He fully immersed himself in the role of Jim Apperson, a Southern gentleman who, with two working class comrades, experiences the horrors of trench warfare. Gilbert declared: "No love has ever enthralled me as did the making of this picture...All that has followed is balderdash."
The following year, Vidor reunited Gilbert with two of his co-stars from that picture, Renée Adorée and Karl Dane, for the film La Bohème (1926) which also starred Lillian Gish. He then did another with Vidor, Bardelys the Magnificent (1926).
Greta Garbo
In 1926, Gilbert made Flesh and the Devil (1926), his first film with Greta Garbo. Gilbert first encountered Garbo on the set during filming of the railway station scene, and the chemistry between the two was evidently instantaneous. Director Clarence Brown remarked approvingly that he "had a love affair going for me that you couldn’t beat, any way you tried." Garbo and Gilbert soon began a highly publicized romance, much to the delight of their fans and to MGM.
He made The Show (1927) with Adoree for Tod Browning then did Twelve Miles Out (1927) with Joan Crawford and Man, Woman and Sin (1927) with Jeanne Eagels.
Gilbert was reunited with Garbo in a modern adaptation of Tolstoy's 19th-century novel, Anna Karenina. The title was changed to Love (1927) to capitalize on the real life love affair of the stars and advertised by MGM as "Garbo and Gilbert in Love."
Gilbert made The Cossacks (1928) with Adoree; Four Walls (1928) with Crawford; Show People (1928) with Marion Davies for Vidor, in which Gilbert only had a cameo; and The Masks of the Devil (1928) for Victor Sjöström.
Though officially directed by Edmund Goulding, Gilbert, though uncredited, was responsible for directing the love scenes involving Garbo. He was perhaps the only person in the industry whose "artistic judgment" she fully respected. As such, MGM approved of this arrangement.
Gilbert and Garbo were teamed for a third time in A Woman of Affairs (1928). His last silent film was Desert Nights (1929).
Sound Era
With the coming of sound, Gilbert's vocal talents made a good first impression, though the studio had failed to conduct a voice test. The conventional wisdom of the day dictated that actors in the new talkies should emulate "correct stage diction". Gilbert's strict adherence to this method produced an affected delivery that made audiences giggle, and not due to any particularity in Gilbert's natural speech. Indeed, the "quality of his voice compared well with that of co-star Conrad Nagel, regarded as having one of the best voices for sound."
Gilbert signed an immensely lucrative multi-picture contract with MGM in 1928 that totaled $1,500,000. The terms of the agreement positioned MGM executives Irving Thalberg and Nicholas Schenck, both sympathetic to the star, to supervise his career. Gilbert, however, frequently clashed with studio head Louis B. Mayer over creative, social and financial matters. A confrontation between the two men, one that became physical, occurred at the planned double-wedding of Garbo and Gilbert and director King Vidor and actress Eleanor Boardman. Mayer reportedly made a crude remark to Gilbert about Garbo, and Gilbert reacted by knocking Mayer to the floor with his fist. While this story has been disputed or dismissed as hearsay by some historians, Vidor's bride Eleanor Boardman insisted that she actually witnessed the altercation.
In the all-star musical comedy The Hollywood Revue of 1929 (1929), Gilbert and Norma Shearer played the balcony scene from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, first as written, then followed with a slang rendition of the scene. The comic effect served to "dispell the bad impression" produced by Gilbert's original "mincing" delivery.
His Glorious Night
Audiences awaited further romantic roles from Gilbert on the talking screen. The next vehicle was the Ruritanian romance His Glorious Night (1929), directed by Lionel Barrymore. According to reviewers, audiences laughed nervously at Gilbert's performance. The offense was not Gilbert's voice, but the awkward scenario along with the overly ardent love scenes. In one, Gilbert keeps kissing his leading lady, (Catherine Dale Owen), while saying "I love you" over and over again. (The scene was parodied in the MGM musical Singin' in the Rain (1952) in which a preview of the fictional The Dueling Cavalier flops disastrously.)
Director King Vidor speculated that the late Rudolph Valentino, Gilbert's main rival for romantic leads in the silent era, probably would have suffered the same fate in the talkie era had he lived. Gilbert's inept phrasing, his "dreadful enunciation" and the "inane" script as the genuine sources of his poor performance, that drew "titters" from audiences.
The "Squeaky Voice" Myth
The persistent myth that John Gilbert had a "squeaky voice" that doomed his career in sound films first emerged from his performance in 1929 with His Glorious Night. It was even rumored that Louis B. Mayer ordered Gilbert's voice to be gelded by manipulating the sound track to give it a higher, less masculine pitch. Later, after analyzing the film's sound track, British film historian Kevin Brownlow found that the timbre and frequency of Gilbert's speaking scenes in His Glorious Night were no different than in his subsequent talkies. Brownlow also reported from that analysis that Gilbert's voice, overall, was "quite low". With regard to the alleged manipulation of Gilbert's footage by Mayer or by anyone else, television technicians in the 1960s determined that the actor's voice was consistent with those of other performers on the same print, casting doubt that any targeted "sabotaging" of Gilbert's voice occurred.
Film critic John Baxter described Gilbert as having "a light speaking voice", a minor defect that both MGM and the star "magnified into an obsession." Despite any conflicting opinions or myths surrounding the actor's voice, Mayer's lingering resentment and hostility toward Gilbert remained apparent, especially after MGM's star signed a new contract for six pictures at $250,000 each. Those ill feelings fueled additional speculation that Mayer deliberately assigned Gilbert bad scripts and ineffective directors in an effort to void the contract.
Decline
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cast Gilbert in a film adaptation of The Living Corpse by Tolstoy re-titled as Redemption (1929). The bleak atmosphere and maudlin dialogue presaged the disaster looming in the star's personal life and career. Gilbert's confident screen presence had vanished, while his use of the exaggerated stage diction that elicited laughs from the audience persisted. In one scene Gilbert declares ominously "I’m going to kill myself to let the whole world know what it has lost."
MGM put him in a more rugged film, Way for a Sailor (1930) with Wallace Beery. He followed it with Gentleman's Fate (1931).
Gilbert became increasingly depressed by progressively inferior films and idle stretches between productions. Despite efforts by studio executives at MGM to cancel his contract, Gilbert resolved to thwart Louis B. Mayer and see the six-picture ordeal through to the end.
Gilbert's fortunes were temporarily restored when MGM's production chief Irving Thalberg gave him two projects that were character studies, giving Gilbert an excellent showcase for his versatility. The Phantom of Paris (1931), originally intended for Lon Chaney (who died from cancer in 1930), cast Gilbert as a debonair magician and showman who is falsely accused of murder and uses his mastery of disguise to unmask the real killer.
Downstairs (1932) was based on Gilbert's original story, with the actor playing against type as a scheming, blackmailing chauffeur. The films were well received by critics and fans but failed to revive his career. In between, he appeared in West of Broadway (1931).
Shortly after making Downstairs, he married co-star Virginia Bruce; the couple divorced in 1934.
Gilbert fulfilled his contract with MGM with a perfunctory "B" picture – Fast Workers (1933) directed by Browning. He left the studio in 1933, terminating his $10,000 a week contract.
Exhausted and demoralized by his humiliations at MGM and his declining success at the box office, Gilbert began to drink heavily, contributing to his declining physical and mental health.
Queen Christina (1933)
Gilbert announced his retirement from acting and was working at Fox as an "honorary" director when, in August 1933, he announced he had signed a seven-year contract with MGM at $75–100,000 a picture. The reason was Greta Garbo insisted that Gilbert return to MGM to play her leading man in Queen Christina (1933), directed by Rouben Mamoulian. Garbo was top-billed, with Gilbert's name beneath the title. Queen Christina, though a critical success, did not revive Gilbert's poor self-image or his career. Garbo was reported to have dropped the young Laurence Olivier scheduled to play the part, but director Rouben Mamoulian recalled that Olivier's screen tests had already eliminated him from consideration.
Columbia Pictures gave Gilbert what would be his final chance for a comeback in The Captain Hates the Sea (1934) in which he gave a capable performance as "a dissipated, bitter [and] cynical" playwright. But the off-screen cast of heavy drinkers encouraged his alcoholism. It was his last film.
Biographer Kevin Brownlow's eulogy to John Gilbert considers the destruction of both the man and his career:
"The career of John Gilbert indicates that the star, and the person playing the star, were regarded by producers as separate entities, subject to totally different attitudes. Gilbert, as an ordinary human being, had no legal right to the stardom that was the sole property of the studio. When Gilbert, as an employee, tried to seize control of the future of Gilbert the star, the studios decided to save their investment from falling into the hands of rivals, [so] they had to wreck their property. Other properties – books, films, sets – could be destroyed with impunity. But the destruction of a star carried with it the destruction of a person…it seems somewhat abhorrent that it took such tragedies as that of John Gilbert to bring us our entertainment."
Personal life
Gilbert was married four times. His first marriage, on August 26, 1918, was to Olivia Burwell, a native of Mississippi whom Gilbert had met after her family moved to California. They separated the following year and Burwell returned to Mississippi for a while. She filed for divorce in Los Angeles in 1921.
In February 1921, Gilbert announced his engagement to actress Leatrice Joy. They married in Tijuana in November 1921. As Gilbert had failed to secure a divorce from his first wife and the legality of Gilbert and Joy's Mexican marriage was questionable, the couple separated and had the marriage annulled to avoid a scandal. They remarried on March 3, 1922. The marriage was tumultuous and, in June 1923, Joy filed for legal separation after she claimed that Gilbert slapped her face after a night of heavy drinking. They reconciled several months later. In August 1924, Joy, who was pregnant with the couple's daughter, filed for divorce. Joy later said she left Gilbert after discovering he was having an affair with actress Laurette Taylor. Joy also claimed that Gilbert had conducted affairs with Barbara La Marr (with whom he had a romance before his marriage to Joy), Lila Lee and Bebe Daniels. Gilbert and Joy had a daughter, Leatrice Gilbert (later Fountain; September 4, 1924 – January 20, 2015). Joy was granted a divorce in May 1925.
In 1929, Gilbert eloped with actress Ina Claire to Las Vegas. They separated in February 1931 and divorced six months later. Gilbert's fourth and final marriage was on August 10, 1932, to actress Virginia Bruce, who had recently costarred with him on the MGM film Downstairs. The entertainment trade paper The Film Daily reported that their "quick" wedding was held in Gilbert's dressing room on the MGM lot while Bruce was working on another studio production, Kongo. Among the people attending the small ceremony were the head of MGM production Irving Thalberg, who served as Gilbert's best man; screenwriter Donald Ogden Stewart, whose wife Beatrice acted as Bruce's matron of honor; MGM art director and set designer Cedric Gibbons; and his wife, actress Dolores del Río. Bruce retired briefly from acting following the birth of their daughter Susan Ann; however, she resumed her career after her divorce from Gilbert in May 1934.
Before his death, Gilbert dated actress Marlene Dietrich from 1935 until his death in 1936 as well as Greta Garbo from 1926 to 1927. When he died, he had recently been slated to play a prominent supporting role in Dietrich's film Desire.
Death
By 1934, alcoholism had severely damaged Gilbert's health. He suffered a serious heart attack in December 1935, which left him in poor health. Gilbert suffered a second heart attack at his Bel Air home on January 9, 1936, which was fatal.
A private funeral was held on January 11 at the B.E. Mortuary in Beverly Hills. Among the mourners were Gilbert's two ex-wives, Leatrice Joy and Virginia Bruce, his two daughters, and stars Marlene Dietrich, Gary Cooper, Myrna Loy, and Raquel Torres.
Gilbert was cremated and his ashes were interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale in Glendale, California.
Gilbert left the bulk of his estate, valued at $363,494 (equivalent to $ million in ), to his last ex-wife Virginia Bruce and their daughter, Susan Ann. He left $10,000 to his eldest daughter Leatrice, and other amounts to friends, relatives and his servants.
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Gilbert has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1755 Vine Street. In 1994, he was honored with his image on a United States postage stamp designed by caricaturist Al Hirschfeld.
Filmography
In popular culture
John Gilbert is the subject of a mini-documentary film called Rediscovering John Gilbert (2010) featuring an on-camera interview with John Gilbert's daughter and biographer, Leatrice Gilbert Fountain. The short film, directed and produced by film historian Jeffrey Vance, has aired on the Turner Classic Movies cable channel and is also available on DVD from home video distributor Flicker Alley.
Fictional portrayals
Gilbert has been portrayed in several films. Barry Bostwick appeared as the actor in the television film The Silent Lovers first shown in 1980. He has also been portrayed by his grandson, John Fountain, in Sunset (1988), Christopher Renstrom in La Divina (1989), and Adnan Taletovich in Return to Babylon (2012). Gilbert was the inspiration behind the character of George Valentin, played by Jean Dujardin in The Artist (2011).
Footnotes
Sources
Baxter, John. 1970. Hollywood in the Thirties. International Film Guide Series. Paperback Library, New York. LOC Card Number 68–24003.
Baxter, John. 1976. King Vidor. Simon & Schuster, Inc. Monarch Film Studies. LOC Card Number 75–23544.
Brownlow, Kevin and Kobal, John. 1979. Hollywood: The Pioneers. Alfred A. Knopf Inc. A Borzoi Book, New York.
Koszarski, Richard. 1983. The Man You Loved to Hate: Erich von Stroheim and Hollywood. Oxford University Press.
Laurier, Joanne. 2011. The Artist: An amiable gimmick. The World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved May 26, 2020. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2012/01/arti-j07.html
Phillips, Richard. 2009. Several movies well worth revisiting: Sydney Film Festival 2009. World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved May 24, 2020.https://www.wsws.or g/en/articles/2009/07/sff5-j17.html
Reinhardt, Bernd. 2020. Rediscovering Hallelujah (1929), director King Vidor's sensitive film with all-black cast: 70th Berlin International Film Festival. World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved May 24, 2020. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2020/04/07/ber2-a07.html
External links
Interview with Marlene Dietrich's daughter mentioning Gilbert
Photographs of John Gilbert
Sidereality review of "Gilbert and Garbo in Love" Book review/essay with considerable biographical material concerning John Gilbert
1897 births
1936 deaths
20th Century Fox contract players
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male writers
Alcohol-related deaths in California
American male film actors
American male screenwriters
American male silent film actors
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Film directors from Los Angeles
Film directors from Utah
Male actors from Utah
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
People from Bel Air, Los Angeles
Screenwriters from California
Screenwriters from Utah
Writers from Logan, Utah
20th-century American screenwriters
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