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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opiate%20%28EP%29
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Opiate (EP)
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Opiate is an EP by American rock band Tool. It was produced and engineered by Sylvia Massy and former Minor Threat bassist Steve Hansgen. Released in 1992, it was the result of some two years of the band playing together after their formation in 1990. Opiate preceded Tool's first full-length release, Undertow, by a year. It is named after a quote by Karl Marx: "religion ... is the opiate of the masses". The EP was certified Platinum by the RIAA. The EP charted on several international charts when Tool released their catalog to online streaming in August 2019.
Background and recording
Opiate features seven songs spanning six tracks, two of which are live recordings. Most versions of the EP (all except the cassette) feature the hidden seventh song titled "The Gaping Lotus Experience". On CD versions, the song is hidden at the end of the last track of the album, "Opiate", and begins approximately 6 minutes and 10 seconds into the track after "Opiate" has concluded. Vinyl copies of the EP featured a double groove on the second side; one which contained "Cold and Ugly", with the second containing "The Gaping Lotus Experience" and a small period of silence. Both grooves led into "Jerk-Off".
The song "Sweat" was featured on the Escape from L.A. soundtrack.
"Cold and Ugly" and "Jerk-Off" were recorded specially for the album at the Jellö Loft on New Year's Eve 1991 with a live audience. As a result, these two songs have never been available as true "studio" recordings except for the band's 1991 demo tape 72826. This demo tape also featured early versions of "Hush" and "Part of Me" (as well as "Crawl Away" and "Sober", which would eventually make it on Undertow), and was used to get the band signed. All four songs were re-recorded for this album.
In the original CD inserts for the album there is a collage of photos of the band members as children, among various items and trinkets, and also includes a picture of someone engaging in necrophilia with a well-decomposed cadaver. In reality, it is a friend of the band joking around in prop maker Stan Winston's studio.
A black and white music video was made for the track "Hush", the band's first. The Canadian music channel MuchMusic played it regularly.
Music and lyrics
Along with Undertow, many Tool fans consider Opiate to be the band's heaviest album. The connection fans have to the EP was addressed on the song "Hooker with a Penis" from their third release and second LP Ænima. The EP features straightforward song structures in place of the progressive traits the band became known for later on in their career. In a 2013 interview, guitarist Adam Jones stated "I love metal, but I love the other stuff that's been contributed by the band. When we started out, the record company said that we had to pick our heaviest songs, because that's the impact - you're metal and that's really important."
Lyrical subjects explored on Opiate include censorship and organized religion.
2013 reissue
On March 26, 2013 the band released a special 21st anniversary limited edition package of the album, which includes bonus features, such as new artwork. The artist Adi Granov provided the illustrations for the packaging and It was limited to only 5,000 copies. The packaging was also done with an old fashioned Heidelberg Cylinder Press.
Track listing
"Cold and Ugly" and "Jerk-Off" were recorded live on New Year's Eve 1991/1992 at the Jellö Loft, in Hollywood, CA.
Personnel
Maynard James Keenan – vocals
Adam Jones – guitar
Paul D'Amour – bass guitar
Danny Carey – drums
Charts
Certification and sales
References
External links
1992 EPs
Tool (band) albums
Zoo Entertainment (record label) EPs
Alternative metal EPs
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201170
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Winnipegosis
|
Lake Winnipegosis
|
Lake Winnipegosis is a large (5,370 km²) lake in central North America, in Manitoba, Canada, some 300 km northwest of Winnipeg. It is Canada's eleventh-largest lake. An alternate spelling, once common but now rare, is Lake Winipigoos or simply 'Lake Winipigis'.
The lake's name derives from that of Lake Winnipeg, with a diminutive suffix. Winnipeg means 'big muddy waters' and Winnipegosis means 'little muddy waters'.
It appears as Winipgassish on the Fidler map of 1820, while modern spelling dates from as early as 1811.
Geography
The elongated 195-kilometre-long lake is the second-largest of three large lakes in central Manitoba; the other two are Lake Winnipeg, the largest, and Lake Manitoba. All three lakes are on the floor of the prehistoric glacial Lake Agassiz (as are nearby Cedar Lake and the Lake of the Woods). The lake's watershed extends over some 49,825 km² in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. It receives most of its waters from the Manitoba Escarpment.
Lake Winnipegosis is separated from Cedar Lake by a 6 km (3.7 miles) wide (minimum width) land barrier at the north end and from Lake Manitoba by a 3 km (1.9 miles) wide (minimum width) land barrier at the southeast end at Meadow Portage.
Birch Island is the largest island on Lake Winnipegosis. The island, located near the middle of the lake, is part of Birch Island Provincial Park, created in 2010, and is adjacent to the Chitek Lake Park Reserve on the eastern shore.
Outflows
The lake drains through the Waterhen River into Lake Manitoba, and is thus part of the Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, and Hudson Bay watersheds. From Long Island Bay at the southeast end of the lake the West Waterhen and Little Waterhen rivers flow north about 16 km (10 miles) into Waterhen Lake then the Waterhen River flows south 22 km (13.5 miles) into Lake Manitoba.
Tributaries
Tributaries include the Mossy River (from Dauphin Lake), Point River, Pine River, North Duck River, Pelican River (from Pelican Lake), Shoal River (from Swan Lake), Steeprock River, Red Deer River, and the Overflowing River.
Communities
The communities of Winnipegosis, Camperville, Pine Creek, Duck Bay, Salt Point and Meadow Portage are south of Birch Island while Shoal River, Pelican Rapids, Dawson Bay and Denbeigh Point are to the north of the island.
Fisheries
The lake supports a commercial fishery of walleye and other freshwater species. Northern pike and mullet together now account for over 80 percent of its commercial fishing.
See also
List of lakes of Manitoba
Winnipegosis komatiite belt
References
Winnipegosis, Lake
|
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201171
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archon%3A%20The%20Light%20and%20the%20Dark
|
Archon: The Light and the Dark
|
Archon: The Light and the Dark is a 1983 video game developed by Free Fall Associates and one of the first five games published by Electronic Arts. It is superficially similar to chess, in that it takes place on a board with alternating black and white squares; however, instead of fixed rules when landing on another player's piece, an arcade-style fight takes place to determine the victor, and each piece has different combat abilities. The health of the player's piece is enhanced when landing on a square of one's own color.
Archon was originally written for the Atari 8-bit family and then ported to the Apple II, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Amiga, IBM PC, Macintosh, PC-88, and NES. It was designed by Paul Reiche III (who also created the graphics for the game) and Jon Freeman and programmed by Anne Westfall.
A sequel was released in 1984: Archon II: Adept.
Gameplay
The goal of the game is either to occupy five power points located on the board, to eliminate all the opposing pieces, or to eliminate all but one remaining imprisoned piece of the opponent's. Accomplishing any one of these goals results in a win.
While the board is visually similar to a chessboard, when one piece lands on the same space as an opposing piece, the removal of the targeted piece is not automatic. Instead, the two pieces are placed into a full-screen 'combat arena' and must battle (action-style, with the players operating the combatants) to determine who takes the square. A stronger piece will generally defeat a weaker piece, but not always, and a fight can result in both pieces being eliminated. This uncertainty adds a level of complexity to the game. Different pieces have different abilities in the combat phase. These include movement, lifespan, and weapon. The weapons vary by range, speed, rate of firing, and power. For example, the pawn (represented by knights on the 'light' side and goblins on the 'dark' side) attacks quickly, but has very little strength; its weapon, a sword or club, has limited reach and power. A dragon is stronger and can attack from a distance, while a golem moves slowly and fires a slow but powerful boulder.
A piece's powers are affected by the square on which the battle takes place, with each player having an advantage on squares of their own color. Many squares on the board oscillate between light and dark, making them dangerous to hold over time. The three middle power points are on oscillating squares.
Some pieces have special abilities. The phoenix can turn into a ball of fire, both damaging the enemy and shielding itself from enemy attacks. The shapeshifter assumes the shape and abilities of whatever piece it is up against. MikroBitti magazine once wrote that the phoenix and the shapeshifter facing each other usually end up as the most boring battle in the entire game; both combatants' capabilities are simultaneously offensive and defensive, and they tend to use it whenever they meet each other, and thus both rarely get damaged.
Each side also has a spellcaster piece, who are the leaders: the sorceress for the dark side and the wizard for the light side. The sorceress and the wizard can cast seven different spells. Each spell may be used only once per game by each spellcaster.
The computer opponent slowly adapts over time to help players defeat it. The game is usually won when either one side destroys all the opposing pieces or one of the sides is able to occupy all of the five power points. More rarely, a side may also win by imprisoning its opponent's last remaining piece. If each side has but a single piece, and the two pieces destroy each other in combat, then the game ends in a tie.
Reception
Archon was very well received. Softline praised the game's originality, stating, "If there is any computer game that even slightly resembles Archon, we haven't seen it". The magazine concluded that "it's an announcement that Free Fall does games. And it does them well". Video magazine reviewed the game in its "Arcade Alley" column where reviewers described it as "truly a landmark in the development of computerized strategy games" and suggested that "no review could possibly do more than hint at [Archon] manifold excellence". Computer Gaming World called Archon "a very good game, with lots of care put into its development. I recommend it highly." The magazine said of the Amiga versions, "if you are interested in a challenging strategy game, I recommend both Archon and Adept." Orson Scott Card reviewed the game for Compute! in 1983. He gave Archon and two other EA games, M.U.L.E. and Worms?, complimentary reviews, writing that "they are original; they do what they set out to do very, very well; they allow the player to take part in the creativity; they do things that only computers can do".
Allen Doum reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "Archon is a good first step towards what will be an exciting new class of game. Its play, despite the lack of depth or variation that will be possible, is fast moving."
Leo LaPorte of Hi-Res—a tournament chess player—unfavorably compared the complexity of its rules to that of chess and Go, but concluded that Archon was "a very good game" that "struck a fine balance between a strategy game and an arcade shoot-'em-up". BYTEs reviewer called Archon one of the best computer games he has ever played, stating it was "rewarding and varied enough to be played again and again." The Addison-Wesley Book of Atari Software 1984 gave the game an overall A+ rating, describing it as "one of the most creative and original games that has come along in several years ... It has great graphics, and will give a lifetime of pleasure."
In 1984 Softline readers named Archon the most popular Atari program of 1983. It was awarded "1984 Most Innovative Video Game/Computer Game" at the 5th annual Arkie Awards, where judges noted that "few games make better use of a computer's special abilities than Archon". In 1996, Computer Gaming World ranked Archon as the 20th best game of all time. It was also ranked as the 50th top game by IGN in 2003, who called it a "perfect marriage of strategy and action". The reviewer commented, "Whether on the computer or NES, Archon is an intense, engaging match of wits and reflexes, and boasts some of the coolest battles in gaming history." In 2004, Archon was inducted into GameSpot's list of the greatest games of all time. They also highlighted it among their ten games that should be remade. In 2005, IGN ranked it again as their 77th greatest game.
Legacy
Free Fall developed a sequel for the same platforms, Archon II: Adept, released by Electronic Arts in 1984. Ten years later an enhanced version of the original was published by Strategic Simulations as Archon Ultra.
The original game was rewritten for Palm OS in 2000 by Carsten Magerkurth, who contacted members Free Fall Associates for feedback on creating an improved version released in 2003.
Archon: Evolution used code from the original 8-bit version with the blessing of Jon Freeman.
In 2008, React Games acquired the license from Free Fall to develop the Archon title across multiple platforms. It released an iPhone version in June 2009. A follow-up title Archon: Conquest was released in October 2009 for the iPhone. Archon: Classic for Windows was released in May 2010 with gameplay elements not in the original game.
Archon is a notable influence on Reiche's game Star Control, with a similar combination of turn based strategy and real-time combat.
An updated version of the game has been announced for release exclusively for the Intellivision Amico.
See also
Mortal Kombat: Deception, has a Chess Kombat mini game that is very similar, with almost the same rules.
The Unholy War, a 1998 PlayStation game with a similar structure.
Wrath Unleashed, a 2004 PlayStation 2 and Xbox game with a similar structure.
References
External links
Archon at c64sets.com - images of the package and manual.
A reverse engineering of Archon
1983 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Ariolasoft games
Atari 8-bit family games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
Electronic Arts franchises
Electronic Arts games
Fighting games
FM-7 games
Classic Mac OS games
NEC PC-8801 games
NEC PC-9801 games
Turn-based strategy video games
Sharp MZ games
Sharp X1 games
ZX Spectrum games
Video games developed in the United States
Board game-style video games
|
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] |
201173
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20R%26B%20Song
|
Grammy Award for Best R&B Song
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The Grammy Award for Best R&B Song (sometimes known as the R&B Songwriter's Award) has been awarded since 1969. From 1969 to 2000, it was known as the Grammy Award for Best Rhythm and Blues Song. Beyoncé has won it a record four times, while Babyface, Stevie Wonder, Bill Withers and Alicia Keys have three wins each.
The award goes to the songwriter. If the winning song contains samples or interpolations of songs, the original songwriter and publisher can apply for a Winners Certificate. The performing artist does not receive an award.
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for music released in the previous year.
Recipients
An asterisk (*) indicates this recording also won Song of the Year.
1960s
1970s
1080s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.
The performing artist is only listed but does not receive the award.
Category facts
Most Wins
Most Nominations
See also
List of Grammy Award categories
List of R&B musicians
Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance
References
General
Note: User must select the "General" category as the genre under the search feature.
Specific
Grammy Awards for rhythm and blues
Song awards
Songwriting awards
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201174
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset%20Boulevard
|
Sunset Boulevard
|
Sunset Boulevard is a boulevard in the central and western part of Los Angeles, California, that stretches from the Pacific Coast Highway in Pacific Palisades east to Figueroa Street in Downtown Los Angeles. It is a major thoroughfare in the cities of Beverly Hills and West Hollywood (including a portion known as the Sunset Strip), as well as several districts in Los Angeles.
Geography
Approximately in length, the boulevard roughly traces the arc of mountains that form part of the northern boundary of the Los Angeles Basin, following the path of a 1780s cattle trail from the Pueblo de Los Angeles to the ocean.
From Downtown Los Angeles, the boulevard heads northwest, to Hollywood, through which it travels due west for several miles before it bends southwest towards the ocean. It passes through or near Echo Park, Silver Lake, Los Feliz, Hollywood, West Hollywood, Beverly Hills, and Holmby Hills. In Bel-Air, Sunset Boulevard runs along the northern boundary of UCLA's Westwood campus. The boulevard continues through Brentwood to Pacific Palisades, where it terminates at the Pacific Coast Highway intersection.
The boulevard has curvaceous winding stretches, and can be treacherous for unalert drivers in some sections. Sunset Boulevard is at least four lanes wide along its entire route. Sunset is frequently congested with traffic loads beyond its design capacity.
Sunset Boulevard historically extended farther east than it does now, starting at Alameda Street near Union Station and beside Olvera Street in the historic section of Downtown. The portion of Sunset Boulevard east of Figueroa Street was renamed Cesar Chavez Avenue in 1994, along with Macy Street and Brooklyn Avenue, in honor of the late Mexican-American union leader and civil rights activist.
History
In 1877, Harvey Henderson Wilcox, one of the earlier real estate owners from "back East", decided to subdivide more than of land (mostly orchards and vineyards) along Sunset Boulevard, including what is today Hollywood and Vine.
In 1890, Belgian diplomat Victor Ponet bought of the former Rancho La Brea land grant. His son-in-law, Francis S. Montgomery, inherited this property and created Sunset Plaza.
According to a 1901 article in the Los Angeles Herald, Sunset only extended from Hollywood in the west to Marion Avenue in the Echo Park district in the east. The Board of Public Works proposed to extend Sunset east to Main Street in the Plaza by routing the road over the existing section of Bellevue Avenue, but the plan was delayed until approximately 1904, due to active opposition by affected land owners. According to the 1910 Baist Real Estate Survey Atlas, Sunset Boulevard reached the Plaza by that time, but it did so by two short and narrow segments which were not aligned with each other and thus did not provide a proper thoroughfare to it. In late 1912, several properties along the route were condemned so that the boulevard could be changed in both its width and its alignment. With these changes completed, Sunset Boulevard now reached North Main Street and continued as Marchessault along the northern end of the Plaza. This section, variously marked and signed as Marchessault Street or East Sunset Boulevard, remained open to traffic until the late 1960s or early 1970s. At that time, Sunset was realigned one block north and Marchessault was closed to motor traffic.
In 1921 a westward expansion of Sunset began, extending the road from the then-current terminus at Sullivan Canyon toward the coast. This land, a portion of the original 1838 holdings of Francisco Marquez, stretched across a mesa and became known as the "Riviera section". Will Rogers, who had bought much of this land as an investment, later donated it to the State of California creating Will Rogers State Historic Park. Circa 1931, Sunset was a paved road from Horn Avenue to Havenhurst Avenue.
Cultural aspects
The Sunset Strip portion of Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood has been famous for its active nightlife since at least the 1950s.
In contrast to other American cities where it referred to a concentration of radio retailers, in Los Angeles, Radio Row was understood in the 1940s-1950s as the area around the intersection of Sunset Boulevard and Vine Street in Hollywood, where the broadcasting facilities of all four major radio networks were located.
In the 1970s, the area between Gardner Street and Western Avenue was a center for street prostitution. Shortly after a much publicized incident in late June 1995, police raids drove out the majority of prostitutes on the Boulevard.
Part of Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood is also sometimes called "Guitar Row" due to the large number of guitar stores and music industry-related businesses, including the recording studios Sunset Sound Studios and United Western Recorders.
The portion of Sunset Boulevard that passes through Beverly Hills was once named Beverly Boulevard.
The boulevard is commemorated in Billy Wilder's film Sunset Boulevard (1950), the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical of the same name, and the 1950s television series 77 Sunset Strip. Jan and Dean's 1960s hit song "Dead Man's Curve" refers to a section of the road near Bel Air estates just north of UCLA's Drake Stadium where Jan Berry almost died in an automobile accident in 1966. The Buffalo Springfield song "For What It's Worth" was written about a riot at Pandora's Box, a Sunset Strip club, in 1966.
Metro Local lines 2, 4 and 602 operate on Sunset Boulevard, with Line 2 running through most of Sunset Boulevard between Echo Park and UCLA, Line 4 between Sunset Junction and Downtown LA, and Line 602 from UCLA west. The Metro B Line operates a subway station at Vermont Avenue.
At 4334 W. Sunset Boulevard lies the wall featured on the cover of the late singer-songwriter Elliott Smith's 2000 album Figure 8. Since Smith's death in 2003, the wall has become a memorial for the artist; fans have left many personal messages there over the years.
Landmarks (past and present)
Amoeba Records
Beverly Hills Hotel
Blessed Sacrament Church
Book Soup
Carney's
CBS Columbia Square
Chateau Marmont
Cinerama Dome
CNN
Comedy Store
Crossroads of the World
Directors Guild of America headquarters
Dudley Do-Right Emporium
Earl Carroll Theatre
Emerson College
The Garden of Allah
Gazzarri's
Gower Gulch
Haldeman House
Hollywood Athletic Club
Hollywood High School
Hollywood Palladium
Hotel Bel-Air
House of Blues
Hyatt West Hollywood
KCET
KTLA
The London Fog
Los Angeles Film School
Marymount High School
Metromedia Square (the former Fox Television Center and KTTV studios)
Nickelodeon on Sunset
Palisades Charter High School
Psychiatry: An Industry of Death Museum
Rainbow Bar and Grill
Rock Walk
The Roxy Theatre
Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine
Sherry’s Club (now 1 OAK nightclub)
Spago
Standard Hotel
Sunset Junction
Sunset Gower Studios
Tiffany Theatre
Tiki Ti
UCLA
Viper Room
Whisky a Go Go
Will Rogers State Beach
Will Rogers State Historic Park
See also
Sunset Boulevard (film) (1950)
Notes
References
External links
Streets in Los Angeles
Streets in Los Angeles County, California
Landmarks in Los Angeles
Streets in Beverly Hills, California
Brentwood, Los Angeles
Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles
East Hollywood, Los Angeles
Echo Park, Los Angeles
Streets in Hollywood
Silver Lake, Los Angeles
Streets in West Hollywood, California
Westside (Los Angeles County)
Film production districts
Historical red-light districts in the United States
Red-light districts in California
Boulevards in the United States
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muromachi%20period
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Muromachi period
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The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (Muromachi bakufu or Ashikaga bakufu), which was officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi shōgun, Ashikaga Takauji, two years after the brief Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336) of imperial rule was brought to a close. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun of this line, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was driven out of the capital in Kyoto by Oda Nobunaga.
From a cultural perspective, the period can be divided into the Kitayama and Higashiyama cultures (later 15th – early 16th centuries).
The early years from 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period are known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period. This period is marked by the continued resistance of the supporters of Emperor Go-Daigo, the emperor behind the Kenmu Restoration. The years from 1465 to the end of the Muromachi period are also known as the Sengoku period or Warring States period.
Muromachi bakufu
Emperor Go-Daigo's brief attempt to restore the imperial power in the Kenmu Restoration alienated the samurai class. Ashikaga Takauji obtained the samurai's strong support, and deposed Emperor Go-Daigo. In 1338 Takauji was proclaimed shōgun and established his government in Kyoto. However, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from his confinement and revived his political power in Nara. The ensuing period of Ashikaga rule (1336–1573) was called Muromachi from the district of Kyoto in which its headquarters – the – were located by third shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in 1378. What distinguished the Ashikaga shogunate from that of Kamakura was that, whereas Kamakura had existed in equilibrium with the imperial court, Ashikaga took over the remnants of the imperial government. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga shogunate was not as strong as that in Kamakura had been, and was greatly preoccupied with civil war. Not until the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (as shōgun, 1368–94, and chancellor, 1394–1408) did a semblance of order emerge.
Yoshimitsu allowed the constables, who had had limited powers during the Kamakura period, to become strong regional rulers, later called daimyōs. In time, a balance of power evolved between the shōgun and the daimyōs; the three most prominent daimyō families rotated as deputies to the shōgun at Kyoto. Yoshimitsu was finally successful in reunifying the Northern and Southern courts in 1392, but, despite his promise of greater balance between the imperial lines, the Northern Court maintained control over the throne thereafter. The line of shoguns gradually weakened after Yoshimitsu and increasingly lost power to the daimyōs and other regional strongmen. The shōguns influence on imperial succession waned, and the daimyōs could back their own candidates.
In time, the Ashikaga family had its own succession problems, resulting finally in the Ōnin War (1467–77), which left Kyoto devastated and effectively ended the national authority of the bakufu. The power vacuum that ensued launched a century of anarchy.
Economic and cultural developments
The Japanese contact with the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) began when China was renewed during the Muromachi period after the Chinese sought support in suppressing Japanese pirates in coastal areas of China. Japanese pirates of this era and region were referred to as wokou by the Chinese (Japanese wakō). Wanting to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wokou threat, Yoshimitsu accepted a relationship with the Chinese that was to last for half a century. In 1401 he restarted the tribute system, describing himself in a letter to the Chinese Emperor as "Your subject, the King of Japan". Japanese wood, sulfur, copper ore, swords, and folding fans were traded for Chinese silk, porcelain, books, and coins, in what the Chinese considered tribute but the Japanese saw as profitable trade.
During the time of the Ashikaga bakufu, a new national culture, called Muromachi culture, emerged from the bakufu headquarters in Kyoto to reach all levels of society, strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism.
Zen Buddhism
Zen played a central role in spreading not only religious teachings and practices but also art and culture, including influences derived from paintings of the Chinese Song (960–1279), Yuan, and Ming dynasties. The proximity of the imperial court to the bakufu resulted in a co-mingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyō, samurai, and Zen priests. Art of all kinds—architecture, literature, Noh drama, Kyōgen (comedy), poetry, sarugaku (folk entertainment), the tea ceremony, landscape gardening, and flower arranging—all flourished during Muromachi times.
Shinto
There was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism during the centuries of the latter's predominance. Shinto, which lacked its own scriptures and had few prayers, had, as a result of syncretic practices begun in the Nara period, widely adopted Shingon Buddhist rituals. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries, Shintoism was nearly totally absorbed by Buddhism, becoming known as Ryōbu Shinto (Dual Shinto).
The Mongol invasions in the late thirteenth century, however, evoked a national consciousness of the role of the kamikaze in defeating the enemy. Less than fifty years later (1339–43), Kitabatake Chikafusa (1293–1354), the chief commander of the Southern Court forces, wrote the Jinnō Shōtōki. This chronicle emphasized the importance of maintaining the divine descent of the imperial line from Amaterasu to the current emperor, a condition that gave Japan a special national polity (kokutai). Besides reinforcing the concept of the emperor as a deity, the Jinnōshōtōki provided a Shinto view of history, which stressed the divine nature of all Japanese and the country's spiritual supremacy over China and India.
Education
Confucianism began to be recognized as the learning essential to daimyo in the Muromachi period. When Genju Keian, who returned from the Ming dynasty, traveled around Kyushu, he was invited by the Kikuchi clan in Higo Province and the Shimazu clan in Satsuma Province to give a lecture; and later, he established the Satsunan school (school of Neo-Confucianism in Satsuma). In Tosa, Baiken Minamimura, who lectured on Neo-Confucianism, became known as the founder of Nangaku (Neo-Confucianism in Tosa); in Hokuriku region, Nobutaka Kiyohara lectured on Confucianism for various daimyo such as the Hatakeyama clan in Noto Province, the Takeda clan in Wakasa Province, and the Asakura clan in Echizen Province.
Meanwhile, in the eastern part of Japan, Norizane Uesugi reestablished the Ashikaga Gakko (Japan's oldest surviving academic institution) by adding a collection of books, so priests and warriors from all over the country gathered to learn. For the Ashikaga Gakko, the Gohojo clan in Odawara provided protection later; Francis Xavier, a missionary of the Society of Jesus, who propagated Christianity in Japan, described that "the Ashikaga Gakko is the biggest and most famous academy of Bando in Japan (the university of eastern Japan)." Shukyu Banri, a priest and a composer of Chinese-style poems, went down to Mino Province in the Onin War, and then left for Edo at Dokan Ota's invitation; he traveled all over the Kanto region, Echigo Province, and Hida Province. The above-mentioned Sesshu visited the Risshaku-ji Temple in Yamagata City, Dewa Province.
In this period, local lords and local clans considered it indispensable to acquire skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic for the management of their territories. A growing number of land deeds were written by peasants, which means that literacy was widespread even among the commoner class. The Italian Jesuit, Alessandro Valignano ( 1539–1606 ), wrote that:"The people are white (not dark-skinned) and cultured ; even the common folk and peasants are well brought up and are so remarkably polite that they give the impression that they were trained at court . In this respect they are superior to other Eastern peoples but also to Europeans as well . They are very capable and intelligent , and the children are quick to grasp our lessons and instructions . They learn to read and write our language far more quickly and easily than children in Europe . The lower classes in Japan are not so coarse and ignorant as those in Europe ; on the contrary , they are generally intelligent , well brought up and quick to learn"."Teikin Orai" (Home Education Text Book), "Joe-shikimoku" (legal code of the Kamakura shogunate), and "Jitsugokyo" (a text for primary education) were widely used in shrines and temples as textbooks for the education of children of the warrior class. It was in the Sengoku Period that the following books were published: "Setsuyoshu" (a Japanese-language dictionary in iroha order) written by Soji MANJUYA, and "Ishotaizen" (The Complete Book of Medicine), a medical book in Ming's language, translated by Asai no Sozui, who was a merchant in Sakai City and a physician.
Ink painting
The new Zen monasteries, with their Chinese background and the martial rulers in Kamakura sought to produce a unique cultural legacy to rival the Fujiwara tradition. Hence, Chinese painter-monks were frequently invited to the monasteries while Japanese monks travelled back and forth. This exchange led to the creation of Muromachi ink painting which often included Chinese themes, Chinese ink-washing techniques, fluid descriptive lines, dry brushes, and almost invisible facial features. Despite the initial creative restrictions, Japanese Zen ink painting soon achieved poetic and indigenous expression as elements were rearranged in a Japanese manner, and brushstrokes became gentle, fluid and more impulsive.
Provincial wars and foreign contacts
The Ōnin War (1467–77) led to serious political fragmentation and obliteration of domains: a great struggle for land and power ensued among bushi chieftains and lasted until the mid-sixteenth century. Peasants rose against their landlords and samurai against their overlords as central control virtually disappeared. The imperial house was left impoverished, and the bakufu was controlled by contending chieftains in Kyoto. The provincial domains that emerged after the Ōnin War were smaller and easier to control. Many new small daimyō arose from among the samurai who had overthrown their great overlords. Border defenses were improved, and well fortified castle towns were built to protect the newly opened domains, for which land surveys were made, roads built, and mines opened. New house laws provided practical means of administration, stressing duties and rules of behavior. Emphasis was put on success in war, estate management, and finance. Threatening alliances were guarded against through strict marriage rules. Aristocratic society was overwhelmingly military in character. The rest of society was controlled in a system of vassalage. The shōen (feudal manors) were obliterated, and court nobles and absentee landlords were dispossessed. The new daimyō directly controlled the land, keeping the peasantry in permanent serfdom in exchange for protection.
Economic effect of wars between states
Most wars of the period were short and localized, although they occurred throughout Japan. By 1500 the entire country was engulfed in civil wars. Rather than disrupting the local economies, however, the frequent movement of armies stimulated the growth of transportation and communications, which in turn provided additional revenues from customs and tolls. To avoid such fees, commerce shifted to the central region, which no daimyō had been able to control, and to the Inland Sea. Economic developments and the desire to protect trade achievements brought about the establishment of merchant and artisan guilds.
Western influence
By the end of the Muromachi period, the first Europeans had arrived. The Portuguese landed in Tanegashima south of Kyūshū in 1543 and within two years were making regular port calls, initiating the century-long Nanban trade period. In 1551, the Navarrese Roman Catholic missionary Francis Xavier was one of the first Westerners who visited Japan. Francis described Japan as follows:
The Spanish arrived in 1587, followed by the Dutch in 1609. The Japanese began to attempt studies of European civilization in depth, and new opportunities were presented for the economy, along with serious political challenges. European firearms, fabrics, glassware, clocks, tobacco, and other Western innovations were traded for Japanese gold and silver. Significant wealth was accumulated through trade, and lesser daimyō, especially in Kyūshū, greatly increased their power. Provincial wars became more deadly with the introduction of firearms, such as muskets and cannons, and greater use of infantry.
Christianity
Christianity affected Japan, largely through the efforts of the Jesuits, led first by the Spanish Francis Xavier (1506–1552), who arrived in Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū in 1549. Both daimyō and merchants seeking better trade arrangements as well as peasants were among the converts. By 1560 Kyoto had become another major area of missionary activity in Japan. In 1568 the port of Nagasaki, in northwestern Kyūshū, was established by a Christian daimyō and was turned over to Jesuit administration in 1579. By 1582 there were as many as 150,000 converts (two percent of the population) and 200 churches. But bakufu tolerance for this alien influence diminished as the country became more unified and openness decreased. Proscriptions against Christianity began in 1587 and outright persecutions in 1597. Although foreign trade was still encouraged, it was closely regulated, and by 1640, in the Edo period, the exclusion and suppression of Christianity became national policy.
Events
1336: Ashikaga Takauji captures Kyoto and forces Emperor Daigo II to move to a southern court (Yoshino, south of Kyoto)
1338: Ashikaga Takauji declares himself shōgun, moves his capital into the Muromachi district of Kyoto and supports the northern court
1392: The southern court surrenders to shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and the empire is unified again
1397: Kinkaku-ji is built by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
1450: Ryōan-ji is built by Hosokawa Katsumoto.
1457: Edo is established
1467: The Ōnin War is split among feudal lords (daimyōs)
1489: Ginkaku-ji is built by Ashikaga Yoshimasa
1543: Firearms are introduced by shipwrecked Portuguese
1546: Hōjō Ujiyasu who had won the Battle of Kawagoe becomes ruler of the Kantō region
1549: Catholic missionary Francis Xavier arrives in Japan
1555: Mōri Motonari, who had won the Battle of Miyajima, becomes ruler of the Chūgoku region
1560: Battle of Okehazama
1568: The daimyō Oda Nobunaga enters Kyoto and ends the civil war
1570: The Archbishopric of Edo is established and the first Japanese Jesuits are ordained
1570: Battle of Anegawa
1573: Oda Nobunaga overthrows the Muromachi bakufu and extends his control over all of Japan
See also
Awataguchi Takamitsu
Higashiyama period
References
– Japan
01
Feudal Japan
1330s establishments in Japan
1337 establishments in Asia
1573 disestablishments in Japan
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] |
201178
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Hudson%20Bay%20rivers
|
List of Hudson Bay rivers
|
This list of Hudson Bay rivers includes the principal rivers draining into the Hudson, James and Ungava bays of the Arctic Ocean. The total surface area of the Hudson Bay watershed is about , with a mean discharge of about . The Hudson Bay drainage basin includes parts of five Canadian provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec), two territories (Northwest Territories and Nunavut), and four US states (Montana, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Minnesota). The two principal waterways are the La Grande Rivière, in Quebec, and the Nelson River in Manitoba, each with an average waterflow of over .
The rivers are presented by coastline, clockwise, starting with the George River in north-eastern Quebec, just south of Cape Chidley and the entrance to the Atlantic Ocean.
Rivers in Quebec
Tunulic
À la Baleine
False
Koksoak
Aux Feuilles
Arnaud
Kovik River
Povungnituk River
Kogaluc
Innuksuac
Qikirtaluup Kuunga
Nastapoka
Chenal Goulet
Petite Rivière de la Baleine
Grande Rivière de la Baleine
Roggan River
La Grande
Eastmain
Pontax
Rupert
Broadback
Nottaway
Harricana
Rivers in Ontario
Moose
Albany
Lawashi
Attawapiskat
Ekwan
Winisk
Severn
Rivers in Manitoba
Hayes
Nelson
Churchill
North & South Knife
Red River of the North
Seal
Caribou
Rivers in Nunavut
Geillini
Thlewiaza
Tha-anne
Ferguson
Wilson
Chesterfield Inlet
Lorillard
Brown
Kirchoffer (Southampton Island)
Koukdjuak River (Baffin Island)
Rivers in Alberta
North Saskatchewan
Battle
Beaver
South Saskatchewan
Bow
Elbow
Highwood
Oldman
St. Mary
Red Deer
Rivers in the United States
Bois de Sioux River
Buffalo River (Minnesota)
Marsh River (Minnesota)
Red River of the North
Sand Hill River
Souris River
Turtle River (North Dakota)
See also
James Bay Project
Nelson River Hydroelectric Project
Rupert's Land
References
Stephen J. Déry et al., Characteristics and Trends of River Discharge into Hudson, James and Ungava Bays, 1964-2000, Journal of Climate, 18 (2005), pages 2540-2557.
Water Resources of Canada (Website of Environment Canada)
Lists of rivers
Lists of rivers of Canada
Lists of rivers of the United States
Drainage basins of the Arctic Ocean
|
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201180
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ark%20Royal%20%2891%29
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HMS Ark Royal (91)
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HMS Ark Royal (pennant number 91) was an aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy that was operated during the Second World War.
Designed in 1934 to fit the restrictions of the Washington Naval Treaty, Ark Royal was built by Cammell Laird at Birkenhead, England, and completed in November 1938. Her design differed from previous aircraft carriers. Ark Royal was the first ship on which the hangars and flight deck were an integral part of the hull, instead of an add-on or part of the superstructure. Designed to carry a large number of aircraft, she had two hangar deck levels. She was used during a period that first saw the extensive use of naval air power; several carrier tactics were developed and refined aboard Ark Royal.
Ark Royal operated in some of the most active naval theatres of the Second World War. She was involved in the first aerial U-boat kills of the war, operations off Norway, the search for the German battleship , and the Malta Convoys. Ark Royal survived several near misses and gained a reputation as a 'lucky ship'. She was torpedoed on 13 November 1941 by the and sank the following day. One of her 1,488 crew members was killed. Her sinking was the subject of several inquiries, with investigators keen to know how the carrier was lost in spite of efforts to save the ship and tow her to the naval base at Gibraltar. They found that several design flaws contributed to the loss, which were rectified in new British carriers.
The wreck was discovered in December 2002 by an American underwater survey company using sonar mounted on an autonomous underwater vehicle, under contract from the BBC for the filming of a documentary about the ship, at a depth of about and approximately from Gibraltar.
Design
In 1923, the Admiralty prepared a 10-year building programme which included an aircraft carrier and 300 aircraft for the Fleet Air Arm. The economic downturn following the First World War caused it to be postponed. In 1930, the Director of Naval Construction, Sir Arthur Johns, began to update the plans for the carrier by incorporating recently developed technology. His aim was to increase the number of aircraft carried by shortening the landing and take-off distances of aircraft using arrestor gear and compressed steam catapults respectively, which would make more deck space available for storage and aircraft preparation. Along with the inclusion of two hangar decks, this allowed Ark Royal to carry up to 72 aircraft, although the development of larger and heavier aircraft during the carrier's construction meant that the actual number carried was between 50 and 60. Ark Royal featured an enclosed hangar design where the flight deck was the 'strength deck' and was strongly built with .75in (19mm) thick Ducol steel plating.[2] The two hangar decks were thus enclosed within the hull girder, which also gave splinter protection to the hangars. The machinery spaces were protected by belt armour. Three lifts moved aircraft between the hangars and the flight deck.
Another feature was the length and height of the flight deck. At , the flight deck was longer than the keel; the latter dictated by the length of Royal Navy drydocks in Gibraltar and Malta. Due to the twin hangar decks, the flight deck rose to above the waterline.
The Washington and London Naval treaties had restricted warship tonnage for a number of nations after the end of the Great War and were both to expire by the end of 1936. With a potential naval arms race developing between Britain, Japan and Italy, the British government sought a second treaty, which included limiting the maximum displacement of an aircraft carrier to . Ark Royal would have to fit this anticipated limit; to conserve weight, armour plating was limited to the belt, engine rooms, and magazines, while welding instead of rivetting 65% of the hull saved . Installation of an armoured flight deck was not possible, as the weight would have placed Ark Royal above the proposed limit, while reducing her endurance and stability. The ship was designed with a three-layer side protection system based upon a void-liquid-void scheme very similar to that used on the King George V-class battleships, and was designed to protect against torpedoes with up to a warhead.
The ship was fitted with six boilers, which powered three Parsons geared turbines. The turbines were connected via three driveshafts to three propellers in diameter, to produce a maximum theoretical speed of . Speed was important, as with catapults and arrestor gear, Ark Royal would have to turn into the wind to launch and recover aircraft. To avoid endangering other ships with the frequent course changes associated with flight operations, Ark Royal would have to break away from accompanying ships, and catch up on completion. Additionally, as the carrier was not armed for ship-to-ship combat, speed was her main protection against enemy warships.
Construction
The deteriorating international situation by 1933, typified by Germany's rearmament and the expansion of Japan and Italy, convinced the British to announce funds for the carrier's construction in the 1934 budget proposals. The plans were finished by November 1934 and were tendered in February 1935 to Cammell Laird and Company Ltd., which calculated the cost of the hull at £1,496,250 () and the main machinery at approximately £500,000 (equivalent to £31,850,000 in 2016). The overall cost was estimated to be over £3 million, making Ark Royal the most expensive non-battleship ordered by the Royal Navy. Construction began on Job No. 1012 when Ark Royals keel was laid down on 16 September 1935.
Ark Royal spent nearly two years in the builder's yard before being launched on 13 April 1937 by Lady Maud Hoare, wife of Sir Samuel Hoare, then First Lord of the Admiralty. The bottle of champagne thrown against Ark Royals bows did not smash until the fourth attempt. The carrier spent a year fitting out, was handed over to her first commander, Captain Arthur Power, on 16 November 1938, and was commissioned on 16 December. Although intended for the Far East, events in Europe during the carrier's construction, including the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 and the Spanish Civil War in 1936, caused the Admiralty to mark her for deployment with the Home and Mediterranean Fleets. After her crew joined at the end of 1938, Ark Royal underwent sea trials to prepare for service, during which the carrier proved capable of sailing above her theoretical speed, reaching over and in trials during May 1938 Ark Royal achieved with at a deep displacement of .
Armament and aircraft
Ark Royals armament was designed with anti-aircraft warfare in mind, as aircraft were expected to be the main threat; ships and submarines could be outrun or dealt with by escorts. Her main armament was sixteen quick-firing dual purpose guns in eight double turrets, four on each side of the hull, controlled by four Directors using the High Angle Control System. The original design placed the turrets low on the hull, but was later altered to locate them just below the flight deck, which increased each turret's field of fire. Six 8-barrelled 2-pounder () "pom-pom" guns were located on the flight deck, in front of and behind the superstructure island, while eight 4-barrelled machine guns were installed on small projecting platforms to the front and rear of the flight deck.
Sixteen Fleet Air Arm squadrons were posted aboard Ark Royal during her career; an average of five squadrons at any time. On entering service, most of Ark Royals squadrons were equipped with either Blackburn Skuas—used as fighters and dive bombers—or Fairey Swordfish, for reconnaissance and torpedo bombing. From April 1940, squadrons equipped with Skuas were upgraded to Fairey Fulmars; like their predecessors, these were used as fighters and bombers. On occasion, the carrier operated Blackburn Roc fighter-bombers (from April 1939 – October 1940) and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers (during October 1941); these were replacement aircraft used to boost squadron numbers. In June 1940, Ark Royal was host to 701 Naval Air Squadron, a training squadron which operated Supermarine Walrus reconnaissance amphibians.
Service history
With the hunter-killer groups
The outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939 had been presaged by Germany's U-boat fleet taking up positions off the British coast, where they could intercept British shipping. Within hours of the war starting, the passenger ship was torpedoed by , the first of over 65,000 tons of shipping sunk by U-boats during the first week of the war. Ark Royal was deployed with the Home Fleet in the North Western Approaches as part of a "hunter-killer" group, consisting of a flotilla of destroyers and other anti-submarine vessels grouped around an aircraft carrier; either , or Ark Royal. Carrier-borne aircraft could increase the area searched for U-boats, but made the carriers tempting targets.
On 14 September, Ark Royal received a distress call from , which was away under pursuit from the surfaced U-30. Ark Royal launched aircraft to aid the merchant ship, but was spotted by , which launched two torpedoes. Lookouts spotted the torpedo tracks and Ark Royal turned towards the attack, reducing her cross-section and causing the torpedoes to miss and explode harmlessly astern. Three F-class destroyers escorting the carrier began to depth charge U-39, and forced her to the surface. The German crew abandoned ship before U-39 sank—the first U-boat lost during the war. Ark Royals aircraft reached Fanad Head, which was in the hands of a German boarding party. The Skuas unsuccessfully attacked U-30: two crashed when caught by the blast of their own bombs. The U-boat escaped after rescuing the boarding party and the pilots of the downed aircraft (both observers had drowned), and torpedoing the Fanad Head.
Ark Royal returned to base in Loch Ewe, where she and her crew were inspected by Winston Churchill. The sinking of U-39 was hailed as important to morale. However, the failed attack on Ark Royal, and the successful attack on Courageous on 17 September, convinced the Admiralty it was too dangerous to risk aircraft carriers in this way, and carrier-centred hunter-killer groups were abandoned.
Another near miss
On 25 September, Ark Royal helped rescue the submarine , which had been damaged by German warships off Horn Reefs, in the Kattegat. While returning to port with Spearfish and the battleships and on 26 September, the ships were located by three Luftwaffe Dornier Do 18 seaplanes. Ark Royal launched three Blackburn Skuas to disperse them; one Dornier was shot down in an event propagandised as first British aerial kill of the war (later it was learned that the pilot of a Fairey Battle achieved the first kill.
The air commander aboard Ark Royal—aware that the surviving Dorniers would report the location of the British ships—ordered the aircraft to be secured and the anti-aircraft weapons readied. Four Junkers Ju 88 bombers of the Luftwaffe bomber wing KG 30 soon appeared: three were driven away by anti-aircraft fire, but the fourth launched a bomb at the carrier. Ark Royal turned hard to starboard, heeling over and avoiding the bomb, which landed in the ocean off her starboard bow and sent a spout of water over the ship. The German pilots did not see if the carrier had been hit, and a reconnaissance flight later located the two battleships, but not Ark Royal. Based on this information, the Germans incorrectly claimed that Ark Royal had sunk. To prove the German propaganda false before it had a negative effect on Britain's allies, Winston Churchill personally reassured United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt that the carrier was undamaged and invited the US naval attaché to view Ark Royal in dock. The British naval attaché in Rome was instructed to assure Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini that the ship was still in service. This was an embarrassment for Goebbels and Nazi propaganda.
Hunting the Graf Spee
In October 1939, Ark Royal was redeployed to Freetown to operate off the African coast in the hunt for the German commerce raider . The carrier was assigned to Force K, and sailed with the battlecruiser to the South Atlantic. On 9 October, aircraft from Ark Royal spotted the German tanker Altmark, which supplied Graf Spee. The tanker was disguised as the US vessel Delmar, which fooled the British into passing her by. On 5 November, Ark Royal captured the German merchant , which was attempting to reach Germany. The ship was later taken into British service as a cargo ship and renamed Empire Ability. Several neutral merchant ships were also spotted by the carrier's aircraft, twice causing crews to believe they were under attack and abandon ship. A note explaining the situation was dropped in a bag to a Norwegian vessel's crew, and they re-boarded; an attempt to repeat this exercise with a Belgian crew failed when the bag was dropped down the ship's funnel.
On December 14, 1939, Graf Spee had put into Montevideo to repair damage received during the battle of the River Plate. Two Royal Navy cruisers followed the raider, and patrolled the harbour entrance while reporting Graf Spees position to the fleet. Ark Royal and Renown were dispatched to join the British ships outside the harbour, but as they were 36 hours away, the British naval attaché came up with a plan to make the Germans believe that the two capital ships had already arrived. An order for fuel for Ark Royal was placed at Buenos Aires, west of Montevideo. This was leaked to the press, passed on to the German embassy in Montevideo, and given to Graf Spees captain, Hans Langsdorff. This contributed to Langsdorff's decision to scuttle his ship.
Return to the fleet
With Graf Spee sunk, Ark Royal remained in the Atlantic for a short time before escorting the damaged heavy cruiser back to Devonport Dockyard, where they arrived in February. Following this, Ark Royal proceeded to Portsmouth to take on supplies and personnel, before sailing to Scapa Flow. On arrival, she transferred her Blackburn Skuas to Naval Air Station Hatston to strengthen the anchorage's defences. Ark Royal was then assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet for exercises, departing Scapa Flow on 31 March 1940 and heading for Alexandria with the aircraft carrier . The carriers arrived in the Eastern Mediterranean on 8 April, but the exercises were cancelled a day later. The ships sailed to Gibraltar to await orders.
German forces had invaded Norway as part of Operation Weserübung on 9 April, and had secured sections of the coast. Attempts by the Royal Navy to operate in support of British troops were unsuccessful; air attacks had overwhelmed the ships, sinking and nearly sinking . Realising that the British ships required air cover, but aware that the Norwegian coast was outside the range of British land-based aircraft, the Admiralty recalled Ark Royal and Glorious from the Mediterranean on 16 April.
Norwegian campaign
Ark Royal and Glorious arrived at Scapa Flow on 23 April 1940 and were immediately redeployed as part of Operation DX, sailing to Norway with the cruisers and and screened by the destroyers , , , , and . This was the first time the Royal Navy had deployed carriers with the primary purpose of providing fighter protection for other warships. The ships took up position on 25 April off the coast; Ark Royal positioned offshore to reduce the chance of air attacks. The carrier's aircraft conducted anti-submarine patrols, provided fighter support for other ships, and carried out strikes against shipping and shore targets. Ark Royal returned to Scapa Flow on 27 April to refuel and replace lost and damaged aircraft, before heading back on the same day with the battleship as escort. During the return, Ark Royal came under air attack from German Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 bombers operating from Norway. The carrier was undamaged, and resumed position on 29 April.
By this point, the British high command had realised that they could not hold the Germans in southern Norway. The evacuation of Allied troops from Molde and Åndalsnes began, with Ark Royal providing air cover from 30 April. On 1 May, the Germans tried to sink the carrier, with numerous air attacks through the day. Ark Royals fighters and a heavy anti-aircraft barrage drove off the enemy, and although several bombs were dropped at the carrier, none hit. The evacuations of Molde and Andalsnes were completed on 3 May, and the carrier was recalled to Scapa Flow to refuel and rearm. While in port, Captain Arthur Power left the ship for a promotion to the Admiralty, and was replaced by Captain Cedric Holland. On return to Norway, Ark Royal was told to provide air cover for operations around Narvik, including the landing of French troops on 13 May. She was joined on 18 May by the carriers Glorious and Furious.
Despite these efforts, it was clear by the end of May that French forces were on the verge of collapse and Norway was a sideshow compared to the German advance to the English Channel. Operation Alphabet was instigated to move Allied troops from Narvik to Britain. Ark Royal and Glorious—screened by the destroyers , , , , and —sailed from Scapa Flow on 1 June to cover the evacuation, which commenced the next day. Ark Royal carried out air patrols and bombing raids from 3–6 June, before redeploying to Narvik on 7 June. The next day, Glorious, Acasta and Ardent were sunk by the German battlecruisers and while heading back to Britain. Ark Royals aircraft failed to locate the German ships, which had returned to Trondheim.
The last evacuation convoy left Narvik on 9 June. Before the British ships could withdraw, a raid on Trondheim located Scharnhorst. An attack by Ark Royals Skuas took place at midnight on 13 June. The attack was a disaster: the escort destroyers and collided while Ark Royal was launching aircraft in fog and returned to England for repairs, eight of the fifteen attacking Skuas were shot down, while Scharnhorst escaped damage. Ark Royal returned to Scapa Flow the following day, and was reassigned to the Mediterranean Fleet.
Mediterranean deployment
Ark Royal left Scapa Flow with the battlecruiser and three destroyers, arriving at Gibraltar on 23 June 1940. Here she joined Force H, under Sir James Somerville. After the capitulation of France there was concern that a French fleet at Mers-el-Kébir might fall under Axis control and tip the balance of power in the Mediterranean, affecting the whole war. Ark Royals captain, Cedric Holland, had been the British naval attaché in Paris, and was sent to negotiate the surrender or scuttling of the French fleet. Force H was deployed outside the harbour, and when the French admirals refused to agree to the offered terms, opened fire on the French ships. During the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, Ark Royals aircraft provided targeting information for the British ships. The French battleship escaped, despite attacks by Swordfish from Ark Royal. Two days after the attack, aircraft from Ark Royal incapacitated the French battleship , which had been beached in the initial attack.
Having reduced the possibility of a French challenge in the Mediterranean, Force H prepared for attacks on Italian targets, and sailed from Gibraltar on 8 July. The force was attacked by Italian bombers within eight hours of departing, and although Force H escaped damage, Somerville cancelled the raids and ordered the fleet to Gibraltar. During July, the British colony of Malta came under attack from the Italian air force, with Force H ordered to deliver Hawker Hurricanes to reinforce the island's air defences. Force H was deployed from 31 July – 4 August, with the carrier used to deliver the aircraft, while Ark Royal provided air cover for the fleet. On 2 August, Ark Royal launched a successful air attack against the Italian air base at Cagliari.
Force H remained at Gibraltar until 30 September, when it escorted reinforcements for Admiral Andrew Cunningham's fleet to Alexandria. En route, diversionary attacks were planned on Italian air bases at Elmas and Cagliari to direct attention from both the reinforcement operation and a supply convoy sailing to Malta. The attacks were successfully carried out on 1 October, and the fleet reached Alexandria without significant attention from the Italian air force. From Alexandria, Ark Royal was detached and sent to West Africa to support British attempts to encourage Vichy French colonies to switch allegiance to the Free French. During negotiations, several Free French aircraft flew from Ark Royal, but their aircrews were arrested at Dakar. Negotiations failed, and bombers from Ark Royal were directed against military installations during the unsuccessful British attempt to take Dakar by force. Ark Royal then returned to Britain for refit, docking in Liverpool on 8 October after being escorted by , and . The refit—which lasted until 3 November—included repairs to her machinery and the installation of a new flight deck barrier.
Next, Ark Royal—accompanied by , , and —sailed for Gibraltar, arriving on 6 November. They were deployed with the rest of Force H to escort convoys from Gibraltar to Alexandria and Malta, performing several runs before being assigned to Operation Collar, one of 35 convoys to support Malta between 1940 and 1942, on 25 November. An Italian fleet—led by the battleships and —was dispatched to intercept the convoy. The Italian fleet was detected by a reconnaissance aircraft from Ark Royal and the carrier launched Swordfish torpedo bombers while the capital ships of Force H turned to meet the enemy. During the engagement, the Battle of Cape Spartivento, the Italian destroyer was damaged, although it is uncertain if torpedoes from the bombers or British gunfire were responsible. The British mistook Lanciere for a cruiser, while the Italian commanders received incorrect reports that the cruiser had been hit. British attacks failed to damage any other Italian ships or sink the disabled destroyer, and a retaliatory attack by the Italian air force saw Ark Royal as the subject of multiple bombing runs, none of which hit. The battle had no clear result, although the British convoy reached its destination unscathed.
On 14 December 1940, Ark Royal and Force H were redeployed from Gibraltar to the Atlantic to search the Azores for commerce raiders. Ark Royal returned to the Mediterranean on 20 December, and escorted the battleship and merchant ships from Malta until 27 December. Force H then became involved in Operation Excess, a plan to move convoys through the Mediterranean to support the Western Desert Force, which was trying to push Italian land forces from Egypt into Libya. Over the next month, British control of the Mediterranean theatre was weakened, particularly by the entry of the Luftwaffe and the near-loss of the aircraft carrier . The Mediterranean Fleet was under pressure from Axis forces in the Eastern Mediterranean, while the British port at Gibraltar was likely to be lost if the Spanish chose to ally with the Germans instead of remaining out of the war. To relieve the Mediterranean Fleet, while demonstrating British strength to the Spanish, the Admiralty and Admiral Cunningham planned to use Ark Royals Swordfish bombers in raids against Italian targets, supported by bombardment from heavy fleet units. The first bombing, on 2 January against the Tirso Dam in Sardinia, was unsuccessful, but Ark Royals Swordfish bombers were more successful on 6 January, when they bombed the port city of Genoa. The carrier's aircraft also covered the battlecruiser Renown and battleship Malaya while they shelled the port. On 9 January, Ark Royal launched aircraft to bomb an oil refinery at La Spezia, and to lay mines in the harbour. Both operations were successful.
Searching for Scharnhorst and Gneisenau
In early February 1941, the battleships and headed into the Atlantic during Operation Berlin on the orders of Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, commander of the German Navy. They were to disrupt Allied shipping and draw capital ships from other areas. On 8 March, Force H and Ark Royal were ordered to the Canary Islands to search for the battleships, and to cover convoys crossing from the United States. Ark Royal used her aircraft to search for captured ships returning to Germany under the control of prize crews. Three ships were located on 19 March: two scuttled themselves, while the third—SS Polykarp— reached France.
On the evening of 21 March 1941 a Fairey Fulmar from Ark Royal stumbled across Scharnhorst and Gneisenau at sea. Because of a radio malfunction, the crew had to return to Ark Royal to report, by which time the German ships had escaped under fog. The next day, Ark Royal re-established air patrols in the hope of re-locating the raiders. During the day, a catapult malfunction destroyed a Fairey Swordfish; flinging the fuselage into the sea ahead of the carrier. Unable to stop, Ark Royal ran over the Swordfish and was overhead when the aircraft's depth charges detonated. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau reached Brest without British harassment, while Ark Royal returned to Gibraltar for repairs, arriving on 24 March.
Malta convoys and Operation Tiger
Ark Royal spent April alternating between covering convoys and delivering aircraft to Malta and forays into the Atlantic to hunt commerce raiders. By May 1941, Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps were driving through North Africa towards the Suez Canal, pushing the Western Desert Force before them. With British forces close to collapse and strategic locations threatened, the British High Command risked sending a reinforcement convoy across the Mediterranean to Alexandria. The convoy consisted of five large transport ships, escorted by Ark Royal, the battlecruiser Renown, the battleship , the cruisers , , , and , and screened by destroyers of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla. Prior to Ark Royals departure, Captain Holland left to recuperate from stress and poor health, and was replaced by Captain Loben Maund. The convoy left Gibraltar on 6 May, and was detected by Italian aircraft. The convoy—limited to and escorted by so many capital ships—was such a tempting target that Italian and German aircraft were mobilised.
The British convoy came under air attack on 8 May, first by the Italian air force, then the German Luftwaffe. Over the day, 12 of Ark Royals Fairey Fulmars (the maximum number available) drove off over 50 aircraft, with the assistance of targeting information from Sheffields radar and anti-aircraft fire from the escorts. During the initial waves, one Fulmar was lost, killing Flight Lieutenant Rupert Tillard and Lieutenant Mark Somerville; another was destroyed with the aircrew recovered, while several others were damaged. Consequently, only seven were able to face the main Luftwaffe force of 34 aircraft, while an attack just before dark was driven off by two aircraft and heavy fire from the ships. The convoy survived without serious damage: the only casualties were to mines, with the Empire Song sunk and New Zealand Star damaged but able to reach port. Ark Royal underwent another aerial attack on 12 May, during her return to Gibraltar. Later that month, she and fellow aircraft carrier Furious delivered Hawker Hurricanes to support Malta.
Hunting the Bismarck
On 18 May 1941, the German battleship and heavy cruiser began Operation Rheinübung by breaking into the Atlantic to raid shipping. After sinking the battlecruiser Hood and damaging the battleship during the Battle of the Denmark Strait, Bismarck shook off her pursuers and headed for the French Atlantic coast. Ark Royal, Renown, and Sheffield—accompanied by , , , , , and —were dispatched to the Atlantic on 23 May to search for the battleship. On 26 May, a Swordfish from Ark Royal located Bismarck and began to shadow her, while the Home Fleet was mobilised to pursue.
At the time of detection, the British ships were away and would not catch Bismarck before she reached Saint-Nazaire, putting her safely under the air cover of the Luftwaffe once in range and while being repaired at the Normandie drydock. Fifteen Swordfish bombers were armed with torpedoes and sent to delay the ship. Sheffield, also shadowing Bismarck, was between Ark Royal and Bismarck. The aircraft mistook the British cruiser for their target and fired torpedoes. The torpedoes were fitted with unreliable magnetic detonators, which caused most to explode on contact with the water, while Sheffield evaded the rest. After realising his mistake, one of the pilots signalled 'Sorry for the kipper' to Sheffield.
On return to the carrier, the Swordfish were re-armed with contact-detonator warhead torpedoes, and launched at 19:15 for a second attack; locating and attacking Bismarck just before sunset. Three torpedoes hit the battleship: two detonated forward of the engine rooms, while the third struck the starboard steering compartment and jammed her rudder in a 15° port turn. Bismarck was forced to sail in circles until a combination of alternating propeller speeds was found which would keep her on a reasonably steady course which, in the prevailing force 8 wind and sea state, forced her to sail towards the British warships with almost no manoeuvring capability. The German battleship suffered heavy attack during the night of 26–27 May, and sank at 10:39 hours on 27 May.
Escorting the Malta convoys
Ark Royal and the ships of Force H returned to Gibraltar on 29 May 1941. Despite the boost in Allied morale from the sinking of the battleship Bismarck, the war in the Mediterranean was going against the Allies. Greece and Crete had fallen to the Axis Powers, and the Afrika Korps was preparing to launch a final push into Egypt. Malta remained an important stronghold in the Mediterranean, but was coming under increased pressure from Italian and German air attacks, and could no longer be supplied from the east since the fall of Crete.
Ark Royal was pressed into service, delivering aircraft to Malta during several supply runs throughout June and July, and escorting the convoys of Operation Substance in July and Operation Halberd in September. Despite some losses, the convoys succeeded in keeping Malta supplied and fighting. The continued Allied presence in Malta was a considerable problem for Rommel in Africa, who was losing as much as ⅓ of his supplies from Italy to submarines and bombers based there. Adolf Hitler decided to send a flotilla of U-boats into the Mediterranean to attack Allied shipping, against the advice of Großadmiral Raeder.
Final voyage and sinking
On 10 November 1941, Ark Royal ferried more aircraft to Malta before returning to Gibraltar. Admiral Somerville had been warned of U-boats off the Spanish coast, and reminded Force H to be vigilant. Also at sea was Friedrich Guggenberger's , which had received a report that Force H was returning to Gibraltar.
On 13 November, at 15:40, the sonar operator aboard the destroyer detected an unidentified sound, but assumed it was the propellers of a nearby destroyer. One minute later, Ark Royal was struck amidships by a torpedo, between the fuel bunkers and bomb store, and directly below the bridge island. The explosion caused Ark Royal to shake, hurled loaded torpedo-bombers into the air, and killed 44 year old Able Seaman Edward Mitchell, the only man to die in the sinking. The torpedo punched a 130 ft x 30 ft (40m x 9m) hole in the ship's bottom and starboard side below the water-line after running deep and hitting the bilge keel, inboard of the side protection system. The hit caused flooding of the starboard boiler room, main switchboard, oil tanks, and over of the ship's starboard bilge. The explosion knocked out all internal communications and the starboard power train, causing the rear half of the ship to lose power.
Immediately after the torpedo strike, Captain Maund ordered the engines to full stop, but with the communications knocked out had to send a runner to the engine room. The ship's continued motion enlarged the hole in the hull, and by the time Ark Royal stopped she had taken on a great deal of water and begun to list to starboard, reaching 18° from centre within 20 minutes. Considering the list of the carrier, and the fact that other carriers, including Courageous and Glorious, had sunk rapidly with heavy loss of life, Maund gave the order to abandon ship. The crew were assembled on the flight deck to determine who would remain on board to try to save the ship while Legion came alongside to take off the rest. As a result, comprehensive damage control measures were not initiated until 49 minutes after the attack. The flooding spread unchecked, exacerbated by covers and hatches left open during evacuation of the lower decks.
Water spread to the centreline boiler room, which started to flood from below, and power was lost shipwide when the boiler uptakes became choked; Ark Royal had no backup diesel generators. About half an hour after the explosion, the carrier appeared to stabilise. Admiral Somerville, determined to save Ark Royal, ordered damage control parties back to the carrier before taking the battleship Malaya to Gibraltar to organise salvage efforts. The damage control parties re-lit a boiler, restoring power to the bilge pumps. The destroyer came alongside to provide power and additional pumps, while Swordfish aircraft from Gibraltar flew overhead to supplement anti-submarine patrols. The tug Thames arrived from Gibraltar at 20:00 and attached a tow line to Ark Royal, but the flooding had caused the ship to list more severely. Rising water reached the boiler room fan flat, an uninterrupted compartment running the width of the ship. This forced the shutdown of the restored boiler.
The list reached 20° between 02:05 and 02:30, and when 'abandon ship' was declared again at 04:00, had reached 27°. Ark Royals complement had been evacuated to Legion by 04:30; with the exception of Mitchell, there were no fatalities. The 1,487 officers and crew were transported to Gibraltar. The list reached 45° before Ark Royal capsized and sank at 06:19 on 14 November. Witnesses reported the carrier rolling to 90°, where she remained for three minutes before inverting. Ark Royal then broke in two, the aft sinking within a couple of minutes, followed by the bow.
Investigation
A Board of Inquiry was established to investigate the loss. Based on its findings, Captain Loben Maund was court-martialled in February 1942. He was found guilty on two counts of negligence: one of failing to ensure that properly constituted damage control parties had remained on board after the general evacuation, and one of failing to ensure the ship was in a sufficient state of readiness to deal with possible damage. The board tempered their judgement with an acknowledgement that a high standard was being expected of Maund, and that he was primarily concerned with the welfare of his crew.
The Bucknill Committee, which had been set up to investigate the loss of major warships, also produced a report. This report said that the lack of backup power sources was a major design failure, which contributed to the loss: Ark Royal depended on electricity for much of her operation, and once the boilers and steam-driven dynamos were knocked out, the loss of power made damage control difficult. The committee recommended the design of the bulkheads and boiler intakes be improved to decrease the risk of widespread flooding in boiler rooms and machine spaces, while the uninterrupted boiler room flat was criticised. The design flaws were rectified in the Illustrious- and Implacable-class carriers, under construction at the time.
The Board of Inquiry closed its report with the observation that Ark Royal had sunk east of Europa Point, the southernmost tip of Gibraltar. This was accepted as the wreck location for 60 years.
Rediscovery
The location of the wreck was undetermined until mid-December 2002, when the wreck was discovered by an underwater survey company, C & C Technologies, Inc, using a sonar-equipped autonomous underwater vehicle, from Gibraltar, at about 1,000 metres depth. The company had been contracted by the BBC as part of a documentary on maritime archaeology related to major battles of the Royal Navy. The Ark Royal wreck lies in two main pieces with the stern section sitting upright and the bow section upside down. of the bow is separated from the rest of the ship's hull. A large debris field, which includes the funnel and bridge island, parts of the ship that came loose as the carrier sank, and aircraft from the hangars, lies between the two hull sections. Analysis revealed that the port side of the ship hit the seabed first.
The wreck was found further east than expected. Researchers originally thought the wreck had been carried by currents farther into the Mediterranean as she sank—that the ship had travelled eastwards underwater before reaching the seabed. The presence near the hull pieces of other debris, including a Swordfish bomber that was tipped off the flight deck before the ship rolled, proved this false. If the current had pushed the hull pieces any significant distance sideways as they sank, debris would have been spread over a much wider area. It seems though that eastward currents had affected her progress towards Gibraltar during the time she was under tow.
Study of the wreck also showed that restarting the engines to provide power increased the stresses placed on the hull, adding to the flooding. Once power was then lost, it was impossible to prevent the ship from sinking—her fate was more the result of design flaws than of the actions of her captain.
Notes
a. The Washington Naval Treaty (signed in February 1922) imposed a limit of 135,000 tons on total British aircraft carrier tonnage, with no one ship allowed to exceed 33,000 tons, and only two to exceed 27,000 tons. The London Naval Treaty (signed in April 1930) prevented signatories from constructing new capital ships, or converting existing capital ships into aircraft carriers, until 1937.
Citations
References
Books
Websites
External links
HMS Ark Royal – Operational History and Photos
Video of HMS Ark Royal engaging high level bombers with her AA armament
Picture of Ark Royal sinking with Swordfish on deck.
1937 ships
Aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy
Maritime incidents in November 1941
Ships built on the River Mersey
Ships sunk by German submarines in World War II
World War II aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom
World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
2002 archaeological discoveries
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] |
201182
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need%20for%20achievement
|
Need for achievement
|
Need for achievement (N-Ach) is an individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards. The term was first used by Henry Murray and associated with a range of actions. These include: "intense, prolonged and repeated efforts to accomplish something difficult. To work with singleness of purpose towards a high and distant goal. To have the determination to win". The concept of N-Ach was subsequently popularized by the psychologist David McClelland.
Overview
This personality trait is characterized by an enduring and consistent concern with setting and meeting high standards of achievement. This need is influenced by internal drive for action (intrinsic motivation), and the pressure exerted by the expectations of others (extrinsic motivation). Measured with the thematic apperception test (TAT), need for achievement motivates an individual to succeed in competition, and to excel in activities important to them.
Need for Achievement is related to the difficulty of tasks people choose to undertake. Those with low N-Ach may choose very easy tasks, in order to minimize risk of failure, or highly difficult tasks, such that a failure would not be embarrassing. Those with high N-Ach tend to choose moderately difficult tasks, feeling that they are challenging, but within reach.
People high in N-Ach are characterized by a tendency to seek challenges and a high degree of independence. Their most satisfying reward is the recognition of their achievements.
Sources of high N-Ach include:
Parents who encouraged independence in childhood
Praise and rewards for success
Association of achievement with positive feelings
Association of achievement with one's own competence and effort, not luck
A desire to be effective or challenged
Intrapersonal Strength
Desirability
Feasibility
Goal Setting Abilities
In the work place organizations can find it hard to recognize those who are high in the N-Ach and those who are not. When people who need and require the necessary attention for their efforts to be recognized by someone who is in an influential position to them; if they do not receive the satisfaction or recognition, they may become dissatisfied and frustrated with their work or position. This can lead to a myriad of problems in job and self-resentment and disapproval.
This can be seen as a negative emotional reaction, however in turn, as we learned from David McClelland, the need for achievement will take its course in different ways. A person will either take small easy tasks that they know they can accomplish and be congratulated for, or they will accept extremely challenging tasks for they fear not risk of embarrassment in failure due to the high demand of the procured undertaking. It has been found that employees motivated by the need for achievement are typically more of the risk takers in the organization. They are also the employees that want to constantly be challenged to learn new things.
These people tend to become very absorbed in their work. This is why they require recognition when a task is completed.
So, If a risk taker becomes dissatisfied due to the lack or appreciation for their work, they teeter back and forth on the edge of a knife. On either side is an enormous plunge and it can go either way. The employee will either continue to work and take more risks and be creative and try harder to impress and gain recognition. Or they will go find somewhere else to work. In this manner, employers, managers, colleagues, and co-workers, need to respect everyone who has a need for achievement personality and give them the credit they require to keep them happy. This will lead to a productive, happy, and well established work force. Here are some road blocks for those that those who have a high need for achievement. David McClelland suggested other characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people:
Achievement is more important than material or financial reward.
Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving praise or recognition.
Financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in itself.
Security is not prime motivator, nor is status.
Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual).
Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing things better.
Theory
The pioneering research work of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the 1930s, summarized in Explorations in Personality, provided the start point for future studies of personality, especially those relating to needs and motives. David C. McClelland's and his associates' investigations of achievement motivation have particular relevance to the emergence of leadership. McClelland was interested in the possibility of deliberately arousing a motive to achieve in an attempt to explain how individuals express their preferences for particular outcomes—a general problem of motivation. In this connection, the need for achievement refers to an individual's preference for success under conditions of competition. The vehicle McClelland employed to establish the presence of an achievement motive was the type of fantasy a person expressed on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray, who note in Explorations in Personality that "...when a person interprets an ambiguous social situation he is apt to expose his own personality as much as the phenomenon to which he is attending... Each picture should suggest some critical situation and be effective in evoking a fantasy relating to it" (p531). The test is composed of a series of pictures that subjects are asked to interpret and describe to the psychologist. The TAT has been widely used to support assessment of needs and motives.
In 1961 McClelland published The Achieving Society, which articulated his model of human motivation. McClelland contended that three dominant needs -for achievement, for power, and for affiliation- underpin human motivation. McClelland believed that the relative importance of each need varies among individuals and cultures. Arguing that commonly used hiring tests using IQ and personality assessments were poor predictors of competency, McClelland proposed that companies should base hiring decisions on demonstrated competency in relevant fields, rather than on standardized test scores. Iconoclastic in their time, McClelland’s ideas have become standard practice in many corporations.
The procedure in McClelland's initial investigation was to arouse in the test audience a concern with their achievement. A control group was used in which arousal was omitted. In the course of this experiment, McClelland discovered through analyzing the stories on the TAT that initial arousal was not necessary. Instead, members of the control group — individuals who had had no prior arousal — demonstrated significant differences in their stories, some writing stories with a high achievement content and some submitting stories with a low achievement content. Using results based on the Thematic Apperception Test, McClelland demonstrated that individuals in a society can be grouped into high achievers and low achievers based on their scores on what he called "N-Ach".
McClelland and his associates have since extended their work in fantasy analysis to include different age groups, occupational groups, and nationalities in their investigations of the strength of need for achievement. These investigations have indicated that the N-Ach score increases with a rise in occupational level. Invariably, businessmen, managers, and entrepreneurs are high scorers. Other investigations into the characteristics of the high achievers have revealed that accomplishment on the job represents an end in itself; monetary rewards serve as an index of this accomplishment. In addition, these other studies found that the high achievers, though identified as managers, businessmen, and entrepreneurs, are not gamblers. A high emotional intelligence calls for a high need for achievement while a low emotional intelligence calls for a lower need for achievement. They will accept risk only to the degree they believe their personal contributions will make a difference in the final outcome.
An experiment realized to entry level managers of AT&T from 1956 to 1960, studied the level of achievement attained during a period of 8 to 16 years, showing that High n-Achievement was associated with managerial success at lower levels of management jobs, in which promotion depends more on individual contributions than it does at higher levels. At the higher levels, in which promotion depends on demonstrated ability to manage others, a high n-Achievement is not associated with success; by contrast, the leadership motive pattern is so associated, in all likelihood because it involves a high n-Power, emerging as a concern for influencing people.
These explorations into the achievement motive seem to turn naturally into the investigation of national differences based on Max Weber's thesis that the industrialization and economic development of the Western nations were related to the Protestant ethic and its corresponding values supporting work and achievement. McClelland and his associates have satisfied themselves that such a relationship, viewed historically through an index of national power consumption, indeed exists. Differences related to individual, as well as to national, accomplishments depend on the presence or absence of an achievement motive in addition to economic resources or the infusion of financial assistance. High achievers can be viewed as satisfying a need for self-actualization through accomplishments in their job assignments as a result of their particular knowledge, their particular experiences, and the particular environments in which they have lived.
Measurement
The techniques McClelland and his collaborators developed to measure N-Ach, N-Affil and N-Pow (see McClelland et al., 1958) can be viewed as a radical break with the dominant psychometric tradition. However, it should be recognized that McClelland's thinking was strongly influenced by the pioneering work of Henry Murray, both in terms of Murray's model of human needs and motivational processes (1938) and his work with the OSS during World War Two. It was during this period that Murray introduced the idea of "situation tests" and multi-rater / multi-method assessments. It was Murray who first identified the significance of Need for Achievement, Power and Affiliation and placed these in the context of an integrated motivational model.
Whilst trait-based personality theory assume that high-level competencies like initiative, creativity, and leadership can be assessed using "internally consistent" measures (see psychometrics), the McClelland measures recognize that such competencies are difficult and demanding activities which will neither be developed nor displayed unless people are undertaking activities they care about (i.e. are strongly motivated to undertake). Furthermore, it is the cumulative number of independent, but cumulative and substitutable, components of competence they bring to bear while seeking to carry out these activities that will determine their success. Accordingly, the N-Ach, N-Aff and N-Pow scoring systems simply count how many components of competence people bring to bear whilst carrying out activities they have a strong personal inclination (or motivation) to undertake.
McClelland’s research led him to formulate psychological characteristics of persons with strong need for achievement. According to McClelland and David Winter (Motivating Economic Achievement), the following features accompany high level of achievement motivation:
Moderate risk propensity;
Undertaking innovative and engaging tasks;
Internal locus of control and responsibility for own decisions and behaviors;
Need for precise goal setting.
See also
Goal orientation
Need for affiliation
Need for cognition
Need for power
Need theory
Further reading
Lenk, H (1979). Social Philosophy of Athletics: A Pluralistic and Practice-Oriented Philosophical Analysis of Top Level Amateur Sport. Stipes Pub Llc.
McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1958). A scoring manual for the achievement motive; R. W. Heyns, J. Veroff, & J. W. Atkinson, A scoring manual for the affiliation motive; J. Veroff, A scoring manual for the power motive. Respectively, Chapters 12, 13 and 14 in J. W. Atkinson (Ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. New York: Van Nostrand.
Raven, J. (2001). The McClelland/McBer Competency Models. Chapter 15 in J. Raven & J. Stephenson (Eds.), Competence in the Learning Society. New York: Peter Lang.
Breidebach, G. (2012). Bildungsbenachteiligung. Warum die einen nicht können und die anderen nicht wollen. Hamburg: Dr Kovac Verlag.
References
Motivational theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Barkley
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Charles Barkley
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Charles Wade Barkley (born February 20, 1963) is an American former professional basketball player and current television analyst. Nicknamed "Sir Charles", "Chuck" and "the Round Mound of Rebound", Barkley played 16 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for three teams. Though shorter than the typical power forward, he used his strength and aggressiveness to become one of the NBA's most dominant rebounders. He was a versatile player who had the ability to score, create plays, and defend. He was an 11-time NBA All-Star, an 11-time member of the All-NBA Team, and the 1993 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP). During the NBA's 50th anniversary, Barkley was named one of the league's 50 Greatest Players. He was again named to the 75 Greatest Players in NBA History for the league's 75th anniversary.
An All-American power forward at Auburn University, Barkley was drafted as a junior by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 5th pick of the 1984 NBA draft. In his rookie season, Barkley was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team in 1985. In the 1986–87 season, Barkley led the league with the highest rebounding average and earned his first NBA rebounding title. He was named the NBA All-Star Game MVP in 1991, and in 1993 with the Phoenix Suns, he was voted the league's MVP. He competed in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic Games, winning two gold medals as a member of the U.S. national team. In 2000, he retired as the fourth player in NBA history to achieve 20,000 points, 10,000 rebounds and 4,000 assists. Since his retirement, Tim Duncan and Kevin Garnett have joined the 20K/10K/4K Club. Barkley is a two-time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, being inducted in 2006 for his individual career, and in 2010 as a member of the "Dream Team".
Barkley was popular with the fans and media and made the NBA's All-Interview Team for his last 13 seasons in the league. He was frequently involved in on- and off-court fights and sometimes stirred national controversy, as in March 1991 when he spat on a young girl while attempting to spit at a heckler, and as in 1993 when he declared that sports figures should not be considered role models. Since retiring as a player, Barkley has had a successful career as an NBA analyst. He works for Turner Network Television (TNT) on Inside the NBA alongside Shaquille O'Neal, Kenny Smith, and Ernie Johnson as a studio pundit for its coverage of NBA games (for which he has won four Sports Emmy Awards). In addition, Barkley has written several books and has shown an interest in politics.
Early life
Barkley was born and raised in Leeds, Alabama, 10 miles outside Birmingham. He was the first black baby born at a segregated, all-white town hospital and was in the first group of black students at his elementary school. His parents divorced when he was young after his father abandoned the family, which included younger brother Darryl Barkley. His mother remarried and they had a son, John Glenn. Another brother, Rennie, died in infancy. His stepfather was killed in an accident when Charles was 11 years old.
He attended Leeds High School. As a junior, Barkley stood and weighed . He failed to make the varsity team and was named as a reserve. However, during the summer Barkley grew to and earned a starting position on the varsity as a senior. He averaged 19.1 points and 17.9 rebounds per game and led his team to a 26–3 record en route to the state semi-finals. Despite his improvement, Barkley garnered no attention from college scouts until the state high school semi-finals, where he scored 26 points against Alabama's most highly recruited player, Bobby Lee Hurt. An assistant to Auburn University's head coach, Sonny Smith, was at the game and reported seeing, "a fat guy...who can play like the wind". Barkley was soon recruited by Smith and majored in business management while attending Auburn University.
College
Barkley played collegiate basketball at Auburn for three seasons. Although he struggled to control his weight, he excelled as a player and led the SEC in rebounding each year. He became a popular crowd-pleaser, exciting the fans with dunks and blocked shots that belied his lack of height and overweight frame. It was not uncommon to see the hefty Barkley grab a defensive rebound and, instead of passing, dribble the entire length of the court and finish at the opposite end with a two-handed dunk. His physical size and skills ultimately earned him the nickname "The Round Mound of Rebound" and the "Crisco Kid".
During his college career, Barkley played the center position, despite being shorter than the average center. His height, officially listed as , is stated as in his book, I May Be Wrong but I Doubt It. He became a member of Auburn's All-Century team and still holds the Auburn record for career field goal percentage with 62.6%. He received numerous awards, including Southeastern Conference (SEC) Player of the Year (1984), three All-SEC selections and one Second Team All-American selection. Later, Barkley was named the SEC Player of the Decade for the 1980s by the Birmingham Post-Herald.
In Barkley's three-year college career, he averaged 14.1 points on 62.6% field goal shooting, 9.6 rebounds, 1.6 assists and 1.7 blocks per game. In 1984, he led the Tigers to their first NCAA Tournament in school history and finished with 23 points on 80% field goal shooting, 17 rebounds, 4 assists, 2 steals, and 2 blocks. Auburn retired Barkley's No. 34 jersey on March 3, 2001.
He was one of 74 college players invited to the spring tryouts for the 1984 U.S. Olympic team, coached by Bob Knight. Barkley made the initial cut in April to the final twenty, but was one of four released in May (with John Stockton, Terry Porter, and Maurice Martin) in the penultimate cut to sixteen players.
In 2010, Barkley admitted that he asked for, and had been given, money from sports agents during his career at Auburn. Barkley called the sums he had requested from agents as being "chump change", and went on to say, "Why can't an agent lend me some money and I'll pay him back when I graduate?" According to Barkley, he paid back all of the money he had borrowed after signing his first NBA contract.
NBA career
Philadelphia 76ers (1984–1992)
Barkley left before his final year at Auburn and made himself eligible for the 1984 NBA draft. He was selected with the fifth pick in the first round by the Philadelphia 76ers, two slots after the Chicago Bulls drafted Michael Jordan. He joined a veteran team that included Julius Erving, Moses Malone and Maurice Cheeks, players who took Philadelphia to the 1983 NBA championship. Under the tutelage of Malone, Barkley was able to manage his weight and learned to prepare and condition himself properly for a game; Barkley cited Malone as the most influential player of his career, and he often referred to him as "Dad". He averaged 14.0 points and 8.6 rebounds per game during the regular season and earned a berth on the All-Rookie Team. In the postseason, the Sixers advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals but were defeated in five games by the Boston Celtics. As a rookie in the postseason, Barkley averaged 14.9 points and 11.1 rebounds per game.
During his second year, Barkley improved his game under the leadership of Moses Malone during the off-season with his workouts, in the process he became the team's leading rebounder and number two scorer, averaging 20.0 points and 12.8 rebounds per game. He became the Sixers' starting power forward and helped lead his team into the playoffs, averaging 25.0 points on .578 shooting from the field and 15.8 rebounds per game. Despite his efforts, Philadelphia was defeated 4–3 by the Milwaukee Bucks in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals. He was named to the All-NBA Second Team.
Before the 1986–87 season, Moses Malone was traded to the Washington Bullets and Barkley began to assume control as the team leader. On November 4, 1986, Barkley recorded 34 points, 10 rebounds and a career-high 14 assists in a 121–125 loss to the Indiana Pacers. On March 20, 1987, Barkley recorded 26 points, 25 rebounds (career-high tying 16 offensive rebounds) and 9 assists in a 116–106 win over the Denver Nuggets. He earned his first and only rebounding title, averaging 14.6 rebounds per game and also led the league in offensive rebounds with 5.7 per game. He averaged 23.0 points on .594 shooting, earning his first trip to an NBA All-Star game and All-NBA Second Team honors for the second straight season. In the playoffs, Barkley averaged 24.6 points and 12.6 rebounds in a losing effort, for the second straight year, to the Bucks in a five-game first round playoff series.
The following season, Julius Erving announced his retirement and Barkley became the Sixers' franchise player. On November 30, 1988, Barkley recorded 41 points, 22 rebounds, 5 assists and 6 steals in a 114–106 win over the Blazers. Playing in 80 games and getting 300 more minutes than his nearest teammate, Barkley had his most productive season, averaging 28.3 points on .587 shooting and 11.9 rebounds per game. He appeared in his second All-Star Game and was named to the All-NBA First Team for the first time in his career. His celebrity status as the Sixers' franchise player led to his first appearance on the cover of Sports Illustrated. For the first time since the 1974–75 season, however, the 76ers failed to make the playoffs. In the 1988–89 season, Barkley continued to play well, averaging 25.8 points on .579 shooting and 12.5 rebounds per game. He earned his third straight All-Star Game appearance and was named to the All-NBA First team for the second straight season. Despite Barkley contributing 27.0 points on .644 shooting, 11.7 rebounds and 5.3 assists per game, the 76ers were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the New York Knicks.
During the 1989–90 season, despite receiving more first-place votes, Barkley finished second in MVP voting behind the Los Angeles Lakers' Magic Johnson. He was named Player of the Year by The Sporting News and Basketball Weekly. He averaged 25.2 points and 11.5 rebounds per game and a career-high .600 shooting. He was named to the All-NBA First Team for the third consecutive year and earned his fourth All-Star selection. He helped Philadelphia win 53 regular-season games, only to lose to the Chicago Bulls in a five-game Eastern Conference Semi-finals series. Barkley averaged 24.7 points and 15.5 rebounds in another postseason loss. His exceptional play continued into his seventh season, where he averaged 27.6 points on .570 shooting and 10.1 rebounds per game. His fifth straight All-Star Game appearance proved to be his best yet. He led the East to a 116–114 win over the West with 17 points and 22 rebounds, the most rebounds in an All-Star Game since Wilt Chamberlain recorded 22 in 1967. Barkley was presented with Most Valuable Player honors at the All-Star Game and, at the end of the season, named to the All-NBA First Team for the fourth straight year. That year, when the New York Times asked the San Antonio Spurs center David Robinson if he would choose Barkley or Jordan for his side in a hypothetical pickup game, Robinson said, "I would pick Barkley. When he is on his game, I think he has the biggest impact ever." In the playoffs, Philadelphia lost again to Jordan's Chicago Bulls in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals, with Barkley contributing 24.9 points and 10.5 rebounds per game.
The 1991–92 season was Barkley's final year in Philadelphia. In his last season, he wore number 32 instead of his 34 to honor Magic Johnson, who had announced prior to the start of the season that he was HIV-positive. Although the 76ers had initially retired the number 32 in honor of Billy Cunningham, it was unretired, with Cunningham's approval, for Barkley to wear. Following Johnson's announcement, Barkley also apologized for having made light of his condition. Responding to concerns that players may contract HIV by contact with Johnson, Barkley stated, "We're just playing basketball. It's not like we're going out to have unprotected sex with Magic."
In his final season with the Sixers, averaging 23.1 points on .552 shooting and 11.1 rebounds per game, Barkley earned his sixth straight All-Star appearance and was named to the All-NBA Second Team, his seventh straight appearance on either the first or second team. He ended his 76ers career ranked fourth in team history in total points (14,184), third in scoring average (23.3 ppg), third in rebounds (7,079), eighth in assists (2,276) and second in field-goal percentage (.576). He led Philadelphia in rebounding and field-goal percentage for seven consecutive seasons and in scoring for six straight years. However, Barkley demanded a trade out of Philadelphia after the Sixers failed to make the postseason with a 35–47 record. Barkley was initially traded to the Los Angeles Lakers before the end of the season, but the 76ers wound up retracting their deal a few hours later. On July 17, 1992, he was officially traded to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for Jeff Hornacek, Tim Perry and Andrew Lang.
During Barkley's eight seasons in Philadelphia, he became a household name and was one of the few NBA players to have an action figure produced by Kenner's Starting Lineup toy line. He also had his own signature shoe line with Nike. His outspoken and aggressive play, however, resulted in some on-court incidents, notoriously a fight with Detroit Pistons center Bill Laimbeer in 1990, which drew a record total $162,500 fine.
Spitting incident
On March 26, 1991, during a game versus the New Jersey Nets, Barkley attempted to spit on a fan who was allegedly heckling with racial slurs, but the result was his spit hitting a young girl. Rod Thorn, the NBA's president of operations at the time, suspended Barkley, without pay, for one game and fined him $10,000 for spitting and verbally abusing the fan. It became a national story and Barkley was vilified for it. Barkley, however, eventually developed a friendship with the girl and her family. He apologized and, among other things, provided them tickets to future games.
Upon retirement, Barkley was later quoted as stating, in regard to his career, "I was fairly controversial, I guess, but I regret only one thing—the spitting incident. But you know what? It taught me a valuable lesson. It taught me that I was getting way too intense during the game. It let me know I wanted to win way too bad. I had to calm down. I wanted to win at all costs. Instead of playing the game the right way and respecting the game, I only thought about winning."
Phoenix Suns (1992–1996)
The trade to Phoenix in the 1992–93 season went well for both Barkley and the Suns. In his first game with the Suns, Barkley almost recorded a triple-double after racking up 37 points, 21 rebounds (12 of which were offensive rebounds) and 8 assists in a 111–105 victory over the Los Angeles Clippers. He averaged 25.6 points on .520 shooting, 12.2 rebounds and a career high 5.1 assists per game, leading the Suns to an NBA best 62–20 record. For his efforts, Barkley won the league's Most Valuable Player Award, and was selected to play in his seventh straight All-Star Game. He became the third player ever to win league MVP honors in the season immediately after being traded, established multiple career highs and led Phoenix to their first NBA Finals appearance since 1976. Despite Barkley's proclamation to Jordan, that it was "destiny" for the Suns to win the title, they were defeated in six games by the Chicago Bulls. He averaged 26.6 points and 13.6 rebounds per game during the whole postseason, including 27.3 points, 13.0 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game throughout the championship series. In the fourth game of the Finals, Barkley recorded a triple-double after collecting 32 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists.
As a result of severe back pains, Barkley began to speculate that the 1993–94 season would be his last in Phoenix. Playing through the worst injury problems of his career, Barkley managed 21.6 points on .495 shooting and 11.2 rebounds per game. He was selected to his eighth consecutive All-Star Game, but did not play because of a torn right quadriceps tendon, and was named to the All-NBA Second Team. With Barkley fighting injuries, the Suns still managed a 56–26 record and made it to the Western Conference Semi-finals. Despite holding a 2–0 lead in the series, the Suns lost in seven games to the eventual champions, the Houston Rockets, who were led by Hakeem Olajuwon. Despite his injuries, in Game 3 of a first-round playoff series against the Golden State Warriors, Barkley hit 23 of 31 field-goal attempts and finished with 56 points, the then-third-highest total ever in a playoff game. After contemplating retirement in the off-season, Barkley returned for his eleventh season and continued to battle injuries. He struggled during the first half of the season, but managed to gradually improve, earning his ninth consecutive appearance in the All-Star Game. He averaged 23 points on .486 shooting and 11.1 rebounds per game, while leading the Suns to a 59–23 record. In the playoffs, despite having a 3–1 lead in the series, the Suns once again lost to the defending and eventual two-time champion Houston Rockets in seven games. Barkley averaged 25.7 points on .500 shooting and 13.4 rebounds per game in the postseason, but was limited in Game 7 of the semi-finals by a leg injury.
The 1995–96 season was Barkley's last with the Phoenix Suns. He led the team in scoring, rebounds and steals, averaging 23.3 points on .500 shooting, 11.6 rebounds and a career high .777 free throw shooting. He earned his tenth appearance in an All-Star Game as the top vote-getter among Western Conference players and posted his 18th career triple-double on November 22. He also became just the tenth player in NBA history to reach 20,000 points and 10,000 rebounds in their career. In the postseason, Barkley averaged 25.5 points and 13.5 rebounds per game in a four-game first round playoff loss to the San Antonio Spurs. After the Suns closed out the season with a 41–41 record and a first-round playoff loss, Barkley was traded to Houston in exchange for Sam Cassell, Robert Horry, Mark Bryant and Chucky Brown.
During his career with the Suns, Barkley excelled, earning All-NBA and All-Star honors in each of his four seasons.
Role model controversy
Throughout his career, Barkley argued that athletes should not be considered role models. He stated, "A million guys can dunk a basketball in jail; should they be role models?" In 1993, his argument prompted national news when he wrote the text for his "I am not a role model" Nike commercial. Dan Quayle, the former Vice President of the United States, called it a "family-values message" for Barkley's oft-ignored call for parents and teachers to quit looking to him to "raise your kids" and instead be role models themselves.
Barkley's message sparked a great public debate about the nature of role models. He argued: I think the media demands that athletes be role models because there's some jealousy involved. It's as if they say, this is a young black kid playing a game for a living and making all this money, so we're going to make it tough on him. And what they're really doing is telling kids to look up to someone they can't become, because not many people can be like we are. Kids can't be like Michael Jordan.
Houston Rockets (1996–2000)
The trade to the Houston Rockets in the 1996–97 season was Barkley's last chance at capturing an NBA championship title. He joined a veteran team that included two of the NBA's 50 Greatest Players, Hakeem Olajuwon and Clyde Drexler. To begin the season, Barkley was suspended for the season opener and fined $5,000 for fighting Charles Oakley during an October 25, 1996 preseason game. After Oakley committed a flagrant foul on Barkley, Barkley responded by shoving Oakley. In his first game with the Houston Rockets, Charles Barkley had a career-high 33 rebounds. He continued to battle injuries throughout the season and played only 53 games, missing 14 because of a laceration and bruise on his left pelvis, 11 because of a sprained right ankle, and four due to suspensions. He became the team's second-leading scorer, averaging 19.2 points on .484 shooting; the first time since his rookie year that he averaged below 20 points per game. With Olajuwon taking most of the shots, Barkley focused primarily on rebounding, averaging 13.5 per game, the second-best in his career. The Rockets ended the regular season with a 57–25 record and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the Utah Jazz. Barkley averaged 17.9 points and 12.0 rebounds per game in another postseason loss.
The 1997–98 season was another injury-plagued year for Barkley. He averaged 15.2 points on .485 shooting and 11.7 rebounds per game. The Rockets ended the season with a 41–41 record and were eliminated in five games by the Utah Jazz in the first round of the playoffs. Limited by injuries, Barkley played four games in the series and averaged career lows of 9.0 points and 5.3 rebounds in 21.8 minutes per game. During the lockout-shortened season, Barkley played 42 regular-season games and managed 16.1 points on .478 shooting and 12.3 rebounds per game. He became the second player in NBA history, following Wilt Chamberlain, to accumulate 23,000 points, 12,000 rebounds and 4,000 assists in his career. The Rockets concluded the shortened season with a 31–19 record and advanced to the playoffs. In his last postseason appearance, Barkley averaged 23.5 points on .529 shooting and 13.8 rebounds per game in a first-round playoff loss to the Los Angeles Lakers. He concluded his postseason career averaging 23 points on .513 shooting, 12.9 rebounds and 3.9 assists per game in 123 games.
The 1999–2000 season was Barkley's final year in the NBA. Initially, Barkley averaged 14.5 points on .477 shooting and 10.5 rebounds per game. Along with Shaquille O'Neal, Barkley was ejected from a November 10, 1999 game against the Los Angeles Lakers. After O'Neal blocked a layup by Barkley, O'Neal shoved Barkley, who then threw the ball at O'Neal. Barkley's season and career seemingly ended prematurely at the age of 36 after rupturing his left quadriceps tendon on December 8, 1999, in Philadelphia, where his career began. Refusing to allow his injury to be the last image of his career, Barkley returned after four months for one final game. On April 19, 2000, in a home game against the Vancouver Grizzlies, Barkley scored a memorable basket on an offensive rebound and putback, a common trademark during his career. He accomplished what he set out to do after being activated from the injured list, and walked off the court to a standing ovation. He stated, "I can't explain what tonight meant. I did it for me. I've won and lost a lot of games, but the last memory I had was being carried off the court. I couldn't get over the mental block of being carried off the court. It was important psychologically to walk off the court on my own." After the basket, Barkley immediately retired and concluded his sixteen-year Hall of Fame career.
Olympics
Barkley was invited by Bob Knight to try out for United States men's basketball team for the 1984 Summer Olympics. He made it all the way to final cuts, but was not selected for the team, despite outplaying almost all of the front-court players there. According to Knight, Barkley was cut because of poor defense.
Barkley competed in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic Games and won two gold medals as a member of the United States men's basketball team. International rules that previously prevented NBA players from playing in the Olympics were changed in 1992, allowing Barkley and fellow NBA players to compete in the Olympics for the first time. The team was nicknamed the "Dream Team" and went 6–0 in the Olympic qualifying tournament and 8–0 against Olympic opponents. The team averaged an Olympic record 117.3 points a game and won games by an average of 43.8 points, only surpassed by the 1956 U.S. Olympic team. Barkley led the team with 18.0 points on 71.1% field goal shooting and set a then-Olympic single-game scoring record with 30 points in a 127–83 victory over Brazil. He also set a U.S. Men's Olympic record for highest three-point field goal percentage with 87.5% and added 4.1 rebounds and 2.6 steals per game. During the game Angola, Barkley elbowed Herlander Coimbra in the chest and was unapologetic after the game, claiming he was hit first. Barkley was called for an intentional foul on the play. Coimbra's resulting free throw was the only point scored by Angola during a 46–1 run by the U.S.
At the 1996 Atlanta Summer Olympic Games, Barkley led the team in scoring, rebounds, and field goal percentage. He averaged 12.4 points on 81.6% field goal shooting, setting a U.S. Men's Olympic record. In addition, he also contributed 6.6 rebounds per game. Under Barkley's leadership, the team once again compiled a perfect 8–0 record and captured gold medal.
Player profile
Barkley played the power forward position, but occasionally played small forward and center. He was known for his unusual build as a basketball player, stockier than most small forwards, yet shorter than most power forwards he faced. However, Barkley was still capable of outplaying both taller and quicker opponents because of his unusual combination of strength and agility.
Barkley was a prolific scorer who averaged 22.1 points per game during the regular season for his career and 23.0 points per game in the playoffs for his career. Barkley was an incredibly efficient offensive force, leading the NBA in 2-point field goal percentage every season from the 1986–87 season to the 1990–91 season. He led the league in effective field goal percentage in both the 1986–87 and 1987–88 seasons as well, and also led the league in offensive rating in both the 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons. He was one of the NBA's most versatile players and accurate scorers capable of scoring from anywhere on the court and established himself as one of the NBA's premier clutch players. During his NBA career, Barkley was a constant mismatch because he possessed a set of very uncommon skills and could play in a variety of positions. He would use all facets of his game in a single play; as a scorer, he had the ability to score from the perimeter and the post, using an array of spin moves and fadeaways, or finishing a fast break with a powerful dunk. He was one of the most efficient scorers of all-time, scoring at 54.13% total field goal percentage for his season career and 51.34% total field goal shooting for his playoff career (including a career-high season average of 60% during the 1989–90 NBA season).
Barkley is the shortest player in NBA history to lead the league in rebounding when he averaged a career-high 14.6 rebounds per game during the 1986–87 season. His tenacious and aggressive form of play built into an undersized frame that fluctuated between and helped cement his legacy as one of the greatest rebounders in NBA history, averaging 11.7 rebounds per game in the regular season for his career and 12.9 rebounds per game in his playoff career and totaling 12,546 rebounds for his season career. Barkley topped the NBA in offensive rebounding for three straight years and was most famous among very few power forwards who could control a defensive rebound, dribble the length of the court and finish at the rim with a powerful dunk.
Barkley also possessed considerable defensive talents led by an aggressive demeanor, foot speed and his capacity to read the floor to anticipate for steals, a reason why he established his career as the second All-Time leader in steals for the power forward position and leader of the highest all-time steal per game average for the power forward position. Despite being undersized for both the small forward and power forward positions, he also finished among the all-time leaders in blocked shots. His speed and leaping ability made him one of the few power forwards capable of running down court to block a faster player with a chase-down block.
In a SLAM magazine issue ranking NBA greats, Barkley was ranked among the top 20 players of All-Time. In the magazine, NBA Hall-of-Famer Bill Walton commented on Barkley's ability. Walton stated, "Barkley is like Magic [Johnson] and Larry [Bird] in that they don't really play a position. He plays everything; he plays basketball. There is nobody who does what Barkley does. He's a dominant rebounder, a dominant defensive player, a three-point shooter, a dribbler, a playmaker."
Legacy
During his 16-year NBA career, Barkley was regarded as one of the most controversial, outspoken and dominating players in the history of basketball. His impact on the sport went beyond his rebounding titles, assists, scoring and physical play. His confrontational mannerisms often led to technical fouls and fines on the court, and his larger than life persona sometimes gave rise to national controversy off of it, such as when he was featured in ads that rejected pro athletes as role models and declared, "I am not a role model." Although his words often led to controversy, according to Barkley his mouth was never the cause because it always spoke the truth. He stated, "I don't create controversies. They're there long before I open my mouth. I just bring them to your attention."
Besides his on-court fights with other players, he has exhibited confrontational behavior off-court. He was arrested for breaking a man's nose during a fight after a game with the Milwaukee Bucks and also for throwing a man through a plate-glass window in Orlando, after being struck with a glass of ice. Barkley continues to be popular with the fans and media.
As a player, Barkley was a perennial All-Star who earned league MVP honors in 1993. He employed a physical style of play that earned him the nicknames "Sir Charles" and "The Round Mound of Rebound". He was named to the All-NBA team eleven times and earned two gold medals as a member of the United States Olympic Basketball team. He led both teams in scoring and was instrumental in helping the 1992 "Dream Team" and 1996 Men's Basketball team compile a perfect 16–0 record. He retired as one of only four players in NBA history to record at least 20,000 points, 10,000 rebounds and 4,000 assists in their career. In 1996, Barkley, as part of the NBA's 50th Anniversary, was honored as one of the 50 greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA's 50th Anniversary Team.
In recognition of his collegiate and NBA achievements, Barkley's number 34 jersey was officially retired by Auburn University on March 3, 2001. In the same month, the Philadelphia 76ers also officially retired Barkley's number 34 jersey. On March 20, 2004, the Phoenix Suns honored Barkley as well by including him in the "Suns Ring of Honor". In recognition of his achievements as a player, Barkley was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2006. In October 2021, as part of the NBA's 75th Anniversary, Barkley was honored as one of the 75 greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA's 75th Anniversary Team.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1984–85
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 82 || 60 || 28.6 || .545 || .167 || .733 || 8.6 || 1.9 || 1.2 || 1.0 || 14.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1985–86
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 80 || 80 || 36.9 || .572 || .227 || .685 || 12.8 || 3.9 || 2.2 || 1.6 || 20.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1986–87
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 68 || 62 || 40.3 || .594 || .202 || .761 || style="background:#cfecec;"|14.6* || 4.9 || 1.8 || 1.5 ||23.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1987–88
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 80 || 80 || 39.6 || .587 || .280 || .751 || 11.9 || 3.2 || 1.3 || 1.3 || 28.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1988–89
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 79 || 79 || 39.1 || .579 || .216 || .753 || 12.5 || 4.1 || 1.6 || .9 || 25.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1989–90
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 79 || 79 || 39.1 || .600 || .217 || .749 || 11.5 || 3.9 || 1.9 || .6 || 25.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1990–91
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 67 || 67 || 37.3 || .570 || .284 || .722 || 10.1 || 4.2 || 1.6 || .5 || 27.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1991–92
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 75 || 75 || 38.4 || .552 || .234 || .695 || 11.1 || 4.1 || 1.8 || .6 || 23.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1992–93
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 76 || 76 || 37.6 || .520 || .305 || .765 || 12.2 || 5.1 || 1.6 || 1.0 || 25.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1993–94
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 65 || 65 || 35.4 || .495 || .270 || .704 || 11.2 || 4.6 || 1.6 || .6 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1994–95
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 68 || 68 || 35.0 || .486 || .338 || .748 || 11.1 || 4.1 || 1.6 || .7 || 23.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1995–96
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 71 || 71 || 37.1 || .500 || .280 || .777 || 11.6 || 3.7 || 1.6 || .8 || 23.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1996–97
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 53 || 53 || 37.9 || .484 || .283 || .694 || 13.5 || 4.7 || 1.3 || .5 || 19.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1997–98
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 68 || 41 || 33.0 || .485 || .214 || .746 || 11.7 || 3.2 || 1.0 || .4 || 15.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1998–99
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 42 || 40 || 36.3 || .478 || .160 || .719 || 12.3 || 4.6 || 1.0 || .3 || 16.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1999–00
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 20 || 18 || 31.0 || .477 || .231 || .645 || 10.5 || 3.2 || .7 || .2 || 14.5
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 1,073 || 1,012 || 36.7 || .541 || .266 || .735 || 11.7 || 3.9 || 1.5 || .8 || 22.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 11 || 7 || 23.2 || .495 || .250 || .625 || 6.7 || 1.8 || 1.3 || .4 || 12.6
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1985
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 13 || 2 || 31.4 || .540 || .667 || .733 || 11.1 || 2.0 || 1.8 || 1.2 || 14.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1986
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 12 || 12 || 41.4 || .578 || .067 || .695 || 15.8|| 5.6 || 2.3 || 1.3 || 25.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1987
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 5 || 5 || 42.0 || .573 || .125 || .800|| 12.6 || 2.4 || .8 || 1.6 || 24.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1989
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 3 || 3|| 45.0 || .644 || .200 || .710 || 11.7 || 5.3 || 1.7 || .7 || 27.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1990
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 10 || 10 || 41.9 || .543 || .333 || .602 || 15.5 || 4.3 || .8 || .7 || 24.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1991
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 8 || 8 || 40.8 || .592 || .100 || .653 || 10.5 || 6.0|| 1.9|| .4 || 24.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1993
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 24 || 24|| 42.8 || .477 || .222 || .771 || 13.6 || 4.3 || 1.6 || 1.0 || 26.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1994
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 10 || 10 || 42.5 || .509 || .350 || .764 || 13.0 || 4.8 || 2.5 || .9|| 27.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1995
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 10 || 10 || 39.0 || .500 || .257 || .733 || 13.4 || 3.2 || 1.3 || 1.1 || 25.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1996
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 4 || 4 || 41.0 || .443 || .250 || .787 || 13.5 || 3.8 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 25.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1997
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 16 || 16 || 37.8 || .434 || .289 || .769 || 12.0 || 3.4 || 1.2 || .4 || 17.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1998
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 4 || 0 || 21.8 || .522 || .000 || .571 || 5.3 || 1.0 || 1.3 || .0 || 9.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1999
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 4 || 4 || 39.3 || .529 || .286 || .667 || 13.8 || 3.8 || 1.5 || .5 || 23.5
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 123 || 108 || 39.4 || .513 || .255 || .717 || 12.9 || 3.9 || 1.6 || .9 || 23.0
NBA records
Regular season
Most offensive rebounds in a half: 13, Philadelphia 76ers vs. New York Knicks, March 4, 1987
Most offensive rebounds in a quarter: 11, Philadelphia 76ers vs. New York Knicks,
Tied with Larry Smith (Golden State Warriors vs. Denver Nuggets, )
Smallest Player to lead the league in rebounds: at 6’6
Playoffs
Most free throws made in a half: 19, Phoenix Suns vs. Seattle SuperSonics,
Most free throw attempts in a 7-game series: 100, Philadelphia 76ers vs. Milwaukee Bucks, 1986 Eastern Conference Semi-finals
Most turnovers in a 7-game series: 37, Philadelphia 76ers vs. Milwaukee Bucks, 1986 Eastern Conference Semi-finals
As of 2021, he has the 12th highest PER in NBA history.
Post-basketball life
Television analyst
Since 2000, Barkley has served as a studio analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT). He appears on the network's NBA coverage during pre-game and halftime shows, in addition to special NBA events. He also occasionally works as an onsite game analyst. He is part of the crew on Inside the NBA, a post-game show during which Barkley, Ernie Johnson Jr., Kenny Smith and Shaquille O'Neal recap and comment on NBA games that have occurred during the day and also on general NBA affairs. Barkley has won four Sports Emmy Awards for "Outstanding Studio Analyst" for his work on TNT.
During the broadcast of a game, in which Barkley was courtside with Marv Albert, Barkley poked fun at NBA official Dick Bavetta's age. Albert replied to Barkley, "I believe Dick would beat you in a footrace." In response to that remark, Barkley went on to challenge Bavetta to a race at the 2007 NBA All-Star Weekend for $5,000. The winner was to choose a charity to which the money would be donated. The NBA agreed to pitch in an additional $50,000, and TNT threw in $25,000. The pair raced for three and a half lengths of the basketball court until Barkley ultimately won. After the event, the two kissed in a show of good sportsmanship.
Barkley was also known for being the first-ever celebrity guest picker for College GameDay, in 2004.
Additionally, since 2011, Barkley has served as a studio analyst for the joint coverage of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament between Turner Sports and CBS. Barkley has broadcast every Final Four since 2011.
He also served as a guest commentator for NBC's coverage of the NFL Wild Card playoffs on January 7, 2012; the same night he hosted Saturday Night Live, which is taped next door to the Football Night in America studio in Manhattan's GE Building.
Barkley announced in November 2012 that he was contemplating retirement from broadcasting. "[N]ow I'm like, 'Dude, you have been doing this for 13 years and if I make it to the end of the contract, it will be 17 years.' Seventeen years is a long time. It's a lifetime in broadcasting. I personally have to figure out the next challenge for me", he said. After repeating that he planned to retire in 2016, he signed another contract with Turner Sports. He later said that he wants to retire when he is 60 in 2023.
In July 2016, it was announced that Barkley will host a six-episode unscripted show called The Race Card. The show was renamed to American Race, and premiered on TNT on May 11, 2017.
Gambling
Barkley is known for his compulsive gambling. In a 2007 interview with ESPN's Trey Wingo, Barkley revealed that he had lost approximately $10 million through gambling. In addition, he also admitted to losing $2.5 million "in a six-hour period" while playing blackjack. Although Barkley openly admits to his problem, he claims it is not serious since he can afford to support the habit. When approached by fellow TNT broadcaster Ernie Johnson about the issue, Barkley replied, "It's not a problem. If you're a drug addict or an alcoholic, those are problems. I gamble for too much money. As long as I can continue to do it I don't think it's a problem. Do I think it's a bad habit? Yes, I think it's a bad habit. Am I going to continue to do it? Yes, I'm going to continue to do it."
Despite suffering big losses, Barkley also claims to have won on several occasions. During a trip to Las Vegas, he claims to have won $700,000 from playing blackjack and betting on the Indianapolis Colts to defeat the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI. He went on to state, however, "No matter how much I win, it ain't a lot. It's only a lot when I lose. And you always lose. I think it's fun, I think it's exciting. I'm gonna continue to do it, but I have to get to a point where I don't try to break the casino 'cause you never can."
In May 2008, the Wynn Las Vegas casino filed a civil complaint against Barkley, alleging that he failed to pay a $400,000 debt stemming from October 2007. Barkley responded by taking blame for letting time lapse on the repayment of the debt and promptly paid the casino. After repaying his debt, Barkley stated during a pregame show on TNT, "I've got to stop gambling...I am not going to gamble anymore. For right now, the next year or two, I'm not going to gamble... Just because I can afford to lose money doesn't mean I should do it."
Golf
Barkley began playing golf during his NBA career, later staying with the sport as it was a way to remain in competition after his basketball career ended. He is a regular competitor at the American Century Championship pro-am tournament, regularly finishing near the bottom of the leaderboard. He is widely regarded as a poor golfer with a particularly bad swing; he later underwent training to improve his swing, which led to an improved performance in the 2021 American Century Championship.
Barkley participated in Champions for Change, the third iteration of The Match. As part of a team with Phil Mickelson, Barkley pulled off a major upset defeating Peyton Manning and Stephen Curry by a score of 4–3.
Politics
Barkley spoke for many years of his Republican Party affiliation. In 1995, he considered running as a Republican candidate for Alabama's governorship in the 1998 election. However, in 2006, he altered his political stance, stating "I was a Republican until they lost their minds." At a July 2006 meeting of the Southern Regional Conference of the National School Boards Association in Destin, Florida, Barkley lent credence to the idea of running for Governor of Alabama, stating: I'm serious. I've got to get people to realize that the government is full of it. Republicans and Democrats want to argue over stuff that's not important, like gay marriage or the war in Iraq or illegal immigration... When I run—if I run—we're going to talk about real issues like improving our schools, cleaning up our neighborhoods of drugs and crime and making Alabama a better place for all people.
In September 2006, Barkley once again reiterated his desire to run for governor. He noted, "I can't run until 2014 ... I have to live there for seven years, so I'm looking for a house there as we speak." In July 2007, he made a video declaring his support for Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. In September 2007, during a broadcast on Monday Night Football, Barkley announced that he bought a house in Alabama to satisfy residency requirements for a 2014 campaign for governor. In addition, Barkley declared himself an Independent and not a Democrat as previously reported. "The Republicans are full of it", Barkley said, "The Democrats are a little less full of it."
In February 2008, Barkley announced that he would be running for Governor of Alabama in 2014 as an Independent. On October 27, 2008, he officially announced his candidacy for Governor of Alabama in an interview with CNN, stating that he planned to run in the 2014 election cycle, but he began to back off the idea in a November 24, 2009 interview on The Jay Leno Show. In 2010, he confirmed that he was not running in 2014. In August 2015, Barkley announced his support for Republican John Kasich in the 2016 presidential election. On Lance Armstrong's podcast in 2019, he confirmed that he would not be running for office.
Barkley is an outspoken supporter of gay rights. In 2006, he told Fox Sports: "I'm a big advocate of gay marriage. If they want to get married, God bless them." Speaking to Wolf Blitzer on CNN two years later, he said: "Every time I hear the word 'conservative,' it makes me sick to my stomach, because they're really just fake Christians, as I call them. That's all they are. ... I think they want to be judge and jury. Like, I'm for gay marriage. It's none of my business if gay people want to get married. I'm pro-choice. And I think these Christians, first of all, they're not supposed to judge other people. But they're the most hypocritical judge of people we have in the country. And it bugs the hell out of me. They act like they're Christians. They're not forgiving at all." During a 2011 Martin Luther King Jr. Day double-header on TNT, Barkley responded to a statement made by Dr. King's daughter Bernice, by saying, "People try to make it about black and white. [But] he talked about equality for every man, every woman. We have a thing going on now, people discriminating against homosexuality in this country. I love the homosexuality people. God bless the gay people. They are great people."
Commenting on the Ferguson unrest, Barkley called the Ferguson looters "scumbags", praised the police officers who work in black neighborhoods, and said that he supports the decision made by the grand jury not to indict officer Darren Wilson in the Michael Brown shooting. Previously, in 2013, Barkley expressed his agreement with the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the Trayvon Martin shooting.
In 2014, when Barkley was asked about the rumor that Seattle Seahawks quarterback Russell Wilson was being accused for not being "black enough" on the radio show Afternoons with Anthony and Rob Ellis, he said:
Unfortunately, as I tell my white friends, we as black people, we're never going to be successful, not because of you white people, but because of other black people. When you're black, you have to deal with so much crap in your life from other black people. It's a dirty, dark secret; I'm glad it's coming out. One of the reasons we're never going to be successful as a whole, because of other black people. And for some reason we are brainwashed to think, if you're not a thug or an idiot, you're not black enough. If you go to school, make good grades, speak intelligent, and don't break the law, you're not a good black person. And it's a dirty, dark secret. There are a lot of black people who are unintelligent, who don't have success. It's best to knock a successful black person down because they're intelligent, they speak well, they do well in school, and they're successful... We're the only ethnic group who say, 'Hey, if you go to jail, it gives you street cred.' It's just typical BS that goes on when you're black, man.
Barkley has also been known as a critic of President Donald Trump from as early as his Republican nomination in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Before Trump won the Republican primaries that year, Barkley stated his disgust towards the words and messages that Trump was promoting throughout the presidential race. In September 2017, when President Trump called out former San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick for his kneeling during the U.S. National Anthem during the 2016 NFL season, Barkley expressed his complete disappointment in President Trump (however, Barkley has stated that he does not support athletes kneeling during the National Anthem as a form of protest). In December 2017, Barkley mocked President Trump's tax bill, stating "Thank you Republicans, I knew I could always count on y’all to take care of us rich people, us one percenters. Sorry, poor people. I’m hoping for y’all, but y’all ain’t got no chance."
In his response to the controversy generated by the removal of Confederate monuments as highlighted by the August 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, Barkley stated:
Barkley supported Democrat Doug Jones in the 2017 United States Senate special election in Alabama. During Alabama's Senate election, Barkley noted that Jones' competitor, Roy Moore, was a complete embarrassment to the state.
In an interview with Brandon 'Scoop B' Robinson on the Scoop B Radio podcast, Barkley said if he ruled the world for one day, he would get rid of both Republicans and Democrats because "They're both awful", adding: “They fight all of the time like little kids."
Books
In 1991, Barkley and sportswriter Roy S. Johnson collaborated on the autobiographical work Outrageous. Editorial choices made by Johnson in the book led to Barkley famously quipping that he had been misquoted in his own autobiography. In 2000, Barkley wrote the foreword for Sports Illustrated columnist Rick Reilly's book The Life of Reilly. In it, Barkley quipped, "Of all the people in sports I'd like to throw through a plate glass window, Reilly's not one of them. It's a shame though, skinny white boys look real aerodynamic." In 2002, Barkley released the book I May Be Wrong, But I Doubt It, which included editing and commentary by close friend Michael Wilbon. Three years later, Barkley released Who's Afraid of a Large Black Man?, which is a collection of interviews with leading figures in entertainment, business, sports, and government. Michael Wilbon also contributed to this book and was present at many of the interviews.
Acting
He played himself in the 1996 film Space Jam. He made a brief appearance in the TV series Suits, in episode 3 of the fifth season. He also appeared in the eighth season of Modern Family. He also voices animated versions of himself in Clerks: The Animated Series and We Bare Bears. In 2019, he appeared in "The Piña Colada Song" episode of The Goldbergs as a gym teacher and alien conspiracy theorist briefly trained as a prospective replacement for the departing Coach Mellor. Barkley hosted Saturday Night Live on four separate occasions between 1993 and 2018.
DUI conviction
On December 31, 2008, Barkley was pulled over in Scottsdale, Arizona for running a stop sign. The officer smelled alcohol on Barkley's breath and proceeded to administer field sobriety tests, which he failed. He was arrested on drunk driving charges and had his vehicle impounded. Barkley refused to submit a breath test and was given a blood test. He was then cited and released. Gilbert police noted Barkley was cooperative and respectful during the entire incident, adding that he was treated no differently than anyone arrested on DUI charges. The police report of the incident stated that Barkley told the police he was in a hurry to receive oral sex from his female passenger when he ran through a stop sign early Wednesday. Test results released by the police showed that Barkley had a blood-alcohol level at .149, nearly twice the legal limit of .08 in Arizona. Two months after his arrest, Barkley pleaded guilty to two DUI-related counts and one count of running a red light. He was sentenced to ten days in jail and fined $2,000. The sentence was later reduced to three days after Barkley entered an alcohol treatment program.
As part of the fallout of his arrest, Barkley took a two-month hiatus from his commentating duties for TNT. During his absence, T-Mobile elected not to air previously scheduled ads that featured Barkley, stating, "Given the recent developments, for the time being, we've replaced TV ads featuring Mr. Barkley with more general-market advertising." On February 19, 2009, Barkley returned to TNT and spent the first segment of the NBA pregame show discussing the incident and his experiences. Shortly after his return, T-Mobile once again began airing ads featuring Barkley.
WeightWatchers
In 2011, Barkley became a spokesman for WeightWatchers, promoting their "Lose Like a Man" program and appearing in both television and online ads.
Video games
Barkley has been featured in several video games. Barkley Shut Up and Jam! is a basketball video game which was developed by Accolade. It was released for the Super NES and the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive in 1994, and was followed up by a sequel for only the Genesis in 1995. An unofficial sequel to the initial game called Barkley, Shut Up and Jam: Gaiden was developed and published in 2008. The game was developed by Tales of Game's Studios and was a departure from the first game in that the game was a traditional style JRPG.
Barkley features in EA Sports starting with Lakers versus Celtics and the NBA Playoffs in 1991, but by the late 1990s did not appear due to licensing reasons. Barkley was added to the Houston Rockets team in the game Kobe Bryant in NBA Courtside.
Barkley was featured in NBA 2K13 as part of the 1992 Olympic "Dream Team". Barkley also had the same role in NBA 2K17.
The NBA2K series includes the TNT team of Ernie Johnson, Shaquille O'Neal and Kenny Smith providing each match with pre-match analysis; however, Barkley opts not to join his fellow team members in protest at the 2K series not paying the NBPA any residuals. This boycott also means Barkley is not included in the game as a legendary player as part of any All-Time team.
Personal life
Barkley married Maureen Blumhardt in 1989, and in the same year, the couple had a daughter named Christiana.
Barkley's daughter was named after the Christiana Mall in Delaware. In a 2021 podcast, he explained, "...I just liked the mall." A DNA test read by George Lopez on Lopez Tonight revealed Barkley to be of 14% Native American, 11% European, and 75% African descent.
See also
List of members of the Basketball Hall of Fame
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders
Godzilla vs. Charles Barkley
Space Jam
Gnarls Barkley
References
Bibliography
External links
Charles Barkley: NBA.com Historical Biography
Charles Barkley article, Encyclopedia of Alabama
1963 births
Living people
Activists from Alabama
African-American activists
African-American basketball players
African-American sports journalists
African-American television personalities
All-American college men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
American sports journalists
American sportspeople convicted of crimes
Auburn Tigers men's basketball players
Basketball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from Birmingham, Alabama
College basketball announcers in the United States
Houston Rockets players
Journalists from Alabama
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association broadcasters
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
People from Leeds, Alabama
Philadelphia 76ers draft picks
Philadelphia 76ers players
Phoenix Suns players
Power forwards (basketball)
Small forwards
United States men's national basketball team players
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201185
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%20Theodosius
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Count Theodosius
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Flavius Theodosius (died 376), also known as Count Theodosius () or Theodosius the Elder (), was a senior military officer serving Valentinian I () and the western Roman empire during Late Antiquity. Under his command the Roman army defeated numerous threats, incursions, and usurpations. Theodosius was patriarch of the imperial Theodosian dynasty () and father of the emperor Theodosius the Great ().
He was granted the title of comes rei militaris per Britanniarum (Commander of the Troops of the Diocese of the Britains) by the emperor Valentinian for his work there; putting down the Great Conspiracy (367–368) and the usurpation of Valentinus. After restoring order in Britain he returned to continental Europe and fought against the Alemanni; as Valentinian's magister equitum (Master of Horse) he successfully invaded Alemannic territory (371 or 370). In 372 Theodosius led a successful campaign against the Sarmatians. In the same year Firmus, a Mauritanian prince, rebelled against Roman rule. Theodosius was sent to Africa and in two hard-fought campaigns (373–374) put down the insurrection. In 376, after the death of emperor Valentinian, he was arrested and executed, presumably as he was seen as a threat to the new western emperors Gratian and Valentinian II.
Theodosius's is related to , from which the medieval European feudal title of count is derived.
Military career
Theodosius is first mentioned in historical records by Ammianus Marcellinus with reference to his appointment to the command to restore order in Britain. It is clear that prior to his appointment to such an important military command Theodosius must have been a confidant of Valentinian and that his military ability was known and respected, but unfortunately what his career up to that point was is unknown.
The Great Conspiracy
In 368, Theodosius was raised to the high Roman military rank of comes rei militaris and sent to northern Gaul and Britannia to recover the lands lost to the Great Barbarian Conspiracy in the previous year. Theodosius was given command of part of Valentinian's comitatensis (the Field Army) and early in the year he marched on Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer), Rome's harbour on the Channel. Taking advantage of a break in the weather Theodosius crossed the Channel, landing at Rutupiae (Richborough), leaving the bulk of his troops in Bononia to await clearer weather. At Rutupiae Theodosius started gathering intelligence on the situation in Britain; he found out that the troops in Britain had either refused to fight against an enemy superior in numbers, or had been on furlough when the invasion began, furthermore, he found out that the enemy had broken up their forces into small raiding parties which were plundering at will. When his army finally crossed the Channel with the onset of clear, spring, weather, Theodosius had made his plans and was ready to move. The Roman army marched on Londinium (London) and re-established Imperial control of Britain's largest city. Londinium (London) would act as Theodosius' base of operations. He divided his army into detachments and sent them to attack the marauding warbands within reach of the city. The Romans quickly overcame the small enemy raiding parties, killing and/or capturing many marauders, and relieving them of their booty, supplies and prisoners. Theodosius also sent messengers offering pardon to deserters and ordering them to make their way to Londinium.
Over the winter of 368–369 large numbers of troops started drift back to their units, these also brought vital intelligence which helped Theodosius plan the next phase of his campaign. In 369 Theodosius campaigned all through Roman Britain, restoring its 'chief towns' and hunting down enemy war parties and traitors. Ammianus Marcellinus records that he put down a rebellion by the Pannonian Valentine. At the end of the campaigning season he sent a message to Valentinian to inform him that the provinces of Britain had been restored to the Empire. He also informed the emperor that he had created a new province which he had named Valentia (probably for Valentinian).
Known to have been with him on this expedition were his younger son, the later emperor, Theodosius and the future usurper Magnus Maximus.
Magister Equitum Praesentalis
On his return from Britain Theodosius succeeded Jovinus as the magister equitum praesentalis at the court of Emperor Valentinian I, in which capacity he prosecuted another successful campaign (370/371) against the Alemanni. In 372 Theodosius was deployed to Illyricum and led an army against the Sarmatians; he appears to have secured a victory in battle and successfully brought the campaign against to an end.
In 372 Firmus, a Mauretanian prince, rebelled against Roman rule and plunged the Diocese of Africa into disarray. Valentinian decided to give the command of the expedition to suppress the rebellion to Theodosius. The army was reorganized, extra troops were recruited, Theodosius' son was made dux Moesiae Primae replacing his father as commander in Illyricum and Theodosius himself started mustering his troops at Arles. In the spring of 373 Theodosius sailed to Africa and led a successful campaign against the rebels in the east of Mauritania. At the end of the campaigning season, when he led his army into western Mauritania, he suffered a major setback. In 374 Theodosius invaded western Mauritania again, this time he was more successful, defeating the rebels and capturing Firmus. In 373/374, the younger Theodosius was made dux of the province of Moesia Prima.
In 375, when Emperor Valentinian suddenly died, Theodosius was still in Africa. Orders arrived for Theodosius to be arrested; he was taken to Carthage, and put to death in early 376. The reasons for this are not clear, but it is thought to have resulted from a factional power struggle in Italy after the sudden death of Emperor Valentinian in November 375. Shortly before his death Count Theodosius accepted Christian baptism — a common practice at the time, even for lifelong Christians.
Family
According to Polemius Silvius, Theodosius the Elder's son, Theodosius the Great, was born on 11 January 347 or 346. The epitome de Caesaribus places his birthplace at Cauca (Coca, Segovia) in Hispania. Theodosius had another son named Honorius, a daughter referred to in Aurelius Victor's De caesaribus but whose name is unknown, and a grand-niece, Serena.
Legacy
At the fall of his father, Theodosius the dux of Moesia Prima retired to his estates in the Iberian Peninsula, where he married Aelia Flaccilla in 376. Their first child, Arcadius, was born around 377. Pulcheria, their daughter, was born in 377 or 378. Theodosius had returned to the Danube frontier by 378, when he was appointed magister equitum. following his successes in the field elevated at Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) to the rank of augustus by the emperor Gratian () on 19 January 379.
On the accession of his son as augustus, Theodosius the Elder was deified and given the consecratio in .
The younger Theodosius, who himself married into the ruling Valentinianic dynasty () by wedding Galla, the sister of Theodosius's co-augustus Gratian and the daughter of Valentinian the Great and his second wife Justina, went on to establish his as an imperial dynasty, making Count Theodosius the progenitor and patriarch of a line of Roman emperors and empresses.
See also
Roman Britain
References
Ancient Sources
Ammianus Marcellinus. Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI [31 Books of Deeds]. AD 391. Translated by Charles Yonge. Roman History, Vol. XXVIII, Ch. III. Bohn (London), 1862. Hosted at Wikisource.
Modern Sources
A.H.M. Jones, et al. Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire.
I. Hughes, Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople, 2013.
Medieval Lands Project: Count Flavius Theodosius the Elder
376 deaths
4th-century Christians
4th-century Romans
Ancient Romans in Britain
Comites rei militaris
Converts to Christianity from pagan religions
Generals of Valentinian I
Magistri equitum (Roman Empire)
Theodosian dynasty
Year of birth unknown
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] |
201189
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20van%20Hoboken
|
Anthony van Hoboken
|
Anthony van Hoboken (; ; 23 March 1887 – 1 November 1983) was a Dutch musical collector, bibliographer, and musicologist. He became especially well known for his scholarship on the music of Joseph Haydn and in particular for being the creator of the Hoboken catalogue, the standard scholarly catalogue of Haydn's works.
Life
1887–1919
Hoboken was born in Rotterdam to a family that was successful in business, banking, and shipping. He was personally very well off and throughout life his choices were generally made without regard to the need to earn a living. He trained as an engineer (1906-1909) at the Technical College of Delft. Switching to music, he enrolled in 1909 in the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt, where he studied harmony with Bernhard Sekles and composition with Iwan Knorr. In 1917 he moved to Munich, where he built his own villa in 1919 and lived in bohemian and intellectual circles.
His collection of musical documents
Hoboken's wealth enabled him to collect early editions and manuscripts of music from Bach to Brahms. This collection, begun in 1919 under the guidance of the composer Otto Vrieslander, eventually amounted to over 5,000 items, including over 1000 by Haydn. Among the Haydn items were the string quartets Op. 17, 20, 64, and 77; the piano sonata H XVI:49; and seven of the twelve "London" symphonies. Much later (1971), the collection was purchased by the Austrian state and now resides in the Austrian National Library in Vienna.
Marriage and studies with Schenker
In 1922 Hoboken married (1895-1959), an actress whom he had rescued from ill health resulting from living in the dank basement apartment of her former lover. With Hoboken's wealth the couple led a pleasant lifestyle. Hoboken's friend and teacher Heinrich Schenker later reported a social evening with Hoboken in his Vienna apartment:
At 9 o'clock, to Hoboken (we stay there until 3:45!) ... The Tautenhayn ensemble plays! Not until 11 o'clock does Hoboken tell me that his wife is lying in the hospital, however the matter is not serious. The evening passed extremely well; the complete naturalness in the social gathering, and in our relationship to the musicians; the rooms; the beautiful, sumptuous meal and its presentation (for which we offered the chef a toast, with applause): these made an exceptional impression on us all.
The friendship with Schenker had begun around 1924 (their families vacationed together), and in 1925 Hoboken moved his family to Vienna so he could begin formal study with Schenker. He attended lessons twice a week beginning that year and extending through 1932.
Hoboken's wealth permitted him to provide subventions facilitating the publication of a number of Schenker's works. He was also able to afford
his own librarian to maintain his collection of first editions and autographs. For this post he chose Otto Erich Deutsch, another friend of Schenker, who achieved musicological eminence in his own right. Deutsch worked for Hoboken from 1926 to 1935.
The Meister-Archiv project
In 1927 Schenker and Hoboken undertook a project on behalf of the Austrian National Library to create an archive containing photographic copies of the musical manuscripts of the great composers ("Archiv für Photogramme musikalischer Meisterhandschriften"; "Archive for Photographic Images of Musical Master Manuscripts"). Their appeal to other libraries for participation emphasized two points. First, contemporary editions of the music were rife with interpolated material not in the original (see Urtext edition) and the availability of photographic copies would facilitate the preparation of more accurate editions. Second, they noted that historical manuscripts are vulnerable to destruction or loss. The latter point was prescient, as the Second World War, which broke out twelve years later, resulted in extensive damage and theft in the scholarly archives of Europe; a number of documents survive today solely as a result of the Meister-Archiv project.
1932–1983
In 1932 Hoboken divorced his first wife Seidel (with whom there had been no children) and around 1934 married again to , a dancer and author whose stage name was Eva Boy; the couple had one child (Anthony Jr., 1937). The financial strains of alimony and a new household lessened what Hoboken could spend on projects involving Schenker, including the photographic archive, and their relationship "soured". Hoboken did, however, write a warm tribute obituary after Schenker's death in 1935.
The Haydn catalog that now bears Hoboken's name (see below) was begun in card format in 1934; work continued until the publication of the third and final book volume in 1978.
When Austria was taken over by Nazi Germany in 1938 (the "Anschluss"), Hoboken moved to Switzerland and remained there for the rest of his life. He lived with his family first in the home of the conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler in St. Moritz; from 1940 to 1950 he lived in Lausanne, and from 1951 to 1977 in Ascona. In 1977 he moved to Zürich, where he died in 1983 at the age of 96.
The Hoboken catalog
His greatest accomplishment, the work of over forty years, was the "Hoboken catalog", or more formally Joseph Haydn, Thematisch-bibliographisches Werkverzeichnis. This is a catalogue, nearly 2000 pages in length, that brought order to the incompletely-grasped musical output of Joseph Haydn. The catalog proved influential and Haydn's works today are often referred to by the "Hoboken number" (usually abbreviated to "Hob" or just "H") by which they are designated in this catalogue.
King and Gemert offer assessment of the work in the New Grove:
The first volume, devoted to the instrumental works, was criticized for lack of information about manuscript sources. Nevertheless, Hoboken's protracted study established the corpus of Haydn's huge output, dealt with the problem of arrangements and supposititious works and generally brought order and identity to a vast area where much confusion, contention and uncertainty reigned for 150 years. All future Haydn scholarship will be in Hoboken's debt. He achieved for Haydn what Köchel did for Mozart [see Köchel catalogue] and this too in a generation of vastly higher bibliographical standards.
Honors
Hoboken's services to scholarship were recognized early on in 1932, when he received the Grosse Silberne Ehrenzeichen from the government of Austria; later on would follow multiple honorary degrees, a knighthood, and so on.
Influence
Proksch attributes some influence to Hoboken in the revival of Haydn's critical reputation in the 20th century, not only as a result of the systematizing work of his catalog, but also in his influence on his teacher Schenker (whose own influence on musical scholarship in general was very substantial). Schenker in his earliest Haydn studies had relied on inaccurate editions and benefited from his free access to Hoboken's collection of Haydn manuscripts. When Hoboken wrote to Schenker in 1927 that he had finished the boxing and indexing of his Haydn collection, Schenker replied with a deeply appreciative letter that foretold the later rise of Haydn's critical fortunes:
You may take well-earned satisfaction in having so advanced Haydn's cause with your very beautiful collection of first editions. Would God but grant that strokes of good luck kept pace with what you are striving for, which we all still owe Haydn -- where on earth could his things be hiding! ... No doubt that Haydn who today has sunk to the level of child-performers, will one day rise again from the children to the adults, as basically the rarest and most adult people of all belong to his circle.
Notes
References
Deisinger, Marko (2015) Heinrich Schenker and the Photogram Archive. Music Analysis 34:221–243. Available on line at .
Hoboken, Antony (1957) Joseph Haydn, Thematisch-bibliographisches Werkverzeichnis ("Joseph Haydn, thematic-bibliographic catalog of works"). Mainz: Schott. Available in pdf format from .
Hoboken, Anthony van. In: Haydn (Oxford Composer Companions). Edited by David Wyn Jones. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002.
King, Alec Hyatt and Joost van Gemert (n.d.) "Anthony van Hoboken," article in online edition of New Grove. Accessed 5 July 2016. .
Levi, Erik (2011) Mozart and the Nazis: How the Third Reich abused a cultural icon. New Haven: Yale University Press. Extracts on line at Google Books: .
Proksch, Bryan (2015) Reviving Haydn: New Appreciations in the Twentieth Century. Boydell and Brewer.
External links
Schenker Documents Online - transcribed documents (in German and English) concerning the relationship between van Hoboken and Heinrich Schenker
1887 births
1983 deaths
Dutch musicologists
Haydn scholars
Writers from Rotterdam
Pupils of Heinrich Schenker
20th-century musicologists
People from Lausanne
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201193
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Santiago%20Nino
|
Carlos Santiago Nino
|
Carlos Santiago Nino (1943–1993) was an Argentine moral, legal and political philosopher.
Biography
Nino studied law at the University of Buenos Aires and at the University of Oxford, where he received his Ph.D. in 1977 with a thesis directed by John Finnis and Tony Honoré.
Nino began his academic activity in the early 1970s, concentrating on some traditional issues in jurisprudence, such as the concept of a legal system, the interpretation of the law, the debate between legal positivism and natural law, and the concept of validity. After realizing the need to clarify the normative problems involved in some of those issues, he was led to embrace a model based on the explicit adoption of principles of justice and social morality, rejecting the predominant German-inspired "dogmatic" approach. This signaled the beginning of his philosophical investigations, which were always oriented to practical issues, and marked by a distinctively analytical approach. His need to provide a liberal justification for criminal law practice thus lead him to moral philosophy, and to the development of an original "consensual" theory of punishment which combined the merits of the retributive and utilitarian (see deterrence) varieties while avoiding their respective difficulties. Similarly, the problems presented by the characterization of criminal conduct stimulated his work in the field of philosophy of action.
During the early 1980s, after the restoration of democracy, Nino became engaged in politics, serving as personal assistant to President Raúl Alfonsín and as coordinator of his newly created "Consejo para la consolidación de la democracia", a special committee for the study and design of institutional reforms. His theoretical activities, however, were not forgotten: in 1984 he published his monumental Ética y derechos humanos, dedicated to Alfonsín, where he provided a comprehensive exposition of his moral thought; divided in three parts, it dealt with normative and applied ethics, as well as with meta-ethics. This last field he expanded in a separate volume, where he adopted a constructivist approach that attempted to derive his fundamental ethical principles from the presuppositions of moral discourse, in a manner that put him, as he said, "between Rawls and Habermas". These substantive principles, comprising the nucleus of a theory that aspired to capture the essential components of political liberalism, were the principle of autonomy, the principle of inviolability, and the principle of dignity. The first expressed Nino's conception of the good: those things, and those things only, that were valued by the individual in question. The second imposed deontological restrictions to the pursuit of that good, prohibiting the sacrifice of some to achieve the benefit of others. The third principle allowed for individual consent, thus permitting persons to waive the rights recognized by the second one.
With this solid normative foundation, Nino went to tackle some practical issues, such as abortion, capital punishment, and drug regulation. On the former, he proposed a gradualist approach similar to the American one, recognizing rights to the fetuses only when they showed the cognitive and affective capacities necessary for considering them moral persons. As regards death penalty, he was firmly opposed to it—as he was to the criminalization of drug consumption.
While on trip to La Paz, Bolivia in 1993 to work on the reform of the Bolivian constitution, Nino had an asthma attack and subsequently died. This tragedy killed a man who appeared to be at the peak of his productivity: the year before he had published two books, served as editor to two others, and had given the manuscripts of a couple more to his friend Owen Fiss, who assumed the responsibility of readying them for publication. The Constitution of Deliberative Democracy and Radical Evil on Trial saw the light in 1996. In the first he developed his "epistemic justification" of deliberative democracy, arguing that democratic deliberation provides better reasons to believe in the validity of moral norms than private reflection. The second is a moving personal description of the military junta trials; it provides a testimony to his unique ability to approach public affairs with both philosophical sophistication and political commitment.
Notes
External links
Carlos Santiago Nino: a bibliography. A complete list of writings.
1943 births
1993 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Argentine sociologists
Place of birth missing
Deaths from asthma
20th-century Argentine philosophers
University of Buenos Aires alumni
|
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201194
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-winged%20kite
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Black-winged kite
|
The black-winged kite (Elanus caeruleus), also known as the black-shouldered kite (not to be confused with the closely related Australian species with the same name), is a small diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae best known for its habit of hovering over open grasslands in the manner of the much smaller kestrels. This Palearctic and Afrotropical species was sometimes combined with the Australian black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris) and the white-tailed kite (Elanus leucurus) of North and South America which together form a superspecies. This kite is distinctive, with long wings; white, grey and black plumage; and owl-like forward-facing eyes with red irises. The owl-like behaviour is even more pronounced in the letter-winged kite (Elanus scriptus), a nocturnal relative in Australia. Although mainly seen on plains, they are sometimes seen on grassy slopes of hills in the higher elevation regions of Asia. They are not migratory, but show nomadism in response to weather and food availability. They are well adapted to utilize periodic upsurges in rodent populations and can raise multiple broods in a single year unlike most birds of prey. Populations in southern Europe have grown in response to human activities, particularly agriculture and livestock rearing.
Taxonomy
The black-winged kite was described by the French naturalist René Louiche Desfontaines in 1789 and given the binomial name Falco caeruleus. It is now one of four species in the genus Elanus which was introduced in 1809 by the French zoologist Jules-César Savigny. The genus Elanus is distinctive in having very small scales covering the foot and on the underside, scutellate scales are found only under the terminal phalanges. The claw lacks a groove on the underside. The word Elanus is from Ancient Greek for a "kite". The specific epithet caeruleus is the Latin for "blue".
There are three subspecies:
E. c. caeruleus (Desfontaines, 1789) – southwest Iberian Peninsula, Africa, southwest Arabia
E. c. vociferus (Latham, 1790) – Pakistan to east China, Malay Peninsula and Indochina. The underwing secondaries are smoky grey and nearly white in the nominate subspecies.
E. c. hypoleucus Gould, 1859 – Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, the Philippines, Sulawesi and New Guinea
Description
This long-winged raptor is predominantly grey or white with black shoulder patches, wing tips and eye stripe. The long falcon-like wings extend beyond the tail when the bird is perched. In flight, the short and square tail is visible and it is not forked as in the typical kites of the genus Milvus. When perched, often on roadside wires, it often adjusts its wings and jerks its tail up and down as if to balance itself. The sexes are alike in plumage. Their large forward-facing eyes placed under a bony shelf that shades them is distinctive; their velvety plumage and zygodactyl feet are characters shared with owls and the genus has been considered as a basal group within the Accipitridae. They are thought to have been adapted for living in savanna habitats where seasonal rodent population peaks occur. Such food resources are also favoured by the owls. The inner vanes of the feathers have velvety barbules. They have a diploid chromosome number of 68 (some older studies claimed 64 for E.c.caeruleus and 66 for E.c.vociferus) with a distinct karyotype with resemblances to the kites and honey buzzards and suggesting a basal position within the diurnal birds of prey.
Distribution and habitat
The black-winged kite is a species primarily of open land and semi-deserts in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical Asia, but it has a foothold within Europe in Spain and Portugal. The species range appears to be expanding in southern Europe and possibly in West Asia. The first records of breeding in Europe were in the 1860s and since then they have become more widespread and populations are on the rise. It is thought that land-use changes, particularly agriculture and pastureland have helped the species.
Several geographic populations have been named as subspecies and these include the nominate subspecies which occurs in Spain, Africa and Arabia. The subspecies vociferus is found east of this range across South Asia and into Southeast Asia. Along Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines subspecies hypoleucus (sometimes considered a full species) includes the population wahgiensis described from New Guinea. Subspecies sumatranus is not always recognized. The white-tailed kite and the black-shouldered kite were formerly included with this species but have since been treated as separate species.
Although found mainly on the plains they have been seen at higher altitudes in Sikkim (), the Nilgiris (Doddabetta, ) and Nagaland ().
They are said to be winter visitors in some parts of their range such as the Western Ghats.
Behaviour and ecology
The black-winged kite breeds at different times of the year across its range. Although nesting has been noted throughout the year in India, they appear not to breed in April and May. Males establish territories and defend them from competition. Females move into the territories of males. Studies in Africa found that males were more numerous than females. Courtship is noisy and involves chases and once the pair is formed they copulate frequently. The nest is a loose platform of twigs in which 3 or 4 eggs are laid. The female spends more effort in the construction of the nest than the male. The eggs are pale creamy with spots of deep red. Both parents incubate but when the chicks hatch, the male spends more time on foraging for food. Females initially feed the young, sometimes hunting close to the nest but will also receive food from the male. After fledging the young birds continue to be dependent for food on the male parent for about 80 days, initially transferring food at perch and later in the air. Young birds have reddish brown feathers on the upperparts and on the breast. The reddish colour is derived from porphyrins and is thought to provide the young birds some camouflage. Once breeding is complete females often move on to new territories sometimes deserting before the young fledge, leaving males to feed and raise the young. Both males and females show considerable nomadism. Unlike most birds of prey, they are capable of raising multiple broods in a year, and young birds are known to disperse widely, adaptations that helps them utilize periodic rodent population surges. Their opportunistic breeding capabilities are also accompanied by irregular patterns of moult. Young birds show "arrested" moult, retaining feathers for a season and then rapidly moulting them in a serial descendent pattern, where more than one primary feather is moulted at the same time. The adult plumage is found after two years.
Their prey includes grasshoppers, crickets and other large insects, lizards, and rodents. Injured birds, small snakes and frogs have also been reported. The black-winged kite flies slowly during hunting like a harrier, but it will also hover like a Kestrel. It has on rare occasions been known to hunt prey in flight. Perches are used for hunting and for feeding but large prey may sometimes be handled on the ground. In southern Africa, they appear to favour roadside verges for foraging and are sometimes killed by collisions with vehicles.
These birds roost communally with groups of 15 to 35 (larger numbers in Europe) converging at a large leafy tree. They are extremely silent and the calls recorded include a high-pitched squeal or a soft whistle. They call mainly during the breeding season and at the roost site.
A species of nematode, Physaloptera acuticauda, has been recorded as a parasite of the species in South Africa. A trematode species, Neodiplostomum elani, has been described from a black-winged kite type host from Chandigarh. A feather louse Degeeriella elani is known from the species.
The soft feathers of black-winged kites can lead to adherence with some grass seeds which may be dispersed by the species. However such seeds can pose the risk of entangling their wings.
References
Other sources
External links
(Black-winged Kite or ) Black-shouldered Kite species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 0.95 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Original species description by Desfontaines (in French, 1787), with illustration pl. 15
Illustrations, plate 36 and pl. 37, with description in French by Levaillant (1799).
black-winged kite
black-winged kite
Birds of prey of Africa
Birds of prey of Asia
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
black-winged kite
black-winged kite
|
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] |
201196
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabernet%20Franc
|
Cabernet Franc
|
Cabernet Franc is one of the major black grape varieties worldwide. It is principally grown for blending with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot in the Bordeaux style, but can also be vinified alone, as in the Loire's Chinon. In addition to being used in blends and produced as a varietal in Canada and the United States, it is sometimes made into ice wine in those regions.
Cabernet Franc is lighter than Cabernet Sauvignon, making a bright pale red wine that contributes finesse and lends a peppery perfume to blends with more robust grapes. Depending on the growing region and style of wine, additional aromas can include tobacco, raspberry, bell pepper, cassis, and violets.
Records of Cabernet Franc in Bordeaux go back to the end of the 18th century, although it was planted in Loire long before that time. DNA analysis indicates that Cabernet Franc is one of two parents of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Carménère.
History
Cabernet Franc is believed to have been established in the Libournais region of southwest France sometime in the 17th century, when Cardinal Richelieu transported cuttings of the vine to the Loire Valley. They were planted at the Abbey of Bourgueil under the care of an abbot named Breton, whose name became associated with the grape. By the 18th century, plantings of Cabernet Franc (known as Bouchet) were found throughout Fronsac, Pomerol and St-Emilion, making quality wines. As Cabernet Sauvignon grew more popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, the close similarity of the two grapes was observed and theories emerged as to the extent of their relationship. In 1997, DNA evidence emerged to show that Cabernet Franc had crossed with Sauvignon Blanc to produce Cabernet Sauvignon.
Viticulture
In general, Cabernet Franc is very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon, but buds and ripens at least a week earlier. This trait allows the vine to thrive in slightly cooler climates than Cabernet Sauvignon, such as the Loire Valley. In Bordeaux, plantings of Cabernet Franc are treated as an "insurance policy" against inclement weather close to harvest that may damage plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon. Its early budding does pose the viticultural hazard of coulure early in the growing season. The vine is vigorous and upright, with dark-green, 5-lobed leaves. The winged bunches are elongated and small-medium in size. The berries are quite small and blue-black in color, with fairly thin skins. The Cabernet Franc grapevine is more prone to mutation than Cabernet Sauvignon, less so than Pinot noir.
Cabernet Franc can adapt to a wide variety of vineyard soil types but seems to thrive in sandy, chalk soils, producing heavier, more full bodied wines there. In the Loire Valley, terroir based differences can be perceived between wines made from grapes grown in gravel terraces versus tuffeau slopes. The grape is highly yield sensitive, with over-cropping producing wines with more green, vegetal notes.
Wine regions
Across the world Cabernet Franc is one of the twenty most widely planted grape varieties. Plantings are found throughout Europe, in the New World, China and Kazakhstan. In many regions, it is planted as a component of a Bordeaux-style blend such as Meritage, playing secondary role to Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. In parts of northeast Italy, Anjou-Saumur, Touraine and the right bank region of Bordeaux, Cabernet Franc both plays a more prominent role in blends and is vinted as a varietal.
France
In France, Cabernet Franc is found predominately in the Loire Valley and in the Libournais region of Bordeaux. As of 2000, it was the sixth most widely planted red grape variety in the country. Other areas with significant plantings include the Bergerac and Madiran Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOCs). By the early 20th century, there were nearly equal plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc in Bordeaux with around by the late 1960s. Most of these plantings were along the right bank of the Gironde in the Fronsac, St-Emilion and Pomerol regions. Towards the end of the 20th century, even though plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon had rapidly increased in Bordeaux to a 2 to 1 ratio in proportion to Cabernet Franc, plantings there were over of the latter, nearly half of the country's total .
In the Loire Valley, Cabernet is widely planted in the Anjou, Bourgueil, Chinon, and Saumur-Champigny regions.
Italy
By the year 2000 there were over of Cabernet Franc in Italy. However, the grape variety is commonly confused with both Cabernet Sauvignon and the ancient Bordeaux grape Carmenere, so the true acreage may not be known until more vineyards have been surveyed by ampelographers. It is mostly planted in the far northeast of Italy, particularly in Friuli, but it is also found in the vineyards of the Veneto (where it is known as Bordo), and is found as part of some Chianti blends, even as far south as Apulia. Plantings of Cabernet Franc in Tuscany have been increasing in recent years, particularly in the Bolgheri and Maremma region where the grape is prized for the balance and elegance that it brings to blends. Italian wines often labelled simply as "Cabernet" tend to be primarily Cabernet Franc or a blend of Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon.
Hungary
Cabernet Franc in Hungary had gained attention by the end of the 1990s when in some wine producing regions climate and growing conditions proved to be not optimal for Cabernet Sauvignon to reach its full ripeness. Successful varietal examples from Villány and Szekszárd show great potential, some international experts declared that Cabernet Franc "found its new home in Villány region". Hungarian varietal Cabernet Franc is a typically full-bodied, moderately or highly tannic wine with rich aromas of spices, blue flowers and red/black berry fruits with a reasonably good aging potential of about 10 years. These wines typically undergo 12 to 18 months of aging in new Hungarian oak barrels.
In addition to being found in Villány and Szekszárd, Cabernet Franc is also present in Eger, and in South Balaton and Sopron vineyards, to a lesser extent. Cabernet Franc often complements Bordeaux-style blends from these regions and occasionally plays a role in rosé production.
Other European regions
Outside France and Italy, sizable plantings of Cabernet Franc are found in Greece (where it is known as tsapournakos), Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia particularly in the Savudrija part of Istria, Croatia. This variety of grape is not very common in Spain, and is grown mainly in Catalonia, where it is an authorized variety in four DOPs: Catalunya (DO), Costers del Segre, Empordà, Pla de Bages, and Priorat. It is also grown Valencia and Castilla-La Mancha. In 2015, Spain grew of Cabernet Franc.
Canada
Cabernet Franc is becoming more popular in Canada, being planted in Ontario's Niagara Peninsula, Prince Edward County, the north shore of Lake Erie, Pelee Island, and the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia. While it is most often used in blends, it is gaining some popularity as a single varietal and as icewine. Ripening about two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon, it often fares better in Canada's cooler climate than other red wine grape varieties. Ontario Cabernet Francs often add a characteristic vegetal, raspberry like flavor to a wine with moderate acidity.
United States
Interest in the grape started with California wine makers, who wanted to replicate the Bordeaux blend (now marketed as Meritage). In the early to mid 20th century, some plantings of Cabernet Franc were mistaken for Merlot. In the 1980s, heightened interest in Cabernet Franc led to an increase in plantings that helped push the total acreage of Cabernet Franc in California to , most of which is in Napa and Sonoma counties. In 1986, Casa Nuestra Winery in Napa Valley initiated the first Cabernet Franc program in the United States, winning a Double Gold and Best of Class Medal in the Los Angeles Times Wine Competition for their first vintage. The program continues today.
More recently the grape has caught the attention of growers in cooler areas such as Long Island and the Finger Lakes of New York, the Grand Valley AVA of Colorado, the Shawnee Hills AVA of southern Illinois, Pennsylvania, all sub-regions in Ohio, Michigan's west coast, Washington state and in the Monticello wine region in the Virginia Piedmont as well as the Roanoke metropolitan area, increasing planting in Missouri and Rocky Knob AVA areas of Southwestern Virginia. Michigan State University conducts research on Cabernet Franc at their agricultural research center in Benton Harbor, Michigan. In the Great Lakes Region and Virginia, Cabernet Franc is valued for its ability to ripen more reliably than other red Vitis vinifera and to produce wines of better quality than most hybrid grapes.
In Washington State, the first plantings of Cabernet Franc were cultivated in experimental blocks by Washington State University in the Columbia Valley during the 1970s. In 1985, Cabernet Franc was planted in the Red Willow Vineyard for use in Bordeaux style blends. The first varietal Cabernet Franc in Washington was released in 1991 by Columbia Winery followed by Chateau Ste Michelle in 1992 with grapes planted from their Cold Creek Vineyard. In the 1990s, Chinook Winery introduced the state's first Cabernet Franc rosé. Today it is the fourth most widely planted grape in the state behind Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. Washington Cabernet Franc is distinctive for its fruit forward style with blueberry and raspberry fruit. The characteristic vegetal notes are toned down in Washington, with the wines tending to show more notes of ground coffee and olives.
Argentina
Cabernet Franc plantings in Argentina have been producing top quality wines in recent years, and the varietal has been claimed as having the most potential in the country after Malbec. Squeeze Magazine has called it "the new, handsome superhero of Mendoza's wine scene". In 2014, the highest scoring Argentine wine in Robert Parker's Wine Advocate was a Cabernet Franc scored at 97 points. Cabernet Franc can be bottled alone, making lighter-bodied wines than the country's typical Malbecs (with wines scoring up to 95 points in Tim Atkin's report in 2016), or either as a majority or minority in blends.
Other New World regions
In the New World, Cabernet is used predominately as a blending component and is found in scant amounts in Australia, South Africa, Chile and New Zealand. As with so many grapes, Cabernet Franc came to Australia in James Busby’s collection of 1832. It predominantly grows in cool, cool to warm and warm climates such as North-Eastern Victoria, McLaren Vale, the Adelaide Hills and the Clare Valley. In New Zealand, many winemakers have found that the cool climate of their terroir contributes to Cabernet Franc-like flavors in their Cabernet Sauvignon and plantings of true Cabernet Franc have remained limited with only around planted as of 2006. In South Africa, Cabernet Franc has become a favorite of some of the country's boutique wineries and acreage has slowly been increasing to nearly by the mid-2000s. In Chile there were around planted by the early 21st century.
Wines
Cabernet Franc shares many of the same phenolic and aroma compounds as Cabernet Sauvignon but with some noticeable differences. Cabernet Franc tends to be more lightly pigmented and produces wines with the same level of intensity and richness. Cabernet Franc tends to have a more pronounced perfume with notes of raspberries, blackcurrants, violets and graphite. It is often characterized by a green, vegetal strike that can range from leaves to green bell peppers. It has slightly less tannins than Cabernet Sauvignon and tends to produce a wine with a smoother mouthfeel. New World examples of Cabernet Franc tend to emphasize the fruit more and may delay harvesting the grapes to try to minimize the green leafy notes.
Synonyms
Genetically verified: Tsapournako (Greece), Verdejilla Tinto (Aragón in Spain).
Other synonyms: Achéria (Basque Country, mainly in Irouléguy), Ardounet (Béarn), Bidure (Graves), Bordeaux (Switzerland), Bordo (Romania), Boubet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), Bouchet Franc or Gros Bouchet (Saint-Émilion and Pomerol), Bouchy (Madiran and Béarn), Breton (Val de Loire), Cabernet Gris, Cabrunet (Pomerol), Capbreton Rouge (Landes), Carmenet (Médoc), Couahort (Béarn), Plant Breton or Plant de l’Abbé Breton (Chinon in Indre-et-Loire), Sable Rouge (Tursan), Trouchet (Béarn), Véron (Nièvre and Deux-Sèvres), Vidure, Vuidure, Grosse Vidure (Graves), Aceria, Arrouya, Burdeas Tinto, Cabernet, Cabernet Aunis, Cabernet Franco, Fer Servandou, Gamput, Grosse Vidure, Hartling, Kaberne Fran, Messanges Rouge, Morenoa, Noir Dur, Petit Fer, Petit Viodure, Petite Vidure, Petite Vignedure, Véron Bouchy, Véronais.
Varieties commonly mistaken for Cabernet franc: Ardonnet (Béarn, no longer cultivated), Arrouya (Pyrénées), Béquignol noir (Dissay in the Vienne), Cabernet sauvignon, Carmenère , Gros Cabernet (Médoc, no longer cultivated), Hondarribi Beltza (País Vasco in Spain).
References
Red wine grape varieties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura%20period
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Kamakura period
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The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shōgun, Minamoto no Yoritomo. The period is known for the emergence of the samurai, the warrior caste, and for the establishment of feudalism in Japan.
The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shogunate and the short re-establishment of imperial ruler Emperor Go-Daigo by Ashikaga Takauji, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige.
Shogunate and Hōjō Regency
The Kamakura period marks the transition to land-based economies and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule. Once Minamoto no Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (幕府, tent government), but because he was given the ancient high military title Sei-i Taishōgun by Emperor Go-Toba, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the Shogunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board , a board of retainers , and a board of inquiry . After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces. As shōgun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Northern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However, the fourth leader of the Northern Fujiwara Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.
Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Minamoto no Yoriie became shōgun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency had been established for the shōgun by Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the Hōjō clan, a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. The head of Hōjō was installed as a regent for the shōgun; the regent was termed the Shikken during the period, although later positions were created with similar power such as the Tokusō and the Rensho. Often the Shikken was also the Tokusō and Rensho. Under the Hōjō, the shōgun became a powerless figurehead.
With the protection of the , a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 the Jōkyū War broke out between the cloistered Emperor Go-Toba and the second regent Hōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The shōguns constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. In 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority within the Kamakura regime. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—the Goseibai Shikimoku—in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and parts of it remained in effect for the next 635 years.
As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hōjōki describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike Monogatari narrated the rise and fall of the Taira clan, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin Kokin Wakashū, of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.
Expansion of Buddhist teachings
During the Kamakura period six new Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as "New Buddhism" or Shin Bukkyo) were founded:
Hōnen (1133–1212) founded the Japanese Pure Land school or Jōdo-shū.
Shinran (1173–1263) founded the Jōdo Shinshū sect.
Eisai (1141–1215) founded the Rinzai school of Zen.
Dōgen (1200–1253) founded the Sōtō school of Zen.
Nichiren (1222–1282) founded the Nichiren school.
Ippen (1239–1289) founded the Ji-shū branch of Pure Land Buddhism.
During this time the pre-existing schools of Tendai, founded by Saichō (767–822), Shingon, founded by Kūkai (774–835), and the great temples of Nara, collectively classified by scholars as "Old Buddhism" or Kyū Bukkyo, continued to thrive, adapt, and exert influence. For example, all of the above six reformers had studied at the Tendai Mt. Hiei at some point in their lives.
"Old Buddhism" (Kyū Bukkyō)
Throughout the Kamakura period, older Buddhist sects including Shingon, Tendai, and the Nara temple schools such as Kegon, Hossō, Sanron, and Ritsu continued to thrive and adapt to the trend of the times.
At the start of the Kamakura period, the Mount Hiei monasteries had become politically powerful, appealing primarily to those capable of systematic study of the sect's teachings. The Shingon sect and its esoteric ritual continued to enjoy support largely from the noble families in Kyoto. However, with the increasing popularity of the new Kamakura schools, the older schools partially eclipsed as the newer "Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government, and its samurai..
The times that gave way to the Kamakura period were marked by political and military conflict, natural disasters, and social malaise attributed to the perceived arrival of the Latter Day of the Law. The new social order of a declining aristocracy and ascending military and peasant classes resulted in new forms of religion, both indigenous and Buddhist while Indian and Chinese influence continued. Furthermore, the Shōen manor system which had taken root in this era resulted in the increased prosperity and literacy of peasants which in turn provided more financial support for Buddhist teachers and their studies.
"New Buddhism" (Shin Bukkyō)
The first originators of Kamakura Buddhism schools were Hōnen and Shinran who emphasized belief and practice over formalism.
In the latter part of the 12th-century Dōgen and Eisai traveled to China and upon their return to Japan founded, respectively, the Sōtō and Rinzai schools of Zen. Dōgen rejected affiliations with the secular authorities whereas Eisai actively sought them. Whereas Eisai thought that Zen teachings would revitalize the Tendai school, Dōgen aimed for an ineffable absolute, a pure Zen teaching that was not tied to beliefs and practices from Tendai or other orthodox schools and with little guidance for leading people how to live in the secular world.
The final stage of Kamakura Buddhism, occurring some 50 years after Hōnen, was marked by new social and political conditions as the aristocracy declined, the military class asserted new influence, and Buddhist-infused local kami practice among peasants flourished. These changing conditions created a climate that encouraged religious innovation. Nichiren and Ippen attempted at this time to create down-to-earth teachings that were rooted in the daily concerns of people. Nichiren rejected the focus on "next-worldly" salvation such a rebirth in a Pure Land and instead aimed for "this-worldly" personal and national liberation through a simple and accessible practice. Ippen emphasized a popularized form of nenbutsu recitation with an emphasis on practice rather than concentrating on an individual's underlying mental state.
Legacy of Kamakura Buddhism
As time evolved the distinctions between "Old" and "New" Buddhisms blurred as they formed "cultic centers" and various forms of founder worship. The medieval structures of these schools evolved into hierarchical head temple-branch temple structures with associated rituals and forms of worship. This culminated in the state-sanctioned formalized schools of the Tokugawa period.
Mongol invasions
The repulsions of two Mongol invasions were momentous events in Japanese history. Nichiren had predicted these invasions years earlier, in his Rissho Ankoku Ron, a letter to the regency. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of late Tang dynasty in China and the turning inward of the Heian court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with the Southern Song dynasty of China in later centuries, but Japanese pirates made the open seas dangerous. At a time when the shogunate had little interest in foreign affairs and ignored communications from China and the Goryeo kingdom, news arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol regime in Beijing. Its leader, Kublai Khan, demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan dynasty and threatened reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyoto raised the diplomatic counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Mongol demands, dismissed the Korean messengers, and started defensive preparations.
After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274. More than 600 ships carried a combined Mongol, Chinese, and Korean force of 23,000 troops armed with catapults, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces at Hakata, on northern Kyūshū, defended against the advantageous mainland force, which, after one day of fighting was destroyed by the onslaught of a sudden typhoon. Kublai realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces' failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took place in northwestern Kyūshū before another typhoon struck, again destroying the Mongol fleet, which was mostly composed of hastily acquired, flat-bottomed Chinese ships especially vulnerable to powerful typhoons.
Although Shinto priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind" or kamikaze, a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep impression on the shogunate leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to Japan were reinforced. The victory also convinced the warriors of the value of the shogunate form of government.
The Mongol war had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the Mongols. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a decline of the Kamakura bakufu. Additionally, inheritances had divided family properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support. Roving bands of rōnin further threatened the stability of the shogunate.
Civil war
The Hōjō reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken the Kyoto court, the bakufu decided to allow two contending imperial lines—known as the Southern Court or junior line and the Northern Court or senior line—to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne as Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the shogunate, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the shogunate exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces, including Kusunoki Masashige, rebelled. They were aided by Ashikaga Takauji, a constable who turned against Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time, Nitta Yoshisada, another eastern chieftain, rebelled against the shogunate, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hōjō were defeated.
In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-century Confucian practices. This period of reform, known as the Kenmu Restoration, aimed at strengthening the position of the emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the warriors' caste. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hōjō, not on supporting the emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long War Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who established a new line of shoguns.
Events
1185: the rival Taira clan is defeated at sea at the Battle of Dan-no-ura by Yoritomo's brother Minamoto no Yoshitsune.
1192: The Emperor Go-Toba appoints Yoritomo as shōgun (military leader) with a residence in Kamakura, establishing the bakufu system of government.
1199: Minamoto no Yoritomo dies.
1207: Hōnen and his followers are exiled from Kyoto or executed. This inadvertently spread the Pure Land doctrine to a wider audience.
1221: The Kamakura army defeats the imperial army in the Jōkyū Disturbance, thereby asserting the supremacy of the Kamakura shogunate (Hōjō regents) over the emperor.
1227: The Sōtō sect of Zen Buddhism is introduced to Japan by monk Dōgen Zenji.
1232: The Jōei Shikimoku code of law is promulgated to enhance control by the Hōjō regents.
1271: Nichiren is banished to Sado Island.
1274 & 1281: The Mongols of Kublai Khan try to invade Japan but are repelled by a typhoon.
1293: On May 27, a major earthquake and tsunami hit Sagami Bay and Kamakura, killing 23,034 people. It followed a 1241 and 1257 earthquake/tsunami in the same general area, which both were of magnitude 7.0.
1333: Nitta Yoshisada conquers and destroys Kamakura during the Siege of Kamakura ending the Kamakura shogunate.
Notes
References
Further reading
Varley, P., Warriors of Japan, University of Hawaii Press, 1994, .
McCullough, Helen Craig (1959). The Taiheiki. A Chronicle of Medieval Japan. 1959. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo, .
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Feudal Japan
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201201
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprise%20Records
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Reprise Records
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Reprise Records is an American record label founded in 1960 by Frank Sinatra. It is owned by Warner Music Group, and operates through Warner Records, one of its flagship labels.
Artists currently signed to Reprise Records include Enya, Michael Bublé, Eric Clapton, Stevie Nicks, Neil Young, Deftones, Mastodon, Lindsey Buckingham, Josh Groban, Disturbed, Idina Menzel, Gerard Way, Dwight Yoakam, and Never Shout Never.
Company history
Beginnings
Reprise Records was formed in 1960 by Frank Sinatra in order to allow more artistic freedom for his own recordings. Soon thereafter, he garnered the nickname "The Chairman of the Board". Because of dissatisfaction with Capitol Records, and after trying to buy Norman Granz's Verve Records, the first album Sinatra released on Reprise was Ring-a-Ding-Ding! As CEO of Reprise, Sinatra recruited several artists for the fledgling label, such as fellow Rat Pack members Dean Martin and Sammy Davis, Jr. The original roster from 1961 to 1963 included Bing Crosby, Jo Stafford, Rosemary Clooney, Duke Ellington, Nancy Sinatra, Esquivel and stand-up comedian Redd Foxx. The original Reprise LP label had four different logos, depending on the genre: a steamship for Pop records (pictured), a cherub for Jazz records, an owl for Spoken Word/Comedy records, and a picture of Sinatra for his records.
One of the label's founding principles under Sinatra's leadership was that each artist would have full creative freedom, and at some point complete ownership of their work, including publishing rights. This is the reason why recordings of early Reprise artists (Dean Martin, Jimi Hendrix, the Kinks, etc.) are (in most cases) currently distributed through other labels. In Martin's case, his Reprise recordings were out of print for nearly 20 years before a deal was struck with Capitol Records. Reprise continued to reissue the Sinatra catalog until 2013 when it was sold to Capitol.
Sale to Warner Bros.
In August 1963, as part of a film deal, Warner Bros. purchased Reprise (which had been losing money) from Frank Sinatra, who nonetheless retained a 1/3 interest in the label. Many of the older artists on the label were dropped by Warner Bros. Records. Reprise president Mo Ostin was retained as the head of the label and he went on to play a very significant role in the history of the Warner group of labels over the next four decades. Warner-Reprise executives began targeting younger acts, beginning by securing the American distribution rights to the Pye Records recordings by the Kinks in 1964. Reprise soon added teen-oriented pop acts like Dino, Desi & Billy to the roster. As well, Sinatra's own daughter Nancy (who began recording for the label in 1961) was retained by Ostin, becoming a major pop star from late 1965. The label moved almost exclusively to rock-oriented music in the late 1960s, although Frank Sinatra continued to record for the label until the 1980s.
Through direct signings or distribution deals, by the 1970s the Reprise roster grew to include Lee Hazlewood, Jill Jackson, Jimi Hendrix, the early Joni Mitchell recordings, Neil Young, the Electric Prunes, Donna Loren, Arlo Guthrie, Norman Greenbaum, Tom Lehrer, Tiny Tim, Ry Cooder, Captain Beefheart, John Sebastian, Family, the early 1970s recordings by Frank Zappa and the Mothers, Gram Parsons, Emmylou Harris, Nico's Desertshore, the Fugs, Jethro Tull, Pentangle, T. Rex, the Meters, John Cale, Gordon Lightfoot, Michael Franks, Richard Pryor, Al Jarreau, Fleetwood Mac, Fanny, and the Beach Boys.
Dormancy
In 1976, the Reprise label was deactivated by Warner Bros. and all of its roster (except Frank Sinatra and Neil Young) was moved to the main Warner Bros. label. Although older catalog albums continued to be manufactured with the Reprise logo, and albums by the Beach Boys on Brother Records were issued in the Reprise catalog numbering sequence, aside from Sinatra and Young (and the Sylvia Syms album Syms by Sinatra, which Sinatra conducted and co-produced) there were no new releases on Reprise for several years.
Revival and Reprise today (1985–present)
In late 1985, some copies of the Dream Academy's hit single "Life in a Northern Town" were pressed on the Warner Bros. label bearing the Reprise logo. 1986 saw releases bearing Reprise labels from the Dream Academy as well as Dwight Yoakam. In summer 1987, Warner Bros. Records chairman Mo Ostin and label president Lenny Waronker officially announced the reactivation of Reprise, including its own separate promotions department, and former Warner Bros. Vice President of Promotion Rich Fitzgerald was appointed as label vice president. In the time since, Warner Bros. has often elevated the stature of Reprise to the rank of secondary parent label, as many of its subsidiary labels (such as Straight and Kinetic) have had their records released in conjunction with Reprise.
As of 2017, it is home to such artists as Enya, Michael Bublé, Eric Clapton, Green Day, Stevie Nicks, Neil Young, Deftones, Josh Groban, Disturbed, Idina Menzel, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Gerard Way and Never Shout Never.
It was formerly home to the Jimi Hendrix and the Barenaked Ladies' catalogs in the U.S. When the Bee Gees back catalog was remastered by Rhino Records in the 2000s, their CDs were issued under the Reprise label (they appeared on sister labels Atco and Warner Bros. in the past).
Neil Young stated in a documentary about his life that Charles Manson was turned down by Reprise.
In 2010, Reprise opened a country music division, operating as part of Warner Music Group Nashville, featuring Blake Shelton, the JaneDear Girls, Michelle Branch and Frankie Ballard as part of its roster.
In September 2011, several layoffs took place at Reprise Records and other Warner labels.
In 2017, Reprise released Enya's albums on vinyl. Some of them were pressed on this format for the first time.
Reprise Records artists
Labels
143 Records (1999–present)
Bizarre Records (1968–1972)
Big Brother Records (2008–present)
BME Recordings (2004–present)
Brother Records (1970-1977)
Chrysalis Records (1969–1972)
Cold Chillin' Records (1988–1993; select releases)
DiscReet Records (1973–1979)
Elementree Records (1995–2000)
Giant Records (1990–2001; select releases)
Grand Jury Records (1990–1993)
In Bloom Records (1998–2000)
Kinetic Records (1992–2000)
Straight Records (1968–1972)
Sire Records (1977–2000: select releases)
Vapor Records (1995–present; current status unknown)
Parent organizations
(1960–1968) Independent
(1968–1969) Warner Bros.-Seven Arts
(1969–1972) Kinney National Company
(1972–1990) Warner Communications
(1990–2001) WarnerMedia
(2001–2003) AOL Time Warner
(2004–present) Warner Music Group
See also
List of record labels
Warner Records
References
External links
A discography of American Reprise singles from 1961 to 1970
American record labels
Frank Sinatra
Jazz record labels
Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
Pop record labels
Record labels established in 1960
Record labels disestablished in 1976
Record labels established in 1987
Re-established companies
Rock record labels
Soundtrack record labels
Warner Records
Warner Music labels
Vanity record labels
1960 establishments in the United States
1963 mergers and acquisitions
|
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201202
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20de%20Acosta
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José de Acosta
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José de Acosta (1539 or 1540 in Medina del Campo, Spain – February 15, 1600 in Salamanca, Spain) was a sixteenth-century Spanish Jesuit missionary and naturalist in Latin America. His deductions regarding the ill effects of crossing over the Andes in 1570 related to the atmosphere being too thin for human needs; a variety of altitude sickness is now referred to as Acosta's disease.
Life
José de Acosta was born at Medina del Campo in Spain, where his parents lived in this city of the plain, about twenty-four miles from Valladolid, in Old Castile, on the left bank of the swampy river Zapardiel, and overlooked by the old castle of La Mota. He was of converso background, His parents had five sons, Gerónimo, Christóval, José, Diego, and Bernardo. The Acosta brothers were fellow townsmen of the old soldier Bernal Diaz, who told the story of the conquest of Mexico, but they were many years younger than him. In 1553, at the age of thirteen, Acosta became a novice in the Society of Jesus in Medina del Campo. Four Acosta brothers joined this order. Before leaving Spain, José was lecturer in theology at Ocana, and in April 1569, was to be sent to Lima, Peru, where the Jesuits had been established in the proceeding year. According to one scholar, Acosta was "a heavy man of uncertain, melancholic temper."
Panama
At age 32, Acosta left Spain with several other Jesuits in 1570, landing at Cartagena de Indias, and finally at Nombre de Dios, then journeyed through 18 leagues – about ) – of tropical forest. He was impressed by the scenery, the novel sights at every turn, and was interested, at Capira, in the clever antics of troops of monkeys. From Panama he embarked for Peru to pursue missionary work. He expected to experience unbearably intense heat in crossing the equator, but found it to be so cool in March, that he laughed at Aristotle and his philosophy.
Peru and Acosta's disease
On his arrival at Lima, he was ordered to cross the Andes, apparently to join the Viceroy of Peru in the interior. He took the route, with fourteen or fifteen companions, across the mountainous province of Huarochiri, and by the lofty pass of Pariacaca (over ), where the whole party suffered severely from the effects of the rarefied atmosphere. Acosta describes these sufferings, which were to be repeated on the three other occasions of crossing the cordillera. Acosta was one of the earliest people to give a detailed description of altitude sickness, and to link it to "air... so thin and so delicate that it is not proportioned to human breathing", and a variety of altitude sickness is referred to as Acosta's disease. He also mentions an attack of snow blindness and the way in which an Indian woman cured him.
Acosta had arrived in Peru two years after Don Francisco de Toledo had come out as Viceroy in 1568. Following Toledo's beheading of the Inca Túpac Amaru, the Viceroy devoted five years to a tour through every part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and to settlement of the country, in which he was aided by Acosta, the licentiate Polo de Ondegardo, and the Judge Juan Ortiz de Matienzo. Acosta also accompanied the Viceroy to Charcas, and was with him during his unsuccessful expedition against the fierce Chirihuana Indians.
The principal seat of the Jesuits was at that time in the little town of Juli, near the western shores of Lake Titicaca. Here a college was formed, the languages of the natives were studied, and eventually, a printing press was established. Acosta probably resided at Juli during much of his stay in Peru. It was here, in all likelihood, that he observed the famous comet of 1577, from November 1 to December 8, which extended like a fiery plume from the horizon nearly to the zenith. Here, too, he devoted much of his time to the preparation of several learned works, which he later took back to Spain in manuscript, including the first two books of the Natural History of the Indies. At Juli, Father Acosta received information respecting the Amazon River from a brother who had formerly been in the famous piratical cruise of Lope de Aguirre.
Towards the close of the viceroyalty of Toledo, Father Acosta appears to have moved from the interior of Peru to Lima. Here he mentions superintending the casting of a great bell, for which there was difficulty in getting fuel for the furnace, making it necessary to fell great trees in the Rímac River valley. Viceroy Toledo was practically the founder of the University of St. Mark at Lima, where Acosta was to occupy the chair of theology. Here he was again able to display his abilities as a famed orator.
In 1571 José went to Cuzco as a visitor of the recently founded college of the Jesuits. He returned to Lima three years later to again fill the chair of theology, and was elected provincial in 1576.
In 1579 Sir Francis Drake was on the coast, and the Viceroy dispatched a fleet under Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, partly to chase the English pirate, and partly to explore and survey the Strait of Magellan. Acosta had conversations with the pilot of Sarmiento's fleet, and was allowed to inspect his chart, thus obtaining much hydrographic information, and particulars respecting the tides in the straits. He also conversed with the new Viceroy Don Martín Henríquez on the same subject.
Acosta founded a number of colleges, among them those of Arequipa, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Panama and La Paz, but met with considerable opposition from the Viceroy Toledo. His official duties obliged him to investigate personally a very extensive range of territory, so that he acquired a practical knowledge of the vast province, and of its aboriginal inhabitants. At the 1582 session of the Third Council of Lima, Father Acosta played a very important part and was its historian. He delivered an eloquent and learned oration at its last sitting on October 18, 1583.
Mexico
Shortly after the Third Council of Lima, he embarked with all his manuscripts, the literary labors of fifteen years, and commenced his voyage to Mexico. During the passage, he was a shrewd observer of nature and knowledge seeker. He learned from an expert Portuguese pilot that there were four often-visited ports of no magnetic compass variation on the earth, and that one of them was Corvo Island in the Azores. Acosta landed at the port of Huatulco, at the western end of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, in the Oaxaca province, then journeyed by land to Mexico City, where he resided in 1586. He had opportunities of which he diligently availed himself for collecting information touching the civilization and religion of the Aztecs and natural products of this country. His chief informant respecting the rites and festivals of the Mexicans was brother and Prebendary, Juan de Tobar. For information on the Mexica, Acosta followed Juan de Tovar's Relación del origen de los indios que habitan esta Nueva España según sus historias, a possible summary of Fray Diego Durán's Historia de las Indias de Nueva España e islas de Tierra Firme—in turn derived in part from an anonymous Nahuatl history of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, known as the Crónica X.
Return to Spain
Acosta had been called to Spain by the King in 1585, prior to being detained in Mexico. He sailed home to Spain in the fleet of 1587, which contained a precious cargo, including twelve chests of gold each weighing , 11,000,000 pieces of silver, and two chests of emeralds each weighing 100 lb, in addition to loads of ginger, sarsaparilla, Brazil wood and animal hides. In Spain he filled the chair of theology at the Roman college in 1594, head of the Jesuits College at Valladolid, as well as other important positions. At the time of his death in his 60th year, he was rector of the college at Salamanca.
Works
Aside from his publication of the proceedings of the provincial councils of 1567 and 1583, and several works of exclusively theological import, Acosta is best known as the writer of , and above all, the . The first two appeared at Salamanca in 1588, the last at Seville in 1590, and was soon after its publication translated into various languages. It is chiefly the that has established the reputation of Acosta, as this was one of the first detailed and realistic descriptions of the New World. In a form more concise than that employed by his predecessors, Francisco Lopez de Gómara and Oviedo, he treated the natural and philosophic history of the New World from a broader point of view. In it, more than a century before other Europeans learned of the Bering Strait, Acosta hypothesized that Latin America's indigenous peoples had migrated from Asia. He also divided them into three barbarian categories. The Historia also described Inca and Aztec customs and history, as well as other information such as winds and tides, lakes, rivers, plants, animals, and mineral resources in the New World.
See also
Viceroyalty of Peru
List of Jesuit scientists
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
References
Adovasio, J. M. and David Pedler. "The Peopling of North America." North American Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 32.
Jose de Acosta, S.J. (1540-1600) Pioneer of the Geophysical Sciences @Fairfield University
Bibliography
Acosta, José de (2002). The Natural and Moral History of the Indies. Edited by Jane Mangan; translated by Frances Lopez-Morillas. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
BEROSE - International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology. "Acosta, José de (1540-1600)", Paris, 2019. (ISSN 2648-2770)
Burgaleta, Claudio M. (1999). José de Acosta (1540–1600): His Life and Thought. Chicago: Loyola University Press. .
MacCormack, Sabine (1991). Religion in the Andes: Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. .
Pagden, Anthony (1982). The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology. New York: Cambridge University Press. .
Pagden, Anthony (1993). European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. .
Pino Díaz, Fermín del (2019). “Contribución del Padre José de Acosta a la constitución de la etnología: su evolucionismo”, in BEROSE - International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology, Paris.
Pino Díaz, Fermín del (2019). “Vida y obra de José de Acosta, misionero jesuita y cronista indiano”, in BEROSE - International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology, Paris.
Further reading
Ando, Clifford; McGinness, Anne; and MacCormack, Sabine G. (2015). “Natural Philosophy, History, and Theology in the Writings of José de Acosta, S.J. (1540–1600).” In Journal of Jesuit Studies 2(1): 1–35. doi.org/10.1163/22141332-00201001.
External links
1540 births
1600 deaths
Spanish scientists
Spanish Mesoamericanists
Novohispanic Mesoamericanists
16th-century Mesoamericanists
16th-century Spanish Jesuits
Jesuit scientists
16th-century anthropologists
|
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201203
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia
|
Beringia
|
Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea; and on the south by the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula. It includes the Chukchi Sea, the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States and the Yukon in Canada.
The area includes land lying on the North American Plate and Siberian land east of the Chersky Range. At certain times in prehistory, it formed a land bridge that was up to wide at its greatest extent and which covered an area as large as British Columbia and Alberta together, totaling approximately . Today, the only land that is visible from the central part of the Bering land bridge are the Diomede Islands, the Pribilof Islands of St. Paul and St. George, St. Lawrence Island, St. Matthew Island, and King Island.
The term Beringia was coined by the Swedish botanist Eric Hultén in 1937, from the Dano-Russian explorer Vitus Bering. During the ice ages, Beringia, like most of Siberia and all of North and Northeast China, was not glaciated because snowfall was very light. It was a grassland steppe, including the land bridge, that stretched for hundreds of kilometres into the continents on either side.
It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before expanding into the settlement of the Americas sometime after 16,500 years Before Present (YBP). This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 YBP.
Before European colonization, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. This culture remains in the region today along with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia.
Geography
The remains of Late Pleistocene mammals that had been discovered on the Aleutians and islands in the Bering Sea at the close of the nineteenth century indicated that a past land connection might lie beneath the shallow waters between Alaska and Chukotka. The underlying mechanism was first thought to be tectonics, but by 1930 changes in the icemass balance, leading to global sea-level fluctuations, were viewed as the cause of the Bering land bridge. In 1937, Eric Hultén proposed that around the Aleutians and the Bering Strait region were tundra plants that had originally dispersed from a now-submerged plain between Alaska and Chukotka, which he named Beringia after the Dane Vitus Bering who had sailed into the strait in 1728. The American arctic geologist David Hopkins redefined Beringia to include portions of Alaska and Northeast Asia. Beringia was later regarded as extending from the Verkhoyansk Mountains in the west to the Mackenzie River in the east. The distribution of plants in the genera Erythranthe and Pinus are good examples of this, as very similar genera members are found in Asia and the Americas.
During the Pleistocene epoch, global cooling led periodically to the expansion of glaciers and lowering of sea levels. This created land connections in various regions around the globe. Today, the average water depth of the Bering Strait is ; therefore the land bridge opened when the sea level dropped more than below the current level. A reconstruction of the sea-level history of the region indicated that a seaway existed from YBP, a land bridge from YBP, intermittent connection from YBP, a land bridge from YBP, followed by a Holocene sea-level rise that reopened the strait. Post-glacial rebound has continued to raise some sections of coast.
During the last glacial period, enough of the earth's water became frozen in the great ice sheets covering North America and Europe to cause a drop in sea levels. For thousands of years the sea floors of many interglacial shallow seas were exposed, including those of the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea to the north, and the Bering Sea to the south. Other land bridges around the world have emerged and disappeared in the same way. Around 14,000 years ago, mainland Australia was linked to both New Guinea and Tasmania, the British Isles became an extension of continental Europe via the dry beds of the English Channel and North Sea, and the dry bed of the South China Sea linked Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to Indochina.
Beringian refugium
The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the "Ice Age", spanned 125,000–14,500YBP and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets began advancing from 33,000YBP and reached their maximum limits 26,500YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 yearsYBP, which is consistent with evidence that glacial meltwater was the primary source for an abrupt rise in sea level 14,500YBP and the bridge was finally inundated around 11,000 YBP. The fossil evidence from many continents points to the extinction of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation.
During the Ice Age a vast, cold and dry Mammoth steppe stretched from the arctic islands southwards to China, and from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon where it was blocked by the Wisconsin glaciation. The land bridge existed because sea-levels were lower because more of the planet's water than today was locked up in glaciers. Therefore, the flora and fauna of Beringia were more related to those of Eurasia rather than North America. Beringia received more moisture and intermittent maritime cloud cover from the north Pacific Ocean than the rest of the Mammoth steppe, including the dry environments on either side of it. This moisture supported a shrub-tundra habitat that provided an ecological refugium for plants and animals. In East Beringia 35,000 YBP, the northern arctic areas experienced temperatures degrees warmer than today but the southern sub-Arctic regions were degrees cooler. During the LGM 22,000 YBP the average summer temperature was degrees cooler than today, with variations of degrees cooler on the Seward Peninsula to cooler in the Yukon. In the driest and coldest periods of the Late Pleistocene, and possibly during the entire Pleistocene, moisture occurred along a north–south gradient with the south receiving the most cloud cover and moisture due to the air-flow from the North Pacific.
In the Late Pleistocene, Beringia was a mosaic of biological communities. Commencing from YBP (MIS 3), steppe–tundra vegetation dominated large parts of Beringia with a rich diversity of grasses and herbs. There were patches of shrub tundra with isolated refugia of larch (Larix) and spruce (Picea) forests with birch (Betula) and alder (Alnus) trees. It has been proposed that the largest and most diverse megafaunal community residing in Beringia at this time could only have been sustained in a highly diverse and productive environment. Analysis at Chukotka on the Siberian edge of the land bridge indicated that from YBP (MIS 3 to MIS 2) the environment was wetter and colder than the steppe–tundra to the east and west, with warming in parts of Beringia from YBP. These changes provided the most likely explanation for mammal migrations after YBP, as the warming provided increased forage for browsers and mixed feeders. Beringia did not block the movement of most dry steppe-adapted large species such as saiga antelope, woolly mammoth, and caballid horses. However, from the west, the woolly rhino went no further east than the Anadyr River, and from the east North American camels, the American kiang-like equids, the short-faced bear, bonnet-headed muskoxen, and American badger did not travel west. At the beginning of the Holocene, some mesic habitat-adapted species left the refugium and spread westward into what had become tundra-vegetated northern Asia and eastward into northern North America.
The latest emergence of the land bridge was years ago. However, from YBP the Laurentide Ice Sheet fused with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which blocked gene flow between Beringia (and Eurasia) and continental North America. The Yukon corridor opened between the receding ice sheets YBP, and this once again allowed gene flow between Eurasia and continental North America until the land bridge was finally closed by rising sea levels YBP. During the Holocene, many mesic-adapted species left the refugium and spread eastward and westward, while at the same time the forest-adapted species spread with the forests up from the south. The arid adapted species were reduced to minor habitats or became extinct.
Beringia constantly transformed its ecosystem as the changing climate affected the environment, determining which plants and animals were able to survive. The land mass could be a barrier as well as a bridge: during colder periods, glaciers advanced and precipitation levels dropped. During warmer intervals, clouds, rain and snow altered soils and drainage patterns. Fossil remains show that spruce, birch and poplar once grew beyond their northernmost range today, indicating that there were periods when the climate was warmer and wetter. The environmental conditions were not homogenous in Beringia. Recent stable isotope studies of woolly mammoth bone collagen demonstrate that western Beringia (Siberia) was colder and drier than eastern Beringia (Alaska and Yukon), which was more ecologically diverse. Mastodons, which depended on shrubs for food, were uncommon in the open dry tundra landscape characteristic of Beringia during the colder periods. In this tundra, mammoths flourished instead.
The extinct pine species Pinus matthewsii has been described from Pliocene sediments in the Yukon areas of the refugium.
The paleo-environment changed across time. Below is a gallery of some of the plants that inhabited eastern Beringia before the beginning of the Holocene.
Gray wolf
The earliest Canis lupus specimen was a fossil tooth discovered at Old Crow, Yukon, Canada. The specimen was found in sediment dated 1 million YBP, however the geological attribution of this sediment is questioned. Slightly younger specimens were discovered at Cripple Creek Sump, Fairbanks, Alaska, in strata dated 810,000 YBP. Both discoveries point to an origin of these wolves in eastern Beringia during the Middle Pleistocene. Grey wolves suffered a species-wide population bottleneck (reduction) approximately 25,000 YBP during the Last Glacial Maximum. This was followed by a single population of modern wolves expanding out of their Beringia refuge to repopulate the wolf's former range, replacing the remaining Late Pleistocene wolf populations across Eurasia and North America as they did so.
Human habitation
The Bering land bridge is a postulated route of human migration to the Americas from Asia about 20,000 years ago. An open corridor through the ice-covered North American Arctic was too barren to support human migrations before around 12,600 YBP. A study has indicated that the genetic imprints of only 70 of all the individuals who settled and traveled the land bridge into North America are visible in modern descendants. This genetic bottleneck finding is an example of the founder effect and does not imply that only 70 individuals crossed into North America at the time; rather, the genetic material of these individuals became amplified in North America following isolation from other Asian populations.
Seagoing coastal settlers may also have crossed much earlier, but there is no scientific consensus on this point, and the coastal sites that would offer further information now lie submerged in up to a hundred metres of water offshore. Land animals migrated through Beringia as well, introducing to North America species that had evolved in Asia, like mammals such as proboscideans and American lions, which evolved into now-extinct endemic North American species. Meanwhile, equids and camelids that had evolved in North America (and later became extinct there) migrated into Asia as well at this time.
A 2007 analysis of mtDNA found evidence that a human population lived in genetic isolation on the exposed Beringian landmass during the Last Glacial Maximum for approximately 5,000 years. This population is often referred to as the Beringian Standstill population. A number of other studies, relying on more extensive genomic data, have come to the same conclusion. Genetic and linguistic data demonstrate that at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, as sea levels rose, some members of the Beringian Standstill Population migrated back into eastern Asia while others migrated into the Western Hemisphere, where they became the ancestors of the indigenous people of the Western Hemisphere. Environmental selection on this Beringian Standstill Population has been suggested for genetic variation in the Fatty Acid Desaturase gene cluster and the ectodysplasin A receptor gene. Using Y Chromosome data Pinotti et al. have estimated the Beringian Standstill to be less than 4600 years and taking place between 19.5 kya and 15 kya.
Previous connections
Biogeographical evidence demonstrates previous connections between North America and Asia. Similar dinosaur fossils occur both in Asia and in North America. For instance the dinosaur Saurolophus was found in both Mongolia and western North America. Relatives of Troodon, Triceratops, and even Tyrannosaurus rex all came from Asia.
Fossil evidence indicates an exchange of primates between North America and Asia around 55.8 million years ago. By 20 million years ago, evidence in North America shows a further interchange of mammalian species. Some, like the ancient saber-toothed cats, have a recurring geographical range: Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America. The only way they could reach the New World was by the Bering land bridge. Had this bridge not existed at that time, the fauna of the world would be very different.
See also
Ancient Beringian
Bering Strait crossing
Bluefish Caves
Little John (archeological site)
Geologic time scale
Last glacial period
Paleoshoreline
Pleistocene
Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre
References
Further reading
Demuth, Bathsheba (2019) Floating Coast: An Environmental History of the Bering Strait. W. W. Norton & Company. .
Pielou, E. C., After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) 1992
External links
CBC News: New map of Beringia 'opens your imagination' to what landscape looked like 18,000 years ago
Shared Beringian Heritage Program
International National Park in the Bering Strait
Bering Land Bridge National Preserve
D.K. Jordan, "Prehistoric Beringia"
Paleoenvironmental atlas of Beringia: includes animation showing the gradual disappearance of the Bering land bridge
Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre
Paleoenvironments and Glaciation in Beringia
Study suggests 20000 year hiatus in Beringia
The Fertile Shore
1930s neologisms
Historical geology
Ice ages
Last Glacial Maximum
Pleistocene
Paleo-Indian period
Natural history of North America
Natural history of Asia
Prehistory of the Arctic
Natural history of Russia
Bering Sea
Regions of North America
North Asia
|
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201206
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral%20Records
|
Coral Records
|
Coral Records was a subsidiary of Decca Records that was formed in 1949. Coral released music by Patsy Cline, Buddy Holly, the McGuire Sisters and Teresa Brewer.
Jazz and swing music were issued by Coral in the 1940s. After Bob Thiele became head of the label in 1954, he produced pop and rock musicians such as Buddy Holly, Jackie Wilson, Lawrence Welk, and Steve Lawrence and Eydie Gormé. He also produced hit songs by his wife, Teresa Brewer.
Coral stopped issuing new material in 1971. In 1973, MCA amalgamated Decca, Kapp Records, and Uni Records under the single MCA Records banner, and Coral was repositioned as a mid-line and budget album reissue label in the U.S. and internationally. This version of Coral (MCA Coral) lasted into the 1980s. Some product from MCA's former Vocalion Records budget label was manufactured with MCA Coral labels that bore Vocalion catalog numbers and was shipped in sleeves still bearing the Vocalion trademark, presumably to cut costs.
Roster
Steve Allen
Ames Brothers
Louis Armstrong
Two Ton Baker
Kenny Bass and His Polka Poppers
Milton Berle
Owen Bradley
Teresa Brewer
Doug Bragg
Paul Bruno
Johnny Burnette Trio
Champ Butler
George Cates
Patsy Cline
Rosemary Clooney
Al Cohn
Dorothy Collins
Don Cornell
Eddie Costa
Bob Crosby
Jimmy Dorsey
Pete Fountain
Georgia Gibbs
Charlie Gracie
Lou Graham
Buddy Greco
Eddie Gronet and His Orchestra
Greg Hatza
Woody Herman
Milt Herth
Buddy Holly
Will Holt
Steve Lawrence
Lennon Sisters
Liberace
McGuire Sisters
Betty Madigan
Barbara McNair
The Modernaires
Moon Mullican
Debbie Reynolds
Raymond Scott
Jack Shook
Frank Sorrell
Tony and the Bandits
Jackie Verdell
The Vogues
Romance Watson (of the Roberta Martin Singers)
Lawrence Welk
Paul Whiteman and his "New" Ambassador Orchestra
Lee Wiley
Billy Williams
See also
List of record labels
References
External links
45 Discography for Coral Records 60000 series - 1949-1953
45 Discography for Coral Records 61000 series - 1953-1958
45 Discography for Coral Records 62000 series - 1958-1970
45 Discography for Coral Records 64000 series - 1949-1955
45 Discography for Coral Records 65000 series - 1949-1952
Coral Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project
American record labels
Decca Records
Jazz record labels
Record labels established in 1949
Record labels disestablished in 1973
Rock and roll record labels
|
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201208
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrotropical%20realm
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Afrotropical realm
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The Afrotropical realm is one of Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Africa south of the Sahara Desert, the majority of the Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, southern Iran and extreme southwestern Pakistan, and the islands of the western Indian Ocean. It was formerly known as the Ethiopian Zone or Ethiopian Region.
Major ecological regions
Most of the Afrotropic, with the exception of Africa's southern tip, has a tropical climate. A broad belt of deserts, including the Atlantic and Sahara deserts of northern Africa and the Arabian Desert of the Arabian Peninsula, separate the Afrotropic from the Palearctic realm, which includes northern Africa and temperate Eurasia.
Sahel and Sudan
South of the Sahara, two belts of tropical grassland and savanna run east and west across the continent, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ethiopian Highlands. Immediately south of the Sahara lies the Sahel belt, a transitional zone of semi-arid short grassland and vachellia savanna. Rainfall increases further south in the Sudanian Savanna, also known simply as the Sudan, a belt of taller grasslands and savannas. The Sudanian Savanna is home to two great flooded grasslands, the Sudd wetland in South Sudan, and the Niger Inland Delta in Mali. The forest-savanna mosaic is a transitional zone between the grasslands and the belt of tropical moist broadleaf forests near the equator.
Southern Arabian woodlands
South Arabia, which includes Yemen and parts of western Oman and southwestern Saudi Arabia, has few permanent forests. Some of the notable are Jabal Bura, Jabal Raymah and Jabal Badaj in the Yemeni highland escarpment and the seasonal forests in eastern Yemen and the Dhofar region of Oman. Other woodlands scatter the land and are very small and are predominantly Juniperus or Vachellia forests.
Forest zone
The forest zone, a belt of lowland tropical moist broadleaf forests, runs across most of equatorial Africa's intertropical convergence zone. The Upper Guinean forests of West Africa extend along the coast from Guinea to Togo. The Dahomey Gap, a zone of forest-savanna mosaic that reaches to the coast, separates the Upper Guinean forests from the Lower Guinean forests, which extend along the Gulf of Guinea from eastern Benin through Cameroon and Gabon to the western Democratic Republic of the Congo. The largest tropical forest zone in Africa is the Congolian forests of the Congo Basin in Central Africa.
A belt of tropical moist broadleaf forest also runs along the Indian Ocean coast, from southern Somalia to South Africa.
East African grasslands and savannas
Serengeti
Eastern Africa's highlands
Afromontane region, from the Ethiopian Highlands to the Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa, including the East African Rift. Distinctive flora, including Podocarpus and Afrocarpus, as well as giant Lobelias and Senecios.
Ethiopian Highlands
Albertine rift montane forests
East African montane forests and Eastern Arc forests
Zambezian region
The Zambezian region includes woodlands, savannas, grasslands, and thickets. Characteristic plant communities include Miombo woodlands, drier mopane and Baikiaea woodlands, and higher-elevation Bushveld. It extends from east to west in a broad belt across the continent, south of the rainforests of the Guineo-Congolian region, and north of the deserts of southeastern Africa, the countries are Angola, Botswana, Mozambique,Zambia and Zimbabwe and the subtropical.
Deserts of southern Africa
Namib Desert
Kalahari Desert
Karoo
Tankwa Karoo
Richtersveld
Cape floristic region
The Cape floristic region, at Africa's southern tip, is a Mediterranean climate region that is home to a significant number of endemic taxa, as well as to plant families like the proteas (Proteaceae) that are also found in the Australasian realm.
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands
Madagascar and neighboring islands form a distinctive sub-region of the realm, with numerous endemic taxa like the lemurs. Madagascar and the Granitic Seychelles are old pieces of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, and broke away from Africa millions of years ago. Other Indian Ocean islands, like the Comoros and Mascarene Islands, are volcanic islands that formed more recently. Madagascar contains a variety of plant habitats, from rainforests to mountains and deserts, as its biodiversity and ratio of endemism is extremely high.
Endemic plants and animals
Plants
The Afrotropical realm is home to a number of endemic plant families. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands are home to ten endemic families of flowering plants; eight are endemic to Madagascar (Asteropeiaceae, Didymelaceae, Didiereaceae, Kaliphoraceae, Melanophyllaceae, Physenaceae, Sarcolaenaceae, and Sphaerosepalaceae), one to Seychelles (Mesdusagynaceae) and one to the Mascarene Islands (Psiloxylaceae). Twelve plant families are endemic or nearly endemic to South Africa (including Curtisiaceae, Heteropyxidaceae, Penaeaceae, Psiloxylaceae and Rhynchocalycaceae) of which five are endemic to the Cape floristic province (including Grubbiaceae). Other endemic Afrotropic families include Barbeyaceae, Dirachmaceae, Montiniaceae, Myrothamnaceae and Oliniaceae.
Animals
The East African Great Lakes (Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika) are the center of biodiversity of many freshwater fishes, especially cichlids (they harbor more than two-thirds of the estimated 2,000 species in the family). The West African coastal rivers region covers only a fraction of West Africa, but harbours 322 of West African's fish species, with 247 restricted to this area and 129 restricted even
to smaller ranges. The central rivers fauna comprises 194 fish species, with 119 endemics and only 33 restricted to small areas.
The Afrotropic has various endemic bird families, including ostriches (Struthionidae), sunbirds, the secretary bird (Sagittariidae), guineafowl (Numididae), and mousebirds (Coliidae). Also, several families of passerines are limited to the Afrotropics; These include rock-jumpers (Chaetopidae) and rockfowl (Picathartidae).
Africa has three endemic orders of mammals, the Tubulidentata (aardvarks), Afrosoricida (tenrecs and golden moles), and Macroscelidea (elephant shrews). The East-African plains are well known for their diversity of large mammals.
Four species of great apes (Hominidae) are endemic to Africa: both species of gorilla (western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla, and eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei) and both species of chimpanzee (common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, and bonobo, Pan paniscus). Humans and their ancestors originated in Africa.
Afrotropical terrestrial ecoregions
See also
Global 200
References
Bibliography
Burgess, N., J.D. Hales, E. Underwood, and E. Dinerstein (2004). Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment. Island Press, Washington, D.C., .
Thieme, M.L., R. Abell, M.L.J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, B. Lehner, G.G. Teugels, E. Dinerstein, A.K. Toham, N. Burgess & D. Olson. 2005. Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment. Washington D.C.,: WWF, .
External links
Terrestrial ecoregions of the world
African Invertebrates — A journal of Afrotropical biodiversity research
Manual of Afrotropical Diptera
Biogeographic realms
.
.
Tropics
Biogeography
Natural history of Asia
Natural history of Africa
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201209
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Carter
|
Matthew Carter
|
Matthew Carter (born 1 October 1937) is a British type designer. A 2005 New Yorker profile described him as 'the most widely read man in the world' by considering the amount of text set in his commonly used fonts.
Carter's career began in the early 1960s and has bridged all three major technologies used in type design: physical type, phototypesetting and digital font design, as well as the design of custom lettering.
Carter's most used fonts are the classic web fonts Verdana and Georgia and the Windows interface font Tahoma, as well as other designs including Bell Centennial, Miller and Galliard. He is the son of the English historian of printing Harry Carter (1901–1982) and cofounded Bitstream, one of the first major retailers of digital fonts. He lives in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Early life and education
Carter grew up in London, the son of Harry Carter, a book designer and later historian of printing. His mother worked in preparing scale drawings.
Although Carter had intended to get a degree in English at Oxford he was advised to take a year off so he would be the same age as his contemporaries who had gone into National Service.
Career
Enschedé
Through his father, Carter arranged to hold an internship at the Joh. Enschedé type foundry in the Netherlands for a year. An extremely long-lasting company with a long history of printing, Enschedé had a history of creating conservative but popular book typefaces. Carter studied manual punchcutting, the method used to make moulds used to cast metal type, under P. H. Raedisch. Punchcutting was a traditional artisanal approach in decline many years before the 1950s. Carter is one of the last people in Europe formally trained in the technique as a living practice.
Carter enjoyed the experience, and decided to move directly into a career in graphic design and printing.
London and New York
Carter's career in type and graphic design has bridged the transition from physical metal type to digital type.
Despite Carter's training in the art of traditional punchcutting, his career developed at a time when metal type was rapidly being displaced by phototypesetting. This reduced the cost of designing and using a wide range of typefaces, since type could be stored on reels of film rather than as blocks of expensively engraved metal. In a book on Carter's career, historian James Mosley, a few years older than Carter, would write of the period of their upbringing:
The Monotype classic [fonts] dominated the typographical landscape ... in Britain, at any rate, they were so ubiquitous that, while their excellent quality was undeniable, it was possible to be bored by them and to begin to rebel against the bland good taste that they represented. In fact we were already aware by 1960 that they might not be around to bore us for too long. The death of metal type ... seemed at last to be happening.'
Carter eventually returned to London where he became a freelancer. By 1961 Carter was able to use the skills he acquired to cut his own version of the semi-bold typeface Dante. An early example of his work is the masthead logo he designed for the British magazine Private Eye in May 1962, still in use. Previously the lettering had been different for the masthead of each issue; it was based on a font ('a bit of nameless juvenilia') which was never ultimately published. He also did early work for Heathrow Airport.
Carter would later become the typographic advisor to Crosfield Electronics, distributors of Photon phototypesetting machines. Carter designed many typefaces for Mergenthaler Linotype as well. Under Linotype, Carter created well-known typefaces including Snell Roundhand, a script typeface and Bell Centennial, intended for use in the Bell System's phone directories and to celebrate its anniversary.
Based on the work of Robert Granjon a 16th century French engraver, Carter created the sharp, high-contrast family Galliard. This matched a family interest: Carter's father in the 1950s had indexed and examined original type by Granjon at the Plantin-Moretus Museum in Antwerp, and Carter had visited him several times to observe his progress. Carter's adaptation, more intended for display use than for body text, included some eccentricities of Granjon's original design, producing a result unlike many previous revivals of typefaces from the period. Carter wrote of his father's research that it had helped to demonstrate "that the finest collection of printing types made [by Christophe Plantin] in typography's golden age was in perfect condition (some muddle aside) [along with] Plantin's accounts and inventories which names the cutters of his types."
Carter also advised IBM as an independent consultant in the 1980s.
Bitstream
In 1981, Carter and his colleague Mike Parker created Bitstream Inc. This digital type foundry was one of the largest suppliers of type before its acquisition by Monotype in 2012. The company however did receive extensive criticism for its strategy of cheaply offering digitisations of pre-existing typefaces that it had not designed, often under alternative names (for example, Times New Roman as 'Dutch 801'). While technically not illegal, this selling of large numbers of typefaces on CD would be described by font designer John Hudson as "one of the worst instances of piracy in the history of type". In his role at Bitstream, Carter designed typefaces, such as Charter, and commissioned others such as Iowan Old Style from John Downer. Bitstream would ultimately be acquired by Monotype in 2012.
Carter and Cone
Carter left Bitstream in 1991 and in 1992 formed the Carter & Cone type foundry with Cherie Cone. Carter's recent typefaces have been published by a range of retailers including ITC, Font Bureau and Monotype, often in collaboration with Carter and Cone, together with his custom designs created for companies such as Microsoft.
Of Carter's recent fonts, the serif web font Georgia is inspired by Scotch Roman designs of the 19th century. It was based on designs for a print typeface in the same style Carter was working on when contacted by Microsoft; this would be released under the name Miller some years later. Speaking in 2013 about the development of Georgia and Miller, Carter said, "I was familiar with Scotch romans, puzzled by the fact that they were once so popular ... and then they disappeared completely."
Many of Carter's fonts were created to address specific technical challenges, for example those posed by early computers. Charter was created to use a minimal number of design elements to fit in a small memory space on early computers, a problem that had expired even before he finished the design. The bold versions of Verdana and Georgia are also unusually bold, almost black. Carter noted that, "Verdana and Georgia ... were all about binary bitmaps: every pixel was on or off, black or white ... The bold versions of Verdana and Georgia are bolder than most bolds, because on the screen, at the time we were doing this in the mid-1990s, if the stem wanted to be thicker than one pixel, it could only go to two pixels. That is a bigger jump in weight than is conventional in print series." Some of Carter's early font digitisations would later be revisited: Monotype released an expanded version of Charter and Font Bureau expanded versions of Georgia, Verdana, Big Caslon and others. Earlier in his career, Bell Centennial was created to be legible in telephone directories, even when printed on cheap paper at small sizes.
Carter's only font to bear his name is Carter Sans. It is a 'glyphic' sans-serif with flaring towards the end of each letter. It was inspired by Albertus, a popular British font created by Berthold Wolpe for Monotype. Carter knew Wolpe early in his career and helped digitise one of his less-known fonts for a 1980 retrospective of his work.
One of Carter's more unusual projects was a font, Van Lanen, for the Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum. A 'Latin'-style wedge serif font, it was released both in digital form and wood type. In an article on it, Carter noted that it has been "50 years since a type of my design had been in a physical form that I could hold in my hand."
Carter has taught on Yale University's graphic design programme since 1976. He also designed the university's corporate fonts, Yale, at the request of John Gambell, the University Printer. Carter has said that this was the first time in designing a typeface that he focused more on capital than lowercase letters, since he knew that on the building signs the lettering would be in capitals. Carter wrote that:
The signs, whether free-standing or attached to walls, reminded me of inscriptions, and this led me to think about the inscriptional origins of Roman caps and the everlasting problem of reconciling capitals with lowercase. For me, the moment when the first true synthesis occurred was in the type of De Aetna. This led me in turn to the Beinecke Library to pore over their copy of the book and its type – the archetype of Roman type for me.
Awards
Carter has won numerous awards for his contributions to typography and design, including an honoris causa, Doctorate of Humane Letters from the Art Institute of Boston, an AIGA medal in 1995, the TDC Medal from the Type Directors Club in 1997, and the 2005 SOTA Typography Award. A retrospective of his work, "Typographically Speaking, The Art of Matthew Carter," was exhibited at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County in December 2002. This retrospective is featured in the documentary, "Typographically Speaking: A Conversation With Matthew Carter." In 2010, Carter was named a MacArthur Foundation Fellow, otherwise known as a "genius" grant.
On 26 May 2011, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Design Awards at the White House.
He is a member of Alliance Graphique Internationale (AGI), has served as chairman of ATypI, is a member of the board of directors of the Type Directors Club, and is an ex officio member of the board of directors of the Society of Typographic Aficionados (SOTA). Some of Carter's designs are in the collection of the St. Bride Printing Library in London.
Carter was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to typography and design.
Typefaces
Matthew Carter's typefaces include the following:
Alisal
Bell Centennial
Big Caslon
Big Figgins
Big Moore
Carter Sans
Cascade Script
Charter
Cochin (adaptation)
Elephant (later republished as Big Figgins)
Fenway
DTL Flamande
ITC Galliard
Gando
Georgia
Helvetica Compressed
Helvetica Greek
Mantinia
Meiryo (Latin range)
Miller
Monticello
Nina
Olympian
Rocky
Roster
Shelley Script
Sitka
Snell Roundhand
Skia
Sophia
Stilson
Tahoma
Van Lanen
Verdana
Vincent
Walker
Wilson Greek
Yale
Besides Carter's commercially released fonts, many of his designs have been privately commissioned for companies for their own use. These include work for Le Monde, the New York Times, Time, The Washington Post, the Boston Globe, Wired, and Newsweek. Some of these fonts would later be released commercially. An example of this is Roster, which is based on a smaller family created under the name of Wrigley for Sports Illustrated magazine, and Stilson, originally proprietary to the Washington Post and named 'Postoni'.
Seven of Carter's typefaces are in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art. MoMA acquired these in 2011. The typefaces were displayed in the MoMA's Standard Deviations exhibition of 2011–12. The seven typefaces are Bell Centennial, Big Caslon, ITC Galliard, Mantinia, Miller, Verdana and Walker.
See also
List of AIGA medalists
Art Directors Club Hall of Fame
References
Eye, No. 11, Vol. 3, edited by Rick Poynor, Wordsearch Ltd, 1993.
, p. 62.
External links
MyFonts
Georgia & Verdana – Typefaces for the screen
Type Designer Showcase biography at Monotype Imaging
Designing Modern Britain exhibition biography
TED Talk: Matthew Carter: My life in typefaces (TED2014)
Mathew Carter in conversation with Erik Spiekermann, Eye No. 11
Graphic Content: Carter Sans, by Steven Heller, New York Times, 2 February 2011
Matthew Carter – collection of material by Luc Devroye
Carter & Cone (Luc Devroye's website)
Carter & Cone
1937 births
AIGA medalists
English typographers and type designers
English emigrants to the United States
MacArthur Fellows
Designers from London
British letter cutters
Living people
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
|
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] |
201210
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsa%20Br%C3%A4ndstr%C3%B6m
|
Elsa Brändström
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Elsa Brändström (26 March 1888 – 4 March 1948) was a Swedish nurse and philanthropist. She was known as the "Angel of Siberia" ().
Life and commitment
Elsa Brändström was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia. She was the daughter of the Military Attaché at the Swedish Embassy, Edvard Brändström (1850-1921) and his wife Anna Wilhelmina Eschelsson (1855-1913). In 1891, when Elsa was three years old, Edvard Brändström and his family returned to Sweden. In 1906, Brändström, now a General, became the Swedish Ambassador at the court of Tsar Nicholas II and returned to St Petersburg.
Elsa spent her childhood in Linköping in Sweden. From 1906 to 1908, she studied at Anna Sandström Teachers Training College (Anna Sandströms högre lärarinneseminarium) in Stockholm but returned to St. Petersburg in 1908. Her mother died in 1913. Elsa was in St. Petersburg at the outbreak of World War I and volunteered for a position as a nurse in the Imperial Russian Army.
World War I
In 1915, Elsa Brändström went to Siberia together with her friend and nurse Ethel von Heidenstam (1881-1970) for the Swedish Red Cross, to introduce basic medical treatment for the German and Austrian POWs. Up to 80 percent of the POWs died of cold, hunger and diseases. As Elsa Brändström visited the first camp and witnessed the inhumane situation, she decided to dedicate her life to these soldiers. The men from Germany and Austria, so many close to death with Typhoid fever, looked upon the tall, blue-eyed, blond-haired nurse and benefactress and she became known as the "Angel of Siberia".
Back in St. Petersburg, she began the establishment of a Swedish Aid organisation. Her work was severely hindered by the outbreak of the October Revolution in the year 1917. In 1918, the Russian authorities withdrew her work permit, but she did not give up. Between 1919 and 1920, she made several trips to Siberia until she was arrested in Omsk and even condemned to death for spying, later the sentence was revoked and Brändström was interned in 1920. After her release, she returned to Sweden (via Stettin with the ship MS Lisboa, where the German government gave her an official public reception) and organised fund-raising for the former POWs and their families. Afterwards she emigrated to Germany.
Peacetime
In 1922 her book Bland krigsfångar i Ryssland och Sibirien was published. It was later translated and published as Among prisoners of war in Russia & Siberia (London: Hutchinson. 1929). From then onwards she looked after former POWs in a rehabilitation sanatorium for homecoming German soldiers at Marienborn-Schmeckwitz in Saxony. She bought a mill named "Schreibermühle" close to Lychen in Uckermark and used it as re-socialization centre for former POWs. Schreibermühle had extensive lands including fields, forest and meadows on which potatoes and other crops could be grown. This was most useful at that time because the German Mark was an unstable currency and lost value from day to day.
In 1923, she undertook a six-month tour in the United States, giving lectures to raise money for a new home for children of deceased and traumatised German and Austrian POWs. On her trip she raised US$100,000 and traveled to 65 towns. At a stop at Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minnesota, Brändström wore clothing of the Swedish Red Cross and "spoke about her thrilling experiences in Russia and Siberia during and after the war."
In January 1924, she founded a children's home "Neusorge" in Mittweida which had room for more than 200 orphans and children in need. In Siberia she had promised many German soldiers, who were dying, that she would care for their children.
In 1929 she married her great love Heinrich Gottlob Robert Ulich, a German Professor of Pedagogy. Afterwards, she moved together with him to Dresden. In 1931, she sold the "Schreibermühle" and donated her other home, Neusorge, to the Welfare Centre in Leipzig. She founded the "Elsa Brändström Foundation for Women" which awarded scholarships to children from Neusorge. On 3 January 1932, her daughter Brita was born in Dresden.
In 1933, Robert Ulich accepted a lectureship at Harvard University and in consequence the family moved to the USA. Here Elsa gave aid to newly arrived German and Austrian refugees. In 1939, she opened the "Window-Shop", a restaurant which gave work opportunities for refugees in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
World War II
At the end of World War II, she started to raise funds for starving and shelterless women and children in need in Germany through the organisations CARE International (Co-operative for American Relief in Europe) and CRALOG (Council of Relief Agencies Licensed for Operation in Germany). Sizable funds were collected from Americans and especially from German Americans, who accounted for >25% of the American population. She undertook a final lecture tour in Europe on behalf of the "Save the Children Fund".
Death
Elsa Brändström could not undertake her last planned journey to Germany because of illness. She died in 1948 of bone cancer in Cambridge, Massachusetts at the age of 59. While her daughter Brita stayed with her husband and children in the USA, her husband Robert returned to Germany, where he died in 1977 at Stuttgart.
Honours and memory
Because of her commitment to POWs, Elsa Brändström became famous as a "patron saint" for soldiers. In Germany and Austria, many streets, schools and institutions are named after her.
"The war has brought about many heroines in various nations, but in my opinion, never again someone, who is more worthy of being honoured than Elsa Brändström." – General Alfred Knox, British Military Attaché in Russia.
Among countless medals, awards and honours, Brändström was awarded the Silber Badge of the German Empire () and the Golden Seraphim Medal (). Elsa Brändström was also nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize "Heroine of Peace" five times: in 1922, twice in 1923, 1928 and 1929.
In Memory of Elsa Brändström
A ceremony at Arne-Karlsson-Park in Vienna on 16 September 1965 preceded the official opening of the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross. In the presence of Austrian civilian and military authorities, members of the Swedish colony, leaders of the Austrian Red Cross and many conference delegates, a monument to Elsa Brändström was unveiled. This monument, by the sculptor Robert Ullmann, stands as a testimony of gratitude to the famous Swedish nurse's work for German-Austrian prisoners during the First World War.
Work
Elsa Brändström: Bland Krigsfångar i Ryssland och Sibirien 1914–1920, Norstedt, Stockholm (1921).
Elsa Brändström: Unter Kriegsgefangenen in Rußland und Sibirien – 1914–1920, Leipzig, Koehler & Amelang (1927)
Hanna Lieker-Wentzlau (Hg.) und Elsa Brändström: Elsa Brändström-Dank – Das Ehrenbuch nordischer und deutscher Schwesternhilfe für die Kriegsgefangenen in Sibirien, Becker/Säeman/Heliand
Literature
C. Mabel Rickmers: Among prisoners of war in Russia and Siberia (with a preface by Nathan Soderblom), Mutchinson and Co. Ltd. (1926), ASIN B000WQLF8I
Panke-Kochinke & Schaidhammer-Placke: Frontschwestern und Friedensengel: Kriegskrankenpflege im Ersten und Zweiten Weltkrieg. Ein Quellen- und Fotoband, Mabuse (2002),
Norgard Kohlhagen: Elsa Brändström. Die Frau, die man Engel nannte. Eine Biographie, Quell, Stuttgart (1992),
Magdalena Padberg: Das Leben der Elsa Brändström: ein Hilfswerk in drei Erdteilen, Herder, Freiburg (1989),
Margareta Schickedanz: Deutsche Frau und deutsche Not im Weltkrieg, B.G. Teubner (1938)
Leopold Ehrenstein: Der Fall der Festung Przemysl. Der sibirische Engel Elsa Brandström. Bearbeitet von Emil Portisch, Bratislava 1937.
Elfriede von Plugk-Hartung: Frontschwestern Ein deutsches Ehrenbuch, Bernard & Graefe (1936)
Charlotte von Hadeln: Deutsche Frauen - Deutsche Treue 1914-1933, Traditions-Verlag Kolk & Co. (1935)
Elsa Björkman-Goldschmidt: Elsa Brändström, 1933 (Language: Swedish)
Anne -Marie. Wenzel: Deutsche Kraft in Fesseln. Fünf Jahre deutscher Schwesterndienst in Sibirien (1916-1927), Ernte-Verlag (1931)
Gräfin Anna Revertera: Als österreichische Rotekreuzschwester in Rußland: Tagebuch, Süddeutsche Monatshefte (1923)
Magdalene von Walsleben (Freifrau von Steinaecker): Die deutsche Schwester in Sibirien: Aufzeichnungen von einer Reise durch die sibirischen Gefangenenlager vom Ural bis Wladiwostok, Furche, Berlin (1919) Digital reading
Alexander von Schlieben: Heldinnen vom Roten Kreuz: Lazaretterzählungen, Ellersiek (1916)
Ludwig Detter: Eine Deutsche Heldin: Erlebnisse Einer Roten Kreuz Schwester – Nach Aufzeichnungen von Hertha Immensee, P. List (1916)
Ilse Franke: Deutsche Treue: Kriegslieder einer deutschen Frau – Unsern deutschen und österreichischen Helden gewidmet Hesse & Becker, 1915 Digital reading
Rudolf Voemel: Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue! Ein Wort des Trostes an unsere deutschen Frauen und Jungfrauen, Verlag des Westdeutschen Jünglingsbundes (1914) Digital reading
Jost Meyen: "Elsa Brändström und die Kriegsgefangenen. Die sibirische Tragödie 1914 - 1921", Neuenburg 2021. ISBN 9783754320907
References
Further reading
External links
Nachruf in Die Zeit, 11/1948
Lena Radauer: Brändström, Elsa, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Wonderful tribute to Elsa Brandström by Protestant theologian Paul Tillich The tribute appears in Chapter 3, "The Power of Love," of Paul Tillich's book "The New Being." Professor Tillich was a chaplain in the German army during World War I. "The New Being" was published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1955.
Elsa Brändström (Television movie, Germany 1971)
1888 births
1948 deaths
Swedish nurses
Swedish women in World War I
Female nurses in World War I
20th-century Swedish women writers
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201211
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indomalayan%20realm
|
Indomalayan realm
|
The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia.
Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia to lowland southern China, and through Indonesia as far as Java, Bali, and Borneo, east of which lies the Wallace line, the realm boundary named after Alfred Russel Wallace which separates Indomalaya from Australasia. Indomalaya also includes the Philippines, lowland Taiwan, and Japan's Ryukyu Islands.
Most of Indomalaya was originally covered by forest, include tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, with tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests predominant in much of India and parts of Southeast Asia. The tropical forests of Indomalaya are highly variable and diverse, with economically important trees especially in the families Dipterocarpaceae and Fabaceae.
Major ecological regions
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) divides Indomalayan realm into three bio-regions, which it defines as "geographic clusters of eco-regions that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)".
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent bioregion covers most of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka and eastern parts of Pakistan. The Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Himalaya, and Patkai ranges bound the bioregion on the northwest, north, and northeast; these ranges were formed by the collision of the northward-drifting Indian subcontinent with Asia beginning 45 million years ago. The Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya are a major biogeographic boundary between the subtropical and tropical flora and fauna of the Indian subcontinent and the temperate-climate Palearctic realm.
Indochina
The Indochina bioregion includes most of mainland Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia, as well as the subtropical forests of southern China.
Sunda Shelf and the Philippines
Malesia is a botanical province which straddles the boundary between Indomalaya and Australasia. It includes the Malay Peninsula and the western Indonesian islands (known as Sundaland), the Philippines, the eastern Indonesian islands, and New Guinea. While the Malesia has much in common botanically, the portions east and west of the Wallace Line differ greatly in land animal species; Sundaland shares its fauna with mainland Asia, while terrestrial fauna on the islands east of the Wallace line are derived at least in part from species of Australian origin, such as marsupial mammals and ratite birds.
History
The flora of Indomalaya blends elements from the ancient supercontinents of Laurasia and Gondwana. Gondwanian elements were first introduced by India, which detached from Gondwana approximately 90 MYA, carrying its Gondwana-derived flora and fauna northward, which included cichlid fish and the flowering plant families Crypteroniaceae and possibly Dipterocarpaceae. India collided with Asia 30-45 MYA, and exchanged species. Later, as Australia-New Guinea drifted north, the collision of the Australian and Asian plates pushed up the islands of Wallacea, which were separated from one another by narrow straits, allowing a botanic exchange between Indomalaya and Australasia. Asian rainforest flora, including the dipterocarps, island-hopped across Wallacea to New Guinea, and several Gondwanian plant families, including podocarps and araucarias, moved westward from Australia-New Guinea into western Malesia and Southeast Asia.
Flora
The subfamily Dipterocarpoideae comprises characteristic tree species in Indomalaya's moist and seasonally dry forests, with the greatest species diversity in the moist forests of Borneo. Teak (Tectona) is characteristic of the seasonally dry forests of the Indomalaya, from India through Indochina, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Tropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes) are also characteristic of Indomalaya, and the greatest diversity of species is in Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines.
The tropical forests of Indomalaya and Australasia share many lineages of plants, which have managed over millions of years to disperse across the straits and islands between Sundaland and New Guinea. The two floras evolved in long isolation, and the fossil record suggests that Asian species dispersed to Australasia starting 33 million years ago as Australasia moved northwards, and dispersal increased 12 million years ago as the two continents approached their present positions. The exchange was asymmetric, with more Indomalayan species spreading to Australasia than Australasian species to Indomalaya.
Fauna
Two orders of mammals, the colugos (Dermoptera) and treeshrews (Scandentia), are endemic to the realm, as are families Craseonycteridae (Kitti's hog-nosed bat), Diatomyidae, Platacanthomyidae, Tarsiidae (tarsiers) and Hylobatidae (gibbons). Large mammals characteristic of Indomalaya include the leopard, tigers, water buffalos, Asian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, Javan rhinoceros, Malayan tapir, orangutans, and gibbons.
Indomalaya has three endemic bird families, the Irenidae (fairy bluebirds), Megalaimidae and Rhabdornithidae (Philippine creepers). Also characteristic are pheasants, pittas, Old World babblers, and flowerpeckers.
Indomalaya has 1000 species of amphibians in 81 genera, about 17 of global species. 800 Indomalayan species, or 80%, are endemic. Indomalaya has three endemic families of amphibians, Nasikabatrachidae, Ichthyophiidae, and Uraeotyphlidae. 329, or 33%, of Indomalayan amphibians are considered threatened or extinct, with habitat loss as the principal cause.
More information is available under Indomalayan realm fauna.
See also
Ecoregions of India
Ecoregions of the Philippines
Mainland Southeast Asia (the Indochinese Peninsula)
Malesia
Sundaland
Indomalayan ecoregions
Bibliography
Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, C. J. Loucks, D. M. Olson, J. Morrison, J. L. Lamoreux, M. McKnight, and P. Hedao. 2002. Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA, .
References
Biogeographic realms
Biogeography
.
Environment of Asia
Natural history of Asia
Phytogeography
|
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201212
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian%20realm
|
Australasian realm
|
The Australasian realm is a biogeographic realm that is coincident with, but not (by some definitions) the same as, the geographical region of Australasia. The realm includes Australia, the island of New Guinea (comprising Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province of Papua), and the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago, including the island of Sulawesi, the Moluccan islands (the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku), and the islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, and Timor, often known as the Lesser Sundas.
The Australasian realm also includes several Pacific island groups, including the Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and New Caledonia. New Zealand and its surrounding islands are a distinctive sub-region of the Australasian realm. The rest of Indonesia is part of the Indomalayan realm. In the classification scheme developed by Miklos Udvardy, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and New Zealand are placed in the Oceanian realm.
Geography
From an ecological perspective the Australasian realm is a distinct region, parts of which have a common geologic and evolutionary history. The entire area has experienced a long period of biological isolation from other regions, and thus harbors a great many unique plants and animals. In this context, Australasia is limited to Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and neighbouring islands, including the Indonesian islands from Lombok and Sulawesi eastward.
The Wallace Line to the west divides areas in the Indomalayan realm of tropical Asia which are or have at times been directly connected to the Asian mainland from islands that have never been so connected. Borneo and Bali lie on the western, Asian side. A second biological dividing line is Lydekker's Line, which similarly separates islands isolated by surrounding deep water from those associated with the Sahul Shelf of the Australian continent. Islands between the two lines (e.g. Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Lombok through Timor) form the biogeographical area of Wallacea, a transition zone between the Indomalayan and Australasian realms populated entirely by aerial or oceanic dispersal (although defined here as part of the Australasian realm).
Geology
Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia are all fragments of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, the marks of which are still visible in the Christmas Island Seamount Province and other geophysical entities. These three land masses have been separated from other continents, and from one another, for tens millions of years. All of Australasia shares the Antarctic flora, although the northern, tropical islands also share many plants with Southeast Asia.
Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania are separated from one another by shallow continental shelves, and were linked together when the sea level was lower during ice ages. They share a similar fauna which includes marsupial and monotreme mammals and ratite birds. Eucalypts are the predominant trees in much of Australia and New Guinea. New Zealand has no native land mammals, but also had ratite birds, including the kiwi and the moa. The Australasian realm includes some nearby island groups, like Wallacea, the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, which were not formerly part of Gondwana, but which share many characteristic plants and animals with Australasia.
Ecology
Note that this zonation is based on flora; animals do not necessarily follow the same biogeographic boundaries. In the present case, many birds occur in both "Indomalayan" and "Australasian" regions, but not across the whole of either. On the other hand, there are few faunistic commonalities shared only by Australia and New Zealand, except some birds. Meanwhile, Australia, Melanesia and the Wallacea are united by a large share of similar animals, but few of these occur farther into the Pacific. On the other hand, much of the Polynesian fauna is related to that of Melanesia.
Ecoregions
See also
Australasia
Oceania
References
External links
Panda.org: Map of the Ecozones
Biogeographic realms
Natural history of Oceania
Biogeography of Australia
|
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] |
201213
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSI
|
RSI
|
RSI may refer to:
Broadcasting services
Radio Singapore International, a former radio broadcaster in Singapore
Radio Slovenia International, the international service of Slovenian state radio
Radiotelevisione svizzera di lingua italiana, a Swiss radio and television broadcaster
Computing
RSI register, a 64-bit processor register of x86 CPUs
Relational Semantics, Inc., an American software company
Finance
Relative strength index, a technical indicator used in the analysis of financial markets
Revenue and Social Insurance number, an identifier used for tax and welfare purposes in Ireland
Medicine and psychology
Rapid sequence induction, a method of emergency intubation, involving paralytics and sedation
Repetitive strain injury, a disorder affecting muscles, tendons and nerves from repetitive movements, forceful exertions, vibrations, mechanical compression, or sustained/awkward positions
Residual self image, the concept that individuals tend to think of themselves as projecting a certain physical appearance
The Real, The Symbolic, and The Imaginary, a theory in Lacanian psychoanalysis concerning human perception of reality
Physics
RSI-value, a measure of how well a two-dimensional barrier resists the conductive flow of heat
Review of Scientific Instruments, a scientific journal
Other organisations
RSI Corporation, an American safety compliance consulting firm
RADARSAT International, a provider of data and information derived from the Canadian RADARSAT satellite program overseen
Red Sports International, an international sports organization supported by the Communist International
Research Science Institute, an international summer research program for high school students
Religious Science International, a religious organization
Other uses
Ṛṣi, a term for an accomplished and enlightened person in Hinduism and Buddhism
Regional Snowfall Index, a system used to assess the impact of winter storms in the United States
Italian Social Republic or Repubblica Sociale Italiana, a puppet state of Nazi Germany during the later part of World War II
|
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201214
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanian%20realm
|
Oceanian realm
|
The Oceanian realm is one of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) biogeographic realms, and is unique in not including any continental land mass. It has the smallest land area of any of the WWF realms.
This realm includes the islands of the Pacific Ocean in Micronesia, the Fijian Islands, the Hawaiian islands, and Polynesia (with the exception of New Zealand). New Zealand, Australia, and most of Melanesia including New Guinea, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and New Caledonia are included within the Australasian realm.
Conversely, New Guinea, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands and New Zealand are included in the Oceanian realm in the classification scheme developed by Miklos Udvardy in 1975.
Geology
Oceania is geologically the youngest realm. While other realms include old continental land masses or fragments of continents, Oceania is composed mostly of volcanic high islands and coral atolls that arose from the sea in geologically recent times, many of them in the Pleistocene. They were created either by hotspot volcanism, or as island arcs pushed upward by the collision and subduction of tectonic plates. The islands range from tiny islets, sea stacks and coral atolls to large mountainous islands, like Hawaii and Fiji.
Climate
The climate of Oceania's islands is tropical or subtropical, and range from humid to seasonally dry. Wetter parts of the islands are covered by tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, while the drier parts of the islands, including the leeward sides of the islands and many of the low coral islands, are covered by tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands. Hawaii's high volcanoes, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, are home to some rare tropical montane grasslands and shrublands.
Flora and fauna
Since the islands of Oceania were never connected by land to a continent, the flora and fauna of the islands originally reached them from across the ocean (though at the height of the last ice age sea levels were much lower than today and many current seamounts were islands, so some now isolated islands were once less isolated). Once they reached the islands, the ancestors of Oceania's present flora and fauna adapted to life on the islands.
Larger islands with diverse ecological niches encouraged floral and faunal adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species evolved from a common ancestor, each species adapted to a different ecological niche; the various species of Hawaiian honeycreepers (Family Drepanididae) are a classic example. Other adaptations to island ecologies include gigantism, dwarfism, and among birds, loss of flight. Oceania has a number of endemic species; Hawaii in particular is considered a global center of endemism, with its forest ecoregions having one of the highest percentages of endemic plants in the world.
Flora
Land plants disperse by several different means. Many plants, mostly ferns and mosses but also some flowering plants, disperse on the wind, relying on tiny spores or feathery seeds that can remain airborne over long distances notably Metrosideros trees from New Zealand spread on the wind across Oceania. Other plants, notably coconut palms and mangroves, produce seeds that can float in salt water over long distances, eventually washing up on distant beaches, and thus Cocos trees are ubiquitous across Oceania. Birds are also an important means of dispersal; some plants produce sticky seeds that are carried on the feet or feathers of birds, and many plants produce fruits with seeds that can pass through the digestive tracts of birds. Pandanus trees are fairly ubiquitous across Oceania.
Botanists generally agree that much of the flora of Oceania is derived from the Malesian Flora of the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, the Philippines, and New Guinea, with some plants from Australasia and a few from the Americas, particularly in Hawaii. Easter Island has some plants from South America such as the totora reed.
Fauna
Dispersal across the ocean is difficult for most land animals, and Oceania has relatively few indigenous land animals compared to other realms. Certain types of animals that are ecologically important on the continental realms, like large land predators and grazing mammals, were entirely absent from the islands of Oceania until humans brought them. Birds are relatively common, including many seabirds and some species of land birds whose ancestors may have been blown out to sea by storms. Some birds evolved into flightless species after their ancestors arrived, including several species of rails. A number of islands have indigenous lizards, including geckoes and skinks, whose ancestors probably arrived on floating rafts of vegetation washed out to sea by storms. With the exception of bats, which live on most of the island groups, there are few if any indigenous non-marine mammals in Oceania.
Impact of settlement
Many animal and plant species have been introduced by humans in two main waves.
Malayo-Polynesian settlers brought pigs, dogs, chickens and polynesian rats to many islands; and had spread across the whole of Oceania by 1200 CE. From the seventeenth century onwards European settlers brought other animals, including cats, cattle, horses, small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), sheep, goats, and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). These and other introduced species, in addition to overhunting and deforestation, have dramatically altered the ecology of many of Oceania's islands, pushing many species to extinction or near-extinction, or confining them to small islets uninhabited by humans.
The absence of predator species caused many bird species to lose the instinct to flee from predators and to lay their eggs on the ground, which makes them vulnerable to predators such as cats, dogs, mongooses or rats. The arrival of humans on these island groups often resulted in disruption of the indigenous ecosystems and waves of species extinctions (see Holocene extinction event). Easter Island, the easternmost island in Polynesia, shows evidence of ecosystem collapse, probably caused by human activity, several hundred years ago, which contributed (along with slave raiding and European diseases) to a 99% decline in the human population of the island. The island, once lushly forested, is now mostly windswept grassland. More recently, Guam's native bird and lizard species were decimated after the introduction of the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) in the 1940s.
Ecoregions
References
Biogeographic realms
Environment of Oceania
Natural history of Oceania
Phytogeography
|
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201220
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama%20period
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Azuchi–Momoyama period
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The is the final phase of the in Japanese history from 1568 to 1600.
The Azuchi–Momoyama period began with Oda Nobunaga entering into Kyoto in 1568 to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th and ultimately final shōgun of the Ashikaga Shogunate, which had collapsed after the outbreak of the Ōnin War in 1467 and triggered the chaotic Sengoku period. Nobunaga overthrew Yoshiaki and dissolved the Ashikaga Shogunate in 1573, launching a war of conquest to politically unify Japan by force from his base in Azuchi. Nobunaga was forced to commit suicide in the Honnō-ji Incident in 1582, and his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi completed his campaign of unification, closing the Sengoku period and enacting reforms to consolidate his rule. Hideyoshi launched the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, but the invasion's failure damaged his prestige, and his young son and successor Toyotomi Hideyori was challenged by Tokugawa Ieyasu after his death in 1598. The Azuchi–Momoyama period ended with Tokugawa victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 – unofficially establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and beginning the Edo period.
The Azuchi–Momoyama period oversaw Japanese society and culture transitioning from the Middle Ages to the early modern period. The Azuchi–Momoyama period is named after Nobunaga's Azuchi Castle and Hideyoshi's Momoyama Castle, and is also known as in some Japanese texts, abridged from the surnames of the period's two leaders in the on-reading:
for plus for .
Oda Nobunaga starts the unification
During the last half of the 16th century, a number of daimyōs became strong enough either to manipulate the Ashikaga shogunate to their own advantage or to overthrow it altogether. One attempt to overthrow the bakufu (the Japanese term for the shogunate) was made in 1560 by Imagawa Yoshimoto, whose march towards the capital came to an ignominious end at the hands of Oda Nobunaga in the Battle of Okehazama. In 1562, the Tokugawa clan who was adjacent to the east of Nobunaga's territory became independent of the Imagawa clan, and allied with Nobunaga. The eastern part of the territory of Nobunaga was not invaded by this alliance. Nobunaga then moved his army to the west. In 1565, an alliance of the Matsunaga and Miyoshi clans attempted a coup by assassinating Ashikaga Yoshiteru, the 13th Ashikaga shōgun. Internal squabbling, however, prevented them from acting swiftly to legitimatize their claim to power, and it was not until 1568 that they managed to install Yoshiteru's cousin, Ashikaga Yoshihide, as the next shōgun. Failure to enter Kyoto and gain recognition from the imperial court, however, had left the succession in doubt, and a group of bakufu retainers led by Hosokawa Fujitaka negotiated with Nobunaga to gain support for Yoshiteru's younger brother, Yoshiaki.
Nobunaga, who had prepared over a period of years for just such an opportunity by establishing an alliance with the Azai clan in northern Ōmi Province and then conquering the neighboring Mino Province, now marched toward Kyoto. After routing the Rokkaku clan in southern Ōmi, Nobunaga forced the Matsunaga to capitulate and the Miyoshi to withdraw to Settsu. He then entered the capital, where he successfully gained recognition from the emperor for Yoshiaki, who became the 15th and last Ashikaga shōgun.
Nobunaga had no intention, however, of serving the Muromachi bakufu, and instead now turned his attention to tightening his grip on the Kinai region. Resistance in the form of rival daimyōs, intransigent Buddhist monks, and hostile merchants was eliminated swiftly and mercilessly, and Nobunaga quickly gained a reputation as a ruthless, unrelenting adversary. In support of his political and military moves, he instituted economic reform, removing barriers to commerce by invalidating traditional monopolies held by shrines and guilds and promoting initiative by instituting free markets known as rakuichi-rakuza.
The newly installed shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki also was extremely wary of his powerful nominal retainer Nobunaga, and immediately began plotting against him by forming a wide alliance of nearly every daimyō adjacent to the Oda realm. This included Oda's close ally and brother in-law Azai Nagamasa, the supremely powerful Takeda Shingen, as well as the monk warriors from the Tendai Buddhists monastic center at Mount Hiei near Kyoto (who became the first major casualty of this war as it was completely destroyed by Nobunaga).
As the Oda army was bogged down by fighting on every corner, Takeda Shingen led what was by then widely considered the most powerful army in Japan and marched towards the Oda home base of Owari, easily crushing Nobunaga's young ally and future shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu in the Battle of Mikatagahara along the way.
However, as the Takeda army was on the cusp of obliterating the Oda–Tokugawa alliance, Takeda Shingen suddenly perished, under mysterious circumstances. (Multiple suggestions for his demise include battlefield death from marksman, ninja assassination, and stomach cancer.) Having suddenly lost their leader, the Takeda army quickly retreated back to their home base in Kai Province and Nobunaga was saved from the brink of destruction.
With the death of Takeda Shingen in early 1573, the "Anti-Oda Alliance" that Ashikaga Yoshiaki created quickly crumbled as Nobunaga in quick succession destroyed the alliance of Asakura clan and Azai clan that threatened his northern flank, and soon after expelled the shōgun himself from Kyoto.
Even after Shingen's death, there remained several daimyōs powerful enough to resist Nobunaga, but none were situated close enough to Kyoto to pose a threat politically, and it appeared that unification under the Oda banner was a matter of time.
Nobunaga's enemies were not only other daimyōs but also adherents of a Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism who attended Ikkō-ikki, led by Kennyo. He endured though Nobunaga kept attacking his fortress for ten years. Nobunaga expelled Kennyo in the eleventh year, but, through a riot caused by Kennyo, Nobunaga's territory took the bulk of the damage. This long war was called the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War.
Nobunaga was highly interested in foreign cultures, especially those of western Europe. A significant amount of Western Christian culture was introduced to Japan by missionaries from Europe. From this exposure, Japan received new foods, a new drawing method, astronomy, geography, medical science, and new printing techniques. Most critically, trade with Europe provided Nobunaga's armies with new weapons, among them the matchlock rifle or arquebus.
Nobunaga decided to reduce the power of the Buddhist monasteries, and gave protection to Christianity, although he never converted to Christianity himself. He slaughtered many Buddhist priests who resisted him, and burned their fortified temples.
The activities of European traders and Catholic missionaries(Alessandro Valignano, Luís Fróis, Gnecchi-Soldo Organtino and many missionaries) in Japan, no less than Japanese ventures overseas, gave the period a cosmopolitan flavor.
During the period from 1576 to 1579, Nobunaga constructed, on the shore of Lake Biwa at Azuchi, Azuchi Castle, a magnificent seven-story castle that was intended to serve not simply as an impregnable military fortification, but also as a sumptuous residence that would stand as a symbol of unification.
Having secured his grip on the Kinai region, Nobunaga was now powerful enough to assign his generals the task of subjugating the outlying provinces. Shibata Katsuie was given the task of conquering the Uesugi clan in Etchū, Takigawa Kazumasu confronted the Shinano Province that a son of Shingen, Takeda Katsuyori governed, and Hashiba Hideyoshi was given the formidable task of facing the Mōri clan in the Chūgoku region of western Honshū.
In 1575, Nobunaga won a significant victory over the Takeda clan in the Battle of Nagashino. Despite the strong reputation of Takeda's samurai cavalry, Oda Nobunaga embraced the relatively new technology of the arquebus, and inflicted a crushing defeat. The legacy of this battle forced a complete overhaul of traditional Japanese warfare.
In 1582, after a protracted campaign, Hideyoshi requested Nobunaga's help in overcoming tenacious resistance. Nobunaga, making a stop-over in Kyoto on his way west with only a small contingent of guards, was attacked by one of his own disaffected generals, Akechi Mitsuhide, and committed suicide.
Hideyoshi completes the unification
What followed was a scramble by the most powerful of Nobunaga's retainers to avenge their lord's death and thereby establish a dominant position in negotiations over the forthcoming realignment of the Oda clan. The situation became even more urgent when it was learned that Nobunaga's oldest son and heir, Nobutada, had also been killed, leaving the Oda clan with no clear successor.
Quickly negotiating a truce with the Mōri clan before they could learn of Nobunaga's death, Hideyoshi now took his troops on a forced march toward his adversary, whom he defeated at the Battle of Yamazaki less than two weeks later.
Although a commoner who had risen through the ranks from foot soldier, Hideyoshi was now in position to challenge even the most senior of the Oda clan's hereditary retainers, and proposed that Nobutada's infant son, Sanpōshi (who became Oda Hidenobu), be named heir rather than Nobunaga's adult third son, Nobutaka, whose cause had been championed by Shibata Katsuie. Having gained the support of other senior retainers, including Niwa Nagahide and Ikeda Tsuneoki, Sanpōshi was named heir and Hideyoshi appointed co-guardian.
Continued political intrigue, however, eventually led to open confrontation. After defeating Shibata at the Battle of Shizugatake in 1583 and enduring a costly but ultimately advantageous stalemate with Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute in 1584, Hideyoshi managed to settle the question of succession for once and all, to take complete control of Kyoto, and to become the undisputed ruler of the former Oda domains. The daimyō of Shikoku Chōsokabe clan surrendered to Hideyoshi in July, 1585, and the daimyō of Kyushu Shimazu clan also surrendered two years later. He was adopted by the Fujiwara clan, given the surname Toyotomi, and granted the superlative title Kanpaku, representing civil and military control of all Japan. By the following year, he had secured alliances with three of the nine major daimyō coalitions and carried the war of unification to Shikoku and Kyūshū. In 1590, at the head of an army of 200,000, Hideyoshi defeated the Later Hōjō clan, his last formidable rival in eastern Honshū in the siege of Odawara. The remaining daimyō soon capitulated, and the military reunification of Japan was complete.
Japan under Hideyoshi
Land survey
With all of Japan now under Hideyoshi's control, a new structure for national government was set up. The country was unified under a single leader, but the day-to-day governance of the people remained decentralized. The basis of power was distribution of territory as measured by rice production, in units of koku. In 1598, a national survey was instituted and assessed the national rice production at 18.5 million koku, 2 million of which was controlled directly by Hideyoshi himself. In contrast, Tokugawa Ieyasu, whom Hideyoshi had transferred to the Kanto region, held 2.5 million koku.
The surveys, carried out by Hideyoshi both before and after he took the title of taikō, have come to be known as the "Taikō surveys" (Taikō kenchi).
Control measures
A number of other administrative innovations were instituted to encourage commerce and stabilize society. In order to facilitate transportation, toll booths and other checkpoints along roads were largely eliminated, as were unnecessary military strongholds. Measures that effectively froze class distinctions were instituted, including the requirement that different classes live separately in different areas of a town and a prohibition on the carrying or ownership of weapons by farmers. Hideyoshi ordered the collection of weapons in a great "sword hunt" (katanagari).
Prosecution of Christians
In 1586, Hideyoshi conquered Kyushu in the Kyushu Campaign (1586-1587) from the Shimazu clan. In 1587, Hideyoshi increased control over the Kirishitan daimyos by banishing Christian missionaries from Kyūshū.
In January 1597, Hideyoshi ordered the arrest of twenty-six Christians to warn Japanese who thought about converting to Christianity. They were tortured, mutilated, paraded through towns and crucified in Nagasaki. This became known as the 26 Martyrs of Japan. These measures severely curbed Christianity and foreign influence in Japan.
Unification
Hideyoshi sought to secure his position by rearranging the holdings of the daimyōs to his advantage. In particular, he reassigned the Tokugawa family to the Kanto region, far from the capital, and surrounded their new territory with
more trusted vassals. He also adopted a hostage system, in which the wives and heirs of daimyōs resided at his castle town in Osaka.
Hideyoshi attempted to provide for an orderly succession by taking the title taikō, or "retired Kanpaku (Imperial regent)", in 1591, and turned the regency over to his nephew and adopted son Toyotomi Hidetsugu. Only later did he attempt to formalize the balance of power by establishing administrative bodies. These included the Council of Five Elders, who were sworn to keep peace and support the Toyotomi, the five-member Board of House Administrators, who handled routine policy and administrative matters, and the three-member Board of Mediators, who were charged with keeping peace between the first two boards.
Korean campaigns
Hideyoshi's last major ambition was to conquer the Ming dynasty of China. In April 1592, after having been refused safe passage through Korea, Hideyoshi sent an army of 200,000 to invade and pass through Korea by force. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the Japanese occupied Seoul by May 1592, and within three months of the invasion, the Japanese reached Pyongyang. King Seonjo of Joseon fled, and two Korean princes were captured by Katō Kiyomasa. Seonjo dispatched an emissary to the Ming court, asking urgently for military assistance. The Chinese emperor sent admiral Chen Lin and commander Li Rusong to aid the Koreans. Commander Li pushed the Japanese out of the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese were forced to withdraw as far as the southern part of the Korean peninsula by January 1593, and counterattacked Li Rusong. This combat reached a stalemate, and Japan and China eventually entered peace talks.
During the peace talks that ensued between 1593 and 1597, Hideyoshi, seeing Japan as an equal of Ming China, demanded a division of Korea, free-trade status, and a Chinese princess as consort for the emperor. The Joseon and Chinese leaders saw no reason to concede to such demands, nor to treat the invaders as equals within the Ming trading system. Japan's requests were thus denied and peace efforts reached an impasse.
A second invasion of Korea began in 1597, but it too resulted in failure as Japanese forces met with better organized Korean defenses and increasing Chinese involvement in the conflict. Upon the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, his designated successor Toyotomi Hideyori was only 5 years old. As such, the domestic political situation in Japan became unstable, making continuation of the war difficult and causing the Japanese to withdraw from Korea. At this stage, most of the remaining Japanese commanders were more concerned about internal battles and the inevitable struggles for the control of the shogunate.
Sekigahara campaign and the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate
Hideyoshi had on his deathbed appointed a group of the most powerful lords in Japan—Tokugawa, Maeda, Ukita, Uesugi, and Mōri, to govern as the Council of Five Elders until his infant son, Hideyori, came of age. An uneasy peace lasted until the death of Maeda Toshiie in 1599. Thereafter, Ishida Mitsunari accused Ieyasu of disloyalty to the Toyotomi name, precipitating a crisis that led to the Battle of Sekigahara. Generally regarded as the last major conflict of the Azuchi–Momoyama period and sengoku-jidai, Ieyasu's victory at Sekigahara marked the end of the Toyotomi reign. Three years later, Ieyasu received the title Sei-i Tai-shōgun, and established the Edo bakufu, which lasted until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
Social and cultural developments
The Momoyama period was a period of interest in the outside world, which also saw the development of large urban centers and the rise of the merchant class. The ornate castle architecture and interiors adorned with painted screens embellished with gold leaf were a reflection of a daimyōs power but also exhibited a new aesthetic sense that marked a clear departure from the somber monotones favored during the Muromachi period. A genre that emerged at this time was called the Nanban style—exotic depictions of European priests, traders, and other "southern barbarians".
The art of the tea ceremony also flourished at this time, and both Nobunaga and Hideyoshi lavished time and money on this pastime, collecting tea bowls, caddies, and other implements, sponsoring lavish social events, and patronizing acclaimed masters such as Sen no Rikyū.
Hideyoshi had occupied Nagasaki in 1587, and thereafter sought to take control of international trade and to regulate the trade associations that had contact with the outside world through this port. Although China rebuffed his efforts to secure trade concessions, Hideyoshi's commercial missions successfully called upon present-day Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand in red seal ships. He was also suspicious of Christianity in Japan, which he saw as potentially subversive, and some missionaries were crucified by his regime.
Famous senryū
The contrasting personalities of the three leaders who contributed the most to Japan's final unification—Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu—are encapsulated in a series of three well-known senryū that are still taught to Japanese schoolchildren:
Nakanunara, koroshiteshimae, hototogisu. (If the cuckoo does not sing, kill it.) 「鳴かぬなら殺してしまえホトトギス」
Nakanunara, nakasetemiyou, hototogisu. (If the cuckoo does not sing, coax it.) 「鳴かぬなら鳴かせてみようホトトギス」
Nakanunara, nakumadematou, hototogisu. (If the cuckoo does not sing, wait for it.) 「鳴かぬなら鳴くまでまとうホトトギス」
Nobunaga, known for his ruthlessness, is the subject of the first; Hideyoshi, known for his resourcefulness, is the subject of the second; and Ieyasu, known for his perseverance, is the subject of the third verse.
Chronology
1568: Nobunaga enters Kyoto, marking the beginning of the Azuchi–Momoyama period
1573: Nobunaga overthrows the Muromachi bakufu and exerts control over central Japan
1575: Nobunaga defeats the Takeda clan the Battle of Nagashino
1580: The Ikkō-ikki finally surrender their fortress of Ishiyama Hongan-ji to Nobunaga, after enduring an 11-year siege.
1582:
Incident at Honnō-ji, Nobunaga is assassinated by Akechi Mitsuhide, who is then defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi at the Battle of Yamazaki.
Hideyoshi initiated the Taikō kenchi surveys.
Tenshō embassy is sent by the Japanese Christian lord Ōtomo Sōrin.
1584: Hideyoshi fights Tokugawa Ieyasu to a standstill at the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute.
1586: Osaka Castle is built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
1588: Hideyoshi issues the order of .
1590: Hideyoshi defeats the Hōjō clan, effectively unifying Japan.
1591: Sen no Rikyū is forced to commit suicide by Hideyoshi.
1592: Hideyoshi initiates the first invasion of Korea.
1593: Toyotomi Hideyori is born.
1595: Hideyoshi orders his nephew and reigning kampaku, Toyotomi Hidetsugu, to commit seppuku.
1597: Second invasion of Korea.
1598: Hideyoshi dies.
1599: Maeda Toshiie dies.
1600: Ieyasu is victorious at the Battle of Sekigahara, marking the end of the Azuchi–Momoyama period.
Notes
References
Further reading
States and territories established in 1568
States and territories disestablished in 1600
Feudal Japan
Former confederations
16th century in Japan
17th century in Japan
1568 establishments in Japan
1603 disestablishments in Japan
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201224
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matti%20Pellonp%C3%A4%C3%A4
|
Matti Pellonpää
|
Matti Pellonpää (28 March 1951 in Helsinki – 13 July 1995 in Vaasa) was a Finnish actor and a musician. He rose to international fame with his roles in both Aki Kaurismäki's and Mika Kaurismäki's films; particularly being a regular in Aki's films, appearing in 18 of them.
Career
He started his career in 1962 as a radio actor at the Finnish state-owned broadcasting company YLE. He performed as an actor during the 1970s in many amateur theatres, at the same time that he studied at the Finnish Theatre Academy, where he completed his studies in the year 1977.
He was nominated Best Actor by European Film Academy for his role as Rodolfo in La Vie de Boheme and won the Felix at the European Film Awards in 1992. He also starred in Jim Jarmusch's 1991 film Night on Earth.
His private life melded seamlessly with his acting work. He was considered a natural bohemian, and a genuine everyman without ego. He frequently used his own life as a basis for his acting, eschewing wardrobe provided, acting in his own clothes. He had a tattoo of Snoopy on his left bicep.
Pellonpää was the frontman for the band Peltsix (1989–1995). Peltsix gained cult following with its tragic, and at the same time, comic songs. Peltsix's songs were composed by Pale Saarinen, Kari Makkonen and Jukka Haikonen.
Matti Pellonpää died of a heart attack on 13 July 1995 at the age of 44. He was buried in the Malmi Cemetery.
In 1996, Pellonpää was one of the people commemorating 100 years of Finnish Cinema on a stamp.
A Finnish documentary film Boheemi elää/Bohemian Eyes on Pellonpää's life was made in 2011 (directed by Janne Kuusi).
Filmography
Pojat (1962), director Mikko Niskanen
Akseli and Elina (1970), director Edvin Laine
Kesän maku (1975), director Asko Tolonen
Antti Puuhaara (1976), director Katariina Lahti, Heikki Partanen, Riitta Rautoma
Viimeinen savotta (1977), director Edvin Laine
Ruskan jälkeen (1979), director Edvin Laine
The Liar (1981), director Mika Kaurismäki
Pedon merkki (1981), director Jaakko Pakkasvirta
Jackpot2 (1982), director Mika Kaurismäki
Arvottomat (1982), director Mika Kaurismäki
Regina ja miehet (1983), director Anssi Mänttäri
Huhtikuu on kuukausista julmin (1983), director Anssi Mänttäri
Crime and Punishment (1983), director Aki Kaurismäki
Klaani – tarina Sammakoitten suvusta (1984), director Mika Kaurismäki
Kello (1984), director Anssi Mänttäri
Aikalainen (1984), director Timo Linnasalo
Rakkauselokuva (1984), director Anssi Mänttäri
Viimeiset rotannahat (1985), director Anssi Mänttäri
Calamari Union (1985), director Aki Kaurismäki
Ylösnousemus (1985), director Anssi Mänttäri
Shadows in Paradise (1986), director Aki Kaurismäki
Rocky VI (1986), director Aki Kaurismäki
Kuningas lähtee Ranskaan (1986), director Anssi Mänttäri
Näkemiin, hyvästi (1986), director Anssi Mänttäri
Hamlet liikemaailmassa (1987), director Aki Kaurismäki
Ariel (1988), director Aki Kaurismäki
Cha cha cha (1989), director Mika Kaurismäki
Leningrad Cowboys Go America (1989), director Aki Kaurismäki
Kiljusen herrasväen uudet seikkailut (1990), director Matti Kuortti
Räpsy ja Dolly (1990), director Matti Ijäs
Zombie ja kummitusjuna (1991), director Mika Kaurismäki
Night on Earth (1991), director Jim Jarmusch
Kadunlakaisijat (1991), director Olli Soinio
La Vie de Bohème (1992), director Aki Kaurismäki
Missä on Musette? (1992), director Veikko Nieminen
Papukaijamies (1992), director Veikko Nieminen
Det var väl själva fan också (1993), director Peter Östlund
The Last Border (1993), director Mika Kaurismäki
Hobitit (1993), director Timo Torikka
Leningrad Cowboys Meet Moses (1993), director Aki Kaurismäki
Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatiana (1993), director Aki Kaurismäki
Iron Horsemen (1995), director Gilles Charmant
Sirpaleita (1996), director Aku Louhimies
Albums
Peltsix / Lihaa Ja Leikkeleitä (Megamania Music, 1991)
Peltsix / Silkkaa Kryptoniittia (Flamingo Music, 1993)
References
Literature
Lähikuvassa Matti Pellonpää'' (Lauri Timonen, Otava 2009)
External links
Matti Pellonpää entry at IMDb
PELTSIX MySpace
Se minun töistäni — a documentary on Matti Pellonpää from 1984.
1951 births
1995 deaths
Male actors from Helsinki
European Film Award for Best Actor winners
20th-century Finnish male actors
|
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] |
201225
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kati%20Outinen
|
Kati Outinen
|
Anna Katriina "Kati" Outinen (born 17 August 1961) is a Finnish actress who has often played leading female roles in Aki Kaurismäki's films.
Outinen was born in Helsinki. Having studied under Jouko Turkka during his "reign" of drama studies in Finland, she nevertheless has never been associated with the "turkkalaisuus" school of acting methodology. Her breakthrough role was as a tough girl in the generational classic youth film Täältä tullaan elämä (1980) by Tapio Suominen. In 1984, she appeared in Aikalainen.
Besides a strong domestic reputation gained through a widely varied list of roles in theater and television drama, film director Aki Kaurismäki's films have brought Outinen international attention and even adulation, particularly in Germany and France. Her first work together with Kaurismäki was Shadows in Paradise in 1986. At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival, Outinen won the award for Best Actress for the Kaurismäki film The Man Without a Past. The most recent time that Outinen and Kaurismäki worked together was in the film The Other Side of Hope (2017).
She has also contributed to the screenplay of the Finnish soap opera Salatut elämät. Outinen portrayed the central character of a Swedish bank manager in the Estonian series The Bank (2018). She has appeared as a voice actress in the animation series Babar. She has also given her voice to Ritva Tuomivaara on the video game Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus (2017).
In 2016, Outinen played with Jim Carrey in the film Dark Crimes.
Outinen worked as a Professor in Acting at the Theatre Academy Helsinki from 2002–2013.
Partial filmography
Shadows in Paradise (1986)
Hamlet Goes Business (1987)
The Match Factory Girl (1990)
Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatiana (1994)
Drifting Clouds (1996)
Freakin' Beautiful World (1997)
Trains'n'Roses (1998)
Juha (1999)
The Man Without a Past (2002)
Lights in the Dusk (2006)
Sauna (2008)
The House of Branching Love (2009)
Le Havre (2011)
August Fools (2013)
Dark Crimes (2016)
The Other Side of Hope (2017)
The Hole in the Ground (2019)
References
External links
1961 births
Finnish film actresses
Finnish stage actresses
Actresses from Helsinki
Living people
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
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201226
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aki%20Kaurism%C3%A4ki
|
Aki Kaurismäki
|
Aki Olavi Kaurismäki (; born 4 April 1957) is a Finnish screenwriter and film director. He is best known for the award-winning Drifting Clouds (1996), The Man Without a Past (2002), Le Havre (2011) and The Other Side of Hope (2017), as well as for the mockumentary Leningrad Cowboys Go America (1989). He is described as Finland's best-known film director.
Career
After graduating in media studies from the University of Tampere, Kaurismäki worked as a bricklayer, postman, and dish-washer, long before pursuing his interest in cinema, first as a critic, and later as a screenwriter & director. He started his career as a co-screenwriter and actor in films made by his older brother, Mika Kaurismäki. He played the main role in Mika's film The Liar (1981). Together they founded the production company Villealfa Filmproductions and later the Midnight Sun Film Festival. His debut as an independent director was Crime and Punishment (1983), an adaptation of Dostoyevsky's novel set in modern Helsinki. He gained worldwide attention with Leningrad Cowboys Go America (1989). In 1989 he emigrated with his wife, Paula Oinonen, to Portugal, saying "in all of Helsinki there is no place left where I could place my camera". In 1992, the New York Times film critic Vincent Canby declared Kaurismäki “an original ... one of cinema’s most distinctive and idiosyncratic new artists, and possibly one of the most serious.... [He] could well turn out to be the seminal European filmmaker of the ’90s.”
Style
Kaurismäki is known for his extremely minimalistic style. He has been called an auteur, since he writes, directs, produces and usually edits the films himself, and thus introduces his personal "drollery and deadpan" style. The dialogue is famously laconic: the articulation is unadorned, direct and in strict standard language, without showing much emotion or drama. Characters frequently stand still and recite the dialogue as if it consisted of eternal truths or nothing at all. These characters rarely smile, nod sadly, and smoke constantly. The camera is usually still. Events are shown in a plain manner and characters are usually left alone facing the consequences. However, despite their tragedies and setbacks, the characters don't give up and eventually survive.
Much of Kaurismäki's work is centred on Helsinki, such as the film Calamari Union, the Proletariat trilogy (Shadows in Paradise, Ariel and The Match Factory Girl) and the Finland trilogy (Drifting Clouds, The Man Without a Past and Lights in the Dusk). His vision of Helsinki is critical and singularly unromantic. Indeed, his characters often speak about how they wish to get away from Helsinki. Some end up in Mexico (Ariel), others in Estonia (Shadows in Paradise, Calamari Union, and Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatjana). Kaurismäki also uses, on purpose, characters, elements and settings that hark back to the 1960s and 1970s.
Kaurismäki has been influenced by the French directors Jean-Pierre Melville, Jacques Becker, and Robert Bresson, the Japanese director Yasujirō Ozu, the American director John Cassavetes, and some critics have also inferred the influence of Rainer Werner Fassbinder. His movies have a humorous side that can also be seen in the films of Jim Jarmusch, who has a cameo in Kaurismäki's film Leningrad Cowboys Go America. Jarmusch used actors who have appeared frequently in Kaurismäki's films in his own film Night on Earth, part of which takes place in Helsinki.
Kaurismäki has been a vocal critic of digital cinematography, calling it "a devil's invention" and saying he "won't make a digital film in this life". In March 2014, however, he reconciled, saying that "in order to maintain my humble film oeuvre accessible to a potential audience, I have ended up in rendering it to digital in all its present and several of its as yet unknown forms."
In Helsinki, Kaurismäki is the co-owner of a complex, Andorra, that incorporates a cinema, several bars and a pool hall featuring a giant poster for Robert Bresson’s L’Argent. It also features the jukebox from Leningrad Cowboys Meet Moses.
Awards and protests
Kaurismäki's film Ariel (1988) was entered into the 16th Moscow International Film Festival where it won the Prix FIPRESCI.
Kaurismäki's most acclaimed film has been The Man Without a Past, which won the Grand Prix and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for an Academy Award in the Best Foreign Language Film category in 2003. However, Kaurismäki refused to attend the Oscar ceremony, asserting that he did not feel like partying in a country that was in a state of war. Kaurismäki's next film Lights in the Dusk was also chosen to be Finland's nominee for best foreign-language film, but Kaurismäki again boycotted the awards and refused the nomination, as a protest against U.S. President George W. Bush's foreign policy. In 2002 Kaurismäki also boycotted the 40th New York Film Festival in a show of solidarity with the Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami, who was not given a US visa in time for the festival.
Kaurismäki's 2017 film The Other Side of Hope won the Silver Bear for Best Director award at the 67th Berlin International Film Festival. At the same festival he also announced that it would be his last film as a director.
Political views
In December 2019, along with 42 other leading cultural figures, Kaurismäki signed a letter endorsing the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership in the 2019 general election. The letter stated that "Labour's election manifesto under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership offers a transformative plan that prioritises the needs of people and the planet over private profit and the vested interests of a few."
Kaurismäki deals with the European migrant crisis without avoiding difficult aspects of reality. "I would like to change the Finns' attitude," said the filmmaker in Berlin. When 20,000 Iraqis came to Finland, many people in the country "perceived that as an attack, like a war." He was alarmed by their reaction and decided to make a film dealing with the issue. "I respect Mrs. Merkel," he also said of the German chancellor, who was harshly criticized for her open-door refugee policy, "She is the only politician who seems to be at least interested in the problem."
In a 2007 interview with the film scholar Andrew Nestingen, Kaurismäki said: "The real disgrace here is Finland’s refugee policy, which is shameful. We refuse refugee status on the flimsiest of grounds and send people back to secure places like Darfur, Iraq, and Somalia. It’s perfectly safe, go ahead. Our policy is a stain among the Nordic nations. Shameful."
The political context of Kaurismäki's work is very much influenced by his own attitudes towards Finland's treatment of the working class. The social and political ramifications of class structures and lack of economic parity render lower-class workers as a replaceable cog in an outdated machine.
Filmography
Feature films
Crime and Punishment, 1983
Calamari Union, 1985
Shadows in Paradise, 1986
Hamlet Goes Business, 1987
Ariel, 1988
Likaiset kädet (Les mains sales), 1989 (production for Finnish TV)
Leningrad Cowboys Go America, 1989
The Match Factory Girl, 1990
I Hired a Contract Killer, 1990
La Vie de Bohème, 1992
Take Care of Your Scarf, Tatiana, 1994
Leningrad Cowboys Meet Moses, 1994
Drifting Clouds, 1996
Juha, 1999
The Man Without a Past, 2002
Lights in the Dusk, 2006
Le Havre, 2011
The Other Side of Hope, 2017
Documentaries
The Saimaa Gesture, 1981
Total Balalaika Show, 1994
Juice Leskinen & Grand Slam: Bluesia Pieksämäen asemalla, 2013 (18 min)
Short films
Rocky VI, 1986 (8 min)
Thru the Wire, 1987 (6 min)
Rich Little Bitch, 1987 (6 min)
L.A. Woman, 1987 (5 min)
Those Were The Days, 1991 (5 min)
These Boots, 1992 (5 min)
Oo aina ihminen, 1995 (5 min)
Välittäjä, 1996 (4 min)
Dogs Have No Hell, 2002 (10 minute episode in the collaborative film Ten Minutes Older - The Trumpet)
Bico, 2004 (5 minute episode in the collaborative film Visions of Europe)
The Foundry, 2006 (3 minute episode in the collaborative film To Each His Own Cinema)
Tavern Man, 2012 (14 minute episode in the collaborative film Centro Histórico)
As an actor
The Liar (1981)
The Worthless (1982)
Huhtikuu on kuukausista julmin (1983)
Apinan vuosi (1983)
Viimeiset rotanrahat (1985)
Calamari Union (1985)
Ylösnousemus (1985)
Shadows in Paradise (1986)
Rocky VI (1986)
I Hired a Contract Killer (1990)
Shit Happens (1992)
Leningrad Cowboys Meet Moses (1994)
Iron Horsemen (1994)
Mustasilmä-Susanna ja lepakkoluolan aarre (1996)
Aaltra (2004)
Vandaleyne (2015)
See also
Finnish cinema
References
Sources
Roger Connah K/K: A Couple of Finns and Some Donald Ducks: Cinema and Society. VAPK Pub., Helsinki, 1991
Ródenas, Gabri (2008), "The Poetry of Silence" in , Orimattila Town Library.
Pilar Carrera: "El cineasta que vino del frío (Bico-Visión)" ("The moviemaker who came in from the cold"):
External links
Aki Kaurismäki by Orimattila Town Library.
Aki Kaurismaki on Eurochannel with A Film and Its Era: Le Havre
All films by Aki Kaurismäki provided online (gratis) by YLE
1957 births
Living people
People from Orimattila
Finnish film directors
20th-century Finnish people
Finnish expatriates in Portugal
01
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Silver Bear for Best Director recipients
|
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] |
201227
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%20Can%27t%20Happen%20Here
|
It Can't Happen Here
|
It Can't Happen Here is a 1935 dystopian political novel by American author Sinclair Lewis. It describes the rise of a US dictator similar to how Adolf Hitler gained power. The novel was adapted into a play by Lewis and John C. Moffitt in 1936.
Premise
The novel was published during the heyday of fascism in Europe, which was reported on by Dorothy Thompson, Lewis's wife. The novel describes the rise of Berzelius "Buzz" Windrip, a demagogue who is elected President of the United States, after fomenting fear and promising drastic economic and social reforms while promoting a return to patriotism and "traditional" values. After his election, Windrip takes complete control of the government and imposes totalitarian rule with the help of a ruthless paramilitary force, in the manner of European fascists such as Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. The novel's plot centers on journalist Doremus Jessup's opposition to the new regime and his subsequent struggle against it as part of a liberal rebellion.
Plot
In 1936, Senator Berzelius "Buzz" Windrip, a charismatic and power-hungry politician, wins the 1936 United States presidential election on a populist platform, promising to restore the country to prosperity and greatness, and promising each citizen $5,000 per year. Portraying himself as a champion of traditional American values, Windrip defeats President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the Democratic convention, and then easily beats his Republican opponent, Senator Walt Trowbridge, in the November election.
Although having previously foreshadowed some authoritarian measures to reorganize the United States government, Windrip rapidly outlaws dissent, incarcerates political enemies in concentration camps, and trains and arms a paramilitary force called the Minute Men (named after the Revolutionary War militias of the same name), who terrorize citizens and enforce the policies of Windrip and his capitalist regime. One of Windrip's first acts as president is to eliminate the influence of the United States Congress, which draws the ire of many citizens as well as the legislators themselves. The Minute Men respond to protests against Windrip's decisions harshly, attacking demonstrators with bayonets. In addition to these actions, Windrip's administration, known as the Corpo government, curtails women's and minority rights, and eliminates individual states by subdividing the country into administrative sectors. The government of these sectors is managed by Corpo authorities, usually prominent businessmen or Minute Men officers.
Those accused of crimes against the government appear before kangaroo courts presided over by military judges. Despite these dictatorial and "quasi-draconian" measures, a majority of Americans approve of them, seeing them as painful but necessary steps to restore U.S. power. One of Windrip's cronies brings up the matter of fascism in America, but Francis Tasbrough, the wealthy owner of the quarry in Jessup's home town, dismisses it with the remark that it simply "can't happen here" (hence the novel's title).
Open opponents of Windrip, led by Senator Trowbridge, form an organization called the New Underground (named after the Underground Railroad), helping dissidents escape to Canada and distributing anti-Windrip propaganda. One recruit to the New Underground is Doremus Jessup, the novel's protagonist, a traditional liberal and an opponent of both corporatist and communist theories, the latter of which Windrip's administration suppresses. Jessup's participation in the organization results in the publication of a periodical called The Vermont Vigilance, in which he writes editorials decrying Windrip's abuses of power.
Shad Ledue, the local district commissioner and Jessup's former hired man, resents his old employer. Ledue eventually discovers Jessup's actions and has him sent to a concentration camp. Ledue subsequently terrorizes Jessup's family and particularly his daughter Sissy, whom he unsuccessfully attempts to seduce. Sissy discovers evidence of corrupt dealings on the part of Ledue, which she exposes to Francis Tasbrough, a one-time friend of Jessup and Ledue's superior in the administrative hierarchy. Tasbrough has Ledue imprisoned in the same camp as Jessup, where inmates Ledue had sent there organize Ledue's murder. After a relatively brief incarceration, Jessup escapes when his friends bribe one of the camp guards. He flees to Canada, where he rejoins the New Underground. He later serves the organization as a spy, passing along information and urging locals to resist Windrip.
In time, Windrip's hold on power weakens as the economic prosperity he promised does not materialize, and increased numbers of disillusioned Americans, including Vice President Perley Beecroft, flee to both Canada and Mexico. Windrip also angers his Secretary of State, Lee Sarason, who had served earlier as his chief political operative and adviser. Sarason and Windrip's other lieutenants, including General Dewey Haik, seize power and exile the president to France. Sarason succeeds Windrip, but his extravagant and relatively weak rule creates a power vacuum in which Haik and others vie for power. In a bloody putsch, Haik leads a party of military supporters into the White House, kills Sarason and his associates, and proclaims himself president. The two coups cause a slow erosion of Corpo power, and Haik's government desperately tries to arouse patriotism by launching an unjustified invasion of Mexico. After slandering Mexico in state-run newspapers, Haik orders a mass conscription of young American men for the invasion of that country, infuriating many who had until then been staunch Corpo loyalists. Riots and rebellions break out across the country, with many realizing the Corpos have misled them.
General Emmanuel Coon, among Haik's senior officers, defects to the opposition with a large portion of his army, giving strength to the resistance movement. Although Haik remains in control of much of the country, civil war soon breaks out as the resistance tries to consolidate its grasp on the Midwest. The novel ends after the beginning of the conflict, with Jessup working as an agent for the New Underground in Corpo-occupied portions of southern Minnesota.
Reception
Reviewers at the time, and historians and literary critics ever since, have emphasized the resemblance to Louisiana politician Huey Long, who used strong-arm political tactics and who was building a nationwide "Share Our Wealth" organization in preparing to run for president in the 1936 election. Long was assassinated in 1935 just prior to the novel's publication.
According to Boulard (1998), "the most chilling and uncanny treatment of Huey by a writer came with Sinclair Lewis's It Can't Happen Here." Lewis portrayed a genuine U.S. dictator on the Hitler model. Starting in 1936, the Works Progress Administration, a New Deal agency, performed the stage adaptation across the country; Lewis had the goal of hurting Long's chances in the 1936 election.
Keith Perry argues that the key weakness of the novel is not that he decks out U.S. politicians with sinister European touches, but that he finally conceives of fascism and totalitarianism in terms of traditional U.S. political models rather than seeing them as introducing a new kind of society and a new kind of regime. Windrip is less a Nazi than a con-man-plus-Rotarian, a manipulator who knows how to appeal to people's desperation, but neither he nor his followers are in the grip of the kind of world-transforming ideology like Hitler's Nazism.
Adaptations
Stage
In 1936, Lewis and John C. Moffitt wrote a stage version, also titled It Can't Happen Here, which is still produced. The stage version premiered on October 27, 1936, in 21 U.S. theatres in 17 states simultaneously, in productions sponsored by the Federal Theater Project.
The Z Collective, a San Francisco theater company, adapted the novel for the stage, producing it both in 1989 and 1992. In 2004, Z Space adapted the Collective's script into a radio drama that was broadcast on the Pacifica radio network on the anniversary of the Federal Theater Project's original premiere.
A new stage adaptation by Tony Taccone and Bennett S. Cohen premiered at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in September 2016.
Unfinished film
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) purchased the rights in late 1935 for a reported $200,000 from seeing the galley proofs, with Lucien Hubbard (Wings) as the producer. By early 1936, screenwriter Sidney Howard completed an adaptation, his third of Lewis's novels. J. Walter Ruben was named to direct the film with the cast headed by Lionel Barrymore, Walter Connolly, Virginia Bruce, and Basil Rathbone. Studio head Louis B. Mayer indefinitely postponed production, citing costs, to the publicly announced pleasure of the Nazi regime in Germany. Lewis and Howard countered that financial reason with information pointing to Berlin's and Rome's influence on movies. Will H. Hays, responsible for the enforcement of the Motion Picture Production Code, had notified Mayer of potential problems in the German market. Joseph Breen, head of the Production Code Administration department under Hays, thought the script was too "anti-fascist" and "so filled with dangerous material".
In December 1938, Charlie Chaplin announced his next movie would satirize Hitler (The Great Dictator). MGM's Hubbard "dusted off the script" in January, but the "idea of a dictator ruling America" had now been discussed in public for years. Hubbard rewrote a new climax, "showing a dictatorship in Washington and showing it being kicked out by disgruntled Americans as soon as they realized what had happened." The film was placed back on the production schedule for the third time with shooting starting in June and Lewis Stone playing Doremus Jessup. By July 1939, MGM "admitted it would not make the movie after all" to some criticism.
Television
The 1968 television movie Shadow on the Land, which also went by the title United States: It Can't Happen Here, was produced by Screen Gems as a backdoor pilot for a series. The TV movie, a thriller which takes place following the fascist takeover, is often cited as an adaptation of Lewis's novel but does not credit the novel.
Inspired by the book, director–producer Kenneth Johnson in 1982 scripted a miniseries entitled Storm Warnings. NBC executives, to whom Johnson presented the script, rejected the original, which they considered too cerebral for the average American viewer. In order to make the script more marketable, Storm Warnings was revised into a far less subtle alien invasion story in which the invaders initially pose as humanity's friends. The new script formed the basis for the popular miniseries V, which premiered May 3, 1983.
Legacy
Since its publication, It Can't Happen Here has been seen as a cautionary tale, starting with the 1936 presidential election and potential candidate Huey Long.
In retrospect, Franklin D. Roosevelt's internment of Japanese Americans during World War II has been used as an example of "It can happen here".
Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention released their first album Freak Out! in 1966 with the song "It Can't Happen Here".
In May 1973, in the middle of the Watergate scandal, Knight Newspapers published an ad in their own and other publications, headlined "It Can't Happen Here" and emphasizing the importance of free press: "There is a struggle going on in this country. It is not just a fight by reporters and editors to protect their sources. It is a fight to protect the public's right to know. [...] It can't happen here as long as the press remains an open conduit through which public information flows." Herbert Mitgang in his op-ed piece said "The headline of this ad is the title of a novel that keeps insinuating itself these days, not because of its literary qualities but because of its prescience." And that Lewis's point was "that home‐grown hypocrisy leads to a nice brand of home‐grown authoritarianism."
Joe Conason's non-fiction book It Can Happen Here: Authoritarian Peril in the Age of Bush (2007) frequently quotes Lewis's book in relation to the presidency of George W. Bush.
In 2018, HarperCollins published Can It Happen Here?: Authoritarianism in America, a collection of essays about the prospect of authoritarianism in the United States, edited by Cass Sunstein.
In 2019, Robert Evans produced the podcast series It Could Happen Here, which speculated on the causes and consequences of a hypothetical second American Civil War.
In 2021, New York University Press published a book It Can Happen Here: White Power and the Rising Threat of Genocide in the US by genocide scholar Alexander Laban Hinton. Hinton argued that "there is a real risk of violent atrocities happening in the United States".
Presidency of Donald Trump
Several writers have compared the demagogue Buzz Windrip to Donald Trump. Michael Paulson wrote in The New York Times that the Berkeley Repertory Theatre's 2016 rendition of the play aimed to provoke discussion about Trump's presidential candidacy. Writing for The Guardian, Jules Stewart discussed the similarities between Trump's America with the country as depicted in the book. In Salon, Maclolm Harris stated: "Like Trump, Windrip uses a lack of tact as a way to distinguish himself" and "The social forces that Windrip and Trump invoke aren’t funny, they’re murderous." In The Washington Post, Carlos Lozada compared Trump to Windrip, opining that "it is impossible to miss the similarities between Trump and totalitarian figures in American literature." Jacob Weisberg wrote in Slate that one "can’t read Lewis' novel today without flashes of Trumpian recognition." Following the results of the 2016 United States presidential election, sales of It Can't Happen Here surged significantly, and it appeared on Amazon.com's list of bestselling books. Penguin Modern Classics released a new edition of the novel on January 20, 2017, the same day as the inauguration of Donald Trump.
See also
Books
Dystopian novel set in a near-future fundamentalist New England
Dystopian science-fiction novel sometimes said to predict the rise of Donald Trump's presidency.
Nonfiction book
Book about a fascist Britain
American dystopian novel
British graphic novel about a terrorist overthrowing a post-apocalyptic fascist Britain
Alternate history novel in which Charles Lindbergh defeats Roosevelt in 1940 and begins antisemitic and pro-German policies
Collection of essays
Philip K. Dick (1962). The Man in the High Castle. A post World War II alternative history, where Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan are in control of America and the world.
Events
If Day (19 February 1942), a simulated Nazi German invasion and occupation of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Films & Television
It Happened Here (1964; also known as It Happened Here: The Story of Hitler's England), a black-and white film about a fictitious fascist government in Britain during World War II
The Plot Against America, a 2020 alternate history drama television miniseries by David Simon and Ed Burns, based on the novel of the same name
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Doctoral Dissertation.
"Sinclair Lewis's 1935 novel 'It Can't Happen Here' envisioned an America in thrall to a homespun fascist dictator. Newly reissued, it's as unsettling a read as ever."
External links
1935 American novels
1935 science fiction novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into plays
American political novels
American satirical novels
Doubleday, Doran books
Dystopian novels
Huey Long
Novels about totalitarianism
Novels by Sinclair Lewis
Novels set in Vermont
Novels set in Washington, D.C.
Fiction set in 1936
|
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201228
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yle
|
Yle
|
Yleisradio Oy (Finnish, literally "General Radio Ltd." or "General Broadcast Ltd."; abbr. Yle ; ), translated to English as the Finnish Broadcasting Company, is Finland's national public broadcasting company, founded in 1926. It is a joint-stock company which is 99.98% owned by the Finnish state, and employs around 3,200 people in Finland. Yle shares many of its organizational characteristics with its UK counterpart, the BBC, on which it was largely modelled.
For the greater part of Yle's existence the company was funded by the revenues obtained from a broadcast receiving licence fee payable by the owners of radio sets (1927–1976) and television sets (1958–2012), as well as receiving a portion of the broadcasting licence fees payable by private television broadcasters. Since the beginning of 2013 the licence fee has been replaced by a public broadcasting tax (known as the Yle tax), which is collected annually from private individuals and corporations together with their other taxes.
By far the largest part of the Yle tax is collected from individual taxpayers, with payments being assessed on a sliding scale. Minors, as well as persons with an annual income of less than €7,813 are exempt. At the lower limit the tax payable by individuals amounts to €50 per annum and the maximum (payable by an individual with a yearly income of €20,588 or more) is set at €140. The rationale for the abolition of the previous television licence fee was the development of other means of delivering Yle's services, such as the Internet, and the consequent impracticality of continuing to tie the fee to the ownership of a specific device. Yle receives no advertising revenues as all channels are advertisement-free.
Yle has a status that could be described as that of a non-departmental public body. It is governed by a parliamentary governing council. Yle's turnover in 2010 was €398.4 million. In 2018 Yle's annual budget was about €530 million .
Yle operates three national television channels, 13 radio channels and services, and 25 regional radio stations. As Finland is constitutionally bilingual — around 5.5% of the population speaks Swedish as their mother-tongue — Yle provides radio and TV programming in Swedish through its Swedish-language department, Svenska Yle. As is customary in Finnish television and cinemas, foreign films and TV programmes, as well as segments of local programmes that feature foreign language dialogues (e.g. news interviews), are generally subtitled on Yle's channels. Dubbing is used in cartoons intended for young children who have not yet learned to read; off-screen narration in documentaries is also frequently dubbed.
In the field of international broadcasting, one of Yle's best known services was Nuntii Latini, the news in Latin, which was broadcast worldwide and made available over the Internet.
Yle was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950. Yle hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki.
History
Suomen Yleisradio (Finland's General Radio) was founded in Helsinki on 29 May 1926. The first radio programme was transmitted on 9 September in that year, and this is the date generally considered to be the birthday of regular broadcasting activities in Finland. However, it was not until 1928 that Yle's broadcasts became available throughout the country. After this the broadcasting network was developed and by the beginning of the 1930s, 100,000 households were able to listen to Yle programmes.
In 1957, Yle made its first television broadcast tests, and the following year regular TV programming was started under the name Suomen Televisio (Finland's Television), which was later renamed Yle TV1. The popularity of television in the country grew rapidly. In 1964, Yle obtained TES-TV and Tamvisio, which were merged to Yle TV2. In 1969, the Finnish Broadcasting Company began broadcasting television programs in colour, but due to the high cost of technology, virtually all programs appeared in colour only in the late 1970s. On May 1, 1977, Tv-uutiset (~ TV-news) and TV-nytt switched to colour.
In the 2000s, Yle has founded a number of new radio and television channels. In 2007 there was a digital television switchover. A completely new digital channel, Yle Teema (~ Yle Theme) was introduced, and the Swedish-language FST (Finlands Svenska Television, ~ Finland's Swedish Television) was moved from reserved analogue channel time to its own digital channel YLE FST5, which was later renamed to Yle Fem. In addition to these four channels (TV1, TV2, Teema, and Fem), a fifth channel, called YLE24, was launched in 2001 for 24-hour news programming. However, this channel was replaced by YLE Extra, a channel attempting to cater to the youth, which was in turn decommissioned in 2007. Until 4 August 2008, the fifth channel was used to broadcast Yle TV1 with Finnish subtitles broadcast on programmes in foreign languages (without having to enable the TV's or digital set-top box's subtitle function).
Logo history
Television
Yle TV1: TV1 is the oldest of Yle's channels and also the flagship TV channel of the institution. It serves as the main news, current affairs and factual journalism outlet for Yle, and is also used to broadcast a number of documentaries, drama, cultural, and educational programmes. Satirical entertainment, cinema, and shows of British production are also included in its programming. The channel's headquarters are located in Helsinki.
Yle TV2: TV2, founded in 1964, is the main channel for sports programmes and children's and teenagers' broadcasting. The channel is also used to broadcast drama, entertainment, and factual programmes. Emphasis in current affairs output is on domestic items, regional content and citizen journalism. The channel's headquarters are located in Tampere.
Yle Teema & Fem: Yle Teema & Fem (~ Yle Theme & Five) combines the operations of the previously separate Teema and Fem channels. Teema & Fem is Yle's channel for culture, education, and science. It focuses on recordings of performing arts, classical music, art, and history documentaries, films, and theme broadcasts. The channel also broadcasts Swedish-language full service channel broadcasting news, factual and children's programmes and entertainment. It also shows many Nordic films and series and Sami-language Ođđasat. Finnish subtitles are available for most programmes, they can be enabled using the digital set-top box. Outside prime time, Teema & Fem shows selected broadcasts from Sveriges Television, Sweden's equivalent of Yle.
TV Finland: TV Finland is a digital satellite channel showing a selection of Yle's programmes in Sweden.
Yle Text-TV: Yle Text-TV () shows news, sport and programme information round the clock. Theme pages on the weather, traffic, work and leisure.
As of January 2014, all of Yle's TV-channels except TV Finland are available in high definition.
Radio
Yle Radio 1: A radio channel for culture, in-depth current affairs, and other speech-based programmes. Classical music (concerts by the Finnish Radio Symphony Orchestra), jazz, folk, world music, and religious music also feature.
YleX: A fast-tempo programme-flow channel featuring new music and in tune with popular culture, targeted at 17- to 27-year-olds. The percentage of music is 70%. New domestic and foreign pop and rock and several special music programmes.
Yle Radio Suomi: The national and regional news, service and contact channel, also sport and entertainment. Musical fare comprising domestic and foreign hits, adult and nostalgic pop.
Yle Puhe (formerly Yle Radio Peili): The news and current affairs channel presenting talk programmes from Yle's other radio and television channels. Classical jazz. Also broadcast on digital television.
Yle X3M: The Swedish-language youth channel for current affairs debate and popular culture, broadcasting also news. New pop and rock and special music programmes.
Yle Vega: News, current affairs and culture in Swedish for all audience groups, also offering culture and regional programmes. Adult pop, jazz and classical music.
Yle Sámi Radio: A Sami-language network covering most of Lapland. Produced in co-operation with SVT and NRK.
Digital services
Yle phased out digital audio broadcasts by the end of 2005. Three channels continued to be available as DVB audio services. DVB audio services were shut down on 30 June 2016.
Yle Klassinen: The 24-hour digital supplementary service of classical music also broadcast on digital television.
International services
Yle Mondo: Broadcasts in English and other languages, mostly compiled from international radio services. Yle Mondo is available on FM in Helsinki and throughout the country as an audio attached to digital TV.
Yle tax
Until the end of 2012, Finnish citizens paid Yle a license fee for the use of a television, set at 252 euros per year in 2012. The license fee was per location, which could hold several sets (e.g. in a living room as well as a bedroom). The public broadcasting tax, also known as the Yle tax, replaced the license fee in 2013. The tax ranges from 50 euros to 140 euros per person and per year, depending on income. Minors and persons with low income are exempt from the tax.
Controversies
In radio, Yle was a legal monopoly until 1985, when local radio stations were permitted, and maintained a national monopoly until 1995, when national radio networks were allowed.
In the past, Yle has been seen in Finland as a "red" or leftist medium. This was true especially in 1965–1969, during the term of Director-General Eino S. Repo, who got the position with the backing of the Agrarian League and President Kekkonen (who was a member of the Agrarian Party), as he was Kekkonen's personal friend. He was accused of favouring leftist student radicalism and young left leaning reporters with programs critical of capitalism that demanded reforms to bring Finland closer to the Soviet Union, and Yle was given the nickname "Reporadio". After his resigning, he was demoted to the position of director of radio broadcasting, on the communist-led People's Democratic League mandate.
Repo resigned in 1969, but according to Yle, the "political mandate" remained, as Erkki Raatikainen was named director directly from the Social Democratic Party office. Subsequently, all directors after him until 2010 were Social Democrats. This was ended by appointment of the right-wing National Coalition Party's Lauri Kivinen as director in 2010.
During Finlandization and the leftist radicalization of the 1970s, Yle contributed to Kekkonen's policy of "neutrality" by broadcasting the programme Näin naapurissa about the Soviet Union. This programme was produced in cooperation with the Soviets and as such, supported Soviet propaganda without criticism.
The appointment of Lauri Kivinen in 2010 received much criticism as he was previously head of Nokia Siemens Networks, which had sold monitoring equipment to the Iranian Ministry of Intelligence, allowing them to arrest political dissidents throughout the protests in the fall of 2009.
English-language newscaster Kimmo Wilska was fired on 13 August 2010 - after pretending to be caught drinking on-camera following an alcohol-related news story on Yle News. Wilska's stunt was not well received by Yle management who fired him that same day. Wilska received a lot of support after his termination.
Yle has been criticized for buying many HBO series. Yle has responded to criticism emphasizing suitability of series to channels with no ad breaks, quality and low price of HBO programming and stating that American programs even with HBO form only 7% of Yle programming.
Decision to close shortwave
The broadcasts on shortwave from Yle were closed at the end of 2006. Expatriate organisations had been campaigning for a continued service, but their efforts did not succeed in maintaining the service or even in slowing the process. The decision also affected a high-powered medium wave on 963 kHz (312m). A smaller medium wave covering the Gulf of Finland region (558 kHz, 538m) remained on air for a few more years.
Parliamentary question about shortwave
In November 2005, MP Pertti Hemmilä (N) submitted a question in Parliament about the plans of Yle to end its availability on international shortwave bands. In his question, Hemmilä took up the low cost of the world band radio to the consumer travelling or living abroad. In her response the Minister of Transport and Communications, Susanna Huovinen (S) noted that Yle would now be available via other means, such as satellites and the Internet. She also underlined the fact that Yle is not under government control, but under indirect parliamentary supervision.
YLE Gate 2017
Council for Mass Media in Finland criticised Yleisradio for restricted news of Prime Minister Juha Sipilä investments and business in 2017. Chief editor of YLE threatened YLE to resign the Finnish Council for Mass Media. Juha Sipilä was angry of the YLE news of Talvivaara mine and Ketera Steel (company owned by Sipilä relatives). Several reporters were denied to inform of the Sipilä's politics connected to companies owned by relatives of Sipilä and state financing of Talvivaara mine (Terrafame mine).
List of YLE directors
L. M. Viherjuuri, 1926–1927 (acting)
Yrjö Koskelainen, 1927 (acting)
Armas Deinert, 1927 (acting)
Hjalmar Woldemar Walldén (since 1935 Jalmar Voldemar Vakio) 1927–1945
Hella Wuolijoki, 1945–1949
Einar Sundström, 1950–1964
Eino S. Repo, 1965–1969
Erkki Raatikainen, 1970–1979
Sakari Kiuru, 1980–1989
Reino Paasilinna, 1990–1994
Arne Wessberg, 1994–2005
Mikael Jungner, 2005–2010
Lauri Kivinen, 2010–2018
Merja Ylä-Anttila, 2018–in office
Notable news anchors
Marjo Rein
Matti Rönkä
Tommy Franti
Jussi-Pekka Rantanen
Arto Nurmi
Marjukka Havumäki
Piia Pasanen
See also
List of radio stations in Finland
Television in Finland
Media of Finland
References
External links
About Yle in English
Svenska.yle.fi – Svenska Yle. Official site in Swedish
Yle News – News in English
Yle Sápmi – News in Sámi (Lappish)
Yle Novosti – News in Russian
Nuntii Latini – News in Latin
Yle Areena – in Finnish
Yle Arenan – in Swedish
Yle Elävä arkisto – the Living Archive in Finnish
Yle Arkivet – the Archive in Swedish
Publicly funded broadcasters
European Broadcasting Union members
Commercial-free television networks
Mass media companies of Finland
Radio stations established in 1926
Television in Finland
Companies based in Helsinki
State media
1926 establishments in Finland
|
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201231
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael%20Maklouf
|
Raphael Maklouf
|
Raphael David Maklouf (born 10 December 1937) is a British sculptor, best known for designing an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II used on the coins of many Commonwealth nations.
Maklouf was born in Jerusalem, to a Jewish family; his father was Samuel Maklouf (1911–1990, born in Safed, then in Palestine); his mother was Leonie Maklouf (born in Saarbrücken, Germany, 1915).
The family emigrated to the United Kingdom after the Second World War. Raphael Maklouf attended the Camberwell School of Art until 1958, afterwards becoming an academic lecturer for ten years. He was made an Associate of the Royal Society of British Sculptors in 1979.
Two of his designs were selected for British coinage on 8 August 1984, one for general circulation and another for commemorative issues. They were used on the coins of several countries from 1985 to 1997. His initials, RDM, are engraved at the base of the Queen's neck. He is additionally known for his sculptural design representing the fifteen Stations of the Cross in Brentwood Cathedral. He is associated with Tower Mint Ltd, which privately produces medals, coins for collectors, and similar items.
References
External links
Tower Mint website
1937 births
British people of Palestinian-Jewish descent
Living people
Jews in Mandatory Palestine
People from Jerusalem
Alumni of Camberwell College of Arts
Mandatory Palestine emigrants to the United Kingdom
20th-century British sculptors
British male sculptors
Coin designers
|
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201232
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddhi
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Siddhi
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In Indian religions, (Sanskrit: ; fulfillment, accomplishment) are material, paranormal, supernatural, or otherwise magical powers, abilities, and attainments that are the products of yogic advancement through sādhanās such as meditation and yoga. The term ṛddhi (Pali: iddhi, "psychic powers") is often used interchangeably in Buddhism.
Etymology
Siddhi is a Sanskrit noun which can be translated as "knowledge", "accomplishment", "attainment", or "success".
Method
The Visuddhimagga is one of the texts to give explicit details about how spiritual masters were thought to actually manifest supernormal abilities. It states that abilities such as flying through the air, walking through solid obstructions, diving into the ground, walking on water and so forth are achieved through changing one element, such as earth, into another element, such as air. The individual must master kasina meditation before this is possible. Dipa Ma, who trained via the Visuddhimagga, was said to demonstrate these abilities.
Usage in Hinduism
In the Panchatantra, an ancient Indian collection of moral fables, siddhi may be the term for any unusual skill or faculty or capability.
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
In Patañjali's Yoga Sutras IV.1 it is stated, Janma auṣadhi mantra tapaḥ samādhijāḥ siddhayaḥ, "Accomplishments may be attained through birth, the use of herbs, incantations, self-discipline or samadhi".
Eight classical siddhis
According to different sources, below are the eight classical siddhis (Ashta Siddhi) or eight great perfections are:
Aṇimā: the ability to become smaller than the smallest, reducing one's body to the size of an atom or even become invisible.
Mahimā: the ability to become infinitely large, expanding one's body to an infinitely large size.
Laghimā: the ability to become weightless or lighter than air.
“Garimā”: the ability to become heavy or dense
Prāpti: the ability to instantaneously summon any item the user is aware of at any given moment.
Prākāmya: the ability to achieve or realize whatever one desires.
Īśiṭva: the ability to control nature, individuals, organisms, etc. Supremacy over nature and ability to force influence upon anyone.
Vaśiṭva: the ability to control all material elements or natural forces.
The eighth is given as either:
Kāma-avasayitva (per Kṣemarāja and Vyasa): satisfaction, suppression of desire, or (as Yatrakāmāvasāyitva) wishes coming true.
Garimā (per the Rāmānanda Sampradāya): the ability to become infinitely heavy and be immovable by anyone or anything.
Shaivism
In Shaivism, siddhis are defined as "Extraordinary powers of the soul, developed through consistent meditation and often uncomfortable and grueling tapas, or awakened naturally through spiritual maturity and yogic sādhanā."
Vaishnavism
In Vaishnavism, the term siddhi is used in the Sarva-darśana-saṃgraha of Madhvacharya (1238–1317), the founder of Dvaita (dualist) philosophy.
Five siddhis, according to Vaishnava doctrine
In the Bhagavata Purana, the five siddhis brought on by yoga and meditation are:
trikālajñatvam: knowing the past, present and future
advandvam: tolerance of heat, cold and other dualities
para citta ādi abhijñatā: knowing the minds of others, etc.
agni arka ambu viṣa ādīnām pratiṣṭambhaḥ: checking the influence of fire, sun, water, poison, etc.
aparājayah: remaining unconquered by others
Ten secondary siddhis, according to Vaishnava doctrine
In the Bhagavata Purana, Krishna describes the ten secondary siddhis:
anūrmimattvam: Being undisturbed by hunger, thirst, and other bodily appetites
dūraśravaṇa: Hearing things far away
dūradarśanam: Seeing things far away
manojavah: Moving the body wherever thought goes (teleportation/astral projection)
kāmarūpam: Assuming any form desired
parakāya praveśanam: Entering the bodies of others
svachanda mṛtyuh: Dying when one desires
devānām saha krīḍā anudarśanam: Witnessing and participating in the pastimes of the gods
yathā saṅkalpa saṁsiddhiḥ: Perfect accomplishment of one's determination
ājñāpratihatā gatiḥ: Orders or commands being unimpeded
Samkhya philosophy
In the Samkhyakarika and Tattvasamasa, there are references to the attainment of eight siddhis by which "one becomes free of the pain of ignorance, one gains knowledge, and experiences bliss".
The eight siddhis hinted at by Kapila in the Tattvasamasa are, as explained in verse 51 of the Samkhyakarika:
Uuha: based on the samskaras (karmic imprints) of previous births, the attainment of knowledge about the twenty-four tattvas gained by examining the determinable and indeterminable, conscious and non-conscious constituents of creation.
Shabda: knowledge gained by associating with an enlightened person (Guru – upadesh).
Addhyyan: knowledge gained through study of the Vedas and other standard ancillary texts.
Suhritprapti: knowledge gained from a kind-hearted person, while engaged in the spread of knowledge.
Daan: knowledge gained regardless of one’s own needs while attending to the requirements of those engaged in the search of the highest truth.
Aadhyaatmik dukkh-haan: freedom from pain, disappointment, etc. that may arise due to lack of spiritual, metaphysical, mystic knowledge and experience.
Aadhibhautik dukkh-haan: freedom from pain etc. arising from possessing and being attached to various materialistic gains.
Aadhidaivik dukkh-haan: freedom from pain etc. caused by fate or due to reliance on fate.
It is believed that the attainment of these eight siddhis renders one free of the pain of ignorance, and gives one knowledge and bliss.
Hindu deities associated with gaining siddhi
Ganesha, Hanuman, various forms of Devi, Vishnu and various other deities are popularly seen as the keepers of siddhis, with the ability to grant them to the worshipper.
Usage in Sikhism
In Sikhism, siddhi means "insight". "Eight Siddhis" is used for insight of the eight qualities of Nirankar or a.k.a. Akal Purakh mentioned in the Mul Mantar in the Guru Granth Sahib. God has eight qualities: EkOnkar, Satnam, Kartapurakh, Nirbhao, Nirvair, AkaalMurat, Ajooni and Svaibhang. The one who has insight of these qualities is called Sidh or Gurmukh.
1. EkOnkar: There is one formless GOD.
2. Satnam: GOD is true. His remembrance is true.
3. Kartapurakh: GOD alone is creator.
4. Nirbhao: GOD is fearless.
5. Nirvair: GOD has enmity with none.
6. AkaalMurat: Beyond the life and death.
7. Ajooni Svaibhang: GOD is beyond the cycle of birth and death.
Sidh means the one who has mastered his self.
Usage in Vajrayana Buddhism
In Tantric Buddhism, siddhi specifically refers to the acquisition of supernatural powers by psychic or magical means or the supposed faculty so acquired. These powers include items such as clairvoyance, levitation, bilocation and astral projection, materialization, and having access to memories from past lives.
See also
Karamat
Pranahuti
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Bhagavata Purana
Yoga concepts
Hindu philosophical concepts
Tantric practices
|
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201236
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Lasenby%20Liberty
|
Arthur Lasenby Liberty
|
Sir Arthur Lasenby Liberty (13 August 1843 – 11 May 1917) was a London-based merchant, and the founder of Liberty & Co.
Early life
Arthur Liberty was born on 13 August 1843 in Chesham, Buckinghamshire, England, the son of a draper. He began work at sixteen with an uncle who sold lace, and later another uncle who sold wine. By 1859 he was apprenticed to a draper, but he instead took a job at Farmer and Rogers, which specialised in women's fashions. He quickly rose to the post of manager of the warehouse.
Liberty & Co.
After Farmer and Rogers refused to make him a partner in their business, Liberty, in 1875, opened his own shop, Liberty & Co., in Regent Street, London. There he sold ornaments, fabrics and miscellaneous objets d'art from the Far East.
Liberty & Co. initially provided an eclectic mix of popular styles, but went on to develop a fundamentally different style closely linked to the Aesthetic Movement of the 1890s, Art Nouveau (the "new art"). The company became synonymous with this new style to the extent that in Italy, Art Nouveau became known as Stile Liberty after the London shop. The company's printed and dyed fabrics, particularly silks and satins, were notable for their subtle and "artistic" colours and highly esteemed as dress material, especially during the decades from 1890 to 1920.
Arthur Liberty married first Martha Cottam in 1865, from whom he obtained a divorce in 1869 on the grounds of her adultery and second, Emma Louise Blackmore in 1875. They had no children. He was knighted in 1913.
Death and legacy
Liberty died on 11 May 1917. Before he died, Liberty had amassed a small fortune as a majority shareholder in Liberty & Co. (It had become a public limited liability company in 1890.) He left a manor house, several cottages and a large area of farmland near his birthplace in Buckinghamshire.
His gravestone was designed by Archibald Knox, one of Liberty & Co.'s long-standing designers.
References and sources
References
Sources
Levy, Mervyn (1986) Liberty Style, The Classic Years, 1898–1910. New York: Rizzoli.
External links
Arthur Liberty and the Evolution of the Liberty Style
History of Liberty & Co.
1843 births
1917 deaths
British businesspeople
High Sheriffs of Buckinghamshire
People from Chesham
Knights Bachelor
19th-century British businesspeople
|
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] |
201238
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrot%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Parrot (disambiguation)
|
Parrots are birds found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions.
Parrot may also refer to:
Biology
True parrots
Cockatoos
New Zealand parrots
Company
Parrot (company), a French company which produces wireless products and drones
Parrot Corporation, a British floppy disk manufacturer
Parrot Records, American record label, a division of London Records
Parrot Records (blues label), American Chicago-based record label
IT
Parrot virtual machine, an interpreter currently being developed for Perl 6 and other dynamic programming languages
Parrot assembly language, an assembly language used to program the virtual machine
Parrot Security OS, a penetration-testing Operating System based on Debian.
Surname
Georg Friedrich Parrot (1767–1852), Estonian scientist
Johann Jacob Friedrich Wilhelm Parrot (1792–1841), Estonian naturalist
Philippe Parrot (1831–1894), French painter
William Parrot, birth name of the English music hall performer best known under the stage name Talbot O'Farrell (18781952)
Other
Parrot (crater), a lunar impact crater
CZAW Parrot, a Czech light-sport aircraft
See also
Parrott (disambiguation)
Parrotbill, an Old World passerine bird of the family Paradoxornithidae
Parrotfish, a Perciformes marine fish of the family Scaridae, and two other fish, the blood parrot and the parrot cichlid
Flaubert's Parrot, 1984 novel by Julian Barnes
|
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201245
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Redgrave
|
Steve Redgrave
|
Sir Steven Geoffrey Redgrave (born 23 March 1962) is a British retired rower who won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games from 1984 to 2000. He has also won three Commonwealth Games gold medals and nine World Rowing Championships golds. He is the most successful male rower in Olympic history, and the only man to have won gold medals at five Olympic Games in an endurance sport.
Redgrave is regarded as one of Britain's greatest-ever Olympians. As of 2016 he was the fourth-most decorated British Olympian, after cyclists Sir Chris Hoy, Sir Jason Kenny and Sir Bradley Wiggins. He has carried the British flag at the opening of the Olympic Games on two occasions. In 2002, he was ranked number 36 in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. He received the BBC Sports Personality of the Year – Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011.
Early life and education
Redgrave was born in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, to Geoffrey Edward Redgrave, a submariner in the Second World War who became a builder, and Sheila Marion, daughter of Harold Stevenson, a local bus driver. His great-grandparents Harry and Susannah Redgrave moved to Marlow from Bramfield, Suffolk, in 1887. He was educated at Great Marlow School.
Rowing career
Redgrave's primary discipline was sweep rowing, in which he won Olympic Gold rowing both bowside and strokeside (port and starboard).
From 1991, the crews in which he rowed became renowned for their consistent dominance, winning almost every time they raced.
For much of his career he suffered illness: in 1992 he was diagnosed with ulcerative colitis, and in 1997 he was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus type 2.
Olympic games
Redgrave won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games from 1984 to 2000, plus a bronze medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics.
Immediately after winning the 1996 Olympic Gold Medal, he stated that if anyone found him close to a rowing boat again, they could shoot him. However, he changed his mind shortly afterward, and resumed training after a four-month break. The gold medal achieved by him and Matthew Pinsent in the coxless pair at the Atlanta 1996 games was particularly notable for being the only gold medal achieved by the entire British Olympic team across all sports during that particular Olympic games.
In 2000, he won his fifth consecutive Olympic Gold Medal and retired from the sport. In August 2000, prior to his final Olympic Games, the BBC broadcast Gold Fever, a three-part BBC documentary which had followed the coxless four in the years leading up to the Olympics. It included video diaries recording the highs and lows in the quest for gold. At the medal ceremony after the 2000 Summer Olympics he was also presented with a gold Olympic pin by IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch in recognition of his achievement.
World Championships
At the World Rowing Championships he won nine gold medals, two silvers, and a bronze.
He won the World Championship for Indoor rowing in 1991.
Henley Royal Regatta
He competed at Henley Royal Regatta for more than two decades, winning: the Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup for coxless pairs seven times (twice with Andy Holmes, once with Simon Berrisford and four times with Matthew Pinsent); the Stewards' Challenge Cup for coxless fours five times; the Diamond Challenge Sculls twice; the Double Sculls Challenge Cup with Eric Sims then with Adam Clift; and the Queen Mother Challenge Cup for quadruple sculls.
Wingfield Sculls
He won the Wingfield Sculls for single scullers five times between 1985 and 1989.
Life after rowing
In April 2006 Redgrave completed his third London Marathon, raising a record £1,800,000 for charity.
He starred in Top Ground Gear Force for Sport Relief in 2008, where the Top Gear Team (Jeremy Clarkson, James May and Richard Hammond) took on Ground Force with predictable results, and trashed his garden.
He launched his own Fairtrade Cotton Brand of clothing called FiveG, which is sold in Debenhams department stores.
He was involved in starting a rowing academy in India at Lavasa, the new Hill City being developed near Pune City.
In April 2008, Redgrave took part in the Olympic Torch relay for the games in Beijing, and he went on to be one of the final torch-bearers for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, carrying the torch into the stadium, where seven young athletes shared the task of lighting the cauldron at the opening ceremony.
He was named a Patron of the Jaguar Academy of Sport in 2010.
In 2012, he took up kayaking and attempted the Devizes-to-Westminster marathon kayak race, but had to withdraw halfway through due to tiredness.
He rowed on the Gloriana as part of the royal pageant for the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.
In August 2014, Redgrave was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.
In May 2018, Redgrave assumed the High-Level Performance Director role for the Chinese Rowing Association to help China's rowing team's target of one gold medal at the Tokyo 2020 Games and two golds at Paris 2024.
Personal life
He married Ann Callaway (now Ann, Lady Redgrave) in 1988; an accomplished rower in her own right, she represented Great Britain in the women's eight at the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984 and was Chief Medical Officer to the GB rowing team from 1992 to 2001 and since 2009 their first full-time Medical Officer. He is the honorary president of British Rowing.
Steven and Ann Redgrave have three children, Natalie, Sophie and Zak. Natalie rowed with the Oxford University Women's Boat Club which won the women's boat race at Henley Boat Races in 2011.
He is a supporter of Chelsea Football Club.
Honours
In the 2001 New Year Honours he was appointed a Knight Bachelor "for services to Rowing", which he received in Buckingham Palace from Queen Elizabeth II on 1 May 2001.
He was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in 1987, and promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1997.
He was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 2000.
In 2001, the International Rowing Federation awarded him the Thomas Keller Medal for Outstanding International Rowing Career.
He was awarded the Honorary Degree of Doctor of the University from Heriot Watt University in November 2001, having previously been awarded an Honorary Blue in 1997.
In 2002, his fifth Olympic gold was voted the greatest sporting moment in Channel 4's 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.
The Redgrave Pinsent Rowing Lake was opened by him and Matthew Pinsent in 2006. The lake and boathouse provide training, medical and scientific facilities for the GB rowing squad.
He was awarded the BBC Sports – Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011.
In 2013, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Edinburgh "in recognition of his outstanding sporting achievements and role as a sports ambassador".
He is commemorated at Burnham Grammar School, Redbridge Community School and Broadlands Science and Engineering School as one of the four houses there. At Linton Village College in Cambridgeshire and Woodcote High School in Croydon, there is a school faculty (house) named after him.
Styles and honours
Mr Steven Redgrave (1962–1987)
Mr Steven Redgrave MBE (1987–1997)
Mr Steven Redgrave CBE (1997–2001)
Sir Steven Redgrave CBE (2001–)
Achievements
Olympic medals: 5 gold, 1 bronze
World Championship medals: 9 gold, 2 silver, 1 bronze
Junior World Championship medals: 1 silver
Olympic Games
2000 – Gold, Coxless Four (with Matthew Pinsent, Tim Foster, James Cracknell)
1996 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1992 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1988 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Andy Holmes)
1988 – Bronze, Coxed Pair (with Andy Holmes and Patrick Sweeney)
1984 – Gold, Coxed Four (with Martin Cross, Adrian Ellison, Andy Holmes and Richard Budgett).
World Rowing Championships
1999 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Ed Coode, Matthew Pinsent)
1998 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Tim Foster, Matthew Pinsent)
1997 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Tim Foster, Matthew Pinsent)
1995 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1994 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1993 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1991 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1990 – Bronze, Coxless Pair (with Matthew Pinsent)
1989 – Silver, Coxless Pairs (with Simon Berrisford)
1989 – 5th, Coxed Pairs (with Simon Berrisford and Patrick Sweeney)
1987 – Gold, Coxless Pairs (with Andy Holmes)
1987 – Silver, Coxed Pairs (with Andy Holmes and Patrick Sweeney)
1986 – Gold, Coxed Pairs (with Andy Holmes and Patrick Sweeney)
1985 – 12th, Single Sculls
1983 – Single Sculls
1982 – 6th, Quadruple Scull
1981 – 8th, Quadruple Scull
Junior World Rowing Championships
1980 – Silver, Double Sculls
1979 – Single Sculls
Henley Royal Regatta
2001 – Queen Mother Challenge Cup
2000 – Stewards' Challenge Cup
1999 – Stewards' Challenge Cup
1998 – Stewards' Challenge Cup
1997 – Stewards' Challenge Cup
1995 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1994 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1993 – Stewards' Challenge Cup
1993 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1991 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1989 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1987 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1986 – Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup
1985 – Diamond Challenge Sculls
1983 – Diamond Challenge Sculls
1982 – Double Sculls Challenge Cup
1981 – Double Sculls Challenge Cup
Other
1996 – Winner of UK Celebrity Gladiators
2000 – BBC Sports Personality of the Year
2001 – Collected a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II
2001 – Received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University
2010 – Awarded the degree of Hon. LLD from the University of St Andrews
2011 – BBC Sports – Lifetime Achievement Award
2012 – Carried the London 2012 Olympic Torch into the Olympic Stadium
2013 – Awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Edinburgh "in recognition of his outstanding sporting achievements and role as a sports ambassador".
Bibliography
Steve Redgrave: A Golden age (2000) with Nick Townsend (ghostwriter).
2nd edition: 2001
Steve Redgrave's Complete Book of Rowing (1992).
2nd edition: 1995
You Can Win At Life! (2005) with Nick Townsend. .
Inspired (2009).
Foreword to Diabetes: The at Your Fingertips Guide 5th edition (2003)
See also
Jack Beresford, rower, Britain's most successful Olympian prior to Redgrave's fourth gold medal, with three gold and two silver medals from 1920 to 1936
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists in one event
List of people diagnosed with ulcerative colitis
References
External links
Virtual Library rowing information
Marlow information
Video 1988 Pair (2-) Olympic race
Video Sir Steve Redgrave discusses the key to a winning team
Sir Steve Redgrave: myplace ambassador – creating places for young people to go to(video)
The Sonshine of Our Lives: Sheila Redgrave tells the broader story of her son Sir Steve Redgrave
Motion in Action Inspirational Story on Steve Redgrave
English male rowers
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
Olympic rowers of Great Britain
Rowers at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners
Deputy Lieutenants of Buckinghamshire
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Great Marlow School
People in sports awarded knighthoods
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
1962 births
Living people
Stewards of Henley Royal Regatta
Members of Leander Club
Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain
People from Marlow, Buckinghamshire
Rowers at the 1986 Commonwealth Games
Olympic medalists in rowing
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medallists for Great Britain
World Rowing Championships medalists for Great Britain
Commonwealth Games medallists in rowing
Thomas Keller Medal recipients
BBC Sports Personality Lifetime Achievement Award recipients
People with type 2 diabetes
|
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201246
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True%20parrot
|
True parrot
|
The true parrots are about 350 species of colourful flighted (with a few notable exceptions) hook-billed, mostly herbivorous birds forming the superfamily Psittacoidea, one of the three superfamilies in the biological order Psittaciformes (parrots). True parrots are widespread, with species in Mexico, Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and eastwards across the Pacific Ocean as far as Polynesia. The true parrots include many of the familiar parrots including macaws, conures, lorikeets, eclectus, Amazon parrots, grey parrot, and budgerigar.
Overview
True parrots have a beak with a characteristic curved shape, the jaw with a mobility slightly higher than where it connects with the skull, and a generally upright position. They also have a large cranial capacity and are one of the most intelligent bird groups. They are good fliers and skillful climbers on branches of trees.
Some species can imitate the human voice and other sounds, although they do not have vocal cords — instead possessing a vocal organ at the base of the trachea known as the syrinx.
Like most parrots, the Psittacidae are primarily seed eaters. Some variation is seen in the diet of individual species, with fruits, nuts, leaves, and even insects and other animal prey being taken on occasion by some species. The lorikeets are predominantly nectar feeders; many other parrots drink nectar, as well. Most Psittacidae are cavity-nesting birds which form monogamous pair bonds.
Distribution and habitat
The true parrots are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, covering many different habitats, from the humid tropical forests to deserts in Australia, India, Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, and two species, one extinct (the Carolina parakeet), formerly in the United States. However, the larger populations are native to Australasia, South America, and Central America.
Conservation status
Many species are classified as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (see IUCN Red List of birds), as well as national and nongovernmental organizations. Trade in birds and other wild animals is governed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Nearly all parrots are listed on CITES appendices, trade limited or prohibited. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species have diminished wild populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of birds. Of the animals removed from the wild to be sold, very few survive during capture and transport, and those that do often die from poor conditions of captivity, poor diet, and stress. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems.
About 18 species of parrots have gone extinct since 1500 (see List of extinct birds#Psittaciformes), nearly all in superfamily Psittacoidea.
Taxonomy
The parrot family Psittacidae (along with the family Cacatuidae comprising the order Psittaciformes) was traditionally considered to contain two subfamilies, the Psittacinae (typical parrots and allies) and the Loriinae (lories and lorikeets). However, the tree of the parrot family now has been reorganized under the superfamily Psittacoidea: family Psittacidae has been split into three families, tribes Strigopini and Nestorini split out and placed under superfamily Strigopoidea and a new monotypic superfamily Cacatuoidea created containing family Cacatuidae.
The following classification is based on the most recent proposal, which in turn is based on all the relevant recent findings.
Family Psittacidae, New World and African parrots
Subfamily Psittacinae: Two African genera, Psittacus and Poicephalus
Subfamily Arinae
Tribe Arini: 17 genera, and one extinct genus
Tribe Androglossini: seven genera
clade (proposed tribe Amoropsittacini) four genera
clade (proposed tribe Forpini) one genus
(other tribes) five genera
Family Psittrichasiidae, Indian Ocean island parrots
Subfamily Psittrichasinae: one species, Pesquet's parrot
Subfamily Coracopsinae: one genus with several species
Family Psittaculidae, Asian and Australasian parrots, and lovebirds
Subfamily Platycercinae
Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies
Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots
Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (Psittacella) with several species
Subfamily Loriinae
Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets
Tribe Melopsittacini: one species, the budgerigar
Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots
Subfamily Agapornithinae: three genera
Subfamily Psittaculinae
Tribe Polytelini: three genera
Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines
Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots
Species lists
Species list sortable alphabetically by common or scientific name
Species list in taxonomic order
Gallery
References
Further reading
Bruce Thomas Boehner - Parrot Culture. Our 2,500-year-Long Fascination with the World's Most Talkative Bird (2004)
Notes
External links
Parrot videos on the Internet Bird Collection
|
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] |
201252
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kings%20of%20Iraq
|
List of kings of Iraq
|
The king of Iraq () was Iraq's head of state and monarch from 1921 to 1958. He served as the head of the Iraqi monarchy—the House of Hashim. The king was addressed as His Majesty (صاحب الجلالة).
History
After World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the three provinces (vilayets) of Ottoman Iraq came under the control of the United Kingdom. Under British occupation, the people rebelled and Iraq showed itself a hard land to govern. In order to establish a pro-British client regime, a dynasty of Hashemite kings from the Hejaz was established, beginning with Faisal I who was the son of Hussein bin Ali. As a family originating in the Hejaz, the House of Hashim was foreign to Iraq. The British Government appointed them as Iraq's royal family after a rigged plebiscite in 1921. The Hashemites were largely opposed by the Iraqi Shiites and Kurds. The Kingdom of Iraq existed until an Iraqi nationalist coup d'état in 1958 known as the 14 July Revolution established the Iraqi Republic.
King-designate of Iraq (1920)
Kings of Iraq (1921–1958)
Timeline
Royal standard
See also
Ancient Iraq
List of Assyrian kings
List of kings of Akkad
List of kings of Babylon
List of Mesopotamian dynasties
President of Iraq
List of presidents of Iraq
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
References
Iraq
Kings
Kings
Kings of Iraq
fr:Monarchie irakienne
he:מלך עיראק
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201253
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kornilov%20affair
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Kornilov affair
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The Kornilov affair, or the Kornilov putsch, was an attempted military coup d'état by the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army, General Lavr Kornilov, from 27–30 August (O.S., 10–13 September N.S.) 1917, against the Russian Provisional Government headed by Aleksander Kerensky and the Petrograd Soviet of Soldiers' and Workers' Deputies. The exact details and motivations of the Kornilov affair are unconfirmed due to the general confusion of all parties involved. Many historians have had to piece together varied historical accounts as a result.
Background
Following the "February Revolution" of 8–16 March 1917 (23 February – 3 March old style), the Russian monarchy fell from power, replaced by a Provisional Government whose members came from various liberal and left-wing political parties, some previously represented in the Duma, and others in the Petrograd Soviet. However, the initial wave of support for the Provisional Government amongst the Russian people soon subsided and unrest grew, a result mainly of Russia's continued participation in the First World War and the economic effects of the fighting on Russian society.
The unrest felt by the Russian people reached a peak with the Kerensky Offensive on 15 July 1917 (1 July old style). Kerensky's offensive was meant to boost the morale of the troops and reignite support for Russia's participation in the war. The offensive ended up having the opposite effect. Troops and workers become frustrated with Russia's continued involvement, which led to the July Days revolt.
The "July Days" took place in the Russian capital of Petrograd from 16 to 20 July ( 3 to 7 July old style) and was a rebellion against the Provisional Government. The demonstrations during the July Days did not alleviate the frustrations of the Russian people and continued unrest throughout that summer sparked calls for more discipline and a stronger, more unified government. Unease also escalated amongst Russia's businessmen and industrialists in the Provisional Government. Support for the restoration of order was strong even amongst the members of the Provisional Government.
Immediately following the July Days, Aleksander Kerensky became prime minister of the Provisional Government and swiftly appointed Kornilov the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army. With the help of officers of the Russian Army, Kornilov amongst them, he hoped to deliver a more unified form of government. The officers feared that ill-discipline amongst their troops accounted for the continued poor performance of the Russian Army in the war. They demanded the reintroduction of the death penalty on the front line as well as the abolition of the various soldiers' committees that had sprung up in the months following the Petrograd Soviet's Order Number 1 on 28 March 1917 (14 March old style). The officers, especially Kornilov, wanted to put an end to any signs of revolution in Russia, particularly in regard to the Bolsheviks. Kornilov mobilized his troops to Petrograd to address the revolutionary threat shortly after he was appointed commander-in-chief.
The affair
While there have been multiple conflicting opinions on the specifics of how this event had come to be, as well as how it was carried out, one common fact was that, to "restore peace in Petrograd", Kornilov had been organizing a force of soldiers to move into Petrograd and eliminate the Soviet. Whether Kornilov had done this as a means of imposing a military dictatorship after his success, or was simply acting under Kerensky's orders, is not clear, but what is definite was that Kerensky had no intention of allowing Kornilov to enter Petrograd with an army, fearing the former possibility. In an effort to avoid this, on 10 September 1917 (27 August Old Style), Kerensky had sent Kornilov a telegram informing him of his dismissal and ordering him to return to Petrograd. The telegram did not impede Kornilov's progress towards Petrograd as intended, but instead most likely hastened his troops' advance as Kornilov, after reading the message, assumed that Petrograd had fallen under the control of the Bolsheviks.
Kornilov had the support of the British military attaché, Brigadier-General Alfred Knox, and Kerensky accused Knox of producing pro-Kornilov propaganda. Kerensky also claimed Lord Milner wrote him a letter expressing support for Kornilov. A British armoured car squadron commanded by Oliver Locker-Lampson and dressed in Russian uniforms allegedly participated in the coup.
Over the course of the next few days, as the Provisional Government tried to come up with a concrete plan to avert the oncoming attack, the Petrograd Soviet had taken measures to defend against Kornilov's advancing troops. One of these measures was the creation of the Committee for Struggle Against Counterrevolution on 11 September 1917 (28 August Old Style). Those participating in the committee were representatives of the two national soviet executive committees of workers and soldiers and of peasants, the Petrograd Soviet, the General Central Council of Trade Unions, and the Social Revolutionary (S. R.) and Menshevik parties. The most notable members of this committee were the Bolsheviks, who had a large support base among the lower class, and included Bolshevik organizers such as Leon Trotsky, who had been previously imprisoned but released at the behest of the Petrograd Soviet to assist in the organization of the defense of Petrograd.
The Soviet had performed several acts such as working with rail worker unions to impede Kornilov's army's progress towards Petrograd as well as infiltrating the army for the purpose of sabotage and convincing soldiers within the force to desert, all in an effort to halt and weaken the forces of Kornilov. In Petrograd the Soviet, most notably the Bolsheviks for reasons that were important later on, were given ammunition and arms in the event that Kornilov's troops should arrive at Petrograd and combat be necessary. However this proved unnecessary because by 13 September 1917 (30 August Old Style) Kornilov's army had lost a large number of soldiers and with no more support for Kornilov's movement the affair had come to a bloodless end.
Consequences
After the failed coup, Kornilov was removed from his position as Commander-in-Chief and incarcerated in the Bykhov Fortress alongside 30 other army officers accused of involvement in the conspiracy. The Provisional Government had lost all credibility and crumbled. Shortly after Lenin seized power with the Bolshevik October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (25 October old style) Kornilov managed to escape from Bykhov Fortress and went on to establish the Volunteer Army, which fought the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. He was killed in battle against Bolshevik forces in the town of Ekaterinodar in April 1918.
The biggest beneficiary of the Kornilov affair was the Bolshevik Party, who enjoyed a revival in support and strength in the wake of the attempted coup. Kerensky released Bolsheviks who had been arrested during the July Days a few months earlier, when Vladimir Lenin was accused of being in the pay of the Germans and subsequently fled to Finland. Kerensky's plea to the Petrograd Soviet for support had resulted in the rearmament of the Bolshevik Military Organization and the release of Bolshevik political prisoners, including Leon Trotsky. Though these weapons were not needed to fight off Kornilov's advancing troops in August, they were kept by the Bolsheviks and used in their own successful armed October Revolution. Bolshevik support amongst the Russian public also increased following the Kornilov affair, a consequence of dissatisfaction with the Provisional Government's handling of Kornilov's attempted seizure of power. Following the October Revolution, Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power and the Provisional Government that Kornilov was a part of ceased to exist. The fragments of the Provisional Government were a pivotal force in the Russian Civil War that occurred in response to Lenin's seizure of power.
Despite the officer corps' refusal to participate in Kornilov's mutiny, they were angry with the punishment given to him by Kerensky, as well as Kerensky's accommodation of the left and his arrest of prominent generals. This would later come back to haunt Kerensky as the military did not heed his request to defend the government when the Bolsheviks attacked in the October Revolution in 1917.
Historiography
Several schools of thought surrounding the Kornilov affair offer contrasting interpretations and have provoked debate among historians. Mark D. Steinberg presents the conflicting beliefs and political opinions on the Kornilov Affair. He elaborates by stating that the event was "a strange mixture of conspiracy and confusion". Once the attempt was halted, many citizens expressed skeptical thoughts regarding what actually happened between Kornilov and Kerensky. On the left side, those who defended Kornilov believed that Kerensky had intentionally planned the seizure of power, but publicly disapproved of it to be the savior figure in the midst of turmoil. Another aspect that Steinberg highlights is that the right believed that Kerensky had turned against Kornilov. Thus, the opinions regarding this affair further perpetuated separation between the right and left political parties.
When discussing the events that led up to the affair, Steinberg analyzes the involvement of a man named Vladimir Lvov. Prior to the affair taking place, Lvov identified himself to Kornilov as an "emissary for the prime minister," which was not his true occupation. Through his interaction with Kornilov, Lvov gained the knowledge that Kornilov wanted to create a stronger, more unified government where he had more of a voice. Then, Lvov went on to express these desires to Kerensky, but Kerensky viewed this information as a threatening proposal to take over the government. From there, Kerensky prepared to defend the capital against Kornilov's advancing troops and aspirations of gaining power. It can be considered that, through communicating with the help of Lvov, the different intentions of both Kornilov and Kerensky were miscommunicated or misrepresented in conversation, which perpetuated the attempted government seizure of power.
One take on the Kornilov affair was put forward by Aleksander Kerensky himself, the main target of the coup. In the years after the event, Kerensky described the affair as a right-wing conspiracy that "...developed slowly, systematically, with cool calculation of all the factors involved affecting its possible success or failure." Kornilov, on the other hand, argued that Kerensky was drawn into this conspiracy long after the preparatory work had been completed. In a 1966 interview with Soviet journalist Genrikh Borovik, Kerensky further elaborated on his theory by stating that Winston Churchill had played a central role in the conspiracy.
In 1970 Harvey Asher, who received his doctorate in history and pursued research into the Russian Revolution, suggested that Kerensky and Kornilov had an agreement to use the military to restore order within Russia. Asher then goes on to argue that, upon learning from Lvov that Kornilov favoured the idea of a military dictatorship, Kerensky reneged on their agreement in fear of being removed from power.
According to the British historian John Keegan, Kornilov was maneuvered by others into attempting the coup, but he does not say who those others were. An earlier historian, AJP Taylor, believed that Kerensky encouraged the coup until he realized that Kornilov intended to destroy both the Bolsheviks and any trace of democracy including Kerensky himself.
The American historian Richard Pipes put forward another interpretation of the event in his work The Russian Revolution: 1899–1919. Pipes argued that, far from there being a Kornilov plot, there was in fact a "'Kerensky plot' engineered to discredit the general as the ringleader of an imaginary but widely anticipated counter-revolution, the suppression of which would elevate the Prime Minister to a position of unrivalled popularity and power, enabling him to meet the growing threat from the Bolsheviks."
See also
Ivan Zaplatin
Kapp Putsch
References
Further reading
Steinberg, M. D. (2001). Voices of Revolution, 1917. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Steinberg, M. D. (2017). The Russian Revolution, 1905–1921. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Russian Revolution
Attempted coups in the Soviet Union and Russia
1910s coups d'état and coup attempts
Military history of Russia
Political history of Russia
Russian Provisional Government
August 1917 events
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201258
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockatoo
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Cockatoo
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A cockatoo is any of the 21 parrot species belonging to the family Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea. Along with the Psittacoidea (true parrots) and the Strigopoidea (large New Zealand parrots), they make up the order Psittaciformes. The family has a mainly Australasian distribution, ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of Wallacea to New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Australia.
Cockatoos are recognisable by the prominent crests and curved bills. Their plumage is generally less colourful than that of other parrots, being mainly white, grey or black and often with coloured features in the crest, cheeks or tail. On average they are larger than other parrots; however, the cockatiel, the smallest cockatoo species, is a small bird. The phylogenetic position of the cockatiel remains unresolved, other than that it is one of the earliest offshoots of the cockatoo lineage. The remaining species are in two main clades. The five large black coloured cockatoos of the genus Calyptorhynchus form one branch. The second and larger branch is formed by the genus Cacatua, comprising 11 species of white-plumaged cockatoos and four monotypic genera that branched off earlier; namely the pink and white Major Mitchell's cockatoo, the pink and grey galah, the mainly grey gang-gang cockatoo and the large black-plumaged palm cockatoo.
Cockatoos prefer to eat seeds, tubers, corms, fruit, flowers and insects. They often feed in large flocks, particularly when ground-feeding. Cockatoos are monogamous and nest in tree hollows. Some cockatoo species have been adversely affected by habitat loss, particularly from a shortage of suitable nesting hollows after large mature trees are cleared; conversely, some species have adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural pests.
Cockatoos are popular birds in aviculture, but their needs are difficult to meet. The cockatiel is the easiest cockatoo species to maintain and is by far the most frequently kept in captivity. White cockatoos are more commonly found in captivity than black cockatoos. Illegal trade in wild-caught birds contributes to the decline of some cockatoo species in the wild.
Etymology
The word cockatoo dates from the 17th century and is derived from Dutch kaketoe, which is from Malay kakaktua. Seventeenth-century variants include cacato, cockatoon and crockadore, and cokato, cocatore and were used in the eighteenth century. The derivation has also been used for the family and generic names Cacatuidae and Cacatua, respectively.
In Australian slang or vernacular speech, a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake clandestine or illegal activities, particularly gambling, may be referred to as a "cockatoo". Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as "cocky farmers".
Taxonomy
The cockatoos were first defined as a subfamily Cacatuinae within the parrot family Psittacidae by the English naturalist George Robert Gray in 1840, with Cacatua the first listed and type genus. This group has alternately been considered as either a full or subfamily by different authorities. The American ornithologist James Lee Peters in his 1937 Check-list of Birds of the World, Sibley and Monroe in 1990 maintained it as a subfamily, while parrot expert Joseph Forshaw classified it as a family in 1973. Subsequent molecular studies indicate that the earliest offshoot from the original parrot ancestors were the New Zealand parrots of the superfamily Strigopoidea, and following this the cockatoos, now a well-defined group or clade, split off from the remaining parrots, which then radiated across the Southern Hemisphere and diversified into the many species of parrots, parakeets, macaws, lories, lorikeets, lovebirds and other true parrots of the superfamily Psittacoidea.
The relationships among various cockatoo genera are largely resolved, although the placement of the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) at the base of the cockatoos remains uncertain. The cockatiel is alternatively placed basal to all other cockatoo species, as the sister taxon to the black cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus or as the sister taxon to a clade consisting of the white and pink cockatoo genera as well as the palm cockatoo. The remaining species are within two main clades, one consisting of the black species of the genus Calyptorhynchus while the other contains the remaining species. According to most authorities, the second clade includes the black palm cockatoo (Probosciger), the grey and reddish galah (Eolophus), the gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon) and the pinkish Major Mitchell's cockatoo (Lophochroa), although Probosciger is sometimes placed basal to all other species. The remaining species are mainly white or slightly pinkish and all belong to the genus Cacatua. The genera Eolophus, Lophochroa and Cacatua are hypomelanistic. The genus Cacatua is further subdivided into the subgenera Licmetis, commonly known as corellas, and Cacatua, referred to as white cockatoos. Confusingly, the term "white cockatoo" has also been applied to the whole genus. The five cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus are commonly known as black cockatoos, and are divided into two subgenera—Calyptorhynchus and Zanda. The former group are sexually dichromatic, with the females having prominently barred plumage. The two are also distinguished by differences in the food-begging calls of juveniles.
The fossil record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general, with only one truly ancient cockatoo fossil known: a species of Cacatua, most probably subgenus Licmetis, found in Early Miocene (16–23 million years ago) deposits of Riversleigh, Australia. Although fragmentary, the remains are similar to the western corella and the galah. In Melanesia, subfossil bones of Cacatua species which apparently did not survive early human settlement have been found on New Caledonia and New Ireland. The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited, although the Riversleigh fossil does allow tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies.
Genera and species
There are about 44 different birds in the cockatoo family Cacatuidae including recognized subspecies. The current subdivision of this family is as follows:
Subfamily Nymphicinae
Genus Nymphicus
Cockatiel, Nymphicus hollandicus (Kerr, 1792)
Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: Black cockatoos
Genus Calyptorhynchus – black-and-red cockatoos
Red-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii (Latham, 1790) (5 subspecies)
Glossy black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus lathami (Temminck, 1807) (3 subspecies)
Genus Zanda – black-and-yellow/white cockatoos
Yellow-tailed black cockatoo, Zanda funerea (Shaw, 1794) (2–3 subspecies)
Carnaby's black cockatoo, Zanda latirostris (Carnaby, 1948)
Baudin's black cockatoo, Zanda baudinii (Lear, 1832)
Subfamily Cacatuinae
Tribe Microglossini: One genus with one species, the black palm cockatoo.
Genus Probosciger
Palm cockatoo, Probosciger aterrimus (Gmelin, 1788) (4 subspecies)
Tribe Cacatuini: Four genera of white, pink and grey species.
Genus Callocephalon
Gang-gang cockatoo, Callocephalon fimbriatum (Grant, 1803)
Genus Eolophus
Galah, Eolophus roseicapilla (Vieillot, 1817) (3 subspecies)
Genus Lophochroa
Major Mitchell's, Leadbeater's, or pink cockatoo, Lophochroa leadbeateri (Vigors, 1831) (2 subspecies)
Genus Cacatua (11 species)
Subgenus Cacatua – true white cockatoos
Yellow-crested cockatoo or lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo, Cacatua sulphurea (Gmelin, 1788) (4 subspecies)
Sulphur-crested cockatoo, Cacatua galerita (Latham, 1790) (4 subspecies)
Blue-eyed cockatoo, Cacatua ophthalmica Sclater, 1864
White cockatoo or umbrella cockatoo, Cacatua alba (Müller, 1776)
Salmon-crested cockatoo or Moluccan cockatoo, Cacatua moluccensis (Gmelin, 1788)
Subgenus Licmetis – corellas
Long-billed corella, Cacatua tenuirostris (Kuhl, 1820)
Western corella, Cacatua pastinator (Gould, 1841) (2 subspecies)
Little corella (also bare-eyed cockatoo), Cacatua sanguinea Gould, 1843 (4 subspecies)
Tanimbar corella or Goffin's cockatoo, Cacatua goffiniana Roselaar and Michels, 2004
Solomons cockatoo or Ducorps's cockatoo, Cacatua ducorpsii Pucheran, 1853
Red-vented cockatoo or Philippine cockatoo, Cacatua haematuropygia (Müller, 1776)
Morphology
The cockatoos are generally medium to large parrots of stocky build, which range from in length and in weight; however, one species, the cockatiel, is considerably smaller and slimmer than the other species, being long (including its long pointed tail feathers) and in weight. The movable headcrest, which is present in all cockatoos, is spectacular in many species; it is raised when the bird lands from flying or when it is aroused. Cockatoos share many features with other parrots, including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with the two middle toes forward and the two outer toes backward. They differ in the presence of an erectile crest and their lack of the Dyck texture feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in true parrots.
Like other parrots, cockatoos have short legs, strong claws, a waddling gait and often use their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches. They generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight, with speeds up to being recorded for galahs. The members of the genus Calyptorhynchus and larger white cockatoos, such as the sulphur-crested cockatoo and Major Mitchell's cockatoo, have shorter, rounder wings and a more leisurely flight.
Cockatoos have a large bill, which is kept sharp by rasping the two jaws together when resting. The bill is complemented by a large muscular tongue which helps manipulate seeds inside the bill so that they can be de-husked before eating. During the de-husking, the lower jaw applies the pressure, the tongue holds the seed in place and the upper jaw acts as an anvil. The eye region of the skull is reinforced to support muscles which move the jaws sideways. The bills of male cockatoos are generally slightly larger than those of their female counterparts, but this size difference is quite marked in the palm cockatoo.
The plumage of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of the other parrots, with species generally being either black, grey or white. Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage, often yellow, pink and red, usually on the crest or tail. The galah and Major Mitchell's cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink tones. Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring; the large red patch of bare skin of the palm cockatoo is the most extensive and covers some of the face, while it is more restricted in some other species of white cockatoo, notably the corellas and blue-eyed cockatoo. The plumage of males and females is similar in most species. The plumage of the female cockatiel is duller than the male, but the most marked sexual dimorphism occurs in the gang-gang cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus Calyptorhynchus, namely the red-tailed and glossy black cockatoos. The iris colour differs in a few species, being pink or red in the female galah and Major Mitchell's cockatoo and red-brown in some other female white cockatoo species. The males all have dark brown irises.
Cockatoos maintain their plumage with frequent preening throughout the day. They remove dirt and oil and realign feather barbs by nibbling their feathers. They also preen other birds' feathers that are otherwise hard to get at. Cockatoos produce preen-oil from a gland on their lower back and apply it by wiping their plumage with their heads or already oiled feathers. Powder-down is produced by specialised feathers in the lumbar region and distributed by the preening cockatoo all over the plumage.
Moulting is very slow and complex. Black cockatoos appear to replace their flight feathers one at a time, their moult taking two years to complete. This process is much shorter in other species, such as the galah and long-billed corella, which each take around six months to replace all their flight feathers.
Voice
The vocalisations of cockatoos are loud and harsh. They serve a number of functions, including allowing individuals to recognize one another, alerting others of predators, indicating individual moods, maintaining the cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests. The use of calls and number of specific calls varies by species; the Carnaby's black cockatoo has as many as 15 types of call, whereas others, such as Major Mitchell's cockatoo, have fewer. Some, like the gang-gang cockatoo, are comparatively quiet but do have softer growling calls when feeding. In addition to vocalisations, palm cockatoos communicate over large distances by drumming on a dead branch with a stick. Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound when threatened.
Distribution and habitat
Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots, occurring naturally only in Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and some Pacific regions. Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild only in Australia, while seven species occur only in the islands of the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. No cockatoo species are found in Borneo, despite their presence on nearby Palawan and Sulawesi or many Pacific islands, although fossil remains have been recorded from New Caledonia.
Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia. Some species have widespread distributions, with the galah, for example, occurring over most of Australia, whereas other species have tiny distributions, confined to a small part of the continent, such as the Baudin's black cockatoo of Western Australia or to a small island group, such as the Tanimbar corella, which is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia. Some cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand, Singapore, and Palau, while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent where they are not native.
Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats from forests in subalpine regions to mangroves. However, no species is found in all types of habitat. The most widespread species, such as the galah and cockatiel, are open-country specialists that feed on grass seeds. They are often highly mobile fast flyers and are nomadic. Flocks of birds move across large areas of the inland, locating and feeding on seed and other food sources. Drought may force flocks from more arid areas to move further into farming areas. Other cockatoo species, such as the glossy black cockatoo, inhabit woodlands, rainforests, shrublands and even alpine forests. The red-vented cockatoo inhabits mangroves and its absence from northern Luzon may be related to the lack of mangrove forests there. Forest-dwelling cockatoos are generally sedentary, as the food supply is more stable and predictable. Several species have adapted well to human modified habitats and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities.
Behaviour
Cockatoos are diurnal and require daylight to find their food. They are not early risers, instead waiting until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding. All species are generally highly social and roost, forage and travel in colourful and noisy flocks. These vary in size depending on availability of food; in times of plenty, flocks are small and number a hundred birds or less, while in droughts or other times of adversity, they may swell up to contain thousands or even tens of thousands of birds; one record from the Kimberley noted a flock of 32,000 little corellas. Species that inhabit open country form larger flocks than those of forested areas.
Some species require roosting sites that are located near drinking sites; other species travel great distances between the roosting and feeding sites. Cockatoos have several characteristic methods of bathing; they may hang upside down or fly about in the rain or flutter in wet leaves in the canopy. Cockatoos have a preferred "footedness" analogous to human handedness. Most species are left-footed with 87–100% of individuals using their left feet to eat, but a few species favor their right foot.
Breeding
Cockatoos are monogamous breeders, with pair bonds that can last many years. Many birds pair up in flocks before they reach sexual maturity and delay breeding for a year at least. Females breed for the first time anywhere from three to seven years of age and males are often older. Sexual maturity is delayed so birds can develop the skills for raising and parenting young, which is prolonged compared with other birds; the young of some species remain with their parents for up to a year. Cockatoos may also display site fidelity, returning to the same nesting sites in consecutive years. Courtship is generally simple, particularly for established pairs, with the black cockatoos alone engaging in courtship feeding. Established pairs do engage in preening each other, but all forms of courtship drop off after incubation begins, possibly due to the strength of the pair-bond.
Like most parrots, the cockatoos are cavity nesters, nesting in holes in trees, which they are unable to excavate themselves. These hollows are formed from decay or destruction of wood by branches breaking off, fungi or insects such as termites or even woodpeckers where their ranges overlap. In many places these holes are scarce and the source of competition, both with other members of the same species and with other species and types of animal. In general, cockatoos choose hollows only a little larger than themselves, hence different-sized species nest in holes of corresponding (and different) sizes. If given the opportunity, cockatoos prefer nesting over above the ground and close to water and food.
The nesting hollows are lined with sticks, wood chips and branches with leaves. The eggs of cockatoos are oval and initially white, as their location makes camouflage unnecessary. However, they do become discoloured over the course of incubation. They range in size from in the palm and red-tailed black cockatoos, to in the cockatiel. Clutch size varies within the family, with the palm cockatoo and some other larger cockatoos laying only a single egg and the smaller species laying anywhere between two and eight eggs. Food supply also plays a role in clutch size. Some species can lay a second clutch if the first fails. Around 20% of eggs laid are infertile. The cockatoos' incubation and brooding responsibilities may either be undertaken by the female alone in the case of the black cockatoos or shared amongst the sexes as happens in the other species. In the case of the black cockatoos, the female is provisioned by the male several times a day. The young of all species are born covered in yellowish down, bar the palm cockatoo, whose young are born naked. Cockatoo incubation times are dependent on species size, with the smaller cockatiels having a period of around 20 days and the larger Carnaby's black cockatoo incubating its eggs for up to 29 days.
The nestling period also varies by species size, with larger species having longer nestling periods. It is also affected by season and environmental factors and by competition with siblings in species with clutch sizes greater than one. Much of what is known about the nestling period of some species is dependent on aviary studies – aviary cockatiels can fledge after 5 weeks and the large palm cockatoos after 11 weeks. During this period, the young become covered in juvenile plumage while remaining in the hollow. Wings and tail feathers are slow to grow initially but more rapid as the primary feathers appear. Nestlings quickly reach about 80–90% of adult weight about two-thirds of the time through this period, plateauing before they leave the hollow; they fledge at this weight with wing and tail feathers still to grow a little before reaching adult dimensions. Growth rate of the young, as well as numbers fledged, are adversely impacted by reduced food supply and poor weather conditions.
Diet and feeding
Cockatoos are versatile feeders and consume a range of mainly vegetable food items. Seeds form a large part of the diet of all species; these are opened with their large and powerful bills. The galahs, corellas and some of the black cockatoos feed primarily on the ground; others feed mostly in trees. The ground-feeding species tend to forage in flocks, which form tight, squabbling groups where seeds are concentrated and dispersed lines where food is more sparsely distributed; they also prefer open areas where visibility is good. The western and long-billed corellas have elongated bills to excavate tubers and roots and the Major Mitchell's cockatoo walks in a circle around the doublegree (Emex australis) to twist out and remove the underground parts.
Many species forage for food in the canopy of trees, taking advantage of serotiny (the storage of a large supply of seed in cones or gumnuts by plant genera such as Eucalyptus, Banksia and Hakea), a natural feature of the Australian landscape in dryer regions. These woody fruiting bodies are inaccessible to many species and harvested in the main by parrots, cockatoos and rodents in more tropical regions. The larger cones can be opened by the large bills of cockatoos but are too strong for smaller animals. Many nuts and fruits lie on the end of small branches which are unable to support the weight of the foraging cockatoo, which instead bends the branch towards itself and holds it with its foot.
While some cockatoos are generalists taking a wide range of foods, others are specialists. The glossy black cockatoo specialises in the cones of trees of the genus Allocasuarina, preferring a single species, A. verticillata. It holds the cones in its foot and shreds them with its powerful bill before removing the seeds with its tongue. Some species take large numbers of insects, particularly when breeding; in fact the bulk of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects. The large bill is used in order to extract grubs and larvae from rotting wood. The amount of time cockatoos have to spend foraging varies with the season. During times of plenty they may need to feed for only a few hours in the day, in the morning and evening, then spend the rest of the day roosting or preening in trees, but during the winter most of the day may be spent foraging. The birds have increased nutritional requirements during the breeding season, so they spend more time foraging for food during this time. Cockatoos have large crops, which allow them to store and digest food for some time after retiring to a tree.
Predators and threats
The peregrine falcon and little eagle have been reported taking galahs and the wedge-tailed eagle has been observed killing a sulphur-crested cockatoo. Eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to many hazards. Various species of monitor lizard (Varanus) are able to climb trees and enter hollows. Other predators recorded include the spotted wood owl on Rasa Island in the Philippines; the amethystine python, black butcherbird and rodents including the giant white-tailed rat in Cape York; and brushtail possum on Kangaroo Island. Furthermore, galahs and little corellas competing for nesting space with the glossy black cockatoo on Kangaroo Island have been recorded killing nestlings of the latter species there. Severe storms may also flood hollows drowning the young and termite or borer activity may lead to the internal collapse of nests.
Like other parrots, cockatoos can be afflicted by psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD). The viral infection causes feather loss and beak malformation and reduces the bird's overall immunity. Particularly prevalent in sulphur-crested cockatoos, little corellas and galahs, it has been recorded in 14 species of cockatoo to date. Although unlikely to significantly impact on large, healthy populations of birds in the wild, PBFD may pose a high risk to smaller stressed populations.
A white cockatoo and a sulphur-crested cockatoo were found to be infected with the protozoon Haemoproteus and another sulphur-crested cockatoo had the malaria parasite Plasmodium on analysis of faecal samples at Almuñecar ornithological garden in Granada in Spain. Like amazon parrots and macaws, cockatoos frequently develop cloacal papillomas. The relationship with malignancy is unknown, as is the cause, although a parrot papilloma virus has been isolated from a grey parrot with the condition.
Social learning
Cockatoos have been shown to learn new skills through social interaction. In New South Wales, researchers and citizen scientists were able to track the spread of lid-flipping skills as cockatoos learned from each other to open garbage bins. Bin-opening spread more quickly to neighbouring suburbs than suburbs further away. In addition, birds in different areas developed their own variants for accomplishing the complex task.
Relationship with humans
Human activities have had positive effects on some species of cockatoo and negative effects on others. Many species of open country have benefited greatly from anthropogenic changes to the landscape, with the great increase in reliable seed food sources, available water and have also adapted well to a diet including foreign foodstuffs. This benefit appears to be restricted to Australian species, as cockatoos favouring open country outside Australia have not become more abundant. Predominantly forest-dwelling species have suffered greatly from habitat destruction; in the main, they appear to have a more specialised diet and have not been able to incorporate exotic food into their diet. A notable exception is the yellow-tailed black cockatoo in eastern Australia.
Pests
Several species of cockatoo can be serious agricultural pests. They are sometimes controlled by shooting, poisoning or capture followed by gassing. Non-lethal damage mitigation methods used include scaring, habitat manipulation and the provision of decoy food dumps or sacrifice crops to distract them from the main crop. They can be a nuisance in urban areas due to destruction of property. They maintain their bills in the wild by chewing on wood, but in suburbia, they may chew outdoor furniture, door and window frames; soft decorative timbers such as western red cedar are readily demolished. Birds may also target external wiring and fixtures such as solar water heaters, television antennae and satellite dishes. A business in central Melbourne suffered as sulphur-crested cockatoos repeatedly stripped the silicone sealant from the plate glass windows. Galahs and red-tailed black cockatoos have stripped electrical cabling in rural areas and tarpaulin is targeted elsewhere. Outside Australia, the Tanimbar corella is a pest on Yamdena Island where it raids maize crops.
In 1995 the Government of the state of Victoria published a report on problems caused by long-billed corellas, sulphur-crested cockatoos and galahs, three species which, along with the little corella, have large and growing populations, having benefited from anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Subsequent to the findings and publication of the report, these three species were declared unprotected by a Governor in Council Order under certain conditions and are allowed to be killed where serious damage is being caused by them to trees, vineyards, orchards, recreational reserves and commercial crops. Damage covered by the report included not only that to cereal crops, fruit and nut orchards and some kinds of vegetable crops but also to houses and communications equipment. The little corella is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, where it is an aviculturally introduced species. The birds damage sorghum, maize, sunflower, chickpeas and other crops. They also defoliate amenity trees in parks and gardens, dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and race tracks, as well as chew wiring and household fittings. In South Australia, where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected, they are accused of defoliating red gums and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting, damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers, wiring and flashing on buildings, taking grain from newly seeded paddocks and creating a noise nuisance.
Several rare species and subspecies, too, have been recorded as causing problems. The Carnaby's black cockatoo, a threatened Western Australian endemic, has been considered a pest in pine plantations where the birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees, resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber value. They are also known to damage nut and fruit crops, and have learnt to exploit canola crops. The Baudin's black cockatoo, also endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, can be a pest in apple and pear orchards where it destroys the fruit to extract the seeds. Muir's corella, the nominate subspecies of the western corella, is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, as well as being nationally vulnerable and listed under state legislation as being "rare or likely to become extinct".
Status and conservation
According to the IUCN and BirdLife International, seven species of cockatoo are considered to be vulnerable or worse and one is considered to be near-threatened. Of these, two species—the red-vented cockatoo and the yellow-crested cockatoo—are considered to be critically endangered.
The principal threats to cockatoos are habitat loss and the wildlife trade. All cockatoos are dependent on trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss; in addition many species have specialised habitat requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges, making them vulnerable to the loss of these habitats. Cockatoos are popular as pets and the capture and trade has threatened some species; between 1983 and 1990, 66,654 recorded salmon-crested cockatoos were exported from Indonesia, a figure that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally. The capture of many species has subsequently been banned but the trade continues illegally. Birds are put in crates or bamboo tubing and conveyed on boats out of Indonesia and the Philippines. Not only are the rare species smuggled out of Indonesia but also common and rare cockatoos alike are smuggled out of Australia; birds are sedated, covered in nylon stockings and packed into PVC tubing which is then placed in unaccompanied luggage on international flights. Mortality is significant (30%) and eggs, more easily hidden on the bodies of smugglers on flights, are increasingly smuggled instead. Trafficking is thought to be run by organised gangs, who also trade Australian species for overseas species such as macaws coming the other way.
All species of cockatoo except the cockatiel are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which restricts import and export of wild-caught parrots to special licensed purposes. Five cockatoo species (including all subspecies)—the Tanimbar corella (Cacatua goffiniana), red-vented cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), Moluccan cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis), yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) and palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus)—are protected on the CITES Appendix I list. With the exception of the cockatiel, all remaining cockatoo species are protected on the CITES Appendix II list.
Aviculture
Kept for their appearance, their intelligence and engaging personalities, cockatoos can nonetheless be problematic pets or companion parrots. Generally, they are not good at mimicking human speech, although the little corella is a renowned talker. As social animals, wild cockatoos have been known to learn human speech from ex-captive birds that have integrated into a flock. Their care is best provided by those experienced in keeping parrots. Cockatoos are social animals and their social needs are difficult to cater for, and they can suffer if kept in a cage on their own for long periods of time.
The cockatiel is by far the cockatoo species most frequently kept in captivity. Among U.S. bird keepers that participated in a survey by APPMA in 2003/04, 39% had cockatiels, as opposed to only 3% that had (other) cockatoo species. The white cockatoos are more often encountered in aviculture than the black cockatoos. Black cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos due to export restrictions on Australian wildlife but birds seized by governments have been loaned.
Cockatoos are often very affectionate with their owner and at times other people but can demand a great deal of attention. It has been suggested that cockatoos' need for physical attention from humans may stem from suboptimal rearing techniques – young birds being removed from parental care for hand-rearing too early in the belief that this will produce a more suitable pet, leading the bird to seek out physical contact from humans as a parent substitute. Furthermore, their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to tinker with, chew, dismantle and destroy. Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom, which can lead to stereotypic behaviour patterns, such as feather-plucking. Feather plucking is likely to stem from psychological rather than physical causes. Other major drawbacks include their painful bites, and their piercing screeches. The salmon-crested and white cockatoo species are particular offenders. All cockatoos have a fine powder on their feathers, which may induce allergies in certain people. In general, the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin's and quieter Galah's cockatoos are much easier to keep as pets. The cockatiel is one of the most popular and easiest parrots to keep as a pet, and many colour mutations are available in aviculture.
Larger cockatoos can live 30 to 70 years depending on the species, or occasionally longer, and cockatiels can live for about 20 years. As pets they require a long-term commitment from their owners. Their longevity is considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet. The oldest cockatoo in captivity was a Major Mitchell's cockatoo named Cookie, residing at Brookfield Zoo in Chicago, which lived to be 83 years old (1933–2016). A salmon-crested cockatoo named King Tut who resided at San Diego Zoo was nearly 69 when he died in 1990 and a palm cockatoo reached 56 in London Zoo in 2000. However, anecdotal reports describe birds of much greater ages. Cocky Bennett of Tom Ugly's Point in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur-crested cockatoo who was reported to have reached an age of 100 years or more. He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life. A palm cockatoo was reported to have reached 80 or 90 years of age in an Australian zoo, and a little corella that was removed from a nest in central Australia in 1904 was reported still alive in the late 1970s. In February 2010, a white cockatoo named Arthur was claimed to be 90 years old; he had lived with a family for generations in Dalaguete, Cebu, before being taken to Cebu City Zoo.
Trained cockatoos are sometimes seen in bird shows in zoos. They are generally less motivated by food than other birds; some may more respond to petting or praise than food. Cockatoos can often be taught to wear a parrot harness, enabling their owners to take them outdoors. Cockatoos have been used in animal-assisted therapy, generally in nursing homes.
Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds and numerous videos exist showing the birds dancing to popular music. Research conducted in 2008 with an Eleonora cockatoo named Snowball had indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of beat induction—perceiving human-created music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat.
Culture
The earliest European depiction of a cockatoo is in the falconry book De arte venandi cum avibus, written by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. The next European depiction of a cockatoo, previously thought to be the earliest, is present in the 1496 painting by Andrea Mantegna titled Madonna della Vittoria. Later examples were painted by Hungarian artist Jakob Bogdani (1660–1724), who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then England, and appeared with numerous other birds in the bird pieces of the Dutch painter Melchior d'Hondecoeter (1636–1695). A cockatoo is the unlucky subject in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by English artist Joseph Wright of Derby, its fate unclear in the painting. Cockatoos were among the many Australian plants and animals which featured in decorative motifs in Federation architecture of the early 20th century. A visit to a Camden Town pet shop in 1958 inspired English painter William Roberts to paint The Cockatoos, in the collection of the Tate Gallery. American artist and sculptor Joseph Cornell was known for placing cutout paper cockatoos in his works.
The government of the Australian Capital Territory adopted the gang-gang cockatoo as its official faunal emblem on 27 February 1997. The short-lived budget airline Impulse Airlines featured a sulphur-crested cockatoo on its corporate livery (and aeroplanes). The palm cockatoo, which has a unique beak and face colouration, is used as a symbol by the World Parrot Trust.
Two 1970s police dramas featured protagonists with pet cockatoos. In the 1973 film Serpico, Al Pacino's character had a pet white cockatoo and the television show Baretta saw Robert Blake's character with Fred the Triton cockatoo. The popularity of the latter show saw a corresponding rise in popularity of cockatoos as pets in the late 1970s. Cockatoos have been used frequently in advertising; a cockatoo appeared in a 'cheeky' (and later toned-down) 2008 advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries.
Intelligence
A team of scientists from Oxford University, the University of Vienna and the Max Planck Institute conducted tests on ten untrained Tanimbar corellas (Cacatua goffini), and found that they were able to solve complex mechanical puzzles.
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
Australian Faunal Directory
MyToos.com – explaining many of the responsibilities of cockatoo ownership
Cockatoo videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Parrots
Taxa named by George Robert Gray
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] |
201259
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westphalian%20language
|
Westphalian language
|
Westphalian or Westfalish (Standard High German: , Standard Dutch: ) is one of the major dialect groups of West Low German. Its most salient feature is its diphthongization (rising diphthongs). For example, speakers say () instead of or for "to eat". (There is also a difference in the use of consonants within the Westphalian dialects: North of the Wiehengebirge, people tend to speak unvoiced consonants, south of the Wiehengebirge they voiced their consonants, e.g. > .)
The Westphalian dialect region includes the north-eastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia, i.e. the former Prussian province of Westphalia, without Siegerland and Wittgenstein, but including the southern part of former government district Weser-Ems (e.g. the region around Osnabrück and the landscape of Emsland in modern Lower Saxony).
Traditionally, all Dutch Low Saxon dialects are considered Westphalian, with the notable exception of Gronings, which is grouped with the Northern Low Saxon and Friso-Saxon dialects. The rising diphthongisation is still noticeable in the dialects of Rijssen, Enter and Vriezenveen.
Varieties
Among the Westphalian language there are different subgroups of dialects:
Westmünsterländisch
Münsterländisch
South Westphalian
East Westphalian in East Westphalia (including the dialect of Osnabrück)
Westphalian dialects in the Netherlands:
Drents
Urkers
Stellingwarfs
Sallands
Twents
Achterhoeks
Veluws
Westphalian has many lexical similarities and other proximities to Eastphalian, extending to the East and slightly to the North of the area where Westphalian is spoken.
Grammar
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns in Störmede are as follow:
Today
German Westphalian is currently spoken mostly by elderly people. The majority of the inhabitants of Westphalia proper speak (regionally coloured) standard German. This accent, however, does not stand out as much as for example Bavarian, because Westphalia is closer to the Hanover region, whose speech variety is generally considered to be standard modern German.
The Low Saxon dialects in the bordering Twente and Achterhoek regions in the east of the Netherlands are traditionally classified as Westphalian dialects, albeit with some notable traits from Standard Dutch. A 2005 study showed 62% of the population of Twente spoke the language daily, and efforts are made to insert the language into the local school curriculum.
One of the reasons for the diminishing use of Westphalian in Germany is the rigorous enforcement of German-only policies in traditionally Low German-speaking areas during the 18th century. Westphalian, and Low German in general, unlike many of the High German dialects, were too distant from standard German to be considered dialects and were therefore not tolerated and efforts were made to ban them. In an extreme case, Hannover and its hinterland were forced to adopt rather unnaturally a form of German based on the written standard.
Westphalian was spoken in Kruppwerke up to the 19th century.
Nevertheless, the Westphalian regiolect of Standard High German includes some words that originate from the dying Westphalian dialects, which are otherwise unintelligible for other German speakers from outside Westphalia. Examples include Pölter "pyjamas/pajamas", Plörre "dirty liquid", and Mötke "mud, dirt".
References
Dutch dialects
German dialects
Languages of Germany
Languages of the Netherlands
Low German
Westphalian dialects
North Rhine-Westphalia
|
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] |
201262
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu
|
Shu
|
Shu may refer to:
China
Sichuan, China, officially abbreviated as Shu (蜀)
Shu (state) (conquered by Qin in 316 BC), an ancient state in modern Sichuan
Shu Han (221–263) during the Three Kingdoms Period
Western Shu (405–413), also known as Qiao Shu, a state founded by Qiao Zong during the Eastern Jin Dynasty
Former Shu (907–925) during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
Later Shu (934–965) during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
The Book of Documents (Shū 書)
People
Shu, the guitarist in the Japanese rock band, BACK-ON
Shu (surname), Chinese surname 舒
Frank Shu (born 1943), Chinese-American professor of astronomy
Quan-Sheng Shu, American physicist
, Japanese footballer
Will Shu (born 1979), American businessman, the co-founder and CEO of Deliveroo
Fictional characters
Shu, in the Xbox 360 game Blue Dragon
Shu, in the Dragon Ball franchise
Shu (Suikoden), in the video game Suikoden II
Shu Shirakawa, in the Super Robot Wars video game series
Shū, in the Fist of the North Star manga and anime franchise
Shu, in the manga series Hikaru no Go
Shu Kurenai, in the manga and toyline Beyblade Burst
Shuzo "Shu" Matsutani, in the anime series Now and Then, Here and There and Legendz
Shu Ouma, in the anime and manga series Guilty Crown
Shū or Drew (Pokémon), in the Pokémon series
Shu Murakami, in the 2017 film Life
Shū Tsukiyama, in the series Tokyo Ghoul
Shu Sakamaki (逆巻 シュウ), in the visual novel and anime Diabolik Lovers
Shu Amiguchi, in the video game 13 Sentinels: Aegis Rim
Shu Itsuki (斎宮 宗), in the game Ensemble Stars!!
Acronyms
SHU may be an acronym for:
Finnish Elite Athletes' Union, a trade union in Finland
Scoville Heat Unit, a measurement of hotness or spiciness in food
Security Housing Unit, a solitary confinement space in a maximum security prison
Special Handling Unit, a super maximum security prison located in Sainte-Anne-des-Plaines, Quebec
Scottish Hockey Union, governs field hockey in Scotland
Universities
Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, Connecticut, US
Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey, US
Seton Hill University, Greensburg, Pennsylvania, US
Shanghai University, China
Sheffield Hallam University, England
Shih Hsin University, Taipei, Taiwan
Other uses
Shu (Egyptian god)
Shu, the Kazakh name for the Chu (river) in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan
Shu, Kazakhstan (disambiguation)
Shu (朱), a unit of Japanese Tokugawa coinage used in the Nishuban and Isshuban
See also
Shoo (disambiguation)
Japanese masculine given names
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20Bader
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Douglas Bader
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Group Captain Sir Douglas Robert Steuart Bader, (; 21 February 1910 – 5 September 1982) was a Royal Air Force flying ace during the Second World War. He was credited with 22 aerial victories, four shared victories, six probables, one shared probable and 11 enemy aircraft damaged.
Bader joined the RAF in 1928, and was commissioned in 1930. In December 1931, while attempting some aerobatics, he crashed and lost both his legs. Having been on the brink of death, he recovered, retook flight training, passed his check flights and then requested reactivation as a pilot. Although there were no regulations applicable to his situation, he was retired against his will on medical grounds.
After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, however, Douglas Bader returned to the RAF and was accepted as a pilot. He scored his first victories over Dunkirk during the Battle of France in 1940. He then took part in the Battle of Britain and became a friend and supporter of Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory and his "Big Wing" experiments.
In August 1941, Bader out over German-occupied France and was captured. Soon afterward, he met and was befriended by Adolf Galland, a prominent German fighter ace. Despite his disability, Bader made a number of escape attempts and was eventually sent to the prisoner of war camp at Colditz Castle. He remained there until April 1945 when the camp was liberated by the First United States Army.
Bader left the RAF permanently in February 1946 and resumed his career in the oil industry. During the 1950s, a book and a film, Reach for the Sky, chronicled his life and RAF career to the end of the Second World War. Bader campaigned for the disabled and in the Queen's Birthday Honours 1976 was appointed a Knight Bachelor "for services to disabled people". He continued to fly until ill health forced him to stop in 1979. Bader died, aged 72, on 5 September 1982, after a heart attack.
Early years
Childhood and education
Bader was born on 21 February 1910 in St John's Wood, London, the second son of Major Frederick Roberts Bader (1867–1922), a civil engineer, and his wife Jessie Scott MacKenzie. His first two years were spent with McCann relatives in the Isle of Man while his father, accompanied by Bader's mother and older brother Frederick (named after his father but called 'Derick' to distinguish the two), returned to his work in India after the birth of his son.
At the age of two, Bader joined his parents in India for a year. When his father resigned from his job in 1913 the family moved back to London and settled in Kew. Bader's father saw action in the First World War in the Royal Engineers, and was wounded in action in 1917. He remained in France after the war, where, having attained the rank of major, he died in 1922 of complications from those wounds in a hospital in Saint-Omer, the same area where Bader would bail out and be captured in 1941.
Bader's mother was remarried shortly thereafter to the Reverend Ernest William Hobbs. Bader was subsequently brought up in the rectory of the village of Sprotbrough, near Doncaster, West Riding of Yorkshire. Bader's mild-mannered stepfather did not become the father figure he needed. His mother showed little interest in Bader and sent him to his grandparents on occasion. Without guidance, Bader became unruly. During one incident with an air gun, Bader shot a noted local lady through a bathroom window, as she was about to enter a bath. Later, an argument with Derick about the suffering inflicted by a pellet saw him being shot in the shoulder at point-blank range. Bader was then sent as a boarder to Temple Grove School, one of the "Famous Five" of English prep schools, however one which gave its boys a Spartan upbringing.
Bader's aggressive energy found a new lease of life at St Edward's School, where he received his secondary education. During his time there, he thrived at sports. Bader played rugby and often enjoyed physical battles with bigger and older opponents. The then Warden (or Headmaster), Henry E. Kendall, tolerated Bader's aggressive and competitive nature. At one point, he made him a prefect despite what others saw as a strong streak of conceit in the boy. Fellow RAF pilots Guy Gibson and Adrian Warburton also attended the school. In later life, Bader was deemed to be so good that he was invited to play a trial (or friendly game) with the Harlequins, but it is not clear whether he actually played.
Bader's sporting interests continued into his military service. He was selected for the Royal Air Force cricket team, to play a first-class match against the Army at The Oval in July 1931. He scored 65 and 1. In August, he played in a two-day game against the Royal Navy. He played cricket in a German prisoner of war camp after his capture in 1941, despite his later disability.
In mid-1923, Bader, at the age of 13, was introduced to an Avro 504 during a school holiday trip to visit his aunt, Hazel, who was marrying RAF Flight Lieutenant Cyril Burge, adjutant at RAF Cranwell. Although he enjoyed the visit and took an interest in aviation, he showed no signs of becoming a keen pilot. Still very sports minded, an interest which dominated Bader's formative years, he took less of an interest in his studies. However, Bader received guidance from Warden Kendall and, with Kendall's encouragement, he excelled at his studies and was later accepted as a cadet at RAF Cranwell. Soon afterwards, he was offered a place at Oxford University, but turned it down as he preferred Cambridge University.
His mother refused to allow Bader to attend Cambridge in December 1927, claiming she could not afford the fees. A master at St. Edwards, a Mr Dingwall, helped pay these fees in part. Due to his new connection with Cyril Burge, Bader learned of the six annual prize cadetships offered by RAF Cranwell each year. Out of hundreds of applicants, he finished fifth. He left St Edward's in early 1928, aged 18.
Joining the RAF
In 1928, Bader joined the RAF as an officer cadet at the Royal Air Force College Cranwell in rural Lincolnshire. He continued to excel at sports, and added hockey and boxing to his repertoire. Motorcycling was tolerated at Cranwell, though cadets usually took part in banned activities such as speeding, pillion racing and buying and racing motorcars. Bader was involved in these activities and was close to expulsion after being caught out too often, in addition to coming in 19th out of 21 in his class examinations; however, his commanding officer (CO), Air vice-marshal Frederick Halahan gave him a private warning about his conduct.
On 13 September 1928, Bader took his first flight with his instructor Flying Officer W. J. "Pissy" Pearson in an Avro 504. He made his first solo flight on 19 February 1929 after 11 hours and 15 minutes of flight time.
Bader competed for the "Sword of Honour" award at the end of his two-year course, but lost to Patrick Coote, his nearest rival. Coote went on to become the Wing Commander of Western Wing, British Air Forces Greece and was killed on 13 April 1941 while flying as an observer in a No. 211 Squadron Bristol Blenheim, L4819, flown by Flying Officer R. V. Herbert when six of the squadron's aircraft were shot down over Greece. Coote's aircraft was the first of 29 aerial victories for the Luftwaffe ace Unteroffizier, (later Leutnant) Fritz Gromotka.
On 26 July 1930, Bader was commissioned as a pilot officer into No. 23 Squadron RAF based at Kenley, Surrey. Flying Gloster Gamecocks and soon after Bristol Bulldogs, Bader became a daredevil while training there, often flying illegal and dangerous stunts. While very fast for its time, the Bulldog had directional stability problems at low speeds, which made such stunts exceptionally dangerous. Strict orders were issued forbidding unauthorised aerobatics below . Bader took this as an unnecessary safety rule rather than an order to be obeyed.
After one training flight at the gunnery range, Bader achieved only a 38 percent hit rate on a target. Receiving jibes from members of a rival squadron (No. 25 Squadron RAF), Bader took off to perform aerobatics and show off his skill. It was against regulations, and seven out of 23 accidents caused by ignoring regulations had proven fatal. The CO of No. 25 Squadron remarked that he would order Bader to face a court-martial if Bader was in his unit. The COs of Bader's unit, Harry Day and Henry Wollett, gave the pilots more latitude, although Day encouraged them to recognise their own limits.
No. 23 Squadron had won the Hendon Air Show "pairs" event in 1929 and 1930. In 1931 Bader, teamed with Harry Day, successfully defended the squadron's title in the spring that year. In late 1931, Bader undertook training for the 1932 Hendon Air Show, hoping to win a second consecutive title. Two pilots had been killed attempting aerobatics. The pilots were warned not to practise these manoeuvres under and to keep above at all times.
Nevertheless, on 14 December 1931, while visiting Reading Aero Club, Bader attempted some low-flying aerobatics at Woodley Airfield in a Bulldog Mk. IIA, K1676, of 23 Squadron, apparently on a dare. His aircraft crashed when the tip of the left wing touched the ground. Bader was rushed to the Royal Berkshire Hospital, where, in the hands of the prominent surgeon J. Leonard Joyce (1882–1939), both his legs were amputated—one above and one below the knee. Bader made the following laconic entry in his logbook after the crash:
In 1932, after a long convalescence, throughout which he needed morphine for pain relief, Bader was transferred to the hospital at RAF Uxbridge and fought hard to regain his former abilities after he was given a new pair of artificial legs. In time, his agonising and determined efforts paid off, and he was able to drive a specially modified car, play golf, and even dance. During his convalescence there, he met and fell in love with Thelma Edwards, a waitress at a tea room called the Pantiles on the A30 London Road in Bagshot, Surrey.
Bader got his chance to prove that he could still fly when, in June 1932, Air Under-Secretary Philip Sassoon arranged for him to take up an Avro 504, which he piloted competently. A subsequent medical examination proved him fit for active service, but in April 1933 he was notified that the RAF had decided to reverse the decision on the grounds that this situation was not covered by King's Regulations. In May, Bader was invalided out of the RAF, took an office job with the Asiatic Petroleum Company (now Shell) and, on 5 October 1933, married Thelma Edwards.
Second World War
Return to RAF
Against a background of increasing tensions in Europe in 1937–39, Bader repeatedly requested that the Air Ministry accept him back into the RAF and he was finally invited to a selection board meeting at Adastral House in London's Kingsway. Bader was disappointed to learn that it was only "ground jobs" that were being offered. It appeared that he would be refused a flying position but Air Vice-Marshal Halahan, commandant of RAF Cranwell in Bader's days there, personally endorsed him and asked the Central Flying School, Upavon, to assess his capabilities.
On 14 October 1939, the Central Flying School requested Bader report for flight tests on 18 October. He did not wait; driving down the next morning, Bader undertook refresher courses. Despite reluctance on the part of the establishment to allow him to apply for an A.1.B. (full flying category status), his persistent efforts paid off. Bader regained a medical categorisation for operational flying at the end of November 1939 and was posted to the Central Flying School for a refresher course on modern types of aircraft.
On 27 November, eight years after his accident, Bader flew solo again in an Avro Tutor; once airborne, he could not resist the temptation to turn the biplane upside down at inside the circuit area. Bader subsequently progressed through the Fairey Battle and Miles Master (the last training stage before flying Spitfires and Hurricanes).
Phoney War
In January 1940, Bader was posted to No. 19 Squadron based at RAF Duxford near Cambridge, where, at 29, he was older than most of his fellow pilots. Squadron Leader Geoffrey Stephenson, a close friend from his Cranwell days, was the commanding officer, and it was here that Bader got his first glimpse of a Spitfire. It was thought that Bader's success as a fighter pilot was partly because of his having no legs; pilots pulling high g-forces in combat turns often blacked out as the flow of blood from the brain drained to other parts of the body, usually the legs. As Bader had no legs he could remain conscious longer, and thus had an advantage over more able-bodied opponents.
Between February and May 1940 Bader practised formation flying and air tactics, as well as undertaking patrols over convoys out at sea. Bader found opposition to his ideas about aerial combat. He favoured using the sun and altitude to ambush the enemy, but the RAF did not share his opinions. Official orders/doctrine dictated that pilots should fly line-astern and attack singly. Despite this being at odds with his preferred tactics, Bader obeyed orders, and his skill saw him rapidly promoted to section leader.
During this time, Bader crashed a Spitfire on take-off. He had forgotten to switch the propeller pitch from coarse to fine, resulting in the aircraft careering down the runway at 80 mph before crashing. Despite a head wound, Bader got into another Spitfire for a second attempt. On the way to his room after the flight, he thought he had injured himself as he found it difficult to walk. He soon discovered that his artificial legs had been buckled from having been forced beneath the rudder pedals during the crash. He realised that if he had not lost his legs previously, he would have definitely lost them this time. Bader was subsequently promoted from flying officer to flight lieutenant, and appointed as a flight commander of No. 222 Squadron RAF.
Battle of France
Bader had his first taste of combat with No. 222 Squadron RAF, which was based at RAF Duxford and commanded by another old friend of his, Squadron Leader "Tubby" Mermagen. On 10 May the Wehrmacht invaded Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and France. The campaigns went badly for the Western Allies and soon they were evacuating from Dunkirk during the battle for the port. RAF squadrons were ordered to provide air supremacy for the Royal Navy during Operation Dynamo.
While patrolling the coast near Dunkirk on 1 June 1940 at around , Bader happened upon a Messerschmitt Bf 109 in front of him, flying in the same direction and at approximately the same speed. He believed that the German must have been a novice, taking no evasive action even though it took more than one burst of gunfire to shoot him down. Bader was also credited with a Messerschmitt Bf 110 damaged, despite claiming five victories in that particular dogfight.
In the next patrol Bader was credited with a Heinkel He 111 damaged. On 4 June 1940, his encounter with a Dornier Do 17, which was attacking Allied shipping, involved a near collision while he was firing at the aircraft's rear gunner during a high-speed pass. Shortly after Bader joined 222 Squadron, it moved to RAF Kirton in Lindsey, just south of the Humber.
After flying operations over Dunkirk, on 28 June 1940 Bader was posted to command No. 242 Squadron RAF as acting squadron leader. A Hawker Hurricane squadron based at RAF Coltishall, No. 242 Squadron was mainly made up of Canadians who had suffered high losses in the Battle of France and when Bader arrived were suffering from low morale. Despite initial resistance to their new commanding officer, the pilots (including such aces as Willie McKnight and Stan Turner) were soon won over by Bader's strong personality and perseverance, especially in cutting through red tape to make the squadron operational again. Bader transformed No. 242 Squadron back into an effective fighting unit. Upon the formation of No. 12 Group RAF, 242 Squadron was assigned to the Group while based at RAF Duxford. No. 242 Squadron became fully operational on 9 July 1940.
Battle of Britain
After the French campaign, the RAF prepared for the coming Battle of Britain in which the Luftwaffe intended to achieve air supremacy. Once attained, the Germans would attempt to launch Operation Sea Lion, the codename for an invasion of Britain. The battle officially began on 10 July 1940.
On 11 July, Bader scored his first victory with his new squadron. The cloud base was down to just 600 ft while drizzle and mist covered most of the sky, and forward visibility was down to just 2,000 yards. Bader was alone on patrol, and was soon directed toward an enemy aircraft flying north up the Norfolk coast.
Spotting the aircraft at 600 yards, Bader recognised it as a Dornier Do 17, and after he closed to 250 yards its rear gunner opened fire. Bader continued his attack and fired two bursts into the bomber before it vanished into cloud. The Dornier, which crashed into the sea off Cromer, was later confirmed by a member of the Royal Observer Corps. On 21 August, a similar engagement took place. This time, a Dornier went into the sea off Great Yarmouth and again the Observer Corps confirmed the claim. There were no survivors.
Later in the month, Bader scored a further two victories over Messerschmitt Bf 110s. On 30 August 1940, No. 242 Squadron was moved to Duxford again and found itself in the thick of the fighting. On this date, the squadron claimed 10 enemy aircraft, Bader scoring two victories against Bf 110s. Other squadrons were involved, and it was impossible to verify which RAF units were responsible for the damage on the enemy. On 7 September, two more Bf 110s were shot down, but in the same engagement Bader was badly hit by a Messerschmitt Bf 109. Bader almost out, but recovered the Hurricane. Other pilots witnessed one of Bader's victims crash.
On 7 September, Bader claimed two Bf 109s shot down, followed by a Junkers Ju 88. On 9 September, Bader claimed another Dornier. During the same mission, he attacked a He 111 only to discover he was out of ammunition. Enraged, he thought about ramming it and slicing off the rudder with his propeller, but turned away when he regained his composure. On 14 September, Bader was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his combat leadership.
On 15 September, known as the Battle of Britain Day, Bader damaged a Do 17 and a Ju 88, while destroying another Do 17 in the afternoon. Bader flew several missions that day, which involved heavy air combat. The original combat report states that he destroyed one enemy aircraft, claimed no probable, but did claim several damaged. The Dornier's gunner attempted to bale out, but his parachute was caught on the tail wheel and he died when the aircraft crashed into the Thames Estuary. Further detail suggests Bader took pity on the gunner and "tried to kill him to put him out of his misery". Another Do 17 and a Ju 88 were claimed on 18 September. A Bf 109 was claimed on 27 September. Bader was gazetted on 1 October 1940. On 24 September, he had been promoted to the war substantive rank of flight lieutenant.
The "Big Wing" tactic
As a friend and supporter of his 12 Group commander, Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Bader joined him as an active exponent of the controversial "Big Wing" theory which provoked much debate in the RAF during the battle. Bader was an outspoken critic of the careful "husbanding" tactics being used by Air Vice Marshal Keith Park, the commander of 11 Group. Park was supported by Fighter Command Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, the overall commander. Bader vociferously campaigned for an aggressive policy of assembling large formations of defensive fighters north of London ready to inflict maximum damage on the massed German bomber formations as they flew over South East England.
As the Battle progressed, Bader often found himself at the head of a composite wing of fighters consisting of up to five squadrons, known as the "Duxford Wing". Achievements of the Big Wing were hard to quantify, as the large formations often took too long to form up, over claimed victories, and too often did not provide timely support of the over-committed 11 Group. The episode probably contributed to the departure of Park, who was replaced with Leigh-Mallory in November 1940, and Dowding.
While it is not known whether Mallory and Bader were aware that the claims of the RAF and Big Wings were exaggerated, they certainly tried to use them as a potent tool with which to remove Park and Dowding from command and pursue the Big Wing tactic. After the war, Bader insisted that both he and Leigh-Mallory wanted the Big Wing tactic enacted in 12 Group only. They both believed, according to Bader, that it was impractical to use it in 11 Group, as the command was located too close to the enemy and would not have enough time to assemble.
RAF ace Johnnie Johnson offered his own view of Bader and the Big Wing:
During the Battle of Britain, Bader used three Hawker Hurricanes. The first was P3061, in which he scored six air victories. The second aircraft was unknown (possibly "P3090"), but Bader did score one victory and two damaged in it on 9 September. The third was V7467, in which he destroyed four more and added one probable and two damaged by the end of September. The machine was lost on 1 September 1941 while on a training exercise.
On 12 December 1940, Bader was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) for his services during the Battle of Britain. His unit, No. 242 Squadron, had claimed 62 aerial victories. Bader was gazetted on 7 January 1941. By this time, he was an acting squadron leader.
Wing leader
On 18 March 1941, Bader was promoted to acting wing commander and became one of the first "wing leaders". Stationed at Tangmere with 145, 610 and 616 Squadrons under his command, Bader led his wing of Spitfires on sweeps and "Circus" operations (medium bomber escort) over north-western Europe throughout the summer campaign. These were missions combining bombers and fighters designed to lure out and tie down German Luftwaffe fighter units that might otherwise serve on the Russian front. One of the wing leader's "perks" was permission to have his initials marked on his aircraft as personal identification, thus "D-B" was painted on the side of Bader's Spitfire. These letters gave rise to his radio call-sign "Dogsbody".
During 1941 his wing was re-equipped with Spitfire VBs, which had two Hispano 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns. Bader flew a Mk VA equipped with eight .303 machine guns, as he insisted that these guns were more effective against fighter opposition. His tactics required a close-in approach in which he felt the lower calibre weapons had a more devastating effect. At the time, RAF trials with wing-mounted cannons had also revealed a number of shortcomings that precluded a widespread acceptance of the armament.
Bader's combat missions were mainly fought against Bf 109s over France and the Channel. On 7 May 1941 he shot down one Bf 109 and claimed another as a probable victory. The German formation belonged to Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26Fighter Wing 26), which on that date was led in action by German ace Adolf Galland, and was also when Galland claimed his 68th victory. Bader and Galland met again 94 days later. On 21 June 1941, Bader shot down a Bf 109E off the coast near Desvres. His victory was witnessed by two other pilots who saw a Bf 109 crash and the German pilot bail out. On 25 June 1941 Bader shot down two more Bf 109Fs. The first was shot down between 11:58 and 13:35 off the coast of Gravelines; the pilot out. In the same action he shared in the destruction of another Bf 109F. The second Bf 109 was shot down in the afternoon.
The following month was more successful for Bader. On 2 July 1941 he was awarded the bar to his DSO. Later that day he claimed one Bf 109 destroyed and another damaged. On 4 July, Bader fired on a Bf 109E which slowed down so much that he nearly collided with it. Squadron Leader Burton saw the entire combat and noted the Bf 109 "fell away in a sloppy fashion", "as though the pilot had been hit". It was marked as a probable. On 6 July another Bf 109 was shot down and the pilot out. This victory was witnessed by Pilot Officers Johnnie Johnson and Alan Smith (Bader's usual wingman).
On 9 July, Bader claimed one probable and one damaged, both trailing coolant or oil. On 10 July Bader claimed a Bf 109 (and one damaged) over Bethune. Later, Bader destroyed a Bf 109E which blew up south of, or actually over, Calais. On 12 July, Bader found further success, shooting down one Bf 109 and damaging three others between Bethune and St Omer. Bader was again gazetted on 15 July. On 23 July, Bader claimed another Bf 109 damaged and possibly destroyed, even though the action resulted in two Bf 109s destroyed. The other was shot down by Squadron Leader Burton. Bader did not see his Bf 109 crash, so he claimed it as a damaged only, despite the fact pilots of No. 242 Squadron RAF saw two Bf 109s crash.
Bader had been pushing for more sorties to fly in late 1941 but his Wing was tired. He was intent on adding to his score, which, according to the CO of No. 616 Squadron RAF Billy Burton, brought the other pilots and mood in his wing to a near-mutinous state. Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Bader's immediate superior as OC No. 11 Group, Fighter Command, relented and allowed Bader to continue frequent missions over France even though his score of 20 and the accompanying strain evident on his features obliged Leigh-Mallory to consider his withdrawal from operations. Ultimately, Leigh-Mallory did not want to upset his star pilot, and did not invoke any restrictions.
Last combat
Between 24 March and 9 August 1941, Bader flew 62 fighter sweeps over France. On 9 August 1941, Bader was flying a Spitfire Mk VA serial W3185 "D-B" on an offensive patrol over the French coast, looking for Messerschmitt Bf 109s from Abbeville or Wissant without his trusted wingman Alan Smith. Smith, who was described by fellow pilot Johnnie Johnson as "leechlike" and the "perfect number two", was unable to fly on that day due to a head cold, so was in London being fitted for a new uniform ready for his officer commission. It is possible that this may have been a contributing factor as to how events unfolded.
Just after Bader's section of four aircraft crossed the coast, 12 Bf 109s were spotted flying in formation approximately 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600 to 900 metres) below them and travelling in the same direction. Bader dived on them too fast and too steeply to be able to aim and fire his guns, and barely avoided colliding with one of them. He levelled out at to find that he was now alone, separated from his section, and was considering whether to return home when he spotted three pairs of Bf 109s a couple of miles in front of him. He dropped down below them and closed up before destroying one of them with a short burst of fire from close range. Bader was just opening fire on a second Bf 109, which trailed white smoke and dropped down, when he noticed the two on his left turning towards him. At this point he decided it would be better to return home; however, making the mistake of banking away from them, Bader believed he had a mid-air collision with the second of the two Bf 109s on his right that were continuing straight ahead.
Bader's fuselage, tail and fin were gone from behind him, and he lost height rapidly at what he estimated to be 400 mph (640 km/hr) in a slow spin. He jettisoned the cockpit canopy, released his harness pin, and the air rushing past the open cockpit started to suck him out, but his prosthetic leg was trapped. Part way out of the cockpit and still attached to his aircraft, Bader fell for some time before he released his parachute, at which point the leg's retaining strap snapped under the strain and he was pulled free. A Bf 109 flew by some 50 yards away as he neared the ground at around .
Controversy over cause
Although Bader believed for years that he had collided in midair with a Bf 109, two other possibilities have later been put forward; that he was shot down by a German Bf 109, or alternatively that he may have been a victim of friendly fire. Recent research shows no Bf 109 was lost to a collision that day, and there is also doubt that a German pilot was responsible for shooting him down. Feldwebel Max Meyer of II./JG 26 flying a Bf 109 had claimed him shot down that morning and according to Luftwaffe records a Leutnant Wolfgang Kosse of 5./JG 26 and Meyer, of 6./JG 26 were the only German pilots to claim a victory that day. Furthermore, Meyer mentioned that he had followed the downed Spitfire and watched the pilot bail out, something which seems to match this passage in Bader's memoirs:
Bader met Max Meyer in Sydney in 1981 during the Schofields Air Show. None of the German pilots who made a claim for an aerial victory that day could match their report with the demise of Bader's Spitfire. Adolf Galland, Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26, went through every report, even those of German pilots killed in the action, to determine Bader's victor. Each case was dismissed. Kosse's claim only matches the victory against No. 452 Squadron RAF's Sergeant Haydon.
More recently, in 2003 air historian Andy Saunders wrote a book Bader's Last Flight, following up with a Channel 4 documentary Who Downed Douglas Bader?, which first aired on 28 August 2006. Saunders' research now suggests that Bader may have been a victim of friendly fire, shot down by one of his fellow RAF pilots after becoming detached from his own squadron. RAF combat records indicate Bader may have been shot down by Flight Lieutenant "Buck" Casson of No. 616 Squadron RAF, who claimed a Bf 109 whose tail came off and the pilot out, before he himself was shot down and captured.
Casson also mentioned that for a while he watched as the pilot struggled to bail out. Bader was flying at the rear of the German fighter formation, alone, and his squadron were the opposite side of the Germans. "Buck" had only a few seconds in which he saw Bader and mistook his Spitfire for a Bf 109. In a letter to Bader on 28 May 1945, Casson explained the action. While this source made it into the public domain, it was severely edited. The nature of the letter, that it was from Casson to Bader, was removed. Crucially, an entire paragraph, which mentioned specifically the tail coming off "a Bf 109" and the pilot struggling to get out of the cockpit, was completely omitted from the original source, still in the Casson family's possession. Saunders stated that this was not absolute proof, and that it would be helpful to find the "Bader Spitfire".
Search for W3185
The quest to find Bader's Spitfire, W3185, shed light on the demise of another famous wartime ace, Wilhelm Balthasar, Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen", who was killed in action on 3 July 1941 when his Bf 109F crashed into Ferme Goset, Wittes, France. It was recovered in March 2004. Later, in the summer 2004, a further aircraft was discovered in Widdebrouch. It was found to be that of a Bf 109F, flown by Unteroffizier Albert Schlager of JG 26, who was reported missing during Bader's last combat on 9 August 1941. A brief glimpse of hope was discovered later, when a Spitfire wreck was found. Inside was a flying helmet with the letters "DB" written on the top. It was later identified as a Spitfire IX, owing to the findings of a 20mm cannon (which Bader's Spitfire did not have), and ammunition dated as 1943.
Bader's aircraft was not found. It is likely that it came down at Mont Dupil Farm near the French village of Blaringhem, possibly near Desprez sawmill. A French witness, Jacques Taffin, saw the Spitfire disintegrating as it came down. He thought it had been hit by anti-aircraft fire, but none was active in the area. There were also no Spitfire remains in the area. The lack of any remains was not surprising, owing to the Spitfire breaking up on its descent. Historians have also been misled as to the whereabouts of the Spitfire because of a mistake in the book Reach for the Sky, in which Bader stated his leg had been dug out from the wreckage but was damaged, indicating a definite crash site. Bader's leg had actually been found in an open field.
Prisoner of war
The Germans treated Bader with great respect. When Bader was taken prisoner, he was sent to a hospital in Saint-Omer, near the place where his father's grave is located. On leaving the hospital, Colonel Adolf Galland and his pilots invited him on to their airfield and they received him as a friend. Bader was cordially invited to sit in the cockpit of Galland's personal Me109. Bader asked Galland if it was possible to test the 109 by "a flight around the airfield". Galland refused him—with laughter!
Bader had lost a prosthetic leg when escaping his disabled aircraft. When he had out, Bader's right prosthetic leg became trapped in the aircraft, and he escaped only when the leg's retaining straps snapped after he pulled the ripcord on his parachute. General Adolf Galland notified the British of his damaged leg and offered them safe passage to drop off a replacement. Hermann Göring himself gave the green light for the operation. The British responded on 19 August 1941 with the "Leg Operation"—an RAF bomber was allowed to drop a new prosthetic leg by parachute to St Omer, a Luftwaffe base in occupied France, as part of Circus 81 involving six Bristol Blenheims and a sizeable fighter escort including 452 Squadron.
The Germans were less impressed when, task done, the bombers proceeded on to their bombing mission to Gosnay Power Station near Bethune, although bad weather prevented the target being attacked. Galland stated in an interview that the aircraft dropped the leg after bombing Galland's airfield. Galland did not meet Bader again until mid-1945, when he, Günther Rall and Hans-Ulrich Rudel arrived at RAF Tangmere as prisoners of war. Bader, according to Rall, personally arranged for Rudel, a fellow amputee, to be fitted with an artificial leg.
Bader escaped from the hospital where he was recovering by tying together sheets. Initially the "rope" did not reach the ground; with the help of another patient, he slid the sheet from under the comatose New Zealand pilot, Bill Russell of No. 485 Squadron, who had had his arm amputated the day before. Russell's bed was then moved to the window to act as an anchor. A French maid at the St. Omer hospital attempted to get in touch with British agents to enable Bader to escape to Britain. She later brought a letter from a peasant couple (a Mr. and Mrs. Hiecques), who promised to shelter him outside St. Omer until he could be passed further down the line. Until then, their son would wait outside the hospital every night until there was a chance of escape. Eventually, he escaped out of a window. The plan worked initially. Bader completed the long walk to the safe house despite wearing a British uniform. Unfortunately for him, the plan was betrayed by another woman at the hospital. He hid in the garden when a German staff car arrived at the house, but was found later. Bader denied that the couple had known he was there. They, along with the French woman at the hospital, were sent for forced labour in Germany. The couple survived. After the war, French authorities sentenced the woman informer to 20 years in prison.
Over the next few years, Bader made himself a thorn in the side of the Germans. He often practised what the RAF personnel called "goon-baiting". He considered it his duty to cause as much trouble to the enemy as possible, much of which included escape attempts. He made so many escape attempts that the Germans threatened to take away his legs. In August 1942, Bader escaped with Johnny Palmer and three others from the camp at Stalag Luft III B in Sagan. Unluckily, a Luftwaffe officer of JG 26 was in the area. Keen to meet the Tangmere wing leader, he dropped by to see Bader, but when he knocked on his door, there was no answer. Soon the alarm was raised, and a few days later, Bader was recaptured. During the escape attempt, the Germans produced a poster of Bader and Palmer asking for information. It described Bader's disability and said he "walks well with stick". Twenty years later, Bader was sent a copy of it by a Belgian civilian prisoner, who had worked in a Gestapo office in Leipzig. Bader found this amusing, as he had never used a stick. He was finally dispatched to the "escape-proof" Colditz Castle Oflag IV-C on 18 August 1942, where he remained until 15 April 1945 when it was liberated by the First United States Army.
Postwar
Last years in the RAF
After his return to Britain, Bader was given the honour of leading a victory flypast of 300 aircraft over London in June 1945. On 1 July, he was promoted to temporary wing commander. Soon after, Bader was looking for a post in the RAF. Air Marshal Richard Atcherley, a former Schneider Trophy pilot, was commanding the Central Fighter Establishment at Tangmere. He and Bader had been junior officers at Kenley in 1930, while serving in No. 23 Squadron RAF. Bader was given the post of the Fighter Leader's School commanding officer. He received a promotion to war substantive wing commander on 1 December and soon after was promoted to temporary group captain.
Unfortunately for Bader, the fighter aircraft's roles had now expanded significantly and he spent most of his time instructing on ground attack and co-operation with ground forces. Also, Bader did not get on with the newer generation of squadron leaders who considered him to be "out of date". In the end, Air Marshal James Robb offered Bader a role commanding the North Weald sector of No. 11 Group RAF, an organisation steeped in Fighter Command and Battle of Britain history. It is likely Bader would have stayed in the RAF for some time had his mentor Leigh-Mallory not been killed in an air crash in November 1944, such was the respect and influence he held over Bader, but Bader's enthusiasm for continued service in the RAF waned. On 21 July 1946, Bader retired from the RAF with the rank of group captain to take a job at Royal Dutch Shell.
Postwar career
Bader considered politics, and standing as a Member of Parliament (MP) for his home constituency in the House of Commons. He despised how the three main political parties used war veterans for their own political ends. Instead, he resolved to join Shell. His decision was not motivated by money, but a willingness to repay a debt. Shell had been ready to take him on, aged 23, after his accident. Other companies had offered him more money, but he chose to join Shell on principle.
There was another incentive. Joining Shell would allow him to continue flying. He would travel as an executive, and it meant he could fly a light aircraft. He spent most of his time abroad flying around in a company-owned Percival Proctor and later a Miles Gemini. On one mission, between 15 August and 16 September 1946, Bader was sent on a public relations mission for Shell around Europe and North Africa with United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Lieutenant General James Doolittle, Doolittle having left active duty in January 1946 and returned to the Reserves.
Bader became Managing Director of Shell Aircraft until he retired in 1969. That same year, he also served as a technical advisor to the film, Battle of Britain. Bader travelled to every major country outside the Communist world, becoming internationally famous and a popular after-dinner speaker on aviation matters. In 1975 he spoke at the funeral of Air Chief Marshal Keith Park.
Personality
When the film Reach for the Sky was released, people associated Bader with the quiet and amiable personality of actor Kenneth More, who played Bader. Bader recognised that the producers had deleted all those habits he displayed when on operations, particularly his prolific use of bad language. Bader once said, "[they] still think [I'm] the dashing chap Kenneth More was". Bader's more controversial traits were touched upon by Brickhill in the book Reach for the Sky. "He is a somewhat 'difficult' person," Brickhill told (Sir) Billy Collins, head of his publishing house William Collins and Sons, after spending over a year talking to him. Nevertheless, Bader was received as a legendary figure by the wider public, who closely identified him as a leader of The Few in the Battle of Britain.
Pete Tunstall, on first meeting Bader, recalled the force of his personality. Tunstall stated about Bader, “On first meeting Douglas Bader, one was forcibly struck by the power of his personality. Woe betide any young cock who thought he might share the roost.” To Tunstall, Bader was not a normal specimen and it slightly unsettled him that people indignantly questioned his overbearing personality and then applied normal standards on to a man who had lost both his legs and yet came back to fly in the cockpit of wartime aircraft.
Never a person to hide his opinions, Bader also became controversial for his political viewpoints. A staunch conservative, his trenchantly expressed views on such subjects as juvenile delinquency, capital punishment, apartheid and Rhodesia's defiance of the Commonwealth (he was a strong supporter of Ian Smith's white minority regime) attracted much criticism. During the Suez Crisis, Bader travelled to New Zealand. Some of the more recent African countries to join the Commonwealth had been critical of the decision to intervene in Egypt; he replied that they could "bloody well climb back up their trees".
During a trip to South Africa in November 1965, Bader said that if he had been in Rhodesia when it made its declaration of independence, he "would have had serious thoughts about changing my citizenship." Later, Bader also wrote the foreword to Hans-Ulrich Rudel's biography Stuka Pilot. Even when it emerged that Rudel was a fervent supporter of the Nazi Party, Bader said that prior knowledge would not have changed his mind about his contribution.
In the late 1960s, Bader was interviewed on television, where his comments provoked controversy. During the interview, he expressed a desire to be Prime Minister, and listed some controversial proposals should the opportunity ever arise:
Withdraw sanctions from Rhodesia so negotiations could take place without pressure.
Stop immigration into Britain immediately until the "situation had been examined".
Reintroduce the death penalty for murder.
Ban betting shops, "They breed protection rackets. That's why we're getting like Chicago in the '20s".
Bader was known, at times, to be head-strong, blunt and unsophisticated when he made his opinion known. During one visit to Munich, as a guest of Adolf Galland, he walked into a room full of ex-Luftwaffe pilots and said, "My God, I had no idea we left so many of you bastards alive". He also used the phrase to describe the Trades Union Congress during economic and social unrest in the 1970s. Later, he suggested that Britons in support of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament were a "rabble" and should be deported.
Personal life
Bader's first wife, Thelma, developed throat cancer in 1967. Aware that her survival was unlikely, the two spent as much time with each other as possible. Thelma was a smoker, and although she stopped smoking, it did not save her. After a long illness, Thelma died on 24 January 1971, aged 64.
On 3 January 1973, Bader married Joan Murray (née Hipkiss); the couple were to spend the rest of their lives in the village of Marlston, Berkshire. Joan was the daughter of a steel tycoon. She had an interest in riding and was a member of the British Limbless Ex-Servicemen's Association. They first met at one of the association's events in 1960. She also helped associations involved in riding for the disabled.
Bader campaigned vigorously for people with disabilities and set an example of how to overcome a disability. In June 1976, Bader was knighted for his services to disabled people. Actor John Mills and Air Vice-Marshal Neil Cameron were also knighted at the ceremony.
Other awards followed. Bader maintained his interest in aviation, and in 1977 he was made a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. He also received a Doctorate of Science from Queen's University Belfast. Bader was also busy acting as a consultant to Aircraft Equipment International at Ascot, Berkshire. Bader's health was in decline in the 1970s, and he soon gave up flying altogether. On 4 June 1979, Bader flew his Beech 95 Travelair for the last time, the aircraft having been gifted to him on his retirement from Shell. He had recorded 5,744 hours and 25 minutes flying time. Bader's friend Adolf Galland followed Bader into retirement soon afterwards for the same reasons.
His workload was exhausting for a legless man with a worsening heart condition. On 5 September 1982, after a dinner honouring Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur "Bomber" Harris at the Guildhall, at which he spoke, Bader died of a heart attack while being driven through Chiswick, west London, on his way home.
Among the many dignitaries and personalities at his funeral was Adolf Galland. Galland and Bader had shared a friendship that spanned more than 40 years since their first meeting in France. Although Galland was on a business trip to California, he made sure to attend the memorial service held for Bader at the St Clement Danes Church in the Strand. Peter Tory wrote in his "London Diary" newspaper column:
Tributes
A biography of Bader by Paul Brickhill, Reach for the Sky, was published in 1954. Some 172,000 copies were sold in the first few months alone. The initial print run of 300,000 quickly sold out, as the biography became the biggest-selling hardback in postwar Britain. Brickhill had originally offered Bader fifty per cent of all proceeds, sealing the arrangement with a handshake.
As sales soared, Bader became concerned that, after tax, he would make very little, and he insisted on a new deal, in writing. So, Brickhill agreed to make him a one-off payment from his company Brickhill Publications Limited of £13,125, the majority of which would be for 'expenses', and tax-free, with only a small portion for 'services' and therefore taxable (£ today). The Inland Revenue subsequently waived any tax liabilities on Bader's earnings.
After film director Daniel M. Angel bought the film rights and teamed up with Lewis Gilbert to write the screenplay, Bader came to regret the limiting new deal he had wrung from Brickhill. He was so bitter, he refused to attend the premiere, and only saw the film eleven years later, on television. He never spoke to Brickhill again, and never answered his letters. The feature film of the same title was released in 1956, starring Kenneth More as Bader, topping the box office in Britain that year.
On the 60th anniversary of Bader's last combat sortie, his widow Joan unveiled a statue at Goodwood, formerly RAF Westhampnett, the aerodrome from which he took off. The 6 ft (1.8 m) bronze sculpture, the first such tribute, was created by Kenneth Potts and was commissioned by the Earl of March, who runs the Goodwood estate.
The Douglas Bader Foundation was formed in honour of Bader in 1982 by family and friends—many also former RAF pilots who had flown with Bader during the Second World War. One of Bader's artificial legs is kept by the RAF Museum at their warehouse in Stafford, and is not on public display.
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1982 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews during a reception on the Martini Terrace of New Zealand House in London's Haymarket.
The Northbrook College Sussex campus at Shoreham Airport has a building named after him in which aeronautical and automotive engineering are taught. The building was opened by his wife Joan Murray.
The Bader Way, in Woodley, Reading is named after Bader. Woodley Airfield, now redeveloped but housing the Museum of Berkshire Aviation, is where Bader lost his legs in a flying accident in 1931.
The Bader Road, in Poole, Dorset is named after Bader.
Bader Walk (previously Douglas Bader Walk but renamed following public consternation) in Birmingham.
Amongst other aircraft-related street names in Apley, Telford, Shropshire, is a Bader Close.
A pub at Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, is named after Bader.
RAF Coltishall, sold off by the MoD, was purchased privately in 2006 and later renamed Badersfield.
Heyford Park Free School Upper Heyford which is located on the former RAF Station Upper Heyford US Air Force airfield has honoured Bader by using his name for one of the school's houses. The tie stripe representing Bader is blue. The other houses are red and yellow. Those houses are named after McGuire and Lynd, two US Air Force pilots who sacrificed themselves when their planes crashed in a nearby village in 1992.
Bader Drive near Auckland International Airport in Auckland, New Zealand was named in Bader's honour.
Film production company Bader Media Entertainment CIC is named after Bader and their logo depicts a pipe and feather.
Honours and awards
1 October 1940 – Acting Squadron Leader Bader (26151) is appointed a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order:
7 January 1941 – Acting Squadron Leader Bader, DSO (26151), No. 242 Squadron is awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross:
15 July 1941 – Acting Wing Commander Bader, DSO, DFC (26151) is awarded a bar to the Distinguished Service Order:
9 September 1941 – Acting Wing Commander Bader, DSO, DFC (26151) is awarded a bar to the Distinguished Flying Cross in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy:
2 January 1956 – Group Captain Bader, DSO, DFC is appointed a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for services to the disabled.
12 June 1976 – Group Captain Bader, CBE, DSO, DFC is made a Knight Bachelor for services to disabled people.
Combat credos
Bader attributed his success to the belief in the three basic rules, shared by the German ace Erich Hartmann:
"If you had the height, you controlled the battle."
"If you came out of the sun, the enemy could not see you."
"If you held your fire until you were very close, you seldom missed."
See also
Gheorghe Bănciulescu, a Romanian aviator, the first pilot in the world to fly with his feet amputated
Alexey Maresyev, a Soviet Second World War fighter ace with amputated legs
James MacLachlan, a British Second World War fighter ace with an amputated arm
Hans-Ulrich Rudel, a Second World War German pilot who continued flying after having a leg amputated
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Ash, William and Brendan Foley. Under the Wire: The World War II Adventures of a Legendary Escape Artist and "Cooler King". London: Thomas Dunne Books, 2005. .
"Birth No. 44." Register of Births. St Marylebone, sub-district of St John, London.
Caldwell, Don. JG26 War Diary, Volume 1, 1939–1942. London: Grub Street, 1996. .
Mace, John "The History of Royal Air Force Rugby 1919 – 1999" .
Price, Alfred. Battle of Britain Day: 15 September 1940. London: Greenhill Books, 1999. .
Townsend, Peter. Duel in the Dark. London: Harrap Ltd, 1986. .
Vigors, Tim. Life's Too Short to Cry: The Inspirational Memoir of an Ace Battle of Britain Fighter Pilot . London: Grub Street Publishers, 2006. .
External links
Imperial War Museum, Douglas Bader and his ‘Big Wing’ (12 Group Wing)
Douglas Robert Stewart Bader
Ministry of Defence article on the unveiling of the Blue Plaque
The Douglas Bader Foundation
RAF Museum online exhibition of Bader
The RAF side who lost 0 – 16 to the Royal Navy in 1931. Douglas Bader is on the far right in the front
Imperial War Museum Interview from 1982
Flying Scholarships for Disabled People. A charity set up in Douglas Bader's Memory.
Royal Air Force group captains
Royal Air Force pilots of World War II
British World War II flying aces
English aviators
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
Prisoners of war held at Colditz Castle
Shot-down aviators
English amputees
People from St John's Wood
Knights Bachelor
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Graduates of the Royal Air Force College Cranwell
1910 births
People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford
People educated at Temple Grove School
1982 deaths
Deputy Lieutenants of Greater London
Harlequin F.C. players
Rugby union fly-halves
English cricketers
Royal Air Force cricketers
Royal Air Force rugby union players
The Few
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)
Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Wing leaders
Military personnel from London
Pipe smokers
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201268
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA%20polymerase
|
RNA polymerase
|
In molecular biology, RNA polymerase (abbreviated RNAP or RNApol), or more specifically DNA-directed/dependent RNA polymerase (DdRP), is an enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template.
Using the enzyme helicase, RNAP locally opens the double-stranded DNA so that one strand of the exposed nucleotides can be used as a template for the synthesis of RNA, a process called transcription. A transcription factor and its associated transcription mediator complex must be attached to a DNA binding site called a promoter region before RNAP can initiate the DNA unwinding at that position. RNAP not only initiates RNA transcription, it also guides the nucleotides into position, facilitates attachment and elongation, has intrinsic proofreading and replacement capabilities, and termination recognition capability. In eukaryotes, RNAP can build chains as long as 2.4 million nucleotides.
RNAP produces RNA that, functionally, is either for protein coding, i.e. messenger RNA (mRNA); or non-coding (so-called "RNA genes"). At least four functional types of RNA genes exist:
Transfer RNA (tRNA) Transfers specific amino acids to growing polypeptide chains at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation;
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Incorporates into ribosomes;
Micro RNA (miRNA) Regulates gene activity; and,
Catalytic RNA (ribozyme) Functions as an enzymatically active RNA molecule.
RNA polymerase is essential to life, and is found in all living organisms and many viruses. Depending on the organism, a RNA polymerase can be a protein complex (multi-subunit RNAP) or only consist of one subunit (single-subunit RNAP, ssRNAP), each representing an independent lineage. The former is found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes alike, sharing a similar core structure and mechanism. The latter is found in phages as well as eukaryotic chloroplasts and mitochondria, and is related to modern DNA polymerases. Eukaryotic and archaeal RNAPs have more subunits than bacterial ones do, and are controlled differently.
Bacteria and archaea only have one RNA polymerase. Eukaryotes have multiple types of nuclear RNAP, each responsible for synthesis of a distinct subset of RNA:
Structure
The 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg for creating detailed molecular images of RNA polymerase during various stages of the transcription process.
In most prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase species transcribes all types of RNA. RNA polymerase "core" from E. coli consists of five subunits: two alpha (α) subunits of 36 kDa, a beta (β) subunit of 150 kDa, a beta prime subunit (β′) of 155 kDa, and a small omega (ω) subunit. A sigma (σ) factor binds to the core, forming the holoenzyme. After transcription starts, the factor can unbind and let the core enzyme proceed with its work. The core RNA polymerase complex forms a "crab claw" or "clamp-jaw" structure with an internal channel running along the full length. Eukaryotic and archaeal RNA polymerases have a similar core structure and work in a similar manner, although they have many extra subunits.
All RNAPs contain metal cofactors, in particular zinc and magnesium cations which aid in the transcription process.
Function
Control of the process of gene transcription affects patterns of gene expression and, thereby, allows a cell to adapt to a changing environment, perform specialized roles within an organism, and maintain basic metabolic processes necessary for survival. Therefore, it is hardly surprising that the activity of RNAP is long, complex, and highly regulated. In Escherichia coli bacteria, more than 100 transcription factors have been identified, which modify the activity of RNAP.
RNAP can initiate transcription at specific DNA sequences known as promoters. It then produces an RNA chain, which is complementary to the template DNA strand. The process of adding nucleotides to the RNA strand is known as elongation; in eukaryotes, RNAP can build chains as long as 2.4 million nucleotides (the full length of the dystrophin gene). RNAP will preferentially release its RNA transcript at specific DNA sequences encoded at the end of genes, which are known as terminators.
Products of RNAP include:
Messenger RNA (mRNA)—template for the synthesis of proteins by ribosomes.
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes"—a broad class of genes that encode RNA that is not translated into protein. The most prominent examples of RNA genes are transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation. However, since the late 1990s, many new RNA genes have been found, and thus RNA genes may play a much more significant role than previously thought.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)—transfers specific amino acids to growing polypeptide chains at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)—a component of ribosomes
Micro RNA—regulates gene activity
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)—enzymatically active RNA molecules
RNAP accomplishes de novo synthesis. It is able to do this because specific interactions with the initiating nucleotide hold RNAP rigidly in place, facilitating chemical attack on the incoming nucleotide. Such specific interactions explain why RNAP prefers to start transcripts with ATP (followed by GTP, UTP, and then CTP). In contrast to DNA polymerase, RNAP includes helicase activity, therefore no separate enzyme is needed to unwind DNA.
Action
Initiation
RNA polymerase binding in bacteria involves the sigma factor recognizing the core promoter region containing the −35 and −10 elements (located before the beginning of sequence to be transcribed) and also, at some promoters, the α subunit C-terminal domain recognizing promoter upstream elements. There are multiple interchangeable sigma factors, each of which recognizes a distinct set of promoters. For example, in E. coli, σ70 is expressed under normal conditions and recognizes promoters for genes required under normal conditions ("housekeeping genes"), while σ32 recognizes promoters for genes required at high temperatures ("heat-shock genes"). In archaea and eukaryotes, the functions of the bacterial general transcription factor sigma are performed by multiple general transcription factors that work together. The RNA polymerase-promoter closed complex is usually referred to as the "transcription preinitiation complex."
After binding to the DNA, the RNA polymerase switches from a closed complex to an open complex. This change involves the separation of the DNA strands to form an unwound section of DNA of approximately 13 bp, referred to as the "transcription bubble". Supercoiling plays an important part in polymerase activity because of the unwinding and rewinding of DNA. Because regions of DNA in front of RNAP are unwound, there are compensatory positive supercoils. Regions behind RNAP are rewound and negative supercoils are present.
Promoter escape
RNA polymerase then starts to synthesize the initial DNA-RNA heteroduplex, with ribonucleotides base-paired to the template DNA strand according to Watson-Crick base-pairing interactions. As noted above, RNA polymerase makes contacts with the promoter region. However these stabilizing contacts inhibit the enzyme's ability to access DNA further downstream and thus the synthesis of the full-length product. In order to continue RNA synthesis, RNA polymerase must escape the promoter. It must maintain promoter contacts while unwinding more downstream DNA for synthesis, "scrunching" more downstream DNA into the initiation complex. During the promoter escape transition, RNA polymerase is considered a "stressed intermediate." Thermodynamically the stress accumulates from the DNA-unwinding and DNA-compaction activities. Once the DNA-RNA heteroduplex is long enough (~10 bp), RNA polymerase releases its upstream contacts and effectively achieves the promoter escape transition into the elongation phase. The heteroduplex at the active center stabilizes the elongation complex.
However, promoter escape is not the only outcome. RNA polymerase can also relieve the stress by releasing its downstream contacts, arresting transcription. The paused transcribing complex has two options: (1) release the nascent transcript and begin anew at the promoter or (2) reestablish a new 3′-OH on the nascent transcript at the active site via RNA polymerase's catalytic activity and recommence DNA scrunching to achieve promoter escape. Abortive initiation, the unproductive cycling of RNA polymerase before the promoter escape transition, results in short RNA fragments of around 9 bp in a process known as abortive transcription. The extent of abortive initiation depends on the presence of transcription factors and the strength of the promoter contacts.
Elongation
The 17-bp transcriptional complex has an 8-bp DNA-RNA hybrid, that is, 8 base-pairs involve the RNA transcript bound to the DNA template strand. As transcription progresses, ribonucleotides are added to the 3′ end of the RNA transcript and the RNAP complex moves along the DNA. The characteristic elongation rates in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are about 10–100 nts/sec.
Aspartyl (asp) residues in the RNAP will hold on to Mg2+ ions, which will, in turn, coordinate the phosphates of the ribonucleotides. The first Mg2+ will hold on to the α-phosphate of the NTP to be added. This allows the nucleophilic attack of the 3′-OH from the RNA transcript, adding another NTP to the chain. The second Mg2+ will hold on to the pyrophosphate of the NTP. The overall reaction equation is:
(NMP)n + NTP → (NMP)n+1 + PPi
Fidelity
Unlike the proofreading mechanisms of DNA polymerase those of RNAP have only recently been investigated. Proofreading begins with separation of the mis-incorporated nucleotide from the DNA template. This pauses transcription. The polymerase then backtracks by one position and cleaves the dinucleotide that contains the mismatched nucleotide. In the RNA polymerase this occurs at the same active site used for polymerization and is therefore markedly different from the DNA polymerase where proofreading occurs at a distinct nuclease active site.
The overall error rate is around 10−4 to 10−6.
Termination
In bacteria, termination of RNA transcription can be rho-dependent or rho-independent. The former relies on the rho factor, which destabilizes the DNA-RNA heteroduplex and causes RNA release. The latter, also known as intrinsic termination, relies on a palindromic region of DNA. Transcribing the region causes the formation of a "hairpin" structure from the RNA transcription looping and binding upon itself. This hairpin structure is often rich in G-C base-pairs, making it more stable than the DNA-RNA hybrid itself. As a result, the 8 bp DNA-RNA hybrid in the transcription complex shifts to a 4 bp hybrid. These last 4 base pairs are weak A-U base pairs, and the entire RNA transcript will fall off the DNA.
Transcription termination in eukaryotes is less well understood than in bacteria, but involves cleavage of the new transcript followed by template-independent addition of adenines at its new 3′ end, in a process called polyadenylation.
Other organisms
Given that DNA and RNA polymerases both carry out template-dependent nucleotide polymerization, it might be expected that the two types of enzymes would be structurally related. However, x-ray crystallographic studies of both types of enzymes reveal that, other than containing a critical Mg2+ ion at the catalytic site, they are virtually unrelated to each other; indeed template-dependent nucleotide polymerizing enzymes seem to have arisen independently twice during the early evolution of cells. One lineage led to the modern DNA polymerases and reverse transcriptases, as well as to a few single-subunit RNA polymerases (ssRNAP) from phages and organelles. The other multi-subunit RNAP lineage formed all of the modern cellular RNA polymerases.
Bacteria
In bacteria, the same enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of mRNA and non-coding RNA (ncRNA).
RNAP is a large molecule. The core enzyme has five subunits (~400 kDa):
β′ The β′ subunit is the largest subunit, and is encoded by the rpoC gene. The β′ subunit contains part of the active center responsible for RNA synthesis and contains some of the determinants for non-sequence-specific interactions with DNA and nascent RNA. It is split into two subunits in Cyanobacteria and chloroplasts.
β The β subunit is the second-largest subunit, and is encoded by the rpoB gene. The β subunit contains the rest of the active center responsible for RNA synthesis and contains the rest of the determinants for non-sequence-specific interactions with DNA and nascent RNA.
α (αI and αII) Two copies of the α subunit, being the third-largest subunit, are present in a molecule of RNAP: αI and αII (one and two). Each α subunit contains two domains: αNTD (N-terminal domain) and αCTD (C-terminal domain). αNTD contains determinants for assembly of RNAP. αCTD (C-terminal domain) contains determinants for interaction with promoter DNA, making non-sequence-non-specific interactions at most promoters and sequence-specific interactions at upstream-element-containing promoters, and contains determinants for interactions with regulatory factors.
ω The ω subunit is the smallest subunit. The ω subunit facilitates assembly of RNAP and stabilizes assembled RNAP.
In order to bind promoters, RNAP core associates with the transcription initiation factor sigma (σ) to form RNA polymerase holoenzyme. Sigma reduces the affinity of RNAP for nonspecific DNA while increasing specificity for promoters, allowing transcription to initiate at correct sites. The complete holoenzyme therefore has 6 subunits: β′βαI and αIIωσ (~450 kDa).
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes have multiple types of nuclear RNAP, each responsible for synthesis of a distinct subset of RNA. All are structurally and mechanistically related to each other and to bacterial RNAP:
Eukaryotic chloroplasts contain an RNAP very highly similar to bacterial RNAP ("plastid-encoded polymerase, PEP"). They use sigma factors encoded in the nuclear genome.
Chloroplast also contain a second, structurally and mechanistically unrelated, single-subunit RNAP ("nucleus-encoded polymerase, NEP"). Eukaryotic mitochondria use POLRMT (human), a nucleus-encoded single-subunit RNAP. Such phage-like polymerases are referred to as RpoT in plants.
Archaea
Archaea have a single type of RNAP, responsible for the synthesis of all RNA. Archaeal RNAP is structurally and mechanistically similar to bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic nuclear RNAP I-V, and is especially closely structurally and mechanistically related to eukaryotic nuclear RNAP II.
The history of the discovery of the archaeal RNA polymerase is quite recent. The first analysis of the RNAP of an archaeon was performed in 1971, when the RNAP from the extreme halophile Halobacterium cutirubrum was isolated and purified. Crystal structures of RNAPs from Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus shibatae set the total number of identified archaeal subunits at thirteen.
Archaea has the subunit corresponding to Eukaryotic Rpb1 split into two. There is no homolog to eukaryotic Rpb9 (POLR2I) in the S. shibatae complex, although TFS (TFIIS homolog) has been proposed as one based on similarity. There is an additional subunit dubbed Rpo13; together with Rpo5 it occupies a space filled by an insertion found in bacterial β′ subunits (1,377–1,420 in Taq). An earlier, lower-resolution study on S. solfataricus structure did not find Rpo13 and only assigned the space to Rpo5/Rpb5. Rpo3 is notable in that it's an iron–sulfur protein. RNAP I/III subunit AC40 found in some eukaryotes share similar sequences, but does not bind iron. This domain, in either case, serves a structural function.
Archaeal RNAP subunit previously used an "RpoX" nomenclature where each subunit is assigned a letter in a way unrelated to any other systems. In 2009, a new nomenclature based on Eukaryotic Pol II subunit "Rpb" numbering was proposed.
Viruses
Orthopoxviruses and some other nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses synthesize RNA using a virally encoded multi-subunit RNAP. They are most similar to eukaryotic RNAPs, with some subunits minified or removed. Exactly which RNAP they are most similar to is a topic of debate. Most other viruses that synthesize RNA use unrelated mechanics.
Many viruses use a single-subunit DNA-dependent RNAP (ssRNAP) that is structurally and mechanistically related to the single-subunit RNAP of eukaryotic chloroplasts (RpoT) and mitochondria (POLRMT) and, more distantly, to DNA polymerases and reverse transcriptases. Perhaps the most widely studied such single-subunit RNAP is bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase. ssRNAPs cannot proofread.
B. subtilis prophage SPβ uses YonO, a homolog of the β+β′ subunits of msRNAPs to form a monomeric (both barrels on the same chain) RNAP distinct from the usual "right hand" ssRNAP. It probably diverged very long ago from the canonical five-unit msRNAP, before the time of the last universal common ancestor.
Other viruses use a RNA-dependent RNAP (an RNAP that employs RNA as a template instead of DNA). This occurs in negative strand RNA viruses and dsRNA viruses, both of which exist for a portion of their life cycle as double-stranded RNA. However, some positive strand RNA viruses, such as poliovirus, also contain RNA-dependent RNAP.
History
RNAP was discovered independently by Charles Loe, Audrey Stevens, and Jerard Hurwitz in 1960. By this time, one half of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Medicine had been awarded to Severo Ochoa for the discovery of what was believed to be RNAP, but instead turned out to be polynucleotide phosphorylase.
Purification
RNA polymerase can be isolated in the following ways:
By a phosphocellulose column.
By glycerol gradient centrifugation.
By a DNA column.
By an ion chromatography column.
And also combinations of the above techniques.
See also
Alpha-amanitin
Primase
References
External links
DNAi – DNA Interactive, including information and Flash clips on RNA Polymerase.
RNA Polymerase – Synthesis RNA from DNA Template
(Wayback Machine copy)
3D macromolecular structures of RNA Polymerase from the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
Gene expression
RNA
Enzymes
EC 2.7.7
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahminy%20kite
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Brahminy kite
|
The brahminy kite (Haliastur indus), formerly known as the red-backed sea-eagle in Australia, is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards, and harriers. They are found in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Australia. They are found mainly on the coast and in inland wetlands, where they feed on dead fish and other prey. Adults have a reddish-brown body plumage contrasting with their white head and breast which make them easy to distinguish from other birds of prey.
Taxonomy
In 1760, French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson described and illustrated the Brahminy kite in the first volume of his Oiseaux based on a specimen collected in Pondicherry, India. He used the French name L'aigle de Pondichery. The brahminy kite was included by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux. It was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither Brisson nor Buffon included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Falco indus in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées. The brahminy kite is now placed with the whistling kite in the genus Haliastur that was erected by the English naturalist Prideaux John Selby in 1840.
Four subspecies are recognized:
H. i. indus (Boddaert, 1783) – South Asia
H. i. intermedius Blyth, 1865 – Malay Peninsula , Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi and the Philippines
H. i. girrenera (Vieillot, 1822) – New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago and north Australia
H. i. flavirostris Condon & Amadon, 1954 – Solomon Islands
Description
The brahminy kite is distinctive and contrastingly coloured, with chestnut plumage except for the white head and breast and black wing tips. The juveniles are browner, but can be distinguished from both the resident and migratory races of black kites in Asia by the paler appearance, shorter wings, and rounded tail. The pale patch on the underwing carpal region is of a squarish shape and separated from Buteo buzzards.
The brahminy kite is about the same size as the black kite (Milvus migrans) and has a typical kite flight, with wings angled, but its tail is rounded unlike the Milvus species, red kite, and black kite, which have forked tails. The two genera are, however, very close.
The call is a mewing keeyew.
Distribution and status
This kite is a familiar sight in the skies of Sri Lanka, Nepal, India, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and southeast Asia and as far south as New South Wales, Australia, through which region it is widespread and resident. They perform seasonal movements associated with rainfall in some parts of their range.
They are mainly seen in the plains, but can sometimes occur above 5000 feet in the Himalayas.
It is evaluated as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the species is on the decline in some parts such as Java.
Behaviour
The breeding season in South Asia is from December to April. In southern and eastern Australia, it is August to October, and April to June in the north and west. The nests are constructed of small branches and sticks with a bowl inside and lined with leaves, and are located in various trees, often mangroves. They show considerable site fidelity nesting in the same area year after year. In some rare instances, they have been seen to nest on the ground under trees. A clutch of two dull-white or bluish-white oval eggs measuring 52 x 41 mm is laid. Both parents take part in nest building and feeding, but likely only the female incubates. The incubation period is about 26 to 27 days.
It is primarily a scavenger, feeding mainly on dead fish and crabs, especially in wetlands and marshland, but occasionally hunts live prey such as hares and bats. They may also indulge in kleptoparasitism and attempt to steal prey from other birds. Brahminy kites have even been recorded taking advantage of Irrawaddy dolphins herding fish to the surface, in the Mekong River. A rare instance of a bird feeding on honey at the hive of Apis florea has been recorded. It also eats rice or cooked food left as an offering in India.
Young birds may indulge in play behaviour, dropping leaves and attempting to catch them in the air. When fishing over water, they may sometimes land in the water, but manage to swim and take off without much trouble.
They roost communally on large and isolated trees and as many as 600 have been seen at one location.
They may mob larger raptors such as the Aquila eagles. In some incidents where brahminy kites mobbed steppe eagles (Aquila rapax), they were attacked and injured or killed.
A number of ectoparasitic bird lice in the genera Kurodaia, Colpocephalum, and Degeeriella have been reported.
In culture
Known as elang bondol in Indonesia, the brahminy kite is the official mascot of Jakarta. In Hinduism, it is considered as the contemporary representation of Garuda, the sacred bird of Vishnu. In Malaysia, the island of Langkawi is named after the bird (kawi denoting an ochre-like stone used to decorate pottery, and a reference to the bird's primary plumage colour).
A fable from central Bougainville Island relates how a mother left her baby under a banana tree while gardening, and the baby floated into the sky crying and transformed into Kaa'nang, the brahminy kite, its necklace becoming the bird's feathers.
For the Ibans of the Upper Rajang, Sarawak, Borneo, a brahminy kite is believed to be the manifestation of Singalang Burung when he comes down to earth. Singalang Burung is the ultimate deity of incomparable qualities and superior abilities in every dimension. He is also known as the god of war.
References
Further reading
Jayabalan, JA (1995) Breeding ecology of Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus in Cauvery Delta, south India. Ph.D. Dissertation, Bharathidasan University. Mannampandal, Tamil Nadu.
Raghunathan, K (1985) Miscellaneous notes: a peculiar feeding habit of Brahminy Kite. Blackbuck. 1(3), 26–28.
Jayakumar, S (1987) Feeding ecology of wintering Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus) near Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. M.Sc. Thesis, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli.
Hicks, R. K. 1992. Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus fishing? Muruk 5:143-144.
van Balen, B. S., and W. M. Rombang. 2001. Nocturnal feeding by Brahminy Kites. Australian Bird Watcher 18:126.
External links
Video of re-introduction of Brahminy Kites in their natural habitat in Indonesia from BBC Sci-Tech
BirdLife Species Factsheet
Historical material
Pondicherry eagle, colour drawing by Thomas Watling, between 1792 and 1797.
Brahminy kite
Brahminy kite
Birds of Bangladesh
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
Birds of Melanesia
Birds of Australia
Brahminy kite
Articles containing video clips
Brahminy kite
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] |
201274
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge%20Anderson
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Judge Anderson
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Judge Cassandra Anderson is a fictional law enforcer and psychic appearing in the British science fiction comics 2000 AD and the Judge Dredd Megazine. Created by writer John Wagner and artist Brian Bolland, Anderson made her debut as a supporting character in the Judge Dredd story "Judge Death" (2000 AD #150, February 1980). The character's popularity with readers led to her starring in her own series, Anderson: Psi-Division, which (since 1988) has been written almost exclusively by Alan Grant, often working with artist Arthur Ranson until 2005; Boo Cook drew a majority of the stories until 2012, since which a number of different artists have worked on the strip. In 2012, the character appeared in the film Dredd, played by Olivia Thirlby.
Publication history
John Wagner created both Judge Death and Judge Anderson for the Judge Dredd story "Judge Death," the latter helping introduce the Psi-Judges, which were seen as a natural progression. A popular misconception is that artist Brian Bolland based the character on Debbie Harry, due to the mistaken belief that he had recently drawn the singer into an advertisement for the Forbidden Planet 2 store in London. 2000 AD'''s former editor Kelvin Gosnell has recounted that the comic's assistant editor Deirdre Vine at the time was the inspiration for the character, having been surreptitiously photographed across the office and the snap then given to Bolland who was told to, "Make Anderson look like that."2000 AD Thrill-Cast interview with Kelvin Gosnell, March 2018
Short afterwards, Alan Grant began to co-write Judge Dredd with Wagner. When Anderson got her own series, Wagner and Grant also co-authored those stories. This collaboration lasted until 1988, when their differences of opinion about how to develop Dredd's character came to a head while planning the last episode of the Judge Dredd story "Oz." After that, Grant wrote Anderson's stories on his own, while Wagner wrote Dredd's.
Grant later said: "A lot of Anderson counts among what I think of as my best work. The fact that I've had one of the best storytellers in the business, Arthur Ranson, along for most of the ride makes it even more memorable for me."
Fictional character biography
Like the mythical Cassandra (the sister of Paris of Troy), Judge Anderson (b. 2080) has psychic powers, chiefly telepathy and precognition. These abilities made her a member of Mega-City One's 'Psi Division' of Judges.
The character debuts during the first attack by Judge Death of the Dark Judges (a group of nihilistic undead Judges). During this encounter, Anderson is possessed by Judge Death but then thwarts him by entombing herself in Boing®, a tough but porous material. This lasts until the Dark Judges free her to release Judge Death, whereafter Anderson returns to active duty. She is instrumental in stopping this first attack by the Dark Judges, as well as several others. Due to being possessed and manipulated by them, Anderson develops a personal hatred of the Dark Judges.
Anderson is prominent in her Division and gains Dredd's respect. Unlike Dredd, she is a critic of the weaknesses in the judicial system of Mega-City One, has a sense of humour, forms personal friendships with fellow Judges, and permits herself doubt and remorse. However she is still capable and willing like any Judge of using extreme or lethal force against anyone, men, women or children when necessary. Because her determination is similar to Dredd's, the two of them co-operate effectively on several missions.
In the story "Engram", Anderson regains memories of an abusive father and is shocked to learn that her Division was responsible for blocking them from her mind in the first place. This, together with the events of "Leviathan's Farewell" (concerning the suicide of her friend Judge Corey), "Shamballa", "The Jesus Syndrome" and "Childhood's End", prompts Anderson to resign from the judicial system. After several adventures in outer space, she returns to Mega-City One. Dredd and Anderson are both considered veterans and regarded with awe by less experienced judges.
Later, after a deadly run-in with Judge Death, Anderson falls into a coma and is infected with the psychic Half-Life virus. A team of Psi-Judges succeeded in rescuing Anderson, but the Half-Life passes to Judge Gistane, who is then tortured by the mad Judge Fauster. When Half-Life is unleashed on the city, causing a wave of mass murder, Anderson stops it. Since she awoke from her coma, Anderson is now 60 (as of 2018). Being a Psi prevents her from using drugs and treatments Street Judges use to stay active despite aging. Because of this, Anderson expects to age beyond usefulness.
Alternative comic versions
In 1994 DC Comics began publishing the short-lived title Judge Dredd – Legends of the Law, which featured their own version of Dredd. Issues 1–4 featured Anderson as a cadet in a story called "The Organ Donors" (1994–1995), written by John Wagner and Alan Grant and illustrated by Brent Anderson and Jimmy Palmiotti. (Note that the Anderson in the Judge Dredd and Batman crossover stories is the original 2000 AD version of the character.)
In 2012 issue #2 of IDW Publishing's new Judge Dredd title included Anderson. IDW gave Anderson her own comic in 2014.
In 2016 the Judge Dredd Megazine published stories based on the version of Anderson which had appeared in the 2012 film Dredd, in issues 377 to 379. "The Deep End" was written by Alec Worley, with art by Paul Davidson. "Judgement Call" was written by Worley, with art by Lee Carter.
Bibliography
The following stories feature Judge Anderson and were printed in 2000 AD and the Judge Dredd Megazine.
Anderson as the main character Judge Dredd:
“Judge Death", written by John Wagner, art by Brian Bolland, in 2000 AD #149–151 (1980)
“Judge Death Lives", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Brian Bolland, in 2000 AD #224–228 (1981)Judge Anderson:
“The Haunting", written by Alan Grant, art by Kim Raymond, 2000 AD Annual 1984 (1983)Judge Dredd:
“City of the Damned", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Steve Dillon (episodes 1, 5–7, 12–13), Ron Smith (2–3, 10, 14), Kim Raymond (4, 11) and Ian Gibson (8–9), in 2000 AeD #393–406 (1984)Judge Anderson:
“The Mind of Edward Bottlebum", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, Judge Dredd Annual 1985 (1984)Anderson: Psi Division “Revenge” (also known in reprints as “Four Dark Judges”), written by Alan Grant and John Wagner, art by Brett Ewins (episodes 1–7), Cliff Robinson (8–10, 12) and Robin Smith (11), in 2000 AD #416–427 (1985)
“A Fistful of Denimite", written by Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in Judge Dredd Annual 1986 (1985)
“The Possessed", written by Alan Grant (as R. Clark), art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #468–478 (1986)
“Golem", written by Alan Grant, art by Enric Romero, in 2000 AD Annual 1987 (1986)
“Hour of the Wolf", written by Alan Grant, art by Barry Kitson and Will Simpson, in 2000 AD #520–531 (1987)
“Dear Diary", illustrated text story by Peter Milligan, art by Eddy Cant, in 2000 AD Annual 1988 (1987)
“A Soldier's Tale", written by Alan Grant, art by Mike Collins, in Judge Dredd Annual 1988 (1987)
Judge Dredd:
"The Undercity", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in the Daily Star 5 May 1988 – 3 August 1988
Judge Corey:
“Leviathan's Farewell", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD Sci–Fi Special 1988 (1988)Anderson: Psi Division:
“Colin Wilson Block", written by Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in 2000 AD Winter Special 1988 (1988)Judge Dredd:
"The Monster Maker", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Mike Collins, in the Daily Star 31 October 1988 – 30 January 1989Anderson: Psi Division:
“Contact", written by Alan Grant, art by Mark Farmer, in 2000 AD #607–609 (1988–1989)
“Beyond the Void", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD #612–613 (1989)
“Helios", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #614–622 (1989)
“Triad", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 2000 AD #635–644 (1989)
“The Prophet", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #645–647 (1989)
“The Random Man", written by Alan Grant, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #657–659 (1989)
“Confessions of a She–Devil", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD Annual 1990 (1989)
“The Screaming Skull", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #669–670 (1990)Judge Dredd:
“Necropolis", written by John Wagner, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #674–699 (1990)Anderson: Psi Division:
“Shamballa", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 2000 AD #700–711 (1990); set before "Necropolis"
“Exorcise Duty", illustrated text story by Andy Lanning/Dan Abnett, art by Anthony Williams (pencils) and Andy Lanning (inks), in Judge Dredd Annual 1991 (1990)
“Engram", written by Alan Grant, art and co–plotting by David Roach, in 2000 AD #712–717 and #758–763 (1991)Batman / Judge Dredd:
Judgement on Gotham, written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Simon Bisley, graphic novel () (1991)Anderson: Psi Division:
“The Most Dangerous Game", illustrated text story by Mark Millar, art by Dermot Power, in Judge Dredd Yearbook 1992 (1991)
“Blythe Spirit", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in the Judge Dredd Megazine (volume 2) #8 (1992)
“Reasons to Be Cheerful", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson (episode 1) and Siku (2), in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #10–11 (1992)
“The Witch? Report", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #14 (1992)
“Baby Talk,” written by Alan Grant and Tony Luke, art by Russel Fox, in Judge Dredd Mega Special #5 (1992)
“George", written by Alan Grant, art by Russell Fox, in Judge Dredd Yearbook 1993 (1992)
“The Jesus Syndrome", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #22–24 (1993)
“Childhood's End", written by Alan Grant, art by Kev Walker, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #27–34 (1993)Anderson: Psi:
“Voyage of the Seeker", written by Alan Grant, art by Mark Wilkinson, on back of poster, free gift with Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #37 (1993)
“Postcards from the Edge", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson (episodes 1, 10–11), Tony Luke (2, 8), Charles Gillespie (3, 9), Arthur Ranson (4), Xuasus (5–7), in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #50–60 (1994)
“Postcard to Myself", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #73 (1995)Anderson: Psi Division:
“Something Wicked", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson (episodes 1–3) and Charles Gillespie (4–7), in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 2) #74–80 (1995)
“Satan", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 3) #1–7 (1995)
“The Protest", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine (vol. 3) #14 (1996)
“Wonderwall", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1045–1049 (1997)
“Crusade", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1050–1061 (1997)
“Danse Macabre", written by Alan Grant, art by Angel Unzueta, in 2000 AD #1076 (1998)
“Witch", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1087–1089 (1998)
“The Great Debate", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1090 (1998)
“Lawless", written by Alan Grant, art by Trevor Hairsine, in 2000 AD #1102–1103 (1998)
Batman / Judge Dredd:
Die Laughing, written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Glenn Fabry (issue #1) and Jim Murray (issue #2), two-part miniseries (1998)Anderson: Psi Division:
“Horror Story", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1132–1137 (1999)
“Semper Vi", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1140 (1999)
“R*Evolution", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 2000 AD #1263–1272 (2001)Judge Death:
“My Name is Death", written by John Wagner, art by Frazer Irving, in 2000 AD #1289–1294 (2002)Anderson: Psi Division:
“Half–Life", written by Alan Grant and Tony Luke, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #214–217 (2003)
“WMD,” written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #221–226 (2004)
"Placebo", written by Rufus Dog, art by John McCrea and Angus McKie, in a supplement to the Judge Dredd Megazine #224 (2004)
“Lock–in", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #227–230 (2005)
“City of the Dead", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #231–236 (2005)
“Lucid", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #238–241 (2005)
“Big Robots", written by Alan Grant, art by Dave Taylor, in Judge Dredd Megazine #257–264 (2007)
“Wiierd", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #272–276 (2008)
“Biophyle", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #277–278 (2008)
“House of Vyle", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #300–304 (2010)Cadet Anderson: Psi Division:
“Big Girls Don't Cry", written by Alan Grant, art by Patrick Goddard, in 2000 AD #2011 (2010)
“Teenage Kyx", written by Alan Grant, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #1734–1739 (2011)Anderson: Psi Division:
“The Trip", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #309–313 (2011)What If...?"…Cassandra Anderson Hadn't Become a Judge?" written by Alan Grant, art by Robin Smith, in 2000 AD #1773 (2012)Cadet Anderson: Psi Division:
“Algol", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Yeowell, in 2000 AD #1780–1785 (2012)Anderson: Psi Division:
"Stone Voices", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #327–331 (2012)
"The Hades Trip", text story by George Pickett, in Judge Dredd Megazine #330 (2012)Judge Dredd:
"The Pits", written by Alan Grant, art by Jon Davis-Hunt, in Judge Dredd Megazine #332 (2013)Cadet Anderson: Psi Division "One in Ten", written by Alan Grant, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #1833–1839 (2013)Anderson: Psi Division "Dead End", written by Alan Grant, art by Michael Dowling, in Judge Dredd Megazine #343–349 (2013–2014)
Sequel to "Algol" and "One in Ten."
"Horror Comes to Velma Dinkley", written by Alan Grant, art by Darren Douglas, in 2000 AD Winter Special 2014 Judge Dredd "Dark Justice", written by John Wagner, art by Greg Staples, in 2000 AD Prog 2015 and #1912–1921 (2014–2015)Anderson: Psi Division"Mutineers", written by Emma Beeby, art by Andrew Currie, in Judge Dredd Megazine #359–360 (2015)
"Too Much Information", text story by Alec Worley, in Judge Dredd Megazine #361 (2015)
"Tower of Skin", text story by Andrew Hawnt, in Judge Dredd Megazine #373 (2016)
"The Candidate", written by Emma Beeby, art by Nick Dyer and Ben Willsher, in 2000 AD #1993–1999 (2016)
"A Dream of Death", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #2000 (2016)
"Dragon Blood", written by Alan Grant, art by Paul Marshall, in Judge Dredd Megazine #380–384 (2017)
"Hag Team", written by Dan Abnett, art by Dani and John Charles, in 2000 AD Free Comic Book Day prog (2017)
"NWO", written by Alan Grant, art by Paul Marshall, in Judge Dredd Megazine #385–390 (2017)
"Undertow", written by Emma Beeby, art by David Roach (episodes 1–4) and Mike Collins and Cliff Robinson (from episode 5) and Jose Villarrubia (colours on all episodes), in 2000 AD #2073–2080 (2018)
"SPA Day", written by Maura McHugh, art by Emma Vieceli & Barbara Nosenzo, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2018"Jordan Ramzy's Kitchen Nightmare", written by Alan Grant, art by Inaki Miranda and Eva de la Cruz, in Judge Dredd Megazine #400 (2018)
"Death's Dark Angels", written by Alan Grant, art by Jake Lynch, in 2000 AD #2100 (2018)
"Spellcraft", written by Alec Worley, art by P.J. Holden and Gary Caldwell, in 2000 AD #2130 (2019)
"Martyrs", written by Emma Beeby, art by Aneke and Barbara Nosenzo, in 2000 AD #2137–2144 (2019)
"The Dead Run", written by Maura McHugh, art by Patrick Goddard and Pippa Mather, in Judge Dredd Megazine #410–414 (2019)
"Judge Death: The Movie", written by Alan Grant, art by Jake Lynch and Jim Boswell, in 2000 AD #2150 (2019)
"First-Class Citizen", written by Cavan Scott, art by Paul Davidson and Len O'Grady, in 2000 AD #2183 (2020)
"End of Days", written by Rob Williams, art by Colin MacNeil, Henry Flint and Chris Blythe, in 2000 AD #2184–2199 (2020)
"No Country for Old Psis", written by Maura McHugh, art by Steven Austen and Barbara Nosenzo, in Judge Dredd Megazine #424 (2020)
"Early Warning", written by Cavan Scott, art by Paul Davidson and Len O'Grady, in 2000 AD #2206 (2020)
"Deep Burn", written by Cavan Scott, art by Paul Davidson and Matt Soffe, in 2000 AD #2233 (2021)
"All Will Be Judged", written by Maura McHugh, art by Anna Morozova and Pippa Bowland, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2021"Be Psi-ing You", written by Maura McHugh, art by Lee Carter, in 2000 AD #2250, 2021
Anderson as a supporting character
Judge Dredd: "The Apocalypse War", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #245–270 (1982)
“The Graveyard Shift,” written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ron Smith, in 2000 AD #335–341 (1983)
"Silence Isn't Golden," written by John Wagner, art by Ron Smith, in the Daily Star 17 August 1985
“Tomb of the Judges,” written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in 2000 AD #496–498 (1986)
"Bride of Death," written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, Daily Star 1 January – 19 March 1987
"A Guide to Mega-City Law," written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, Daily Star 19 June – 12 September 1987 (18–22 August only)
“A Total Near Death Experience,” written by Alan Grant, art by Barry Kitson, in 2000 AD #629–630 (1989)
“And the Wind Cried,” written by Alan Grant, art by Mike Collins and Peter Ventner, in 2000 AD #637 (1989)
“Nightmares,” written by John Wagner, art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #702–706 (1990)
“Death Aid,” written by Garth Ennis, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #711–720 (1990–1991)
"Cult of the Thugee," written by Alan Grant, art by Glyn Dillon, in Judge Dredd Mega-Special #4 (1991)
“Return of the Assassin,” written by John Wagner, art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #1141–1147 (1999)
“The Trial,” written by John Wagner, art by Simon Davis, in 2000 AD #1148–1150 (1999)
“Trial of Strength,” written by John Wagner, art by Neil Googe and Stephen Baskerville (inks 2), in 2000 AD #1151–1152 (1999)
“War Games,” written by John Wagner, art by Neil Googe (episode 1), Mike McMahon (2) and Charlie Adlard (3), Andy Clarke (pencils 4–5), Stephen Baskerville (inks 4–5), Colin Wilson (6–7), in 2000 AD #1153–1159 (1999)
“Endgame,” written by John Wagner, art by Charlie Adlard, in 2000 AD #1160–1164 (1999)
“Placebo,” written by Rufus Dog, art by John McCrea, in free supplement to 2000 AD #1405 (2004)
“Judgement,” written by Gordon Rennie, art by Ian Gibson, in 2000 AD #1523–1528 (2007)Tharg the Mighty: “A Night 2 Remember,” relevant page written by Andy Diggle, art by Jock, in 2000 AD #1280 (2002)Judge Dredd: "Serial Serial," written by John Wagner, art by Colin MacNeil, in 2000 AD #1950–1954 (2015) (third episode only)
"Apotheosis," written by Mike Carroll and Maura McHugh, art by James Newell and Jim Boswell, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2021 Collected editions
The Judge Anderson, Anderson: Psi Division and Anderson: Psi stories (and also Judge Corey) are being collected in order of their original publication in a series of trade paperbacks:
Judge Anderson: The Psi Files Volume 1, Rebellion Developments, 2009,
"Revenge" (also known as "Four Dark Judges"), written by Alan Grant, art by Brett Ewins (episodes 1–7), Cliff Robinson (8–10, 12) and Robin Smith (11), in 2000 AD #416–427 (1985)
"The Possessed", written by Alan Grant (as R. Clark), art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #468–478 (1986)
"Hour of the Wolf", written by Alan Grant, art by Barry Kitson and Will Simpson, in 2000 AD #520–531 (1987)
"Contact", written by Alan Grant, art by Mark Farmer, in 2000 AD #607–609 (1988–1989)
"Beyond the Void", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD #612–613 (1989)
"Helios", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #614–622 (1989)
Judge Corey: "Leviathan's Farewell", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD Sci–Fi Special 1988 (1988)
"Triad", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 2000 AD #635–644 (1989)
"The Prophet", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #645–647 (1989)
"The Random Man", written by Alan Grant, art by Carlos Ezquerra, in 2000 AD #657–659 (1989)
"The Screaming Skull", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in 2000 AD #669–670 (1990)
"Engram", written by Alan Grant, art and co–plotting by David Roach, in 2000 AD #712–717 and #758–763 (1991)
"The Haunting", written by Alan Grant, art by Kim Raymond, 2000 AD Annual 1984 (1983)
Judge Anderson: The Psi Files Volume 2, Rebellion Developments, 2012,
"Shamballa", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 200AD #700-711 (1991)
"Blythe Spirit", written by Alan Grant, art by David Roach, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.08 (1992)
"Reasons to Be Cheerful", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson and Siku, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.10 - 2.11 (1992)
"The Witch? Report", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.14 (1992)
"The Jesus Syndrome", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.22 - 2.24 (1993)
"Childhood's End", written by Alan Grant, art by Kevin Walker, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.27 - 2.34 (1993-4)
"Voyage of the Seeker", written by Alan Grant, art by Mark Wilkinson, on back of poster, free gift with Judge Dredd Megazine 2.37 (1993)
"Postcards from the Edge", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson (episodes 1, 10–11), Tony Luke (2, 8), Charles Gillespie (3, 9), Arthur Ranson (4), Xuasus (5–7), in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.50–2.60 (1994)
"Postcard to Myself", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.73 (1995)
"The Mind of Edward Bottlebum", written by John Wagner and Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, Judge Dredd Annual 1985 (1984)
"A Fistful of Denimite", written by Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in Judge Dredd Annual 1986 (1985)
"Golem", written by Alan Grant, art by Enric Romero, in 2000 AD Annual 1987 (1986)
"A Soldier's Tale", written by Alan Grant, art by Mike Collins,in Judge Dredd Annual 1988 (1987)
Judge Anderson: The Psi Files Volume 3, Rebellion Developments, 2013,
"Something Wicked", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson (episodes 1–3) and Charles Gillespie (4–7), in Judge Dredd Megazine 2.74–2.80 (1995)
"Satan", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine 3.1–3.7 (1995)
"The Protest", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine 3.14 (1996)
"Wonderwall", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1045–1049 (1997)
"Crusade", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1050–1061 (1997)
"Danse Macabre", written by Alan Grant, art by Angel Unzueta, in 2000 AD #1076 (1998)
"Witch", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1087–1089 (1998)
"The Great Debate", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1090 (1998)
"Lawless", written by Alan Grant, art by Trevor Hairsine, in 2000 AD #1102–1103 (1998)
"Dear Diary", illustrated text story by Peter Milligan, art by Eddy Cant, in 2000 AD Annual 1988 (1987)
"Colin Wilson Block", written by Alan Grant, art by Ian Gibson, in 2000 AD Winter Special 1988 (1988)
"Confessions of a She–Devil", written by Alan Grant, art by Mick Austin, in 2000 AD Annual 1990 (1989)
"Exorcise Duty", illustrated text story by Andy Lanning/Dan Abnett, art by Anthony Williams (pencils) and Andy Lanning (inks), in Judge Dredd Annual 1991 (1990)
Judge Anderson: The Psi Files Volume 4, Rebellion Developments, 2014,
"Horror Story", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1132–1137 (1999)
"Semper Vi", written by Alan Grant, art by Steve Sampson, in 2000 AD #1140 (1999)
"R*Evolution", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in 2000 AD #1263–1272 (2001)
"Half–Life", written by Alan Grant and Tony Luke, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #214–217 (2003)
"WMD", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #221–226 (2004)
"Lock–in", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #227–230 (2005)
"City of the Dead", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #231–236 (2005)
"The Most Dangerous Game", illustrated text story by Mark Millar, art by Dermot Power, in Judge Dredd Yearbook 1992 (1991)
"Baby Talk", written by Alan Grant and Tony Luke, art by Russel Fox, in Judge Dredd Mega Special 1992 (1992)
"George", written by Alan Grant, art by Russell Fox, in Judge Dredd Yearbook 1993 (1992)
Judge Anderson: The Psi Files Volume 5, Rebellion Developments, 2016,
"Lucid", written by Alan Grant, art by Arthur Ranson, in Judge Dredd Megazine #238–241 (2005)
"Big Robots", written by Alan Grant, art by Dave Taylor, in Judge Dredd Megazine #257–264 (2007)
"Wiierd", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #272–276 (2008)
"Biophyle", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #277–278 (2008)
"House of Vyle", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #300–304 (2010)
"The Trip", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #309–313 (2011)
"Stone Voices", written by Alan Grant, art by Boo Cook, in Judge Dredd Megazine #327–331 (2012)
"What If … Cassandra Anderson Hadn't Become a Judge?" written by Alan Grant, art by Robin Smith, in 2000 AD #1773 (2012)
"Horror Comes to Velma Dinkley", written by Alan Grant, art by Darren Douglas, in 2000 AD Winter Special 2014The Judge Dredd stories are being collected, in order, in the series Judge Dredd: The Complete Case Files.
The Judge Death story "My Name Is Death" was reprinted in a graphic novel of the same title by Rebellion in 2005, .
The Cadet Anderson stories were reprinted in volume 88 of Judge Dredd: The Mega Collection in May 2018 (a total of seven volumes of that collection collect Anderson stories).
In other media
Novels
Mitchel Scanlon has written three Judge Anderson novels that have been published by Black Flame:
Fear the Darkness (February 2006)
Red Shadows (May 2006)
Sins of the Father (February 2007)
Anderson also appears as a supporting character in Judge Dredd novels:
Dread Dominion by Stephen Marley (May 1994)
Dredd Vs Death by Gordon Rennie (October 2003)
Alec Worley has written three novellas published by Abaddon Books, featuring Anderson in her rookie year as a Judge, collected in the omnibus edition Judge Anderson: Year One, (June 2017):
Heartbreaker (October 2014)
The Abyss (December 2015)
A Dream of the Nevertime (June 2017)
Three more novellas by different authors were published separately, and later published together in the omnibus Judge Anderson: Year Two in 2019:
Bigger Than Biggs by Danie Ware (December 2018)
Devourer by Laurel Sills (March 2019)
Flytrap by Zina Hutton (August 2019)
Radio
Judge Dredd: Crime Chronicles - Double Zero (January 2010) written by James Swallow and produced by Big Finish Productions; Anderson was voiced by Louise Jameson.
Film
Olivia Thirlby portrays Anderson in the 2012 film Dredd, as a Cadet Judge assigned to Dredd for her final assessment. She has attempted to take the Judge aptitude test since she was nine, but her latest attempt to become a Judge saw her fail to pass by 3%, although her powers are such a significant potential asset that the board feels that it is worth testing her in the field to be evaluated directly.
Computer game
Anderson appeared as a playable character in the Dredd Vs Death videogame in 2003.
Awards
1983: Won "Character Most Worthy of Own Title" Eagle Award
1986: Nominated for "Favourite Supporting Character" Eagle Award
See also
Orlok the Assassin
History of Mega-City One
Notes
References
Judge Anderson at 2000 AD online
Bishop, David. Thrill-Power Overload (Rebellion Developments, 260 pages, February 2007, )
External links
First Anderson story: "The Haunting"The 2000 AD A.B.C. #6: Anderson: Psi Division'' at YouTube
Comics characters introduced in 1980
Anderson: Psi Division
Fictional telepaths
2000 AD comic strips
Anderson
Anderson
Fictional occult and psychic detectives
Fictional police officers in comics
Fictional women soldiers and warriors
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva
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Kumārajīva
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Kumārajīva (Sanskrit, , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of Chinese Buddhism. According to Lu Cheng, Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".
Kumārajīva first studied teachings of the Sarvastivadin schools, later studied under Buddhasvāmin, and finally became an adherent of Mahayana Buddhism, studying the Mādhyamaka doctrine of Nāgārjuna. After mastering the Chinese language, Kumārajīva settled as a translator and scholar in Chang'an (c. 401 CE). He was the head of a team of translators which included his amanuensis Sengrui. This team was responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese.
Kumārajīva also introduced the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy into China which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school").
Life
Early life
Kumārajīva's father Kumārāyana was from ancient India, probably from present-day Kashmir, his father was an Indian prince, the son of a high minister, whom the king of Kucha pressured to marry his younger sister and so his mother was a Kuchan princess and devout Buddhist who significantly influenced his early studies. His grandfather Ta-to is supposed to have had a great reputation. His father became a monk, left Kashmir, crossed the Pamir Mountains and arrived in Kucha, where he became the royal priest. The sister of the king, Jīva, also known as Jīvaka, married him and they produced Kumārajīva. Jīvaka joined the Tsio-li nunnery, north of Kucha, when Kumārajīva was just seven.
As a young boy (beginning at the age of 9), Kumārajīva studied the Agamas and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma under masters in North India, Kashmir and Kucha, which were centers of Sarvastivada monasticism and scholarship. He later converted to and studied Mahayana under the Kashmirian Buddhayaśas in Kashgar. He received full monastic ordination at the age of 20 in Kucha and also studied the Sarvastivada Vinaya along with the Madhyamaka philosophy. Over time he became a famous figure known for his broad learning and skill in debate.
Capture, Imprisonment and Release
In 379 CE, Kumārajīva's fame reached China when a Chinese Buddhist monk named Seng Jun visited Kucha and described Kumārajīva's abilities. Efforts were then made by Emperor Fu Jian (苻堅) of the Former Qin Dynasty to bring Kumārajīva to the Qin capital of Chang'an. To do this, his general Lü Guang was dispatched with an army in order to conquer Kucha and return with Kumārajīva. Fu Jian is recorded as telling his general, "Send me Kumārajīva as soon as you conquer Kucha." However, when Fu Jian's main army at the capital was defeated, his general Lü Guang declared his own state and became a warlord in 386 CE, and had Kumārajīva captured when he was around 40 years old. Being a non-Buddhist, Lü Guang had Kumārajīva imprisoned for many years, essentially as booty. During this time, it is thought that Kumārajīva became familiar with the Chinese language. Kumārajīva was also coerced by Lü into marrying the Kucha King's daughter, and so he was forced to give up his monk's vows.
After the Yao family of Former Qin overthrew the previous ruler Fu Jian, the emperor Yao Xing made repeated pleas to the warlords of the Lü family to free Kumārajīva and send him east to Chang'an. When the Lü family would not free Kumārajīva from their hostage, an exasperated Yao Xing had armies dispatched to Liangzhou in order to defeat the warlords of the Lü family and to have Kumārajīva brought back to them. Finally the armies of Emperor Yao succeeded in defeating the Lü family, and Kumārajīva was brought east to the capital of Chang'an in 401 CE.
Chang'an and Translation work
At Chang'an, Kumārajīva was introduced to the emperor Yao Xing, the court, and the Buddhist leaders. He became a famous and well respected in China, being given the title of "National Preceptor" (guoshi). At Chang'an, Kumārajīva led a court sponsored translation team of scholars who worked on translating numerous Sanskrit Buddhist texts into the Chinese language. Yao Xing looked upon him as his own teacher, and many young and old Chinese Buddhists flocked to him, learning both from his direct teachings and through his translation bureau activities at the Xiaoyao Gardens where daily sessions were held (attended by over a thousand monks). Within a dozen years, Kumārajīva's translation bureau had translated about thirty five sutras in 294 scrolls. His translations are still in use today in Chinese Buddhism. Kumarajiva had four main disciples who worked on his team: Daosheng (竺道生), Sengzhao (僧肇), Daorong (道融), and Sengrui (僧睿).
Scholarly Work
Translation
Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, and his team's translation style is known for its clarity and for overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation which matched Buddhist terminology with Daoist and Confucian terms. Kumārajīva's readable translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness that reflects his prioritization on conveying the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering. Because of this, his renderings of seminal Mahāyāna texts have often remained more popular than later, more literal translations, e.g. those of Xuanzang.
Kumārajīva's translations were very influential on the development of Buddhist Chinese and they introduced much commonly used terminology, such as:
大乘 ''Dà chéng'', or "greater vehicle," for the Sanskrit term Mahāyāna
念處 "niàn chǔ" for smṛtyupasthāna (placement of mindfulness)
菩提 "pú tí" for Bodhi (awakening)
性 "xìng" for dhatū (nature, source)
These translations were a group effort and therefore it is more accurate to say that they were translated by a committee which was guided by Kumārajīva, not by Kumārajīva alone. The process of translation began with the reading of the text by Kumārajīva who would also give a running commentary in Chinese. The Chinese monks and students would discuss the text with Kumārajīva and among themselves. A translation in Chinese would emerge from this process, which would be checked by Kumārajīva. The text was then written down and revised numerous times. These were also public events which were attended by devotees, including emperor Yao Xing.
Kumārajīva also developed a system of transcription in order to render Sanskrit terms in Chinese by using certain Chinese characters and their sounds to represent each syllable of a foreign word. This system would go on to become the basis of the development of pinyin romanization. This encounter with Sanskrit influenced the development of the Chinese language itself, not only in the adoption of specifically Buddhist terms, but also regarding certain secular terms as well (such as "moment").
Kumārajīva has sometimes been regarded by both the Chinese and by western scholars as abbreviating his translations, with later translators such as Xuanzang being regarded as being more "precise." According to Jan Nattier, this is actually an erroneous and mistaken view, and the main difference was due to the earlier versions of Kumarajiva's source texts:
Translated Texts
According to John M. Thompson "at present there are fifty two translations in the Taishō under his name and their authenticity is fairly well accepted." They include Mahāyāna sutras as well as works on Buddhist meditation (dhyāna) and Abhidharma.
Sutras
Among the most important sutras translated by Kumārajīva and his team (probably from Kuchan target sources) are the following:
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Diamond Sutra)
Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha (T 366)
Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra (Lotus Sutra) (T 263—62)
Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra (T 475)
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, (T 227, 408 CE)
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (T 223, 403-404 CE)
Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra (T 642)
Daśabhūmikā Sūtra (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas.
Acintyaprabhāsa-nirdeśa-sūtra (T 484)
Viśeṣacintā-brahma-paripṛcchā (T 585—86)
Bhadrakalpa (T 425)
Vasudhara-sūtra (T 481—82)
Pūrṇa-paripṛcchā ( T 310, 17)
Ratnajāli-paripṛcchā (T 433)
Vidhi-hṛdaya-vyūha (T 307)
Sarva-puṇya-samuccaya-samādhi-sūtra (T 381—82)
Maitreyavyākaraṇa Sūtra
Treatises
They also translated several key treatises (mainly of the Madhyamaka school), which became the central works of East Asian Madhyamaka Buddhism. These are:
The Middle Treatise (Ch. 中論, pinyin: Zhonglun, T. 1564; Skt. Madhyamakaśāstra), comprising Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā ("Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way") alongside a commentary by *Vimalākṣa / *Piṅgala (Ch. 青目, pinyin: Qingmu).
The Treatise on the Twelve Gates (Ch. 十二門論, pinyin: Shiermenlun, T. 1568), allegedly Nāgārjuna's *Dvādaśadvāraśāstra, also reconstructed as *Dvādaśamukhaśāstra or as *Dvādaśanikāyaśāstra.
The Hundred(-Verse) Treatise (Ch. 百論, pinyin: Bailun, T. 1569; Skt. Śatakaśāstra, or Śataśāstra), consisting of a commentary by a certain master Vasu on some verses by Āryadeva.
"Commentary on the Great Perfection of Wisdom" (Ch. 大智度論, pinyin: Dazhidulun, T. 1509; Skt. Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa). A commentary on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra attributed to Nāgārjuna, but this attribution is disputed by some modern scholars.
Satyasiddhi Shastra (Ch'eng-shih lun) - this Abhidharma text, while not being a work of Madhyamaka, was influential on Chinese Madhyamaka, since it also taught the emptiness of dharmas.
Other treatises that the team worked on include the Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā (T 1521), a commentary to the Daśabhūmikā Sūtra attributed to Nagarjuna and the Treatise On Arising Bodhicitta (T.1659).
Meditation texts
Kumārajīva and his team also translated some treatises on meditation (dhyāna). In the Taisho Tripitaka (vol. 15), five meditation works are attributed to Kumārajīva:
Scripture of the Secret Essentials of Dhyāna (T613. Chan mi yao fa jing 禪祕要法經)
Scripture on the Samādhi of Sitting Dhyāna (T614. Zuòchán sān mēi jīng 坐禪三昧經), ZSJ (also called the Bodhisattvadhyāna Pusa Chanfa Jing 菩薩禪法經 or The Scripture on the Practice of Dhyāna in The Wilderness E lan Rou Xi Chan Fa Jing 阿蘭若習禪法經).
Scripture on the Bodhisattva's Methods of Censuring Sexual Desire (T615. Pusa he seyu fa jing 菩薩訶色欲法經)
Essential Explanation of The Method of Dhyāna (T616. Chán fǎ yào jiě 禪法要解).
The Abridged Essence of Dhyāna (T617. Siwei Lue Yao Fa 思惟略要法)
Scholars are divided on how many of these were actually worked on by Kumārajīva (though T613 and T614 are well attested in early catalogs and prefaces). Furthermore, Chinese sources indicate that these works were edited, summarized and extracted from Indian sources. Eric Greene explains that the main methods of mediation taught in T614 are the “five gates of chan” (五門禪) "associated with the so-called yogācāras of northwest India," which "became a standard arrangement in later writings on meditation" and are the following:
the contemplation of the impure (bu jing guan 不淨觀; aśubha-bhāvanā) for those beset by lust,
the cultivation of love (ci xin 慈心; the four apramāṇa meditations) for those with aversion,
the contemplation of dependent origination (yin yuan 因 緣; pratītyasamutpāda) for those with ignorance,
meditation on the breath (nian xi 念息; ānāpāna-smṛti) for those with “excessive thinking” (多思覺人; vitarka), and
recollection of the Buddha (nian fo 念佛; buddhānusmṛti) for those with “equally distributed” (等分) defilements.
After having calmed the mind and entered dhyāna (chan 禪) through these methods, the meditator then proceeds to develop wisdom (prajñā) by cultivating the four “foundations of mindfulness” (si nian chu 思念處; smṛtyupasthāna). According to Greene, "following this, one moves through the so-called four nirvedha-bhāgīya-kuśalamūla (si shan gen 四善根), the “roots of good that lead to liberation,” which in the Sarvāstivādin system are the highest levels of mundane accomplishment. This in turn leads to the so-called “path of vision” (darśana-maraga), a sequence of sixteen mental moments in which, by means of insight into the four noble truths."
While T614 discusses the path of hinayana as well as the bodhisattva path, the actual meditation practices are not different, they are just approached in different ways. For example, the bodhisattva practices the same contemplation of impurity as the sravaka, but they are also warned not to become so disgusted with the world that they seek immediate nirvāṇa. Instead, a bodhisattva should always practice these meditations with the wish for perfecting themselves in order to help others. As such, Kumārajīva seems to have understood the practice of a bodhisattva to have consisted of the same methods of meditation found in śrāvaka-yāna sources, the only difference being that bodhisattvas have a different motivation and a different goal (Buddhahood).
Other
Other translations include the Da zhuang yan jing lun 大莊嚴經論 (*Mahālaṃkāra-sūtra-śāstra) of Asvaghosa and Samyukta avadana sutra.
According to Robinson,Kumārajīva's additions to the Vinaya section of the Chinese canon are the Sarvāstivāda-vinaya (T 1435), the Sarvāstivāda-prātimokṣa-sutra (T 1436), and, according to tradition, the Pu-sa-chieh-p n (bodhisattva-prātimokṣa), which is probably the second half of the present Brahmajala-sutra (T 1484).
Original works and philosophy
Kumārajīva is also known to have authored a few original works, including his Commentary on the Vimalakīrti-nirdesa-sūtra (Zhu Weimojie Jing. Taisho number 1775) and the Shixiang lun (Treatise on Tattva, now lost). Kumārajīva and his team are also responsible for a biography of Nagarjuna (T 2047), which may have been based on Kumārajīva's own accounts to his students.
Another text which contains some original teachings by Kumārajīva is the Jiumoluoshi fashi dayi (The Great Teaching of Dharma Master Kumārajīva; T no. 1856), which is a series of letters between Kumārajīva and Lushan Huiyuan (334-416) discussing some basic Mahayana topics.
Regarding Kumārajīva's own philosophical views, according to Richard H. Robinson:He shows himself to be an orthodox Śūnyavādin and Mādhyamika, rejects the authority of the Abhidharma, and interprets the Āgamas in a Mahāyāna way, holds that the Buddha's statements are purely pragmatic and do not imply any real entities, and denies that real entities arise, because (a) neither inherence nor non-inherence of the effect in the cause is admissible, and (b) simultaneous and successive occurrence of cause and effect are alike untenable. He maintains that reality transcends the four modes of the tetralemma, and he holds Nagarjuna's concept of negation.Likewise, according to John M. Thompson, the philosophy which emerges from the explanations of Kumārajīva is "virtually identical to the views of Nagarjuna and other Madhyamikas, stressing the emptiness of all dharmas (even the "emptiness of emptiness") and the Bodhisattva's non-attachment to all things and teachings."
Thompson adds,Like both the Prajñāpāramita sutras and Madhyamika commentaries, Kumārajīva says that the Buddha's teachings ultimate come from and lead us to a level beyond words and thought. Because the Buddha and Bodhisattvas reside in this transcendent realm (which is none other than our present world) their wisdom enables them to use various upaya to lead suffering beings to enlightenment. Apparent contradictions and confusions in Buddhist texts are due to their upaya, which accommodate to the audience's level and lead them to the truth. Kumārajīva even suggests that the teachings in the sutras may delude those who are unprepared, i.e. at a lower level of understanding. According to Kumārajīva, we truly understand the Dharma only when we attain complete and pure prajñā. Prajñā is the means of removing all obstacles and hindrances, all attachments–even attachments to itself. As Kumārajīva says, "In the Buddha-Dharma, the medicine of prajñā is just like this. By this medicine, one demolishes the objects of addictions. If within prajñā beings then conceive addition, then one must practice a method of treatment. If within prajñā there are no addictions to prajñā, then further treatment is not applied." These ideas are found in the Dazhidulun (T. 1509; Skt. Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa). Various modern scholars also hold that the Dazhidulun, which was traditional held to be an original work of Nagarjuna that was translated by Kumārajīva's team, actually contains numerous additions by Kumārajīva and his team or is actually a product of the editorship of Kumārajīva's student Sengrui. As Etienne Lamotte notes, Kumārajīva's team also edited and abridged the latter half of this text considerably.
Influence
According to Rafal Felbur, The translations associated with his name – executed both from Prakrits, i.e. vernacular forms of Sanskrit, and from early forms of Buddhist Sanskrit, into a form of classical Chinese – have enjoyed enormous success in the Sinitic tradition. This success is so great that even when, in the subsequent centuries, other scholars produced new and supposedly improved translations of the same texts, it has been the “Kumarajiva versions” that have remained in use in the devotional, exegetical, and literary life of East Asia up to the present day. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as the Sinitic Buddhist traditions have contributed to the emergence of a distinctly global modernist Buddhism, the Kumarajiva corpus of early fifth-century translations has been an implicit major presence.Aside from the linguistic and terminological influence of Kumārajīva's translation work, his work also influenced the philosophical understanding of Buddhism in China. According to Fan Muyou, before Kumārajīva, many Chinese Buddhists had serious misunderstandings of emptiness and not-self. This is because they had been influenced by Neo-Taoist Xuanxue philosophy and thus they saw emptiness as either a kind of non-being, as a real, or absolute substance (both of which are mistaken interpretations of the concepts of śūnyatā and anatman). Kumārajīva and his students like Sengzhao and Sengrui recognized these errors and worked to correct them by introducing proper interpretations based on Indian Madhyamaka philosophy.
See also
Chinese Translation Theory
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
References
Sources
Zürcher, Erik (2007) The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China. BRILL.
External links
344 births
413 deaths
4th-century Buddhist monks
5th-century Buddhist monks
Buddhist monks from the Western Regions
Chinese scholars of Buddhism
Sixteen Kingdoms translators
Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) Buddhist monks
Later Qin Buddhist monks
Sanskrit–Chinese translators
Chinese Buddhist missionaries
Buddhist missionaries
People from Aksu Prefecture
Buddhist translators
Chinese people of Kashmiri descent
Writers from Xinjiang
Former Qin Buddhist monks
Philosophers from Xinjiang
Madhyamaka scholars
Missionary linguists
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201280
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20the%20Manor%20Born
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To the Manor Born
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To the Manor Born is a BBC television sitcom that first aired on BBC1 from 1979 to 1981. A special one-off episode was produced in 2007. Starring Penelope Keith and Peter Bowles, the first 20 episodes and the 2007 special were written by Peter Spence, the creator, while the final episode in 1981 was written by script associate Christopher Bond. The title is a play on the phrase "to the manner born," from Shakespeare's Hamlet ("Though I am a native here and to the manner born, it is a custom more honoured in the breach than the observance".)
In To the Manor Born, Penelope Keith (who was best known for her role as Margo Leadbetter in the suburban sitcom The Good Life), plays upper-class Audrey fforbes-Hamilton. Upon the death of her husband, Audrey is forced to sell her vast country estate, Grantleigh Manor. However, she then moves into the estate's small, modest lodge house (where she can keep an eye on the estate's new owner) and manages to keep her butler and her much loved Rolls-Royce 20/25 motorcar. The manor is bought by Richard DeVere (played by Peter Bowles), a nouveau riche millionaire supermarket owner originally from Czechoslovakia. DeVere and fforbes-Hamilton have a love-hate relationship which is eventually resolved in the final episode in 1981 when they marry. In the 2007 special, they celebrate their 25th wedding anniversary.
The programme proved popular and it received high audience figures for many of its episodes, especially the series 1 final episode, the most watched British television programme (excluding live events) of the 1970s.
Production
Development
Peter Spence first thought of the idea behind To the Manor Born in the early 1970s when he was working for BBC Radio as a gag writer. One of the programmes that Spence wrote for featured a Cockney comedian, who had recently bought a manor house in an English country village. When holding a housewarming party, the comedian invited the previous occupant, a widow who could not afford to keep the house up and had moved to a smaller house in the village. The comedian's account of the lady, and the conversation he had with her, Spence later described as a "perfect description" of Audrey.
A few years later, following the success of The Good Life, Spence was asked by BBC Radio to come up with an idea for a programme to feature Keith. Thinking of Keith's character in The Good Life, Spence had the idea of an upper-class version of Margo Leadbetter and, from the account from the comedian, came up with Audrey fforbes-Hamilton. Instead of a Cockney comedian as the new owner of the manor, Spence decided on an American who sees the manor while in England looking for his roots. The American later discovers he is descended from the fforbes-Hamiltons. This was made into a radio pilot in 1976 with Bernard Braden as the American, but was never broadcast because of the interest to make it into a TV series.
When writing the TV series, Christopher Bond was brought in as the script associate and helped to adapt the series from radio to television. The American character was changed, and the idea of a character who appeared to be an English gentleman, but turns out not to be, was thought of. It was then decided that this character needed someone who could reveal his real background, and his mother was created, although it was not until Spence had nearly finished the first series that she was written in from the beginning. The characters of Brabinger and Marjory followed soon after. The first episode aired on 30 September 1979, a year after Keith had played Margo Leadbetter for the last time in The Good Life.
Filming
To the Manor Born was filmed on location in Cricket St Thomas, Somerset, and in Studio TC1 at the BBC's Television Centre in Shepherd's Bush, London. The Manor, Cricket House, was at the time of the original series owned by the father-in-law of Peter Spence, the show's creator and writer. Some interior scenes were also filmed inside Cricket House. The Old Lodge, which on screen was at the end of the Manor's drive, is in fact about one mile away and called West Lodge. A false gatepost was installed to help the illusion that the two are close together. The 2007 special was, like the original series, filmed on location in Cricket St Thomas in Somerset. This filming took place for about a week starting on 28 October 2007. The studio footage was filmed in front of a live audience at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire on 25 November 2007.
All the episodes were directed by Gareth Gwenlan, who also produced the original series. The 2007 special was co-produced by Gwenlan and Justin Davies.
During the filming, many cars were used; but the BBC continued to use the same vintage Rolls-Royce motorcar through the entire series, including the opening titles for the show. The Rolls-Royce (BMG443) has also been used in other BBC programmes such as Dad's Army.
Cast
The cast is led by Penelope Keith as Audrey fforbes-Hamilton and Peter Bowles as Richard de Vere. The other main cast members in the original series are Angela Thorne (playing Audrey's old friend Marjory), Daphne Heard (Richard's mother, Mrs Polouvicka), John Rudling (Brabinger the butler), Michael Bilton (Ned, the odd-job man) and Gerald Sim (the Rector). Rudling was absent in the 1979 Christmas special and for much of the second series due to his ill health; his character was temporarily replaced as butler by Ned. Rudling died in 1983. Angela Thorne had worked with Keith before when she had played Lady "George" Truscott in a 1977 episode of The Good Life. Michael Bilton played Basil Makepeace, a main character in the first four series of the sitcom Waiting for God in the 1990s before his death in 1993.
Peter Bowles had been asked some years earlier to play Jerry Leadbetter, the husband of Keith's Margo, in The Good Life. Owing to prior commitments, Bowles turned down the role, but had he played Jerry, it is unlikely he would have been offered the part of Richard; as Bowles later said, "There's no way I could have played Penelope Keith's screen husband in two separate sitcoms." However, in 1987 Bowles replaced Geoffrey Palmer as Keith's onscreen husband in the ITV sitcom Executive Stress.
The series also features many recurring characters, who are either estate workers or members of Audrey's social circle. Celia Imrie, who makes two appearances as Polly, later became known for her work with Victoria Wood, including the sitcom Dinnerladies, as well as roles in Kingdom and After You've Gone.
The 2007 Christmas special features four of the original cast members: Penelope Keith, Peter Bowles, Angela Thorne, and Gerald Sim. New characters include Alexander Armstrong as Adam fforbes-Hamilton, Audrey's nephew-by-marriage and godson; Alan David as Emmeridge, Audrey and Richard's outspoken butler; and Michael Cochrane as Archie Pennington-Booth, a neighbouring landowner. While the Rector makes only a brief appearance, the other three original characters are main characters throughout and are credited in the opening credits.
Plot
Original series
To the Manor Born is set in the fictional village of Grantleigh in Somerset, near the fictional town of Marlbury. The series begins with the funeral of Marton (sic) fforbes-Hamilton, the Lord of the Manor of Grantleigh. Audrey, his widow (and apparently also his cousin), is far from distraught, as she now has control of the Grantleigh Estate, which her family, the fforbes-Hamiltons, have controlled for 400 years. Her joy is short-lived though, as her solicitor, Arnold Plunkett, informs her that Marton was bankrupt and that the manor will have to be sold to pay off the debts. Audrey tries to buy back the manor at auction, but is outbid. The new Lord of the Manor is Richard DeVere, a recently widowed self-made millionaire who started his career on an East End fruit barrow and founded the "Cavendish Foods" supermarket chain, though Audrey sees him simply as a "grocer". DeVere brings his domineering mother, Maria Poulouvicka (who is nicknamed by Audrey as 'Mrs Poo'). She reveals to Audrey, who does not like foreigners, that she and her son came to Britain in 1939 from Czechoslovakia, and that Richard, whose real name is Bedřich Polouvicek, is half-Polish (on his late father Lazlo's side) and half-Czech. Mrs Polouvicka tries hard to fit into British country life, but her accent often leads to many mispronunciations and she frequently comes out with sayings from her "old Czechoslovakia". From early on in the series, she encourages her son to court Audrey.
Audrey moves into the "Old Lodge", at the end of the drive, where she can see most of what goes on at the manor. Living with her is her elderly and loyal butler, Brabinger, who has worked for the fforbes-Hamiltons his whole life, and her beagle Bertie. Audrey's supportive best friend, and a frequent visitor, is the well-meaning Marjory Frobisher, who quickly develops a crush on DeVere. Marjory, who was at school with Audrey, is still a schoolgirl at heart and a committed countryside campaigner. Marjory has no organisational ability, which leads to her being nicknamed "Muddlesome Marj" by some. Despite Marjory's encouragement, Audrey refuses to get a job, saying her only job could be running the Grantleigh Estate and doing other public service, which includes her being a magistrate. This means that money is a constant problem and Audrey has to learn to live within her means and new circumstances. During the second series, Brabinger is away ill; and Ned, whose tied cottage is being renovated by Richard, takes over as Audrey's butler. Ned, a gardener and "outside man", has worked on the estate all his life and finds working indoors difficult to get used to and he tends to lack the refined characteristics that a trained butler such as Brabinger possessed. Other estate staff include the estate foreman Mr Miller, the estate manager Mr Spalding and the cook Mrs Beecham. Another character, Polly, originally works at the local "Cavendish Foods" store and then at the doctors' surgery, while Linda Cartwright works in the stables and as a domestic. The postman, Mr Purvis, appears in two episodes.
Other characters include the local rector, who is not unhappy when Audrey loses the manor, hoping that it will prevent the dominating Audrey from having a say in the running of the Church and local causes. The rector favours Richard, who is frequently generous when it comes to donations to church funds. The village shop is run by Mrs Patterson, the local gossip who also favours Richard and does not get on with Audrey. The typically English Brigadier Lemington, of the Somerset Rifles, is another local landowner and friend of Audrey's and the Master of Foxhounds and, like Audrey and Marjory, has an interest in nature conservation. Arnold Plunkett and his wife Dorothy are friends of Audrey, while Arnold is also the family solicitor. Grantleigh's local estate agent is J.J. Anderson, of "Anderson and Fish", who appears at manor parties.
During the course of the three series, Audrey and Richard grow closer. Hostile to each other at the start, they grew to understand and respect each other, as both try to adapt to each other's ways. The last two 1981 episodes show Richard having problems at Cavendish. With his board of directors refusing to let Richard buy a refrigeration plant in Argentina, he seriously considers selling the manor to raise the money to buy the plant himself. Trying to help Richard, Audrey asks her uncle, a well-respected and connected member of the financial community, to lend Richard a hand. Thanks to him, things begin to go Richard's way. Unfortunately, Audrey's uncle dies before the deals are signed. Richard decides to sell the manor to pay for the refrigerated plant. By a twist of fate, Audrey inherits her uncle's fortune and buys the manor back. Now back home and on her own turf, Audrey asks Richard to marry her. Taken aback, Richard says yes and they are married in the final episode, broadcast on 29 November 1981.
2007 Christmas special
As Richard and Audrey plan to celebrate their silver wedding anniversary, each planning a surprise party for the other, Richard confesses to Audrey that he owns "Farmer Tom", a company that has been putting the neighbouring estates out of business. Audrey leaves him and goes to stay with Marjory, much to the latter's displeasure. Richard visits his mother's grave to develop a plan to win Audrey back. He decides to allow a rock concert to be held on the estate. When the licence application is up before the Magistrates' Court, Richard changes his mind. The following day, their anniversary, Marjory leads Audrey to a surprise party organised by Richard.
New characters in the 2007 Christmas special include Emmeridge, the outspoken butler replacing Brabinger; Adam fforbes-Hamilton, Marton's nephew and Audrey's godson, who has recently moved to Grantleigh to learn how to run an estate; and Archie Pennington-Booth, a neighbouring landowner driven to bankruptcy by "Farmer Tom". Marjory now lives in the Old Lodge that Audrey occupied during the original series, and she and Adam develop a romantic interest in each other. A small acknowledgement of Bertie and Brabinger appears in the special, consisting of a photo of Brabinger and a small beagle statuette on a side table. Richard's mother, "Mrs. Poo", is acknowledged by a marble headstone in the church graveyard and a framed photograph on the mantel of the manor's sitting room.
Episodes
To the Manor Born ran for three series and one Christmas special from 30 September 1979 to 29 November 1981. Each episode is half an hour long. The first series aired for seven episodes on Sundays at 8.45 pm, the second series for six episodes on Sundays at 8.35 pm and the seven-episode Series Three on Sundays at 7.15 pm. The Christmas special aired at 8.00 pm. All episodes aired on BBC1. A second Christmas special, announced on 24 October 2007, aired at 9.30 pm on BBC One on Christmas Day, 25 December 2007.
The theme tune for To the Manor Born was composed by Ronnie Hazlehurst, the BBC's Light Entertainment Music Director who composed the theme tunes for many sitcoms around this time.
Reception
Original Series
The programme was very popular with viewers. Several episodes received extremely high audience figures, especially the first series. This was partly due to the fact that ITV, the main rival channel to BBC1 in the United Kingdom, was in the middle of a long protracted strike which started in early August 1979. This saw nearly all of the local ITV companies go off air, with no programmes being aired from the network (except Channel Television in the Channel Islands), leaving only BBC 1 and BBC 2 as the channels left for the British public to watch until Wednesday 24 October 1979, when ITV returned to air, with the strike ending in a pay agreement. However, many viewers remained with the BBC and with shows such as To the Manor Born, as ITV took some months to get going again with new programmes. For the first month after the strike had ended, ITV found it hard to win back viewers who preferred to remain with the BBC, as ITV was airing repeats and filler programmes until new content was made from November 1979. This gave To the Manor Born a huge advantage with the viewing public. In 1979, the last episode of the first series received 23.95 million viewers, the fourth-highest figures for any programme in the UK in the 1970s, and the highest for a non-live event. The following year, 21.55 million people watched the last episode of series two, the fifth-highest viewing figure for the 1980s. The final episode in 1981 received 17.80 million viewers. The 2007 Christmas special garnered 10.25 million viewers and ranked as the 6th most watched programme in the UK for that week.
2007 Christmas special
Writing in the Sunday Express on 30 December 2007, Marshall Julius described the 2007 Christmas special as "so cosy and old-fashioned that I could easily have dismissed it with a cynical wave". However, he says he found himself enjoying it "about halfway through" and said "it was a real pleasure to see Peter Bowles and Penelope Keith, for both of whom I feel great affection, once again sparring on the small screen". Julius finished his review by commenting "Not that I'm saying I'd like a whole series of it but as a one-off event it was surprisingly welcome".
The British Comedy Guide was more critical saying that "whilst it gained great viewing figures it really wasn't a patch on the original episodes."
In other media
Novelisations
The writer Peter Spence wrote two books that accompanied To the Manor Born. While they were based on the TV episodes, both books did differ with added conversations, changed storylines and the characters being given different personality traits. The first book, published in 1979 by Arrow Books, is entitled To the Manor Born and is based on the first series episodes 1, 2, 4, 6 and 7. In this book, Brabinger's first name, which is never mentioned in the TV series, is revealed as Bertram and Ned's surname revealed as Peaslake. The second book, titled To the Manor Born Book 2, was published by the same publisher in 1980. This is a novelisation of the 1979 Christmas special and episodes 5, 4, 3, 2 and 6 from the second series, plus an original story.
Film version
A film version was announced by the Rank Organisation at the Cannes Film Festival in 1980, but then was abandoned when Rank pulled out of filmmaking.
Radio version
In 1997, 16 years after the original series of To the Manor Born ended on television, ten 30-minute episodes were recorded for radio, the programme's original intended medium. The episodes, originally aired on Saturdays on BBC Radio 2 from 25 January to 29 March 1997, were written by Peter Spence, six adapted from TV episodes and four new episodes. Keith and Thorne returned as Audrey and Marjory, while Keith Barron replaced Bowles as Richard. Other actors, including Frank Middlemass and Nicholas McArdle, who played Miller in the TV version, replaced many of the by then deceased original television cast members. The series has subsequently been repeated on BBC 7/BBC Radio 4 Extra. All ten episodes, collected, are now available for purchase on Audible and iTunes.
Radio cast
Radio episodes
Home releases
All three series, including the 1979 and 2007 Christmas specials, of To the Manor Born have been released in the UK (Region 2). The first series and the 1979 Christmas special were released on 5 May 2003, followed by Series Two on 29 December 2003 and Series Three on 14 June 2004. The DVDs feature an interview with Peter Spence. The 2007 Christmas special was released on Region 2 DVD on 11 February 2008.
The complete original series was released in a boxset in the United States and Canada (Region 1) on 15 June 2004.
All ten of the radio shows were released in collected form via iTunes in 2020.
In Australia (Region 4), all three seasons and a complete series boxset have been released. Also the 25th Wedding Anniversary Special.
References
External links
1979 British television series debuts
2007 British television series endings
1970s British sitcoms
1980s British sitcoms
2000s British sitcoms
BBC television sitcoms
BBC Radio comedy programmes
English-language television shows
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] |
201281
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Armed%20Forces
|
Structure of the United States Armed Forces
|
The chain of command leads from the President (as commander-in-chief) through the Secretary of Defense down to the newest recruits. The United States armed forces are organized through the United States Department of Defense, which oversees a complex structure of joint command and control functions with many units reporting to various commanding officers. The following is an incomplete list of the various major military units, commands, and DOD offices and agencies, including civilian and military chains of command.
Department of Defense
Secretary of Defense: Lloyd Austin
Deputy Secretary of Defense: Kathleen Hicks
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Under Secretary of Defense Comptroller/Chief Financial Officer
Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)
Director for Program Analysis and Evaluation
Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics
Director of Defense Research and Engineering
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and Technology)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Logistics and Material Readiness)
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (Nuclear and Chemical and Biological Defense Programs)
Director of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition Reform)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Advanced Systems and Concepts)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Environmental Security)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Industrial Affairs)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Science and Technology)
Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Force Management Policy)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Reserve Affairs)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Readiness)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Program Integration)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Planning)
Under Secretary of Defense for Policy
Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Policy)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Affairs)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Strategy and Threat Reduction)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Policy Support)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Technology Security Policy)
Defense Advisor, U.S. Mission NATO
Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence)
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Legislative Affairs)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs
General Counsel of the Department of Defense
Director of Operational Test and Evaluation
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (Intelligence Oversight)
Director of Administration and Management
Director of Net Assessment
Office of the Inspector General
Inspector General of the Department of Defense: Glenn A. Fine
Principal Deputy Inspector General
Dean of Instruction
EEO
Senior Military Officer
Assistant Inspector General for Administration and Management
Assistant Inspector General, Congressional/Committee Liaison
General Counsel
Deputy Inspector General for Auditing
Principal Assistant Inspector General (Audit)
Assistant Inspector General (Auditing)
Deputy Assistant Inspector General (Auditing)
Service Audit Agencies
Deputy Inspector General for Policy and Oversight
Assistant Inspector General (Audit Policy Oversight)
Assistant Inspector General (Inspection & Evaluations)
Assistant Inspector General (Investigation Policy & Oversight)
Director of Hotline
Director of AFU
Director of QMD
Director of TAD
Director of Data Mining
Service Inspector Generals
Deputy Inspector General for Investigations
Director for Investigations of Senior Officials
Director for Military Reprisal Investigation
Director for Civilian Reprisal Investigation
Director for Defense Criminal Investigative Service
Deputy Director for Defense Criminal Investigative Service
U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command
Naval Criminal Investigative Service
Air Force Office of Special Investigations
Deputy Inspector General for Intelligence
Deputy Assistant Inspector General (Intelligence Audits)
Deputy Assistant Inspector General (Intelligence Evaluation)
National Reconnaissance Office
Defense Intelligence Agency
National Security Agency
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Joint Staff
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: General Mark A. Milley, USA
Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: Admiral Christopher W. Grady, USN
Chief of Staff of the Army: General James C. McConville, USA
Commandant of the Marine Corps: General David H. Berger, USMC
Chief of Naval Operations: Admiral Michael M. Gilday, USN
Chief of Staff of the Air Force: General Charles Q. Brown Jr., USAF
Chief of the National Guard Bureau: General Daniel R. Hokanson, USAF
Chief of Space Operations: General John W. Raymond, USSF
Joint Staff
Assistant to the Chairman
Senior Enlisted Advisor of the Chairman
Director, Joint Staff
Manpower and Personnel (J-1)
Joint Staff Intelligence (J-2)
Operations (J-3)
Logistics (J-4)
Strategic Plans and Policy (J-5)
Operational Plans and Interoperability (J-7)
Force Structure Resources and Assessment (J-8)
Directorate of Management
Military Departments
Department of the Army
Secretary of the Army
Office of the Secretary of the Army
Under Secretary of the Army
Inspector General of the Army
Army Auditor General
Deputy Under Secretary of the Army
Deputy Under Secretary of the Army for Business Transformation
Chief, Legislative Liaison
Chief, Public Affairs
Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Office
General Counsel of the Army
Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Acquisition, Logistics and Technology)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Financial Management and Comptroller)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Installations, Energy and Environment)
Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs)
Chief Information Officer
United States Army Network Enterprise Technology Command/9th Signal Command
Director, Army Staff
The United States Military Academy
United States Army Intelligence and Security Command
United States Army Test and Evaluation Command
United States Army Criminal Investigation Command
United States Army Medical Command
United States Army Military District of Washington
United States Army Corps of Engineers
United States Army Reserve Command
United States Army Acquisition Support Center
The Army Staff
Chief of Staff of the Army
Vice Chief of Staff of the Army
Director, Army Staff
Deputy Chief of Staff (Manpower/Personnel) (G-1)
Army Chief of Staff for Installation Management
Chief of Engineers
Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics) (G-4)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Programs/Financial Management) (G-8)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Intelligence) (G-2)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Plans, Operations and Transformation) (G-3/5/7)
Sergeant Major of the Army
Judge Advocate General
Chief, Army Reserve
Provost Marshal General
The Surgeon General
Chief of Chaplains
United States Army Installation Management Command
United States Army Training and Doctrine Command
United States Army Materiel Command
United States Army Forces Command
United States Army Africa
United States Army Central
United States Army Europe
United States Army North
United States Army South
United States Army Pacific
United States Army Special Operations Command
Military Surface Deployment and Distribution Command
United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Strategic Command
Eighth United States Army
Department of the Navy
Secretary of the Navy
Office of the Secretary of the Navy
Under Secretary of the Navy
Chief of Information
Chief of Legislative Affairs
Auditor General
Assistant for Administration
Director of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development, and Acquisition)
Chief of Naval Research
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Financial Management and Comptroller)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Installations and Environment)
General Counsel of the Navy
Chief Information Officer
Judge Advocate General of the Navy
Naval Inspector General
Director of Program Appraisal
Office of the Chief of Naval Operations
Chief of Naval Operations
Director of Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program (NooN)
Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy (MCPON)
Vice Chief of Naval Operations
Director, Navy Staff (DNS)
Director, Test & Evaluation Technical Requirements (No91)
Surgeon General of the Navy (No93)
Chief of Navy Reserve (No95)
Chief of Chaplains (N097)
Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (DCNO) Manpower, Personnel, Education and Training (N1)
Director of Naval Intelligence (N2)
DCNO Information, Plans, & Strategy (N3/N5)
Director for Material Readiness & Logistics (N4)
DCNO Communication Networks (N6)
DCNO Warfighting Development (N7)
DCNO Integration of Capabilities & Resources (N8)
Bureau of Naval Personnel
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Naval Sea Systems Command
Naval Air Systems Command
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
Naval Supply Systems Command
Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command
Strategic Systems Command
United States Naval Academy
Naval Education and Training Command
Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command
Naval Legal Service Command
United States Naval Observatory
Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center
Naval Safety Center
Naval Security Group Command
Naval Reserve Forces
Operational Test & Evaluation Forces
Naval Special Warfare Command
U.S. Naval Forces Central Command
Naval Network Warfare Command
U.S. Naval Forces Europe
Military Sealift Command
U.S. Fleet Forces Command
U.S. Pacific Fleet
Naval Installations Command
Director of Naval Nuclear Propulsion
Headquarters Marine Corps
Commandant of the Marine Corps
Counsel for the Commandant
Chaplain of the Marine Corps
Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps
Marine Corps Combat Development Command
Marine Corps Recruiting Command
Marine Barracks Washington, DC
Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps
Marine Corps Systems Command
Marine Corps National Capital Region
Safety Division
Director Marine Corps Staff
Deputy Commandant (DC) Manpower & Reserve Affairs
DC Plans, Policy & Operations
DC Aviation
DC Installations & Logistics
DC Combat Development
DC Programs & Resources
Command, Control, Communications & Computers
Health Services
Inspector General of the Marine Corps
Intelligence
Legislative Assistant to the Commandant
Public Affairs
Staff Judge Advocate to the Marine Corps
Department of the Air Force
Secretary of the Air Force: Barbara Barrett
Office of the Secretary of the Air Force
Under Secretary of the Air Force
Administrative Assistant
Auditor General
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition)
Director of Communication
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Financial Management and Comptroller)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Installations, Environment and Logistics)
Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force (International Affairs)
Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower and Reserve Affairs)
Director of Public Affairs
Director, Legislative Liaison
Inspector General of the Department of the Air Force
General Counsel of the Department of the Air Force
Chief of Warfighting Integration
Chief Information Officer
Air Force Historian
Director of Test and Evaluation
Chief Scientist of the Air Force
The Air Staff
Chief of Staff (AF/CC)
Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (CMSAF)
Vice Chief of Staff (AF/CV)
Director of Staff (AF/DS)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Personnel) (A1)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) (A2)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Air, Space and Information Operations, Plans and Requirements) (A3/5)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics, Installations and Mission Support) (A4/7)
Deputy Chief of Staff (Strategic Plans and Programs) (A8)
Director for Studies Analyses, Assessments and Lessons Learned (A9)
Judge Advocate General (AF/JA)
Air Force Historian (AF/HO)
Chief, Air Force Reserve (AF/RE)
Director, Air National Guard (NGB/CF)
Director, Test and Evaluation (AF/TE)
Chief of Chaplain Services (AF/HC)
Chief of Safety (AF/SE)
Chief Scientist (AF/ST)
Surgeon General of the Air Force (AF/SG)
Air Combat Command
Air Education and Training Command
Air Force Material Command
Air Force Reserve Command
Air Force Special Operations Command
Air Force Global Strike Command
Air Mobility Command
Pacific Air Forces
U.S. Air Forces in Europe
Space Staff
Chief of Space Operations
Vice Chief of Space Operations
Director of Staff
Deputy Chief of Space Operations for Personnel and Logistics
Deputy Chief of Space Operations for Operations, Cyber, and Nuclear
Deputy Chief of Space Operations for Strategy, Plans, Programs, Requirements and Analysis
Space Operations Command
Space Systems Command
Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force
Combatant Commands
U.S. Africa Command
Commander, USAFRICOM: General Stephen J. Townsend, USA
U.S. Central Command
Commander, USCENTCOM: General Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr., USMC
U.S. European Command
Commander, USEUCOM: General Tod D. Wolters, USAF
Deputy Commander, Lieutenant General Michael L. Howard, USA
Chief of Staff: Major General John D. Lamontagne, USAF
Command Senior Enlisted Advisor: Chief Master Sergeant Phillip L. Easton, USAF
Order of battle
US Army Europe (USAREUR), 7th US Army
V Corps (Heidelberg, Germany) (inactivated 12 June 2013)
2nd Cavalry Regiment
12th Combat Aviation Brigade
170th Infantry Brigade (Inactivation ceremony held 9 October 2012)
172nd Infantry Brigade (Inactivated 31 May 2013)
173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team
357th Air & Missile Defense Detachment
21st Sustainment Command (Theater)
16th Sustainment Brigade
18th Engineer Brigade
18th Military Police Brigade
405th Army Field Support Brigade
5th Signal Command
2nd Signal Brigade
7th Tactical Theater Signal Brigade
7th Army Joint Multinational Training Command (Grafenwöhr)
66th Military Intelligence Brigade
202nd Military Police Group (CID)
Europe Regional Medical Command
Joint Task Force East, Romania
Multi-National Task Force East, Kosovo
U.S. Northern Command
Commander, USNORTHCOM: General Glen D. VanHerck, USAF
Deputy Commander, USNORTHCOM: Lieutenant General A. C. Roper, USA
Chief of Staff: Rear Admiral Michael P. Holland, USN
Command Senior Enlisted Leader: Sergeant Major James K. Porterfield, USMC
Order of battle
United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) (Peterson AFB, CO)
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) (Peterson AFB, CO)
Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center (Peterson AFB, CO)
1st Air Force / Continental US (CONUS) NORAD Region (Tyndall AFB, FL)
Eastern Air Defense Sector (The Northeast took over the Southeast's role in 2007) (NY ANG) (Rome, NY)
104th Fighter Wing (MA ANG) (F-15C, C-26B) (Barnes MAP, MA)
125th Fighter Wing (FL ANG) (F-15A/B, C-26B) (Jacksonville IAP, FL)
Detachment 1 (FL ANG) (F-15A/B) (Homestead ARB, FL)
158th Fighter Wing (VT ANG) (F-16C/D, C-26B) (Burlington IAP, VT)
Detachment 1, 119th Fighter Wing (ND ANG) (F-16A/B) (Langley AFB, VA)
Western Air Defense Sector (WA ANG) (McChord AFB, WA)
142nd Fighter Wing (OR ANG) (F-15A/B, C-26B) (Portland IAP, OR)
119th Fighter Wing (ND ANG) (F-16A/B, C-26B) (Hector Fd, ND)
120th Fighter Wing (MT ANG) (F-15C, C-26B) (Great Falls IAP, MT)
144th Fighter Wing (CA ANG) (F-16C/D, C-26B) (Fresno Yosemite AIP, CA)
Detachment 1 (CA ANG) (F-16C/D) (March ARB, CA)
148th Fighter Wing (MN ANG) (F-16A/B, C-26B) (Duluth IAP, MN)
(11th Air Force / Alaska NORAD Region (Elmendorf AFB, AK))
(611th Air and Space Operations Center (Elmendorf AFB, AK))
(176th Air Control Squadron/Alaskan Air Defense Sector (AK ANG) (Elmendorf AFB, AK))
(1 Canadian Air Division/Canadian NORAD Region (Winnipeg, MB))
US Army North / US Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) (Ft Sam Houston, TX)
Joint Force Headquarters-National Capital Region (JFHQ-NCR) (Ft McNair, DC)
1st and 4th Battalions, 3rd Infantry Regiment (Ft Myer, VA)
Military District of Washington (MDW) (Ft McNair, DC)
11th Wing / Air Force District of Washington (Bolling AFB, DC)
Naval District Washington (NDW) (Washington Navy Yard, DC)
Marine Corps National Capital Region Command (MCNCRC) (MCB Quantico, VA)
Joint Task Force-Alaska (Elmendorf AFB, AK)
JTF North (formerly JTF 6) and other JTFs
U.S. Indo-Pacific Command
Commander, USINDOPACOM: Admiral John C. Aquilino, USN
Order of battle
United States Indo-Pacific Command
United States Army Pacific
United States Army Japan
9th Mission Support Command
10th Support Group
17th Area Support Group
300th Area Support Group
United States Army Alaska
1st Brigade Combat Team, 25th Infantry Division
4th Brigade Combat Team (Airborne), 25th Infantry Division
3rd Maneuver Enhancement Brigade
16th Combat Aviation Brigade
United States Army Hawaii
25th Infantry Division
196th Infantry Brigade
516th Signal Brigade
United States Pacific Fleet
3rd Fleet
CTF-30/ Battle Force
CTF-31/ Combat Support Force
CTF-32/ Patrol and Reconnaissance Force
CTF-33/ Logistic Support Force
CTF-34/ Submarine Force
CTF-35/ Surface Combatant Force
CTF-36/ Landing Force
CTF-37/ Amphibious Force
CTF-38/ Carrier Strike Force
7th Fleet
CTF-70/ Battle Force
CTF-71/ Combat Support Force
CTF-72/ Patrol and Reconnaissance Force
CTF-73/ Logistic Support Force
CTF-74/ Submarine Force
CTF-75/ Surface Combatant Force
CTF-76/ Amphibious Force
CTF-77/ Carrier Strike Force
CTF-79/ Landing Force
Naval Surface Forces, United States Pacific Fleet
Destroyer Squadron 1
Destroyer Squadron 7
Destroyer Squadron 15
Destroyer Squadron 21
Destroyer Squadron 23
Destroyer Squadron 28
Carrier Group 1
Carrier Group 3
Carrier Group 5
Carrier Group 7
Cruiser Destroyer Group 1
Cruiser Destroyer Group 3
Cruiser Destroyer Group 5
Surface Group PACNORWEST
Surface Group MIDPAC
Logistics Group WESTPAC
Amphibious Group 1
Amphibious Group 3
Explosive Ordnance Disposal Group 1
Naval Submarine Forces, United States Pacific Fleet
Submarine Group 7
Submarine Group 9
Naval Air Forces, United States Pacific Fleet
Fleet Air, West Pacific
Airborne Early Warning Wing
VAW-112
VAW-113
VAW-115
VAW-116
VAW-117
VRC-30
Naval Region, Southwest
Naval Region, Northwest
Naval Region, Hawaii
Maritime Defense Zone Pacific
United States Naval Forces Marianas
Marine Forces Pacific
I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF)
I Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group (I MEF HQ GRP)
3rd Marine Division (3rd MARDIV)
1st Marine Aircraft Wing (1st MAW)
1st Marine Logistics Group (1st MLG)
3rd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (3rd MEB)
31st Marine Expeditionary Unit (31st MEU)
III Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF)
III Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group (III MEF HQ GRP)
1st Marine Division (1st MARDIV)
3rd Marine Aircraft Wing (3rd MAW)
3rd Marine Logistics Group (3rd MLG)
1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade (1st MEB)
11th Marine Expeditionary Unit (11th MEU)
13th Marine Expeditionary Unit (13th MEU)
15th Marine Expeditionary Unit (15th MEU)
United States Pacific Air Forces
United States Forces, Japan
United States Forces, Korea
Alaskan Command
United States Army Alaska
Eleventh Air Force
United States Naval Forces, Alaska
Special Operations Command Pacific
Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
Information Systems Support Activity
Pacific Automated Server Site Japan
Cruise Missile Support Activity
Special Intelligence Communications
Joint Intelligence Center Pacific
Joint Intelligence Training Activity Pacific
Joint Interagency Task Force West
Joint Task Force Full-Accounting
U.S. Southern Command
Commander, USSOUTHCOM: General Laura J. Richardson, USA
Deputy Commander, USSOUTHCOM: Lieutenant General Andrew A. Croft, USAF
Chief-of-Staff, USSOUTHCOM: Rear Admiral Yvette M. Davids, USN
Command Sergeant Major, USSOUTHCOM: Command Sergeant Major Benjamin Jones, USA
United States Army South (Fort Sam Houston, TX)
1st Battalion, 228th Aviation Regiment (Soto Cano AB, Honduras)
56th Signal Battalion (Fort Sam Houston, TX)
United States Naval Forces Southern Command (Naval Station Mayport, FL)
Naval Surface Group Two
Destroyer Squadron Six
Destroyer Squadron Fourteen
II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF)/ United States Marine Corps Forces, South (Camp Lejeune, NC)
II Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group (II MEF HQ GRP)
2nd Marine Division (2nd MARDIV)
2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (2nd MAW)
2nd Marine Logistics Group (2nd MLG)
2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (2nd MEB)
22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU)
24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24th MEU)
26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (26th MEU)
Air Contingency Marine Air Ground Task Force
Twelfth Air Force/ United States Southern Command Air Forces (Davis Monthan AFB, AZ)
7th Bomb Wing
28th Bomb Wing
49th Fighter Wing
355th Wing
366th Wing
388th Fighter Wing
1st Air Support Operations Group
3rd Combat Communications Group
612th Air Operation Group
820th RED HORSE Squadron
Special Operations Command South
Southern Surveillance Reconnaissance Operations Center
Joint Interagency Task Force East (NAF Key West, FL)
Joint Interagency Task Force West
Joint Task Force Guantanamo (Guantanamo Bay, Cuba)
Joint Task Force Bravo (Soto Cano AB, Honduras)
612th Air Base Squadron
Army Forces
Medical Elements
1st Battalion, 228th Aviation Regiment
Joint Security Forces
Joint Task Force Piton
United States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) (Fort Bragg, NC)
I Corps
2nd Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division (Stryker brigade), Joint Base Lewis-McChord
3rd Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division (Stryker brigade), Fort Lewis
17th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Lewis
Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Lewis
555th Engineer Brigade, Fort Lewis
593rd Expeditionary Sustainment Command, Fort Lewis
42nd Military Police Brigade, Fort Lewis
62nd Medical Brigade, Fort Lewis
III Corps (United States) (Fort Hood, TX)
1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss
1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood
1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley
4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson
3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood
III Corps Artillery, Fort Sill
41st Fires Brigade, Fort Hood
75th Fires Brigade, Fort Sill
212th Fires Brigade, Fort Bliss
214th Fires Brigade, Fort Sill
36th Engineer Brigade, Fort Hood
504th Battlefield Surveillance Brigade, Fort Hood
89th Military Police Brigade, Fort Hood
13th Sustainment Command, Fort Hood
XVIII Airborne Corps (Fort Bragg, NC)
3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart
10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum
82nd Airborne Division, Fort Bragg
101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell
18th Fires Brigade, Fort Bragg
20th Engineer Brigade, Fort Bragg
525th Battlefield Surveillance Brigade, Fort Bragg
16th Military Police Brigade, Fort Bragg
44th Medical Brigade, Fort Bragg
32nd Army Air & Missile Defense Command (Ft Bliss, TX)
11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (Ft Bliss, TX)
31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade (Fort Sill, OK)
35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (Osan AB, South Korea)
69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (Fort Hood, TX)
108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (Fort Bragg, NC)
Detachment 1 (FL ARNG) (Orlando, FL)
Network Enterprise Technology Command (NETCOM) / 9th Army Signal Command (Ft Huachuca, AZ)
11th Signal Brigade (Ft Huachuca, AZ)
21st Signal Brigade (Ft Detrick, MD)
5th Signal Command (Mannheim, Germany)
311th Signal Command (United States)(Multi-Component) (Ft Shafter, HI)
1st Signal Brigade (Seoul, South Korea)
335th Theater Signal Command (USAR) (East Point, GA (Deployed to Kuwait))
160th Signal Brigade (Strategic) (Camp Arifjan, Kuwait)
93rd Signal Brigade (Ft Gordon, GA)
516th Signal Brigade (Ft Shafter, HI)
52nd Ordnance Group (Ft Campbell, KY)
111th Ordnance Group (AL ARNG) (Ft Gillem, GA)
National Training Center (NTC) (Ft Irwin, CA)
11th Armored Cavalry Regiment (OPFOR) (Ft Irwin, CA)
Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) (Ft Polk, LA)
Warrior Brigade (Support) (Ft Polk, LA)
1st Army (Rock Island Arsenol, IL)
First Army Division East (Ft Meade, MD)
157th Infantry Brigade "Spartan" (Fort Jackson, SC)
158th Infantry Brigade "Warrior" (Patrick Space Force Base, FL)
174th Infantry Brigade "Patriot" (Fort Drum, NY)
188th Infantry Brigade "Battle Ready" (Fort Stewart, GA)
205th Infantry Brigade "Bayonet" (Camp Atterbury, IN)
177th Armored Brigade "Mudcats" (Camp Shelby, MS)
4th Cavalry Brigade "Saber" (Fort Knox, KY)
72nd Field Artillery Brigade "Warrior Eagle" (Fort Meade, MD)
First Army Division West (Fort Hood, TX)
120th Infantry Brigade (Fort Hood, TX)
166th Aviation Brigade (Fort Hood, TX)
181st Infantry Brigade "Eagle" (Fort McCoy, WI)
191st Infantry Brigade (Fort Lewis, WA)
402nd Field Artillery Brigade (Fort Bliss, TX)
479th Field Artillery Brigade (Fort Hood, TX)
5th Armored Brigade (Fort Bliss, TX)
189th Infantry Brigade "Bayonet" (Fort Hood, TX)
28th Infantry Division (Mechanized) (PA ARNG) (Harrisburg, PA)
34th Infantry Division (Medium) (MN ARNG) (Rosemount, MN)
35th Infantry Division (Mechanized) (KS ARNG) (Ft Leavenworth, KS)
38th Infantry Division (Mechanized) (IN ARNG) (Indianapolis, IN)
42nd Infantry Division (Mechanized) (NY ARNG) (Troy, NY)
29th Infantry Division (VA ARNG) (Ft Belvoir, VA)
155th Armored Brigade (Enhanced Readiness) (MS ARNG) (Tupelo, MS (Deployed to Iraq))
27th Infantry Brigade (Light) (Enhanced Readiness) (NY ARNG) (Syracuse, NY)
32nd Infantry Brigade (Light) (WI ARNG) (Madison, WI)
76th Infantry Brigade (Light) (Enhanced Readiness) (IN ARNG) (Indianapolis, IN)
256th Infantry Brigade (Mechanized) (Enhanced Readiness) (LA ARNG) (Lafayette, LA)
631st Field Artillery Brigade (MS ARNG) (Grenada, MS)
168th Engineer Group (MS ARNG) (Vicksburg, MS)
43rd Military Police Brigade (RI ARNG) (Warwick, RI)
244th Theater Aviation Brigade (Lift) (USAR) (Ft Sheridan, IL)
31st Chemical Brigade (AL ARNG) (Northport, AL)
228th Signal Brigade (SC ARNG) (Spartanburg, SC)
261st Signal Brigade (DE ARNG) (Dover, DE)
184th Transportation Group (Composite) (MS ARNG) (Laurel, MS)
78th Division (Training Support) (USAR) (Ft Dix, NJ)
85th Division (Training Support) (USAR) (Arlington Heights, IL)
87th Division (Exercise) (USAR) (Birmingham, AL)
36th Infantry Division (Mechanized) (TX ARNG) (Austin, TX)
57th Field Artillery Brigade (WI ARNG) (Milwaukee, WI)
115th Engineer Group (Construction) (UT ARNG) (Draper, UT)
300th Military Intelligence Brigade (Linguist) (UT ARNG) (Draper, UT)
75th Division (Training Support) (USAR) (Ft Sam Houston, TX)
91st Division (Training Support) (USAR) (Ft. Baker, CA)
67th Area Support Group (NE ARNG) (Lincoln, NE)
United States Army Reserve Command (USARC) (Ft Bragg, NC)
63rd Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Los Alamitos, CA)
104th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Vancouver Bks, WA)
653rd Regional Support Group (USAR) (Moreno Valley, CA)
2nd Medical Brigade (USAR) (Hamilton Fd, CA)
70th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Ft Lawton, WA)
654th Area Support Group (Tumwater, WA)
77th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Ft Totten, NY)
800th Military Police Brigade (Enemy Prisoner of War) (USAR) (Uniondale, NY)
455th Chemical Brigade (USAR) (Ft Dix, NJ)
98th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Rochester, NY)
301st Area Support Group (USAR) (Flushing, NY)
8th Medical Brigade (USAR) (Ft Wadsworth, NY)
77th Infantry Division (Reinforcement Training Unit) (USAR) (Ft Totten, NY)
81st Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Fort Jackson, SC)
100th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Louisville, KY)
108th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Charlotte, NC)
926th Engineer Group (USAR) (Montgomery, AL)
415th Chemical Brigade (USAR) (Greenville, SC)
81st Regional Support Group (USAR) (Ft Jackson, SC)
171st Area Support Group (USAR) (Garner, NC)
640th Area Support Group (USAR) (Nashville, TN)
641st Area Support Group (USAR) (St Petersburg, FL)
642nd Area Support Group (USAR) (Ft Gordon, GA)
1st Headquarters Brigade (USAR) (Nashville, TN)
332nd Medical Brigade (USAR) (Nashville, TN)
5th Medical Group (USAR) (Birmingham, AL)
88th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Fort McCoy, WI)
84th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Milwaukee, WI)
300th Military Police Command (USAR) (Inkster, MI)
303rd Ordnance Group (USAR) (Springfield, IL)
88th Regional Readiness Group (USAR) (Indianapolis, IN)
643rd Regional Support Group (USAR) (Whitehall, OH)
645th Regional Support Group (USAR) (Southfield, MI)
646th Regional Support Group (USAR) (Madison, WI)
330th Medical Brigade (USAR) (Ft Sheridan, IL)
89th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Wichita, KS)
95th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Oklahoma City, OK)
166th Aviation Brigade (Training Support) (Ft Riley, KS)
561st Corps Support Group (USAR) (Omaha, NE)
917th Corps Support Group (USAR) (Belton, MO)
326th Area Support Group (USAR) (Kansas City, KS)
648th Area Support Group (USAR) (St Louis, MO)
331st Medical Group (USAR) (Wichita, KS)
90th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Little Rock AFB, AR)
647th Regional Support Group (USAR) (El Paso, TX)
90th Regional Support Group (USAR) (San Antonio, TX)
94th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) Devens RFTA, MA (inactivated; number assigned to the 94th Division (Force Sustainment), Fort Lee, VA)
167th Area Support Group (USAR) (Manchester, NH (Deployed to Iraq))
804th Medical Brigade (USAR) (Devens RFTA, MA)
96th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Ft Douglas, UT)
99th Regional Readiness Command (USAR) (Moon Township, PA)
220th Military Police Brigade (USAR) (Gaithersburg, MD)
367th Military Police Group (USAR) (Ashley, PA)
80th Division (Institutional Training) (USAR) (Richmond, VA)
38th Ordnance Group (USAR) (Charleston, WV)
464th Chemical Brigade (USAR) (Johnstown, PA)
475th Quartermaster Group (Petroleum & Water) (USAR) (Farrell, PA)
656th Area Support Group (USAR) (NAS Willow Grove, PA)
309th Medical Group (USAR) (Rockville, MD)
99th Headquarters Brigade (USAR) (Willow Grove, PA)
US Air Force Air Combat Command (Langley AFB, VA)
(1st Air Force (Tyndall AFB, FL))
15th Air Force (Shaw AFB, SC)
1st Fighter Wing (F-15C/D) (Langley AFB, VA)
33rd Fighter Wing (F-15C/D) (Eglin AFB, FL)
4th Fighter Wing (F-15E) (Seymour Johnson AFB, NC)
20th Fighter Wing (SEAD) (F-16CJ/DJ) (Shaw AFB, SC)
820th Security Forces Group (Moody AFB, GA)
5th Combat Communications Group (Robins AFB, GA)
12th Air Force (Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ)
7th Bomb Wing (B-1B) (Dyess AFB, TX)
28th Bomb Wing (B-1B) (Ellsworth AFB, SD)
366th Fighter Wing (Fighter and Bomber) (B-1B, F-15C/D/E, F-16CJ/DJ, KC-135R) (Mountain Home AFB, ID)
388th Fighter Wing (F-16CG/DJ) (Hill AFB, UT)
27th Fighter Wing (F-16CG/DG) (Cannon AFB, NM)
301st Fighter Wing (AFRes) (F-16C/D) (NAS Fort Worth JRB, TX)
49th Fighter Wing (F-117A, AT-38B, T-38A) (Holloman AFB, NM)
355th Wing (Fighter and Electronic Countermeasures) (OA/A-10A, EC-130E/H) (Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ)
507th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135R, E-3B/C, TC-18E) (Tinker AFB, OK)
10th Air Force (AFRes) (NAS Fort Worth JRB, TX)
917th Wing (Fighter and Bomber) (AFRes) (B-52H, OA/A-10A) (Barksdale, AFB)
419th Fighter Wing (AFRes) (F-16C/D) (Hill AFB, UT)
482d Fighter Wing (AFRes) (F-16C/D) (Homestead ARB, FL)
442d Fighter Wing (AFRes) (OA/A-10A) (Whiteman AFB, MO)
926th Fighter Wing (AFRes) (OA/A-10A) (NAS New Orleans JRB, TX)
920th Rescue Wing (AFRes) (HC-130P, C-130E, HH-60G) (Patrick Space Force Base, FL)
Air Warfare Center (Nellis AFB, NV)
53rd Wing (Test and Evaluation) (F-15C/D/E, F-16C/CG/CJ/D/DG/DJ, F-117A, OA/A-10A, E-9A, Boeing 707, QF-4E/G, QRF-4C, HH-60G) (Eglin AFB, FL)
57th Wing (Combat Training, Test and Evaluation) (F-15C/D/E, F-16C/CG/CJ/D/DG/DJ, OA/A-10A, HH-60G, RQ-1A) (Nellis AFB, NV)
505th Command and Control Wing (Hurlburt Field, FL)
99th Air Base Wing (Nellis AFB, NV)
Air National Guard (ANG)
131st Fighter Wing (MO ANG) (F-15A/B) (Lambert Fd, St Louis, MO)
159th Fighter Wing (LA ANG) (F-15A/B, C-130E) (NAS New Orleans JRB, LA)
113th Wing (Fighter & Airlift) (DC ANG) (F-16C/D, C-21A, C-38A) (Andrews AFB, MD)
114th Fighter Wing (SD ANG) (F-16C/D) (Joes Foss Fd, Sioux Falls, SD)
115th Fighter Wing (WI ANG) (F-16C/D, C-26B) (Dane CAP, Truax Fd, WI)
122nd Fighter Wing (IN ANG) (F-16C/D) (Fort Wayne MAP, IN)
127th Wing (Fighter and Airlift) (MI ANG) (F-16C/D, C-130E, C-26B) (Selfridge ANBG, MI)
132nd Fighter Wing (IA ANG) (F-16CG/DG) (Des Moines MAP, IA)
138th Fighter Wing (OK ANG) (F-16CG/DG) (Tulsa IAP, OK)
140th Wing (Fighter & Training) (CO ANG) (F-16C/D, C-21A, C-26A) (Buckley Space Force Base, CO)
150th Fighter Wing (NM ANG) (F-16C/CG/D/DG, C-26B) (Kirtland AFB, NM)
174th Reconnaissance Wing (NY ANG) (M-9 Reaper) (Syracuse-Hancock Fd, NY)
177th Fighter Wing (NJ ANG) (F-16C/D) (Atlantic City IAP, NJ)
180th Fighter Wing (OH ANG) (F-16CG/DG) (Toledo Express AP, OH)
181st Intelligence Wing (IN ANG) (Hulman Fd, Terre Haute, IN)
183rd Fighter Wing (IL ANG) (F-16C/D) (Capitol AP, Springfield, IL)
187th Fighter Wing (AL ANG) (F-16C/D, C-26B) (Montgomery-Dannelly Fd, AL)
188th Fighter Wing (AR ANG) (F-16C/D) (Ft Rock MAP, AR)
192nd Fighter Wing (VA ANG) (F-16C/D) (Richard E Byrd IAP, VA)
169th Fighter Wing (SEAD) (SC ANG) (F-16CJ/D, C-130E) (McEntire ANGB, SC)
103d Airlift Wing (CT ANG) (O/A-10A) (Bradley ANGB, CT)
104th Fighter Wing (MA ANG) (O/A-10A) (Barnes MAP, Westfield, MA)
110th Fighter Wing (MI ANG) (O/A-10A) (Battle Creek ANGB, MI)
111th Attack Wing (PA ANG) (MQ9 Reaper) (Horsham AGS, PA)
124th Wing (ID ANG) (O/A-10A) (Boise AT, ID)
175th Wing (Fighter and Airlift) (MD ANG) (OA/A-10A) (Glenn L Martin AP, Baltimore, MD)
106th Rescue Wing (NY ANG) (HC-130N/P, HH-60G) (Francis Gabreski ANGB, NY)
129th Rescue Wing (CA ANG) (HC-130P, HH-60G) (NAS Moffett Fd, CA)
147th Reconnaissance Wing (TX ANG) (MQ-1 Predator) (Ellington ANGB, Houston, TX)
163rd Reconnaissance Wing (CA ANG) (MQ-1 Predator) (March AFB, CA)
102nd Intelligence Wing (MA ANG) (Otis ANGB, Falmouth, MA)
184th Intelligence Wing (KS ANG) (McConnell AFB, KS)
United States Fleet Forces Command (Norfolk NB, VA)
2nd Fleet (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 20 (2nd Fleet Battle Force)
Theodore Roosevelt Strike Group / Carrier Strike Group 2 (CARSTRKGRU 2) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Surge Ready))
Harry S. Truman Strike Group / Carrier Strike Group 10 (CARSTRKGRU 10) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Post-Deployment))
John F. Kennedy Strike Group / Carrier Strike Group 6 (CARSTRKGRU 6) () (NS Mayport, FL (Post-Deployment))
Eisenhower Strike Group / Carrier Strike Group 8 (CARSTRKGRU 8) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Basic Training))
Enterprise Strike Group / Cruiser Strike Group 12 (CARSTRKGRU 12) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Maintenance))
George Washington Strike Group () (NB Norfolk, VA (Maintenance))
Carrier Strike Group 14 (CARSTRKGRU 14) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 21 (2nd Fleet Patrol Reconnaissance Force) / Patrol and Reconnaissance Force Atlantic Fleet (PATRECONFORLANT) (NS Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 22 (2nd Fleet Amphibious Force) / Amphibious Group 2 (PHIBGRU 2) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Kearsarge Expeditionary Strike Group / Expeditionary Strike Group 6 / Amphibious Squadron 8 (PHIBRON 8) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Deployed))
Saipan Expeditionary Strike Group / Expeditionary Strike Group 4 / Amphibious Squadron 2 (PHIBRON 2) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Deployed))
Wasp Expeditionary Strike Group / Expeditionary Strike Group 2 / Amphibious Squadron 4 (PHIBRON 4) () (NB Norfolk, VA (Post-Deployment))
Bataan Expeditionary Strike Group () (NAB Little Creek, VA (Intermediate Training))
Naval Coastal Warfare Group Two (Williamsburg, VA)
Tactical Air Control Group 2 (TACGRU 2) (NAB Little Creek, VA)
Naval Beach Group 2 (NAVBEACHGRU 2) (NB Norfolk, VA?)
Task Force 23 (2nd Fleet Landing Force)
Task Force 24 (2nd Fleet ASW Force)
Task Force 25 (2nd Fleet Mobile Logistics Support Force) / Combat Logistics Squadron 2 (LOGRON 2) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 26 (2nd Fleet Patrol Air Force) / Patrol and Reconnaissance Force Atlantic Fleet (PATRECONFORLANT) (NS Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 28 (2nd Fleet Caribbean Contingency Force) (NS Mayport, FL)
Carrier Group 4 (CARGRU 4) / Carrier Striking Force (Battle Group Training) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 40 / Naval Surface Force Atlantic Fleet (NAVSURFLANT) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Combat Logistics Squadron 2 (COMLOGRON 2) (NWS Earle, NJ)
Task Force 41 / Naval Air Force Atlantic Fleet (NAVAIRLANT) (NAS Oceana, VA)
Fighter Wing Atlantic Fleet (FITWINGLANT) (NAS Oceana, VA)
Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic Fleet (STRIKFIGHTWINGLANT) (NAS Oceana, VA)
Sea Control Wing Atlantic Fleet (SEACONWINGLANT) (NAS Jacksonville, FL)
Helicopter Anti-Submarine Wing Atlantic Fleet (HSWINGLANT) (NAS Jacksonville, FL)
Helicopter Anti-Submarine Light Wing Atlantic Fleet (HSLWINGLANT) (NS Mayport, FL)
Helicopter Sea Combat Wing Atlantic Fleet (HELSEACOMWINGLANT) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron TWO (HSC-2) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron TWENTY TWO (HSC-22) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron TWENTY SIX (HSC-26) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron TWENTY EIGHT (HSC-28) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron EIGHTY FOUR (HSC-84) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN (HM-14) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FIFTEEN (HM-15) (NAS Corpus Christi, TX)
Airborne Mine Countermeasures Weapon Systems Training School (AMCMWPNSYSTRASCOL) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Helicopter Sea Combat Weapons School Atlantic(HSCWEPSCOLANT) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Airborne Early Warning Wing Atlantic Fleet (AEWWINGLANT) (NAS Norfolk, VA)
Reserve Carrier Air Wing 20 (CVWR 20) (NAS Atlanta, GA)
Task Force 42 / Naval Submarine Force Atlantic Fleet (NAVSUBLANT) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Submarine Group 2 (SUBGRU 2) (NSB New London, CT)
Naval Submarine Support Center (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 43 (Training Command Atlantic Fleet?)
Task Force 44 (Coast Guard Force Atlantic Fleet) / Coast Guard Atlantic Area (Portsmouth, VA)
Task Force 45 / Fleet Marine Forces Atlantic (MARFORLANT) (Norfolk NB, VA)
Task Force 46 (Mine Warfare Command Atlantic Fleet (MINEWARCOM)) () (NS Ingleside, TX)
Task Force 48 (Naval Construction Battalions Atlantic Fleet) (NAB Little Creek, VA)
Task Force 80 (Naval Patrol and Protection of Shipping Atlantic Fleet)
Task Force 81 (Sea Control and Surveillance Force Atlantic Fleet) / Patrol and Reconnaissance Force Atlantic Fleet (PATRECONFORLANT) (NS Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 82 (Amphibious Task Force)
Task Force 83 (Landing Force (II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF)) (Camp Lejeune, NC)
Task Force 84 (ASW Force Atlantic Fleet) / Naval Submarine Force Atlantic Fleet (NAVSUBLANT) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 85 (Mobile Logistics Support Force Atlantic Fleet) / Combat Logistics Squadron 2 (LOGRON 2) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 86 (Patrol Air Force Atlantic Fleet) / Patrol and Reconnaissance Force Atlantic Fleet (PATRECONFORLANT) (NS Norfolk, VA)
Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 5 (PATRECONWING 5) (NAS Brunswick, ME)
Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 11 (PATRECONWING 11) (NAS Jacksonville, FL)
Reserve Patrol Wing (RESPATWING) (NAS Oceana, VA)
Task Force 87 (Tactical Development and Evaluation and Transit Force Atlantic Fleet)
Task Force 88 (Training Force Atlantic Fleet) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Task Force 89 (Maritime Defense Zone Atlantic Fleet) (USCGS Portsmouth, VA)
Task Force 125 (Naval Surface Group 2 (NAVSURFGRU 2)) (NS Mayport, FL)
Task Force 137 (Naval Forces Eastern Atlantic) (Naples, Italy)
Task Force 138 (Naval Forces South Atlantic)
Task Force 139 (Multilateral Special Operations Force)
Task Force 142 (Operational Test and Evaluation Force) (NB Norfolk, VA)
United States Marine Corps Forces Command (Norfolk NB, VA)
II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF) (Camp Lejeune, NC)
II Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group (II MEF HQ GRP)
2nd Marine Division (2nd MARDIV) (Camp Lejeune, NC)
2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (2nd MAW) (MCAS Cherry Point, NC)
2nd Marine Logistics Group (2nd MLG) (Camp Lejeune, NC)
2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (2nd MEB) (Camp Lejeune, NC)
22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU)
24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24th MEU)
26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (26th MEU)
Marine Corps Security Force Regiment (MCSFR)
Marine Corps Security Cooperation Group (MCSCG)
Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (CBIRF)
Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES) (New Orleans, LA)
Force Headquarters Group (MARFORRES HQ GRP) (New Orleans, LA)
4th Marine Division (4th MARDIV) (MARFORRES) (New Orleans, LA)
4th Marine Aircraft Wing (4th MAW) (MARFORRES) (New Orleans, LA)
4th Marine Logistics Group (4th MLG) (MARFORRES) (New Orleans, LA)
U.S. Forces Azores (USAFORAZ) (Lajes Field, Azores)
65th Air Base Wing (Lajes Field, Azores)
U.S. Space Command
Combined Force Space Component Command, Vandenberg Space Force Base, Lompoc, CA - CFSCC is responsible for supporting military commanders around the globe by providing space-based services, including GPS navigation, space-based data, satellite communications, and missile warning
Combined Space Operations Center, Vandenberg Space Force Base
Missile Warning Center, Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station
Joint Overhead Persistent Infrared Center, Buckley Space Force Base
Joint Navigation Warfare Center, Kirtland AFB
Joint Task Force-Space Defense, Schriever Space Force Base, Colorado Springs, CO - JTF-SD is responsible for protecting military satellites from aggression
National Space Defense Center - Co-located within JTF-SD, NSDC is a joint effort between the Department of Defense and the United States Intelligence Community responsible for detecting, warning, and defending against threats to military space systems, particularly those of the National Reconnaissance Office
U.S. Special Operations Command
Commander, USSOCOM: General Richard D. Clarke, USA
Headquarters, MacDill AFB, Florida
Army Special Operations Command (Fort Bragg, NC)
75th Ranger Regiment (Fort Benning, GA)
160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) (Fort Campbell, KY)
Special Forces Command (Airborne) (Fort Bragg, NC)
Special Operations Support Command (Fort Bragg, NC)
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center (Fort Bragg, NC)
4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne) (Fort Bragg, NC)
95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Provisional) (Fort Bragg, NC)
Naval Special Warfare Command (NAB Coronado, CA)
Special Warfare Group One (NAB Coronado, CA)
Special Warfare Group Two (NAB Little Creek, VA)
Special Boat Squadron One (NAB Coronado, CA)
Special Boat Squadron Two (NAB Little Creek, VA)
Naval Special Warfare Center (NAB Coronado, CA)
Air Force Special Operations Command (Hurlburt Field, FL)
919th Special Operations Wing (Duke Field, FL)
18th Flight Test Squadron (Hurlburt Field, FL)
Air Force Special Operations Command Air Support Operations Squadron (Fort Bragg, NC)
United States Air Force Special Operations School (Hurlburt Field, FL)
720th Special Tactics Group (Hurlburt Field, FL)
16th Special Operations Wing (Hurlburt Field, FL)
193d Special Operations Wing (Harrisburg IAP, PA)
352nd Special Operations Group (RAF Mildenhall, UK)
353rd Special Operations Group (Kadena AB, Japan)
Marine Special Operations Command
Marine Raider Regiment
Marine Raider Support Group
Marine Special Operations School
Marine Special Operations Advisor Group
Joint Special Operations Command (Pope AFB, NC and Fort Bragg, NC)
Task Force 6-26 (Bagram AB, Afghanistan)
Task Force 145 (Bagram AB, Afghanistan)
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment (Airborne) - Delta (Fort Bragg, NC)
Naval Special Warfare Development Group (Dam Neck, VA)
24th Special Tactics Squadron (Pope AFB, NC)
Acquisitions and Logistics Center
U.S. Strategic Command
Commander, USSTRATCOM: Admiral Charles A. Richard, USN
Deputy Commander, USSTRATCOM: Lieutenant General Thomas A. Bussiere, USAF
Chief of Staff: Rear Admiral William W. Wheeler, USN
Command Senior Enlisted Leader: Sergeant Major Howard L. Kreamer, USMC
Order of battle
United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) (Offutt AFB, NE)
Joint Information Operations Center (Offutt AFB, NE)
Strategic Communications Wing 1 (SCW 1) (TACAMO) (E-6B) (Tinker AFB, OK)
Air Force Global Strike Command (Barksdale Air Force Base, LA)
20th Air Force (F. E. Warren AFB, WY)
90th Missile Wing (LGM-118A, LGM-30G, UH-1N) (Francis E Warren AFB, WY)
91st Missile Wing (LGM-30G, UH-1N) (Minot AFB, ND)
341st Missile Wing (LGM-30G, UH-1N) (Malmstrom AFB, MT)
(8th Air Force (Barksdale AFB, LA))
Naval Submarine Forces (NAVSUBFOR) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Submarine Force Atlantic Fleet (SUBLANT) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Submarine Group 10 (SUBGRU 10) (NSB Kings Bay, GA)
Submarine Force Pacific Fleet (SUBPAC) (NB Pearl Harbor, HI)
Submarine Group 9 (SUBGRU 9) (NB Kitsap, WA)
Fleet Forces Command (FFC) (NB Norfolk, VA)
(Naval Submarine Forces (NAVSUBFOR) (NB Norfolk, VA))
US Army Space and Missile Defense Command (USARSPACE) / US Army Forces Strategic Command (USARSTRAT) (Arlington, VA)
100th Missile Defense Brigade (Ground-based Missile Defense) (Peterson AFB, CO)
Marine Forces Strategic Command (MARFORSTRAT) (Offutt AFB, NE)
US Naval Network Warfare Command (NETWARCOM) (NAB Little Creek, VA)
Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations (Offutt AFB, NE)
U.S. Transportation Command
Commander, USTRANSCOM: General Jacqueline Van Ovost, USAF
Order of battle
US Transportation Command (Scott AFB, IL)
Air Mobility Command (AMC) (Scott AFB, IL)
18th Air Force (Scott AFB, IL)
15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (Travis AFB, CA)
60th Air Mobility Wing (C-5A/B/C, KC-10A) (Travis AFB, CA)
62nd Airlift Wing (C-17A) (McChord AFB, WA)
317th Airlift Group (C-130H) (Dyess AFB, TX)
375th Airlift Wing (Operational Support Airlift) (C-21A, C-9A) (Scott AFB, IL)
22nd Air Refueling Wing (KC-135R/T) (McConnell AFB, KS)
92nd Air Refueling Wing (KC-135R/T) (Fairchild AFB, WA)
19th Air Refueling Wing (KC-135R/T) (Grand Forks AFB, ND)
615th Contingency Response Wing (Travis AFB, CA)
715th Air Mobility Support Group (Hickam AFB, HI)
21st Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (McGuire AFB, NJ)
436th Airlift Wing (C-5A/B) (Dover AFB, DE)
305th Air Mobility Wing (C-17A, KC-10A) (McGuire AFB, NJ)
437th Airlift Wing (C-17A) (Charleston AFB, SC)
43d Airlift Wing (C-130E) (Pope AFB, NC)
314th Airlift Wing (C-130E/H) (Little Rock AFB, AR)
89th Airlift Wing (VIP) (VC-25A, VC/C-37A, C-20B, C-32A, C-40B) (Andrews AFB, MD)
6th Air Mobility Wing (KC-135R, C-37A) (MacDill AFB, FL)
19th Air Refueling Group (KC-135R, EC-137D) (Robins AFB, GA)
621st Contingency Response Wing (McGuire AFB, NJ)
721st Air Mobility Operations Group (Ramstein AB, Germany)
4th Air Force (AFRes) (McClellan AFB, CA)
433d Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-5A) (Lackland AFB, TX)
445th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-5A) (Wright Patterson AFB, OH)
349th Air Mobility Wing (AFRes) (C-5A/B/C, KC-10A (Associate unit to 60th Air Mobility Wing)) (Travis AFB, CA)
452d Air Mobility Wing (AFRes) (C-17A, KC-135E) (March ARB, CA)
446th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-17A (Associate unit to 62nd Airlift Wing)) (McChord AFB, WA)
932d Airlift Wing (Operational Support Airlift) (AFRes) (C-9C (Associate unit to 375th Airlift Wing)) (Scott AFB, IL)
434th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135R) (Grissom ARB, IN)
459th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135R) (Andrews AFB, MD)
507th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135R, E-3B/C, TC-18E) (Tinker AFB, OK)
916th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-125R) (Seymour-Johnson AFB, NC)
931st Air Refueling Group (AFRes) (KC-135R) (McConnell AFB, KS)
939th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135R (Portland IAP, OR)
927th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135E) (Selfridge ANGB, MI)
940th Air Refueling Wing (AFRes) (KC-135E) (Beale AFB, CA)
22nd Air Force (AFRes) (Dobbins AFB, GA)
94th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Dobbins ARB, GA)
302d Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Peterson AFB, CO)
315th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-17A) (Associate unit of 437th Airlift Wing)) (Charleston AFB, SC)
439th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-5A) (Westover ARB, MA)
440th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Gen. Mitchell ARS, Milwaukee, WI)
512th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-5A/B (Associate unit to 436th Airlift Wing)) (Dover AFB, DE)
908th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Maxwell AFB, AL)
910th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Youngstown ARS, OH)
911th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Greater Pittsburgh IAP, PA)
914th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130H) (Niagara Falls IAP, NY)
934th Airlift Wing (AFRes) (C-130E) (Minneapolis St Paul ARS, MN)
514th Air Mobility Wing (AFRes) (C-17A, KC-10A (Associate unit to 305th Air Mobility Wing)) (McGuire AFB, NJ)
Air National Guard Airlift
135th Airlift Group (MD ANG) (C-130J) (Glenn L Martin AP, MD)
105th Airlift Wing (NY ANG) (C-5A) (Stewart IAP, NY)
107th Airlift Wing (NY ANG) (C-130H) (Niagara Falls ARS, NY)
109th Airlift Wing (NY ANG) (C-130H, C-26B) (Schenectedy CAP, NY)
118th Airlift Wing (TN ANG) (C-130H) (Nashville MP, TN)
123d Airlift Wing (KY ANG) (C-130H) (Standiford Fd, KY)
130th Airlift Wing (WV ANG) (C-130H) (Yeager AP, Charleston, WV)
133d Airlift Wing (MN ANG) (C-130H) (Minneapolis St Paul, MN)
136th Airlift Wing (TX ANG) (C-130H) (NAS JRB Fort Worth, TX)
139th Airlift Wing (MO ANG) (C-130H) (Rosecrans MAP, MO)
143d Airlift Wing (RI ANG) (C-130E) (Quonset Point St AP, RI)
145th Airlift Wing (NC ANG) (C-130H) (Charlotte IAP, NC
146th Airlift Wing (CA ANG) (C-130E) (NAWS Pt Mugu, CA)
152d Airlift Wing (NV ANG) (C-130E/H) (Reno-Tahoe IAP, NV)
153d Airlift Wing (WY ANG) (C-130H) (Cheyenne MAP, WY)
164th Airlift Wing (TN ANG) (C-5A) (Memphis IAP, TN)
165th Airlift Wing (GA ANG) (C-130H) (Savannah IAP, GA)
166th Airlift Wing (DE ANG) (C-130H) (Greater Wilmington AP, DE)
167th Airlift Wing (WV ANG) (C-130H) (Martinsburgh AP, WV)
172d Airlift Wing (MI ANG) (C-17) (Thompson Fd, Jackson, MI)
179th Airlift Wing (OH ANG) (C-130H) (Mansfield-Lahm AP, OH)
182d Airlift Wing (IL ANG) (C-130E) (Greater Peoria AP, IL)
Air National Guard Aerial Refueling
101st Air Refueling Wing (ME ANG) (KC-135R) (Bangor IAP, ME)
108th Air Refueling Wing (NJ ANG) (KC-135E) (McGuire AFB, NJ)
117th Air Refueling Wing (AL ANG) (KC-135R) (Birmingham MAP, AL)
121st Air Refueling Wing (OH ANG) (KC-135R) (Rickenbacker ANGB, OH)
126th Air Refueling Wing (IL ANG) (KC-135E) (Chicago-O'Hare IAP, IL)
134th Air Refueling Wing (TN ANG) (KC-135E) (McGhee-Tyson AP, TN)
137th Air Refueling Wing (OK ANG) (KC-135) (Tinker AFB, OK)
141st Air Refueling Wing (WA ANG) (KC-135E, C-26B) (Fairchild AFB, WA)
151st Air Refueling Wing (UT ANG) (KC-135E) (Salt Lake City IAP, UT)
157th Air Refueling Wing (NH ANG) (KC-135R) (Pease AFB, NH)
161st Air Refueling Wing (AZ ANG) (KC-135E) (Phoenix-Sky Harbour AP, AZ)
171st Air Refueling Wing (PA ANG) (KC-135T) (Greater Pittsburgh IAP, PA)
185th Air Refueling Wing (IA ANG) (KC-135R) (Sioux City Gateway AP, IA)
186th Air Refueling Wing (MS ANG) (KC-135R, C-26B) (Key Fd, Meridian, MS)
190th Air Refueling Wing (KS ANG) (KC-135D/E) (Forbes Fd, Topeka, KS)
Military Sealift Command (MSC) (Washington Navy Yard, DC)
Sealift Logistics Command Atlantic (SEALOGLANT) (NB Norfolk, VA)
Sealift Logistics Command Pacific (SEALOGPAC) (NB San Diego, CA)
Sealift Logistics Command Europe (SEALOGEUR) (Naples, Italy)
Sealift Logistics Command Central (SEALOGCENT) (Manama, Bahrain)
Sealift Logistics Command Far East (SEALOGFE) (Sembawang, Singapore)
Maritime Prepositioning Force
Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron 2 (MPSRON 2)
Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron 3 (MPSRON 3) (PDS Agana, Guam, effective July 2019)
Sealift Force
Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force
Military Surface Deployment and Distribution Command(Alexandria, VA)
143d Sustainment Command (USAR) (Orlando, FL)
7th Transportation Brigade (Ft Eustis, VA)
32nd Transportation Group (Composite) (USAR) (Tampa, FL)
300th Transportation Group (Composite) (USAR) (Butler, PA)
336th Transportation Group (Composite) (USAR) (Ft Sheridan, IL)
375th Transportation Group (Composite) (USAR) (Mobile, AL)
1179th Deployment Support Brigade (USAR) (Ft Hamilton, NY)
1190th Deployment Support Brigade (USAR) (Baton Rouge, LA)
1394th Deployment Support Brigade (USAR) (Cp Pendleton, CA)
1176th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Baltimore, MD)
1185th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Lancaster, PA)
1192nd Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (New Orleans, LA)
1186th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Jacksonville, FL)
1189th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Charleston, SC)
1395th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Seattle, WA)
1397th Transportation Terminal Brigade (USAR) (Port Hueneme, California)
595th Transportation Brigade (Camp Arifjan, Kuwait)
596th Transportation Brigade (Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point, Southport, NC)
597th Transportation Brigade (Fort Eustis, Virginia)
598th Transportation Brigade (Rotterdam, Netherlands)
599th Transportation Brigade (Wheeler Army Airfield, Hawaii)
See also
United States Army
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
United States Air Force
United States Space Force
References
External links
US Armed Forces Order of Battle - June 2008
United States Armed Forces
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious%20law
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Religious law
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Religious law includes ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions. Different religious systems hold sacred law in a greater or lesser degree of importance to their belief systems, with some being explicitly antinomian whereas others are nomistic or "legalistic" in nature. In particular, religions such as Judaism, Islam and the Baháʼí Faith teach the need for revealed positive law for both state and society, whereas other religions such as Christianity generally reject the idea that this is necessary or desirable and instead emphasise the eternal moral precepts of divine law over the civil, ceremonial or judicial aspects, which may have been annulled as in theologies of grace over law.
Examples of religiously derived legal codes include Jewish halakha, Islamic sharia, Christian canon law (applicable within a wider theological conception in the church, but in modern times distinct from secular state law), and Hindu law.
Established religions and religious institutions
A state religion (or established church) is a religious body officially endorsed by the state. A theocracy is a form of government in which a God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler.
In both theocracies and some religious jurisdictions, conscientious objectors may cause religious offense. The contrary legal systems are secular states or multicultural societies in which the government does not formally adopt a particular religion, but may either repress all religious activity or enforce tolerance of religious diversity.
Baháʼí Faith
Baháʼí laws are laws and ordinances used in the Baháʼí Faith and are a fundamental part of Baháʼí practice. The laws are based on authenticated texts from Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, subsequent interpretations from `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi and legislation by the Universal House of Justice. Baháʼí law is presented as a set of general principles and guidelines and individuals must apply them as they best seem fit. While some of the social laws are enforced by Baháʼí institutions, the emphasis is placed on individuals following the laws based on their conscience, understanding and reasoning, and Baháʼís are expected to follow the laws for the love of Bahá'u'lláh. The laws are seen as the method of the maintenance of order and security in the world.
A few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas which are considered obligatory for Baháʼís include:
Recite an obligatory prayer each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
Observe a Nineteen Day Fast from sunrise to sunset from March 2 through March 20. During this time Baháʼís in good health between the ages of 15 and 70 abstain from eating and drinking.
Gossip and backbiting are prohibited and viewed as particularly damaging to the individual and their relationships.
Buddhism
Patimokkha comprises a collection of precepts for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (Buddhist monks and nuns).
Christianity
Within the framework of Christianity, there are several possible definitions for religious law. One is the Mosaic Law (from what Christians consider to be the Old Testament), also called Divine Law or biblical law; the most famous example is the Ten Commandments. Another is the instructions of Jesus of Nazareth to his disciples in the Gospel (often referred to as the Law of Christ or the New Commandment or the New Covenant, in contrast to the Old Covenant). Another is the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15, which is still observed by the Greek Orthodox Church. Another is canon law in the Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox churches.
In some Christian denominations, law is often contrasted with grace (see also Law and Gospel and Antithesis of the Law): the contrast here speaks to an attempt to gain salvation by obedience to a code of laws as opposed to seeking salvation through faith in the atonement made by Jesus on the cross. From the Gospel of John:
Biblical/Mosaic law
Christian views of the Old Covenant vary. and are to be distinguished from Christian theology, ethics, and practice. The term "Old Covenant", also referred to as the Mosaic covenant and the Law of Moses, refers to the statements or principles of religious law and religious ethics codified in the first five books or Pentateuch of the Old Testament. Views of the Old Covenant are expressed in the New Testament, such as Jesus' antitheses of the law, the circumcision controversy in Early Christianity, and the Incident at Antioch and position of Paul the Apostle and Judaism. Most Christians hold that only parts are applicable, while some Protestants have the view that none is applicable. Dual-covenant theologians have the view that only Noahide Laws apply to Gentiles. The Jewish Christianity movement is virtually extinct. According to the New Testament Christians are no longer regarded as Gentiles (Romans 8: 28–29)
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by or adopted by ecclesiastical authority for the governance of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a church council (From Greek kanon / κανών, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
Canons of the Apostles
The Canons of the Apostles or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern, fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers
Catholic Church
The canon law of the Catholic Church () is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West, predating the European common law and civil law traditions. What began with rules ("canons") adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the 1st century has blossomed into a highly complex and original legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions spanning thousands of years of human experience. while the unique traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris.
Positive ecclesiastical laws derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from promulgation by the supreme legislator—the Supreme Pontiff—who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition.
It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code for the Latin Church as well as a code for the Eastern Catholic Churches, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties. It lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. Those who are versed and skilled in canon law, and professors of canon law, are called canonists (or colloquially, canon lawyers). Canon law as a sacred science is called canonistics.
The jurisprudence of Catholic canon law is the complex of legal principles and traditions within which canon law operates, while the philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law are the areas of philosophical, theological, and legal scholarship dedicated to providing a theoretical basis for canon law as a legal system and as true law.
In the early Church, the first canons were decreed by bishops united in "Ecumenical" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the Bishop of Rome) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with decretals of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim, Roma locuta est, causa finita est ("Rome has spoken, case is closed").
Later, they were gathered together into collections, both unofficial and official. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the Camaldolese monk Gratian in the 11th century, commonly known as the Decretum Gratiani ("Gratian's Decree"). Pope Gregory IX is credited with promulgating the first official collection of canons called the Decretalia Gregorii Noni or Liber Extra (1234). This was followed by the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII, the Clementines (1317) of Clement V, the Extravagantes Joannis XXII and the Extravagantes Communes, all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the Decretum Gratiani, are together referred to as the Corpus Juris Canonici. After the completion of the Corpus Juris Canonici, subsequent papal legislation was published in periodic volumes called Bullaria.
By the 19th century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms, many difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. This situation impelled Pope Pius X to order the creation of the first Code of Canon Law, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, who promulgated the Code, effective in 1918. The work having been begun by Pius X, it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the 1917 Code. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other Codes, from the Codex of Justinian to the Napoleonic Code.
Pope John XXIII initially called for a Synod of the Diocese of Rome, an Ecumenical Council, and an updating to the 1917 Code. After the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican (Vatican II) closed in 1965, it became apparent that the Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of Vatican II. After multiple drafts and many years of discussion, Pope John Paul II promulgated the revised Code of Canon Law (CIC) in 1983. Containing 1752 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin (western) Roman Church.
The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II.
The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern Civil law and Common law bear the influences of canon law. Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in canon law, says that canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Sampel explains that canon law has significant influence in contemporary society.
Currently, all Latin-Rite Catholic seminary students are expected to take a course in canon law (c. 252.3). Some ecclesiastical officials are required to have the doctorate (JCD) or at least the licentiate (JCL) in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: Judicial Vicars (c. 1419.1), Judges (c. 1421.3), Promoters of Justice (c. 1435), Defenders of the Bond (c. 1435). In addition, Vicars General and Episcopal Vicars are to be doctors or at least licensed in canon law or theology (c. 478.1), and canonical advocates must either have the doctorate or be truly expert in canon law (c. 1483). Ordinarily, Bishops are to have advanced degrees in sacred scripture, theology, or canon law (c. 378.1.5). St. Raymond of Penyafort (1175–1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of canonists, due to his important contributions to the science of Canon Law.
Orthodox Churches
The Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pēdálion (Greek: Πηδάλιον, "Rudder"), so named because it is meant to "steer" the Church. The Orthodox Christian tradition in general treats its canons more as guidelines than as laws, the bishops adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the Ecumenical Councils (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them nómoi/νόμοι (laws) rather than kanónes/κανόνες (rules), but almost all Orthodox conform to them. The dogmatic decisions of the Councils, though, are to be obeyed rather than to be treated as guidelines, since they are essential for the Church's unity.
Anglican Communion
In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 11th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an LL.D. from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centred at "Doctors Commons", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)
Charles I repealed Canon Law in Scotland in 1638 after uprisings of Covenanters confronting the Bishops of Aberdeen following the convention at Muchalls Castle and other revolts across Scotland earlier that year.
Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law.
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches
In Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order," and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship.
Lutheranism
The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century. However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred to as "canons".
The United Methodist Church
The Book of Discipline contains the laws, rules, policies and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. It is revised every four years by the General Conference, the law-making body of The United Methodist Church; the last edition was published in 2016.
Hinduism
Hindu law is largely based on the Manu Smriti (smriti of Manu). It was recognized by the British during their rule of India but its influence waned after the establishment of the Republic of India, which has a secular legal system.
Islam
Sharia, also known as Islamic law ( ), is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources, the precepts set forth in the Quran and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the sunnah. Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) interprets and extends the application of sharia to questions not directly addressed in the primary sources by including secondary sources. These secondary sources usually include the consensus of the ulama (religious scholars) embodied in ijma and analogy from the Quran and sunnah through qiyas. Shia jurists prefer to apply reasoning ('aql) rather than analogy in order to address difficult questions.
Muslims believe sharia is God's law, but they differ as to what exactly it entails. Modernists, traditionalists and fundamentalists all hold different views of sharia, as do adherents to different schools of Islamic thought and scholarship. Different countries, societies and cultures have varying interpretations of sharia as well.
Sharia deals with many topics addressed by secular law, including crime, politics and economics, as well as personal matters such as sexual intercourse, hygiene, diet, prayer, and fasting. Where it has official status, sharia is applied by Islamic judges, or qadis. The imam has varying responsibilities depending on the interpretation of sharia; while the term is commonly used to refer to the leader of communal prayers, the imam may also be a scholar, religious leader, or political leader.
The reintroduction of sharia is a longstanding goal for Islamist movements in Muslim countries. Some Muslim minorities in Asia (e.g., in Israel or in India) have maintained institutional recognition of sharia to adjudicate their personal and community affairs. In Western countries, where Muslim immigration is more recent, Muslim minorities have introduced sharia family law for use in their own disputes with varying degrees of success, e.g., Britain's Muslim Arbitration Tribunal. Attempts by Muslims to impose sharia on non-Muslims in countries with large Muslim populations have been accompanied by controversy, violence, and even warfare (cf. Second Sudanese Civil War).
Jainism
Jain law or Jaina law refers to the modern interpretation of ancient Jain Law that consists of rules for adoption, marriage, succession and death for the followers of Jainism.
Judaism
Halakha (; literally "walking") is the collective body of rabbinic Jewish religious laws derived from the Written and Oral Torah, including the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud, and its commentaries. After the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in the year 70 during the First Jewish-Roman War, the Oral Law was developed through intensive and expansive interpretations of the written Torah.
The halakhah has developed gradually through a variety of legal and quasi-legal mechanisms, including judicial decisions, legislative enactments, and customary law. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, are referred to as Responsa. Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law were written based on Talmudic literature and Responsa. The most influential code, the Shulchan Aruch, guides the religious practice of most Orthodox and some Conservative Jews.
According to rabbinic tradition there are 613 mitzvot in the written Torah. The mitzvot in the Torah (also called the Law of Moses) pertain to nearly every aspect of human life. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups (the Kohanim and Leviyim) members of the tribe of Levi, some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Some laws are only applicable when there is a Temple in Jerusalem (see Third Temple).
Wicca
The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in the neopagan religion of Wicca and certain other related witchcraft-based faiths. A common form of the Rede is "An it harm none, do what ye will".
See also
Doctrine and Covenants
Ethics in religion
Law and religion, the interdisciplinary study of religion and law
Lawsuits against God
Morality and religion
List of national legal systems
Religious police
Rule according to higher law
Rule of law
References
Further reading
Norman Doe. Comparative Religious Law: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
Buddhism and Law: An Introduction. Edited by Rebecca Redwood French and Mark A. Nathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Pp. 407.- Volume 31. Issue 1.
Ulanov, M.S., Badmaev, V.N., Holland, E.C. Buddhism and Kalmyk Secular Law in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Inner Asia, 2017, no.19, pp. 297–314.
External links
Judaism 101: A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments)
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] |
201287
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazi%20of%20Iraq
|
Ghazi of Iraq
|
Ghazi bin Faisal () (21 March 1912 – 4 April 1939) was the King of Iraq from 1933 to 1939 having been briefly Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Syria in 1920. He was born in Mecca, the only son of Faisal I, the first King of Iraq.
Early life
Ghazi was the only son of Faisal (later to become King Faisal I of Iraq) and Huzaima bint Nasser. He was born when his father was leading a campaign in 'Asir against Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi of 'Asir so He was named Ghazi (meaning Warrior due to this campaign, In his childhood, Ghazi was left with his grandfather, Hussein bin Ali, the Hashemite Grand Sharif of Mecca and head of the royal house of Hashim, who called Ghazi "Awn" after his great grandfather Awn bin Muhsin, while his father was occupied with travel and in military campaigns against the Ottomans. The Hashemites had ruled the Hijaz within the Ottoman Empire before rebelling with British assistance in the later stages of World War I. He attended Harrow School.
Unlike his worldly father, Ghazi grew up a shy and inexperienced young man. Following the defeat of his grandfather's army by Saudi forces in 1924, he was forced to leave the Hijaz with the rest of the Hashemites. They traveled to Transjordan where Ghazi's uncle Abdullah was King. In the same year, Ghazi joined his father in Baghdad and was appointed as crown prince and heir to the Kingdom of Iraq. His father had been crowned following a national referendum in 1921.
Flying Carpet
As a 16-year-old schoolboy, he met the traveller-adventurer Richard Halliburton and his pilot Moye Stephens during their round-the-world flight (shortly after Charles Lindbergh's celebrated transatlantic flight). Ghazi was taken for his first flight by Halliburton and Stephens in a biplane named the 'Flying Carpet'. They flew down to see the ruins of Ancient Babylon and other historical sites and flew low over the prince's own school so that his schoolmates could see him in the biplane. An account of the young Crown Prince Ghazi's experience flying over his country can be found in Richard Halliburton's The Flying Carpet.
Simele Massacre
Ghazi came to Simele to award 'victorious' colours to the military and tribal leaders who, on 11 August 1933, participated in the Simele massacre of Assyrians and the looting of their homes.
King of Iraq
On 8 September 1933, King Faisal I died, and Ghazi was crowned as King Ghazi I. On the same day, Ghazi was appointed Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal Iraqi Navy, Field Marshal of the Royal Iraqi Army, and Marshal of the Royal Iraqi Air Force. A staunch pan-Arab nationalist, opposed to British interests in his country, Ghazi's reign was characterized by tensions between civilians and the army, which sought control of the government. He supported General Bakr Sidqi in his coup, which replaced the civilian government with a military one. This was the first coup d'état to take place in the modern Arab world. He was rumoured to harbour sympathies for Nazi Germany and also put forth a claim for Kuwait to be annexed to Iraq. For this purpose, he had his own radio station in al-Zuhoor royal palace in which he promoted that claim and other radical views.
Marriage and children
On 25 January 1934, King Ghazi married his first cousin, Princess Aliya bint Ali, daughter of his uncle King Ali of Hejaz, in Baghdad, Iraq. They had only one son, Faisal II, born 2 May 1935.
Faisal had a circumcision party on Thursday, 7 November 1935, in al Zuhoor Palace and Emir Abdullah I of Transjordan and his son, Prince Nayef bin Abdullah, attended the party as well as the staff of the Hashemite Family. King Ghazi then ordered the distribution of ِAlms towards the poor and needy, and over 50 children in an Islamic orphanage were also circumcised on the account of King Ghazi who then distributed desserts among them. King Ghazi attended a banquet in the evening of that day which was attended by the Emir Abdullah of Transjordan and his son Nayef, and Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, and he invited the Prime Minister, former prime ministers, the leaders of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, and senior statesmen.
Ghazi was suspected of having an extra-marital affair with a young Iraqi servant. British sources wrote in 1938 that King Ghazi's bad reputation was tarnished "further" when a "Negro youth," who was employed at the palace, died by "accidentally" discharging his revolver when he didn't remove it before his afternoon siesta. An official police expert ruled that the Palace's explanation was consistent with the police examination.
The British suspected there was more to the story, in particular, that one of Queen Aliya's "adherents" might have killed the boy, as the boy was suspected to be "the King's boon companion in debauchery" and the Queen therefore had a "deep aversion" to the boy. The King was in a panic after this incident, fearing imminent assassination.
Death
King Ghazi died in April 1939 in an accident involving a sports car that he was driving. According to the scholars Ma'ruf al-Rusafi and Safa Khulusi, a common view by many Iraqis at the time was that he was killed on the orders of Nuri al-Said, because of his plans for unification of Iraq with Kuwait.
Faisal, Ghazi's only son, succeeded him as King Faisal II. Because Faisal was underage, Prince Abdul Ilah served as regent until 1953. After death he was commemorated as one of the five habibis.
Ancestry
See also
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
List of unsolved deaths
Saib Shawkat
References
Books
Ali, Tariq. Bush in Babylon: the Recolonisation of Iraq. W.W. Norton, 2003. .
External links
|-
1912 births
1939 deaths
20th-century Iraqi people
20th century in Iraq
Field marshals of Iraq
Grand Cordons of the Order of Independence (Jordan)
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
House of Hashim
Iraqi Arab nationalists
Iraqi Sunni Muslims
Kings of Iraq
Marshals of the Royal Iraqi Air Force
People educated at Harrow School
People from Mecca
Road incident deaths in Iraq
Unsolved deaths
|
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] |
201289
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20trees%20of%20Denmark
|
List of trees of Denmark
|
List of Hardy Trees cultivated in Denmark by genera
Firs - see Abies of Denmark
Maples - see Acer of Denmark
Horse-chestnuts
Tree of Heaven
Alders
Snowy Mespils
Birches
Hornbeams
The Hickories
The Chestnuts some plants are hardy.
The Indian Bean
The Cedrus some provenances are hardy.
Chinese Mahogany needs a warm place.
Nettle-trees
Katsura Tree
Cypresses
Dogwoods
Hazels
Hawthorns
Sugi
Cunninghamia only northern provenances are hardy.
Dove Tree
Persimmon needs a warm place.
Beech
Ash
Ginkgo
Honey Locust
Walnut
Golden Rain Tree, Pride of India
Larch
Sweet Gum
Tulip-tree
Magnolia
Apple
Dawn Redwood
Mulberry
Nothofagus Antarctica
Tupelo
Hop-hornbeams
Paulownia tomentosa
Wingnuts
Douglas-fir
Cork-trees
Spruces
Pines - see Pinus of Denmark
Planes do need warm place.
Poplars, Aspens, Cottenwoods
Plums and cherries
Pears
Oaks - see Quercus of Denmark
Willows
Sciadopitys
Coast Redwood only a few specimens
Giant Sequoia only a few specimens
Rowan, Whitebeam
Swamp Cypress only a few specimens
Yews
Lindens
Thujas
Hemlocks
Elms
See also
Trees of the world
External links
the Arboretum
Denmark
Trees
Denmark
Trees
|
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201290
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macnas
|
Macnas
|
Macnas (Irish for 'frolicking') is a performance company based at the Fisheries Field in Galway, Ireland. Its public performances are noted for being "pioneering, inventive and radical" in style. The company has been credited with changing the nature of public entertainment in Ireland and is regarded as highly influential within the field of spectacle performance.
Founded in 1986, the company has performed in over 20 countries across the globe. Its parades have been a centre-point of Halloween, St. Patrick's Day and formerly Galway International Arts Festival festivities in Galway city, drawing crowds of up to 50,000 people on to the city streets.
Macnas toured alongside U2 as part of the Zoo TV Tour in 1993. The company simultaneously helped to ring in the new millennium in three cities: Galway (Eyre Square), Dublin (Merrion Square) and New York City (Times Square).
In March 2016, Macnas performed at the opening ceremony of SXSW in Austin, Texas. In November 2017, Macnas performed as the closing act in the Land of Green Ginger programme at Hull UK City of Culture 2017.
Macnas offices are spread across two locations in Galway city. Administration and rehearsals mainly take place in Fisheries Field. Large-scale construction primarily takes place at a warehouse in Liosban.
The Liffey Press and Macnas have published Macnas: Joyful Abandonment, a 250-page history of the company.
References
External links
Official website
Culture in Galway (city)
Performance artist collectives
Theatre companies in the Republic of Ireland
|
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201291
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belva%20Gaertner
|
Belva Gaertner
|
Belva Gaertner (née Boosinger; September 14, 1884 – May 14, 1965) was an American woman who was acquitted of murder in a 1924 trial. She inspired elements of the 1926 play Chicago created by Maurine Dallas Watkins; Watkins reported on the trial for the Chicago Tribune. The character also appears in the 1975 musical based on the play.
Early life
Gaertner was born Belva Eleanora Boosinger on September 14, 1884, in Litchfield, Illinois to Mary Jane (née Clark) and Charles M. Boosinger. She was a three-time divorced cabaret singer who used the professional name Belle Brown. Her first marriage was to a Mr. Overbeck. In 1917, she married William Gaertner, who was 20 years her elder and a wealthy industrialist, in Crown Point, Indiana. Five months later, William Gaertner successfully sued to have the marriage annulled, claiming that Belva's divorce from Overbeck had not been finalized. They then were married a second time, but had separated by the time Belva was accused of murder.
Murder of Walter Law
On March 11, 1924, Belva Gaertner allegedly shot and killed her lover Walter Law, a married man with one child. Law was found sprawled in the front seat of Gaertner's car with a bottle of gin and a gun lying beside him. Gaertner, found later at her apartment with blood-soaked clothes on the floor, confessed that she was drunk and was driving with Law, but couldn't remember what happened.
Gaertner was arrested for the murder of Law in Chicago on March 12, 1924, and admitted to drinking with Law at various bars and jazz houses, saying she carried a gun for fear of robbers.
The trial
One of Law's co-workers testified that Law had confided that Gaertner was a possessive lover who had threatened him with a knife when he tried to leave her, and Law believed she would kill him one day.
Gaertner told Maurine Dallas Watkins: "No woman can love a man enough to kill him. They aren't worth it, because there are always plenty more. Walter was just a kid—29 and I'm 38. Why should I have worried whether he loved me or whether he left me? Gin and guns—either one is bad enough, but together they get you in a dickens of a mess, don't they?" Gaertner was defended by William Scott Stewart.
Gaertner's defense was that Law might have killed himself with the gun. She was acquitted in June 1924.
Later life
In 1925, following her acquittal, she remarried William Gaertner. In 1926, Gaertner filed for divorce again, claiming she was abusive and an alcoholic. On July 5, Gaertner claimed his wife threatened to murder him after he found her with another man. She was convicted of drunk driving in November 1926.
By 1930, she and Gaertner had moved to Europe. Following William Gaertner's death on December 2, 1948, in Wilmette, Illinois, Belva moved to Pasadena, California and lived with her sister, Ethel Kraushaar. She died of natural causes on May 14, 1965, at the age of 80.
Stage and screen adaptations
Watkins used Gaertner's story as part of the inspiration for her play Chicago; Roxie Hart, the lead character in Chicago, is a former entertainer who blames her crime on jazz, liquor and guns. (Most of Hart's backstory was adapted from an unrelated murder case, that of Beulah Annan.) Gaertner attended the 1927 opening of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois.
The play has since been adapted into a 1927 silent film, 1975 stage musical, and 2002 movie musical (which won the Academy Award for Best Picture), all by that name, as well as the 1942 romantic comedy film Roxie Hart. The 1975 musical and its 2002 film adaptation relied on some of Gaertner's story to flesh out the character of Velma Kelly, who in Watkins's original play was a minor character. Her case has also been covered in a new episode of Deadly Women on Investigation Discovery in 2021.
References
Further reading
Thomas H. Pauly (Ed.): Chicago: With the Chicago Tribune Articles that Inspired It. Southern Illinois University 1997.
1884 births
1965 deaths
People from Chicago
People acquitted of murder
People from Litchfield, Illinois
|
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] |
201292
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Pierce%20Baker
|
George Pierce Baker
|
George Pierce Baker (April 4, 1866 – January 6, 1935) was a professor of English at Harvard and Yale and author of Dramatic Technique, a codification of the principles of drama.
Biography
Baker graduated in the Harvard College class of 1887, served as Editor-in-Chief of The Harvard Monthly, and taught in the English Department at Harvard from 1888 until 1924. He started his "47 workshop" class in playwriting in 1905. He was instrumental in creating the Harvard Theatre Collection at Harvard University Library. In 1908 he began the Harvard Dramatic Club, acting as its sponsor, and in 1912 he founded Workshop 47 to provide a forum for the performance of plays developed within his English class. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914. Unable to persuade Harvard to offer a degree in playwriting, he moved to Yale University in 1925, where he helped found the Yale School of Drama. He remained there until his retirement in 1933.
Baker taught a seminar on Shakespeare and English drama at the Sorbonne University (Paris) in 1908.
Among those he taught in his playwriting class were Rachel Barton Butler, George Abbott, Philip Barry, S.N. Behrman, Hallie Flanagan, Hong Shen, Sidney Howard, Samuel Hume, Stanley McCandless, Eugene O'Neill, Florence Ryerson, Edward Sheldon, Josephine Van de Grift, Maurine Dallas Watkins, and Thomas Wolfe. His Dramatic Technique (1919) offered a codification in English of the principles of the well-made play.
George Pierce Baker was the father of George P. Baker who was dean of Harvard Business School.
References
Further reading
Bordelon, Suzanne. "A Reassessment of George Pierce Baker's" The Principles of Argumentation": Minimizing the Use of Formal Logic in Favor of Practical Approaches." College Composition and Communication 57.4 (2006): 763-788 online.
Hinkel, Cecil Ellsworth. "An Analysis and evaluation of the 47 workshop of George Pierce Baker" ( Diss. The Ohio State University, 1959) online.
Kempf, Christopher. "The Play’sa Thing: The 47 Workshop and the “Crafting” of Creative Writing." American Literary History 32.2 (2020): 243-272.
Kinne, Wisner Payne. George Pierce Baker and the American Theatre (Harvard University Press, 2013).
Reilly, Kara. "George Pierce Baker: A century of dramaturgs teaching playwriting." Contemporary Theatre Review 23.2 (2013): 107-113.
External links
Collection Guide, George Pierce Baker Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University
Audio recording of Baker's 1920 play The Pilgrim Spirit at LostPlays.com
Dramatic Technique at the Internet Archive
George Pierce Baker papers (MS 51). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
George Pierce Baker Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
1866 births
1935 deaths
Theatrologists
Drama teachers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Harvard College alumni
Harvard University faculty
Yale University faculty
|
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201293
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurine%20Dallas%20Watkins
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Maurine Dallas Watkins
|
Maurine Dallas Watkins (July 27, 1896? – August 10, 1969) was an American playwright and screenwriter. Early in her career, she briefly worked as a journalist covering the courthouse beat for the Chicago Tribune. This experience gave her the material for her most famous piece of work, the stage play, Chicago (1926), which was eventually adapted into the 1975 Broadway musical of the same name, which was then made into a successful movie in 2002 that won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture.
Watkins was born in Kentucky and grew up in Indiana. She graduated with honors from Butler University and headed to Radcliffe, where she received training as a dramatist. She left Radcliffe and was in advertising in Chicago in the early 1920s. She then landed a job as a reporter before returning to university at what became Yale Drama School and play-writing success. Watkins went on to write screenplays in Hollywood, eventually retiring to Florida.
Early life and career
Watkins was born in Louisville, Kentucky, or possibly Lexington, Kentucky. She was born on July 27 but her birth certificate does not survive in Kentucky state records and several different years have been suggested. Watkins' father was a minister and she an only child. Her family moved to Crawfordsville, Indiana and at age 11 she received local notice for putting on a play she wrote, "Hearts of Gold", which made $45.00 for charity. At Crawfordsville High School she started a newspaper and was active in clubs. She attended a total of five colleges (including Hamilton College (Kentucky), Transylvania University, Butler College (Indianapolis), and Radcliffe College). While at Butler, Watkins joined the Gamma chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta Women's Fraternity and was initiated in 1919.
That year she graduated first in her class from Butler, and moved on to Radcliffe in Massachusetts to pursue graduate studies in Greek. Her plans changed after she applied and was accepted into English Professor George Pierce Baker's playwriting workshop at Harvard University. Baker encouraged writing students to seek experience in the larger world and may have recommended newspaper reporting. Watkins left Radcliffe before finishing a degree, moved to Chicago and first worked in advertising for Standard Oil. While working for Standard Oil, she entertained ideas of working as a playwright. In early 1924, she instead landed a job as a reporter with the Chicago Tribune.
For the Tribune, where Watkins worked for eight months, she covered the murders and the subsequent trials of Belva Gaertner, a twice-divorced cabaret singer, and Beulah Sheriff Annan. Watkins focused on the farcical, cynical, and sensational aspects of the two cases, the press and public interest, and the legal proceedings. She highlighted two attractive "jazz babies" claiming to have been corrupted by men and liquor. She characterized Annan as "beauty of the cell block" and Gaertner as "most stylish of Murderess Row." She competed with other female journalists, such as Ione Quinby, for exclusive scoops on sensational crime stories. Both women, after months of press coverage in Chicago's seven daily papers, were found not guilty at trial; Watkins believed they were guilty.
Watkins published about 50 stories during her time at the paper, in addition to crime and courts, she was sent to cover funerals, wrote on women's style, and she profiled leaders of the women's pacifist movement. Watkins also briefly reported on the noted Leopold and Loeb kidnapping and murder case, whose sensational qualities quickly overshadowed the coverage of the Belva Gaertner verdict.
Soon after, she returned to school to study again under Baker, who had moved to Yale University, to help start the Yale School of Drama. As a class assignment in his famous 47 Workshop course, she wrote a thinly fictionalized account of the two murders. She first called it The Brave Little Woman, then Chicago, or Play Ball (first copyrighted version: pre-production manuscript), and finally Chicago (second copyrighted version: post-production script). Beulah Annan became "Roxie Hart"; Belva Gaertner, "Velma"; Albert Annan, "Amos Hart"; and the two lawyers, William Scott Stewart and W.W. O'Brien, were combined into the composite character "Billy Flynn". Watkins' rival reporters, who were far more sympathetic to the women's causes, were parodied as "Mary Sunshine," the easily manipulated reporter who later turns into Velma and Roxie's vaudeville manager.
Director Sam Forrest was replaced by George Abbott at the request of Jeanne Eagels (Roxie Hart); but Eagels quit the show within a few days, and Francine Larrimore replaced her. Chicago opened on Broadway on 30 December 1926 (though the run is listed as 1927). The play ran for a respectable 172 performances, then toured for two years (with a then-unknown Clark Gable appearing as Amos Hart in a Los Angeles production ). A silent film version in 1927 was produced and supervised by Cecil B. DeMille and starred former Mack Sennett "bathing beauty" Phyllis Haver as Roxie Hart. It was adapted as Roxie Hart in 1942 with Ginger Rogers in the title role. This 1942 film version eliminated all the murderesses except the unnamed Velma Kelly, and the stage and screen musical versions eliminated Jake, Babe, and several other characters.
Watkins wrote about 20 plays, but Chicago was her most successful. She moved to Hollywood to write screenplays, including the 1936 comedy Libeled Lady. The film featured William Powell, Myrna Loy, Jean Harlow, and Spencer Tracy. Her play and screenwriting, coupled with investments, made her a millionaire, and she traveled the world.
Later life
Her public career ended around the time her father died in 1941. Watkins left Hollywood and moved to Florida, close to her elderly mother. She was a lifelong Christian and spent much of her fortune of over $2,300,000 founding contests and chairs in Greek and Bible studies at some 20 universities, including Princeton.
In the 1960s, Watkins was approached by Bob Fosse, who sought the rights to Chicago for a musical adaptation, but she resisted his offers. Following her death from lung cancer in 1969, C. R. Leonard, a trust officer at the Florida National Bank in Jacksonville, handled Watkins' estate and negotiated sale of rights to her play. He later stated that at the time a major heir from the playwright's family informed him that Maurine believed that her newspaper articles had "gained sympathy" for Beulah Annan and that "over the years [she] became disturbed that she had assisted in getting an acquittal for a murderer."
After the much delayed sale of these rights, Fosse was able to move ahead with development of Chicago: A Musical Vaudeville with a score by John Kander and Fred Ebb. It was first produced in 1975, revived in 1997, and filmed in 2002. By the time of the 50th anniversary of Watkins death, Chicago had become a $2 billion franchise.
Filmography
Chicago (film, 1927); Chicago (play, 1926)
Up the River (1930) (story)
Doctors' Wives (1931)
Play Girl (1932)
The Strange Love of Molly Louvain (1932) (play Tinsel Girl)
No Man of Her Own (1932)
Child of Manhattan (1933)
Hello, Sister! (1933) (uncredited)
The Story of Temple Drake (1933) (uncredited)
Professional Sweetheart (1933)
Search for Beauty (1934)
Strictly Dynamite (1934) (story)
A Wicked Woman (1934) (dialogue)
Libeled Lady (1936)
Up the River (remake, 1938) (story)
I Love You Again (1940) (story)
Roxie Hart (1942)
Easy to Wed (1946)
Chicago (2002) (film)
References
Further reading
Thomas H. Pauly (Ed.): Chicago: With the Chicago Tribune Articles that Inspired It. Southern Illinois University 1997. ,
External links
Judith Ann Schiff, "How Yale begat Chicago," Yale Alumni Magazine, May/June 2012.'
"Maurine Dallas Watkins: Sob Sisters, Pretty Demons, and All That Jazz", Indiana Historical Bureau
http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1997-07-16/features/9707160264_1_chicago-tribune-newsroom-maurine-watkins-feminine-perspective
Maurine Watkins Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
1890s births
1969 deaths
Writers from Chicago
Crawfordsville High School alumni
Butler University alumni
Radcliffe College alumni
American women journalists
Journalists from Kentucky
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
Kentucky women writers
American women screenwriters
Chicago Tribune people
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American screenwriters
20th-century American journalists
|
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201294
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beulah%20Annan
|
Beulah Annan
|
Beulah May Annan (née Sheriff; November 18, 1899 – March 10, 1928) was an American suspected murderer. Her story inspired Maurine Dallas Watkins's play Chicago in 1926. The play was adapted into a 1927 silent film, a 1975 stage musical, and a 2002 movie musical (which won the Academy Award for Best Picture), all with that title, and a 1942 romantic comedy film, Roxie Hart, named for the character who Annan inspired.
Early life
Annan was born Beulah May Sheriff in Owensboro, Kentucky, to Mary (née Neel) and John R. Sheriff. While living in Kentucky, she married her first husband, newspaper linotype operator Perry Stephens. They soon divorced, and Beulah then met car mechanic Albert "Al" Annan. They went to Chicago together, where they got married on March 29, 1920.
In Chicago, Albert found work as a mechanic at a garage and Beulah eventually became a bookkeeper at Tennant's Model Laundry. At the laundry she met Harry Kalstedt and the two began an affair.
Murder
On April 3, 1924, in the married couple's bedroom, Annan shot Kalstedt in the back. According to her initial story, they had been drinking wine which Kalstedt had brought over, and got into an argument. There was a gun on the bed and both reached for it, but Beulah got it first and shot Kalstedt while he was putting on his coat and hat. She played a foxtrot record, "Hula Lou", over and over for about four hours as she sat drinking cocktails and watching Kalstedt die. She then called her husband to say that she had killed a man who had "tried to make love" to her.
The trial
Annan's story changed over time: first, she confessed to the murder; later, Annan claimed that she shot Kalstedt in self-defense, fearing that she was about to be raped. According to one of her later versions of the story, he told her that he was leaving her, she reacted angrily and then shot him. Prosecutors surmised that Kalstedt threatened to leave Annan and she responded to his threat by shooting him in a jealous rage. Her final story at her trial was that she told Kalstedt that she was pregnant, they struggled, and both of them reached for the gun.
Albert Annan stood by her after her arrest, pulled his money out of the bank to get her the best lawyers and stood by her throughout the trial. The day after the trial ended with her acquittal, on May 25, 1924, Beulah Annan announced, "I have left my husband. He is too slow." In 1926 she claimed that he had deserted her and divorced him.
Later life
In 1927, after her divorce from Annan was finalized, she married Edward Harlib, a boxer. Just three months later she claimed that he had been cruel to her and filed for divorce. In the divorce settlement, Harlib paid her $5,000 (equivalent to $,000 in current dollars). After her divorce from Harlib, Annan was involved with a fourth man, Able Marcus.
Death
Annan died of tuberculosis, aged 28, at the Chicago Fresh Air Sanatorium, where she was staying under the name Beulah Stephens, in 1928, four years after her acquittal on charges of murder.
She was returned to her home state for burial in Mount Pleasant Cumberland Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Daviess County, Kentucky. Her grave marker incorrectly notes her death as a year earlier, however, stating it to be March 10, 1927.
References
Further reading
Thomas H. Pauly (ed.): Chicago: With the Chicago Tribune Articles that Inspired It. Southern Illinois University 1997;
Douglas Perry: The Girls of Murder City, Viking, 2010;
1899 births
1928 deaths
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
People from Chicago
People from Owensboro, Kentucky
Tuberculosis deaths in Illinois
|
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201299
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Augstein
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Rudolf Augstein
|
Rudolf Karl Augstein (5 November 1923 – 7 November 2002) was a German journalist, editor, publicist and politician. He was one of the most influential German journalists, founder and part-owner of Der Spiegel magazine. As a politician, he was a member of the Bundestag for the Free Democratic Party of Germany (FDP) between November 1972 and January 1973.
Life and career
Born in Hanover, Germany, he was a radio operator and artillery observer in the Heer (the German Army) during World War II. By war's end, he held the rank of Leutnant der Reserve (reserve officer).
He founded Der Spiegel in 1946/1947, which became (and still is) the most important investigative weekly magazine in Germany. During the Spiegel affair of 1961-62, he was arrested and jailed for 103 days, until Franz Josef Strauß was forced to resign as Minister of Defense under continuing protest from the public and the resignation of the FDP cabinet members.
Augstein became a member of the West German parliament the Bundestag in 1972 for the Free Democrats for North Rhine-Westphalia, but resigned only a year later, to focus on his duties as a journalist. It has been speculated that he considered himself much more influential with his magazine than he ever was in the legislature.
An amateur historian, Augstein published several successful books, among them Preußens Friedrich und die Deutschen (1981, ), Otto von Bismarck (1990, ), and, about his lifetime opponent, Überlebensgroß Herr Strauß. Ein Spiegelbild (1983, ). During the Historikerstreit of 1986-1987, Augstein was fierce in his criticism of Ernst Nolte and Andreas Hillgruber for creating what Augstein called the "New Auschwitz Lie". A controversial statement by Augstein was his description of Hillgruber as a "constitutional Nazi". Augstein called for Hillgruber to be fired from his post at the University of Cologne for being a "constitutional Nazi", and argued that there was no moral difference between Hillgruber and other "constitutional Nazis" like Hans Globke. Augstein wrote in opposition to Nolte that:Not for nothing did Nolte let us know that the annihilation of the kulaks, the peasant middle class, had taken place from 1927 to 1930, before Hitler seized power, and that the destruction of the Old Bolsheviks and countless other victims of Stalin's insanity had happened between 1934 and 1938, before the beginning of Hitler's war. But Stalin's insanity was, in contrast to Hitler's insanity, a realist's insanity. After all this drivel comes one thing worth discussing: whether Stalin pumped up Hitler and whether Hitler pumped up Stalin. This can be discussed, but the discussion does not address the issue. It is indeed possible that Stalin was pleased by how Hitler treated his bosom buddy Ernst Röhm and the entire SA leadership in 1934. It is not possible that Hitler began his war against Poland because he felt threatened by Stalin's regime ... One does not have to agree in everything with Konrad Adenauer. But in the light of the crass tendency to deny the co-responsibility of the Prussian-German Wehrmacht ("The oath! The oath!") ones gains an understanding for the point of the view of the nonpatriot Adenauer that Hitler's Reich was the continuation of the Prussian-German regime
Since Stefan Aust became editor-in-chief of Der Spiegel, Augstein retreated more and more to private life, although he continued to publish commentaries regularly in the magazine almost until his death. For his lifetime achievements for peace, civil liberties and freedom of the press he was honoured with the title "Journalist of the century" in 2000 by 101 German journalists. Augstein was among the International Press Institute's 50 World Press Freedom Hero laureates in 2000 for his role in the Spiegel affair.
Augstein married five times: including Maria Carlsson, a German translator, from 1968 until their divorce in 1970. The couple had two children; Franziska Augstein and Jakob Augstein. His fifth marriage, solemnized in Tonder on 13 October 2000, was to his long-standing companion, the Hamburg art dealer Anna Maria Hürtgen.
He died on 7 November 2002 from pneumonia and was buried on the island of Sylt.
References
Further reading
.
(reviews at JSTOR: The American Historical Review, The Western Political Quarterly).
Cowell, Alan. "Rudolf Augstein, Publisher of Der Spiegel, Is Dead at 79." New York Times 11/8/2002, Vol. 152 Issue 52296, p C11.
.
.
Haase, Christian. "The German Mass Media in the Twentieth Century" European History Quarterly (July 2010), 40#3 pp 484–492.
Landler, Mark. Der Spiegel Family Sees a Threat in Growing Corporate Control. New York Times. 10/11/2004, Vol. 154 Issue 52999, pC1-C9; Augstein's children lose control of the mnagazine.
Ridley, Hugh. "The Spiegel Affair." in Law in West German Democracy (Brill, 2019) pp. 130–145.
External links
Biography at "Lebendiges virtuelles Museum online" (in German, also used as a reference)
1923 births
2002 deaths
German Army officers of World War II
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Free Democratic Party (Germany) politicians
German male journalists
20th-century German journalists
German magazine founders
Members of the Bundestag for North Rhine-Westphalia
Writers from Hanover
Deaths from pneumonia in Germany
People from the Province of Hanover
German male writers
Der Spiegel editors
German mass media owners
Members of the Bundestag for the Free Democratic Party (Germany)
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] |
201301
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Abies%20of%20Denmark
|
List of Abies of Denmark
|
The Firs of Denmark
Several species of firs are found in Denmark:
Abies alba
Abies amabilis
Abies balsamea
Abies borisii-regis (alba x cephalonica)
Abies bornmuelleriana (nordmanniana ssp. bornmuelleriana)
Abies cephalonica
Abies concolor
Abies concolor var. lowiana
Abies equi-trojani (nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani)
Abies fabri (delavayi var. fabri)
Abies fargesii
Abies faxoniana (delavayi var. faxoniana)
Abies fargesii (var. faxoniana)
Abies firma
Abies forrestii (delavayi var. forrestii)
Abies fraseri
Abies grandis
Abies holophylla
Abies homolepis
Abies koreana
Abies lasiocarpa
Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica
Abies magnifica
Abies magnifica var. shastensis
Abies mariesii
Abies nebrodensis (alba ssp. nebrodensis)
Abies nephrolepis
Abies nordmanniana
Abies numidica
Abies pindrow
Abies pinsapo
Abies pinsapo var. tazaotana
Abies procera
Abies recurvata
Abies sachalinensis
Abies sibirica
Abies sikokiana (veitchii var. sikokiana)
Abies spectabilis
Abies sutchuenensis (fargesii var. sutchuenensis)
Abies veitchii
See also
Trees of Denmark
Lists of plants
Flora of Denmark
Lists of biota of Denmark
|
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] |
201304
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escitalopram
|
Escitalopram
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Escitalopram, sold under the brand names Cipralex and Lexapro, among others, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. Escitalopram is mainly used to treat major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder. It is taken by mouth. It is available commercially exclusively as the oxalate salt.
Common side effects include trouble sleeping, nausea, sexual problems, and feeling tired. More serious side effects may include suicide in people under the age of 25. It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe. Escitalopram is the (S)-stereoisomer (left-handed version) of citalopram (which exists as a racemate), hence the name escitalopram. In other words, escitalopram is a chiral switch of citalopram.
Escitalopram was approved for medical use in the United States in 2002. Escitalopram is sometimes replaced by twice the dose of citalopram. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2019, it was the 19th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States with more than 27million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Escitalopram has FDA approval for the treatment of major depressive disorder in adolescents and adults, and generalized anxiety disorder in adults. In European countries and the United Kingdom, it is approved for depression (MDD) and anxiety disorders, these include: general anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. In Australia it is approved for major depressive disorder.
Depression
Escitalopram was approved by regulatory authorities for the treatment of major depressive disorder on the basis of four placebo-controlled, double-blind trials, three of which demonstrated a statistical superiority over placebo.
Controversy existed regarding the effectiveness of escitalopram compared with its predecessor, citalopram. The importance of this issue followed from the greater cost of escitalopram relative to the generic mixture of isomers of citalopram, prior to the expiration of the escitalopram patent in 2012, which led to charges of evergreening. Accordingly, this issue has been examined in at least 10 different systematic reviews and meta analyses. , reviews had concluded (with caveats in some cases) that escitalopram is modestly superior to citalopram in efficacy and tolerability.
A 2011 review concluded that second-generation antidepressants appear equally effective, although they may differ in onset and side effects. Treatment guidelines issued by the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence and by the American Psychiatric Association generally reflect this viewpoint.
In 2018, a systematic review and network meta-analysis comparing the efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs showed escitalopram to be one of the most effective.
Anxiety disorder
Escitalopram appears to be effective in treating general anxiety disorder, with relapse on escitalopram at 20% rather than placebo at 50%.
Escitalopram appears effective in treating social anxiety disorder.
Other
Escitalopram is effective in reducing the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, whether taken continuously or in the luteal phase only. There are no good data available for escitalopram as treatment for seasonal affective disorder as of 2021.
Side effects
Escitalopram, like other SSRIs, has been shown to affect sexual functions causing side effects such as decreased libido, delayed ejaculation, and anorgasmia.
There is also evidence that SSRIs may cause an increase in suicidal ideation. An analysis conducted by the FDA found a statistically insignificant 1.5 to 2.4-fold (depending on the statistical technique used) increase of suicidality among the adults treated with escitalopram for psychiatric indications. The authors of a related study note the general problem with statistical approaches: due to the rarity of suicidal events in clinical trials, it is hard to draw firm conclusions with a sample smaller than two million patients.
Citalopram and escitalopram are associated with dose-dependent QT interval prolongation and should not be used in those with congenital long QT syndrome or known pre-existing QT interval prolongation, or in combination with other medicines that prolong the QT interval. ECG measurements should be considered for patients with cardiac disease, and electrolyte disturbances should be corrected before starting treatment. In December 2011, the UK implemented new restrictions on the maximum daily doses at 20 mg for adults and 10 mg for those older than 65 years or with liver impairment. There are concerns of higher rates of QT prolongation and torsades de pointes compared with other SSRIs. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration and Health Canada did not similarly order restrictions on escitalopram dosage, only on its predecessor citalopram.
Very common effects
Very common effects (>10% incidence) include:
Headache (24%)
Nausea (18%)
Ejaculation disorder (9–14%)
Somnolence (4–13%)
Insomnia (7–12%)
Common (1–10% incidence)
Common effects (1–10% incidence) include:
Insomnia
Somnolence (sleepiness)
Dizziness
Paraesthesia (abnormal skin sensation)
Tremor
Decreased or increased appetite
Anxiety
Restlessness
Abnormal dreams
Libido decreased
Anorgasmia
Sinusitis (nasal congestion)
Yawning
Diarrhea
Constipation
Vomiting
Dry mouth
Excessive sweating
Arthralgia (joint pain)
Myalgia (muscular aches and pains)
Fatigue
Pyrexia (fever)
Impotence (erectile dysfunction)
Psychomotor effects
The most common effect is fatigue or somnolence, particularly in older adults, although patients with pre-existing daytime sleepiness and fatigue may experience paradoxical improvement of these symptoms.
Escitalopram has not been shown to affect serial reaction time, logical reasoning, serial subtraction, multitask, or Mackworth Clock task performance.
Discontinuation symptoms
Escitalopram discontinuation, particularly abruptly, may cause certain withdrawal symptoms such as "electric shock" sensations, colloquially called "brain shivers" or "brain zaps" by sufferers. Frequent symptoms in one study were dizziness (44%), muscle tension (44%), chills (44%), confusion or trouble concentrating (40%), amnesia (28%), and crying (28%). Very slow tapering was recommended. There have been spontaneous reports of discontinuation of Lexapro and other SSRIs and SNRIs, especially when abrupt, leading to dysphoric mood, irritability, agitation, anxiety, headache, lethargy, emotional lability, insomnia, and hypomania. Other symptoms such as panic attacks, hostility, aggressiveness, impulsivity, akathisia (psychomotor restlessness), mania, worsening of depression, and suicidal ideation can emerge when the dose is adjusted down.
Sexual dysfunction
Some people experience persistent sexual side effects after they stop taking SSRIs. This is known as post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD). Common symptoms include genital anesthesia, erectile dysfunction, anhedonia, decreased libido, premature ejaculation, vaginal lubrication issues, and nipple insensitivity in women. Rates are unknown, and there is no established treatment.
Pregnancy
Antidepressant exposure (including escitalopram) is associated with shorter duration of pregnancy (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75 g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). Antidepressant exposure is not associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. There is a tentative association of SSRI use during pregnancy with heart problems in the baby. The advantages of their use during pregnancy may thus outweigh the possible negative effects on the baby.
Overdose
Excessive doses of escitalopram usually cause relatively minor untoward effects, such as agitation and tachycardia. However, dyskinesia, hypertonia, and clonus may occur in some cases. Therapeutic blood levels of escitalopram are usually in the range of 20–80 μg/L but may reach 80–200 μg/L in the elderly, patients with hepatic dysfunction, those who are poor CYP2C19 metabolizers or following acute overdose. Monitoring of the drug in plasma or serum is generally accomplished using chromatographic methods. Chiral techniques are available to distinguish escitalopram from its racemate, citalopram.
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Escitalopram increases intrasynaptic levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter into the presynaptic neuron. Of the SSRIs currently available, escitalopram has the highest selectivity for the serotonin transporter (SERT) compared to the norepinephrine transporter (NET), making the side-effect profile relatively mild in comparison to less-selective SSRIs.
Escitalopram is a substrate of P-glycoprotein and hence P-glycoprotein inhibitors such as verapamil and quinidine may improve its blood brain barrier penetrability. In a preclinical study in rats combining escitalopram with a P-glycoprotein inhibitor, its antidepressant-like effects were enhanced.
Interactions
Escitalopram, similarly to other SSRIs, inhibits CYP2D6 and hence may increase plasma levels of a number of CYP2D6 substrates such as aripiprazole, risperidone, tramadol, codeine, etc. As escitalopram is only a weak inhibitor of CYP2D6, analgesia from tramadol may not be affected. Escitalopram should be taken with caution when using St. John's wort. Exposure to escitalopram is increased moderately, by about 50%, when it is taken with omeprazole. The authors of this study suggested that this increase is unlikely to be of clinical concern. Caution should be used when taking cough medicine containing dextromethorphan (DXM) as serotonin syndrome has been reported.
Bupropion has been found to significantly increase citalopram plasma concentration and systemic exposure; the interaction with escitalopram had not been studied, but some monographs warned of the potential interaction.
Escitalopram can also prolong the QT interval and hence it is not recommended in patients that are concurrently on other medications that also have the ability to prolong the QT interval. These drugs include antiarrhythmics, antipsychotics, tricyclic antidepressants, some antihistamines (astemizole, mizolastine) and some antiretrovirals (ritonavir, saquinavir, lopinavir). As an SSRI, escitalopram should generally not be given concurrently with MAOIs.
Chemistry
Escitalopram is the (S)-stereoisomer (left-handed version) of the racemate citalopram, which is responsible for its name: escitalopram. The (R)-stereoisomer (R-citalopram, the right-handed version) is not thought to have useful effects for treating depression.
History
Escitalopram was developed in close cooperation between Lundbeck and Forest Laboratories. Its development was initiated in the summer of 1997, and the resulting new drug application was submitted to the U.S. FDA in March 2001. The short time (3.5 years) it took to develop escitalopram can be attributed to the previous extensive experience of Lundbeck and Forest with citalopram, which has similar pharmacology.
The FDA issued the approval of escitalopram for major depression in August 2002 and for generalized anxiety disorder in December 2003. On 23 May 2006, the FDA approved a generic version of escitalopram by Teva. On 14 July of that year, however, the U.S. District Court of Delaware decided in favor of Lundbeck regarding the patent infringement dispute and ruled the patent on escitalopram valid.
In 2006, Forest Laboratories was granted an 828-day (2 years and 3 months) extension on its US patent for escitalopram. This pushed the patent expiration date from 7 December 2009, to 14 September 2011. Together with the 6-month pediatric exclusivity, the final expiration date was 14 March 2012.
Society and culture
Allegations of illegal marketing
In 2004, separate civil suits alleging illegal marketing of citalopram and escitalopram for use by children and teenagers by Forest were initiated by two whistleblowers: a physician named Joseph Piacentile and a Forest salesman named Christopher Gobble. In February 2009, the suits were joined. Eleven states and the District of Columbia filed notices of intent to intervene as plaintiffs in the action.
The suits alleged that Forest illegally engaged in off-label promotion of Lexapro for use in children; hid the results of a study showing lack of effectiveness in children; paid kickbacks to physicians to induce them to prescribe Lexapro to children; and conducted so-called "seeding studies" that were, in reality, marketing efforts to promote the drug's use by doctors. Forest denied the allegations but ultimately agreed to settle with the plaintiffs for over $313 million.
Brand names
Escitalopram is sold under many brand names worldwide such as Cipralex, Lexapro, Lexam, Mozarin, Aciprex, Depralin, Ecytara, Elicea, Nexpram, Pramatis, and Betesda.
See also
Chiral switch
Hyperforin
Dextromethorphan
Sertraline
Zimelidine
References
Cited texts
Further reading
External links
AbbVie brands
Antidepressants
Dimethylamino compounds
Enantiopure drugs
Fluoroarenes
Isobenzofurans
Nitriles
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Sigma agonists
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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] |
201308
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrofoam
|
Styrofoam
|
Styrofoam is a trademarked brand of closed-cell extruded polystyrene foam (XPS), commonly called "Blue Board", manufactured as foam continuous building insulation board used in walls, roofs, and foundations as thermal insulation and water barrier. This material is light blue in color and is owned and manufactured by The Dow Chemical Company. Dow also has produced a line of green and white foam shapes for use in crafts and floral arrangements.
Styrofoam is colloquially used worldwide to refer to another material that is usually white in color and made of expanded (not extruded) polystyrene foam (EPS). It is often used in food containers, coffee cups, and as cushioning material in packaging. The trademarked term is used generically although it is a different material from the extruded polystyrene used for Styrofoam insulation.
Additionally, it is moderately soluble in many organic solvents, cyanoacrylate, and the propellants and solvents of spray paint.
History
In the 1940s, researchers in Dow's Chemical Physics Lab, led by Ray McIntire, found a way to make foamed polystyrene. They rediscovered a method first used by Swedish inventor Carl Georg Munters, and obtained an exclusive license to Munters's patent in the United States. Dow found ways to adapt Munters's method to make large quantities of extruded polystyrene as a closed cell foam that resists moisture. The patent on this adaptation was filed in 1947.
Uses
Styrofoam has a variety of uses. Styrofoam is composed of 98% air, making it lightweight and buoyant.
Dow produces Styrofoam building materials, including varieties of building insulation sheathing and pipe insulation. The claimed R-value of Styrofoam insulation is five per inch.
Styrofoam can be used under roads and other structures to prevent soil disturbances due to freezing and thawing.
Dow also produces Styrofoam blocks and other shapes for use by florists and in craft products. Dow insulation Styrofoam has a distinctive blue color; Styrofoam for craft applications is available in white and green.
Environmental effects
The EPA and International Agency for Research on Cancer reported limited evidence that styrene is carcinogenic for humans and experimental animals, meaning that there is a positive association between exposure and cancer and that causality is credible, but that other explanations cannot be confidently excluded.
See also
List of generic and genericized trademarks
National Inventors Hall of Fame
Resin identification code
Structural insulated panel
References
External links
Dow Chemical Company
Foams
Plastic brands
Brand name materials
Brands that became generic
Building insulation materials
Organic polymers
Swedish inventions
1941 in technology
Products introduced in 1941
American inventions
|
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] |
201310
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citalopram
|
Citalopram
|
Citalopram, sold under the brand name Celexa among others, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is used to treat major depressive disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and social phobia. The antidepressant effects may take one to four weeks to occur. It is taken by mouth.
Common side effects include nausea, trouble sleeping, sexual problems, shakiness, feeling tired, and sweating. Serious side effects include an increased risk of suicide in those under the age of 25, serotonin syndrome, glaucoma, and QT prolongation. It should not be used in persons who take or have recently taken a MAO inhibitor. Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome may occur when stopped. There are concerns that use during pregnancy may harm the fetus.
Citalopram was approved for medical use in the United States in 1998. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 30th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 21million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Depression
In the United States, citalopram is approved to treat major depressive disorder. Citalopram appears to have comparable efficacy and superior tolerability relative to other antidepressants. In the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ranking of ten antidepressants for efficacy and cost-effectiveness, citalopram is fifth in effectiveness (after mirtazapine, escitalopram, venlafaxine, and sertraline) and fourth in cost-effectiveness. The ranking results were based on a 2009 meta-analysis by Andrea Cipriani; an update of the analysis in 2018 produced broadly similar results.
Evidence for effectiveness of citalopram for treating depression in children is uncertain.
Panic disorder
Citalopram is licensed in the UK and other European countries for panic disorder, with or without agoraphobia.
Other
Citalopram may be used off-label to treat anxiety, and dysthymia, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder.
It appears to be as effective as fluvoxamine and paroxetine in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Some data suggest the effectiveness of intravenous infusion of citalopram in resistant OCD. Citalopram is well tolerated and as effective as moclobemide in social anxiety disorder. There are studies suggesting that citalopram can be useful in reducing aggressive and impulsive behavior. It appears to be superior to placebo for behavioural disturbances associated with dementia. It has also been used successfully for hypersexuality in early Alzheimer's disease.
A meta-analysis, including studies with fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, escitalopram, and citalopram versus placebo, showed SSRIs to be effective in reducing symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, whether taken continuously or just in the luteal phase. For alcoholism, citalopram has produced a modest reduction in alcoholic drink intake and increase in drink-free days in studies of alcoholics, possibly by decreasing desire or reducing the reward.
While on its own citalopram is less effective than amitriptyline in the prevention of migraines, in refractory cases, combination therapy may be more effective.
Citalopram and other SSRIs can be used to treat hot flashes.
A 2009 multisite randomized controlled study found no benefit and some adverse effects in autistic children from citalopram, raising doubts whether SSRIs are effective for treating repetitive behavior in children with autism.
Some research suggests citalopram interacts with cannabinoid protein-couplings in the rat brain, and this is put forward as a potential cause of some of the drug's antidepressant effect.
Administration
Citalopram is typically taken in one dose, either in the morning or evening. It can be taken with or without food. Its absorption does not increase when taken with food, but doing so can help prevent nausea. Nausea is often caused when the 5HT3 receptors actively absorb free serotonin, as this receptor is present within the digestive tract. The 5HT3 receptors stimulate vomiting. This side effect, if present, should subside as the body adjusts to the medication.
Citalopram is considered safe and well tolerated in the therapeutic dose range. Distinct from some other agents in its class, it exhibits linear pharmacokinetics and minimal drug interaction potential, making it a better choice for the elderly or comorbid patients.
Adverse effects
Sexual dysfunction is often a side effect with SSRIs.
Citalopram theoretically causes side effects by increasing the concentration of serotonin in other parts of the body (e.g., the intestines). Other side effects, such as increased apathy and emotional flattening, may be caused by the decrease in dopamine release associated with increased serotonin. Citalopram is also a mild antihistamine, which may be responsible for some of its sedating properties.
Other common side effects of citalopram include drowsiness, insomnia, nausea, weight changes (usually weight gain), increase in appetite, vivid dreaming, frequent urination, dry mouth, increased sweating, trembling, diarrhea, excessive yawning, severe tinnitus, and fatigue. Less common side effects include bruxism, vomiting, cardiac arrhythmia, blood pressure changes, dilated pupils, anxiety, mood swings, headache, hyperactivity and dizziness. Rare side effects include convulsions, hallucinations, severe allergic reactions and photosensitivity. If sedation occurs, the dose may be taken at bedtime rather than in the morning. Some data suggests citalopram may cause nightmares. Citalopram is associated with a higher risk of arrhythmia than other SSRIs.
Withdrawal symptoms can occur when this medicine is suddenly stopped, such as paraesthesiae, sleeping problems (difficulty sleeping and intense dreams), feeling dizzy, agitated or anxious, nausea, vomiting, tremors, confusion, sweating, headache, diarrhea, palpitations, changes in emotions, irritability, and eye or eyesight problems. Treatment with citalopram should be reduced gradually when treatment is finished.
Citalopram and other SSRIs can induce a mixed state, especially in those with undiagnosed bipolar disorder.
According to an article published in 2020, one of the other rare side effects of Citalopram could be triggering visual snow syndrome; which does not resolve after the discontinuation of the medicine.
Sexual dysfunction
Some people experience persistent sexual side effects after they stop taking SSRIs. This is known as Post-SSRI Sexual Dysfunction (PSSD). Common symptoms in these cases include genital anesthesia, erectile dysfunction, anhedonia, decreased libido, premature ejaculation, vaginal lubrication issues, and nipple insensitivity in women. The prevalence of PSSD is unknown, and there is no established treatment.
Abnormal heart rhythm
In August 2011, the FDA announced, "Citalopram causes dose-dependent QT interval prolongation. Citalopram should no longer be prescribed at doses greater than 40 mg per day". A further clarification issued in March 2012, restricted the maximum dose to 20 mg for subgroups of patients, including those older than 60 years and those taking an inhibitor of cytochrome P450 2C19.7.
Endocrine effects
As with other SSRIs, citalopram can cause an increase in serum prolactin level.
Citalopram has no significant effect on insulin sensitivity in women of reproductive age and no changes in glycaemic control were seen in another trial.
Exposure in pregnancy
Antidepressant exposure (including citalopram) during pregnancy is associated with shorter duration of gestation (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75 g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). Antidepressant exposure is not associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. It is uncertain whether there is an increased prevalence of septal heart defects among children whose mothers were prescribed an SSRI in early pregnancy.
Interactions
Citalopram should not be taken with St John's wort, tryptophan or 5-HTP as the resulting drug interaction could lead to serotonin syndrome. With St John's wort, this may be caused by compounds in the plant extract reducing the efficacy of the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes that process citalopram. It has also been suggested that such compounds, including hypericin, hyperforin and flavonoids, could have SSRI-mimetic effects on the nervous system, although this is still subject to debate. One study found that Hypericum extracts had similar effects in treating moderate depression as citalopram, with fewer side effects.
Tryptophan and 5-HTP are precursors to serotonin. When taken with an SSRI, such as citalopram, this can lead to levels of serotonin that can be lethal. This may also be the case when SSRIs are taken with SRAs (serotonin releasing agents) such as in the case of MDMA. It is possible that SSRIs could reduce the effects associated due to an SRA, since SSRIs stop the reuptake of Serotonin by blocking SERT. This would allow less serotonin in and out of the transporters, thus decreasing the likelihood of neurotoxic effects. However, these concerns are still disputed as the exact pharmacodynamic effects of citalopram and MDMA have yet to be fully identified.
SSRIs, including citalopram, can increase the risk of bleeding, especially when coupled with aspirin, NSAIDs, warfarin, or other anticoagulants. Citalopram is contraindicated in individuals taking MAOIs, owing to a potential for serotonin syndrome.
Taking citalopram with omeprazole may cause higher blood levels of citalopram. This is a potentially dangerous interaction, so dosage adjustments may be needed or alternatives may be prescribed.
SSRI discontinuation syndrome has been reported when treatment is stopped. It includes sensory, gastrointestinal symptoms, dizziness, lethargy, and sleep disturbances, as well as psychological symptoms such as anxiety/agitation, irritability, and poor concentration. Electric shock-like sensations are typical for SSRI discontinuation. Tapering off citalopram therapy, as opposed to abrupt discontinuation, is recommended in order to diminish the occurrence and severity of discontinuation symptoms. Some doctors choose to switch a patient to Prozac (fluoxetine) when discontinuing citalopram as fluoxetine has a much longer half-life (i.e. stays in the body longer compared to citalopram). This may avoid many of the severe withdrawal symptoms associated with citalopram discontinuation. This can be done either by administering a single 20 mg dose of fluoxetine or by beginning on a low dosage of fluoxetine and slowly tapering down. Either of these prescriptions may be written in liquid form to allow a very slow and gradual tapering down in dosage. Alternatively, a patient wishing to stop taking citalopram may visit a compounding pharmacy where their prescription may be re-arranged into progressively smaller dosages.
Overdose
Overdosage may result in vomiting, sedation, disturbances in heart rhythm, dizziness, sweating, nausea, tremor, and rarely amnesia, confusion, coma, or convulsions. Overdose deaths have occurred, sometimes involving other drugs, but also with citalopram as the sole agent. Citalopram and N-desmethylcitalopram may be quantified in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma citalopram concentrations are usually in a range of 50-400 μg/l in persons receiving the drug therapeutically, 1000–3000 μg/l in patients who survive acute overdosage and 3–30 mg/l in those who do not survive. It is the most dangerous of SSRIs in overdose.
Suicidality
In the United States, citalopram carries a boxed warning stating it may increase suicidal thinking and behavior in those under age 24.
Stereochemistry
Citalopram has one stereocenter, to which a 4-fluoro phenyl group and an N, N-dimethyl-3-aminopropyl group bind. As a result of this chirality, the molecule exists in (two) enantiomeric forms (mirror images). They are termed S-(+)-citalopram and R-(–)-citalopram.
Citalopram is sold as a racemic mixture, consisting of 50% (R)-(−)-citalopram and 50% (S)-(+)-citalopram. Only the (S)-(+) enantiomer has the desired antidepressant effect. Lundbeck now markets the (S)-(+) enantiomer, the generic name of which is escitalopram. Whereas citalopram is supplied as the hydrobromide, escitalopram is sold as the oxalate salt (hydrooxalate). In both cases, the salt forms of the amine make these otherwise lipophilic compounds water-soluble.
Metabolism
Citalopram is metabolized in the liver mostly by CYP2C19, but also by CYP3A4 and CYP2D6. Metabolites desmethylcitalopram and didesmethylcitalopram are significantly less energetic and their contribution to the overall action of citalopram is negligible. The half-life of citalopram is about 35 hours. Approximately 80% is cleared by the liver and 20% by the kidneys. The elimination process is slower in the elderly and in patients with liver or kidney failure. With once-daily dosing, steady plasma concentrations are achieved in about a week. Potent inhibitors of CYP2C19 and 3A4 might decrease citalopram clearance.
Tobacco smoke exposure was found to inhibit the biotransformation of citalopram in animals, suggesting that the elimination rate of citalopram is decreased after tobacco smoke exposure. After intragastric administration, the half-life of the racemic mixture of citalopram was increased by about 287%.
Pharmacology
History
Citalopram was first synthesized in 1972 by chemist Klaus Bøgesø and his research group at the pharmaceutical company Lundbeck and was first marketed in 1989 in Denmark. It was first marketed in the US in 1998. The original patent expired in 2003, allowing other companies to legally produce and market generic versions.
Society and culture
Brand names
Citalopram is sold under these brand names:
Akarin (Denmark, Nycomed)
C Pram S (India)
Celapram (Australia, New Zealand),
Celexa (U.S. and Canada, Forest Laboratories, Inc.)
Celica (Australia)
Ciazil (Australia, New Zealand)
Cilate (South Africa)
Cilift (South Africa)
Cimal (South America, by Roemmers and Recalcine)
Cipralex (South Africa)
Cipram (Denmark, Turkey, H. Lundbeck A/S)
Cipramil (Australia, Brazil, Belgium, Chile, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Norway, Russia, South Africa, Sweden, United Kingdom)
Cipraned, Cinapen (Greece)
Ciprapine (Ireland)
Ciprotan (Ireland)
Citabax, Citaxin (Poland)
Cital (Poland)
Citalec (Czech Republic, Slovakia)
Citalex (Iran, Serbia)
Citalo (Australia, Egypt, Pakistan)
Citalopram (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, USA)
Citol (Russia)
Citox (Mexico)
Citrol (Europe and Australia)
Citta (Brazil)
Dalsan (Eastern Europe)
Denyl (Brazil)
Elopram (Italy)
Estar (Pakistan)
Humorup (Argentina)
Humorap (Peru, Bolivia)
Lopraxer (Greece)
Oropram (Iceland, Actavis),
Opra (Russia)
Pram (Russia)
Pramcit (Pakistan)
Procimax (Brazil)
Recital (Israel, Thrima Inc. for Unipharm Ltd.)
Sepram (Finland)
Seropram (various European countries, including Czech Republic)
Szetalo (India)
Talam (Europe and Australia)
Temperax (Argentina, Chile, Peru)
Vodelax (Turkey)
Zentius (South America, by Roemmers and Recalcine)
Zetalo (India)
Cipratal (Kuwait, GCC)
Zylotex (Portugal)
European Commission fine
On 19 June 2013, the European Commission imposed a fine of €93.8 million on the Danish pharmaceutical company Lundbeck, plus a total of €52.2 million on several generic pharmaceutical-producing companies. This was in response to Lundbeck entering an agreement with the companies to delay their sales of generic citalopram after Lundbeck's patent on the drug had expired, thus reducing competition in breach of European antitrust law.
References
External links
AbbVie brands
Antidepressants
Benzonitriles
Dimethylamino compounds
Fluoroarenes
Isobenzofurans
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Sigma agonists
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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201325
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20and%20the%20Maiden
|
Death and the Maiden
|
Death and the Maiden, a concept ultimately derived from the Medieval "Dance of Death", may refer to:
Drama
Death and the Maiden (play), by Ariel Dorfman
Death and the Maiden (film), an adaptation by Roman Polanski
Prinzessinnendramen: Der Tod und das Mädchen I-V (Princess Dramas: Death and the Maiden I-V), five theatrical plays by Elfriede Jelinek
Literature
Death and the Maidens, a biography of Fanny Imlay
Death and the Maiden (novel), a 1947 novel by Gladys Mitchell
"Death and the Maiden", a 1960 short story by Ray Bradbury
Death and the Maiden, a 1994 novel by P. N. Elrod
Batman: Death and the Maidens, a graphic novel by Greg Rucka
Music
"Death and the Maiden" (song), composed by Franz Schubert in 1817
Death and the Maiden Quartet, an 1824 string quartet by Franz Schubert
Death and the Maiden Ballet, a 1938 ballet by Nikos Skalkottas
"Death and the Maiden" (The Verlaines song)
"Death and the Maiden Retold", a song by The Imagined Village from their self-titled debut album
Death and the Maiden, a 1939 mystery novel by Q. Patrick
Television
"Death and the Maiden" (The Vampire Diaries), an episode of the television series The Vampire Diaries
Visual arts
Death and the Maiden (motif), a common motif in Renaissance art
Death and the Maiden (Baldung), a 1517 painting by German artist Hans Baldung
Death and the Maiden (Schiele), a 1915 painting by Egon Schiele
Death and the Maiden, a sketch by Edvard Munch
Death and the Maiden, a painting by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes
Death and the Maiden, a 1908 painting by Marianne Stokes
See also
Egon Schiele: Death and the Maiden, a 2016 Austrian film
|
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201330
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%20goddess
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Mother goddess
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A mother goddess is a goddess who represents a personified deification of motherhood, fertility, creation, destruction, or the earth goddess who embodies the bounty of the earth or nature. When equated with the earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as the Mother Earth or Earth Mother, deity in various animistic or pantheistic religions. The earth goddess is usually the wife or feminine counterpart of the Sky Father or Father Heaven. In some polytheistic cultures, such as the Ancient Egyptian religion which narrates the cosmic egg myth, the sky is instead seen as the Heavenly Mother or Sky Mother as in Nut and Hathor, and the earth god is regarded as the male, paternal, and terrestrial partner, as in Osiris or Geb who hatched out of the maternal cosmic egg. The workship of mother goddess is most vibrant in Hinduism. Hindus view Mother goddess as supreme cosmic energy that governs the universe.
Excavations at Çatalhöyük
Between 1961 and 1965 James Mellaart led a series of excavations at Çatalhöyük, north of the Taurus Mountains in a fertile agricultural region of South-Anatolia. Striking were the many statues found here, which Mellaart suggested represented a Great goddess, who headed the pantheon of an essentially matriarchal culture. A seated female figure, flanked by what Mellaart describes as lionesses, was found in a grain-bin; she may have intended to protect the harvest and grain. He considered the sites as shrines, with especially the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük capturing the imagination. There was also a large number of sexless figurines, which Mellaart regarded as typical for a society dominated by women: Emphasis on sex in art is invariably connected with male impulse and desire. The idea that there could have been a matriarchy and a cult of the mother goddess was supported by archaeologist Marija Gimbutas. This gave rise to a modern cult of the Mother Goddess with annual pilgrimages being organized at Çatalhöyük.
Since 1993, excavations were resumed, now headed by Ian Hodder with Lynn Meskell as head of the Stanford Figurines Project that examined the figurines of Çatalhöyük. This team came to different conclusions than Gimbutas and Mellaart. Only a few of the figurines were identified as female and these figurines were found not so much in sacred spaces, but seemed to have been discarded randomly, sometimes in garbage heaps. This rendered a cult of the mother goddess in this location as unlikely.
Ancient Egypt
In Egyptian mythology, sky goddess Nut is sometimes called "Mother" because she bore stars and Sun god.
Nut was thought to draw the dead into her star-filled sky, and refresh them with food and wine.
Hinduism
In Hinduism, Durga (Parvati) represents both the feminine aspect and the shakti (energy/power) of the One God (The Brahman) as well as the empowering and protective nature of motherhood. From her forehead sprang Kali, a goddess whose name translates to the feminine form of Mahakal, meaning time; a more literal translation of her name being "the creator or doer of time." Kali is representational of, among other things, the primordial energy of time — her first manifestation. Following this, she manifests "space" as Tara, after which point further creation of the material universe progresses. The divine Mother, Devi Adi parashakti, manifests herself in various forms, representing the universal creative force. She becomes Mother Nature (Mula Prakriti Parvati), who gives birth to all life forms as plants, animals, and such from Herself, and she sustains and nourishes them through her body, that is the earth with its animal life, vegetation, and minerals. Ultimately she re-absorbs all life forms back into herself, or "devours" them to sustain herself as the power of death feeding on life to produce new life. She also gives rise to Maya (the illusory world) and to prakriti, the force that galvanizes the divine ground of existence into self-projection as the cosmos. The Earth itself is manifested by Adi parashakti. Hindu worship of the divine Mother can be traced back to pre-vedic, prehistoric India.
The form of Hinduism known as Shaktism is strongly associated with Samkhya, and Tantra Hindu philosophies and ultimately, is monist. The primordial feminine creative-preservative-destructive energy, Shakti, is considered to be the motive force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is purusha, the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all being, the "world soul". This masculine potential is actualized by feminine dynamism, embodied in multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately all manifestations of the One Great Mother. Mother Maya or Shakti, herself, can free the individual from demons of ego, ignorance, and desire that bind the soul in maya (illusion). Practitioners of the Tantric tradition focus on Shakti to free themselves from the cycle of karma.
The worship of the Mother deity can be traced back to early Vedic culture, and perhaps even before. The Rigveda calls the divine female power Mahimata (R.V. 1.164.33), literally Great Mother and also called Mother Earth. In places, the Vedic literature alludes to her as Viraj, the universal mother, as Aditi, the mother of gods, and as Ambhrini, the one born of the Primeval Ocean. Durga, the wife of Shiva, is a warrior goddess who represents the empowering and protective nature of motherhood. An incarnation of Durga is Kali, who came from her forehead during war (as a means of defeating Durga's enemy, Mahishasura). Durga and her incarnations are particularly worshipped in Bengal.
Today, Devi is seen in manifold forms, all representing the creative force in the world, as Maya and prakṛti, the force that galvanizes the divine ground of existence into self-projection as the cosmos. She is not merely the Earth, though even this perspective is covered by Parvati (Durga's previous incarnation). All the various Hindu female entities are seen as forming many faces of the same female Divinity.
Latter Day Saints movement
In the Latter Day Saints movement, particularly The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, many adherents believe in a Heavenly Mother as the wife of God the Father. The theology varies, however, according to denomination. The only clear declaration regarding a Heavenly Mother figure is that she exists. Some offshoot denominations disavow a belief in her, some do not make her a part of the official doctrine, and others openly acknowledge her.
New religious movements
Jang Gil-ja is a South Korean woman believed to be "God the Mother" (어머니 하나님) in the World Mission Society Church of God. Church members may call her "God the Mother", "Mother Jerusalem", "New Jerusalem Mother", or "Heavenly Mother".
In Theosophy, the Earth goddess is called the "Planetary Logos of Earth".
The Mother Goddess, or Great Goddess, is a composite of various feminine deities from past and present world cultures, worshiped by modern Wicca and others broadly known as Neopagans. She is considered sometimes identified as a Triple Goddess, who takes the form of Maiden, Mother, and Crone archetypes. She is described as Mother Earth, Mother Nature, or the Creatress of all life. She is associated with the full moon and stars, the Earth, and the sea. In Wicca, the Earth Goddess is sometimes called Gaia. The name of the mother goddess varies depending on the Wiccan tradition.
Carl Gustav Jung suggested that the archetypal mother was a part of the collective unconscious of all humans; various adherents of Jung, most notably Erich Neumann and Ernst Whitmont, have argued that such an archetype underpins many of its own mythologies and may even precede the image of the paternal "father." Such speculations help explain the universality of such mother goddess imagery around the world.
The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have been sometimes explained as depictions of an Earth Goddess similar to Gaia.
In the Baha'i Faith, Baha'u'llah uses the Mother as an attribute of God: "And when He Who is well-grounded in all knowledge, He Who is the Mother, the Soul, the Secret, and the Essence thereof, revealeth that which is the least contrary to their desire, they bitterly oppose Him and shamelessly deny Him.". Baha'u'llah further writes that "Every single letter proceeding out of the mouth of God is indeed a Mother Letter, and every word uttered by Him Who is the Well Spring of Divine Revelation is a Mother Word, and His Tablet a Mother Tablet."
Prehistoric matriarchy debate
There is difference of opinion between the academic and the popular conception of the term Mother goddess. The popular view is mainly driven by the Goddess movement and reads that primitive societies initially were matriarchal, worshipping a sovereign, nurturing, motherly earth goddess. This was based upon the nineteenth-century ideas of unilineal evolution of Johann Jakob Bachofen. According to the academic view, however, both Bachofen and the modern Goddess theories are a projection of contemporary world views on ancient myths, rather than attempting to understand the mentalité of that time. Often this is accompanied by a desire for a lost civilization from a bygone era that would have been just, peaceful, and wise. However, it is highly unlikely that such a civilization ever existed.
For a long time, feminist authors claimed that these peaceful, matriarchal agrarian societies were exterminated or subjugated by nomadic, patriarchal warrior tribes. An important contribution to this was that of archaeologist Marija Gimbutas. Her work in this field has been questioned. Among feminist archaeologists this vision is nowadays also considered highly controversial.
Since the 1960s, especially in popular culture, the alleged worship of the mother goddess and the social position that women in prehistoric societies supposedly assumed, were linked. This made the debate a political one. According to the goddess movement, the current male-dominated society should return to the egalitarian matriarchy of earlier times. That this form of society ever existed was supposedly supported by many figurines that were found.
In academic circles, this prehistoric matriarchy is considered unlikely. Firstly, worshiping a mother goddess does not necessarily mean that women ruled society. In addition, the figurines can also portray ordinary women or goddesses, and it is unclear whether there really ever was a mother goddess.
In popular culture
Examples of God having wives or other feminine counterparts have appeared in popular culture.
In the series Supernatural, God has a sister known as the Darkness. She is the yin to God's yang, described by God in the series as being to 'nothingness' as God himself is to 'being' and to 'darkness' as God himself is to 'light.'
List of mother goddesses
Notes
References
Bibliography
Balter, M., (2005): The Goddess and the Bull, Free Press
Bickmore, Barry R., "Mormonism in the Early Jewish Christian Milieu", Mormonism in the Early Jewish Christian Milieu (1999).
Derr, Jill Mulvay, "The Significance of 'O My Father' in the Personal Journey of Eliza R. Snow", BYU Studies 36, no. 1 (1996–97): 84–126.
Feder, K.L. (2010): Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology. From Atlantis to the Walam Olum, Greenwood
Gimbutas, M. (1989): The Language of the Goddess, Thames & Hudson
Gimbutas, M. (1991): The Civilization of the Goddess
Hinckley, Gordon B., "Daughters of God", Ensign, November 1991: 97–100.
Hodder, I. (2010): Religion in the Emergence of Civilization. Çatalhöyük as a Case Study, Cambridge University Press
James, S.L.; Dillon, S. (ed.), (2012): A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, Wiley-Blackwell
Jorgensen, Danny L., "The Mormon Gender-Inclusive Image of God", Journal of Mormon History, 27, No. 1 (Spring 2000): 95–126.
Joseph's Speckled Bird, Letter to the Editor, Times and Seasons 6: 892 (1 May 1845).
Mellaart, J., (1967): Catal Huyuk. A Neolithic Town in Anatolia, McGraw-Hill
Monaghan, P. (2014): Encyclopedia of Goddesses and Heroines, New World Library
Motz, L. (1997): The Faces of the Goddess, Oxford University Press
Origen, Origen's Commentary on the Gospel of John: Book II, ¶6. Included in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10 vols. (Buffalo: The Christian Literature Publishing Company, 1885–1896) 10:329–330.
Pearson, Carol Lynn, "Mother Wove the Morning: a one-woman play" (October 1992) () (depicting, according to the video's description, Eliza R. Snow as one of "sixteen women [who] throughout history search for God the Mother and invite her back into the human family").
Pratt, Orson, Journal of Discourses 18:292 (12 November 1876).
Singh, U. (2008): A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India
Smith, Joseph F. et al., "The Origin of Man", Improvement Era (November 1909): 80.
Smith, Joseph, King Follett Discourse, 7 April 1844, published in Times and Seasons 5 (15 August 1844): 612–17, and reprinted in the History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, edited by B. H. Roberts, 2d ed. rev. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, (1976–1980), 6:302–17; see also "The Christian Godhead—Plurality of Gods", History of the Church, 6: 473–79.
Smith, A.C. (2007): Powerful Mysteries. Myth and Politics in Virginia Woolf, ProQuest
Wesler, K.W. (2012): An Archaeology of Religion, University Press of America
Wilcox, Linda P., "The Mormon Concept of a Mother in Heaven", Sisters in Spirit: Mormon Women in Historical and Cultural Perspective, edited by Maureen Ursenbach Beecher and Lavina Fielding Anderson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 64–77. Also Wilcox, Linda P., "The Mormon Concept of a Mother in Heaven", Women and Authority: Re-emerging Mormon Feminism, edited by Maxine Hanks (Salt Lake: Signature Books, 1992), 3–18 Women and Authority – 01 |
Woodruff, Wilford, Journal of Discourses 18:31–32 (27 June 1875).
Further reading
External links
The Shekhinah in Judaism
Article about the Matronit/Maggid as an aspect of the Shekinah
Comparative mythology
Feminist spirituality
Jungian archetypes
Mythological archetypes
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201332
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarra
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Samarra
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Samarra (, ) is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. In 2003 the city had an estimated population of 348,700. During the Iraqi Civil War, Samarra was in the "Sunni Triangle" of violence.
In medieval times, Samarra was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and is the only remaining Islamic capital that retains its original plan, architecture and artistic relics. In 2007, UNESCO named Samarra one of its World Heritage Sites.
History
Ancient Samarra
The remains of prehistoric Samarra were first excavated between 1911 and 1914 by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld. Samarra became the type site for the Samarra culture. Since 1946, the notebooks, letters, unpublished excavation reports and photographs have been in the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
The civilization flourished alongside the Ubaid period, as one of the first town states in the Near East. It lasted from 5,500 BCE and eventually collapsed in 3,900 BCE.
A city of Sur-marrati (refounded by Sennacherib in 690 BC according to a stele in the Walters Art Museum) is insecurely identified with a fortified Assyrian site at al-Huwaysh on the Tigris opposite modern Samarra. The State Archives of Assyria Online identifies Surimarrat as the modern site of Samarra.
Ancient place names for Samarra noted by the Samarra Archaeological Survey are Greek Souma (Ptolemy V.19, Zosimus III, 30), Latin Sumere, a fort mentioned during the retreat of the army of Julian in 363 AD (Ammianus Marcellinus XXV, 6, 4), and Syriac Sumra (Hoffmann, Auszüge, 188; Michael the Syrian, III, 88), described as a village.
The possibility of a larger population was offered by the opening of the Qatul al-Kisrawi, the northern extension of the Nahrawan Canal which drew water from the Tigris in the region of Samarra, attributed by Yaqut al-Hamawi (Muʿjam, see under "Qatul") to Khosrau I (531–578). To celebrate the completion of this project, a commemorative tower (modern Burj al-Qa'im) was built at the southern inlet south of Samarra, and a palace with a "paradise" or walled hunting park was constructed at the northern inlet (modern Nahr ar-Rasasi) near ad-Dawr. A supplementary canal, the Qatul Abi al-Jund, excavated by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, was commemorated by a planned city laid out in the form of a regular octagon (modern Husn al-Qadisiyya), called al-Mubarak and abandoned unfinished in 796.
Abbasid capital
In 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tasim founded a new capital at the banks of the Tigris. Here he built extensive palace complexes surrounded by garrison settlements for his guards, mostly drawn from Central Asia and Iran (most famously the Turks, as well as the Khurasani Ishtakhaniyya, Faraghina and Ushrusaniyya regiments) or North Africa (like the Maghariba). Although quite often called Mamluk slave soldiers, their status was quite elevated; some of their commanders bore Sogdian titles of nobility.
The city was further developed under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who sponsored the construction of lavish palace complexes, such as al-Mutawakkiliyya, and the Great Mosque of Samarra with its famous spiral minaret or Malwiya, built in 847. For his son al-Mu'tazz he built the large palace Bulkuwara.
Samarra remained the residence of the caliph until 892, when al-Mu'tadid eventually returned to Baghdad. The city declined but maintained a mint until the early 10th century.
The Nestorian patriarch Sargis (860–72) moved the patriarchal seat of the Church of the East from Baghdad to Samarra, and one or two of his immediate successors may also have sat in Samarra so as to be close to the seat of power.
During the long decline of the Abbasid empire, Samarra was largely abandoned starting in AD 940. Its population returned to Baghdad and the city rapidly declined. Its field of ruins is the only world metropolis of late antiquity which is available for serious archaeology.
Religious significance
The city is also home to al-Askari Shrine, containing the mausolea of the Imams Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari, the tenth and eleventh Shiʿi Imams, respectively, as well as the place from where Muhammad al-Mahdi, known as the "Hidden Imam", reportedly went into The Occultation in the belief of the Twelver or Shias. This has made it an important pilgrimage centre for the Imami Shias. In addition, Hakimah and Narjis, female relatives of the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams, held in high esteem by Muslims, are buried there, making this mosque one of the most significant sites of worship.
Modern era
In the eighteenth century, one of the most violent battles of the 1730–1735 Ottoman–Persian War, the Battle of Samarra, took place, where over 50,000 Turks and Persians became casualties. The engagement decided the fate of Ottoman Iraq and kept it under Istanbul's suzerainty until the First World War.
During the 20th century, Samarra gained new importance when a permanent lake, Lake Tharthar, was created through the construction of the Samarra Barrage, which was built in order to prevent the frequent flooding of Baghdad. Many local people were displaced by the dam, resulting in an increase in Samarra's population.
Samarra is a key city in Saladin Governorate, a major part of the so-called Sunni Triangle where insurgents were active during the Iraq War.
Though Samarra is famous for its Shi'i holy sites, including the tombs of several Shi'i Imams, the town was traditionally and until very recently, dominated by Sunni Arabs. Tensions arose between Sunnis and the Shi'a during the Iraq War. On February 22, 2006, the golden dome of the al-Askari Mosque was bombed, setting off a period of rioting and reprisal attacks across the country which claimed hundreds of lives. No organization claimed responsibility for the bombing. On June 13, 2007, insurgents attacked the mosque again and destroyed the two minarets that flanked the dome's ruins. On July 12, 2007, the clock tower was blown up. No fatalities were reported. Shiʿi cleric Muqtada al-Sadr called for peaceful demonstrations and three days of mourning. He stated that he believed no Sunni Arab could have been behind the attack, though according to the New York Times the attackers were likely Sunnis linked to Al-Qaeda. The mosque compound and minarets had been closed since the 2006 bombing. An indefinite curfew was placed on the city by the Iraqi police.
Ever since the end of Iraqi civil war in 2007, the Shia population of the holy city has increased exponentially. However, violence has continued, with bombings taking place in 2011 and 2013. In June 2014, the city was attacked by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as part of the Northern Iraq offensive. ISIL forces captured the municipality building and university, but were later repulsed.
Geography
Climate
Samarra has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Samarra is . About of precipitation falls annually.
In popular culture
The metaphor of "Having an appointment in Samarra", signifying death, is a literary reference to an ancient Babylonian myth recorded in the Babylonian Talmud and transcribed by W. Somerset Maugham, in which Death narrates a man's futile attempt to escape him by fleeing from Baghdad to Samarra. The story "The Appointment in Samarra" subsequently formed the germ of a novel of the same name by John O'Hara. The story is told in "The Six Thatchers", a 2017 episode of Sherlock.
See also
List of places in Iraq
References
Selected bibliography
De la Vaissière, Étienne (2007): Samarcande et Samarra. Élites d’Asie central dans l’empire abbaside (Studia Iranica, Cahier 35), Paris.
Northedge, Alastair (2005): The historical topography of Samarra, London.
Robinson, Chase (ed.) (2001): A Medieval Islamic City Reconsidered: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Samarra (Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 14). Oxford.
External links
Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 7: Records of Samarra Expeditions, 1906–1945 Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives, Washington, D.C.
Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 7: Records of Samarra Expeditions, 1906–1945 Collections Search Center, S.I.R.I.S., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Iraq Image - Samarra Satellite Observation
Samarra Archaeological Survey
"The Appointment in Samarra"
Destruction of Askari Mosque
Samarra on Google Earth
Arabic architecture
Archaeological sites in Iraq
Archaeological type sites
Capitals of caliphates
Cities in Iraq
District capitals of Iraq
Holy cities
Levant
Populated places in Saladin Governorate
Populated places on the Tigris River
Samarra culture
Shia holy cities
World Heritage Sites in Danger
World Heritage Sites in Iraq
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] |
201335
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambdopsalis
|
Lambdopsalis
|
Lambdopsalis bulla is an extinct multituberculate mammal from the Late Paleocene of China and Mongolia. It is placed within the suborder Cimolodonta and is a member of the superfamily Taeniolabidoidea. Fossil remains have been found in the Late Paleocene Nomogen and Khashat Formations in Nao-mugen and Bayn Ulan of China and Mongolia.
Hair and fur fossilize very infrequently, if at all. This genus of burrowing multituberculate mammals provides one of the earliest unequivocal examples of mammal fur (Lower Cretaceous fossils of Eomaia, Volaticotherium and Castorocauda with the fur preserved still attached are currently the oldest). Indirect evidence suggest that hair first appeared on non-mammalian therapsids (Therapsida), back in the Triassic or even earlier. This is inferred from small hollows on the bone of the snout similar to holes in the skulls of cats which provide space for concentrations of nerves and blood vessels that innervate prominent whiskers (specialized hairs). This adaptation allows cats to use their whiskers as effective tactile sensory organs.
In the same Upper Paleocene strata, exceptionally preserved coprolites, originally excreted by unknown carnivorous animals, were discovered to contain undigested remains, including hair from Lambdopsalis and three other different mammal taxa.
Studies on its tooth prism and enamel patterns have been performed. It had deciduous enamel, and there is evidence that adults and juveniles had substantially different diets.
References
Bibliography
Much of this information is derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory
Cimolodonts
Paleocene mammals of Asia
Paleocene genus extinctions
Prehistoric animals of China
Fossils of Mongolia
Fossil taxa described in 1978
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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201337
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptilodus
|
Ptilodus
|
Ptilodus (meaning "soft-haired") is a genus of mammals from the extinct order of Multituberculata, and lived during the Paleocene in North America.
Ptilodus was a relatively large multituberculate of in length, which is about the same size as a squirrel. Its feet, legs and long tail suggest it was a good climber, so it very possibly led a squirrel-like lifestyle.
The genus was named by paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1881. Cope also mistakenly assigned some material belonging to this genus to Chirox in 1884. Elements from Ectypodus (Jepsen, 1940) and Neoplagiaulax have also been reassigned to this genus.
Species
There are seven species, and others have been proposed at one time or another. P. nellieae (Bell, 1941) is apparently mentioned in a manuscript, rather than a publication. P. sinclairi (Simpson, 1935) seems to have become Parectypodus sinclairi. In botany, Ptilodus pyramidatus is an extinct Australian plant.
P. fractus
The species Ptilodus fractus had a body weight of about . Remains have been found in Wyoming, in the United States, in Dell Creek deposits dated to the Tiffanian stage of the Paleocene.
The species was named by J. A. Door in 1952 (Scott et al., 2002, Dorr, 1952), though it may have been amended to its current state by David Krause in 1987.
P. gnomus
Ptilodus gnomus is the smallest known member of the genus. Hence, the species epithet 'gnomus', which is New Latin for 'dwarf'. Remains have been discovered in Wyoming in the United States, and Alberta, Canada. They were recovered from the Cochrane 2 deposits of the Paskapoo Formation, which have been dated to the Tiffanian stage of the Paleocene.
Remains of this species include over 100 teeth, (upper and lower), and at least one fragment of jaw. The teeth range from in length. The fourth lower premolar (p4) is about 51% shorter than the corresponding tooth in P. mediaevus; 28% less than P. kummae; 15% less than P. tsosiensis; and 5% smaller than P. fractus, which gives some idea of the relative sizes of the various animals. There are also differences in shape and the number of serrations. (Scott et al., 2002)
Although more similar in size to homologous teeth referable to P. tsosiensis and P. fractus, the upper and lower ultimate premolars of this new species most closely resemble those of P. mediaevus in overall morphology. (Scott et al., 2002)
A couple of isolated teeth which had been previously identified as perhaps belonging to Ectypodus, have been now been placed within this taxon. All referred specimens are held in the collection of the University of Alberta.
The species was named by C. R. Scott, R. C. Fox, and G. P. Youzwyshyn in 2002. Material assigned by Jepsen in 1940, as amended by Gazin in 1956, to Ectypodus hazeni has also been assigned to this species.
There are three species of this genus known from the Alberta location, two of which have yet to be described. This will be attended to by David W. Krause. (Scott et al., 2002, pg. 691).
P. kummae
Ptilodus kummae has an estimated weight of . Remains have been discovered in Roche Percée, Saskatchewan in Canada, in deposits from the lower Tiffanian stage of the Paleocene.
The species was named by David W. Krause in 1977. (Krause, 1977) The holotype is at Alberta University.
P. mediaevus
Remains of Ptilodus mediaevus have been recovered in New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming in the United States. They have been unearthed from the deposits of the San Juan Basin, which are dated to the Torrejonian stage of the Paleocene.
Cope named the species in 1881 (Cope, 1881). The species Ptilodus feronensis, or Ptilodus ferronensis, was named C. L. Gazin in 1941 (Gazin, 1941), but all material was reassigned to P. mediaevus by Rigby in 1980. In 1929, Granger and Simpson did the same thing to the species P. plicatus, which was originally named by J. W. Gidley in 1909. Chirox plicatus was named by Cope in 1884. He described it as a marsupial in 1884, but it is also part of this species.
P. montanus
Ptilodus montanus is a large species, about . A brain cast indicates a well-developed sense of smell. Remains were recovered in Montana, in the rock of the Silberling Quarry, which is dated to the lower Tiffanian stage of the Paleocene.
The species was named by E. Douglass in 1908 (Douglass, 1908). The species P. admiralis, first described by Hay in 1930; and P. gracillis, first described by J. W. Gidley in 1909 (Gidley, 1909) are now considered part of this species.
P. tsosiensis
Ptilodus tsosiensis has been discovered in New Mexico, the Puercan stage deposits of the Lower Paleocene San Juan Basin. The species was named by R. E. Sloan in 1981 (Sloan, 1981).
P. wyomingensis
Remains of Ptilodus wyomingensis have been found in the Middle Paleocene deposits of the Rock Bench Quarry, in Wyoming and North Dakota in the United States. The species was named by G. L. Jepsen in 1940 (Jepsen, 1940).
See also
Evolution of mammals
References
G. L. Jepsen (1940). Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County. Wyoming. Pro. Amer. Philos. Soc 83, 217–340.
Z. Kielan-Jaworowska & J. H. Hurum (2001). Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, 389–429.
David Krause (1977). Paleocene multituberculates (Mammalia) of the Roche Percee Local Fauna, Ravenscrag Formation, Saskatchewan, Canada. Palaeontographica Abt, A 186, 1–36.
C. R. Scott, R. C. Fox RC, and G. P. Youzwyshyn (2002). New earliest Tiffanian (late Paleocene) mammals from Cochrane 2, southwestern Alberta, Canada. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 47 (4), 691–704.
R. E. Sloan (1981). Systematics of Paleocene multituberculates from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In Lucas et all (Ed.), Advances in San Juan Basin paleontology, 127–160. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
* Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Paleocene mammals of North America
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Fossil taxa described in 1881
Prehistoric mammal genera
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201340
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meniscoessus
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Meniscoessus
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Meniscoessus is a genus of extinct mammal from the Upper Cretaceous Period of what is now North America. It lived toward the end of the "age of the dinosaurs" and was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata. It lies within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Cimolomyidae.
The genus Meniscoessus was named by Cope E.D. in 1882. It has also been known under the following names: Cimolomys (partly); Dipriodon (Marsh 1889); Halodon (Marsh 1889); Oracodon (Marsh 1889); Moeniscoessus; Selenacodon (Marsh 1889) (partly); and Tripriodon (Marsh 1889).
The history of this generic name is complicated and confusing. It is attributed to Cope, 1882. Later, this was joined by "Meniscoessus" (Marsh 1889). The second usage apparently related to teeth described as belonging to small carnivorous dinosaurs. These were further christened Dipriodon, Tripriodon and others, including Triprotodon. Close similarities were then noticed with an already established dinosaur genus, Paronychodon (Cope 1876), also based on teeth from the Laramie Formation. Over time, an impressive school of names was synonymized under P. However, this is now considered a nomen dubium.
In 1929, Simpson published American Mesozoic Mammalia (Mem. of the Peabody Museum, 3 pt. 1; i-xv). The name Tripriodon ("three saw tooth") was resurrected. These "theropod" teeth were actually mammalian. The mammal T. since seems to have fallen from use.
Be that all as it may, Meniscoessus is a valid multituberculate, and is known from some quite good remains, as well as a great many teeth.
Species
The species Meniscoessus collomensis was named by Lillegraven J.A. in 1987. Fossil remains were found in the Upper Cretaceous strata of the Williams Fork Formation, in Colorado (United States). This species is known from only one site. It weighed an estimated 1.4 kg.
The species Meniscoessus conquistus was named by Cope E.D. in 1882. Remains were found in the Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Colorado and of the St. Mary River Formation of Canada.
The species Meniscoessus ferox was named by Fox R.C. in 1971. Remains were found in Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of the Upper Milk River Formation of Alberta, Canada. The holotype, collected in 1968, is in the University of Alberta collection.
The species Meniscoessus intermedius was named by Fox R.C. in 1976. Remains were found in the Campanian - Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of the Oldman Formation of Alberta and New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming (USA). It is estimated to have weighed about 500 g, as much as a large rat.
The species Meniscoessus major was named by Russell in the 1930s. It is also known as Cimolomys major (Russell 1936). Remains were found in the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Montana (USA) and Alberta, Canada. The weight of this species has been estimated at around a kilogram. The holotype is in Alberta.
The species Meniscoessus robustus was named by Marsh O.C. in 1889. It has also been known as Cimolomys sculptusy; Dipriodon lacunatus; D. lunatus (Marsh 1889); D. robustus (Marsh 1889); Halodon sculptus (Marsh 1889); M. borealis (Simpson 1927); M. coelatus; M. fragilis; M. greeni (Wilson R.W. 1987); M. lunatus; M. sculptus; Moeniscoessus robustus; Oracodon anceps (Marsh 1889); O. conulus (Marsh 1892); Selenacodon fragilis (Marsh 1889); and Tripriodon coelatus (Marsh 1889). Remains were discovered in Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) and possibly Paleocene strata of Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota (USA) and the St. Mary's River Formation in Canada. Marsh authored a swamp of names. The weight of this species is estimated to have been about 3.3 kg. The first usage of M. robustus seems to go back to Osborn in 1891.
The species Meniscoessus seminoensis was named by Eberle J.J. and Lillegraven J.A. in 1998. Remains were found in Campanian - Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of the Ferris Formation in Wyoming. A 3.5 cm lower jaw was found near the Seminoe mountains. It has a close resemblance to M. robustus. It was somewhere between "rat-sized" and 3.5 kilograms, depending upon which source. An alternative name for this location is "Leave No Toad Unturned."
Several other names have been in circulation, such as Meniscoessus bustus, Meniscoessus caperatus (Marsh 1889), and Meniscoessus coelatus. The first is probably a variant of M. robustus, while the latter two seem to have been connected with dinosaur teeth.
References
Lillegraven (1987), Stratigraphy and evolutionary implications of a new species of Meniscoessus (Multituberculata, Mammalia) from the Upper Cretaceous Williams Fork Formation, Moffat County, Colorado. Dakoterra 3, p. 46-56.
Cope (1882), "Mammalia in the Laramie formation." American Naturalist xvi, p. 830-831.
Marsh (1889), "Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia." Am. J. Sci. (3) xxxviii: 81–92.
Osborn (1891), "A review of the Cretaceous Mammalia." Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., p. 124-135.
Simpson (1929), "American Mesozoic Mammalia." Mem. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. iii (i), p. 1-235.
Wilson (1987), Late Cretaceous (Fox Hills) multituberculates from the Red Owl local fauna of western South Dakota. Dakoterra 3, p. 118-122.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Fox (1976), Cretaceous mammals (Meniscoessus intermedius, new species, and Alphadon sp.) from the lowermost Oldman Formation, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 13(9), p. 1216-1222, 4 figs.
Fox (1971), "Early Campanian multituberculates (Mammalia: Allotheria) from the upper Milk River Formation, Alberta". Canadian Journal of Earth Sci. 8, p. 916-938.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals
Extinct mammals of North America
Hell Creek fauna
Laramie Formation
Milk River Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1882
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Prehistoric mammal genera
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] |
201345
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne
|
Osborne
|
Osborne may refer to:
Osborne (name)
Places
Australia
Osborne, South Australia (disambiguation), places associated with the suburb in the Adelaide metropolitan area
Osborne, New South Wales, a rural community in the Riverina region
Canada
Osborne (Manitoba riding), a former provincial electoral district
Osborne, Lambton County, Ontario
Osborne, Manitoba, a hamlet
Osborne, Nipissing District, a railway point, Ontario
Osborne Township, Ontario
Osborne Village, a neighbourhood in Winnipeg, Manitoba
United States
Osborne, Kansas, a city
Osborne, Pennsylvania, a borough, renamed Glen Osborne
Osborne County, Kansas
Companies
Osborne (computer retailer), an Australian computer retailer
Osborne Computer Corporation, computer company created by Adam Osborne
Osborne 1 portable computer
Osborne Group, Spanish producer of spirits and meats
Other uses
Osborne Apartments, an historic apartment building located in Manhattan
Osborne Association, a New York-based criminal justice reform and direct service organization
Osborne bull, the unofficial national emblem of Spain
Osborne effect, a marketing myth
HMY Osborne (1870), a royal yacht of the United Kingdom
USS Osborne (DD-295), a Clemson-class destroyer in the United States Navy
See also
Osborn (disambiguation)
Osbourne (disambiguation)
Osborne House (disambiguation)
Osborne Park (disambiguation)
Usborne (disambiguation)
|
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] |
201347
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungermann-Bass
|
Ungermann-Bass
|
Ungermann-Bass, also known as UB and UB Networks, was a computer networking company in the 1980s to 1990s. Located in Santa Clara, California, UB was the first large networking company independent of any computer manufacturer. Along with competitor 3Com, UB was responsible for starting the networking business in Silicon Valley in 1979. UB was founded by Ralph Ungermann and Charlie Bass. John Davidson, vice president of engineering, was one of the creators of NCP, the transport protocol of the ARPANET before TCP.
UB specialized in large enterprise networks connecting computer systems and devices from multiple vendors, which was unusual in the 1980s. At that time most network equipment came from computer manufacturers and usually used only protocols compatible with that one manufacturer's computer systems, such as IBM's SNA or DEC's DECnet. Many UB products initially used the XNS protocol suite, including the flagship Net/One, and later transitioned to TCP/IP as it became an industry standard in the late 1980s.
Before it became the industry standard, the Internet protocol suite TCP/IP was initially a "check box" item needed to qualify on prospective enterprise sales. As a network technology supplier to both Apple Inc. and Microsoft, in 1987-88 UB helped Apple implement their initial MacTCP offering and also helped Microsoft with a Winsock compatible software/hardware bundle for the Microsoft Windows platform. With the success of these offerings and of the Internet protocol TCP/IP, both Apple and Microsoft subsequently brought the Internet technology in-house and integrated it into their core products.
UB marketed a broadband (in the original technical sense) version of Ethernet known as 10BROAD36 in the mid 1980s. It was generally seen as hard to install. UB was one of the first network manufacturers to sell equipment that implemented Ethernet over twisted pair wiring. UB's AccessOne product line initially used the pre-standard StarLAN and, when it became standard, 10BASE-T.
UB went public in 1983. It was bought by Tandem Computers in 1988. UB was sold in 1997 by Tandem to Newbridge Networks. Over the next several months, Newbridge laid off the bulk of the Ungermann-Bass employees, and closed the doors of the Santa Clara operation. Newbridge was later acquired by Alcatel, a French telecommunications company.
References
Defunct networking companies
XNS based protocols
|
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] |
201348
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumnal%20Equinox%20Day
|
Autumnal Equinox Day
|
is a public holiday in Japan that usually occurs on September 22 or 23, the date of Southward equinox in Japan Standard Time (autumnal equinox can occur on different dates for different time zones). Due to the necessity of recent astronomical measurements, the date of the holiday is not officially declared until February of the previous year. Autumnal Equinox Day became a public holiday in 1948. In 1947 and before, it was the date of , an event relating to Shintoism. Like other holidays, this holiday was repackaged as a non-religious holiday for the sake of separation of religion and state in Japan's postwar constitution.
Recent Japanese equinoxes
Celebration
On this day, people will reconnect with their families by tending to the graves of ancestors, and visiting shrines and temples. People also celebrate the good weather and autumn harvest by enjoying outdoor activities and eating Shūbun no Hi snacks such as botamochi– a ball of sweet rice in azuki paste.
See also
Japanese calendar
Vernal Equinox Day
Southward equinox
External links
Autumnal Equinox Day Celebration
References
Public holidays in Japan
September observances
|
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] |
201349
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCC
|
OCC
|
OCC may refer to:
American colleges
Oakland Community College, Michigan
Oakton Community College, Illinois
Ocean County College, New Jersey
Onondaga Community College, New York
Orange Coast College, California
Ozark Christian College, Missouri
Business and government
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, a bureau of the U.S. Treasury Department
Office of Child Care, a part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Oklahoma Corporation Commission, public utilities commission of Oklahoma
Online Compliance Consortium, a regulatory compliance forum for top law firms
Opportunity cost of capital in finance
Optical Cable Corporation, a manufacturer of fiber optic and copper datacom cabling and connectivity products
Options Clearing Corporation, a clearing organization
Organic composition of capital, a theory in Marxian economics
Osborne Computer Corporation, an American computer company
Computing
Occasionally connected computing
Optimistic concurrency control
On-chip controller, a power and thermal monitoring component of the IBM's POWER8 processor
Sports
OC Châteaudun, French association football club
Oceania Club Championship, an international club competition organised by the Oceania Football Confederation
Oceania Cycling Confederation, Oceania's branch of the Union Cycliste Internationale
Ohio Capital Conference
Ohio Cardinal Conference
Optimists Cricket Club of central Luxembourg
Ottawa Curling Club of Canada
Other uses
Ocean Cruising Club, a UK-based organisation for long-distance yacht cruisers
Officer Candidates Course, a United States Marine Corps training program
Official Charts Company, a UK-based company compiling various official UK music record charts
Onnuri Community Church, a South Korean megachurch
Ontario Crafts Council
Open Cloud Consortium, a non-profit organization
Operation Christmas Child, an outreach program run by Samaritan's Purse
Operations Control Center
Orange County, California
Orange County Choppers, a custom motorcycle manufacturer
Oregon Convention Center, Portland
The Oxford Companion to Chess
Science Communication Observatory (Catalan: )
Francisco de Orellana Airport IATA code
OOO Combo Change Series, a series of Kamen Rider OOO action figures
|
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] |
201350
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal%20Equinox%20Day
|
Vernal Equinox Day
|
is a public holiday in Japan that occurs on the date of the Northward equinox in Japan Standard Time (the vernal equinox can occur on different dates in different time-zones), usually March 20 or 21. The date of the holiday is not officially declared until February of the previous year, due to the need for recent astronomical measurements.
Vernal Equinox Day became a public holiday in 1948. Prior to that it was the date of , an event relating to Shintoism. Like other Japanese holidays, this holiday was repackaged as a non-religious holiday for the sake of separation of religion and state in Japan's postwar constitution.
Pre-1945 State Shinto or Kokka Shinto is defined as the Shinto activities surrounding the support of government ideals that the government would have control over. These include day to day worship at public shrines and their messages, traditional ceremony (Kokutai Cult) and rites performed among the Imperial households, and shrines specifically symbolizing the death of fallen soldiers in battle.
On December 15, 1945, General Douglas MacArthur introduced what would later be called the Shinto Directive. The order was a directive titled the “Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship, Perpetuation, Control, and Dissemination of State Shinto″. This however was difficult due to the Emperor being at the center of many Shinto rituals. The purpose of the mandate was to separate State Shinto and Shrine Shinto which would be separating all government ties to the control of religious activities while supporting public shrines available to everyone and would be supported privately. This would later on be a part of the new Japanese constitution ratified in 1948.
Recent Japanese equinoxes
Celebrations
Shunbun no Hi is the holiday celebrating the spring (vernal) equinox. It is part of a seven-day period of festival called Haru no Higan. It is one of two points during the year, the other being in the autumn, where the daylight and night hours are of equal length, and is the official change of the seasons.
Due to the nature of the holiday revolving around astronomical changes the date of the holiday can change from year to year but it will usually fall anywhere between March 19–22. Back in ancient times, the holiday was originally called Higan no Nakaba, which translates to “Middle of the Equinoctial Week.” The holiday was originally a time to visit loved ones' grave sites and pay homage to the ancestors. The Japanese would also take the time to renew their lives by cleaning their homes and making life changes such as starting or finishing school or a new hobby.
Today Shunbun no Hi is a national holiday and the majority of Japanese will have the day off work to celebrate with their families. Many people will return to their homes they originally come from to spend the day with their families. The day is celebrated to bring in the spring season and to appreciate the nature blooming after a long winter. Some people will still visit their loved ones' grave sites, sweep the gravestone clear of debris, and often leave offerings of food or fresh cut flowers. The holiday is also special to farmers and agriculturalists as a day to pray for good luck and fortune for the crops they may grow in the upcoming season.
See also
Japanese calendar
Autumnal Equinox Day
Nowruz, the Iranian/Persian New Year
Northward equinox
Songkran
References
Public holidays in Japan
March observances
de:Äquinoktium
|
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201352
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanksta
|
Wanksta
|
"Wanksta" is a song by American rapper 50 Cent, released on November 5, 2002, as the second single from the soundtrack to the film 8 Mile (2002). The single, produced by Sha Money XL and John "J-Praize" Freeman, reached number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song originally appeared on 50 Cent's mixtape No Mercy, No Fear, released in August 2002.
Background
"Wanksta" was 50 Cent's first single to chart after signing up with Eminem's & Dr. Dre's labels, Shady Records & Aftermath Entertainment, as well as his first single since 1999's Thug Love. Originally appearing on his 2002 mixtape No Mercy, No Fear, it received a lot of airplay, and was eventually added to the 8 Mile soundtrack. It was a bonus track (track 17) on his 2003 commercial debut album Get Rich or Die Tryin'.
Eminem also made a remix, in 2003, aimed at Ja Rule and tweaked the beat to sound high pitched. The song appeared on the CD single box set The Singles.
The instrumental for the song was used for "Crackin", a song by The Psychopathic Rydas, in 2004. It was also used for "The Real Wanksta" by Black Child, in 2002, who is signed to The Inc. and was beefing with 50 because he was affiliated with Ja Rule.
R&B girl group Blaque recorded an answer song entitled "No Ganksta" in 2003.
50 cent opens the song with the lyrics "I got a lot of livin' to do before I die and I ain't got no time to waste...let's make it" which he took from an intro Nina Simone gave to her 1968 recording of "Do What You Gotta Do."
Etymology
The title is generally accepted as a portmanteau word meaning "self-obsessed, show-off person". The precise origin is debated, although most theories suggest a blend of "gangsta" and "wannabe".
50 Cent has explicitly stated that the word is not related to "wanker":
Jake Arnott: And another claim to fame: you introduced the word 'wanksta' into the language with your track 'Wanksta'. That word sort of means something in England — does it mean the same in America?
50 Cent: Nah, nah! 'Wanksta's like... we use that terminology to mean a fake gangster. When people told me about the word 'wanker'...
The song's lyrics were believed to be directed towards long time nemesis Ja Rule, but 50 Cent disputed this himself in a MuchMusic interview, stating that while the song itself was not directed at Ja Rule, he was a good example of a wanksta.
In popular culture
Stewie Griffin from Family Guy appeared in a short clip at the 20th annual MTV Video Music Awards insulting 50 Cent, which has become a viral video circulating on numerous online services. Stewie, with blocks spelling out "MTV", Rupert and a baby toy in the background, reads some words from this song in a comical voice, then commenting: "Well, good luck finding the subject and predicate of that run-on sentence! And what the bloody hell does it mean, "we don't go nowhere without toast"? Now, you listen to me, Mr. Cent. If you want to make it in this business, lay off the doobie!". He then pulls out a hitherto concealed sign reading "Stewie for Governor".
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
References
External links
Alternate music video for "Wanksta" remix
2002 songs
2002 singles
50 Cent songs
Gangsta rap songs
Songs written by 50 Cent
Music videos directed by Jessy Terrero
Shady Records singles
Aftermath Entertainment singles
Interscope Records singles
Diss tracks
|
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201353
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandem%20Computers
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Tandem Computers
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Tandem Computers, Inc. was the dominant manufacturer of fault-tolerant computer systems for ATM networks, banks, stock exchanges, telephone switching centers, and other similar commercial transaction processing applications requiring maximum uptime and zero data loss. The company was founded by Jimmy Treybig in 1974 in Cupertino, California. It remained independent until 1997, when it became a server division within Compaq. It is now a server division within Hewlett Packard Enterprise, following Hewlett-Packard's acquisition of Compaq and the split of Hewlett Packard into HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise.
Tandem's NonStop systems use a number of independent identical processors and redundant storage devices and controllers to provide automatic high-speed "failover" in the case of a hardware or software failure. To contain the scope of failures and of corrupted data, these multi-computer systems have no shared central components, not even main memory. Conventional multi-computer systems all use shared memories and work directly on shared data objects. Instead, NonStop processors cooperate by exchanging messages across a reliable fabric, and software takes periodic snapshots for possible rollback of program memory state.
Besides handling failures well, this "shared-nothing" messaging system design also scales extremely well to the largest commercial workloads. Each doubling of the total number of processors would double system throughput, up to the maximum configuration of 4000 processors. In contrast, the performance of conventional multiprocessor systems is limited by the speed of some shared memory, bus, or switch. Adding more than 4–8 processors in that manner gives no further system speedup. NonStop systems have more often been bought to meet scaling requirements than for extreme fault tolerance. They compete well against IBM's largest mainframes, despite being built from simpler minicomputer technology.
Founding
Tandem Computers was founded in 1974 by James (Jimmy) Treybig. Treybig first saw the market need for fault tolerance in OLTP (online transaction processing) systems while running a marketing team for Hewlett Packard's HP 3000 computer division, but HP was not interested in developing for this niche. He then joined the venture capital firm Kleiner & Perkins and developed the Tandem business plan there. Treybig pulled together a core engineering team hired away from the HP 3000 division: Mike Green, Jim Katzman, Dave Mackie and Jack Loustaunou. Their business plan called for ultra-reliable systems that never had outages and never lost or corrupted data. These were modular in a new way that was safe from all "single-point failures", yet would be only marginally more expensive than conventional non-fault-tolerant systems. They would be less expensive and support more throughput than some existing ad-hoc toughened systems that used redundant but usually required "hot spares".
Each engineer was confident they could quickly pull off their own part of this tricky new design, but doubted that others' areas could be worked out. The parts of the hardware and software design that did not have to be different were largely based on incremental improvements to the familiar hardware and software designs of the HP 3000. Many subsequent engineers and programmers also came from HP. Tandem headquarters in Cupertino, California, were a quarter mile away from the HP offices. Initial venture capital investment in Tandem Computers came from Tom Perkins, who was formerly a general manager of the HP 3000 division.
The business plan included detailed ideas for building a unique corporate culture reflecting Treybig's values.
The design of the initial Tandem/16 hardware was completed in 1975 and the first system shipped to Citibank in May 1976.
The company enjoyed uninterrupted exponential growth up through 1983. Inc. magazine ranked Tandem as the fastest-growing public company in America.
Tandem NonStop (TNS) stack machines
Over 40 years, Tandem's main NonStop product line has grown and evolved in an upward-compatible way from the initial T/16 fault-tolerant system, with three major changes to date to its top-level modular architecture or its programming-level instruction set architecture. Within each series, there have been several major re-implementations as chip technology progressed.
While conventional systems of the era, including large mainframes, had mean-time-between-failures (MTBF) on the order of a few days, the NonStop system was designed to failure intervals 100 times longer, with uptimes measured in years. Nevertheless, the NonStop was designed to be price-competitive with conventional systems, with a simple 2-CPU system priced at just over twice that of a competing single-processor mainframe, as opposed to four or more times of other fault-tolerant solutions.
Nonstop I
The first system was the Tandem/16 or T/16, later re-branded NonStop I. The machine consisted of between two and 16 CPUs, organized as a fault-tolerant computer cluster packaged in a single rack. Each CPU had its own private, unshared memory, its own I/O processor, its own private I/O bus to connect to I/O controllers, and dual connections to all the other CPUs over a custom inter-CPU backplane bus called Dynabus. Each disk controller or network controller was duplicated and had dual connections to both CPUs and devices. Each disk was mirrored, with separate connections to two independent disk controllers. If a disk failed, its data was still available from its mirrored copy. If a CPU or controller or bus failed, the disk was still reachable through alternative CPU, controller, and/or bus. Each disk or network controller was connected to two independent CPUs. Power supplies were each wired to only one side of some pair of CPUs, controllers, or buses, so that the system would keep running well without loss of connections if one power supply failed. The careful complex arrangement of parts and connections in customers' larger configurations were documented in a Mackie diagram, named after lead salesman David Mackie who invented the notation.
None of these duplicated parts were wasted "hot spares"; everything added to system throughput during normal operations.
Besides recovering well from failed parts, the T/16 was also designed to detect as many kinds of intermittent failures as possible, as soon as possible. This prompt detection is called "fail fast". The point was to find and isolate corrupted data before it was permanently written into databases and other disk files. In the T/16, error detection was by some added custom circuits that added little cost to the total design; no major parts were duplicated just to get error detection.
The T/16 CPU was a proprietary design. It was greatly influenced by the HP 3000 minicomputer. They were both microprogrammed, 16-bit, stack-based machines with segmented, 16-bit virtual addressing. Both were intended to be programmed exclusively in high-level languages, with no use of assembler. Both were initially implemented via standard low-density TTL chips, each holding a 4-bit slice of the 16-bit ALU. Both had a small number of top-of-stack, 16-bit data registers plus some extra address registers for accessing the memory stack. Both used Huffman encoding of operand address offsets, to fit a large variety of address modes and offset sizes into the 16-bit instruction format with very good code density. Both relied heavily on pools of indirect addresses to overcome the short instruction format. Both supported larger 32- and 64-bit operands via multiple ALU cycles, and memory-to-memory string operations. Both used "big-endian" addressing of long versus short memory operands. These features had all been inspired by Burroughs B5500-B6800 mainframe stack machines.
The T/16 instruction set changed several features from the HP 3000 design. The T/16 supported paged virtual memory from the beginning. The HP 3000 series did not add paging until the PA-RISC generation, 10 years later (although MPE V it had a form of paging via the APL firmware, in 1978). Tandem added support for 32-bit addressing in its second machine; HP 3000 lacked this until its PA-RISC generation. Paging and long addresses was critical for supporting complex system software and large applications. The T/16 treated its top-of-stack registers in a novel way; the compiler, not the microcode, was responsible for deciding when full registers were spilled to the memory stack and when empty registers were re-filled from the memory stack. On the HP 3000, this decision took extra microcode cycles in every instruction. The HP 3000 supported COBOL with several instructions for calculating directly on arbitrary-length BCD (binary-coded decimal) strings of digits. The T/16 simplified this to single instructions for converting between BCD strings and 64-bit binary integers.
In the T/16, each CPU consisted of two boards of TTL logic and SRAMs, and ran at about 0.7 MIPS. At any instant, it could access only four virtual memory segments (System Data, System Code, User Data, User Code), each limited to 128 kB in size. The 16-bit address spaces were already too small for major applications when it shipped.
The first release of T/16 had only a single programming language, Transaction Application Language (TAL). This was an efficient machine-dependent systems programming language (for operating systems, compilers, etc.) but could also be used for non-portable applications. It was derived from HP 3000's System Programming Language (SPL). Both had semantics similar to C but a syntax based on Burroughs' ALGOL. Subsequent releases added support for Cobol74, Fortran, and MUMPS.
The Tandem NonStop series ran a custom operating system which was significantly different from Unix or HP 3000's MPE. It was initially called T/TOS (Tandem Transactional Operating System) but soon named Guardian for its ability to protect all data from machine faults or software faults. In contrast to all other commercial operating systems, Guardian was based on message passing as the basic way for all processes to interact, without shared memory, regardless of where the processes were running. This approach easily scaled to multiple-computer clusters and helped isolate corrupted data before it propagated.
All file system processes and all transactional application processes were structured as master/slave pairs of processes running in separate CPUs. The slave process periodically took snapshots of the master's memory state, and took over the workload if and when the master process ran into trouble. This allowed the application to survive failures in any CPU or its associated devices, without data loss. It further allowed recovery from some intermittent-style software failures. Between failures, the monitoring by the slave process added some performance overhead but this was far less than the 100% duplication in other system designs. Some major early applications were directly coded in this checkpoint style, but most instead used various Tandem software layers which hid the details of this in a semi-portable way.
NonStop II
In 1981, all T/16 CPUs were replaced by the NonStop II. Its main difference from the T/16 was support for occasional 32-bit addressing via a user-switchable "extended data segment". This supported the next ten years of growth in software and was a huge advantage over the T/16 or HP 3000. Unfortunately, visible registers remained 16-bit, and this unplanned addition to the instruction set required executing many instructions per memory reference compared to most 32-bit minicomputers. All subsequent TNS computers were hampered by this instruction set inefficiency. Also, the NonStop II lacked wider internal data paths and so required additional microcode steps for 32-bit addresses. A NonStop II CPU had three boards, using chips and design similar to the T/16. The NonStop II also replaced core memory with battery-backed DRAM memory.
NonStop TXP
In 1983, the NonStop TXP CPU was the first entirely new implementation of the TNS instruction set architecture. It was built from standard TTL chips and Programmed Array Logic chips, with four boards per CPU module. It had Tandem's first use of cache memory. It had a more direct implementation of 32-bit addressing, but still sent them through 16-bit adders. A wider microcode store allowed a major reduction in the cycles executed per instruction; speed increased to 2.0 MIPS. It used the same rack packaging, controllers, backplane, and buses as before. The Dynabus and I/O buses had been overdesigned in the T/16 so they would work for several generations of upgrades.
FOX
Up to 14 TXP and NonStop II systems could now be combined via FOX, a long-distance fault-tolerant fibre optic bus for connecting TNS clusters across a business campus; a cluster of clusters with a total of 224 CPUs. This allowed further scale-up for taking on the largest mainframe applications. Like the CPU modules within the computers, Guardian could failover entire task sets to other machines in the network. Worldwide clusters of 4000 CPUs could also be built via conventional long-haul network links.
NonStop VLX
In 1986, Tandem introduced a third generation CPU, the NonStop VLX. It had 32-bit datapaths, wider microcode, 12 MHz cycle time, and a peak rate of one instruction per microcycle. It was built from three boards of ECL gate array chips (with TTL pinout). It had a revised Dynabus with speed raised to 20 Mbytes/sec per link, 40 Mbytes/sec total. FOX II increased the physical diameter of TNS clusters to 4 kilometers.
Tandem's initial database support was only for hierarchical, non-relational databases via the ENSCRIBE file system. This was extended into a relational database called ENCOMPASS. In 1986 Tandem introduced the first fault-tolerant SQL database, NonStop SQL. Developed totally in-house, NonStop SQL includes a number of features based on Guardian to ensure data validity across nodes. NonStop SQL is famous for scaling linearly in performance with the number of nodes added to the system, whereas most databases had performance that plateaued quite quickly, often after just two CPUs. A later version released in 1989 added transactions that could be spread over nodes, a feature that remained unique for some time. NonStop SQL continued to evolve, first as SQL/MP and then SQL/MX, which transitioned from Tandem to Compaq to HP. The code remains in use in both HP's SQL/MX and the Apache Trafodion project.
NonStop CLX
In 1987 Tandem introduced the NonStop CLX, a low-cost less-expandable minicomputer system. Its role was for growing the low end of the fault-tolerant market, and for deploying on the remote edges of large Tandem networks. Its initial performance was roughly similar to the TXP; later versions were about 20% slower than a VLX. Its small cabinet could be installed into any "copier room" office environment. A CLX CPU was one board, containing six "compiled silicon" ASIC CMOS chips. The CPU core chip was duplicated and lock stepped for maximal error detection. Pinout was a main limitation of this chip technology. Microcode, cache, and TLB were all external to the CPU core and shared a single bus and single SRAM memory bank. As a result, CLX required at least two machine cycles per instruction.
NonStop Cyclone
In 1989 Tandem introduced the NonStop Cyclone, a fast but expensive system for the mainframe end of the market. Each self-checking CPU took three boards full of hot-running ECL gate array chips, plus memory boards. Despite being microprogrammed, the CPU was superscalar, often completing two instructions per cache cycle. This was accomplished by having a separate microcode routine for every common pair of instructions. That fused pair of stack instructions generally accomplished the same work as a single instruction of normal 32-bit minicomputers. Cyclone processors were packaged as sections of four CPUs each, and the sections joined by a fiber optic version of Dynabus.
Like Tandem's prior high-end machines, Cyclone cabinets were styled with much angular black to suggest strength and power. Advertising videos directly compared Cyclone to the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Mach 3 spy plane. Cyclone's name was supposed to represent its unstoppable speed in roaring through OLTP workloads. Announcement day was October 17 and the press came to town. That afternoon, the region was struck by the magnitude 6.9 Loma Prieta earthquake, causing freeway collapses in Oakland and major fires in San Francisco. Tandem offices were shaken, but no one was badly hurt on site. This was the first and last time that Tandem named its products after a natural disaster.
Other product lines
Rainbow
In 1980–1983, Tandem attempted to re-design its entire hardware and software stack to put its NonStop methods on a stronger foundation than its inherited HP 3000 traits. Rainbow's hardware was a 32-bit register-file machine that aimed to be better than a VAX. For reliable programming, the main programming language was "TPL", a subset of Ada. At that time, people barely understood how to compile Ada to unoptimized code. There was no migration path for existing NonStop system software coded in TAL. The OS and database and Cobol compilers were entirely redesigned. Customers would see it as a totally disjoint product line requiring all-new software from them. The software side of this ambitious project took much longer than planned. The hardware was already obsolete and out-performed by TXP before its software was ready, so the Rainbow project was abandoned. All subsequent efforts emphasized upward compatibility and easy migration paths.
Development of Rainbow's advanced client/server application development framework called "Crystal" continued awhile longer and was spun off as the "Ellipse" product of Cooperative Systems Inc.
Dynamite PC
In 1985, Tandem attempted to grab a piece of the rapidly growing personal computer market with its introduction of the MS-DOS based Dynamite PC/workstation. Sadly, numerous design compromises (including a unique 8086-based hardware platform incompatible with expansion cards of the day and extremely limited compatibility with IBM-based PCs) relegated the Dynamite to serving primarily as a smart terminal. It was quietly and quickly withdrawn from the market.
Integrity
Tandem's message-based NonStop operating system had advantages for scaling, extreme reliability, and efficiently using expensive "spare" resources. But many potential customers wanted just good-enough reliability in a small system, using a familiar Unix operating system and industry-standard programs. Tandem's various fault-tolerant competitors all adopted a simpler hardware-only memory-centric design where all recovery was done by switching between hot spares. The most successful competitor was Stratus Technologies, whose machines were re-marketed by IBM as "IBM System/88".
In such systems, the spare processors do not contribute to system throughput between failures, but merely redundantly execute exactly the same data thread as the active processor at the same instant, in "lock step". Faults are detected by seeing when the cloned processors' outputs diverged. To detect failures, the system must have two physical processors for each logical, active processor. To also implement automatic failover recovery, the system must have three or four physical processors for each logical processor. The triple or quadruple cost of this sparing is practical when the duplicated parts are commodity single-chip microprocessors.
Tandem's products for this market began with the Integrity line in 1989, using MIPS processors and a "NonStop UX" variant of Unix. It was developed in Austin TX. In 1991, the Integrity S2 used TMR, Triple Modular Redundancy, where each logical CPU used three MIPS R2000 microprocessors to execute the same data thread, with voting to find and lock out a failed part. Their fast clocks could not be synchronized as in strict lock stepping, so voting instead happened at each interrupt. Some other version of Integrity used 4x "pair and spares" redundancy. Pairs of processors ran in lock-step to check each other. When they disagreed, both processors were marked untrusted and their workload was taken over by a hot-spare pair of processors whose state was already current. In 1995, the Integrity S4000 was the first to use ServerNet and moved toward sharing peripherals with the NonStop line.
Wolfpack
In 1995–1997, Tandem partnered with Microsoft to implement high-availability features and advanced SQL configurations in clusters of commodity Windows NT machines. This project was called "Wolfpack" and first shipped as Microsoft Cluster Server in 1997. Microsoft benefited greatly from this partnership; Tandem did not.
TNS/R NonStop migration to MIPS
When Tandem was formed in 1974, every computer company had to design and build its CPUs from basic circuits, using its own proprietary instruction set and own compilers etc. With each year of semiconductor progress with Moore's Law, more of a CPU's core circuits could fit into single chips, and run faster and much cheaper as a result. But it became increasingly expensive for a computer company to design those advanced custom chips, or build the plants to fabricate the chips. Facing the challenges of this rapidly changing marketplace and manufacturing landscape, Tandem chose to partner with MIPS and adopted its R3000 and successor chipsets and their advanced optimizing compiler. Subsequent NonStop Guardian machines using the MIPS architecture were known to programmers as TNS/R machines, but had a variety of marketing names.
Cyclone/R
In 1991, Tandem released the Cyclone/R, also known as CLX/R. This was a low cost mid-range system based on CLX components, but used R3000 microprocessors instead of the much slower CLX stack machine board. To minimize time to market, this machine was initially shipped without any MIPS native-mode software. Everything, including its NSK operating system and SQL database, was compiled to TNS stack machine code. That object code was then translated to equivalent partially optimized MIPS instruction sequences at kernel install time by a tool called the Accelerator. Less-important programs could also be executed directly without pre-translation, via a TNS code interpreter. These migration techniques were very successful and are still in use today. Everyone's software was brought over without extra work, and the performance was good enough for mid-range machines, and programmers could ignore the instruction differences, even when debugging at machine code level. These Cyclone/R machines were updated with a faster native-mode NSK in a follow-up release.
The R3000 and later microprocessors had only a typical amount of internal error checking, insufficient for Tandem's needs. So the Cyclone/R ran pairs of R3000 processors in lock step, running the same data thread. It used a curious variation of lock stepping. The checker processor ran 1 cycle behind the primary processor. This allowed them to share a single copy of external code and data caches without putting excessive pinout load on the sysbus and lowering the system clock rate. To successfully run microprocessors in lock step, the chips must be designed to be fully deterministic. Any hidden internal state must be cleared by the chip's reset mechanism. Otherwise, the matched chips will sometimes get out of sync for no visible reason and without any faults, long after the chips are restarted. All chip designers agree that these are good principles because it helps them test chips at manufacturing time. But all new microprocessor chips seemed to have bugs in this area, and required months of shared work between MIPS and Tandem to eliminate or work around the final subtle bugs.
NonStop Himalaya K-series
In 1993, Tandem released the NonStop Himalaya K-series with the faster MIPS R4400, a native mode NSK, and fully expandable Cyclone system components. These were still connected by Dynabus, Dynabus+, and the original I/O bus, which by now were all running out of performance headroom.
Open System Services
In 1995, the NonStop Kernel was extended with a Unix-like POSIX environment called Open System Services. The original Guardian shell and ABI remained available.
NonStop Himalaya S-Series
In 1997 Tandem introduced the NonStop Himalaya S-Series with a new top-level system architecture based on ServerNet connections. ServerNet replaced the obsolete Dynabus, FOX, and I/O buses. It was much faster, more general, and could be extended to more than just two-way redundancy via an arbitrary fabric of point-to-point connections. Tandem designed ServerNet for its own needs but then promoted its use by others; it evolved into the InfiniBand industry standard.
All S-Series machines used MIPS processors, including the R4400, R10000, R12000, and R14000.
The design of the later, faster MIPS cores was primarily funded by Silicon Graphics Inc. But Intel's Pentium Pro overtook the performance of RISC designs and also SGI's graphics business shrunk. After the R10000, there was no investment in significant new MIPS core designs for high-end servers. So Tandem needed to eventually move its NonStop product line yet again onto some other microprocessor architecture with competitive fast chips.
Acquisition by Compaq, attempted migration to Alpha
Jimmy Treybig remained CEO of the company he founded until a downturn in 1996. The next CEO was Roel Pieper, who joined the company in 1996 as president and CEO. Re-branding to promote itself as a true Wintel (Windows/Intel) platform was conducted by their in-house brand and creative team led by Ronald May, who later went on to co-found the Silicon Valley Brand Forum in 1999. The concept worked, and shortly thereafter the company was acquired by Compaq.
Compaq's x86-based server division was an early outside adopter of Tandem's ServerNet/Infiniband interconnect technology. In 1997, Compaq acquired the Tandem Computers company and NonStop customer base to balance Compaq's heavy focus on low-end PCs. In 1998, Compaq also acquired the much larger Digital Equipment Corporation and inherited its DEC Alpha RISC servers with OpenVMS and Tru64 Unix customer bases. Tandem was then midway in porting its NonStop product line from MIPS R12000 microprocessors to Intel's new Itanium Merced microprocessors. This project was restarted with Alpha as the new target to align NonStop with Compaq's other large server lines. But in 2001, Compaq terminated all Alpha engineering investments in favor of the Itanium microprocessors.
Acquisition by Hewlett Packard, TNS/E migration to Itanium
In 2001, Hewlett Packard similarly made the choice to abdicate its successful PA-RISC product lines in favor of Intel's Itanium microprocessors that HP helped to design. Shortly thereafter, Compaq and HP announced their plan to merge and consolidate their similar product lines. This contentious merger became official in May 2002. The consolidations were painful and destroyed the DEC and "HP Way" engineer-oriented cultures, but the combined company did know how to sell complex systems to enterprises and profit, so it was an improvement for the surviving NonStop division and its customers.
In some ways, Tandem's journey from HP-inspired start-up, to an HP-inspired competitor, then to an HP division was "bringing Tandem back to its original roots", but this was definitely not the same HP.
The re-port of the NSK-based NonStop product line from MIPS processors to Itanium-based processors was finally completed and is branded as "HP Integrity NonStop Servers". (This NSK Integrity NonStop is unrelated to Tandem's original "Integrity" series for Unix.)
Because it was not possible to run Itanium McKinley chips with clock-level lock stepping, the Integrity NonStop machines instead use comparisons between chip states at longer time scales, at interrupt points and at various software sync points in between interrupts. The intermediate sync points are automatically triggered at every n'th taken branch instruction, and are also explicitly inserted into long loop bodies by all NonStop compilers. The machine design supports both dual and triple redundancy, with either two or three physical microprocessors per logical Itanium processor. The triple version is sold to customers needing the utmost reliability. This new checking approach is called NSAA, NonStop Advanced Architecture.
As in the earlier migration from stack machines to MIPS microprocessors, all customer software was carried forward without source changes. "Native mode" source code compiled directly to MIPS machine code was simply recompiled for Itanium. Some older "non native" software was still in TNS stack machine form. These were automatically ported onto Itanium via object code translation techniques.
Itanium migration to Intel X86
The people working for Tandem/HP have a long history of porting the kernel onto new hardware. The latest endeavor was to move from Itanium to the Intel x86 architecture. It was completed in 2014 with the first systems already being commercially available.
The inclusion of the fault-tolerant 4X FDR (Fourteen Data Rate) InfiniBand double-wide switches provides more than a 25 times increase in system interconnect capacity for responding to business growth.
Outlook, other
NSK Guardian also became the base for the HP Neoview OS, the operating system used in the HP Neoview systems that were tailored for use in Business Intelligence and Enterprise Data Warehouse use. NonStop SQL/MX was also the starting point for Neoview SQL, which was tailored to Business Intelligence use. The code was also ported to Linux and served as the basis for the Apache Trafodion project.
User groups
ITUG (International Tandem User Group) now part of Connect (users group)
OzTUG The Australia and New Zealand Tandem Users Group here: OzTUG at LinkedIn
BITUG (British Isles NonStop (Tandem) User Group)
See also
Jim Gray (computer scientist)
NonStop
Stratus Technologies
References
External links
NonStop Computing Home — the main Nonstop Computing page at HP
NonStop for Dummies - a short booklet introducing the NonStop computing platform, 2014
Tandem Technical Reports — a page at HP with a number of Tandem white papers
Tandem Systems Review — PDFs 1983–1994
Tandem Computers Unplugged - a book focusing on the company history, 2014
Fault-tolerant computer systems
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct computer companies based in California
Minicomputers
Transaction processing
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Companies based in Cupertino, California
American companies established in 1974
Computer companies established in 1974
Computer companies disestablished in 1997
1974 establishments in California
1997 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Private equity portfolio companies
Hewlett-Packard acquisitions
1997 mergers and acquisitions
|
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] |
201354
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Danish%20Acers
|
List of Danish Acers
|
This is a list of Acer (maple) species cultivated in Denmark. Native species are marked in bold.
Acer aidzuense (A. ginnala var. aidzuense)
Acer argutum
Acer buergerianum
Acer caesium
Acer campestre
Acer capillipes
Acer cappadocicum
Acer carpinifolium
Acer caudatum var. ukurunduense (A. ukurundense)
Acer circinatum
Acer cissifolium
Acer x coriaceum 'Macrophyllum' (A. monspessulanum x A. pseudoplatanus)
Acer crataegifolium
Acer davidii Zone 6 - 9, not hardy
Acer diabolicum
Acer gyraldiz
Acer glabrum
Acer glabrum var. douglasii
Acer granatense (A. opalus var. granatense)
Acer grandidentatum
Acer griseum
Acer grosseri
Acer grosseri var. hersii
Acer heldreichii
Acer henryi
Acer hyrcanum
Acer japonicum
Acer japonicum 'Aconitifolium'
Acer leucoderme
Acer lobelii
Acer macrophyllum
Acer maximowicziana (A. nikoense)
Acer meyrii
Acer micranthum
Acer mono
Acer monspessulanum
Acer negundo
Acer negundo var. pseudocalifornicum
Acer negundo var. violaceum
Acer nigrum
Acer opalus
Acer opalus var. obtusatum (A. opalus ssp. obtusatum)
Acer opalus var. opulifolium (A. opalus ssp. obtusatum)
Acer opalus var. tomentosum
Acer palmatum
Acer palmatum var. amoenum
Acer palmatum var. matsumurae
Acer pensylvanicum
Acer platanoides
Acer pseudosieboldianum
Acer pseudoplatanus
Acer pseudoplatanus '''Prins Handjeri' Acer rufinerveAcer saccharinumAcer saccharinum 'Pyramidale'Acer saccharumAcer semenovii (A. tataricum ssp. semenovii)Acer shirasawanumAcer sieboldianumAcer spicatumAcer tataricumAcer tegmentosumAcer tenuifoliumAcer tetramerumAcer tetramerum var. betulifoliumAcer triflorumAcer truncatumAcer tschonoskiiAcer turkestanicumAcer ukurunduenseAcer velutinum''
See also
Trees of Denmark
Danish acers
|
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] |
201357
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus%20of%20Denmark
|
Quercus of Denmark
|
The Oaks of Denmark
Quercus alba
Quercus aliena
Quercus bicolor
Quercus borealis (rubra)
Quercus borealis var. maxima (rubra)
Quercus cerris
Quercus coccinea
Quercus dentata
Quercus ellipsoidalis
Quercus faginea
Quercus frainetto
Quercus glandulifera
Quercus iberica
Quercus ilicifolia
Quercus ilex, Hardines Zone: 7 - 10, not hardy.
Quercus imbricaria
Quercus imeritina
Quercus liaotungensis
Quercus macranthera
Quercus macrocarpa
Quercus mongolica
Quercus mongolica var. grosseserrata
Quercus montana (prinus)
Quercus palustris
Quercus petraea
Quercus petraea f. mespilifolia
Quercus petraea x robur (robur var. puberula)
Quercus pontica
Quercus pubescens
Quercus robur
Quercus robur 'Filicifolia'
Quercus robur f. fastigiata
Quercus robur var. tardissima
Quercus x schochiana
Quercus shumardii
Quercus suber, Hardines Zone: 8 - 10, not hardy.
Quercus x turneri 'Pseudoturneri'
Quercus velutina
See also
Trees of Denmark
Trees of the world
List of Quercus species
Flora of Denmark
|
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] |
201359
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squaring%20the%20circle
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Squaring the circle
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Squaring the circle is a problem proposed by ancient geometers. It is the challenge of constructing a square with the same area as a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with compass and straightedge. The difficulty of the problem raised the question of whether specified axioms of Euclidean geometry concerning the existence of lines and circles implied the existence of such a square.
In 1882, the task was proven to be impossible, as a consequence of the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem, which proves that pi () is a transcendental, rather than an algebraic irrational number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial with rational coefficients. It had been known for decades that the construction would be impossible if were transcendental, but was not proven to be transcendental until 1882. Approximate squaring to any given non-perfect accuracy, in contrast, is possible in a finite number of steps, since there are rational numbers arbitrarily close to .
The expression "squaring the circle" is sometimes used as a metaphor for trying to do the impossible.
The term quadrature of the circle is sometimes used to mean the same thing as squaring the circle, but it may also refer to approximate or numerical methods for finding the area of a circle.
History
Methods to approximate the area of a given circle with a square, which can be thought of as a precursor problem to squaring the circle, were known already to Babylonian mathematicians. The Egyptian Rhind papyrus of 1800 BC gives the area of a circle as 2, where is the diameter of the circle. In modern terms, this is equivalent to approximating as (approximately 3.1605), a number that appears in the older Moscow Mathematical Papyrus and is used for volume approximations (e.g. hekat). Indian mathematicians also found an approximate method, though less accurate, documented in the Shulba Sutras. Archimedes proved the formula for the area of a circle (, where is the radius of the circle) and showed that the value of lay between (approximately 3.1429) and (approximately 3.1408). See Numerical approximations of for more on the history.
The first known Greek to be associated with the problem was Anaxagoras, who worked on it while in prison. Hippocrates of Chios squared certain lunes, in the hope that it would lead to a solution – see Lune of Hippocrates. Antiphon the Sophist believed that inscribing regular polygons within a circle and doubling the number of sides will eventually fill up the area of the circle, and since a polygon can be squared, it means the circle can be squared. Even then there were skeptics—Eudemus argued that magnitudes cannot be divided up without limit, so the area of the circle will never be used up. The problem was even mentioned in Aristophanes's play The Birds.
It is believed that Oenopides was the first Greek who required a plane solution (that is, using only a compass and straightedge). James Gregory attempted a proof of its impossibility in Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura (The True Squaring of the Circle and of the Hyperbola) in 1667. Although his proof was faulty, it was the first paper to attempt to solve the problem using algebraic properties of . It was not until 1882 that Ferdinand von Lindemann rigorously proved its impossibility.
The Victorian-age mathematician, logician, and writer Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by the pseudonym Lewis Carroll, also expressed interest in debunking illogical circle-squaring theories. In one of his diary entries for 1855, Dodgson listed books he hoped to write including one called "Plain Facts for Circle-Squarers". In the introduction to "A New Theory of Parallels", Dodgson recounted an attempt to demonstrate logical errors to a couple of circle-squarers, stating:
The first of these two misguided visionaries filled me with a great ambition to do a feat I have never heard of as accomplished by man, namely to convince a circle squarer of his error! The value my friend selected for Pi was 3.2: the enormous error tempted me with the idea that it could be easily demonstrated to BE an error. More than a score of letters were interchanged before I became sadly convinced that I had no chance.
A ridiculing of circle-squaring appears in Augustus de Morgan's A Budget of Paradoxes published posthumously by his widow in 1872. Having originally published the work as a series of articles in the Athenæum, he was revising it for publication at the time of his death. Circle squaring was very popular in the nineteenth century, but hardly anyone indulges in it today and it is believed that de Morgan's work helped bring this about.
The two other classical problems of antiquity, famed for their impossibility, were doubling the cube and trisecting the angle. Like squaring the circle, these cannot be solved by compass-and-straightedge methods. However, unlike squaring the circle, they can be solved by the slightly more powerful construction method of origami, as described at mathematics of paper folding.
Impossibility
The solution of the problem of squaring the circle by compass and straightedge requires the construction of the number . If is constructible, it follows from standard constructions that would also be constructible. In 1837, Pierre Wantzel showed that lengths that could be constructed with compass and straightedge had to be solutions of certain polynomial equations with rational coefficients. Thus, constructible lengths must be algebraic numbers. If the problem of the quadrature of the circle could be solved using only compass and straightedge, then would have to be an algebraic number. Johann Heinrich Lambert conjectured that was not algebraic, that is, a transcendental number, in 1761. He did this in the same paper in which he proved its irrationality, even before the general existence of transcendental numbers had been proven. It was not until 1882 that Ferdinand von Lindemann proved the transcendence of and so showed the impossibility of this construction.
The transcendence of implies the impossibility of exactly "circling" the square, as well as of squaring the circle.
It is possible to construct a square with an area arbitrarily close to that of a given circle. If a rational number is used as an approximation of , then squaring the circle becomes possible, depending on the values chosen. However, this is only an approximation and does not meet the constraints of the ancient rules for solving the problem. Several mathematicians have demonstrated workable procedures based on a variety of approximations.
Bending the rules by introducing a supplemental tool, allowing an infinite number of compass-and-straightedge operations or by performing the operations in certain non-Euclidean geometries also makes squaring the circle possible in some sense. For example, the quadratrix of Hippias provides the means to square the circle and also to trisect an arbitrary angle, as does the Archimedean spiral. Although the circle cannot be squared in Euclidean space, it sometimes can be in hyperbolic geometry under suitable interpretations of the terms. As there are no squares in the hyperbolic plane, their role needs to be taken by regular quadrilaterals, meaning quadrilaterals with all sides congruent and all angles congruent (but these angles are strictly smaller than right angles).
There exist, in the hyperbolic plane, (countably) infinitely many pairs of constructible circles and constructible regular quadrilaterals of equal area, which, however, are constructed simultaneously.
There is no method for starting with a regular quadrilateral and constructing the circle of equal area, and there is no method for starting with a circle and constructing a regular quadrilateral of equal area (even when the circle has small enough radius such that a regular quadrilateral of equal area exists).
Modern approximative constructions
Though squaring the circle with perfect accuracy is an impossible problem using only compass and straightedge, approximations to squaring the circle can be given by constructing lengths close to .
It takes only minimal knowledge of elementary geometry to convert any given rational approximation of into a corresponding compass-and-straightedge construction, but constructions made in this way tend to be very long-winded in comparison to the accuracy they achieve. After the exact problem was proven unsolvable, some mathematicians applied their ingenuity to finding elegant approximations to squaring the circle, defined roughly and informally as constructions that are particularly simple among other imaginable constructions that give similar precision.
Construction by Kochański
One of the early historical approximations is Kochański's approximation which diverges from only in the 5th decimal place. It was very precise for the time of its discovery (1685).
In the left diagram
Construction by Jacob de Gelder
In 1849 an elegant and simple construction by Jacob de Gelder (1765-1848) was published in Grünert's Archiv. That was 64 years earlier than the comparable construction by Ramanujan. It is based on the approximation
This value is accurate to six decimal places and has been known in China since the 5th century as Zu Chongzhi's fraction, and in Europe since the 17th century.
Gelder did not construct the side of the square; it was enough for him to find the following value
.
The illustration opposite – described below – shows the construction by Jacob de Gelder with continuation.
Draw two mutually perpendicular center lines of a circle with radius = 1 and determine the intersection points A and B. Lay the line segment = fixed and connect E to A. Determine on and from A the line segment = . Draw parallel to and connect E with G. Draw parallel to , then = Determine = and subsequently = . Halve in L and use the Thales's theorem around L from A, which results in the intersection point M. The line segment is the square root of and thus the side length of the searched square with almost the same area.
Examples to illustrate the errors:
In a circle of radius r = 100 km, the error of side length a ≈ 7.5 mm
In the case of a circle with radius r = 1 m, the error of the area A ≈ 0.3 mm2
Construction by Hobson
Among the modern approximate constructions was one by E. W. Hobson in 1913. This was a fairly accurate construction which was based on constructing the approximate value of 3.14164079..., which is accurate to three decimal places (i.e. it differs from by about ).
"We find that GH = r . 1 .77246 ..., and since = 1 .77245 we see that GH is greater than the side of the square whose area is equal to that of the circle by less than two hundred thousandths of the radius."
Hobson does not mention the formula for the approximation of in his construction. The above illustration shows Hobson's construction with continuation.
Constructions by Ramanujan
The Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in 1913, Carl Olds in 1963, Martin Gardner in 1966, and Benjamin Bold in 1982 all gave geometric constructions for
which is accurate to six decimal places of .
In 1914, Ramanujan gave a ruler-and-compass construction which was equivalent to taking the approximate value for to be
giving eight decimal places of .
He describes his construction till line segment OS as follows.
In this quadrature, Ramanujan did not construct the side length of the square, it was enough for him to show the line segment . In the following continuation of the construction, the line segment is used together with the line segment to represent the mean proportionals (red line segment ).
Continuation of the construction up to the desired side length a of the square:
Extend beyond A and beat the circular arc b1 around O with radius , resulting in S′. Bisect the line segment in D and draw the semicircle b2 over D. Draw a straight line from O through C up to the semicircle b2, it cuts b2 in E. The line segment is the mean proportional between and , also called geometric mean. Extend the line segment beyond O and transfer twice more, it results F and A1, and thus the length of the line segment with the above described approximation value of , the half circumference of the circle. Bisect the line segment in G and draw the semicircle b3 over G. Transfer the distance from A1 to the line segment , it results H. Create a vertical from H up to the semicircle b3 on , it results B1. Connect A1 to B1, thus the sought side a of the square A1B1C1D1 is constructed, which has nearly the same area as the given circle.
Examples to illustrate the errors:
In a circle of radius r = 10,000 km the error of side length a ≈ −2.8 mm
In the case of a circle with the radius r = 10 m the error of the area A ≈ −0.1 mm2
Construction using the golden ratio
In 1991, Robert Dixon gave a construction for
where is the golden ratio. Three decimal places are equal to those of .
If the radius and the side of the square
then the expanded second formula shows the sequence of the steps for an alternative construction (see the following illustration). Four decimal places are equal to those of .
Squaring or quadrature as integration
Finding the area under a curve, known as integration in calculus, or quadrature in numerical analysis, was known as squaring before the invention of calculus. Since the techniques of calculus were unknown, it was generally presumed that a squaring should be done via geometric constructions, that is, by compass and straightedge. For example, Newton wrote to Oldenburg in 1676 "I believe M. Leibnitz will not dislike the Theorem towards the beginning of my letter pag. 4 for squaring Curve lines Geometrically" (emphasis added). After Newton and Leibniz invented calculus, they still referred to this integration problem as squaring a curve.
Claims of circle squaring
Connection with the longitude problem
The mathematical proof that the quadrature of the circle is impossible using only compass and straightedge has not proved to be a hindrance to the many people who have invested years in this problem anyway. Having squared the circle is a famous crank assertion. (See also pseudomathematics.) In his old age, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes convinced himself that he had succeeded in squaring the circle, a claim that was refuted by John Wallis as part of the Hobbes–Wallis controversy.
During the 18th and 19th century, the notion that the problem of squaring the circle was somehow related to the longitude problem seems to have become prevalent among would-be circle squarers. Using "cyclometer" for circle-squarer, Augustus de Morgan wrote in 1872:
Montucla says, speaking of France, that he finds three notions prevalent among cyclometers: 1. That there is a large reward offered for success; 2. That the longitude problem depends on that success; 3. That the solution is the great end and object of geometry. The same three notions are equally prevalent among the same class in England. No reward has ever been offered by the government of either country.
Although from 1714 to 1828 the British government did indeed sponsor a £20,000 prize for finding a solution to the longitude problem, exactly why the connection was made to squaring the circle is not clear; especially since two non-geometric methods (the astronomical method of lunar distances and the mechanical chronometer) had been found by the late 1760s. The Board of Longitude received many proposals, including determining longitude by "squaring the circle", though the board did not take "any notice" of it. De Morgan goes on to say that "[t]he longitude problem in no way depends upon perfect solution; existing approximations are sufficient to a point of accuracy far beyond what can be wanted." In his book, de Morgan also mentions receiving many threatening letters from would-be circle squarers, accusing him of trying to "cheat them out of their prize".
Other modern claims
Even after it had been proved impossible, in 1894, amateur mathematician Edwin J. Goodwin claimed that he had developed a method to square the circle. The technique he developed did not accurately square the circle, and provided an incorrect area of the circle which essentially redefined pi as equal to 3.2. Goodwin then proposed the Indiana Pi Bill in the Indiana state legislature allowing the state to use his method in education without paying royalties to him. The bill passed with no objections in the state house, but the bill was tabled and never voted on in the Senate, amid increasing ridicule from the press.
The mathematical crank Carl Theodore Heisel also claimed to have squared the circle in his 1934 book, "Behold! : the grand problem no longer unsolved: the circle squared beyond refutation." Paul Halmos referred to the book as a "classic crank book."
In 1851, John Parker published a book Quadrature of the Circle in which he claimed to have squared the circle. His method actually produced an approximation of accurate to six digits.
In literature
The problem of squaring the circle has been mentioned by poets such as Dante and Alexander Pope, with varied metaphorical meanings. Its literary use dates back at least to 414 BC, when the play The Birds by Aristophanes was first performed. In it, the character Meton of Athens mentions squaring the circle, possibly to indicate the paradoxical nature of his utopian city.
Dante's Paradise, canto XXXIII, lines 133–135, contain the verses:
As the geometer his mind applies
To square the circle, nor for all his wit
Finds the right formula, howe'er he tries
For Dante, squaring the circle represents a task beyond human comprehension, which he compares to his own inability to comprehend Paradise.
By 1742, when Alexander Pope published the fourth book of his Dunciad, attempts at circle-squaring had come to be seen as "wild and fruitless":
Mad Mathesis alone was unconfined,
Too mad for mere material chains to bind,
Now to pure space lifts her ecstatic stare,
Now, running round the circle, finds it square.
Similarly, the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera Princess Ida features a song which satirically lists the impossible goals of the women's university run by the title character, such as finding perpetual motion. One of these goals is "And the circle – they will square it/Some fine day."
The sestina, a poetic form first used in the 12th century by Arnaut Daniel, has been said to square the circle in its use of a square number of lines (six stanzas of six lines each) with a circular scheme of six repeated words. writes that this form invokes a symbolic meaning in which the circle stands for heaven and the square stands for the earth. A similar metaphor was used in "Squaring the Circle", a 1908 short story by O. Henry, about a long-running family feud. In the title of this story, the circle represents the natural world, while the square represents the city, the world of man.
In later works circle-squarers such as Leopold Bloom in James Joyce's novel Ulysses and Lawyer Paravant in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain are seen as sadly deluded or as unworldly dreamers, unaware of its mathematical impossibility and making grandiose plans for a result they will never attain.
See also
For a more modern related problem, see Tarski's circle-squaring problem.
The squircle is a mathematical shape with properties between those of a square and those of a circle.
References
External links
Squaring the circle at the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
Squaring the Circle at cut-the-knot
Circle Squaring at MathWorld, includes information on procedures based on various approximations of pi
"Squaring the Circle" at "Convergence"
The Quadrature of the Circle and Hippocrates' Lunes at Convergence
How to Unroll a Circle Pi accurate to eight decimal places, using straightedge and compass.
Squaring the Circle and Other Impossibilities, lecture by Robin Wilson, at Gresham College, 16 January 2008 (available for download as text, audio or video file).
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
"2000 years unsolved: Why is doubling cubes and squaring circles impossible?" by Burkard Polster
Compass and straightedge constructions
Euclidean plane geometry
Unsolvable puzzles
History of geometry
Pi
Pseudomathematics
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201360
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eomaia
|
Eomaia
|
Eomaia ("dawn mother") is a genus of extinct fossil mammals containing the single species Eomaia scansoria, discovered in rocks that were found in the Yixian Formation, Liaoning Province, China, and dated to the Barremian Age of the Lower Cretaceous about . The single fossil specimen of this species is in length and virtually complete. An estimate of the body weight is between . It is exceptionally well-preserved for a 125-million-year-old specimen. Although the fossil's skull is squashed flat, its teeth, tiny foot bones, cartilages and even its fur are visible.
Description
The Eomaia fossil shows clear traces of hair. However, this is not the earliest clear evidence of hair in the mammalian lineage, as fossils of Volaticotherium, and the docodont Castorocauda, discovered in rocks dated to about , also have traces of fur.
Eomaia scansoria possessed several features in common with placental mammals that distinguish them from metatherians, the group that includes modern marsupials. These include an enlarged malleolus ("little hammer") at the bottom of the tibia (the larger of the two shin bones), a joint between the first metatarsal bone and the entocuneiform bone in the foot which is offset further back than the joint between the second metatarsal and mesocuneiform bones (in metatherians these joints are level with each other), as well as various features of jaws and teeth.
However, E. scansoria is not a true placental mammal as it lacks some features that are specific to placentals. These include the presence of a malleolus at the bottom of the fibula, the smaller of the two shin bones, a complete mortise and tenon upper ankle joint, where the rearmost bones of the foot fit into a socket formed by the ends of the tibia and fibula, and an atypical ancestral eutherian dental formula of . Eomaia had five upper and four lower incisors (much more typical for metatherians) and five premolars to three molars. Placental mammals have only up to three incisors on each top and bottom and four premolars to three molars, but the premolar/molar proportion is similar to placentals.
Eomaia, like other early mammals and living marsupials, had a narrow pelvic outlet suggesting small undeveloped neonates requiring extensive nurturing.
Epipubic bones extend forwards from the pelvis; these are not found in any placental, but are found in all other mammals, including non-placental eutherians, marsupials, monotremes and other Mesozoic mammals as well as in the cynodont therapsids that are closest to mammals. Their function is to stiffen the body during locomotion. This stiffening would be harmful in pregnant placentals, whose abdomens need to expand.
Classification
The discoverers of Eomaia claimed that, on the basis of 268 characters sampled from all major Mesozoic mammal clades and principal eutherian families of the Cretaceous, Eomaia could be placed at the root of the eutherian "family tree" along with Murtoilestes and Prokennalestes. This initial classification scheme is summarized below.
In 2013, a much larger study of mammal relationships (including fossil species) was published by O'Leary et al.
The study, which examined 4541 anatomical characters of 86 mammal species (including Eomaia scansoria), found "100% jackknife support that Eomaia falls outside of Eutheria as a stem taxon to Theria", and so could not be considered a placental or a eutherian as previously hypothesized. The results of this study are summarized in the cladogram below.
The 2013 study by O'Leary et al. is part of a debate about the age of origin of placental mammals (see discussions.
), and in all trees published in that paper Eomaia fell outside Theria (i.e., debates about the findings of O'Leary et al. have not centered on the position of Eomaia). Meng (2014), who was a co-author on the O'Leary et al. (2013) paper, subsequently referred to Eomaia as a Eutherian but provided no analysis to support this claim. Gheerbrant et al. 2014 mentioned Eomaia in a list of Cretaceous taxa that represented "the primitive eutherian condition" but provided no analytical evidence for this claim; a similar claim was repeated by Sole et al. (2014) again without analytical support.
See also
Evolution of mammals
Juramaia ()
Sinodelphys
References
External links
Tribosphenida
Early Cretaceous mammals of Asia
Cretaceous mammals
Transitional fossils
Fossil taxa described in 2002
Yixian fauna
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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201363
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical%20Vedic%20religion
|
Historical Vedic religion
|
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism), and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some of the Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest India (Punjab and the western Ganges plain) of ancient India during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE). These ideas and practices are found in the Vedic texts, and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today. It is one of the major traditions which shaped Hinduism, though present-day Hinduism is markedly different from the historical Vedic religion.
The Vedic religion developed in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent during the early Vedic period (1500–1100 BCE), but has roots in the Eurasian Steppe Sintashta culture (2200–1800 BCE), the subsequent Central Asian Andronovo culture (2000–900 BCE), and the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE). It was a composite of the religion of the Central Asian Indo-Aryans, itself "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture; and the remnants of the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley.
During the late Vedic period (1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of the Vedic religion, as an ideology of the Kuru-Panchala realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism), and with local religious traditions.
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others: the Soma rituals; Fire rituals involving oblations (havir); and the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The rites of grave burials as well as cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period. Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include Dyaus, Indra, Agni, and Varuna, and important ethical concepts include satya and ṛta.
Terminology
Vedism refers to the oldest form of the Vedic religion, when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the Indus River in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. Brahmanism refers to the further developed form which took shape at the Ganges basin around c. 1000 BCE. According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society."
Origins and development
Indo-Aryan Vedic religion
The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some of the Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas, who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic, Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources. The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated voluminous Vedic literature including the early Upanishads, preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools. It existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE, and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period (1100–500 BCE). The eastern Ganges-plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology, and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism, and the Mauryan Empire.
The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family, which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements" which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana Culture (BMAC). This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma. According to Anthony,
The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.
The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilization. The Vedic religion texts are cerebral, orderly and intellectual, but it is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion.
The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India. The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", state Jamison and Witzel, namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals", which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual, and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself, akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.
Aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived into modern times. The Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta continue to be practiced in Kerala and coastal Andhra. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of ancient Hinduism.
According to Heinrich von Stietencron, in the 19th century, in western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. The Hindu religion was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita, tantras and Bhakti. In the 20th century, a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism has led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism. The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of Hinduism, but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two, such as the belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts. The Hindu reform movements and the Neo-Vedanta have emphasized the Vedic heritage and "ancient Hinduism", and this term has been co-opted by some Hindus.
Brahmanism
Historical Brahminism
Brahmanism, also called Brahminism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley. Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) class of the society, Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics), which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology developed in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.
The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century. Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism.
Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era. The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.
The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of cities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins; the rise of Buddhism; and the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great (327–325 BCE), the rise of the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE), and the Saka invasions and rule of northwestern India (2nd c. BC – 4th c. CE), Brahmanism faced a grave threat to its existence. This was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism. This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmis could provide, and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.
As a polemical term
Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term may be used by anti-Brahminical opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology. They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population. Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar, structured their criticism along similar lines."
Textual history
Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and some of the older Upanishads are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— Nasadiya Sukta, Rig Veda, 10:129-6
Characteristics
The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda. The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.
The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth but mention the belief in an afterlife. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals. The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira. Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.
The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as Saṃsāra or Nirvana. It was a complex animistic religion with polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. Ancestor worship was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of Śrāddha.
According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.
Rituals
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:
Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire
The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm
The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices
The four seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices
The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar
The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice
The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:
The Jyotishtoma
The Agnishtoma
The Pravargya (originally an independent rite, later absorbed into the soma rituals)
The Ukthya
The Sodashin
The Atyagnishtoma
The Atiratra
The Aptoryama
The Vajapeya
The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire
The Purushamedha
The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices
The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.
Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.
Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra
According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.
The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)
Pantheon
Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven. The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.
Sages
In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya, Atharvan, Atri, Bharadvaja, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Vasistha, Bhrigu, Kutsa, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.
Ethics – satya and rta
Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.
In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya () evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue. It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.
Vedic and its Avestan equivalent are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth", which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European * "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth". As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth". The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.
Owing to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.
The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples. The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.
Vedic mythology
The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated by Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vritra, freeing the rivers, the cows, and Dawn.
Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor and Tyr, or Perun. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.
Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Dyaus, Surya, Agni, Ushas, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.
Post-Vedic religions
The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism", while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions". Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".
Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism, though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions." The transition from ancient Brahmanism into schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions, one that preserved many of the central ideas and theosophy in the Vedas, and synergistically integrated non-Vedic ideas. While part of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.
Continuation of orthodox ritual
According to German Professor Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, such as in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh state of India and elsewhere. According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.
Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta
Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals. Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.
Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:
The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".
Sramana tradition
The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions, reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India". Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.
There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE). Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism and Islam.
See also
Pushyamitra Shunga
Ancient Iranian religion
Hinduism in Iran
Iranian mythology
Rishikesh Complex of Ruru Kshetra – Vedic ritual site in Nepal
Vedic mythology
Vedic priesthood
A Vedic Word Concordance
Zoroastrianism
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Ancient Hinduism
Hindu denominations
Vedas
Vedic period
Vedic
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] |
201365
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhabditida
|
Rhabditida
|
Rhabditida is an order of free-living, zooparasitic, and phytoparasitic microbivorous nematodes living in soil.
The Cephalobidae, Panagrolaimidae, Steinernematidae, and Strongyloididae seem to be closer to the Tylenchia, regardless of whether these are merged with the Rhabditia or not.
Families
Rhabditida
Myolaimina
Incertae sedis
Myolaimoidea
Myolaimidae
Rhabditina
Bunonematomorpha
Bunonematoidea
Bunonematidae
Diplogasteromorpha
Cylindrocorporoidea
Cylindrocorporidae
Diplogasteroidea
Cephalobiidae
Diplogasteridae
Diplogasteroididae
Rhabditomorpha
Mesorhabditoidea
Peloderidae
Rhabditoidea
Rhabditidae
Spirurina
Ascaridomorpha
Ascaridoidea
Acanthocheilidae
Anisakidae
Ascarididae
Heterocheilidae
Raphidascarididae
Cosmocercoidea
Atractidae
Kathlaniidae
Seuratoidea
Cucullanidae
Quimperiidae
Gnathostomatomorpha
Gnathostomatoidea
Gnathostomatidae
Oxyuridomorpha
Oxyuroidea
Pharygnodonidae
Thelastomatoidea
Thelastomatidae
Spiruromorpha
Acuarioidea
Acuariidae
Camallanoidea
Camallanidae
Filarioidea
Onchocercidae
Habronematoidea
Cystidicolidae
Tetrameridae
Physalopteroidea
Physalopteridae
Thelazioidea
Rhabdochonidae
Tylenchina
Cephalobomorpha
Cephaloboidea
Cephalobidae
Drilonematomorpha
Drilonematoidea
Drilonematidae
Homungellidae
Ungellidae
Panagrolaimomorpha
Panagrolaimoidea
Panagrolaimidae
Strongyloidoidea
Alloionematidae
Tylenchomorpha
Aphelenchoidea
Aphelenchidae
Aphelenchoididae
Criconematoidea
Criconematidae
Hemicycliophoridae
Sphaerularioidea
Anguinidae
Neotylenchidae
Tylenchoidea
Belonolaimidae
Dolichodoridae
Hoplolaimidae
Incertae sedis
Deladenus Thorne, 1941
Paratylenchus Micoletzky, 1922
Radopholus Thorne, 1949
Tylenchorhynchus Cobb, 1913
Pratylenchidae
Tylenchidae
References
Nematode orders
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdalene%20College%2C%20Cambridge
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Magdalene College, Cambridge
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Magdalene College ( ) is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1428 as a Benedictine hostel, in time coming to be known as Buckingham College, before being refounded in 1542 as the College of St Mary Magdalene.
Magdalene counted some of the greatest men in the realm among its benefactors, including Britain's premier noble the Duke of Norfolk, the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Chief Justice Christopher Wray. Thomas Audley, Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII, was responsible for the refoundation of the college and also established its motto—garde ta foy (Old French: "keep your faith"). Audley's successors in the Mastership and as benefactors of the College were, however, prone to dire ends; several benefactors were arraigned at various stages on charges of high treason and executed.
The college remains one of the smaller in the University, numbering some 300 undergraduates. It has maintained strong academic performance over the past decade, achieving an average of ninth in the Tompkins Table and coming second in 2015. Magdalene is home to the Pepys Library, which holds a vast collection of rare books and manuscripts belonging to the English diarist Samuel Pepys, an alumnus of the college.
History
Buckingham College
Magdalene College was first founded in 1428 as Monk's Hostel, which hosted Benedictine student monks. The secluded location of the hostel was chosen because it was separated from the town centre by the River Cam and protected by Cambridge Castle. The main buildings of the college were first constructed in the 1470s under the leadership of John de Wisbech, then Abbot of Crowland. Under the patronage of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, the institution was renamed Buckingham College.
In the 16th century, the Church of England broke away from the Papacy. With the subsequent Dissolution of the Monasteries, the parent abbey of Buckingham College, Crowland Abbey, was dissolved. However, the college remained in operation.
Refoundation
Walden Abbey, one of the Benedictine abbeys associated with Buckingham College, came into the possession of Thomas Audley after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. On 3 April 1542 Audley refounded Buckingham College as the College of Saint Mary Magdalene. Derived from Audley were the arms of Magdalene, including the motto Garde Ta Foy (from Old French for "keep your faith"), and the wyvern as the crest.
Thomas Audley died in 1544 aged 56, only two years after he re-founded the college. He donated to the college seven acres of property at Aldgate in London, which was his reward from Henry VIII for disposing of Anne Boleyn. This property would have brought enormous income had it been retained by the college. However, under the conspiracy of the Elizabethan banker Benedict Spinola, the property was permanently alienated to the Crown in 1574. The transaction involved Spinola luring the master and fellows of the time to accept an increase in the annual rental from £9 to £15 a year in exchange for the property. The loss of the Aldgate property left the college in extreme poverty, and the street front of the college was only completed in the 1580s under the generosity of Christopher Wray, then Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench. The transaction was "almost certainly illegal", and was contested multiple times without success. The first and most famous such lawsuit was pursued in 1615 by Barnaby Goche, who was master of the college between 1604 and 1626. This court case landed Goche and the senior fellow in prison for two years. Goche was subsequently offered £10,000 as a compromise, which he refused to accept. When the Quayside development site of Magdalene College was completed in 1989, a gargoyle of Spinola which spits water into the Cam was installed as a "revenge at last".
In 1650, Samuel Pepys joined the college. He was best known for his private diaries, known to critics as the Pepys Diary, which provided a major eyewitness account for the Great Fire of London of 1666. Pepys was remembered by the Pepys Library, built around 1700, where the original manuscripts of his diaries and naval records are kept, in addition to his collection of printed books and engravings in their original bookcases. Pepys stipulated in his will that the library was to be left to Magdalene, and have been kept at the college since their donation by Pepys's nephew, John Jackson, in 1724. The building is also home to Magdalene College library.
Enlightenment
Daniel Waterland, a theologian by training, became master of the college in 1714 and prescribed a new curriculum for undergraduate students at Magdalene. His new curriculum included Mathematics, Newtonian Physics, Geography and Astronomy, as well as Classics, Logic and Metaphysics. Waterland was also successful in attracting financial aid for the college, including funds for scholarships. The mathematician Edward Waring was among those who joined the college during this period.
In 1781, Peter Peckard, one of the earliest abolitionists, became master of Magdalene. The Zong massacre of 1781 prompted Peckard to speak strongly against slave trade in his sermons, some of which were published as tracts and pamphlets. Peckard set the college on the course of achieving a wider reputation of scholarship and sound thinking, and was later appointed as vice-chancellor of Cambridge University.
Magdalene continued to be a liberal college through the Victorian era. The college had more liberal admissions policies than most, admitting Arthur Cohen, the first practising Jew to graduate from Cambridge. During the same period, Magdalene also admitted Catholic students such as Charles Januarius Acton, and Asian students who were excluded from many other colleges until after the First World War.
Modern development
The modern development of Magdalene was shaped by A. C. Benson, master from 1915 to 1925. His enthusiasm and attention to detail produced outstanding pieces of poems, essays and literary criticism; his diaries were also studied by many later critics. His financial generosity effected significant impact on the modern appearance of the college grounds: at least 20 inscriptions around the college refer to him. In 1930, Benson Court was constructed and named after him.
From 1972, the previously all-male colleges in Cambridge started admitting women, the first three being Churchill, Clare and King's. In 1985, Oriel College, Oxford, admitted women, making Magdalene the only surviving all-male Oxbridge college. The following year, Magdalene made the controversial decision to admit women and become co-residential. When women eventually joined the college in 1988, some male students protested by wearing black arm-bands and flying the college flag at half-mast.
Although the historical perception of Magdalene's bias towards undergraduate applicants from independent schools persists, Magdalene now has an evenly mixed student body in terms of sex, race and education background. In recent years, Magdalene's access programme has attracted many applicants from state schools, especially from North West England; and the college's close affiliation with international students' bursaries such as the Prince Philip Scholarship and the Jardine Foundation has attracted many applicants from Southeast Asia, most notably Wong Yan Lung who went on to become Secretary for Justice for Hong Kong.
Buildings and grounds
Magdalene College is located at the bend of the River Cam on the northwestern side of the town centre, at the foot of Castle Hill. The college was deliberately built on the opposite end of Magdalene Bridge from the town centre so that the Benedictine student-monks would be secluded from the business and temptations of the town. As such, it was the first Cambridge college to be built on the northwestern side of the Cam. The college's main site was previously settled during the Roman occupation of England.
The college's buildings are distributed on both sides of the river, and is roughly divided into four areas: the main site, where the oldest buildings including the porter's lodge and the Pepys Library are located; The Village, which was built in the 1930s and consists exclusively of student accommodation; Quayside, built on the southeastern side of the river in the 1980s as an investment project which also provides student accommodation; and Cripps Court, built in the 2000s for extra conference facilities and accommodation.
Magdalene's old buildings are representative of the college's ramshackle growth from a monks' foundation into a centre of education. It is also distinctive in that most of the old buildings are in brick rather than stone (save for the frontage of the Pepys Building). Magdalene Street divides the most ancient courts from more recent developments. One of the accommodation blocks in the newer part of the college was built by Sir Edwin Lutyens in the early 1930s. Opened in 2005, Cripps Court, on Chesterton Road, features new undergraduate rooms and conference facilities.
Main site
The main site of the college is the area bounded by Magdalene Street, Chesterton Lane and the River Cam. It is the first area to be populated by college buildings since as early as the 1470s. This area includes Magdalene's First Court, Second Court, Fellows' Garden, and the buildings surrounding them such as the porters' lodge, the Master's Lodge, and the Pepys Library.
Porter's lodge and First Court
Situated on the north-east side of Magdalene Street is the porter's lodge. It is the place where mail to members of the college is delivered and distributed. Past the gatehouse by which the porter's lodge is situated lies First Court. The First Court was the earliest court to be built. From 1760 the Court was faced with stucco, but most of the buildings were restored in a project between 1953 and 1966. The chapel was the first to be built around 1470, while the gatehouse including the porter's lodge and the street-front of the college did not exist until 1585.
The chapel lies in the north range of First Court, and its original construction dates to 1470-72. However, later renovation works meant that little of the original chapel other than the original roof remains. Since the college is dedicated to Mary Magdalene, much of the chapel's artwork describes her story. The glass windows on the eastern wall of the chapel are entirely dedicated to the encounters between Mary Magdalene and Jesus Christ around the time of the crucifixion of Jesus: anointing Jesus with her jug of ointment, watching the crucifixion, weeping at the tomb and recognising Jesus after his resurrection. Compared to most other Cambridge colleges of medieval origin, Magdalene's chapel is much smaller in line with the college's relatively small population. Despite its smaller size, however, the chapel's physical proportions are in keeping with those of other medieval Oxbridge college chapels, reflecting the traditional layout of Solomon's Temple: the ratio of Magdalene's antechapel, choir, and sanctuary (1:4:2) matches that of the Temple's porch, holy place, and holy of holies. In 2000, the chapel received a new Baroque-style pipe organ built by Goetze & Gwynn.
Past the chapel, the hall separates the First Court to the west and the Second Court to the east. This is where daily formal dinners are served. The hall itself was first built in the early 16th century, again with many later refurbishments but never gas or electric lighting—Magdalene's hall is unique in Oxbridge in relying solely on candlelight. To the far end of the hall is the High Table, placed on a platform one step above ground level, where fellows and their guests dine. Students dine at three long benches in front of and perpendicular to the High Table and spanning to the entrance. Flanking the entrance is a double staircase leading to a minstrels' gallery and the senior combination room. The walls of the hall are decorated with 15 portraits of notable benefactors and past members.
Both the old and new Master's Lodges are located just to the north of first court. The old Master's Lodge, connected directly to the building on which the porter's lodge was situated, was built in the 16th century and vacated in 1835. The Master's Lodge then moved to a new location about 50m north of the previous location. This new lodge was subsequently torn down and rebuilt in 1967 to give the Master a less grandiose, but more comfortable residence. The building which used to be first Master's Lodge is now known as Old Lodge and is predominantly used for student accommodation. Other than Old Lodge, there are also student rooms scattered around the buildings surrounding First Court, including the areas on top of the hall.
Second Court and gardens
Past the formal hall, the Second Court is most clearly marked by the Pepys Building, where the Pepys Library is housed. The architect and polymath Robert Hooke, otherwise best known for coining the idea of a biological cell, participated in designing this building in 1677, and construction carried on from then until the 1700s because of the college's lack of money. The inscription on the arch in front of the building, Bibliotheca Pepysiana 1724, refers to the year in which the Pepys Diary was donated to the college, rather than the year in which the building was completed. Because of the famous Pepys Diary, the Pepys Library became a popular tourist destination in Cambridge. The ground and basement levels of the Pepys Building host the college library where undergraduate course books are available, and is therefore a major study spot for undergraduates. The Pepys Building was constructed in such a way that it would provide a good view of the Fellows' Garden. Construction of a
new College Library began in 2018; the new building, designed by Niall McLaughlin Architects, will offer three times more space.
Also situated on Second Court is Bright's Building, named after Mynors Bright, who was most famous for having deciphered the Pepys Diary. It was built in 1908–09 by Aston Webb to provide extra accommodation to host increasing numbers of undergraduate students. The largest room in Bright's Building is Ramsay Hall, named after Allen Beville Ramsay. The room was originally intended to be a lecture room, but it was later refurbished in 1949 to become the college's canteen.
The Fellows' Garden, situated behind Pepys Building, included a Roman-era flood barrier bank which became today's Monk's Walk, a raised footpath leading from the south side of Pepys Building to the exit of the Fellows' Garden on Chesterton Lane. At the time of the college's establishment in 1428, the Fellows' Garden was a series of fishponds. The fishponds were filled between 1586 and 1609, but it was not until the 1660s that plans to cultivate a garden on the land were realised. Most of the trees planted in the original plan of the garden were chopped down and replaced in a renovation in the early 1900s, under the instruction of botanist Walter Gardiner. Most of the newly planted trees were black poplars and its variant, Lombardy poplars. Some fruit trees, such as quince, cherry and plum trees, were later planted in the 1980s-90s. Squirrels, and the occasional woodpecker may be spotted in the garden; there are also a few flowerbeds in the garden in which the gardeners grow seasonal flowers. Near the northwest corner of the Fellows’ Garden lies a Victorian pet cemetery with several gravestones and statues of departed dogs and cats of the College.
Adjacent to the Fellows' Garden are two other gardens: the Master's Garden, which is part of the Master's Lodge and separated from the Fellows' Garden by a brick wall, and the River Court, a small, brick-paved patch of land between Bright's Building and the River Cam, where seasonal flowers are on display in the flowerbeds.
Village
The area of the college across Magdalene Street from porter's lodge, bounded by Magdalene Street, Northampton Street, the River Cam and St John's College is known as the Magdalene Village. It includes Benson Court, Mallory Court and Buckingham Court, and consists almost exclusively of student accommodation. The whole area of the Village was gradually developed over a period of 45 years by three different architects, Harry Redfern, Sir Edwin Lutyens and David Roberts. The first building to be developed was Mallory Court B (1925–26) and the last was the new Buckingham Court building (1968–70). Lutyens had an original plan which involved demolishing many existing buildings in the area and constructing new buildings that matched the general look and feel of the college's main site, but this plan was scrapped due to insufficient funding and the only part of Lutyens' plan that was realised was the Lutyens building.
Passing through an obscure wooden gate opposite the porter's lodge, the open courtyard of Benson Court can be seen. Benson Court was named after A. C. Benson, master of Magdalene College from 1915 to 1925. Benson was best known for writing the lyrics of Land of Hope and Glory, a British patriotic song set to the tune of Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1. The cottages to either side of the entrance pathway are all pre-existing buildings that were converted into student accommodation in the 1960s. In particular, Benson Court H is one of the few buildings in college whose structure survived from the 16th century, and presents its 17th-century facade which was previously known as Cross Keys Inn to the street front of Magdalene Street. To the left of the courtyard is a gentle grassy slope that leads to the "Magdalene beach", where the college punts are moored and parties are held in the summer.
Across the courtyard is the Lutyens building, also designated Benson A-E, which was built and named after Sir Edwin Lutyens, the architect who planned much of the Village. Due to a lack of funding, it was the only part of Lutyens' original grandiose plan that was actually built. Part of the building's cost was sponsored by subscriptions raised by Harvard in memory of Henry Dunster, who studied in Magdalene in 1627–1630 and later became a founding father of Harvard University. Hence, the crest of Harvard with the inscription Veritas can be found at the entrance to the D staircase. Each staircase in the building had slightly different banister designs, which Lutyens explained was "to help Magdalene men to feel in the dark whether they were entering the correct staircase". The Lutyens building currently hosts about 60 students and fellows as well as the college launderette.
Another two courts can be found to the northwest of Benson Court: Mallory Court and Buckingham Court. Mallory Court was named after George Mallory, the British mountaineer who famously answered "Because it's there" when asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest. The court itself comprises student rooms, some new and some converted from existing buildings which include a defunct brewery. Buckingham Court has two groups of buildings, which includes the "Tan Yard Cottages" incorporated to the college and refurbished in 1966, and a new building which contains the college's car park. The new Buckingham building, completed in 1970, marked the completion of the entire Magdalene Village.
Quayside
Most of the buildings bounded by the River Cam, Bridge Street and Thompson's Lane are owned by Magdalene College, despite being completely covered by shop-fronts and restaurants on the ground level. Many of these buildings are part of the Quayside development project, built between 1983–89, as part of a business plan of the college. As for student accommodation, this part of the college includes the Bridge Street and Thompson's Lane hostels.
Cripps Court
Situated on the opposite side of Chesterton Road from the main site of the college, Cripps Court is the newest part of Magdalene. It was built between 2003-05 in response to increasing demands for extra accommodation and conference facilities. The site of Cripps Court is a natural southerly slope, which can be seen from the stepped courtyard in between the buildings. The court was sponsored by, and named after, the Cripps family headed by Humphrey Cripps. It contains a 142-seat auditorium, 5 seminar rooms, an oak-roofed event gallery also called the orangery, and about 60 student rooms.
Events and traditions
Magdalene is noted for its 'traditional' style: it boasts a well-regarded candlelit formal hall (held every evening) and was the last all-male college in Oxford or Cambridge to admit women in 1988 (Oriel College was the last in Oxford, admitting women in 1986). This change resulted in protests by some male undergraduates, including the wearing of black armbands and flying the college flag at half-mast.
Spelling and pronunciation of name
The college is officially known as "The College of Saint Mary Magdalene", with "Magdalene" customarily pronounced "Maudlyn" ( ). The name was chosen when Thomas Audley re-founded and dedicated the college to Mary Magdalene in 1542. In early documents, the name of the college was spelt "Maudleyn" as it was pronounced. Although the standard pronunciation of the name "Magdalene" in the English language has changed, the customary pronunciation of the college's name was retained.
With the development of the General Post Office during the 19th century, the spelling of the college's name was fixed as "Magdalene" with a final "e", to avoid confusion with Magdalen College, Oxford. The two colleges are pronounced the same.
College grace
May Ball
The college's May Ball had been a biennial fixture since 1911.
People associated with Magdalene
Masters
Master of Magdalene College is the title given to the Head of House. Rowan Williams, former Archbishop of Canterbury (2002–12), became the master on 1 January 2013. Sir Christopher John Greenwood succeeded Williams as master of Magdalene on 1 October 2020.
Power to appoint the master was vested until 2012 in the visitor of the college. Following an amendment to the college statutes, which was approved by the Queen in Council in February 2012, the master is now appointed by the governing body of the college. The master usually serves until reaching the statutory fellowship retirement age of 67. Exceptionally, this period may be extended until the master in question reaches 70 as occurred in the case of Duncan Robinson, master from 2002 to 2012.
With the position of master comes college-based residency in the form of the Master's Lodge, which may be populated and decorated according to the wishes of the master. Traditionally, every Sunday, the master attends the service in the college chapel before sitting at the head of the high table in hall for formal hall.
Notable current and past fellows
Nicholas Boyle, Schroeder Professor of German and biographer of Goethe
Howard Chase, Professor of Biochemical Engineering
Tim Clutton-Brock, zoologist known particularly for his work on red deer and meerkats
Helen Cooper, Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English, a Chair formerly held by three previous Magdalene fellows: C. S. Lewis, J. A. W. Bennett, and John Stevens
Hannah Critchlow, Outreach Fellow, author, broadcaster and neuroscientist
Saul Dubow, Smuts Professor of Commonwealth History
Eamon Duffy, Professor of the History of Christianity and well known Roman Catholic commentator
Richard Ellis, Professor of Astrophysics, University College London and former Director of Palomar Observatory, California
Peter J. Grubb, ecologist and botanist
John Gurdon, former Master, honorary fellow, developmental biologist, begetter of the Gurdon Institute, Nobel prizewinner in 2012
C. S. Lewis, literary critic, author and theologian
Alfred Newton, ornithologist, first Professor of Zoology
Derek Oulton, formerly Permanent Secretary, Lord Chancellor's Department
I. A. Richards, English literary critic and rhetorician, considered one of the founders of the contemporary study of literature in English
David Roberts (1911–82), architect and Director of Studies in Architecture, designer of more student housing in England than any other architect of his generation.
Emma Rothschild, Jeremy and Jane Knowles Professor of History at Harvard University, director of the Centre for History and Economics
Notable alumni
The college's most famous alumnus is the 17th-century chronicler Samuel Pepys. His papers and books were donated to the college upon his death and are housed in the Pepys Library in the Pepys Building. A portrait of the diarist by Peter Lely hangs in the Hall.
Notable honorary fellows
References
Further reading
Cunich, Hoyle, Duffy, and Hyam (1994). A History of Magdalene College Cambridge, 1428-1988. Cambridge: Crampton & Sons. .
Hyam, Ronald (2011). Magdalene Described: A Guide to the Buildings of Magdalene College Cambridge, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Magdalene College Publications.
External links
Magdalene College website
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
1428 establishments in England
Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge
Grade I listed educational buildings
Organisations based in Cambridge with royal patronage
Mary Magdalene
Educational institutions established in the 15th century
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201370
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydor%20Records
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Polydor Records
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Polydor Records Ltd. is a German-British record label that operates as part of Universal Music Group. It has a close relationship with Universal's Interscope Geffen A&M Records label, which distributes Polydor's releases in the United States. In turn, Polydor distributes Interscope releases in the United Kingdom. Polydor Records Ltd. was established in London in 1954 as a British subsidiary of German company Deutsche Grammophon GmbH. It was renamed Polydor Ltd. in 1972.
Notable current and past artists signed to the label include ABBA, Cream, The Moody Blues, The Who, Ringo Starr, Bee Gees, The Jam, Take That, The Shadows, James Brown, Level 42, Ellie Goulding, James Last, Eric Clapton, Marie Osmond, Yngwie Malmsteen, Lana Del Rey, and Buckingham Nicks.
Label history
Beginnings
Polydor Records was founded on 2 April 1913 by German Polyphon-Musikwerke AG in Leipzig and registered on 25 July 1914 (Nr. 316613). The label was founded as Firma Brachhausen & Riesener in 1887 by Gustav Adolf Brachhausen and Ernst Paul Riessner, for manufacturing their new mechanical disc-playing music box Polyphon, invented in 1870. During World War I on 24 April 1917, Polyphon-Musikwerke AG acquired the German Deutsche Grammophon-Aktiengesellschaft record plant and company from the German government. The German state had taken over British-held Grammophon as enemy property during World War I.
Polydor was originally an independent branch of the Polyphon-Grammophon-Konzern group. It was used as an export label from 1924. After the British and German branches of the Gramophone Company were separated during World War I, Deutsche Grammophon claimed the rights to the Nipper-dog and gramophone trademark for Germany, where HMV recordings were to be released under the Electrola trademark replacing the company lost during the war. In turn, Deutsche Grammophon records exported from Germany were released on the Polyphon Musik and Polydor labels. New foreign branches were founded, for example in Austria, Denmark, Sweden and France.
In 1941, Deutsche Grammophon (including Polydor) was purchased by Siemens & Halske.
Polydor became a popular music label in 1946, while the new Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft label became a classical music label in 1949. The previously used label, Grammophon, was disbanded. DGG gave, by an agreement dated 5 July 1949, an exclusive license from 1 July 1951 to use the Nipper-dog with gramophone to the original owner's company Electrola, the German branch of EMI. (In Germany, it was impossible to sell the trademark without selling the company.) Polydor remained Deutsche Grammophon's export label, including classical music, in France and the Spanish-speaking world for the remainder of the long-playing era, as a result of language and cultural concerns. DGG established a subsidiary in London called Polydor Records Ltd. in 1954.
In the early 1960s, orchestra leader Bert Kaempfert signed unknowns Tony Sheridan and The Beat Brothers - who later became known as The Beatles—to Polydor. Popular International entertainers such as James Last, Bert Kaempfert, Kurt Edelhagen, Caterina Valente and the Kessler Twins appeared on the Polydor label, as well as many French, Spanish and Latin-American figures.
Siemens entered into a joint venture with Philips in 1962 creating the Grammophon-Philips Group, of which Polydor became a subsidiary label.
Polydor opened a US branch in 1969 (in years prior, they licensed their catalogue to Atlantic Records), but did not become a real presence in the US record industry until its purchase of the recording contract and back catalogue of R&B performer James Brown in 1971, and the absorption of the MGM Records label by its parent company PolyGram in 1972.
In 1970, Polydor acquired the Hong Kong–based Diamond Records, which had been owned and founded by the local Portuguese merchant Ren da Silva in the late 1950s.
PolyGram
In 1972, The Grammophon-Philips Group (GPG) reorganized to create PolyGram, from Polydor and PhonoGram. The Polydor label continued to run as a subsidiary label under the new company. Throughout the 1970s, Polydor became a major rock label, also releasing records by such platinum-selling acts as the Bee Gees and Gloria Gaynor.
Into the 1980s, Polydor continued to do respectable business, in spite of becoming increasingly overshadowed by its PolyGram sister label Mercury Records. Polydor took over management of British Decca's pop catalogue. A&R manager Frank Neilson was able to score a major top ten hit in March 1981 for the label with "Do the Hucklebuck" by Coast to Coast as well as signing Ian Dury and Billy Fury to the company. In 1984, the company name was parodied in the rockumentary film This Is Spinal Tap (whose soundtrack album was distributed by Polydor), where "Polymer Records" was the band's record company.
By the early 1990s, Polydor had begun to underperform. PolyGram subsequently trimmed most of Polydor's staff and roster, and shifted it to operate under the umbrella of PolyGram Label Group (PLG), a newly constructed "super label" specifically designed to oversee the operations of PolyGram's lesser performing imprints, which included Island Records, London Records, Atlas Records and Verve Records at the time.
In 1994, as Island Records recovered from its sales slump, PolyGram dissolved most of PLG into it. Meanwhile, Polydor Records and Atlas Records merged, briefly called "Polydor/Atlas", and began operating through A&M Records, another PolyGram subsidiary. In 1995, Polydor/Atlas became simply Polydor Records again.
Twilight years in the United States
Over the next few years, Polydor tried to keep itself afloat with new artist signings, new releases, and reissues, while still becoming more and more dormant. In 1998, PolyGram was purchased by Seagram and absorbed into its Universal Music Group. During the consolidation of these two music giants, Polydor's United States operations were folded into Interscope-Geffen-A&M and Universal Records, while its overseas branch remained intact, with its records continuing to be distributed domestically through Interscope and A&M. Today, in North America, the Polydor Records name and logo is mostly used on reissues of older material from its 1960s and 1970s heyday. Island Records handles the US distribution of most pre-1998 Polydor releases, including the reissues from the British Decca pop/rock collections, while Republic Records handles reissues from James Brown and the MGM Records and Verve Records pop catalog. However, starting in the 2010s, Interscope Records has been signing acts such as Azealia Banks and Lana Del Rey jointly to Polydor and its logo has been seen on both releases.
Polydor Nashville
Record producer Harold Shedd founded Polydor's Nashville, Tennessee, division in 1994, which specialized in country music. Among the acts signed to Polydor Nashville were Shane Sutton, Tasha Harris, 4 Runner, the Moffatts, Chely Wright, Mark Luna, Clinton Gregory, Amie Comeaux, along with Toby Keith and Davis Daniel, who transferred from Mercury Nashville in 1994. The Nashville division was renamed A&M Nashville in March 1996 and closed in September of the same year, as PolyGram consolidated all its Nashville operations under the Mercury name. Today, Polydor, along with EMI Records in the UK and Australia and UMG itself in Canada distribute Lost Highway Records' albums in the Commonwealth realms.
Polydor UK
In 1972 the British Polydor Records Ltd. was renamed to Polydor Ltd. In the early 1970s, the main source of income for the label was the successful UK band Slade as well as The New Seekers and The Who. At the time, between the 1970s and 1980s, the Polydor/PolyGram Senior VP (who was originally the first head of their new [at the time] rock department) was Jerry Jaffe, who also signed acts such as Motörhead, Dexy's Midnight Runners, and the Jam. He also interacted with many famous and successful artists while in that position, including Nick Lowe and John Lennon, as well as going on to work with groups such as the Jesus and Mary Chain and Saint Etienne the late 1980s and 1990s. Later, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the label was also home to the Who and the Jam (as well as its successor act the Style Council).
Although Polydor's American branch is nearly inactive, in the United Kingdom Polydor remains one of the most prominent labels in the country—with artists such as Take That, Cheryl, Duffy, Girls Aloud, the Saturdays, Kaiser Chiefs, Ellie Goulding and Lawson. Polydor also has a strong indie roster through the Fiction imprint with acts such as Ian Brown, Bright Eyes, Elbow, White Lies, the Maccabees, Kate Nash, Snow Patrol, Filthy Dukes, and Crystal Castles. Polydor has also survived in Canada, becoming the home label for Drake. It also acts as the UK label for American-based acts under Interscope-Geffen-A&M like Madonna, Eminem, the All-American Rejects, the Black Eyed Peas, Gwen Stefani, Dr. Dre, Lana Del Rey, Lady Gaga, Selena Gomez, Kendrick Lamar, Maroon 5, M.I.A., No Doubt, Sting and JoJo.
In 2006, Polydor launched Fascination Records, a music label dedicated to pop music. Both Girls Aloud and Sophie Ellis-Bextor transferred to the new label and created groups such as the Saturdays and Girls Can't Catch. Several pop acts from US label Hollywood Records, such as Demi Lovato, the Jonas Brothers, Miley Cyrus and Selena Gomez & the Scene were also signed to Fascination.
In 2008, A&M Records UK was founded as an imprint of Polydor UK. The same year Polydor obtained distribution of the Rolling Stones' back catalogue as well as new releases. With the establishment of A&M Records UK, A&M Records' Canadian division became a separate entity for the first time since the formation of Universal Music Group. Polydor, meanwhile, continued to distribute Interscope, Geffen and selected Lost Highway releases in Canada through Universal Music Canada, as it does to this day.
See also
Polydor Records artists
References
External links
Polydor.co.uk UK site
Polydor.de German site
Polydor at Discogs
Polydor A&R team contact list
1913 establishments in Germany
British record labels
British subsidiaries of foreign companies
Contemporary R&B record labels
English record labels
German record labels
Heavy metal record labels
Hip hop record labels
Jazz record labels
Labels distributed by Universal Music Group
Pop record labels
Record labels established in 1913
Rhythm and blues record labels
Rock record labels
Soul music record labels
The Jam
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] |
201372
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotrematum
|
Monotrematum
|
Monotrematum sudamericanum is an extinct monotreme species from the Paleocene (Peligran) Salamanca Formation in Patagonia, Argentina. It is the only monotreme found outside Oceania.
Taxonomy
A species described in 1992 and assigned to a new genus Monotrematum as the type. It is currently the only known species of the genus. The authors compared their fossil material to the genus Obdurodon, ornithorhynchid species first discovered at Australian fossil sites in 1975.
Description
Monotrematum sudamericanum is known only from two lower and one upper platypus-like teeth. It is the only known non-Australasian ornithorhynchid. The main difference, apart from continent and age, is its size: the teeth of Monotrematum are around twice as large as those of other similar species in the related genus Obdurodon. The teeth of M. sudamericanum presently reside in the collections of Museo de La Plata and Museo Paleontológico Egidio Feruglio, both in Argentina.
According to Pascual, "The preserved enamel in the central region shows that the crown pattern is almost identical to that of Obdurodon: it is composed of two V-shaped lobes, the anterior of which is wider, separated from the posterior one by a valley that connects the lingual and buccal sides of the crown separating the anterior and posterior lobes."
References
External links
Ornithorhynchidae
Prehistoric monotremes
Paleocene mammals of South America
Peligran
Paleogene Argentina
Fossils of Argentina
Fossil taxa described in 1992
Taxa named by Rosendo Pascual
Taxa named by Mike Archer (paleontologist)
Taxa named by Edgardo Ortiz Jaureguizar
Taxa named by Joyce Rodrigues do Prado
Taxa named by Henk Godthelp
Taxa named by Suzanne J. Hand
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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201373
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Osborne
|
Adam Osborne
|
Adam Osborne (March 6, 1939 – March 18, 2003) was a British-American author, book and software publisher, and computer designer who founded several companies in the United States and elsewhere. He introduced the Osborne 1, the first commercially successful portable computer.
Early life
Osborne was born to a British father and Polish mother in Bangkok, Thailand on March 6, 1939. His father, Arthur Osborne, was a teacher of eastern religion and philosophy and a lecturer in English at Chulalongkorn University. All members of the family were fluent in the Tamil language. He spent World War II in southern India, with his mother. He attended Presentation Convent School in Kodaikanal until Class 6. In 1950, the Osborne family moved to England. From the age of 11, he was educated at a Catholic boarding school in Warwickshire but from 1954 to 1957 was a pupil at the grammar school Leamington College for Boys, where he played chess. He graduated with a degree in chemical engineering from the University of Birmingham in 1961, and received his PhD from the University of Delaware in 1968. It was while living in the United States that he learned to write computer code. He obtained a position as a chemical engineer with Shell Oil, in California, but was dismissed.
Publishing
Osborne was a pioneer in the computer book field, founding a company in 1972 that specialized in easy-to-read computer manuals. By 1977, Osborne & Associates had 40 titles in its catalogue. In 1979, it was bought by McGraw-Hill and continued as an imprint of McGraw-Hill, "McGraw-Hill/Osborne". He also wrote several books. One of them, An Introduction To Microcomputers, sold 300,000 copies.
Computers
Osborne was known to frequent the Homebrew Computer Club's meetings around 1975. He created the first commercially available portable computer, the Osborne 1, released in April 1981. It weighed 24.5 pounds (12 kg), cost US$1795—just over half the cost of a computer from other manufacturers with comparable features—and ran the popular CP/M 2.2 operating system. It was designed to fit under an airline seat. At its peak, Osborne Computer Corporation shipped 10,000 units of "Osborne 1" per month. Osborne was one of the first personal computing pioneers to understand fully that there was a wide market of buyers who were not computing hobbyists: the Osborne 1 included word processing and spreadsheet software. This was at a time when IBM would not bundle hardware and software with their PCs, selling separately the operating systems, monitors, and even cables for the monitor.
Adam Osborne's experience in the computer industry gave his new company credibility. Osborne Computer Corporation advertisements compared Adam Osborne's influence on the personal computer market to Henry Ford's influence on transportation. It is said that in 1983, Osborne bragged about two advanced new computers his company was developing. These statements destroyed consumer demand for the Osborne 1, and the resulting inventory glut forced Osborne Computer to file for bankruptcy on September 13, 1983. This phenomenon, a pre-announcement of a new product causing a catastrophic collapse in demand for older ones, became known as the Osborne effect, but according to some new sources, the real reasons for Osborne Computer's bankruptcy were management errors and insufficient cash flow.
Hypergrowth
After Osborne Computer's collapse, Adam Osborne wrote a best-selling memoir of his experience, Hypergrowth: The Rise and Fall of the Osborne Computer Corporation, with John C. Dvorak, which was published in 1984.
Software
In 1984, Osborne founded Paperback Software International Ltd., a company that specialized in inexpensive computer software. Its advertisements featured Osborne himself, arguing that if telephone companies applied the same logic to their pricing as software companies, a telephone would cost $600. One of its products was VP-Planner, an inexpensive clone of Lotus 1-2-3, which led to legal action. In 1987, Lotus sued Paperback Software. As a result of the lawsuit, consumer confidence waned for Paperback Software, and its revenues dropped 80% by 1989, preventing the firm from getting venture capital for expansion. In February 1990, the case went to court and on June 28, the court ruled that Paperback Software's product, by copying Lotus 1-2-3's look and feel menu interface, violated Lotus's copyright. Osborne stepped down from Paperback Software the same year. Paperback's database application, VP-Info continued to sell well for many more years, and acquired a second life as Sharkbase.
His final venture, in 1992, was to found the company Noetics Software, to work on artificial intelligence.
Personal life and death
Osborne was a member of Mensa. He married – and divorced – twice, firstly in the mid 1960s, to Cynthia Geddes, an American, and later to Barbara Burdick (Zelnick). Osborne had three children. Both former wives and all his children survived him.
In 1992, Osborne returned to India in declining health, suffering from a brain disorder that triggered frequent minor strokes. He died in his sleep on March 18, 2003, in Kodaikanal, India, aged 64.
References
External links
Adam Osborne, pioneer of PCs for people: dead at 64
The Register – Portable computer pioneer Adam Osborne dies
The Computer Chronicles (broadcast in 1984) – Adam Osborne is interviewed by Stewart Cheifet and Gary Kildall
1939 births
2003 deaths
Computer hardware engineers
American technology writers
Indian people of Polish descent
Adam Osborne
English emigrants to India
English emigrants to the United States
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
American Hindus
20th-century American businesspeople
University of Delaware alumni
Mensans
American emigrants to India
Adam Osborne
Thai emigrants to the United Kingdom
British technology writers
|
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201375
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche%20Grammophon
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Deutsche Grammophon
|
Deutsche Grammophon (; DGG) is a German classical music record label that was the precursor of the corporation PolyGram. Headquartered in Berlin Friedrichshain, it is now part of Universal Music Group (UMG) since its merger with the UMG family of labels in 1999. It is the oldest surviving established record company.
History
Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft was founded in 1898 by German-born United States citizen Emile Berliner as the German branch of his Berliner Gramophone Company. Berliner sent his nephew Joseph Sanders from America to set up operations. Based in the city of Hanover (the founder's birthplace), the company was the German affiliate of the U.S. Victor Talking Machine Company and the British Gramophone Company, but that affiliation ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Though no longer connected to the British Gramophone Company, Deutsche Grammophon continued to use the "His Master's Voice" trademark featuring the dog Nipper in Germany until the late 1940s.
In 1941, Deutsche Grammophon was purchased by the Siemens & Halske electronics company.
In 1949, Deutsche Grammophon sold the German rights of the His Master's Voice trademark to the Electrola unit of EMI. The dog and gramophone were replaced by the crown of tulips, designed by Siemens advertising consultant Hans Domizlaff.
In 1962 Siemens formed a joint venture with Netherlands-based Philips to create the DGG/PPI Record Group, which became PolyGram Records in 1972. By this time, DGG had built a reputation for high-quality recording in the classical field as well as a notable roster of contracted singers, musicians, and conductors. Through its subsidiary label Archiv Produktion it also stimulated interest in Western medieval and renaissance music, 15th–16th century choral polyphony, Gregorian chant, and pioneering use of 'historical instruments' and performance practices in recordings.
DGG/Polydor's entrance into the US market in 1969 (DGG had distribution deals in the US with Decca Records and MGM Records beforehand) came at a time when the big US classical music labels RCA Victor Red Seal and Columbia Masterworks were dropping most of their unlucrative classical artists and pressing inferior quality records. The fine quality both of recording and of pressings helped DGG succeed in America and attract artists such as Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra (who had recorded for RCA Victor since 1935) to DGG/Polydor. In 1987, Siemens sold off its interest in PolyGram, and Philips became the majority shareholder. In 1998, the Seagram company of Canada purchased Deutsche Grammophon and PolyGram on behalf of its Universal Music Group subsidiary. Since then, UMG was sold and became a division of Vivendi until its IPO in September 2021.
Deutsche Grammophon pioneered the introduction of the compact disc to the mass market, debuting classical music performed by Herbert von Karajan and the Berlin Philharmonic for sale in the new medium in 1983, the first recording being Richard Strauss's Eine Alpensinfonie.
Deutsche Grammophon has a huge back catalogue of notable recordings. The company is reissuing a portion of it in its Originals series; compact disc releases are noted for their vinyl record stylized design. It is also releasing some of American Decca Records' albums from the 1940s and 1950s, such as those that Leonard Bernstein made for Decca in 1953, and the classic Christmas album that features Ronald Colman's starring in A Christmas Carol and Charles Laughton's narrating Mr. Pickwick's Christmas. Along with the American Decca Records classical music catalogue, Deutsche Grammophon also manages the classical music catalogue of ABC Records, including Westminster Records which, along with American Decca, were part of MCA Records.
Although Deutsche Grammophon acquired the reputation of releasing mainstream classical recordings, from the 1960s onwards it released an increasing number of avant-garde recordings (initially under the Avant-Garde imprint), including Bruno Maderna, David Bedford, Cornelius Cardew, Luigi Nono and improvisations. It also released the majority of the compositions of Karlheinz Stockhausen until the composer bought the rights to the recordings and re-released them on his own label. Other German composers associated with the label included Paul Hindemith and Hans Werner Henze.
Contemporary composers whose works were released by Deutsche Grammophon include Hildur Guðnadóttir, Sofia Gubaidulina, Oliver Knussen, Mark-Anthony Turnage, Mohammed Fairouz, Péter Eötvös, Luigi Nono, Sven Helbig, Jonny Greenwood, Bryce Dessner, Witold Lutosławski, Philip Glass, Tori Amos and Max Richter.
The conductor most associated with the label is Herbert von Karajan. Other conductors under contract included Ferenc Fricsay, Carlos Kleiber, Karl Böhm, Karl Richter, Eugen Jochum, Rafael Kubelík, Leonard Bernstein, Pierre Boulez, Claudio Abbado, and Christian Thielemann. Recent signings include Long Yu, Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Gustavo Dudamel, Hera Hyesang Park, and Myung-whun Chung.
References
External links
Deutsche Grammophon Records
German record labels
Labels distributed by Universal Music Group
Record labels established in 1898
1898 establishments in Germany
Companies based in Berlin
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201376
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdurodon
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Obdurodon
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Obdurodon is a genus of extinct platypus-like Australian monotreme which lived from the Late Oligocene to the Late Miocene. Three species have been described in the genus, the type species Obdurodon insignis, plus Obdurodon dicksoni and Obdurodon tharalkooschild. The species appeared much like their modern day relative the platypus, except adults retained their molar teeth, and Unlike the platypus which forages on the lakebed, they may have foraged in the water column or surface.
Taxonomy
The Obdurodon insignis holotype specimen, SAM P18087, a tooth, was uncovered in 1971 from the Etadunna Formation in the Tirari Desert of South Australia. The second specimen discovered there, AMNH 97228, is an upper right molar. In total, 4 specimens are reported, dating from the Oligocene to the Pliocene.
The holotype tooth was placed into the newly erected genus Obdurodon upon description in 1975 by American palaeontologists Michael O. Woodburne and Richard H. Tedford. They coined the genus named from the Latin obduros, meaning "persistent", and don, meaning "tooth" in reference to the permanency of the molars, a feature which is lost in the modern platypus. The species name insignis refers to the importance of the new taxon's "distinguishing mark" in the fossil record.
The genus is one of several to have been placed with the family Ornithorhynchidae, whose only living member is the platypus.
The second species named, Obdurodon dicksoni, occasionally called the Riversleigh Platypus, was described by Archer et al (1992) who detailed a skull and several teeth found in lower-middle Miocene deposits from the Riversleigh Ringtail Site. The type specimen, an exceptionally well preserved skull, is one of the most intact fossil skulls to be excavated from Riversleigh. The type locality is referred to as the Ringtail Site. Other than the skull and teeth, no other fossilized material of O. dicksoni has been identified.
The third known species, Obdurodon tharalkooschild is the second species described from the Riversleigh sites, and the largest species. The holotype tooth was discovered in 2012 at the "Two Trees Site", part of Riversleigh's Gag Plateau sequence, and dated to the Miocene though dates as young as the Pliocene have been suggested. The species was described the following year by a team from the University of New South Wales including Rebecca Pian, Mike Archer, and Suzanne Hand, who published the article in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
The specific name was chosen in honour of an indigenous Australian creation story for the platypus, where a duck named Tharalkoo gives birth to a chimeric creature after being ravished by a rakali.
Description
Obdurodon differ from the modern platypus, it that they had more permanent dentition in the spoon-shaped bill, retaining molars and incisors. The species may have foraged in the water column or surface.
Obdurodon insignis
O. insignis is thought to have had a similar build to the modern platypus. The holotype is the front molar of the upper right jaw, corresponding to the M2 molar, with the unusual character of six roots. Fragments of jawbone have also been assigned to the species, along with a single piece of post-cranial material, a pelvis. O. insignis had one more canine tooth (NC1) than its ancestor Steropodon galmani.
Obdurodon dicksoni
Obdurodon dicksoni was part of the Riversleigh fauna that inhabited pools and streams of freshwater of the Riversleigh rainforest environment. Unlike the modern species, O. dicksoni retained its molars into adulthood and had a spoon-shaped bill that suggest they fed near the surface or edge of the water.
A large platypus-like animal with a spoon-shaped bill that contained molars, unlike the modern species. The skull's profile is comparatively flatter than similar species, and as with crocodilians, this may indicate more foraging or feeding at the surface of the water. The diet is likely to have been crustacea, the water borne larvae of insects, or perhaps small vertebrates like fish and frogs. The only known area of its distribution, the Riversleigh site, was closed forest at the freshwater bodies it inhabited, surrounded by more open woodlands over the region's limestone karst terrain.
The septomaxilla (a part of the upper jawbone) of O. dicksoni is bigger than for the platypus, which supposes a hypertrophied beak. The coronoid and angulary processes of O. dicksoni have quite disappeared in the platypus, leaving the platypus's skull flat on the sides. This indicates the mastication technique of O. dicksoni was different from that of the platypus, using the muscles anchored to these processes. The beak of O. dicksoni has an oval hole surrounded by bones in the center, whereas the platypus' beak has a V-shape and no longer surrounded by bones. O. dicksoni retained molar teeth into adulthood, whereas in the modern platypus, the adults only have keratinized pads (juveniles lose their molar teeth upon adulthood). The shape of its beak suggests that O. dicksoni sought prey by digging in the sides of rivers, whereas the modern platypus digs in the bottom of the river. O. dicksoni had (like the platypus) shearing crests instead of incisor and canine teeth. It bore two premolars and three molars on each side of the lower jaw. The M1 had six roots, the M2 had five, and the M3 only one. The upper jaw bore two premolars and two molars on each side. The M1 had six roots, the M2 four. The premolars had only one root and a very different shape from the molars. They were separated from the shearing crests by an area without dentition. The roots of the molars were barely a third as high as the crown. Molars had only been found apart from skulls, implying that they were not well-anchored.
Obdurodon tharalkooschild
Obdurodon tharalkooschild is assumed to be very similar in form to a modern platypus, but larger, exceeding Monotrematum in size and length. and lived in the middle to late Miocene (). The wear patterns on the tooth are suggestive of crushing, perhaps by consuming hard-shelled animals such as turtles, rather than using a shearing action.
O. tharalkooschild is thought to have inhabited fresh water and hunted for a variety of animal prey in the forests that dominated the Riversleigh site at the time of deposition. The species diet is assumed to have included crustacea like those consumed by the modern platypus, although larger species were available due to its greater size. The potential prey of the Riversleigh fauna also included frog, turtle, fish and the lungfish, species that are present in the deposition at the Two Tree Site of the Riversleigh formations. The ornithorhynchid species were unknown in the later fossil record at the time of discovery, and it defied the assumptions of a single lineage of a platypus-like animal that progressively lost its teeth and became smaller in size.
Cultural references
The name given to O. tharalkooschild was first discussed in a 1990 paper by Mike Archer, an Australian mammalogist, detailing a creation story with an Ugly Duckling motif in the context of palaeontology. A philosophical examination of historical sciences such as palaeontology, published in 2018, uses the tooth of this platypus as an example of the results obtainable by multiple methods of research into traces of evidence; the author refers to the species by the vernacular "platyzilla". An illustration of O. dicksoni by Jeanette Muirhead, depicted on a rock in a stream within a rainforest, was published by the magazine Natural History (AMNH) in 1994.
References
Prehistoric monotremes
Prehistoric mammal genera
Oligocene first appearances
Miocene genus extinctions
Oligocene mammals of Australia
Miocene mammals of Australia
Fossils of Australia
Riversleigh fauna
Fossil taxa described in 1975
Taxa named by Michael Woodburne
Taxa named by Richard H. Tedford
|
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] |
201377
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete
|
Discrete
|
Discrete in science is the opposite of continuous: something that is separate; distinct; individual.
Discrete may refer to:
Discrete particle or quantum in physics, for example in quantum theory
Discrete device, an electronic component with just one circuit element, either passive or active, other than an integrated circuit
Discrete group, a group with the discrete topology
Discrete category, category whose only arrows are identity arrows
Discrete mathematics, the study of structures without continuity
Discrete optimization, a branch of optimization in applied mathematics and computer science
Discrete probability distribution, a random variable that can be counted
Discrete signal, a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities
Discrete space, a simple example of a topological space
Discrete spline interpolation, the discrete analog of ordinary spline interpolation
Discrete time, non-continuous time, which results in discrete-time samples
Discrete pitch, a pitch with a steady frequency, rather than an indiscrete gliding, glissando or portamento, pitch
|
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201387
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bud%C5%8D
|
Budō
|
is a Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. Literally translated it means the "Martial Way", and may be thought of as the "Way of War" or the "Way of Martial Arts".
Etymology
Budō is a compound of the root bu (武:ぶ), meaning "war" or "martial"; and dō (道:どう; dào in Chinese), meaning "path" or "way" (including the ancient Indic Dharmic and Buddhist conception of "path", or mārga in Sanskrit).
Budō is the idea of formulating propositions, subjecting them to philosophical critique and then following a "path" to realize them. Dō signifies a "way of life". Dō in the Japanese context is an experiential term in the sense that practice (the way of life) is the norm to verify the validity of the discipline cultivated through a given art form. Modern budō has no external enemy, only the internal one: my ego that must be fought.
Similarly to budō, bujutsu is a compound of the roots bu (武), and jutsu (術:じゅつ), meaning technique. Thus, budō is translated as "martial way", or "the way of war" while bujutsu is translated as "science of war" or "martial craft." However, both budō and bujutsu are used interchangeably in English with the term "martial arts". Budo and bujutsu have quite a delicate difference; whereas bujutsu only gives attention to the physical part of fighting (how to best defeat an enemy), budo also gives attention to the mind and how one should develop oneself.
The first significant occurrences of the word Budō date back to the Kōyō Gunkan (16th century) and were used to describe the samurai lifestyle rather than the practice of martial techniques. The word was later re-theorized and redefined to the definition we know today. First by Nishikubo Hiromichi and the Dai Nippon Butokukai when the name of their vocational school for martial arts was changed from bujutsu senmon gakkō to budō senmon gakkō. And later by Jigoro Kano, judo's founder, when he chose to name his art judo instead of jujutsu.
Typical budo styles
Aikido
Iaido
Jodo
Judo
Jujutsu
Karate
Kendo
Kyūdō
Shōrinji kempō
Sumo
Bujutsu
In modern history usage, bujutsu translates as martial art, military science, or military strategy depending on context, and is typified by its practical application of technique to real-world or battlefield situations. Budō, meaning martial way, has a more philosophical emphasis, but in actual usage, budo is considered the general term for all martial arts in Japan.
Civilian vs. military
Many consider budō a more civilian form of martial arts, as an interpretation or evolution of the older bujutsu, which they categorize as a more militaristic style or strategy. According to this distinction, the modern civilian art de-emphasizes practicality and effectiveness in favor of personal development from a fitness or spiritual perspective. The difference is between the more "civilian" versus "military" aspects of combat and personal development. They see budō moussarra and bujutsu as representing a particular strategy or philosophy regarding combat systems, but still, the terms are rather loosely applied and often interchangeable.
Art vs. lifestyle
One view is that a bujutsu is the martial art you practice, whereas a budo is the lifestyle you live and the path you walk by practicing a bujutsu. For example, one could say that Judo and Jujutsu practised as a martial art are one and the same, meaning that the practice of the art Jujutsu leads to obtaining the lifestyle of Judo (Judo was originally known as Kano Jujutsu, after Judo's founder Kano Jigoro). That would also be true for arts such as kenjutsu/kendo and iaijutsu/iaido.
Recreational sport
Budō was featured in the Summer Olympic Games demonstration programme in 1964.
References
External links
Archives of Budo
Japanese martial arts
|
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201396
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery%20loop
|
Artillery loop
|
The artillery loop is a knot with a loop on the bight for non-critical purposes. The artillery loop must have the loop loaded or it will slip and contract easily. It is an inferior knot to the alpine butterfly knot, possibly dangerously so, in that it can be yanked out of shape and turn into a running knot or noose.
Budworth states that this knot is often described as being best suited to take a load on only one of the ends, but reliable information on which end is difficult to find.
Tying the knot
Usage
The name harness loop derives from the fact that the knot was used when assisting horses on difficult terrain. Similarly, the name artillery loop or artilleryman's hitch derives from the fact that it was used when hauling field artillery into position.
See also
Harness bend
List of knots
Notes and references
External links
Artillery Loop
|
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201399
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taibhdhearc%20na%20Gaillimhe
|
Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe
|
An Taibhdhearc is the national Irish language theatre of Ireland. It was founded in 1928.
The word taibhdhearc appears as a gloss for the Latin teatrum (theatre) in an old Irish document, derived from roots meaning "dream" and "glance." The modern Irish for a theatre is amharclann.
An Taibhdhearc is situated at 19 Middle Street, within the medieval city of Galway. It is built on the ruins of the city's original Augustinian friary. The rear wall incorporates a wall from this friary, including some carved stone window frames.
The theatre is used for drama and music productions, and occasionally screens international films. The busiest period for the arts in Galway city each year is the two weeks of the annual Galway International Arts Festival.
Hiatus
After suffering extensive smoke damage during a fire in 2007, An Taibhdhearc closed its doors for an extended period of renovation and refurbishment. While the theatre was closed, An Taibhdhearc continued to produce shows in other venues around Galway city and county. The theatre was re-opened by President of Ireland, Michael D Higgins, at a gala event in September 2012.
See also
Amharclann Ghaoth Dobhair
Bailte Seirbhísí Gaeltachta
Coiste Cearta Síbialta na Gaeilge
Gaeltacht
Irish language
Líonraí Gaeilge
Údarás na Gaeltachta
References
External links
Official Website
Buildings and structures in Galway (city)
Culture in Galway (city)
Irish language
Theatres in the Republic of Ireland
Tourist attractions in Galway (city)
National theatres
Minority-language theatre
|
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201400
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu%20calendar
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Hindu calendar
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The Hindu calendar, Panchanga (Sanskrit: पञ्चाङ्ग, Marathi: पंचांग) or Panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, however also differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka found in the Deccan region of Southern India, Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal, North and Central regions of India – all of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Tamil Calendar (Though Tamil Calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and Malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam (पञ्चाङ्ग), which is known also known as Panjika in Eastern India.
The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month by complex rules, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the Hindus all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient Jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.
The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system as well as observing special appearance days of the Lord and fasting days such as Ekadasi.
Origins
The Vedic culture developed a sophisticated time keeping methodology and calendars for Vedic rituals, and timekeeping as well as the nature of solar and moon movements are mentioned in Vedic texts. For example, Kaushitaki Brahmana chapter 19.3 mentions the shift in the relative location of the sun towards north for 6 months, and south for 6 months.
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals. This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Vedic Sanatan Sanskriti.
Yukio Ohashi states that this Vedanga field developed from actual astronomical studies in ancient Vedic Period. The texts of Vedic Jyotisha sciences were translated into the Chinese language in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, and the Rigvedic passages on astronomy are found in the works of Zhu Jiangyan and Zhi Qian. According to Subhash Kak, the beginning of the Hindu calendar was much earlier. He cites Greek historians describing Maurya kings referring to a calendar which originated in 6676 BCE known as Saptarsi calendar.
The Vikrami calendar is named after king Vikramaditya and starts in 57 BCE.
Texts
Hindu scholars kept precise time by observing and calculating the cycles of Surya (the sun), moon and the planets. These calculations about the sun appear in various astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th-century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata, the 6th-century Romaka by Latadeva and Panca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th-century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th-century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla. These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been completed sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various deified planets with stories behind them.
The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions. They present Surya, planet-based calculations and Surya's relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. For example, the 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars calculated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:
The Hindu texts used the lunar cycle for setting months and days, but the solar cycle to set the complete year. This system is similar to the Jewish and Babylonian ancient calendars, creating the same challenge of accounting for the mismatch between the nearly 354 lunar days in twelve months, versus over 365 solar days in a year. They tracked the solar year by observing the entrance and departure of Surya (sun, at sunrise and sunset) in the constellation formed by stars in the sky, which they divided into 12 intervals of 30 degrees each. Like other ancient human cultures, Hindus innovated a number of systems of which intercalary months became most used, that is adding another month every 32.5 months on average. As their calendar keeping and astronomical observations became more sophisticated, the Hindu calendar became more sophisticated with complex rules and greater accuracy.
According to Scott Montgomery, the Siddhanta tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars predate the Christian era, once had 18 texts of which only 5 have survived into the modern era. These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of sun, moon and planets, to predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set, with corrections for prograde, retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted to calculate their time to the accuracy of a truti (29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of accurate tracking of relative movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, they had computed the mean diameter of the earth, which was very close to the actual 12,742 km (7,918 mi).
Hindu calendars were refined during the Gupta era astronomy by Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira in the 5th to 6th century. These, in turn, were based in the astronomical tradition of Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa, which in the preceding centuries had been standardised in a number of (non-extant) works known as Sūrya Siddhānta. Regional diversification took place in the medieval period. The astronomical foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by Bhāskara II (12th century).
Astrology
Later, the term Jyotisha evolved to include Hindu astrology. The astrological application of the Hindu calendar was a field that likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, because their zodiac signs are nearly identical.
The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Later medieval era texts such as the Yavana-jataka and the Siddhanta texts are more astrology-related.
Balinese Hindu calendar
Hinduism and Buddhism were the prominent religions of southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, prior to the Islamic conquest that started in the 14th century. The Hindus prevailed in Bali, Indonesia, and they have two types of Hindu calendar. One is a 210-day based Pawukon calendar which likely is a pre-Hindu system, and another is similar to lunisolar calendar system found in South India and it is called the Balinese saka calendar which uses Hindu methodology. The names of month and festivals of Balinese Hindus, for the most part, are different, though the significance and legends have some overlap.
Astronomical basis
The Hindu calendar is based on a geocentric model of the solar system. A large part of this calendar is defined based on the movement of the sun and the moon around the earth (saura māna and cāndra māna respectively). Furthermore, it includes synodic, sidereal, and tropical elements. Many variants of the Hindu calendar have been created by including and excluding these elements (solar, lunar, lunisolar etc.) and are in use in different parts of India.
Year: Samvat
Samvat refers to era of the several Hindu calendar systems in Nepal and India, in a similar manner to the Christian era. There are several samvat found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts and epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 AD.
Vikram Samvat (Bikram Sambat): A northern Indian almanac which started in 57 BCE, and is also called the Vikrama Era. It is related to the Bikrami calendar, and is apocryphally linked to Vikramaditya. The year starts from the month of Baishakh / Vaishakha. This system is common in epigraphic evidence from northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent, particularly after the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.
Shaka Samvat: There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called Old Shaka Era, whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu inscriptions and texts use it. However, the starting point of Old Shaka Era is a subject of dispute among scholars. The second system is called Saka Era of 78 AD, or simply Saka Era, a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India.
Saka era of Southeast Asia: The Hindu calendar system in Indonesia is attributed to the legend of Hindus arriving with a sage Aji Saka in 1st-century Java, in March 78 CE. Numerous ancient and medieval era texts and inscriptions found in Indonesian islands use this reference year. In mainland southeast Asia, the earliest verifiable use of Hindu Saka methodology in inscriptions is marked Saka 533 in Ankor Borei, which corresponds to 611 CE, while the Kedukan Bukit inscription in Sumatra, containing three dates in Saka 604 (682 CE), is the earliest known use of the Shaka era in the Indonesian islands. However, these inscriptions only set the floruit for the use of the Shaka era in these places, and the Hindu calendar likely existed in southeast Asia before these dates to be used in important monuments. Further, the Hindu calendar system remained popular among the Hindus through to the 15th century, and thereafter in Bali.
Indian national calendar (modern): combines many Hindu calendars into one official standardized one, but old ones remain in use.
Months
Solar month and seasons
The Hindu calendar divides the zodiac into twelve division called rāśi. The time taken by the Sun to transit through a rāśi is a solar month whose name is identical to the name of the rāśi. In practice, solar months are mostly referred as rāśi (not months).
The solar months are named differently in different regional calendars. While the Malayalam calendar broadly retains the phonetic Sanskrit names, the Bengali and Tamil calendars repurpose the Sanskrit lunar month names (Chaitra, Vaishaka etc.) as follows:
The Tamil calendar replaces Mesha, Vrisha etc. with Chithirai, Vaigasi etc.
The Bengali calendar is similar to the Tamil calendar except in that it starts the year with Boiśākh (instead of Choitrô), followed by Jyoisthô etc. The Assamese and Odia calendars too are structured the same way.
The solar months (rāśi) along with their equivalent names in the Bangali, Malayalam and Tamil calendar are given below:
The solar months (rāśi) along with the approximate correspondence to Hindu seasons and Gregorian months are:
The names of the solar months are also used in the Darian calendar for the planet Mars.
Lunar months
Lunar months are defined based on lunar cycles, i.e. the regular occurrence of new moon and full moon and the intervening waxing and waning phases of the moon.
Paksha
A lunar month contains two fortnights called pakṣa (पक्ष, literally "side"). One fortnight is the bright, waxing half where the moon size grows and it ends in the full moon. This is called "Gaura Paksha" or Shukla Paksha. The other half is the darkening, waning fortnight which ends in the new moon. This is called "Vadhya Paksha" or Krishna Paksha. The Hindu festivals typically are either on or the day after the full moon night or the darkest night (amavasya, अमावास्या), except for some associated with Krishna, Durga or Rama. The lunar months of the hot summer and the busy major cropping-related part of the monsoon season typically do not schedule major festivals.
Amanta and Purnimanta systems
Two traditions have been followed in the Indian subcontinent with respect to lunar months: Amanta tradition which ends the lunar month on no moon day, while Purnimanta tradition which ends it on full moon day. As a consequence, in the Amanta tradition, in a month, Shukla paksha precedes Krishna paksha whereas in the Purnimanta tradition Krishna paksha precedes Shukla paksha. As a result, a Shukla paksha will belong to the same month in both traditions, whereas a Krishna paksha will be associated with different (but succeeding) months in each tradition.
The Amanta (Amavasyanta, Mukhyamana) tradition is followed by most Indian states that have a peninsular coastline (except Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala which follow the solar months). The states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Most Indian states north of the Vindhya mountains follow the Purnimanta (Gaunamana) tradition.
Purnimanta tradition was being followed in the Vedic era. It was replaced with Amanta system and in use as the Hindu calendar system prior to 1st century BCE, but the Purnimanta tradition was restarted in 57 BCE by Vikramaditya who wanted to return to the Vedic roots. The presence of this system is one of the factors considered in dating ancient Indian manuscripts and epigraphical evidence that have survived into the modern era.
The two traditions of Amanta and Purnimanta system has led to alternate ways of dating any festival or event that occurs in Krishna paksha in the historic Hindu, Buddhist or Jain literature, and contemporary regional literature or festival calendars. For example, the Hindu festival of Maha Shivaratri falls on the fourteenth lunar day of Magha lunar month's dark fortnight in the Amanta system, while the same exact day is expressed in the Purnimanta system as the fourteenth lunar day of Phalguna lunar months' dark fortnight. Both time measuring and dating systems are equivalent ways of meaning the same thing, they continue to be in use in different regions, though the Purnimanta system is now typically assumed as implied in modern Indology literature if not otherwise specified.
List of Lunar Months
names of the Hindu months vary by region. Those Hindu calendars which are based on lunar cycle are generally phonetic variants of each other, while the solar cycle are generally variants of each other too, suggesting that the timekeeping knowledge travelled widely across the Indian subcontinent in ancient times.
During each lunar month, the Sun transits into a sign of the zodicac (sankranti). The lunar month in which the Sun transits into Mesha is named Chaitra and designated as the first month of the lunar year.
A few major calendars are summarized below:
Corrections between lunar and solar months
Twelve Hindu mas (māsa, lunar month) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the length of a sidereal (solar) year is about 365 days. This creates a difference of about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53/10.63) = 2.71 years, or approximately every 32.5 months. Purushottam Maas or Adhik Maas is an extra month that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned. The twelve months are subdivided into six lunar seasons timed with the agriculture cycles, blooming of natural flowers, fall of leaves, and weather. To account for the mismatch between lunar and solar calendar, the Hindu scholars adopted intercalary months, where a particular month just repeated. The choice of this month was not random, but timed to sync back the two calendars to the cycle of agriculture and nature.
The repetition of a month created the problem of scheduling festivals, weddings and other social events without repetition and confusion. This was resolved by declaring one month as Shudha (pure, clean, regular, proper, also called Deva month) and the other Mala or Adhika (extra, unclean and inauspicious, also called Asura masa).
The Hindu mathematicians who calculated the best way to adjust the two years, over long periods of a yuga (era, tables calculating 1000 of years), they determined that the best means to intercalate the months is to time the intercalary months on a 19-year cycle. This intercalation is generally adopted in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th and 19th year of this cycle. Further, the complex rules rule out the repetition of Mārgasirsa (also called Agrahayana), Pausha and Maagha lunar months. The historic Hindu texts are not consistent on these rules, with competing ideas flourishing in the Hindu culture.
Rare corrections
The Hindu calendar makes further rare adjustments, over a cycle of centuries, where a certain month is considered kshaya month (dropped). This occurs because of the complexity of the relative lunar, solar and earth movements. Underhill (1991) describes this part of Hindu calendar theory: "when the sun is in perigee, and a lunar month being at its longest, if the new moon immediately precedes a samkranti, then the first of the two lunar months is deleted (called nija or kshaya)." This, for example, happened in the year 1 BCE, when there was no new moon between Makara samkranti and Kumbha samkranti, and the month of Pausha was dropped.
Day
Just like months, the Hindu calendar has two measures of a day, one based on the lunar movement and the other on solar. The solar (saura) day or civil day, called divasa (), has been what most Hindus traditionally use, is easy and empirical to observe, with or without a clock, and it is defined as the period from one sunrise to another. The lunar day is called tithi (), and this is based on complicated measures of lunar movement. A lunar day or tithi may, for example, begin in the middle of an afternoon and end next afternoon. Both these days do not directly correspond to a mathematical measure for a day such as equal 24 hours of a solar year, a fact that the Hindu calendar scholars knew, but the system of divasa was convenient for the general population. The tithi have been the basis for timing rituals and festivals, while divasa for everyday use. The Hindu calendars adjust the mismatch in divasa and tithi, using a methodology similar to the solar and lunar months.
A tithi is technically defined in Vedic texts, states John E. Cort, as "the time required by the combined motions of the sun and moon to increase (in a bright fortnight) or decrease (in a dark fortnight) their relative distance by twelve degrees of the zodiac. These motions are measured using a fixed map of celestial zodiac as reference, and given the elliptical orbits, a duration of a tithi varies between 21.5 and 26 hours, states Cort. However, in the Indian tradition, the general population's practice has been to treat a tithi as a solar day between one sunrise to next.
A lunar month has 30 tithi. The technical standard makes each tithi contain different number of hours, but helps the overall integrity of the calendar. Given the variation in the length of a solar day with seasons, and moon's relative movements, the start and end time for tithi varies over the seasons and over the years, and the tithi adjusted to sync with divasa periodically with intercalation.
Weekday/Vāsara
Vāsara refers to the weekdays in Sanskrit. Also referred to as Vara and used as a suffix. The correspondence between the names of the week in Hindu and other Indo-European calendars are exact. This alignment of names probably took place sometime during the 3rd century CE. The weekday of a Hindu calendar has been symmetrically divided into 60 ghatika, each ghatika (24 minutes) is divided into 60 pala, each pala (24 seconds) is subdivided into 60 vipala, and so on.
The term -vāsara is often realised as vāra or vaar in Sanskrit-derived and influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.
Five limbs of time
The complete Vedic calendars contain five angas or parts of information: lunar day (tithi), solar day (diwas), asterism (naksatra), planetary joining (yoga) and astronomical period (karanam). This structure gives the calendar the name Panchangam. The first two are discussed above.
Yoga
The Sanskrit word Yoga means "union, joining, attachment", but in astronomical context, this word means latitudinal and longitudinal information. The longitude of the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means 1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are labelled:
Viṣkambha
Prīti
Āyuśmān
Saubhāgya
Śobhana
Atigaṇḍa
Sukarma
Dhrti
Śūla
Gaṇḍa
Vṛddhi
Dhruva
Vyāghatā
Harṣaṇa
Vajra
Siddhi
Vyatipāta
Variyas
Parigha
Śiva
Siddha
Sādhya
Śubha
Śukla
Brahma
Māhendra
Vaidhṛti
Again, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day is the prevailing yoga for the day.
Karaṇa
A karaṇa is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.)
Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4 "fixed" (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.
The 4
Śakuni (शकुनि)
Catuṣpāda (चतुष्पाद)
Nāga (नाग)
Kiṃstughna (किंस्तुघ्न)
The 7 "repeating" karaṇas are:
Vava or Bava (बव)
Valava or Bālava (बालव)
Kaulava (कौलव)
Taitila or Taitula (तैतिल)
Gara or Garaja (गरज)
Vaṇija (वणिज)
Viṣṭi (Bhadra) (भद्रा)
Now the first half of the 1st tithi (of Śukla Pakṣa) is always Kiṃtughna karaṇa. Hence this karaṇa is "fixed".
Next, the 7-repeating karaṇas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-tithis. Thus these are the "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.
The 3 remaining half-tithis take the remaining "fixed" karaṇas in order. Thus these are also "fixed" (sthira).
Thus one gets 60 karaṇas from those 11 preset karaṇas.
The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day.
(citation needed )
Nakshatra
Nakshatras are divisions of ecliptic, each 13° 20', starting from 0° Aries.
Festival calendar: Solar and Lunar dates
Many holidays in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions are based on the lunar cycles in the lunisolar timekeeping with foundations in the Hindu calendar system. A few holidays, however, are based on the solar cycle, such as the Vaisakhi, Pongal and those associated with Sankranti. The dates of the lunar cycle based festivals vary significantly on the Gregorian calendar and at times by several weeks.The solar cycle based ancient Hindu festivals almost always fall on the same Gregorian date every year and if they vary in an exceptional year, it is by one day.
Regional variants
The Hindu Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty well-developed calendars, in use across different parts of India.
Variants include the lunar emphasizing Vikrama, the Shalivahana calendars, as well as the solar emphasizing Tamil calendar and Malayalam calendar. The two calendars most widely used today are the Vikrama calendar, which is in followed in western and northern India and Nepal, the Shalivahana Shaka calendar which is followed in the Deccan region of India (Comprising present day Indian states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa).
Lunar
Calendars based on lunar cycle (lunar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates and new year):
Vikram Samvat
Vikrami era – North and Central India (Lunar)
Gujarati samvat – Gujarat, Rajasthan
Sindhi samvat – Sindhis
Shalivahana calendar (Shaka era) – Used in Deccan region states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Saptarishi era calendar – Kashmiri Pandits
Nepal Sambat – Newaris in Nepal, Sikkim
Meitei calendar – Manipur
Solar
Calendars based on solar cycle (solar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates but new year which falls on solar date – South and Southeast Asian solar New Year):
Assamese calendar – Assam
Bengali calendar – West Bengal
Odia calendar – Odisha
Tirhuta Panchang – Maithilis
Tripuri calendar – Tripura
Malayalam calendar – Kerala
Tamil calendar – Tamil Nadu
Tulu calendar – Tulus
Vikram Samvat
Punjabi calendar – Punjab, Haryana
Vikrami era – North and Central India (Solar)
Bikram Sambat – Nepal, Sikkim
Other related calendars across India and Asia
Indian national calendar – used by Indian Government (civil calendar based on solar months)
Vira Nirvana Samvat (Lunar) – Jain
Nanakshahi calendar (Solar) – Sikh
Buddhist calendar (Lunar) – Buddhist
Tibetan calendar (Lunar) – Tibet, Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
Pawukon calendar – Bali
Balinese saka calendar (Lunar) – Bali
Cham calendar (Lunar) – Chams
Chula Sakarat (Solar) – Myanmar
Thai solar calendar – Thailand
Thai lunar calendar – Thailand
Khmer calendar (Solar) – Cambodia
See also
Hinduism
Panjika
Sankranti
Ekadashi
Panchangam
Kollam era
Hindu astrology
Hindu units of time
Malayalam calendar
List of Hindu festivals
Hindu units of measurement
List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties
Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Reingold and Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition, Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004.
S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.
Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, The Paleography of India, 2 ed., Ajmer, 1918, reprinted Manshuram Manoharlal publishers, 1993.
External links
Hindu Calendar - thedivineindia.com
Kyoto University Gregorian – Saka – Vikrami Calendar Converter Tool, M. YANO and M. FUSHIMI
Converter: Gregorian and 1957 Normalized Indian Calendar, Shalivahana Hindu calendar, United Kingdom
Hindu Calendar of Nepal The Official Hindu Calendar of Nepal
Hindu Odia Calendar The most followed Hindu Odia Calendar of Odisha, India
Hindu Calendar 2020 Fasting Dates & Festivals for New Delhi, India
Accurate Hindu Calendar/Drik Panchang
Today Marathi Calendar current year
Indian Hindu Calendar 2020 in Hindi
Calendar
Calendar
Articles containing video clips
Time in India
Time in Hinduism
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201401
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%20River
|
Nelson River
|
The Nelson River is a river of north-central North America, in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The river drains Lake Winnipeg and runs before it ends in Hudson Bay. Its full length (including the Saskatchewan River and Bow River) is , it has mean discharge of , and has a drainage basin of , of which is in the United States.
Geography
The Nelson River flows into Playgreen Lake from Lake Winnipeg then flows from two channels into Cross Lake. The east channel and the Jack River flow from the southeast portion of the lake into Little Playgreen Lake then the Nelson east channel continues in a northerly direction passing through Pipestone Lake on its way to Cross Lake. The west channel flows out of the north ends of Playgreen Lake, Kiskittogisu Lake and Kiskitto Lake into Cross Lake at the Manitoba Hydro's Jenpeg Generating Station and Dam. From Cross Lake it flows through Sipiwesk Lake, Split Lake and Stephens Lake on its way to the Hudson Bay.
Since it drains Lake Winnipeg, it is the last part of the large Saskatchewan River system, as well as that of the Red River and Winnipeg River. Devils Lake is unusual for a glacial lake in being presently closed, also has been known to overflow into the Red River for at least five separate periods since deglaciation.
Besides Lake Winnipeg, its primary tributaries include the Grass River, which drains a long area north of Lake Winnipeg, and the Burntwood River, which passes through Thompson, Manitoba.
The river flows into Hudson Bay at Port Nelson (now a ghost town), just north of the Hayes River and York Factory. Other communities upriver from there include Bird, Sundance, Long Spruce, Gillam, Split Lake, Arnot, Cross Lake, and Norway House.
Transportation
North America has just one port on the Arctic Ocean, linked to the North American railway grid—at Churchill, Manitoba, at the mouth of the Churchill River.
Originally port facilities were to have been built at Port Nelson; original proposals for the Hudson's Bay rail link would have used that point as a terminus. Practical problems led to the port's relocation to Churchill. Those difficulties included a much greater need for dredging, because the Nelson River's water was more full of silt, in absolute terms, and carried more silt because of its greater volume of flow. The Nelson estuary is broad and shallow, so port facilities would have to be constructed on artificial islands created in the middle of the river, that would require a causeway approximately a kilometre long to reach.
History
The river was named by Sir Thomas Button, a Welsh explorer from St. Lythans, Glamorganshire, who wintered at its mouth in 1612, after Robert Nelson, a ship's master who died there. At that time, the Cree people who lived along its banks called it Powinigow or Powinini-gow, which may have meant "the Rapid Strangers' river". The area was fought over for the fur trade, though the Hayes River, whose mouth is near the Nelson's, became the main route inland.
Fort Nelson (1670–1713), a historic Hudson's Bay Company trading post, was built at the mouth of the Nelson River at Hudson Bay and was a key trading post in the early 18th century. After his pivotal role in establishing the Hudson's Bay Company, Pierre Esprit Radisson, noted French explorer, was chief director of trade at Fort Nelson during one of his sustained periods of service to England. Today, Fort Nelson no longer exists. Port Nelson, the abandoned shipping port, remains on the opposite side of the river mouth on Hudson Bay.
The Nelson River's huge volume and long drop make it useful for generating hydroelectricity. Flooding caused by damming of the river has provoked bitter disputes with First Nations in the past although the Northern Flood Agreement was created in the 1970s to help offset the damages caused by flooding.
See also
List of longest rivers of Canada
Nelson River Hydroelectric Project
List of Manitoba rivers
Manitoba Hydro
Nelson River Bipole
References
External links
Information and a map of the Nelson's watershed
Rivers of Northern Manitoba
Tributaries of Hudson Bay
|
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] |
201405
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars%20Amble
|
Lars Amble
|
Lars Anders Amble-Næss (10 August 1939 – 20 August 2015) was a Swedish actor and director. Amble was the son of Leif Amble-Næss and Maritta Marke. After finishing theater school in Stockholm, which he attended from 1963 to 1965, he was hired by the Royal Dramatic Theater until 1969, after which he has played parts in various theater plays, musicals, TV shows and movies.
From 1986 to 1994 he was artistic director for the Maxim theater in Stockholm.
He died of cancer one week and three days after his 76th birthday.
Selected filmography
Heja Roland! (1966)
The Corridor (1968)
Father to Be (1979)
Illusive Tracks (2003)
References
External links
1939 births
2015 deaths
Male actors from Stockholm
Swedish theatre directors
Litteris et Artibus recipients
Deaths from cancer in Sweden
|
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] |
201406
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro%20Gonz%C3%A1lez%20Malav%C3%A9
|
Alejandro González Malavé
|
Alejandro González Malavé (May 20, 1957 in San Juan, Puerto Rico-April 29, 1986 in Bayamón, Puerto Rico) was a Puerto Rican undercover agent who gained infamy with the Cerro Maravilla case scandal. In 1973, still a High School student, Malavé was recruited as an undercover agent.
González, an outspoken university political leader, graduated as a police officer in 1979, the same year he went to work undercover. He infiltrated an organization of radical pro independence students and was the driver when Carlos Soto Arriví and Arnaldo Darío Rosado were murdered during a police set up at Cerro Maravilla.
When the Cerro Maravilla inquest was televised all over Puerto Rico González, one of the accused, gained wide fame all across the island. His face became a common sight on Puerto Rican newspaper covers, and he received constant air time on television, because he had to take the stand many times during the trial. Although the scandal played a role in squashing the reelection plans of Governor Carlos Romero Barceló, the alleged conspiracy was never proven. González was tried, but acquitted on all charges.
On the evening of April 29, 1986, just two months after his acquittal, González was assassinated in front of his mother's house in Bayamón. He received three gunshot wounds while his mother was slightly injured. A few hours later, a group calling itself the "Volunteer Organization for the Revolution" called local news agencies claiming responsibility. In their statements they swore to kill, "one by one", all the police officers involved in the deaths in Cerro Maravilla.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
References
1958 births
1986 deaths
1986 murders in the United States
1986 crimes in Puerto Rico
1980s murders in Puerto Rico
Deaths by firearm in Puerto Rico
People from San Juan, Puerto Rico
People murdered in Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican law enforcement personnel
Puerto Rican police officers
|
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] |
201409
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill%20River
|
Churchill River
|
Churchill River may refer to one of two rivers in Canada:
Churchill River (Hudson Bay), which runs through Saskatchewan and Manitoba and drains into Hudson Bay
Little Churchill River, in Manitoba and a tributary of the Churchill River
Churchill River (Atlantic), which drains the Smallwood Reservoir in Labrador into the Atlantic Ocean via Lake Melville
|
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] |
201410
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WetaFX
|
WetaFX
|
Weta FX (formerly known as Weta Digital) is a digital visual effects company based in Wellington, New Zealand. It was founded by Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, and Jamie Selkirk in 1993 to produce the digital special effects for Heavenly Creatures. The company went on to produce some of the highest-grossing films ever made, such as the Lord of the Rings trilogy and Avatar. Considered one of the most influential film companies of the 21st century, Weta Digital has won several Academy Awards and BAFTAs.
Weta Digital is run by CEO Prem Akkaraju and is part of a number of Peter Jackson's co-owned companies in Wellington which includes Weta Productions and Park Road Post Production.
The company is named after the New Zealand wētā, one of the world's largest insects, which is also featured in the logo.
History
As of 2017, Weta Digital has won six Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects: The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003), King Kong (2005), Avatar (2009), and The Jungle Book (2016).
Weta Digital has developed several proprietary software packages to achieve groundbreaking visual effects. The scale of the battles required for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy led to the creation of MASSIVE, a program which can animate huge numbers of agents: independent characters acting according to pre-set rules. To recreate 1933 New York for King Kong, Weta created CityBot, an application which could "build" the city on a shot by shot basis.
Kong's fur also required the development of new simulation and modeling software. A set of tools that combined procedural and interactive techniques added wind to the 460 billion individual strands of fur and modeled interaction with other surfaces. New shaders were written that accounted for the scattering of light from within each hair that added to the volumetric quality of the fur. Large chunks of fur were ripped out and filled in with scars, blood, and the mud of Skull Island. Each frame of fur took 2 gigabytes of data.
For James Cameron's Avatar, Weta modified MASSIVE to give life to the flora and fauna on Pandora, for which the company did most of the visual effects with the four-time Academy Award winner visual effects expert, Joe Letteri, under a team led by executive and producer Eileen Moran.
In 2010, a texture painting application developed by Weta for Avatar called Mari has been bought by The Foundry Visionmongers.
For The Adventures of Tintin and Rise of the Planet of the Apes, Weta developed a new grooming system called Barbershop where users can interactively manipulate digital hair. This tool received a Sci-tech award in 2015.
Recently the company has developed their motion capture technique to be able to leave studio for shooting on location, as utilized on the film Rise of the Planet of the Apes and its sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes.
On June 19, 2020, Weta Digital announced that it would be producing original animation content under the name Weta Animated, was getting a Multi-year Production Deal with Sony Pictures Animation. The company also announced a new chief executive Prem Akkaraju, who comes from Los Angeles.
In December 2020, Weta Digital CEO Prem Akkaraju announced additional board members including Tom Staggs, Jeff Huber and Ken Kamins. They join current board members Peter Jackson, Fran Walsh, Sean Parker, Prem Akkaraju and Joe Letteri.
On June 17, 2021, Weta Digital announced they have partnered with Autodesk to productize Weta's proprietary tools based in Autodesk Maya for a cloud service called WetaM. It will first be released in Q4 as a private beta.
On August 23, 2021, Weta announced a collaboration with SideFX for a cloud service combining Weta's proprietary tools within SideFX's Houdini (software) called WetaH.
On November 9, 2021, Jackson sold the company's VFX tools development division to video games software company Unity Technologies for US$1.62 billion.
Workplace culture
Beginning in June 2020, an investigative project by Kiwi public TV broadcaster 1 News into Wētā's workplace culture following a social media posting by former Wētā Workshop employee Layna Lazar later resulted in more than 40 current and former Weta Digital employees anonymously sharing accounts of "sexism, bullying and harassment" in September 2020.
In their testimonies, workers identified the existence of a male-only pornographic mailing list called "Caveman", which originated in 2002 following a company-wide tradition known as Porn Friday, and continued to circulate until 2015. Several reports also alleged that the company's IT systems required upgrades in order to accommodate the volume of pornographic content hosted on the company intranet, in addition to numerous allegations of sexual harassment, bullying, intimidation, misogyny and homophobia.
In response to these allegations, Weta owners, including Peter Jackson, Fran Walsh, and chief executive officer Prem Akkaraju, commissioned an independent review from barrister Miriam Dean, who stated in her report that she received 80 complaints of bullying behavior, 120 complaints of inappropriate conduct and 19 complaints of sexual harassment from amongst the company's 1,500 employees. Dean put forward 17 recommendations for internal reform, including the establishment of a code of conduct, restricting the executive team, expanding the diversity and inclusion program, and reviewing the company's pay structure. Her review also stipulated that the existing management systems were not sufficient to protect workers "from bullying, sexual harassment, sex discrimination and other inappropriate conduct".
Film
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Upcoming
Television
Upcoming
See also
Wētā Workshop
Industrial Light & Magic
Moving Picture Company (MPC)
Animal Logic
Blue Sky Studios
Pacific Data Images
Framestore
Digital Domain
DNEG
Sony Pictures Imageworks
Rhythm & Hues
Image Engine
Visual Works
References
External links
Massive
Official Facebook page
New Zealand animation studios
Film production companies of New Zealand
Visual effects companies
Wellington City
Companies based in Wellington
Mass media in Wellington
New Zealand companies established in 1993
2021 mergers and acquisitions
Mass media companies established in 1993
|
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201415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus%20robur
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Quercus robur
|
Quercus robur, commonly known as common oak, pedunculate oak, European oak or English oak, is a species of flowering plant in the beech and oak family, Fagaceae. It is native to most of Europe west of the Caucasus. The tree is widely cultivated in temperate regions and has escaped into the wild in scattered parts of China and North America.
Taxonomy
Quercus robur (Latin quercus, "oak" + robur "strength, hard timber") is the type species of the genus (the species by which the oak genus Quercus is defined), and a member of the white oak section (Quercus section Quercus). The populations in Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor and the Caucasus are sometimes treated as separate species, Q. brutia Tenore, Q. pedunculiflora K. Koch and Q. haas Kotschy respectively.
A close relative is the sessile oak (Q. petraea), which shares much of its range. Q. robur is distinguished from this species by its leaves having only a very short stalk (petiole) long, and by its pedunculate (stalked) acorns. The two often hybridise in the wild, the hybrid being known as Quercus × rosacea.
Quercus robur should not be confused with Q. rubra, the red oak, which is a native of North America and only distantly related.
Description
Quercus robur is a large deciduous tree, with circumference of grand oaks from to exceptional . The Majesty Oak with a circumference of is the thickest tree in Great Britain, and the Kaive Oak in Latvia with a circumference of is the thickest tree in Northern Europe. Quercus robur has lobed and nearly sessile (very short-stalked) leaves long. Flowering takes place in mid spring, and the fruit, called acorns, ripen by mid autumn. The acorns are long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk, long) with one to four acorns on each peduncle.
Quercus robur is very tolerant to soil conditions and the continental climate but it prefers fertile and well-watered soils. Mature trees tolerate flooding.
It is a long-lived tree, with a large wide spreading crown of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are pollarded or coppiced, both pruning techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health. Two individuals of notable longevity are the Stelmužė Oak in Lithuania and the Granit Oak in Bulgaria, which are believed to be more than 1500 years old, possibly making them the oldest oaks in Europe; another specimen, called the 'Kongeegen' ('Kings Oak'), estimated to be about 1200 years old, grows in Jaegerspris, Denmark. Yet another can be found in Kvilleken, Sweden, that is over 1000 years old and around. Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of Ivenack, Germany. Tree-ring research of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years. Also the Bowthorpe Oak in Lincolnshire, England is estimated to be 1000 years old, making it the oldest in the UK, although there is Knightwood Oak in the New Forest that is also said to be as old. The highest density of Q. robur with a circumference of and more is in Latvia.
Ecological importance
Within its native range Q. robur is valued for its importance to insects and other wildlife. Numerous insects live on the leaves, buds, and in the acorns. Q. robur supports the highest biodiversity of insect herbivores of any British plant (>400 spp) and the quantity of caterpiller species increases with their age. Blue and great tits time their egg hatching to the leaves opening.
The acorns form a valuable food resource for several small mammals and some birds, notably Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius. Jays were overwhelmingly the primary propagators of oaks before humans began planting them commercially (and still remain the principal propagators for wild oaks), because of their habit of taking acorns from the umbra of its parent tree and burying them undamaged elsewhere. Mammals, notably squirrels who tend to hoard acorns and other nuts usually leave them too abused to grow in the action of moving or storing them.
Commercial forestry
Quercus robur is planted for forestry, and produces a long-lasting and durable heartwood, much in demand for interior and furniture work. The wood of Q. robur is identified by a close examination of a cross-section perpendicular to fibres. The wood is characterised by its distinct (often wide) dark and light brown growth rings. The earlywood displays a vast number of large vessels (around in diameter). There are rays of thin (about ) yellow or light brown lines running across the growth rings. The timber is around per cubic meter in density.
Cultivation
A number of cultivars are grown in gardens and parks and in arboreta and botanical gardens. The most common cultivar is Quercus robur 'Fastigiata', and is the exception among Q. robur cultivars that are generally smaller than the standard tree, growing to between and exhibit unusual leaf or crown shape characteristics.
In Australia
English oak is one of the most common park trees in south-eastern Australia, noted for its vigorous, luxuriant growth. In Australia, it grows very quickly to a tree of tall by up to broad, with a low-branching canopy. Its trunk and secondary branches are very thick and solid and covered with deep-fissured blackish-grey bark.
The largest example in Australia is in Donnybrook, Western Australia.
Cultivars
Quercus robur 'Fastigiata' ("cypress oak"), probably the most common cultivated form , it grows to a large imposing tree with a narrow columnar habit. The fastigiate oak was originally propagated from an upright tree that was found in central Europe.
Quercus robur 'Concordia' ("golden oak"), a small very slow-growing tree, eventually reaching , with bright golden-yellow leaves throughout spring and summer. It was originally raised in Van Geert's nursery at Ghent in 1843.
Quercus robur 'Pendula' ("weeping oak"), a small to medium-sized tree with pendulous branches, reaching up to 15 m.
Quercus robur 'Purpurea' is another cultivar growing to , but with purple coloured leaves.
Quercus robur 'Filicifolia' ("cut-leaved oak") is a cultivar where the leaf is pinnately divided into fine forward pointing segments.
Hybrids
Along with the naturally occurring Q. × rosacea, several hybrids with other white oak species have also been produced in cultivation, including Turner's Oak Q. × turneri, Heritage Oak Q. × macdanielli, and Two Worlds Oak Q. × bimundorum, the latter two developed by nurseries in the United States.
Q. × bimundorum (Q. alba × Q. robur) (two worlds oak)
Q. × macdanielli (Q. macrocarpa × Q. robur) (heritage oak)
Q. × rosacea Bechst. (Q. petraea x Q. robur), a hybrid of the sessile oak and English oak. It is usually of intermediate character between its parents, however it does occasionally exhibit more pronounced characteristics of one or the other parent.
Q. × turneri Willd. (Q. ilex × Q. robur) (Turner's oak), a semi-evergreen tree of small to medium size with a rounded crown; it was originally raised at the Holloway Down Nursery of Spencer Turner, Leyton, Essex, UK, noted by the zoologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at Trianon, Versailles in 1783, as the chêne de turnère. (Turner had died in January 1776, and the nursery grounds, on extended lease, returned to the landowner.) An early specimen was planted at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in 1798; it was uprooted in the Great Storm of 1987 but resettled in the ground and then increased its healthy growth.
Q. × warei (Q. robur fastigiata x Q. bicolor), a hybrid between upright English oak and the swamp white oak. The selections within this hybrid include 'Long' () and 'Nadler' ().
Diseases
Acute oak decline
Powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe alphitoides
Sudden oak death
Symbolism
Basque Country
In the Basque Country (Spain and France) the oak symbolises the traditional Basque liberties. This is based on the 'tree of Gernika', an ancient oak tree located in Gernika, below which since at least the 13th century the Lords of Biscay first, and afterwards their successors the Kings of Castile and the Kings of Spain solemnly swore to uphold the charter of Biscay, which secured widespread rights to the inhabitants of Biscay. Since the 14th century, the Juntas Generales (the parliament of Biscay) gathers in a building next to the oak tree, and symbolically passes its laws under the tree as well. Nowadays, the Lehendakari (Basque prime minister) swears his oath of office under the tree.
Bulgaria
The national coat of arms of Bulgaria includes two crossed oak branches with fruits - as shield (escutcheon) compartment.
Croatia
Oak leaves with acorns are depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 lipa coin, minted since 1993. The pedunculate oak of the Croatian region of Slavonia (considered a separate subspecies - Slavonian oak) is a regional symbol of Slavonia and a national symbol of Croatia.
France
The oak tree has had a symbolic value since Ancient times. Some oaks were considered sacred trees by the Gauls. The druids would cut down the mistletoe growing on them. Even after Christianization, oak trees were considered to protect as lightning would fall on them rather than on nearby inhabitation. Such struck trees would often be turned into places of worship, like the Chêne chapelle. King Saint Louis has been represented rendering justice under an oak tree. During the French Revolution, oaks were often planted as trees of Freedom (fr). One of such trees, an oak planted during the 1848 Revolution, survived the destruction of Oradour-sur-Glane by the Nazis. The branch of oak is part of the National emblem of France. After the announcement of General Charles de Gaulle's death, caricaturist Jacques Faizant represented him as a fallen oak.
Germany
In Germany, the oak tree is used as a typical object and symbol in romanticism. It can be found in several paintings of Caspar David Friedrich and in "Of the life of a Good-For-Nothing" written by Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff as a symbol of the state protecting every citizen. In those works the oak is shown in different situations, with leaves and flowers or dead without any of its previous beauty. Those conditions are mostly symbols for the conditions Germany is in or going through. Furthermore, the oak's stem is a symbol for Germany's strength and stability. Oak branches were displayed on the reverse of coins of the old Deutsche Mark currency (1 through 10 Pfennigs; the 50 Pfennigs coin showed a woman planting an oak seedling), and are now also displayed on the reverse of German-issue Euro currency coins (1 through 5 cents).
Ireland
In Ireland, at Birr Castle, an example, over 400 years old has a girth of 6.5 m. It is known as the Carroll Oak, referring to the local Chieftains, Ely O'Carroll who ruled prior to Norman occupation.
Latvia
In Latvia oak is the national symbol. Many Latvian folk songs are about oak tree. Base of the coat of arms is decorated with the branches of an oak tree.
Romania
The Romanian Rugby Union side is known as The Oaks.
Scandinavia
In the Scandinavian countries, oaks were considered the "thunderstorm trees", which representing Thor, the god of thunder.
United Kingdom
In England, the English oak has assumed the status of a national emblem. This has its origins in the oak tree at Boscobel House, where the future King Charles II hid from his Parliamentarian pursuers in 1650 during the English Civil War; the tree has since been known as the Royal Oak. This event was celebrated nationally on 29 May as Oak Apple Day, which is continued to this day in some communities. 'The Royal Oak' is the third most popular pub name in Britain (541 in 2007) and has been the name of eight major Royal Navy warships. The naval associations are strengthened by the fact that oak was the main construction material for sailing warships. The Royal Navy was often described as 'The Wooden Walls of Old England' (a paraphrase of the Delphic Oracle) and the Navy’s official quick march is "Heart of Oak". In folklore, the Major Oak is where Robin Hood is purportedly to have taken shelter. Furthermore, the oak is the most common woodland tree in England. An oak tree has been depicted on the reverse of the pound coin (the 1987 and 1992 issues) and a sprig of oak leaves and acorns is the emblem of the National Trust.
Chemistry
Grandinin/roburin E, castalagin/vescalagin, gallic acid, monogalloyl glucose (glucogallin) and valoneic acid dilactone, monogalloyl glucose, digalloyl glucose, trigalloyl glucose, rhamnose, quercitrin and ellagic acid are phenolic compounds found in Q. robur. The heartwood contains triterpene saponins.
Genetics
The genome of Q. robur has been completely sequenced (GenOak project); a first version was published in 2016. It comprises 12 chromosomes pairs, about genes and 750 million bp. This is roughly a quarter of the size of the human genome, which has about 3 billion base pairs.
See also
Knopper gall
Oak for uses and cultural significance.
Oak marble gall
Gernika Oak
References
Flora Europaea: Quercus robur
Bean, W. J. (1976). Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles 8th ed., revised. John Murray.
Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins .
Chênes: Quercus robur
External links
Oaks from Bialowieza Forest in Poland (biggest oak cluster with the monumental sizes in Europe) {English}
Monumental Trees, Photos and location details of large English oak trees
Latvia - the land of oaks
Den virtuella floran - Distribution
Quercus robur - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN)
robur
Trees of Africa
Trees of Europe
Trees of Western Asia
Flora of North Africa
Trees of humid continental climate
Trees of mild maritime climate
Least concern plants
Least concern biota of Europe
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Garden plants of Europe
Ornamental trees
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