id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
list |
|---|---|---|---|---|
203556
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20Spain
|
Prime Minister of Spain
|
The president of the Government of Spain (), commonly referred to in Spain as Presidente del Gobierno, and known in English as the prime minister of Spain, is the head of government of Spain. The office was established in its current form by the Constitution of 1978 and it was first regulated in 1823 as a chairmanship of the extant Council of Ministers, although it is not possible to determine when it actually originated.
Upon a vacancy, the Spanish monarch nominates a presidency candidate for a vote of confidence by the Congress of Deputies of Spain, the lower house of the Cortes Generales (parliament). The process is a parliamentarian investiture by which the head of government is indirectly elected by the elected Congress of Deputies. In practice, the prime minister is almost always the leader of the largest party in the Congress. Since current constitutional practice in Spain calls for the king to act on the advice of his ministers, the prime minister is the country's de facto chief executive.
Pedro Sánchez of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) has been Prime Minister since 2 June 2018, after a successful motion of no confidence against former prime minister Mariano Rajoy. The Sánchez government technically ceased on 29 April 2019 after the 2019 Spanish general election, but was acting afterwards. However, following the November 2019 general election, Sánchez earned a second mandate as Prime Minister after receiving a plurality of votes in the second round vote of his investiture at the Congress of Deputies on 7 January 2020. He then resumed being the official prime minister after he was sworn in by King Felipe on 8 January 2020. His new government was then sworn in by King Felipe on 13 January 2020.
Official title
The Spanish head of government has, since 1938, been known in Spanish as the – literally "President of the Government", but the term 'president' is far older. Spain was not unique in this regard: it was one of several European parliamentary systems including France, Italy and Ireland that styled the head of government as 'presidents' of the government rather than the Westminster term of 'prime minister' (see President of the Council for the full list of corresponding terms); similarly, the president of the Congress or Senate referred to the parliamentary speakers. This system of multiple distinct offices all labelled 'president' causes confusion among English-speakers: both President George W. Bush and his brother, Florida governor Jeb Bush, referred to José María Aznar as "president" on separate occasions, and Donald Trump referred to Mariano Rajoy both as "President" and "Mr. President" during Rajoy's 2017 White House visit. While this term of address was not incorrect, it could be culturally misleading to or for English-speakers, so that "prime minister" is often used as an inexact but culturally equivalent term to ensure clarity.
The custom to name the head of government as "president" dates back to the reign of Isabella II, specifically to 1834 and the regency of Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies when, styled after the head of government of the French July Monarchy (1830), the official title was the ("President of the Council of Ministers"). This remained until 1939, when the Second Spanish Republic ended. Before 1834 the figure was known as ("Secretary of State"), a denomination used today for junior ministers.
Origin
Since the 15th century, the Spanish monarch has delegated his executive powers in relevant personalities. Two are the most important: the validos and the secretaries of state. The validos, which existed since early 15th century to the late 17th century were people of the highest confidence of the kings and they exercised the Crown's power in the King's name. Since the 18th century, the validos disappeared and the secretaries of state were introduced. Both positions were a de facto prime ministers, although they can not be completely compared.
On 19 November 1823, after a brief liberal democratic period called the Liberal Triennium between 1820 and 1823, King Ferdinand VII re-established the absolute monarchy and created the Council of Ministers that continues to exist today. This Council was chaired by the Secretary of State, who acted as Prime Minister. The Spanish Royal Statute of 1834 replaced the chair with a President of the Council of Ministers invested with executive powers.
During the nineteenth century, the position changed names frequently. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868, it was renamed President of the Provisional Revolutionary Joint and later President of the Provisional Government. In 1869, the office resumed the name of President of the Council of Ministers. Following the abdication of King Amadeus I, during the First Republic the office was the President of the Executive Power and was head of state. In 1874, the office name reverted to President of the Council of Ministers.
Since its inception, the Prime Minister has been appointed and dismissed by the will of the monarch. Successive constitutions have confirmed this royal prerogative of the monarch in the Constitution of 1837 (article 47), article 46 of the Constitution of 1845, the Constitution of 1869 (article 68), and the Constitution of 1876 (article 54).
With the fall of the republic and the restoration of the Bourbon Dynasty on King Alfonso XII, the office maintained its original name until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, when it was renamed to President of the Military Directory. In 1925, the original name was restored again.
During the Second Republic the title was the same but when the Civil War started, the head of government among the Nationalists was called Chief of the Government of the State and since January 1938 the office acquired the current name, President of the Government, but between that date and 1973 the office was held by Francisco Franco as dictator of Spain.
The Republican Constitution of 1931 provided for the Prime Minister and the rest of the government to be appointed and dismissed by the President of the Republic but they were responsible before the Parliament and the Parliament could vote to dismiss the Prime Minister or a minister even against the will of the President of the Republic.
In 1973, Franco separated the Head of the State from the Head of the Government and that division still exists today, with the Prime Minister democratically elected by a Parliament which is itself elected by universal suffrage, free and equal.
Royal nomination and congressional confirmation
Once a general election has been announced by the king, political parties designate their candidates to stand for Prime Minister —usually the party leader. A Prime Minister is dismissed from office the day after the election, but remains in office as a caretaker until his/her successor is sworn in.
Following every general election to the Cortes Generales (Cortes), and other circumstances provided for in the constitution, the king meets with and interviews the leaders of the parties represented in the Congress of Deputies, and then consults with the Speaker of the Congress of Deputies (officially, Presidente de Congreso de los Diputados de España, who, in this instance, represents the whole of the Cortes Generales and was himself elected from within the Congress to be the Speaker) before nominating a candidate for the presidency. This process is spelled out in Section 99 of Title IV. Often minor parties form part of a larger major party, and through that membership it can be said that the king fulfills his constitutional mandate of consulting with party representatives with Congressional representation.
Title IV Government and Administration
Section 99(1) & (2)
(1) After each renewal of the Congress and the other cases provided for under the Constitution, the King shall, after consultation with the representatives appointed by the political groups with parliamentary representation, and through the Speaker of the Congress, nominate for the Presidency of the Government.
(2) The candidate nominated in accordance with the provisions of the foregoing subsection shall submit to the Congress the political program of the Government he or she intends to form and shall seek the confidence of the House.
Under the Spanish Constitution of 1978, the Prime Minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Congress of Deputies. Due to the need for the Prime Minister to command the confidence of the Congress, the monarch must nominate a candidate for the office after consulting the political groups with parliamentary representation. For this reason, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the Congress. For the Crown to nominate the political leader whose party controls the Congress can be seen as a royal endorsement of the democratic process— a fundamental concept enshrined in the 1978 Constitution.
By political custom established by Juan Carlos I since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have usually been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress. However, there is no legal requirement for this. The largest party can end up not ruling if rival parties gather into a majority, forming a coalition—as happened in 2018 with the election of PSOE leader Sanchez. As political activity in Spain has effectively coalesced into a two-party system between the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party and the People's Party, the two major parties usually adopt some aspects of the minor party platforms in an effort to attract them into parliamentary pacts to edge out their rival party if no party is able to command an absolute majority of the Congress by themselves.
The monarch is normally able to announce his nominee on the day following a general election.
The monarch's order nominating a Prime Ministerial candidate is countersigned by the Speaker of the Congress, who then presents the nominee before the Congress of Deputies in a process known as a Congressional Investiture (Investidura parlamentaria). During the Investiture proceedings the nominee presents his political agenda in an Investiture Speech to be debated and submitted for a Vote of Confidence (Cuestión de confianza) by the Congress, effecting an indirect election of the head of government. A simple majority confirms the nominee and his program. At the moment of the vote, the confidence is awarded if the candidate receives a majority of votes in the first poll (currently 176 out of 350 MPs), but if the confidence is not awarded, a second vote is scheduled two days later in which a simple majority of votes cast (i.e., more "yes" than "no" votes) is required.
Oath of office
After the nominee is confirmed, the Speaker of the Congress formally reports to the king of the congressional confirmation. The king then appoints the candidate as the new Prime Minister. The king's order of appointment is countersigned by the Speaker. During the swearing-in ceremony presided over by the king, customarily at the Salón de Audiencias in the Zarzuela Palace, the Prime Minister-elect of the Government takes an oath of office over an open Constitution and – at choice – next to a Bible and a crucifix. The prime minister must take the oath or affirmation placing the right hand on the Constitution. Currently, only one Spanish Prime Minister has refused to take the oath of office next to the Bible: Pedro Sánchez, along with most of his Cabinet members. His predecessor Mariano Rajoy, catholic, put his right hand on the Constitution and, at the same time, his left hand on the Bible. As per tradition, if the members of the government choose not to take the oath along with any religious symbols, they use the word "prometo" ("I promise"), whereas if the take the oath with the Bible, they use the word "juro" ("I swear"). The oath as taken by Prime Minister Zapatero on his first term in office on 17 April 2004 was:
In 2008, from the time the king nominated José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero for a second term as Prime Minister immediately following the 2008 general election, almost a month passed before Zapatero was able to present his Investiture Speech before the Congress and stand for a Vote of Confidence. If no overall majority was obtained on the first Vote of the Confidence, then the same nominee and program is resubmitted for a second vote within forty-eight hours. Following the second vote, if confidence by the Congress is still not reached, then the monarch again meets with political leaders and the Speaker, and submits a new nominee for a vote of confidence. If, within two months, no candidate has won the confidence of the Congress then the King dissolves the Cortes and calls for a new general election. The King's royal decree is countersigned by the Speaker of the Congress.
Once appointed, the Prime Minister forms his government whose ministers are appointed and removed by the King on the Prime Minister's advice. In the political life of Spain, the king would already be familiar with the various political leaders in a professional capacity, and perhaps less formally in a more social capacity, facilitating their meeting following a general election. Conversely, nominating the party leader whose party maintains a plurality and who are already familiar with their party manifesto facilitates a smoother nomination process. In the event of coalitions, the political leaders would customarily have met beforehand to hammer out a coalition agreement before their meeting with the King.
Government and the Cortes sit for a term no longer than four years when the Prime Minister tenders his resignation to the king and advises the king to dissolve the Cortes, prompting a general election. It remains within the king's prerogative to dissolve the Cortes if, at the conclusion of the four years, the Prime Minister has not asked for its dissolution, according to Title II Section 56. The king may call for earlier elections on the advice of the Prime Minister, known as a snap election, but no sooner than a year after the prior general election. Additionally, if the Government loses the confidence of the Cortes, then it must resign.
If a Prime Minister resigns without advising the monarch to call for new elections, dies or becomes incapacitated while in office, then the government as a whole resigns and the process of royal nomination and appointment takes place. The deputy Prime Minister, or in the absence of such office the first minister by precedence, would then take over the day-to-day operations in the meantime as acting-prime minister, even while the deputy Prime Minister themselves may be nominated by the King and stand for a vote of confidence.
The Prime Minister's position is strengthened by constitutional limits on the Congress' right to withdraw confidence from the government. Following the German model, a Prime Minister can only be removed by a constructive vote of no confidence. While the Congress can censure the government at any time, the censure motion must also include the name of a prospective replacement for the incumbent Prime Minister. If the censure motion is successful, the replacement candidate is automatically deemed to have the confidence of the Congress, and the monarch is required to appoint him as the new Prime Minister.
Constitutional authority
Title IV of the Constitution defines the government and its responsibilities. The government consists of the President of the Government and ministers of state. The government conducts domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration, and the defense of the nation all in the name of the king on behalf of the people. Additionally, the government exercises executive authority and statutory regulations.
There is no provision in the Spanish Constitution for explicitly granting any emergency powers to the government, which could be understood as exorcising the ghost of the recent dictatorship in Spain. However, Title II, Sections 56 of the constitution vests the monarch as the "arbitrator and moderator of the institutions" of government, [The King] arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions (arbitra y modera el funcionamiento regular de las instituciones). This provision could be understood as allowing the king or his government ministers to exercise emergency authority in times of national crisis, such as when the king used his authority to back the government of the day and call for the military to abandon the 23-F coup attempt in 1981.
Return of democracy
Adolfo Suárez was the first democratically elected Prime Minister of the post-Franco government, the 149th Spanish Prime Minister since 1834. He was appointed by King Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976. In the 1977 Spanish general election his position as Prime Minister was confirmed by a vote.
Peerages
Peerages in Spain are created by the Grace of the King, according to the Spanish Ministry of Justice, and are the highest marks of distinction that he may bestow in his capacity as the fons honorum in Spain. Conventionally, the Title of Concession creating the dignity must be countersigned by a government minister. When a title is created for a former president, the succeeding president customarily countersigns the royal decree. As a reward for national service, the king awarded peerages to two of his former presidents who have since retired from active politics: Adolfo Suárez was created 1st Duke of Suárez; and Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo was created 1st . Additional titles of nobility have been created by the king for other government ministers, usually at the advice of the president of the government.
As of 2005, the king has created forty hereditary titles of nobility.
Recent prime ministers
Living former prime ministers
As of , there are four living former Spanish prime ministers:
The most recent Prime Minister to die was Adolfo Suárez (served 1976–1981) on 23 March 2014, aged 81.
Timeline
See also
Elections in Spain
List of prime ministers of Spain
Politics of Spain
Cabinet Office (Spain)
References
Government of Spain
Politics of Spain
Spanish Prime Minister's Office
|
[
-0.24538618326187134,
0.28006428480148315,
0.5560468435287476,
0.10471926629543304,
-0.10315873473882675,
-0.18954038619995117,
-0.28215906023979187,
0.720113217830658,
-0.33441638946533203,
-0.027255360037088394,
-0.4991550147533417,
0.7278112769126892,
0.25355491042137146,
-0.1517353355884552,
-0.35996541380882263,
0.19988040626049042,
0.4263678789138794,
0.8015507459640503,
-0.2036270946264267,
-0.8532427549362183,
-0.4321688711643219,
0.34352606534957886,
0.12347102910280228,
-0.20721924304962158,
0.3424273431301117,
0.00003064136762986891,
0.33094239234924316,
0.2898302674293518,
-0.48901525139808655,
-0.04055548086762428,
0.09140653163194656,
-0.310809850692749,
-0.21581822633743286,
-0.17502368986606598,
-0.0567190945148468,
-0.5519892573356628,
0.4672914147377014,
-0.7298668026924133,
-0.24480533599853516,
-0.10542351007461548,
-0.07942098379135132,
-0.2259952574968338,
0.4160299301147461,
0.017115511000156403,
-0.18983885645866394,
-0.7353728413581848,
-0.6574159264564514,
0.6679679751396179,
-0.22330345213413239,
0.3632369339466095,
-0.6085886359214783,
0.39284548163414,
0.12231394648551941,
0.02851753868162632,
-0.039156775921583176,
-0.06064591929316521,
-0.8611523509025574,
-0.0068290517665445805,
-0.29558759927749634,
-0.3436413109302521,
-0.23677265644073486,
0.6078847050666809,
0.16290439665317535,
0.1821751743555069,
0.8167968988418579,
-0.2755596339702606,
0.7573499083518982,
-0.012095317244529724,
-0.5540107488632202,
-0.05355342477560043,
-0.5221244096755981,
0.08350570499897003,
0.36687973141670227,
-0.16390104591846466,
-0.23149028420448303,
-0.7079265117645264,
-0.10001958906650543,
0.6585879921913147,
-0.056078601628541946,
0.04671412706375122,
-0.17981503903865814,
-0.18342341482639313,
0.8253058791160583,
0.3064466118812561,
-0.224696546792984,
0.37085843086242676,
-0.03457333520054817,
0.2058189958333969,
-0.28459855914115906,
0.6349754333496094,
-0.39201289415359497,
0.1551341861486435,
0.5520193576812744,
-0.47254154086112976,
-0.14020739495754242,
-0.3418322205543518,
0.43364787101745605,
-0.093113012611866,
-0.45547667145729065,
0.24782498180866241,
0.00014043775445315987,
0.3409547507762909,
0.33844155073165894,
-0.5748491287231445,
-0.3599871098995209,
0.2679876983165741,
-0.8112179636955261,
-0.01260781567543745,
-0.5356529951095581,
0.29389575123786926,
-0.23245985805988312,
0.1437666416168213,
0.08846244215965271,
0.6119734048843384,
0.10090332478284836,
-0.24941158294677734,
-0.044630102813243866,
-0.1140044704079628,
-0.005957311950623989,
0.03258839622139931,
0.28505146503448486,
0.6633999347686768,
0.2313462644815445,
-0.14610503613948822,
0.23968586325645447,
0.017561310902237892,
0.49197816848754883,
-0.23598742485046387,
0.0892651304602623,
-0.29331281781196594,
1.0637071132659912,
0.11500369757413864,
-0.4476454555988312,
-0.12029040604829788,
-0.06957003474235535,
-0.25750505924224854,
-0.17915154993534088,
-0.0057416209019720554,
0.6247761249542236,
0.12944220006465912,
-0.4210067391395569,
-0.3577854037284851,
0.2796531915664673,
0.06386546045541763,
0.3447127044200897,
-0.014578395523130894,
0.03479484096169472,
-0.49578142166137695,
-0.41129687428474426,
0.10720738023519516,
-0.04214497283101082,
0.05860712006688118,
-0.2747565507888794,
-0.11210469901561737,
-0.035253290086984634,
0.06925131380558014,
0.5365921258926392,
-0.7815296649932861,
0.3726787567138672,
0.402688592672348,
0.4221246540546417,
-0.17750220000743866,
0.38525158166885376,
0.18938012421131134,
-0.3362337648868561,
0.2680850327014923,
0.30070415139198303,
0.843633234500885,
0.1495877355337143,
-0.10587882250547409,
-0.6557089686393738,
0.08241061121225357,
0.38470667600631714,
-0.7428426146507263,
-0.3214855492115021,
0.11677558720111847,
0.19498808681964874,
-0.4182204306125641,
0.6868370175361633,
0.062382932752370834,
-0.4643419682979584,
-0.1365330070257187,
-0.12492142617702484,
0.3929969370365143,
0.004212590400129557,
-0.47640493512153625,
0.3279659152030945,
0.3607754409313202,
0.34875908493995667,
-0.5545728802680969,
-0.5370814204216003,
-0.15972237288951874,
-0.12676651775836945,
-0.6927598118782043,
0.3768143951892853,
-0.2405998855829239,
-0.9499567151069641,
0.786779522895813,
0.06480590254068375,
0.4949890077114105,
-0.4411140978336334,
-0.06465167552232742,
0.5914379954338074,
-0.18258574604988098,
0.1636812686920166,
0.2777949571609497,
0.48418304324150085,
0.15110306441783905,
0.7646594643592834,
0.3400593400001526,
0.032050132751464844,
-0.12612119317054749,
-0.19806969165802002,
-0.3007251024246216,
-0.4199167490005493,
-0.4041415750980377,
-0.15979450941085815,
-0.11169590801000595,
-0.4171968996524811,
0.7229311466217041,
1.1766369342803955,
-0.14312626421451569,
-0.47098737955093384,
0.6697161793708801,
-0.18258421123027802,
0.5681204199790955,
-0.2572118043899536,
0.14839854836463928,
-0.032574668526649475,
0.31106674671173096,
0.056131474673748016,
-0.5467166304588318,
0.2750857174396515,
0.12959298491477966,
-0.29343560338020325,
0.10450607538223267,
-0.7016892433166504,
0.024703582748770714,
-0.14911018311977386,
-0.07740102708339691,
0.5447779893875122,
0.2350435107946396,
-0.08502129465341568,
0.7524791359901428,
0.3392009735107422,
0.7446136474609375,
-0.8025856614112854,
0.16559873521327972,
-0.4898402988910675,
0.427412748336792,
0.045934148132801056,
0.09167414903640747,
0.3131248652935028,
0.10120712220668793,
-0.012174276635050774,
-0.3982999622821808,
0.37758690118789673,
0.1967107504606247,
0.20125795900821686,
0.5761123299598694,
-0.3281574249267578,
-0.2531620264053345,
0.056111663579940796,
1.0623148679733276,
-0.2945243716239929,
-0.05167393758893013,
0.019279925152659416,
-0.2584391236305237,
-0.1455996036529541,
0.32494205236434937,
0.3105645179748535,
-0.3752310872077942,
-0.30822259187698364,
-0.029843823984265327,
0.24015867710113525,
-0.14633318781852722,
-0.15243874490261078,
0.3724379539489746,
-0.6673402786254883,
-0.8319301605224609,
0.3392924964427948,
0.5553209185600281,
-0.5679072141647339,
-0.028823595494031906,
-0.5400927662849426,
-0.3447681665420532,
0.44965770840644836,
-0.7232306599617004,
-0.33518847823143005,
0.15380632877349854,
-1.0043503046035767,
-0.0920858383178711,
0.4801861047744751,
-0.31985968351364136,
-0.5182617902755737,
-0.4708690047264099,
0.2368524670600891,
-0.3430964946746826,
0.49279332160949707,
-0.4855882227420807,
-0.5104339122772217,
0.07418393343687057,
0.14540742337703705,
0.09986129403114319,
0.5415356755256653,
-0.21603402495384216,
-0.12958936393260956,
0.7051498889923096,
-5.686171531677246,
0.1333909034729004,
-0.29810288548469543,
-0.5650187134742737,
0.6675499677658081,
-0.11651301383972168,
0.37007206678390503,
-0.5698801875114441,
0.4199419319629669,
-0.7797249555587769,
0.2752895951271057,
0.21434731781482697,
0.5420329570770264,
0.9801744818687439,
0.10055620223283768,
0.47405168414115906,
-0.41273075342178345,
-0.03479957580566406,
0.23503871262073517,
0.32259929180145264,
0.3146447241306305,
-0.11700356751680374,
0.4943999946117401,
0.36357906460762024,
0.4672631025314331,
0.1679176539182663,
-0.07911679893732071,
-0.04093329980969429,
-0.36612817645072937,
-0.36193206906318665,
0.09917277842760086,
-0.09250219166278839,
0.11276417225599289,
-0.30971765518188477,
-0.1685362607240677,
-0.27895769476890564,
0.5539870858192444,
0.49529364705085754,
-0.22543098032474518,
-0.38449156284332275,
0.13426311314105988,
0.26297950744628906,
-0.2777089774608612,
0.2651473581790924,
0.14271248877048492,
-0.10078337788581848,
-0.19171085953712463,
0.0486844927072525,
-0.5109427571296692,
0.5990927219390869,
-0.11925340443849564,
0.07011179625988007,
0.2780112624168396,
-0.6721388697624207,
0.11176671087741852,
0.3098298907279968,
0.20854385197162628,
0.013302615843713284,
-0.49889034032821655,
0.6289474964141846,
0.6326109766960144,
-0.24815912544727325,
-0.20929303765296936,
-0.12110722810029984,
-0.08985088765621185,
-0.053118664771318436,
-0.6220149993896484,
0.4376487135887146,
0.9926881790161133,
0.3912428617477417,
0.16341544687747955,
-0.2642378807067871,
-0.14379943907260895,
-0.6404995322227478,
0.20358560979366302,
-0.731207549571991,
0.21038153767585754,
0.09224693477153778,
0.17062678933143616,
-0.08041026443243027,
-0.41113701462745667,
0.4981972277164459,
-0.4052411913871765,
-0.36060836911201477,
-0.22826053202152252,
-0.215079665184021,
0.2881573438644409,
0.33825865387916565,
0.16836243867874146,
0.22414545714855194,
0.3547630310058594,
-1.1637641191482544,
0.3747791647911072,
-0.05057179927825928,
0.10345970094203949,
0.08917893469333649,
-0.3497265577316284,
0.40398234128952026,
0.24030953645706177,
-0.40552055835723877,
0.2390897125005722,
-0.20028376579284668,
-0.0233147069811821,
-0.5877881050109863,
0.4031278192996979,
0.1640477180480957,
0.09521572291851044,
0.5142215490341187,
0.23461081087589264,
-0.20321299135684967,
-0.10427846759557724,
-0.09015420079231262,
-0.5881821513175964,
-0.8365067839622498,
0.12913548946380615,
-0.5076086521148682,
-0.3151584565639496,
0.2975776195526123,
0.1590075045824051,
0.11025089770555496,
-0.20113089680671692,
0.10985510796308517,
-0.017671655863523483,
0.505159318447113,
-0.6383278369903564,
0.04299697279930115,
0.1410374939441681,
-0.022351516410708427,
0.4715658128261566,
-0.34338700771331787,
0.35731396079063416,
0.39927881956100464,
0.5698294639587402,
0.20451456308364868,
0.8369861245155334,
-0.14753954112529755,
-0.2930142879486084,
-0.3479138910770416,
0.2303840070962906,
-0.6921627521514893,
-0.320269376039505,
-0.18948844075202942,
-0.21714472770690918,
-0.4378639757633209,
0.2143511325120926,
0.06550470739603043,
-0.9493135213851929,
0.38905781507492065,
-0.5543805360794067,
0.6214590668678284,
0.2831263840198517,
0.2678258419036865,
-0.002347498433664441,
-0.29071924090385437,
0.08337583392858505,
-0.30921778082847595,
-0.6701977252960205,
-0.016077162697911263,
-0.28107115626335144,
-0.4080195128917694,
0.18941718339920044,
-0.7659942507743835,
-0.7779169678688049,
-0.039884574711322784,
0.7305264472961426,
0.25271692872047424,
-0.8960282802581787,
-0.08156516402959824,
0.0708104744553566,
1.1586846113204956,
0.25195181369781494,
-0.34927478432655334,
-0.5714455246925354,
-0.6035206317901611,
0.3059270679950714,
-0.5379169583320618,
0.18385206162929535,
0.6618032455444336,
0.03901964798569679,
0.10082487016916275,
-0.17227037250995636,
0.12421313673257828,
0.20720672607421875,
-0.1505724936723709,
-0.1742006093263626,
-0.12665441632270813,
0.022832993417978287,
-0.3058796525001526,
0.32488352060317993,
-0.2708967626094818,
0.29040518403053284,
0.5873332619667053,
-0.3029859662055969,
-0.136257603764534,
-0.7738259434700012,
-0.4775344133377075,
-0.19962488114833832,
0.3761434257030487,
-0.368647962808609,
-0.21421006321907043,
-0.029582930728793144,
0.06902078539133072,
-0.038773853331804276,
-0.24340808391571045,
-0.12054533511400223,
-0.11730911582708359,
0.11546149849891663,
0.14060775935649872,
0.06067727506160736,
0.4259031116962433,
-0.8454146385192871,
-0.8077796697616577,
-0.1501699984073639,
0.6340151429176331,
-0.016421014443039894,
-0.6085512638092041,
-0.06883829087018967,
-0.9630126357078552,
-0.31646981835365295,
-0.44240352511405945,
0.17656752467155457,
-0.08112258464097977,
-0.15544404089450836,
0.7866804599761963,
0.15700796246528625,
0.2208438366651535,
0.259637713432312,
-0.7766333222389221,
1.1737552881240845,
-0.6476098299026489,
0.16105309128761292,
0.41620829701423645,
0.07351955026388168,
0.20165106654167175,
-0.3708130419254303,
0.1364530771970749,
0.3306668698787689,
0.27703961730003357,
-0.36435213685035706,
0.31600114703178406,
0.14002619683742523,
0.739072322845459,
0.05706670135259628,
-0.3459799289703369,
0.09670493006706238,
0.2630603611469269,
0.024518020451068878,
-0.2582460045814514,
-0.02254834957420826,
0.22655296325683594,
0.580689549446106,
-0.24210496246814728,
0.009375642985105515,
0.1669478565454483,
0.45922577381134033,
-0.8031072020530701,
-0.1157921627163887,
-0.12036216259002686,
0.020707126706838608,
0.13164810836315155,
-0.0010262933792546391,
-0.2831791341304779,
0.07604337483644485,
0.15132683515548706,
0.7930969595909119,
-0.4132508635520935,
-0.3835253119468689,
-0.24247302114963531,
0.35710853338241577,
-0.1044185608625412,
-0.2855943739414215,
-0.6169543862342834,
-0.3163200616836548,
0.30275726318359375,
-0.07641606032848358,
0.21531373262405396,
-0.17226427793502808,
-0.07409565895795822,
0.0002540705318097025,
0.11659236252307892,
-1.060360074043274,
0.4237315058708191,
-0.5347304344177246,
-0.41135019063949585,
0.2622241675853729,
-0.8966232538223267,
-0.31990525126457214,
0.6384732127189636,
-0.351754367351532,
0.2885788381099701,
-0.19069643318653107,
-0.05505557358264923,
0.12818261981010437,
0.3400851786136627,
-0.30593323707580566,
0.4185381829738617,
0.07264386117458344,
0.45481637120246887,
0.49174171686172485,
0.12737278640270233,
-0.3520127832889557,
0.5648511052131653,
0.012818939052522182,
-0.14437970519065857,
-0.1473698914051056,
0.05792676657438278,
-0.24936805665493011,
-0.25889304280281067,
-0.0854620486497879,
-0.1393810212612152,
0.011564867570996284,
0.007652969099581242,
0.18127357959747314,
0.35783594846725464,
-0.6976561546325684,
-0.06494913250207901,
0.4530395567417145,
-0.13173972070217133,
-0.11756527423858643,
0.605511486530304,
0.3417387902736664,
-0.1810772567987442,
-0.23097896575927734,
-0.2089611142873764,
0.44500067830085754,
0.3013184368610382,
-0.06717478483915329,
0.04876159131526947,
0.16671575605869293,
-0.4533556401729584,
0.6028715968132019,
0.5154777765274048,
-0.7723197937011719,
0.45346033573150635,
-0.6608836650848389,
-0.3026342988014221,
0.35037246346473694,
-0.3696035146713257,
0.49073290824890137,
0.17039787769317627,
0.6072677969932556,
0.702126145362854,
-0.991909921169281,
0.25948840379714966,
0.5656784772872925,
-0.007262691855430603,
-0.2331320345401764,
-0.03644814342260361,
-0.3229182958602905,
0.07525302469730377,
1.0408234596252441,
-0.22843967378139496,
0.5617497563362122,
-0.4301012456417084,
0.12432773411273956,
0.2541034519672394,
-0.03756178542971611,
0.6565291881561279,
-0.18133556842803955,
0.07802458852529526,
-0.027943771332502365,
-0.1958359181880951,
0.7290636301040649,
0.20892652869224548,
0.12170736491680145,
0.42602717876434326,
0.28741827607154846,
0.01696060225367546,
-0.023864105343818665,
0.2289910912513733,
-0.207270085811615,
0.2615908682346344,
-0.9985936284065247,
-0.1851145625114441,
-0.3236718773841858,
-0.17158903181552887,
0.14208835363388062,
0.3139372169971466,
0.43421170115470886,
0.07705722004175186,
-0.49552327394485474,
0.30839264392852783,
-0.19141454994678497,
-0.851753294467926,
-0.4457523822784424,
0.20816558599472046,
0.18576107919216156,
0.12481173872947693,
0.07943373918533325,
0.2232062816619873,
0.200218066573143,
0.10155075043439865,
-0.05798159912228584,
0.25387945771217346,
0.1052636206150055,
-0.46438688039779663,
0.1261114627122879,
0.43108654022216797,
0.2589220702648163,
-0.10434675961732864,
-0.05545017123222351,
0.6614223122596741,
0.12614020705223083,
-0.2160222977399826,
0.1496598720550537,
-0.2588093876838684,
-0.37521034479141235,
-0.4167311191558838,
-0.3201574683189392,
-0.11774710565805435,
0.04622495546936989,
-0.423748642206192,
-0.18667377531528473,
0.41223812103271484,
-0.4494253695011139,
0.19942930340766907,
0.6052539944648743,
-0.7046123147010803,
0.5854300260543823,
-0.5688911080360413,
-0.050856735557317734,
-0.22883962094783783,
0.7306020259857178,
0.8412685394287109,
0.1530522257089615,
-0.24189463257789612,
0.9380770325660706,
0.20117498934268951,
-0.9796581864356995,
0.11662468314170837,
-0.7861101031303406,
-0.15126878023147583,
-0.32726573944091797,
0.11511609703302383,
-0.40521571040153503,
-0.22978349030017853,
0.5707453489303589,
0.0939921885728836,
-0.06422007083892822,
-0.7010316252708435,
-1.0087798833847046,
0.4332483410835266,
0.40730684995651245,
-0.2969387173652649,
0.09243748337030411,
-0.2675502896308899,
-0.23942714929580688,
0.02393435500562191,
-0.44581419229507446,
-0.2712087035179138,
0.5593640804290771,
-0.4799462556838989,
0.7073245644569397,
-0.12157075852155685,
0.3706922233104706,
-0.30765920877456665,
0.7332043647766113,
-1.0116698741912842,
0.3224559426307678,
-0.13101992011070251
] |
203558
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Canadian%20provincial%20and%20territorial%20symbols
|
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
|
This is a list of the symbols of the provinces and territories of Canada. Each province and territory has a unique set of official symbols.
Provinces and territories
See also
Arms of Canada
List of Canadian flags
Flags of provinces and territories of Canada
National symbols of Canada
Canadian Red Ensign
Regional tartans of Canada
References
!
Symbols
Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
|
[
0.418798565864563,
0.7997488975524902,
-0.37274596095085144,
0.22037242352962494,
-0.5215618014335632,
0.3808000683784485,
0.9037461280822754,
0.7782060503959656,
-0.5582930445671082,
-0.6744550466537476,
-0.054050177335739136,
-0.3866543769836426,
0.3172910511493683,
0.3309161365032196,
0.14220069348812103,
0.8909006118774414,
-0.1937272995710373,
1.2103512287139893,
0.09535590559244156,
-0.1229693666100502,
-0.25576701760292053,
-0.5213702917098999,
0.5045708417892456,
-0.440066933631897,
0.1534661054611206,
0.6603623628616333,
1.075682520866394,
-0.24899344146251678,
-0.8305686116218567,
0.010099106468260288,
-0.20076757669448853,
0.4992518126964569,
0.3206886351108551,
0.19461022317409515,
0.6010066270828247,
-0.4647378921508789,
0.3525278568267822,
-0.5428937673568726,
0.08452967554330826,
-0.8217620849609375,
0.38300952315330505,
-0.7000648975372314,
0.6000419855117798,
0.1501234620809555,
0.6218575835227966,
-0.25002196431159973,
-1.6405045986175537,
-0.26204460859298706,
-0.7080130577087402,
0.1398812234401703,
-0.5988687872886658,
0.08056071400642395,
0.17278745770454407,
0.2664947211742401,
0.19023093581199646,
0.48932504653930664,
-0.3768273591995239,
0.3389488756656647,
-0.045864786952733994,
-0.11164166778326035,
0.4905640780925751,
0.5676237344741821,
0.20976150035858154,
0.20482097566127777,
0.3852226436138153,
0.04530898854136467,
0.011753990314900875,
0.5544196963310242,
-0.5891730785369873,
-0.4346964955329895,
-0.18459995090961456,
-0.19776850938796997,
0.4471190571784973,
0.20548765361309052,
0.01602819934487343,
0.46287816762924194,
-0.01991126500070095,
-0.3084508180618286,
0.00752413971349597,
-0.10201728343963623,
-0.17478585243225098,
0.11194758862257004,
0.6385406255722046,
0.23071393370628357,
0.3723936080932617,
0.5941078066825867,
-0.6608993411064148,
-0.3836417496204376,
0.009483646601438522,
0.8833229541778564,
-0.519449770450592,
-0.07350149005651474,
0.23409144580364227,
0.09946103394031525,
-0.1387210637331009,
-0.4683395326137543,
-0.22880645096302032,
-0.0901782289147377,
0.36156368255615234,
0.21597756445407867,
0.15659521520137787,
-0.183074489235878,
0.9980826377868652,
-0.4913371503353119,
-0.8053529262542725,
-0.7524589896202087,
-0.6079810261726379,
0.09547573328018188,
-0.10004999488592148,
-1.044247031211853,
-0.2863377034664154,
-0.22622328996658325,
0.22633148729801178,
0.3519010543823242,
0.4097405970096588,
0.09141674637794495,
0.7542780041694641,
-0.2218116968870163,
-0.26647359132766724,
0.21674306690692902,
0.2835821211338043,
0.004193807952105999,
-0.16729788482189178,
-0.9131590723991394,
0.2283368855714798,
0.4450041651725769,
0.6768553853034973,
-0.3784223794937134,
-0.18218939006328583,
0.35416993498802185,
-0.035094719380140305,
1.0400912761688232,
-0.3691140413284302,
-0.7518789768218994,
-0.32935452461242676,
-0.42325177788734436,
-0.034259092062711716,
-0.324899286031723,
0.35352933406829834,
0.6163225173950195,
-0.7183396816253662,
-0.3983885943889618,
-0.6493947505950928,
-0.5004315972328186,
0.6548881530761719,
-0.29878124594688416,
-0.4815340042114258,
-0.564246416091919,
-0.6552203893661499,
-0.011967902071774006,
0.22502994537353516,
-0.4363093674182892,
0.4505555331707001,
0.5603005886077881,
-0.2996017336845398,
0.27405112981796265,
0.8077494502067566,
0.17509761452674866,
0.3546946048736572,
0.17370371520519257,
-0.11744842678308487,
0.5622637867927551,
0.2887614369392395,
0.4828559160232544,
0.21300961077213287,
0.34500110149383545,
-0.0891815721988678,
0.42764338850975037,
-0.08210164308547974,
-0.05791068077087402,
-0.1294689029455185,
-0.23287993669509888,
0.3328249454498291,
-0.0068168616853654385,
-0.4697788953781128,
0.017672913148999214,
0.342514306306839,
0.356268972158432,
0.2879538834095001,
-0.20940633118152618,
-0.4922904074192047,
0.10451051592826843,
0.2941795289516449,
-0.06205210089683533,
-0.15280140936374664,
0.1904354840517044,
0.5337563753128052,
0.13523240387439728,
-0.003749180817976594,
0.0343986377120018,
-0.0009209074778482318,
-0.44614794850349426,
0.4827960133552551,
-1.079783320426941,
0.5284714698791504,
-0.011396448127925396,
-0.6619737148284912,
0.495217502117157,
-0.2696666717529297,
0.316020667552948,
-0.2791021764278412,
-0.21197150647640228,
0.7219733595848083,
0.39484745264053345,
-0.2808944284915924,
1.0957475900650024,
-0.24820731580257416,
0.3372659981250763,
0.44069382548332214,
-0.26579374074935913,
0.4460541307926178,
-0.5418903827667236,
0.563827633857727,
0.7001397013664246,
-0.030226601287722588,
-0.6017802357673645,
-0.09579925984144211,
-0.22566835582256317,
-0.6593514084815979,
-0.3613952398300171,
0.32218459248542786,
0.19537478685379028,
-0.21165065467357635,
0.38724228739738464,
-0.36244484782218933,
0.2720634937286377,
-0.03552766516804695,
-0.1396758109331131,
0.5101954340934753,
-0.5723842978477478,
0.42713919281959534,
-0.17143170535564423,
0.5023217797279358,
-0.3129080832004547,
-0.39773502945899963,
-0.5048291087150574,
0.20045459270477295,
0.005216073710471392,
0.3854450583457947,
-0.18196377158164978,
-0.12204382568597794,
0.275961697101593,
-0.5534451007843018,
-0.14069631695747375,
0.04938317462801933,
-0.20670729875564575,
-0.1482905149459839,
0.13652046024799347,
0.298872172832489,
-0.3755553662776947,
0.8545477986335754,
-0.23999227583408356,
-0.012894907966256142,
0.04615996405482292,
0.44819962978363037,
0.22112707793712616,
0.15631507337093353,
-0.45807114243507385,
-0.31758785247802734,
0.3982253968715668,
-0.33094778656959534,
0.027555475011467934,
-0.16751374304294586,
0.24670365452766418,
-0.4569835364818573,
-0.3370218276977539,
-0.14550462365150452,
0.11319327354431152,
-0.04990336671471596,
0.2569504678249359,
0.199205681681633,
-0.059232696890830994,
-0.5034563541412354,
-1.2159076929092407,
0.5328215956687927,
0.8287444114685059,
0.12143225222826004,
0.5912144184112549,
-0.46815648674964905,
-0.12221819162368774,
-0.30177807807922363,
0.43442821502685547,
0.15535108745098114,
-0.2085338830947876,
0.04010718688368797,
-0.4734067916870117,
0.4173525273799896,
-0.13622085750102997,
-0.16300338506698608,
-0.12399615347385406,
-0.3568879961967468,
0.0006850130157545209,
-0.19835996627807617,
-0.5234881043434143,
-0.39343470335006714,
0.14158113300800323,
0.1773354411125183,
0.32161131501197815,
-0.051781151443719864,
-0.35669782757759094,
-0.4236105978488922,
-0.05438920482993126,
-0.045109979808330536,
-0.09183182567358017,
0.13661709427833557,
0.2357751727104187,
-0.02222643420100212,
0.05958535149693489,
-5.266417980194092,
0.21862497925758362,
-0.23520050942897797,
-0.6849427223205566,
-0.09961050748825073,
-0.032840386033058167,
0.4202396869659424,
0.005624547600746155,
0.11769513785839081,
-0.44984519481658936,
0.10949844866991043,
-0.36577340960502625,
-0.16965873539447784,
0.36975061893463135,
0.5843409895896912,
0.4122888147830963,
0.8426925539970398,
0.040988851338624954,
0.43859389424324036,
-0.11915707588195801,
0.44902706146240234,
0.002305632457137108,
0.4899362325668335,
-0.2909669578075409,
0.35482853651046753,
0.734736979007721,
-0.4062293469905853,
0.2413804978132248,
-0.3644768297672272,
-0.11496756970882416,
0.3496437072753906,
0.18241849541664124,
0.20646816492080688,
-0.7310718894004822,
-0.3130670189857483,
-0.2122771292924881,
0.23858873546123505,
0.4761345684528351,
0.5736569762229919,
-0.6933388113975525,
0.011052547954022884,
0.7834790945053101,
0.19388027489185333,
0.6661590337753296,
0.3846873641014099,
-0.13571524620056152,
-0.7840568423271179,
0.03173069283366203,
-0.14905564486980438,
0.7865244150161743,
-0.582197904586792,
0.47254663705825806,
0.7025440335273743,
-0.12283627688884735,
-0.09744814038276672,
-0.3786415159702301,
0.17737336456775665,
-0.17193594574928284,
-0.8263785243034363,
0.41899365186691284,
0.5861886739730835,
-0.5928168892860413,
-0.27636468410491943,
-0.42638471722602844,
0.05370707809925079,
-0.7915784120559692,
-1.130191683769226,
0.09634189307689667,
0.3240255117416382,
0.0019904039800167084,
-0.47602200508117676,
-0.10639199614524841,
-0.977732241153717,
-0.9766169190406799,
-0.06987915933132172,
-0.5533040165901184,
0.14916841685771942,
0.3785804510116577,
0.42350685596466064,
0.017137743532657623,
-0.4936671853065491,
0.3419058322906494,
-0.6351180672645569,
0.8466101288795471,
-0.004448984283953905,
0.0646517276763916,
-0.769277811050415,
0.3755171298980713,
-0.5880450010299683,
-0.27272725105285645,
0.4208286702632904,
-0.20164664089679718,
0.15504762530326843,
0.34184861183166504,
0.3411334156990051,
-0.47986072301864624,
1.1447370052337646,
-0.7804388999938965,
-0.1358756721019745,
-0.7397330403327942,
0.2840040624141693,
-0.1549925059080124,
0.2968553602695465,
-0.6270838379859924,
-0.3469310402870178,
-0.42483583092689514,
-0.2874580919742584,
0.31666168570518494,
0.19483621418476105,
-0.1682245433330536,
-0.8904345035552979,
-0.5070172548294067,
-0.26030707359313965,
-0.350378155708313,
0.15831176936626434,
0.062379926443099976,
-0.063353031873703,
0.3273312449455261,
1.3101757764816284,
0.09007322788238525,
0.32789552211761475,
0.20055408775806427,
-0.09026080369949341,
0.10595542937517166,
-0.4308265745639801,
-0.05583902820944786,
0.0988207682967186,
-0.27709752321243286,
-0.4708470404148102,
0.004031479824334383,
0.5219389796257019,
0.06198608875274658,
-0.02713863179087639,
0.3665771782398224,
0.026455719023942947,
0.3592197895050049,
0.09287212789058685,
-0.013294420205056667,
0.2694605588912964,
-0.8779335021972656,
0.12137461453676224,
0.0939619317650795,
-0.20969067513942719,
0.47625964879989624,
0.12615275382995605,
0.6474440693855286,
0.22418542206287384,
-0.22443854808807373,
-0.1639985889196396,
0.8579152226448059,
-0.16977699100971222,
-0.3201248049736023,
0.4625897705554962,
-0.7412607073783875,
0.4365481734275818,
0.03321538120508194,
-0.020823169499635696,
0.04034242779016495,
-0.07998286187648773,
-0.4040861427783966,
0.2829936146736145,
0.16871494054794312,
-0.5098060369491577,
0.12103226780891418,
0.22191475331783295,
-0.7208753228187561,
-0.3049781322479248,
-0.09271819144487381,
-0.17149685323238373,
0.9525207281112671,
0.3482389450073242,
-0.3673349618911743,
-0.9403514862060547,
0.666831910610199,
0.3658474385738373,
-0.3235087990760803,
-0.08361421525478363,
0.21200543642044067,
-0.02237040176987648,
0.19929181039333344,
0.10677259415388107,
-0.4386345446109772,
0.22373241186141968,
0.3665708303451538,
0.1623860001564026,
-0.15624059736728668,
-0.44905465841293335,
0.2884473502635956,
0.1962956041097641,
0.15521582961082458,
0.23816166818141937,
0.36004307866096497,
0.0923420637845993,
-0.1737547069787979,
-1.0820876359939575,
0.0022603932302445173,
-0.1847594976425171,
0.025907473638653755,
0.06384433060884476,
-0.3427599370479584,
0.38376712799072266,
0.3493082821369171,
-0.42157867550849915,
0.0916862040758133,
-0.34366968274116516,
-0.38385701179504395,
0.7745698690414429,
0.14303350448608398,
-0.6155802607536316,
0.15747566521167755,
-0.22833865880966187,
-0.2964937388896942,
0.0006832440849393606,
0.2894608676433563,
-0.19562898576259613,
-0.4252181351184845,
0.16079062223434448,
0.16302606463432312,
-0.19785277545452118,
-0.2301340401172638,
0.09572286903858185,
0.37027427554130554,
-0.11450072377920151,
0.142846941947937,
-0.07592500746250153,
0.3032416105270386,
0.29699811339378357,
-0.6701149344444275,
0.22143681347370148,
0.0464821457862854,
-0.13123206794261932,
-0.24182654917240143,
0.082410529255867,
-0.5161617994308472,
0.11164966970682144,
0.2921915054321289,
-0.10051478445529938,
-0.16365985572338104,
-0.11847096681594849,
0.5448382496833801,
0.33738473057746887,
1.070357322692871,
0.6051541566848755,
-1.1715198755264282,
-0.20501478016376495,
0.11211283504962921,
0.4893988370895386,
-0.785200297832489,
-0.7574793100357056,
0.44139760732650757,
-0.30202844738960266,
-1.0275142192840576,
-0.8091834187507629,
-0.4260612428188324,
1.137739896774292,
0.07355416566133499,
-0.2348795235157013,
0.9038023352622986,
0.23435203731060028,
0.30833038687705994,
0.1940491646528244,
0.03430287167429924,
-0.2734389305114746,
0.8205695748329163,
0.21383677423000336,
0.33294183015823364,
-0.37696683406829834,
-0.05316244438290596,
0.19044563174247742,
-0.17005424201488495,
-0.3776407539844513,
-0.0718361884355545,
0.04434572160243988,
0.42276161909103394,
0.02304469794034958,
-0.8193830847740173,
0.2648831307888031,
-0.35909417271614075,
0.41378024220466614,
-0.829481303691864,
-0.23304185271263123,
0.23364661633968353,
0.5737225413322449,
-0.15454965829849243,
0.7472661733627319,
-0.9622227549552917,
-0.3178260028362274,
0.3217715919017792,
0.07483145594596863,
-0.15883184969425201,
-0.21713311970233917,
0.08393044769763947,
-0.43480125069618225,
-0.0695868656039238,
0.05346226319670677,
0.2996523380279541,
0.03421640396118164,
0.19174456596374512,
0.6224157810211182,
0.22991153597831726,
-0.8441948294639587,
1.1570549011230469,
0.2850460410118103,
-0.6514134407043457,
0.010035783052444458,
0.0066430894657969475,
0.3521188497543335,
-0.5235636234283447,
-0.11345077306032181,
-0.01229990366846323,
0.4008840322494507,
0.042300041764974594,
0.15946173667907715,
0.37957167625427246,
-0.11736466735601425,
-0.22359363734722137,
0.6250179409980774,
-0.8348760604858398,
-0.08506622165441513,
0.6586868762969971,
-0.2405376136302948,
-0.004883626475930214,
0.5110912919044495,
0.1920391172170639,
-0.38658636808395386,
0.4910866618156433,
0.22367887198925018,
-0.45888519287109375,
0.577348530292511,
0.013140224851667881,
0.1610059291124344,
0.02901104837656021,
-0.8620855212211609,
0.4619854986667633,
-1.015129804611206,
-0.0737103596329689,
0.013770400546491146,
-0.03370368480682373,
-0.18911834061145782,
0.6863480806350708,
-0.04175956919789314,
0.45469972491264343,
-0.6892958283424377,
-0.5109284520149231,
-0.2173168957233429,
-0.04242340847849846,
-0.11151029914617538,
0.028894392773509026,
0.12252263724803925,
0.0285034216940403,
0.18178659677505493,
0.029805518686771393,
0.17480231821537018,
0.4264845550060272,
0.13052822649478912,
-0.022659216076135635,
0.4446805715560913,
-0.1982344388961792,
0.13691826164722443,
-1.1311811208724976,
-0.3399813771247864,
0.14135238528251648,
0.07473491877317429,
0.30507418513298035,
-0.5873775482177734,
-0.032886870205402374,
0.5290936827659607,
0.03135176748037338,
-0.18166884779930115,
0.08803333342075348,
0.018196677789092064,
0.3866286873817444,
-0.201604962348938,
-0.2201165109872818,
-0.40905389189720154,
0.2952435612678528,
0.0983441025018692,
-0.12770657241344452,
-0.02100057527422905,
-0.33691924810409546,
-0.23345798254013062,
0.25863707065582275,
0.1377577930688858,
-1.0589449405670166,
0.2532847225666046,
0.08754950016736984,
-0.23686210811138153,
0.2363014668226242,
-0.13193543255329132,
0.504924476146698,
0.10554292798042297,
-0.3034934401512146,
0.38224828243255615,
-0.4415667653083801,
-0.2433810979127884,
0.08182761818170547,
-0.9306928515434265,
0.39214271306991577,
0.17723649740219116,
-0.1379997879266739,
0.2597692608833313,
0.38875463604927063,
0.341142863035202,
-0.4601922333240509,
-0.07472466677427292,
0.5232256650924683,
0.16939343512058258,
0.3670579791069031,
-0.1686687022447586,
-0.14073292911052704,
-0.4463290870189667,
-0.10537426918745041,
-0.12594805657863617,
0.022587068378925323,
-0.7305507659912109,
-0.1441682130098343,
0.8404062390327454,
-0.2645765542984009,
-0.24666215479373932,
-0.07895751297473907,
0.25300347805023193,
-0.8362461924552917,
0.38727325201034546,
1.1450963020324707,
-0.9362188577651978,
-0.7951180934906006,
-0.15541599690914154,
0.14532944560050964,
-0.6932086944580078,
0.1751297116279602,
0.003966294229030609,
-0.4511769413948059,
-0.44180840253829956,
0.2812749445438385,
-0.48502567410469055,
-0.059786777943372726,
0.5077023506164551,
0.7548368573188782,
0.34756186604499817,
-0.5729021430015564,
-0.26895222067832947,
0.09895104169845581,
0.6863652467727661,
0.34799689054489136,
-2.0042402744293213,
0.18530628085136414,
-0.003660774789750576,
-0.2746354341506958,
-0.5957610607147217,
0.47769203782081604,
0.11741171032190323,
0.14830057322978973,
0.347732812166214,
-0.4799751341342926,
0.08349084854125977,
-0.30225348472595215,
0.6796607971191406,
-0.3926805257797241,
0.12159319221973419,
0.8552979826927185
] |
203565
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial%20interpolation
|
Polynomial interpolation
|
In numerical analysis, polynomial interpolation is the interpolation of a given data set by the polynomial of lowest possible degree that passes through the points of the dataset.
Given a set of data points , with no two the same, a polynomial function is said to interpolate the data if for each .
Two common explicit formulas for this polynomial are the Lagrange polynomials and Newton polynomials.
Applications
Polynomials can be used to approximate complicated curves, for example, the shapes of letters in typography, given a few points. A relevant application is the evaluation of the natural logarithm and trigonometric functions: pick a few known data points, create a lookup table, and interpolate between those data points. This results in significantly faster computations. Polynomial interpolation also forms the basis for algorithms in numerical quadrature and numerical ordinary differential equations and Secure Multi Party Computation, Secret Sharing schemes.
Polynomial interpolation is also essential to perform sub-quadratic multiplication and squaring such as Karatsuba multiplication and Toom–Cook multiplication, where an interpolation through points on a polynomial which defines the product yields the product itself. For example, given a = f(x) = a0x0 + a1x1 + ... and b = g(x) = b0x0 + b1x1 + ..., the product ab is equivalent to W(x) = f(x)g(x). Finding points along W(x) by substituting x for small values in f(x) and g(x) yields points on the curve. Interpolation based on those points will yield the terms of W(x) and subsequently the product ab. In the case of Karatsuba multiplication this technique is substantially faster than quadratic multiplication, even for modest-sized inputs. This is especially true when implemented in parallel hardware.
Interpolation theorem
There exists a unique polynomial of degree at most that interpolates the data points, where no two are the same.
Equivalently, for a fixed choice of interpolation nodes , polynomial interpolation defines a linear bijection between the n-tuples of real-number values and the vector space of real polynomials of degree at most :
This is a type of unisolvence theorem. The theorem is also valid over any infinite field in place of the real numbers , for example the rational or complex numbers.
First Proof
Consider the Lagrange basis functions given by
Notice that is a polynomial of degree . Furthermore, for each we have , where is the Kronecker delta. It follows that the linear combination
is an interpolating polynomial of degree .
To prove uniqueness, assume that there exists another interpolating polynomial of degree at most . Since for all , it follows that the polynomial has distinct zeros. However, is of degree at most and, by the fundamental theorem of algebra, can have at most zeros; therefore, .
Second Proof
Write out the interpolation polynomial in the form
Substituting this into the interpolation equations , we get a system of linear equations in the coefficients , which reads in matrix-vector form as the following multiplication:
An interpollant corresponds to a solution of the above matrix equation . The matrix X on the left is a Vandermonde matrix, whose determinant is known to be which is non-zero since the nodes are all distinct. This ensures that the matrix is invertible and the equation has the unique solution ; that is, exists and is unique.
Corollary
If is a polynomial of degree at most , then the interpolating polynomial of at distinct points is itself.
Constructing the interpolation polynomial
The Vandermonde matrix in the second proof above may have large condition number, causing large errors when computing the coefficients if the system of equations is solved using Gaussian elimination.
Several authors have therefore proposed algorithms which exploit the structure of the Vandermonde matrix to compute numerically stable solutions in O(n2) operations instead of the O(n3) required by Gaussian elimination. These methods rely on constructing first a Newton interpolation of the polynomial and then converting it to the monomial form above.
Alternatively, we may write down the polynomial immediately in terms of Lagrange polynomials:
For matrix arguments, this formula is called Sylvester's formula and the matrix-valued Lagrange polynomials are the Frobenius covariants.
Non-Vandermonde solutions
We are trying to construct our unique interpolation polynomial in the vector space Πn of polynomials of degree . When using a monomial basis for Πn we have to solve the Vandermonde matrix to construct the coefficients for the interpolation polynomial. This can be a very costly operation (as counted in clock cycles of a computer trying to do the job). By choosing another basis for Πn we can simplify the calculation of the coefficients but then we have to do additional calculations when we want to express the interpolation polynomial in terms of a monomial basis.
One method is to write the interpolation polynomial in the Newton form and use the method of divided differences to construct the coefficients, e.g. Neville's algorithm. The cost is O(n2) operations, while Gaussian elimination costs O(n3) operations. Furthermore, you only need to do O(n) extra work if an extra point is added to the data set, while for the other methods, you have to redo the whole computation.
Another method is to use the Lagrange form of the interpolation polynomial. The resulting formula immediately shows that the interpolation polynomial exists under the conditions stated in the above theorem. Lagrange formula is to be preferred to Vandermonde formula when we are not interested in computing the coefficients of the polynomial, but in computing the value of p(x) in a given x not in the original data set. In this case, we can reduce complexity to O(n2).
The Bernstein form was used in a constructive proof of the Weierstrass approximation theorem by Bernstein and has gained great importance in computer graphics in the form of Bézier curves.
Linear combination of the given values
The Lagrange form of the interpolating polynomial is a linear combination of the given values. In many scenarios, an efficient and convenient polynomial interpolation is a linear combination of the given values, using previously known coefficients. Given a set of data points where each data point is a (position, value) pair and where no two positions are the same, the interpolation polynomial in the Lagrange form is a linear combination
of the given values with each coefficient given by evaluating the corresponding Lagrange basis polynomial using the given positions .
Each coefficient in the linear combination depends on the given positions and the desired position , but not on the given values . For each coefficient, inserting the values of the given positions and simplifying yields an expression , which depends only on . Thus the same coefficient expressions can be used in a polynomial interpolation of a given second set of data points at the same given positions , where the second given values differ from the first given values . Using the same coefficient expressions as for the first set of data points, the interpolation polynomial of the second set of data points is the linear combination
For each coefficient in the linear combination, the expression resulting from the Lagrange basis polynomial only depends on the relative spaces between the given positions, not on the individual value of any position. Thus the same coefficient expressions can be used in a polynomial interpolation of a given third set of data points
where each position is related to the corresponding position in the first set by and the desired positions are related by , for a constant scaling factor a and a constant shift b for all positions. Using the same coefficient expressions as for the first set of data points, the interpolation polynomial of the third set of data points is the linear combination
In many applications of polynomial interpolation, the given set of data points is at equally spaced positions. In this case, it can be convenient to define the x-axis of the positions such that . For example, a given set of 3 equally-spaced data points is then .
The interpolation polynomial in the Lagrange form is the linear combination
This quadratic interpolation is valid for any position x, near or far from the given positions. So, given 3 equally-spaced data points at defining a quadratic polynomial, at an example desired position , the interpolated value after simplification is given by
This is a quadratic interpolation typically used in the Multigrid method. Again given 3 equally-spaced data points at defining a quadratic polynomial, at the next equally spaced position , the interpolated value after simplification is given by
In the above polynomial interpolations using a linear combination of the given values, the coefficients were determined using the Lagrange method. In some scenarios, the coefficients can be more easily determined using other methods. Examples follow.
According to the method of finite differences, for any polynomial of degree d or less, any sequence of values at equally spaced positions has a th difference exactly equal to 0. The element sd+1 of the Binomial transform is such a th difference. This area is surveyed here. The binomial transform, T, of a sequence of values {vn}, is the sequence {sn} defined by
Ignoring the sign term , the coefficients of the element sn are the respective elements of the row n of Pascal's Triangle. The triangle of binomial transform coefficients is like Pascal's triangle. The entry in the nth row and kth column of the BTC triangle is for any non-negative integer n and any integer k between 0 and n. This results in the following example rows n = 0 through n = 7, top to bottom, for the BTC triangle:
For convenience, each row n of the above example BTC triangle also has a label . Thus for any polynomial of degree d or less, any sequence of values at equally spaced positions has a linear combination result of 0, when using the elements of row d as the corresponding linear coefficients.
For example, 4 equally spaced data points of a quadratic polynomial obey the linear equation given by row of the BTC triangle. This is the same linear equation as obtained above using the Lagrange method.
The BTC triangle can also be used to derive other polynomial interpolations. For example, the above quadratic interpolation
can be derived in 3 simple steps as follows. The equally spaced points of a quadratic polynomial obey the rows of the BTC triangle with or higher. First, the row spans the given and desired data points with the linear equation
Second, the unwanted data point is replaced by an expression in terms of wanted data points. The row provides a linear equation with a term , which results in a term by multiplying both sides of the linear equation by 4. Third, the above two linear equations are added to yield a linear equation equivalent to the above quadratic interpolation for .
Similar to other uses of linear equations, the above derivation scales and adds vectors of coefficients. In polynomial interpolation as a linear combination of values, the elements of a vector correspond to a contiguous sequence of regularly spaced positions. The p non-zero elements of a vector are the p coefficients in a linear equation obeyed by any sequence of p data points from any degree d polynomial on any regularly spaced grid, where d is noted by the subscript of the vector. For any vector of coefficients, the subscript obeys . When adding vectors with various subscript values, the lowest subscript applies for the resulting vector. So, starting with the vector of row and the vector of row of the BTC triangle, the above quadratic interpolation for is derived by the vector calculation
Similarly, the cubic interpolation typical in the Multigrid method,
can be derived by a vector calculation starting with the vector of row and the vector of row of the BTC triangle.
Interpolation error
When interpolating a given function f by a polynomial of degree at the nodes x0,...,xn we get the error
where
is the notation for divided differences.
If f is times continuously differentiable on a closed interval I and is a polynomial of degree at most that interpolates f at distinct points {xi} (i=0,1,...,n) in that interval, then for each x in the interval there exists in that interval such that
The above error bound suggests choosing the interpolation points such that the product is as small as possible. The Chebyshev nodes achieve this.
Proof
Set the error term as
and set up an auxiliary function:
where
Since are roots of and , we have , which means has at least roots. From Rolle's theorem, has at least roots, then has at least one root , where is in the interval .
So we can get
Since is a polynomial of degree at most , then
Thus
Since is the root of , so
Therefore,
.
Thus the remainder term in the Lagrange form of the Taylor theorem is a special case of interpolation error when all interpolation nodes are identical. Note that the error will be zero when for any i. Thus, the maximum error will occur at some point in the interval between two successive nodes.
For equally spaced intervals
In the case of equally spaced interpolation nodes where , for and where the product term in the interpolation error formula can be bound as
.
Thus the error bound can be given as
However, this assumes that is dominated by , i.e. . In several cases, this is not true and the error actually increases as (see Runge's phenomenon). That question is treated in the section Convergence properties.
Lebesgue constants
See the main article: Lebesgue constant.
We fix the interpolation nodes x0, ..., xn and an interval [a, b] containing all the interpolation nodes. The process of interpolation maps the function f to a polynomial p. This defines a mapping X from the space C([a, b]) of all continuous functions on [a, b] to itself. The map X is linear and it is a projection on the subspace Πn of polynomials of degree n or less.
The Lebesgue constant L is defined as the operator norm of X. One has (a special case of Lebesgue's lemma):
In other words, the interpolation polynomial is at most a factor (L + 1) worse than the best possible approximation. This suggests that we look for a set of interpolation nodes that makes L small. In particular, we have for Chebyshev nodes:
We conclude again that Chebyshev nodes are a very good choice for polynomial interpolation, as the growth in n is exponential for equidistant nodes. However, those nodes are not optimal.
Convergence properties
It is natural to ask, for which classes of functions and for which interpolation nodes the sequence of interpolating polynomials converges to the interpolated function as ? Convergence may be understood in different ways, e.g. pointwise, uniform or in some integral norm.
The situation is rather bad for equidistant nodes, in that uniform convergence is not even guaranteed for infinitely differentiable functions. One classical example, due to Carl Runge, is the function f(x) = 1 / (1 + x2) on the interval . The interpolation error grows without bound as . Another example is the function f(x) = |x| on the interval , for which the interpolating polynomials do not even converge pointwise except at the three points x = ±1, 0.
One might think that better convergence properties may be obtained by choosing different interpolation nodes. The following result seems to give a rather encouraging answer:
Theorem. For any function f(x) continuous on an interval [a,b] there exists a table of nodes for which the sequence of interpolating polynomials converges to f(x) uniformly on [a,b].
Proof. It's clear that the sequence of polynomials of best approximation converges to f(x) uniformly (due to Weierstrass approximation theorem). Now we have only to show that each may be obtained by means of interpolation on certain nodes. But this is true due to a special property of polynomials of best approximation known from the equioscillation theorem. Specifically, we know that such polynomials should intersect f(x) at least times. Choosing the points of intersection as interpolation nodes we obtain the interpolating polynomial coinciding with the best approximation polynomial.
The defect of this method, however, is that interpolation nodes should be calculated anew for each new function f(x), but the algorithm is hard to be implemented numerically. Does there exist a single table of nodes for which the sequence of interpolating polynomials converge to any continuous function f(x)? The answer is unfortunately negative:
Theorem. For any table of nodes there is a continuous function f(x) on an interval [a, b] for which the sequence of interpolating polynomials diverges on [a,b].
The proof essentially uses the lower bound estimation of the Lebesgue constant, which we defined above to be the operator norm of Xn (where Xn is the projection operator on Πn). Now we seek a table of nodes for which
Due to the Banach–Steinhaus theorem, this is only possible when norms of Xn are uniformly bounded, which cannot be true since we know that
For example, if equidistant points are chosen as interpolation nodes, the function from Runge's phenomenon demonstrates divergence of such interpolation. Note that this function is not only continuous but even infinitely differentiable on . For better Chebyshev nodes, however, such an example is much harder to find due to the following result:
Theorem. For every absolutely continuous function on the sequence of interpolating polynomials constructed on Chebyshev nodes converges to f(x) uniformly.
Related concepts
Runge's phenomenon shows that for high values of , the interpolation polynomial may oscillate wildly between the data points. This problem is commonly resolved by the use of spline interpolation. Here, the interpolant is not a polynomial but a spline: a chain of several polynomials of a lower degree.
Interpolation of periodic functions by harmonic functions is accomplished by Fourier transform. This can be seen as a form of polynomial interpolation with harmonic base functions, see trigonometric interpolation and trigonometric polynomial.
Hermite interpolation problems are those where not only the values of the polynomial p at the nodes are given, but also all derivatives up to a given order. This turns out to be equivalent to a system of simultaneous polynomial congruences, and may be solved by means of the Chinese remainder theorem for polynomials. Birkhoff interpolation is a further generalization where only derivatives of some orders are prescribed, not necessarily all orders from 0 to a k.
Collocation methods for the solution of differential and integral equations are based on polynomial interpolation.
The technique of rational function modeling is a generalization that considers ratios of polynomial functions.
At last, multivariate interpolation for higher dimensions.
See also
Newton series
Polynomial regression
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
ALGLIB has an implementations in C++ / C#.
GSL has a polynomial interpolation code in C
Polynomial Interpolation demonstration.
Interpolation
Polynomials
Articles containing proofs
|
[
-0.3139200508594513,
-0.12438435107469559,
-0.10632503777742386,
0.16188287734985352,
-0.08317910134792328,
0.18136855959892273,
0.016064543277025223,
-0.36721670627593994,
-0.007207012735307217,
-0.43137046694755554,
-0.265354722738266,
0.20263005793094635,
-0.6406407952308655,
0.14304013550281525,
0.17213338613510132,
0.28062692284584045,
0.4399580955505371,
0.42832010984420776,
-0.07726939022541046,
-0.5012003779411316,
0.36518460512161255,
0.36319050192832947,
-0.06958400458097458,
-0.21059787273406982,
-0.03307745233178139,
-0.3562507629394531,
-0.393139511346817,
0.23272541165351868,
-0.13589490950107574,
0.1478360891342163,
0.12400802224874496,
0.6645379066467285,
-0.0026477554347366095,
-0.373185932636261,
0.17317508161067963,
-0.13452258706092834,
0.6440671682357788,
-0.06368546187877655,
-0.014571622014045715,
-0.3633517622947693,
0.37094953656196594,
0.03572777658700943,
-0.0018952847458422184,
0.08745557814836502,
-0.19388790428638458,
-0.8462076783180237,
-1.3830735683441162,
0.19366483390331268,
-0.20725366473197937,
-0.35130587220191956,
-0.8090366721153259,
0.09208234399557114,
0.3254307210445404,
0.7525206804275513,
-0.3014119863510132,
1.020961046218872,
-0.6240385174751282,
-0.47621622681617737,
0.6465217471122742,
-0.40859255194664,
-0.1258736103773117,
-0.36966997385025024,
0.08629068732261658,
-0.240335613489151,
0.15882673859596252,
0.7620206475257874,
-0.028578810393810272,
-0.052359502762556076,
-0.2568622827529907,
-0.5259125828742981,
-0.17021240293979645,
-0.3810928761959076,
-0.40197786688804626,
0.43996766209602356,
-0.6437159776687622,
0.00036486497265286744,
-0.2746981382369995,
0.09719465672969818,
-0.07296429574489594,
0.45719921588897705,
-0.5237863063812256,
0.6660000681877136,
0.3126593232154846,
-0.6498475670814514,
0.749600350856781,
-0.26268044114112854,
-0.12626437842845917,
0.0639491155743599,
-0.6229893565177917,
0.41424378752708435,
0.022767269983887672,
-0.30061641335487366,
0.23497509956359863,
-0.1403747946023941,
0.06362880021333694,
-0.03507915139198303,
0.3041483461856842,
-0.29680755734443665,
0.1317233443260193,
0.46260231733322144,
-0.35027876496315,
0.0031785049941390753,
0.3062148988246918,
-0.2796347439289093,
-0.3998803496360779,
-0.45645931363105774,
-0.372785747051239,
-0.4709593653678894,
0.12402176111936569,
0.06600051373243332,
-0.776197612285614,
0.22926104068756104,
-0.03544257953763008,
-0.5089874863624573,
-0.6904795169830322,
-0.09257567673921585,
0.11470407247543335,
0.03857743367552757,
0.018302174285054207,
0.4648130536079407,
-0.46415531635284424,
0.8652313351631165,
-0.12620548903942108,
0.3238929510116577,
-0.4321346580982208,
0.30773618817329407,
0.8152403235435486,
0.9767534136772156,
-0.4843287169933319,
0.11687180399894714,
-0.021629419177770615,
0.7081096768379211,
0.4075953960418701,
0.3383742868900299,
-0.317842036485672,
-0.6260096430778503,
-0.5244256854057312,
0.11329668015241623,
-0.7159163355827332,
-0.45937344431877136,
-0.4261002540588379,
-0.5538503527641296,
-0.09731924533843994,
-0.3153568506240845,
0.09873047471046448,
-0.07018236815929413,
-0.32072874903678894,
-0.5783100724220276,
0.21090272068977356,
-0.1725178211927414,
0.10026225447654724,
0.4204048812389374,
-0.48743221163749695,
-0.0072866324335336685,
-0.37978509068489075,
-0.31065699458122253,
0.1757708489894867,
0.5702778100967407,
-0.5182667374610901,
0.4265120029449463,
0.0762394592165947,
0.09245939552783966,
-0.12363731116056442,
-0.3273887038230896,
0.2648240029811859,
-0.47119608521461487,
0.947641134262085,
0.7366857528686523,
0.25032666325569153,
0.389427125453949,
-0.43555495142936707,
-0.2348044067621231,
0.23100784420967102,
-0.2562735378742218,
0.11951298266649246,
0.17730173468589783,
0.321544885635376,
-0.2567923367023468,
0.610657274723053,
0.02781175635755062,
-0.7560229301452637,
0.5006527304649353,
-0.05376174673438072,
-0.08298909664154053,
0.03811093047261238,
0.023450680077075958,
0.5705418586730957,
-0.07486192882061005,
0.04701676219701767,
-0.003152044489979744,
-0.595162570476532,
0.01991630159318447,
-0.4806230366230011,
-0.9858734011650085,
0.9598748683929443,
0.3270433247089386,
-0.36552512645721436,
0.21368597447872162,
0.07802905887365341,
0.17371290922164917,
0.07982280105352402,
-0.35236507654190063,
0.8716322183609009,
0.195781871676445,
-0.8091589212417603,
0.8945395350456238,
0.27800819277763367,
0.14701958000659943,
-0.25896570086479187,
0.7591078281402588,
0.06567799299955368,
0.546550989151001,
0.20662428438663483,
-0.001455878373235464,
-0.3404417634010315,
0.2253616452217102,
-0.968378484249115,
0.4560893476009369,
0.3774246573448181,
-0.09122706949710846,
0.6727801561355591,
-0.06503080576658249,
0.0025283782742917538,
0.7130274772644043,
-0.47503799200057983,
0.5597786903381348,
0.6946938633918762,
1.0416358709335327,
0.9519257545471191,
-0.6647399663925171,
0.06468115001916885,
-0.31251680850982666,
0.27302393317222595,
-0.22496534883975983,
-0.3447580337524414,
0.34419387578964233,
0.33773013949394226,
-0.1731019765138626,
0.7996917963027954,
-0.4037916362285614,
0.003020064439624548,
0.7683048844337463,
-0.13931524753570557,
-0.17813345789909363,
0.1594163030385971,
-0.012969116680324078,
-0.7100034952163696,
-0.23289993405342102,
0.16074712574481964,
-0.11894296109676361,
0.3147340714931488,
0.5542482733726501,
0.15683315694332123,
-0.7334359884262085,
0.22008980810642242,
-0.07787300646305084,
0.20467713475227356,
0.12539662420749664,
0.43057435750961304,
0.34391096234321594,
0.0709223598241806,
-0.40630120038986206,
0.24287979304790497,
-0.46382972598075867,
0.03158128261566162,
-0.5552565455436707,
-1.0965110063552856,
-0.4308726489543915,
0.5516966581344604,
-0.11840023100376129,
0.27550509572029114,
-0.557048499584198,
-0.537076473236084,
0.12076215445995331,
-0.6406603455543518,
-0.7934479713439941,
-0.0031738802790641785,
0.31285008788108826,
-1.0707374811172485,
-0.3461550176143646,
-0.07957620173692703,
0.2193300426006317,
-0.0246589258313179,
-0.10384632647037506,
-0.6759688854217529,
-0.5513772964477539,
-0.13575108349323273,
-0.050796572118997574,
0.04427425563335419,
-0.047009825706481934,
-0.5748012065887451,
-0.4198361337184906,
-0.533697783946991,
0.16714370250701904,
0.40601134300231934,
0.6503984332084656,
0.10008303076028824,
0.03021160140633583,
0.24183043837547302,
-0.5113170146942139,
-0.4100269079208374,
-0.06095217913389206,
-0.4652152359485626,
0.06416616588830948,
-0.7631016373634338,
-0.45528078079223633,
-0.5946133136749268,
0.3653343617916107,
-5.49945068359375,
0.6751893162727356,
-0.38177523016929626,
0.20959995687007904,
-0.25448086857795715,
0.22021828591823578,
0.4932619631290436,
-0.05007470026612282,
-0.45014113187789917,
0.07407042384147644,
-0.12329762428998947,
-0.4905052185058594,
-0.10282665491104126,
0.7435178756713867,
0.5299041867256165,
-0.07148656249046326,
-0.11603325605392456,
-0.05784216150641441,
0.18186554312705994,
0.6457774043083191,
-0.16329199075698853,
-0.17998917400836945,
-0.040520794689655304,
0.12094403058290482,
-0.15085996687412262,
-0.04309903457760811,
-0.08898314833641052,
0.5001927614212036,
-0.4311765730381012,
0.1489560306072235,
-0.31280454993247986,
-0.5129092931747437,
-0.28397291898727417,
-0.24170084297657013,
-0.1222977265715599,
0.7221408486366272,
0.5402007699012756,
0.045241888612508774,
0.45910343527793884,
-0.36474844813346863,
-0.2801961898803711,
0.968792736530304,
0.21226538717746735,
-0.1740003079175949,
0.6332316994667053,
0.42968687415122986,
-0.012255240231752396,
0.07050178200006485,
-0.10390636324882507,
0.9637117981910706,
-0.4989812970161438,
0.2770632803440094,
0.5564029216766357,
0.21113187074661255,
-0.4701753258705139,
-0.24397970736026764,
0.41261348128318787,
-0.7204481363296509,
-0.6529051661491394,
0.31434738636016846,
0.5466739535331726,
-0.8093715906143188,
0.39861559867858887,
-0.24781160056591034,
-0.3220587372779846,
0.11621096730232239,
-0.6883235573768616,
-0.394389271736145,
0.022896146401762962,
0.4647807776927948,
-0.5164384841918945,
-0.031567998230457306,
-0.029859408736228943,
-0.35578760504722595,
-0.035855732858181,
-0.609376072883606,
0.48288318514823914,
0.4257816672325134,
0.35177430510520935,
0.4262271821498871,
-0.1526387631893158,
-0.3465597331523895,
-0.6022589802742004,
0.22411862015724182,
-0.0760926902294159,
-0.10285371541976929,
-0.18535730242729187,
-0.44423219561576843,
-0.40655970573425293,
-0.2818281054496765,
0.4760737717151642,
-0.19897869229316711,
0.5281869769096375,
-0.001470834482461214,
0.02661481872200966,
0.48630404472351074,
0.7170186042785645,
0.5656195878982544,
0.4235994219779968,
-0.05833321809768677,
0.6353671550750732,
-0.5583211183547974,
0.06923508644104004,
-0.1962047964334488,
0.11249255388975143,
-0.04156486690044403,
-0.6592057347297668,
0.719307541847229,
0.5822727084159851,
-0.1630767434835434,
-0.7112913131713867,
-0.06304081529378891,
-0.5034814476966858,
-0.1674714833498001,
0.06466404348611832,
0.11872249841690063,
-0.7274321913719177,
0.17138518393039703,
0.9095665812492371,
-0.3400857746601105,
0.4026741683483124,
0.24173103272914886,
0.4894218444824219,
0.023795951157808304,
-0.17177584767341614,
-0.3723439872264862,
-0.2695980966091156,
0.40341463685035706,
-0.1188226267695427,
-0.23709243535995483,
0.1496494710445404,
0.5385634899139404,
-0.19024786353111267,
0.18715961277484894,
0.10912837833166122,
-0.41844335198402405,
0.20223915576934814,
0.36461904644966125,
-0.055608443915843964,
-0.4819870889186859,
0.9995872974395752,
0.13076093792915344,
-0.4082905650138855,
-0.4097336232662201,
0.29651135206222534,
0.4424039125442505,
-0.07187697291374207,
-0.7277264595031738,
-0.5668562054634094,
0.1198747307062149,
-0.0976874977350235,
-0.6802141666412354,
0.3836526572704315,
-0.11347497999668121,
0.6625129580497742,
0.3564693331718445,
-0.005613669753074646,
0.5502628684043884,
0.13728384673595428,
-0.1984865367412567,
0.1918737292289734,
-0.04496987909078598,
-1.0209354162216187,
-0.5701145529747009,
-0.40482181310653687,
0.054777637124061584,
-0.6624837517738342,
-0.28377702832221985,
-0.3121718466281891,
0.5060532689094543,
-0.10165612399578094,
-0.09209142625331879,
-0.045281440019607544,
-0.3956415057182312,
0.33046412467956543,
0.2528366148471832,
0.38967710733413696,
0.33755311369895935,
0.0921507328748703,
-0.48380377888679504,
0.06600301712751389,
-0.7520515322685242,
-0.5605391263961792,
0.6135531067848206,
1.0354840755462646,
-0.046119432896375656,
0.09245032072067261,
0.355010062456131,
-0.5711706280708313,
-0.2306193858385086,
0.3367270827293396,
0.24679429829120636,
-0.46940046548843384,
-0.475966215133667,
0.0026203019078820944,
-0.6314427256584167,
0.1963420808315277,
0.5026022791862488,
-0.4964374899864197,
-0.36400625109672546,
0.16753438115119934,
0.6479429006576538,
-0.07887350022792816,
0.6889784336090088,
-0.0033091201912611723,
-0.3503633439540863,
-0.07289788872003555,
-0.03254678100347519,
-0.7235130667686462,
0.5689778327941895,
-0.04222164675593376,
-0.6085872054100037,
-0.47650977969169617,
-0.09523448348045349,
-0.15316705405712128,
0.16409385204315186,
0.6012598872184753,
-0.15741001069545746,
-0.03000098653137684,
-0.4063349664211273,
0.15142999589443207,
-0.3072010278701782,
0.22369244694709778,
0.3045795261859894,
0.13271218538284302,
0.22723998129367828,
-0.06681350618600845,
-0.7405380606651306,
0.485984206199646,
0.37312543392181396,
-0.5730687975883484,
-0.3140104115009308,
0.19860686361789703,
-0.05246775969862938,
-0.4127027094364166,
-0.37691086530685425,
-0.8203970193862915,
0.5445744395256042,
-0.8159139156341553,
-0.4872434735298157,
0.27060553431510925,
0.38239654898643494,
0.45141303539276123,
-0.28266268968582153,
0.1421428769826889,
0.46103718876838684,
-0.03354538232088089,
-0.5427719950675964,
-0.1533461958169937,
-0.10576284676790237,
-0.017348762601614,
0.2871004045009613,
-0.40944239497184753,
0.03468647599220276,
0.9363763928413391,
0.3820856213569641,
0.021447669714689255,
-0.7036539316177368,
0.5074049234390259,
0.30812597274780273,
-0.10778378695249557,
-0.7095893025398254,
-0.005684358067810535,
0.2709057629108429,
0.30031830072402954,
0.1618586778640747,
0.2515385150909424,
0.038482241332530975,
0.19868206977844238,
-0.26835206151008606,
0.394603967666626,
-0.9444695115089417,
0.5673071146011353,
0.5955196619033813,
0.440428763628006,
0.2469528466463089,
0.46427249908447266,
0.3357149064540863,
-0.309203177690506,
-0.554513156414032,
-0.3190385401248932,
-0.44227513670921326,
-0.07299845665693283,
-0.1866144835948944,
0.2471056878566742,
0.018061159178614616,
0.30990296602249146,
0.44095009565353394,
-0.30069592595100403,
0.2432589828968048,
-0.9846766591072083,
-0.1190442219376564,
-0.4075089991092682,
0.5183210968971252,
-0.06687944382429123,
0.328884094953537,
-0.06266961991786957,
0.5247716903686523,
-0.3131655752658844,
-0.584779679775238,
-0.7787841558456421,
0.4038817286491394,
0.12106698751449585,
-0.9048515558242798,
0.31250202655792236,
0.4302022457122803,
0.5666888356208801,
-0.05110613629221916,
-0.3358878493309021,
-0.4281405806541443,
0.6215537190437317,
0.43736302852630615,
0.018415428698062897,
0.2348327338695526,
0.01392606645822525,
-0.21435734629631042,
0.679744303226471,
-0.2844219207763672,
0.5223588347434998,
0.5953189134597778,
-0.11659276485443115,
0.016808578744530678,
0.7447144389152527,
-0.4423401951789856,
-0.7385164499282837,
0.3434782326221466,
-0.15974584221839905,
0.2226312905550003,
-0.05020248517394066,
0.08258134871721268,
0.5882352590560913,
-0.034346505999565125,
-0.7380728125572205,
0.32924163341522217,
-0.18479202687740326,
-0.21324729919433594,
-0.007537419907748699,
-0.39734748005867004,
-0.0873851552605629,
0.4862813949584961,
0.7415766716003418,
0.8773700594902039,
-0.002437860006466508,
0.5152463912963867,
-0.37705668807029724,
0.43001800775527954,
0.1466425061225891,
0.21500647068023682,
0.021767623722553253,
0.08069887012243271,
0.14337798953056335,
0.35485225915908813,
0.622395396232605,
-0.07532083243131638,
-0.34273242950439453,
-0.16399946808815002,
0.4466126561164856,
0.03388291969895363,
0.14722494781017303,
0.06292485445737839,
0.5613359212875366,
0.19313974678516388,
-0.17048007249832153,
-0.6772333979606628,
0.03609519451856613,
-0.2122809737920761,
0.809867799282074,
-0.28453919291496277,
-0.09831254184246063,
0.47257447242736816,
0.006867717485874891,
0.6756104230880737,
-0.2092965990304947,
0.24054890871047974,
0.27673637866973877,
-0.43353497982025146,
0.05861329659819603,
0.7842027544975281,
-0.20855101943016052,
-0.18519745767116547,
0.33474621176719666,
0.5053595304489136,
0.05305717512965202,
-0.8158701062202454,
-0.3372940719127655,
-0.39367231726646423,
0.3193333148956299,
-0.056067489087581635,
-0.09973899275064468,
-0.09155495464801788,
0.2847914695739746,
-0.8185935020446777,
-0.46740180253982544,
-0.18466204404830933,
0.42148494720458984,
0.32081201672554016,
-0.4598676264286041,
1.2364366054534912,
0.955636739730835,
-0.41079404950141907,
0.37908127903938293,
-0.561863899230957,
0.48984766006469727,
0.06101485714316368,
-0.5188611745834351,
0.26146745681762695,
-0.11965534836053848,
0.10567045211791992,
-0.3284238874912262,
0.01676168665289879,
0.40348881483078003,
-0.32636067271232605,
-0.1931285262107849,
0.07046356797218323,
-0.09740199148654938,
0.04796921834349632,
0.21227316558361053,
-0.41652631759643555,
-0.15171241760253906,
-0.43786299228668213,
-0.38188689947128296,
-0.017028093338012695,
0.24979592859745026,
0.2654625475406647,
0.1995333433151245,
-0.34005340933799744,
0.6206728219985962,
-0.018567010760307312,
-0.036148007959127426,
0.42899802327156067,
0.004098177421838045,
0.14085975289344788,
-0.5002135038375854,
0.5196532607078552,
0.10578855127096176,
-0.2039848417043686,
0.027495626360177994,
0.08950033783912659,
0.5000425577163696,
-0.3659905195236206,
-0.38637471199035645,
-0.22904565930366516,
-0.2812207341194153,
0.30219584703445435,
-0.4603699743747711,
0.6601471900939941,
-0.13490413129329681,
-0.3793833255767822,
-0.9006844162940979,
0.5135843753814697,
0.5052160620689392,
-0.18981942534446716,
-0.23685112595558167,
-0.15032804012298584,
-0.3516078591346741,
0.4643580913543701,
0.3634618818759918,
-0.5556135177612305,
-0.5411701798439026,
0.7581368088722229
] |
203570
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durand%20Line
|
Durand Line
|
The Durand Line (; ) forms the Afghanistan–Pakistan border, a international land border between the countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan in South Asia. The western end runs to the border with Iran and the eastern end to the border with China.
The Durand Line was established in 1893 as the international border between British India and the Emirate of Afghanistan by Mortimer Durand, a British diplomat of the Indian Civil Service, and Abdur Rahman Khan, the Afghan Emir, to fix the limit of their respective spheres of influence and improve diplomatic relations and trade. The British considered Afghanistan to be an independent state at the time although they controlled its foreign affairs and diplomatic relations.
The single-page Agreement, dated 12 November 1893, contains seven short articles, including a commitment not to exercise interference beyond the Durand Line. A joint British-Afghan demarcation survey took place starting from 1894, covering some of the border. Established towards the close of the British–Russian "Great Game", the resulting line established Afghanistan as a buffer zone between British and Russian interests in the region. The line, as slightly modified by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, was inherited by Pakistan in 1947, following its independence.
The Durand Line cuts through the Pashtun tribal areas and further south through the Balochistan region, politically dividing ethnic Pashtuns, as well as the Baloch and other ethnic groups, who live on both sides of the border. It demarcates Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan of northern and western Pakistan from the northeastern and southern provinces of Afghanistan. From a geopolitical and geostrategic perspective, it has been described as one of the most dangerous borders in the world.
Although the Durand Line is internationally recognized as the western border of Pakistan, it remains largely unrecognized in Afghanistan. Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan, former prime minister and president of Afghanistan, vigorously opposed the border and launched a propaganda war – however during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976 he softened his tone by recognising the Durand line as the border. In 2017, amid cross-border tensions, former Afghan President Hamid Karzai said that Afghanistan will "never recognise" the Durand Line as the border between the two countries.
Historical background
The area through which the Durand Line runs has been inhabited by the indigenous Pashtuns since ancient times, at least since 500 B.C. The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a people called Pactyans living in and around Arachosia as early as the 1st millennium BC. The Baloch tribes inhabit the southern end of the line, which runs in the Balochistan region that separates the ethnic Baloch people.
Arab Muslims conquered the area in the 7th century and introduced Islam to the Pashtuns. It is believed that some of the early Arabs also settled among the Pashtuns in the Sulaiman Mountains. It is important to note that these Pashtuns were historically known as "Afghans" and are believed to be mentioned by that name in Arabic chronicles as early as the 10th century. The Pashtun area (known today as the "Pashtunistan" region) fell within the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century followed by the Ghurids, Timurids, Mughals, Hotakis, by the Durranis, and thereafter the Sikhs.
In 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War, British-led Indian forces invaded Afghanistan and initiated a war with the Afghan rulers. Two years later, in 1842, the British were defeated and the war ended. The British again invaded Afghanistan in 1878, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The British were successful in installing an Amir – Abdur Rahman Khan and the Treaty of Gandamak was signed in 1880. Afghanistan ceded control of various frontier areas to the British Empire. In addition to having attained all of their geopolitical objectives the British withdrew.
In 1893, Mortimer Durand was dispatched to Kabul by the government of British India to sign an agreement with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan for fixing the limits of their respective spheres of influence as well as improving diplomatic relations and trade. On 12 November 1893, the Durand Line Agreement was reached. The two parties later camped at Parachinar, a small town near Khost in Afghanistan, which is now part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan, to delineate the frontier.
From the British side, the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, Political Agent Khyber Agency representing the British Viceroy and Governor General. The Afghan side was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and a former governor of Khost Province in Afghanistan, Sardar Shireendil Khan, representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. The original 1893 Durand Line Agreement was written in English, with translated copies in Dari.
The resulting agreement or treaty led to the creation of a new province called the North-West Frontier Province, now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, a province of Pakistan which includes FATA and the Frontier Regions. It also led to Afghanistan receiving Nuristan and Wakhan.
Demarcation surveys on the Durand Line
The initial and primary demarcation, a joint Afghan-British survey and mapping effort, covered and took place from 1894 to 1896. Detailed topographic maps locating hundreds of boundary demarcation pillars were soon published and are available in the Survey of India collection at the British Library.
The complete 20-page text of these detailed joint Afghan-British demarcation surveys is available in several sources.
In 1896, the long stretch from the Kabul River to China, including the Wakhan Corridor, was declared demarcated by virtue of its continuous, distinct watershed ridgeline, leaving only the section near the Khyber Pass to be finally demarcated in the treaty of 22 November 1921, signed by Mahmud Tarzi, "Chief of the Afghan Government for the conclusion of the treaty" and "Henry R. C. Dobbs, Envoy Extraordinary and Chief of the British Mission to Kabul."
A very short adjustment to the demarcation was made at Arundu (Arnawai) in 1933–34.
Cultural impact of the Durand Line
Shortly after demarcation of the Durand Line, the British began connecting the region on its side of the Durand Line to the North Western State Railway. Meanwhile, Abdur Rahman Khan conquered the Nuristanis and made them Muslims. Concurrently, Afridi tribesmen began rising up in arms against the British, creating a zone of instability between Peshawar and the Durand Line. Further, frequent skirmishes and wars between the Afghanistan and the British Raj starting in the 1870s made travel between Peshawar and Jalalabad almost impossible. As a result, travel across the boundary was almost entirely halted. Further, the British recruited tens of thousands of local Pashtuns into the British Indian Army and stationed them throughout British India and southeast Asia. Exposure to India, combined with the ease of travel eastwards into Punjab and the difficulty of travel towards Afghanistan, led many Pashtuns to orient themselves towards the heartlands of British India and away from Kabul. By the time of Indian independence, political opinion was divided into those who supported a homeland for Muslim Indians in the shape of Pakistan, those who supported reunification with Afghanistan, and those who believed that a united India would be a better option.
British Indian Empire declares war on Afghanistan
The Durand Line triggered a long-running controversy between the governments of Afghanistan and the British Indian Empire, especially after the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Afghan War when Afghanistan's capital (Kabul) and its eastern city of Jalalabad were bombed by the No. 31 and No. 114 Squadrons of the British Royal Air Force in May 1919. Afghan rulers reaffirmed in the 1919, 1921, and 1930 treaties to accept the Indo-Afghan frontier.
Territorial dispute between Afghanistan and Pakistan
Pakistan inherited the 1893 agreement and the subsequent 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi after the partition from the British India in 1947. There has never been a formal agreement or ratification between Islamabad and Kabul. Pakistan believes, and international convention under uti possidetis juris supports, the position that it should not require an agreement to set the boundary; courts in several countries around the world and the Vienna Convention have universally upheld via uti possidetis juris that binding bilateral agreements are "passed down" to successor states. Thus, a unilateral declaration by one party has no effect; boundary changes must be made bilaterally.
At the time of independence, the indigenous Pashtun people living on the border with Afghanistan were given only the choice of becoming a part either of India or Pakistan. Further, by the time of the Indian independence movement, prominent Pashtun nationalists such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgar movement advocated a united India, and not a united Afghanistan – highlighting the extent to which infrastructure and instability together began to erode Pashtun self-identification with Afghanistan. By the time of independence, popular opinion amongst Pashtuns was split amongst the majority who wished to join the newly formed state of Pakistan, and the minority who wished to become a part of the Dominion of India. When the idea of a united India failed, Ghaffar Khan pledged allegiance to Pakistan and started campaigning for the autonomy of Pakistan's Pashtuns.
On 26 July 1949, when Afghan–Pakistan relations were rapidly deteriorating, a loya jirga was held in Afghanistan after a military aircraft from the Pakistan Air Force bombed a village on the Afghan side of the Durand Line in response to cross-border fire from the Afghan side. In response, the Afghan government declared that it recognised "neither the imaginary Durand nor any similar line" and that all previous Durand Line agreements were void. They also announced that the Durand ethnic division line had been imposed on them under coercion/duress and was a diktat. This had no tangible effect as there has never been a move in the United Nations to enforce such a declaration due to both nations being constantly busy in wars with their other neighbours (See Indo-Pakistani wars and Civil war in Afghanistan). In 1950 the House of Commons of the United Kingdom held its view on the Afghan-Pakistan dispute over the Durand Line by stating:
At the 1956 SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Ministerial Council Meeting held at Karachi, capital of Pakistan at the time, it was stated:
In 1976, the then president of Afghanistan, Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan recognised Durand Line as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. He made this declaration while he was on an official visit to Islamabad, Pakistan.
Geography
The border is south of the Hindu Kush, while its eastern end by China is in the Karakoram range. These are regions of extreme high elevation, hence much of the Durand Line is bounded by mountains. The Spīn Ghar (White Mountains) range is roughly in the middle of the Line. The western part of the Line meanwhile is lower and sparse, consisting of the Registan Desert.
Afghanistan's highest peak, Noshaq, is located close to the border, while some of the highest peaks in the world, including K2, are a short distance to the east of the Line's end on the Pakistani side.
The Kunar River, Kabul River, Kurram River and Gomal River all cross the Durand Line. At the very western end of the line is the Godzareh depression.
Border regions
The border is long. Twelve Afghan provinces are located along the border: Nimroz, Helmand, Kandahar, Zabul, Paktika, Khost, Paktia, Logar, Nangarhar, Kunar, Nuristan and Badakhshan – three Pakistani administrative units are located along the border: Balochistan province, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and Gilgit-Baltistan region.
Since India claims all of Kashmir, India technically considers to have a 106 km border with Afghanistan (through Pakistani-controlled Gilgit-Baltistan in Kashmir and the Wakhan Corridor on the Afghan side), a view that has been echoed by some Indian politicians including the Home Minister. However the official ministry document itself does not mention a border with Afghanistan. The Pakistani foreign minister has also denied the existence of an Afghan-Indian border.
Border crossings and economy
The two countries are major trade partners, and therefore the various border crossings are economically important for the wider region, particularly the Torkham and Khyber Pass that is also the main land connection between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
Contemporary era
Pakistan's intelligence agency the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has been heavily involved in the affairs of Afghanistan since the late 1970s. During Operation Cyclone, the ISI, with support and funding from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States, recruited mujahideen militant groups on the Pakistani side of the Durand line to cross into Afghanistan's territory for missions to topple the Soviet-backed Afghan government. Afghanistan KHAD was one of two secret service agencies believed to have been conducting bombings in parts of the North West Frontier (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) during the early 1980s. U.S State Department blamed WAD (a KGB-created Afghan secret intelligence agency) for terrorist bombings in Pakistan's cities in 1987 and 1988. It is also believed that Afghanistan's PDPA government supported the leftist Al-Zulfiqar organization of Pakistan, the group accused of the 1981 hijacking of a Pakistan International Airlines plane from Karachi to Kabul.
After the collapse of the pro-Soviet Afghan government in 1992, Pakistan, despite Article 2 of the Durand Line Agreement which states "The Government of India will at no time exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the side of Afghanistan", attempted to create a puppet state in Afghanistan prior to Taliban control according to US Special Envoy on Afghanistan Peter Tomsen. According to a summer 2001 report in The Friday Times, even the Taliban leaders challenged the very existence of the Durand Line when former Afghan Interior Minister Abdur Razzaq and a delegation of about 95 Taliban visited Pakistan. The Taliban refused to endorse the Durand Line despite pressure from Islamabad, arguing that there shall be no borders among Muslims. When the Taliban government was removed in late 2001, the Afghan President Hamid Karzai also began resisting the Durand Line, and today the present Government of Afghanistan does not recognize Durand Line as its international border. No Afghan government has recognized the Durand Line as its border since 1947.
The Afghan Geodesy and Cartography Head Office (AGCHO) depicts the line on their maps as a de facto border, including naming the "Durand Line 2310 km (1893)" as an "International Boundary Line" on their home page. However, a map in an article from the "General Secretary of The Government of Balochistan in Exile" extends the border of Afghanistan to the Indus River. The Pashtun-dominated Government of Afghanistan not only refuses to recognise the Durand Line as the international border between the two countries, it claims that the Pashtun territories of Pakistan rightly belong to Afghanistan. Durand Line Agreement makes no mention of a time limit, thus suggesting the treaty has no expiry date. In 2004, spokespersons of U.S. State Department's Office of the Geographer and Global Issues and British Foreign and Commonwealth Office also pointed out that the Durand Line Agreement has no mention of an expiry date.
Because the Durand Line divides the Pashtun and Baloch people, it continues to be a source of tension between the governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan. In August 2007, Pakistani politician and the leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam, Fazal-ur-Rehman, urged Afghanistan to recognise the Durand Line. Press statements from 2005 to 2007 by former Pakistani President Musharraf calling for the building of a fence on the Durand Line have been met with resistance from numerous Pashtun political parties in Afghanistan. Pashtun politicians in Afghanistan strenuously object to even the existence of the Durand Line border.
In 2006 Afghan President Hamid Karzai warned that "Iran and Pakistan and others are not fooling anyone."
Aimal Faizi, spokesman for the Afghan President, stated in October 2012 that the Durand Line is "an issue of historical importance for Afghanistan. The Afghan people, not the government, can take a final decision on it."
Recent border skirmishes
In July 2003, Pakistani and Afghan forces clashed over border posts. The Afghan government claimed that the Pakistani military established bases up to 600 meters inside Afghanistan in the Yaqubi area near bordering Mohmand Agency. The Yaqubi and Yaqubi Kandao (Pass) area were later found to fall within Afghanistan. In 2007, Pakistan erected fences and posts a few hundred metres inside Afghanistan near the border-straddling bazaar of Angoor Ada in South Waziristan, but the Afghan National Army quickly removed them and began shelling Pakistani positions. Leaders in Pakistan said the fencing was a way to prevent Taliban militants from crossing over between the two nations, but Afghan President Hamid Karzai believed that it is Islamabad's plan to permanently separate the Pashtun tribes. Special Forces from the United States Army were based at Shkin, Afghanistan, seven kilometres west of Angoor Ada, from 2002. In 2009, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and American CIA began using unmanned aerial vehicles from the Afghan side to hit terrorist targets on the Pakistani side of the Durand Line.
The border area between Afghanistan and Pakistan has long been one of the most dangerous places in the world, due largely to very little government control. It is legal and common in the region to carry guns, and assault rifles and explosives are common. Many forms of illegal activities take place, such as smuggling of weapons, narcotics, lumber, copper, gemstones, marble, vehicles, and electronic products, as well as ordinary consumer goods. Kidnappings and murders are frequent.
Militants frequently cross the border from both sides to conduct attacks. Recently, 300 Taliban militants from Afghanistan's territory launched attacks on Pakistani border posts in which 34 Pakistani security forces were believed to be killed. In June 2011 more than 500 Taliban militants entered Upper Dir area from Afghanistan and killed more than 30 Pakistani security forces. Police said the attackers targeted a checkpost, destroyed two schools and several houses, while killing a number of civilians.
The governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan are both trying to extend the rule of law into the border areas. At the same time, the United States is reviewing the Reconstruction Opportunity Zones (ROZ) Act in Washington, D.C., which is supposed to help the economic status of the Pashtun and Baloch tribes by providing jobs to a large number of the population on both sides of the Durand Line border.
Much of the northern and central Durand line is quite mountainous, where crossing the border is often only practical in the numerous passes through the mountains. Border crossing is very common, especially among Pashtuns who cross to meet relatives or to work. The movement of people across the border has largely been unchecked or uncontrolled, although passports and visas are at times checked at official crossings. In June 2011 the United States installed a biometric system at the border crossing near Spin Boldak, aimed at improving the security situation and blocking the infiltration of insurgents into southern Afghanistan.
Throughout June and into July 2011, Pakistan Chitral Scouts and local defence militias suffered deadly cross-border raids. In response the Pakistani military shelled some Afghan villages in Afghanistan's Nuristan, Kunar, Nangarhar, and Khost provinces resulting in a number of Afghan civilians being killed. Afghanistan's Interior Ministry claimed that nearly 800 rockets were fired from Pakistan, hitting civilian targets inside Afghanistan. The Afghan statement claimed that attacks by Pakistan resulted in the deaths of 42 Afghan civilians, including 30 men and 12 women and girls, wounded 55 others and destroyed 120 homes. Although Pakistan claimed it was an accident and just routine anti-Taliban operations, some analysts believe that it could have been a show of strength by Islamabad. For example, a senior official at the Council on Foreign Relations explained that because the shelling was of such a large scale, it was more likely a warning from Pakistan than an accident.
The United States and other NATO states often ignored this sensitive issue, likely because of potential effects on their war strategy in Afghanistan. Their involvement could have strained relations and jeopardized their own national interests in the area. This came after the November 2011 NATO bombing in which 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed. In response to that incident, Pakistan decided to cut off all NATO supply lines as well as boost border security by installing anti-aircraft guns and radars to monitor air activity. Regarding the Durand Line, some rival maps are said to display discrepancies of as much as five kilometres.
Trench being built alongside the border
In June 2016, Pakistan announced that it had completed 1,100 km of trenches along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border (Durand Line) in Balochistan to check movement of terrorists and smugglers across border into Pakistan from Afghanistan. Plans to expand this trench/ berm/ fence work were announced in March 2017. The plans also included building 338 checkpoints and forts along the border by 2019.
2017 border closure and reopening
On 16 February, Pakistan closed the border crossings at Torkham and Chaman due to security reasons following the Sehwan blast. On 7 March, the border was reopened for two days to facilitate the return of people to their respective countries who had earlier crossed the border on valid visas. The decision was taken after repeated requests by Afghanistan's government to avert 'a humanitarian crisis'. According to a Pakistani official, 24,000 Afghans returned to Afghanistan, while 700 Pakistanis returned to Pakistan, before the border was indefinitely closed again. On 20 March, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ordered the reopening of Afghanistan–Pakistan border as a "goodwill gesture", 32 days after it was closed.
On 5 May, following an attack on Pakistani census team by Afghan forces and the resulting exchange of fire between the two sides, the border was closed again.
Pakistan's decision to close the border was to force Afghanistan to take action against militant groups who were using Afghanistan's soil to carrying out cross-border attacks against Pakistan. An Afghan diplomat at the World Trade Organization (WTO) claimed that Afghanistan suffered a loss of 90 million U.S. dollars as a result of closure of border by Pakistan. On 27 May 2017, Pakistan reopened the border after a request from Afghan authorities, marking the end of the border closure that lasted 22 days.
Border barrier
Pakistan is constructing a border barrier since 2017 to prevent terrorism, drug trafficking, refugees, illegal immigration, smuggling and infiltration across the international border. According to Pakistan the barrier is also necessary to block the infiltration of militants across the border. As of January 2019, 900 km has been completed. The Durand Line is marked by 235 crossing points, many of which had been susceptible to illegal immigration. The project is predicted to cost at least $532 million.
As of 21 January 2022 the interior minister of Pakistan stated that only 20 km of fencing remains.
See also
Af-Pak
Afghanistan–Pakistan relations
Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes
Khyber Pass Economic Corridor
References
Further reading
Dogra, R. (2019) Durand's Curse: A Line Across the Pathan Heart, Rupa: New Delhi.
External links
Text of the Durand Line Agreement, 12 November 1893
The Durand Line Agreement (1893): Its Pros and Cons
"The Durand Line: History and Problems of the Afghan-Pakistan Border" Bijan Omrani, published in Asian Affairs, vol. 40, Issue 2, 2009.
"Rethinking the Durand Line: The Legality of the Afghan-Pakistan Border", published in the RUSI Journal, Oct 2009, Vol. 154, No. 5
No Man's Land – Where the imperialists' Great Game once unfolded, tribal allegiances have made for a "soft border" between Afghanistan and Pakistan—and a safe haven for smugglers, militants and terrorists
Culture, Politics Hinder U.S. Effort to Bolster Pakistani Border, The Washington Post 30 March 2008
"Border Complicates War in Afghanistan", The Washington Post, 4 April 2008
1893 establishments in Afghanistan
1893 establishments in British India
1893 in international relations
History of Pakistan
Modern history of Afghanistan
Eponymous border lines
The Great Game
International borders
Pakistan
Borders of Pakistan
|
[
0.13642530143260956,
-0.44280558824539185,
-0.09095344692468643,
0.4059102535247803,
0.15526659786701202,
0.01810908503830433,
0.47104987502098083,
0.5862287878990173,
0.12245391309261322,
-0.25638869404792786,
-0.42465516924858093,
-0.44892337918281555,
-0.4868412911891937,
0.46481454372406006,
-0.35882365703582764,
0.8004006743431091,
-0.18313035368919373,
0.26813921332359314,
0.019021745771169662,
-0.6850097179412842,
-0.26110154390335083,
0.029839955270290375,
0.5221861600875854,
-0.3653692603111267,
0.18749047815799713,
-0.17713283002376556,
-0.02829817123711109,
0.3898700177669525,
-0.20534773170948029,
0.03754817694425583,
0.20677544176578522,
0.4769606292247772,
-0.12039822340011597,
0.043325264006853104,
0.07702434808015823,
0.0182554442435503,
0.2948697507381439,
-0.18759876489639282,
-0.2594607174396515,
-0.6096739768981934,
-0.18157382309436798,
-0.2746732532978058,
-0.3112064301967621,
0.16561265289783478,
0.5345198512077332,
-0.8916744589805603,
-0.7977839112281799,
0.3378700315952301,
-0.32063597440719604,
-0.3594677150249481,
-0.6233563423156738,
0.8727983832359314,
-0.12291181087493896,
0.14079444110393524,
0.4236395061016083,
-0.32255926728248596,
-0.6830118298530579,
-0.010049596428871155,
-0.07707779109477997,
-0.5600517392158508,
0.5550459623336792,
0.8701011538505554,
-0.07645951211452484,
0.7161392569541931,
-0.2915760278701782,
0.5136564373970032,
0.26252204179763794,
0.37089648842811584,
0.21643096208572388,
-0.37969911098480225,
-0.18631617724895477,
0.14290761947631836,
0.15595965087413788,
0.29512202739715576,
0.09501970559358597,
-0.3695984184741974,
-0.5950345396995544,
0.36304351687431335,
-0.4286826252937317,
0.41468456387519836,
0.2922403812408447,
-0.03582972660660744,
0.7746471762657166,
-0.6465129852294922,
0.7095750570297241,
-0.04069662466645241,
-0.12623119354248047,
0.1174648255109787,
-0.2956860065460205,
0.05008722469210625,
-0.23956887423992157,
0.31645143032073975,
-0.3695560395717621,
0.13097718358039856,
0.14828555285930634,
-0.5880478620529175,
0.04307766258716583,
-0.02056540548801422,
0.4107474088668823,
0.49138301610946655,
0.2681756913661957,
0.35690203309059143,
0.3660624623298645,
-0.3187474310398102,
-0.3618325889110565,
-0.5113430619239807,
0.10718697309494019,
-0.06711734086275101,
-0.25789663195610046,
-0.12413690239191055,
-0.4985022246837616,
-0.09460000693798065,
-0.5253732204437256,
0.023395247757434845,
-0.30824142694473267,
0.2920990288257599,
-0.06279856711626053,
-0.38111796975135803,
0.38011571764945984,
0.4946472942829132,
0.024839308112859726,
0.6674168705940247,
-0.7352119088172913,
0.8037397861480713,
0.7753520607948303,
0.2455659806728363,
-0.12879113852977753,
-0.16700969636440277,
-0.6355262994766235,
1.2442970275878906,
0.0658164769411087,
0.7076595425605774,
-0.054387789219617844,
0.24286356568336487,
-0.42235368490219116,
-0.5170241594314575,
0.31906288862228394,
0.4467794895172119,
0.2867567539215088,
0.3661339282989502,
-1.1105743646621704,
0.14113491773605347,
0.08782147616147995,
-0.39464130997657776,
0.6021783351898193,
0.054563719779253006,
-0.30261924862861633,
-0.8879088163375854,
-0.08896107971668243,
-0.22640804946422577,
0.16994965076446533,
-0.0797332376241684,
-0.3611384332180023,
0.1381479948759079,
-0.8613777756690979,
0.4597198963165283,
0.8892277479171753,
0.4676239788532257,
0.25734880566596985,
0.28732365369796753,
0.15255121886730194,
0.26493075489997864,
0.5013938546180725,
0.19723379611968994,
-0.2769610285758972,
0.11289973556995392,
0.16583015024662018,
0.6805291771888733,
0.15309551358222961,
-0.5187926888465881,
-0.27709612250328064,
0.19383803009986877,
-0.0360100157558918,
-0.3449901044368744,
0.2800484597682953,
0.2285892367362976,
-0.2570226788520813,
0.2715792953968048,
-0.057675790041685104,
-0.0764075294137001,
-0.509245753288269,
0.6210258603096008,
0.04976632818579674,
0.050458360463380814,
-0.0978439524769783,
0.09166758507490158,
0.5911650061607361,
-0.16787806153297424,
-0.6100966334342957,
0.1745472252368927,
-0.17562317848205566,
0.20751221477985382,
-0.41866400837898254,
-0.7899905443191528,
0.716218113899231,
0.3762389123439789,
-0.1303519606590271,
0.7941731214523315,
-0.01646413840353489,
1.0669562816619873,
-0.3595791161060333,
-0.8065520524978638,
0.6984679698944092,
-0.029468512162566185,
-0.19436050951480865,
0.8982190489768982,
0.5566016435623169,
0.2677574157714844,
0.5705599188804626,
0.5381218791007996,
0.31320950388908386,
-0.23879916965961456,
0.012271016836166382,
0.10875405371189117,
-0.0030084610916674137,
-0.18056835234165192,
0.1802515983581543,
-0.6369777917861938,
0.38041800260543823,
-0.15795281529426575,
0.3101361095905304,
0.022297462448477745,
0.21942733228206635,
0.4790896475315094,
-0.6116364598274231,
0.5080701112747192,
0.8201727867126465,
1.1549084186553955,
-0.39814886450767517,
-0.12186489999294281,
-0.682807445526123,
0.16369326412677765,
0.45550745725631714,
-0.26501765847206116,
-0.14176730811595917,
-0.3861290216445923,
0.15030334889888763,
-0.5140625238418579,
0.5800727605819702,
-0.44689232110977173,
0.18072251975536346,
0.29700684547424316,
0.5819557905197144,
0.6778714060783386,
-0.25846153497695923,
0.1529102325439453,
0.16419363021850586,
0.2686287760734558,
0.18758460879325867,
0.2518916726112366,
-0.26245149970054626,
-0.013801618479192257,
0.23388685286045074,
-0.24172343313694,
-0.49563321471214294,
-0.3960760831832886,
-0.19655358791351318,
-0.07279319316148758,
0.08388511836528778,
-0.024744205176830292,
0.23487405478954315,
0.00819400791078806,
-0.013497275300323963,
0.4664548635482788,
-0.15076576173305511,
0.08164951205253601,
-0.2104749083518982,
-0.37481221556663513,
0.524459958076477,
0.4817100763320923,
0.22892723977565765,
0.2001575231552124,
-0.110373854637146,
-0.2159443199634552,
-0.4539242386817932,
0.14650429785251617,
-0.23679858446121216,
0.7336706519126892,
-0.892018735408783,
-0.3150552809238434,
0.42514729499816895,
0.3319634795188904,
0.6858302354812622,
-0.8719391822814941,
-0.17314976453781128,
-0.4777131676673889,
-0.09672868996858597,
-0.4371114671230316,
-0.031747277826070786,
-0.15999823808670044,
-0.5583444833755493,
-0.2888749837875366,
-0.03851369395852089,
0.44271016120910645,
-0.5118480920791626,
-0.49313950538635254,
0.06292718648910522,
0.27005571126937866,
0.7491947412490845,
-0.4495764672756195,
-0.263858437538147,
0.6511317491531372,
-0.24551141262054443,
0.2561245560646057,
0.31663259863853455,
-0.1375298649072647,
-0.25705376267433167,
0.06202523037791252,
-5.558854103088379,
0.13835205137729645,
-0.304020494222641,
-0.11836683005094528,
0.10295761376619339,
0.012820856645703316,
0.6065945625305176,
-0.8251330256462097,
0.21858792006969452,
-0.46246638894081116,
0.26973292231559753,
0.20316347479820251,
-0.11232060194015503,
-0.6939823031425476,
0.15836045145988464,
-0.11903191357851028,
0.20803718268871307,
-0.19777628779411316,
0.4935299754142761,
-0.2887803614139557,
-0.7405971884727478,
0.026106644421815872,
0.6903976202011108,
0.12767983973026276,
0.5699782371520996,
0.1860196441411972,
-0.2632907032966614,
0.12068156898021698,
-0.5045430064201355,
0.17368118464946747,
0.028292497619986534,
-0.25785934925079346,
0.030762741342186928,
0.04532240331172943,
-0.544611394405365,
-0.6815316081047058,
0.5008397698402405,
0.3063397705554962,
0.4352894127368927,
0.37930336594581604,
-0.015915147960186005,
1.0534977912902832,
0.7701683044433594,
-0.2598097622394562,
-0.2096414715051651,
-0.2654567360877991,
-0.42215901613235474,
-0.3892630636692047,
0.027193088084459305,
0.8329451084136963,
0.07089623808860779,
0.12160254269838333,
0.7701815366744995,
-0.6381808519363403,
-0.07832548767328262,
-0.36333972215652466,
-0.028799647465348244,
-0.8408762216567993,
-0.3907983601093292,
1.0171996355056763,
0.26052647829055786,
-0.39809373021125793,
-0.4412786662578583,
-0.3838671147823334,
0.123345285654068,
-0.02620411477982998,
-0.17287610471248627,
-0.39580589532852173,
0.42795902490615845,
0.06149982661008835,
-1.2074205875396729,
-0.03151664882898331,
-0.4234386682510376,
-0.4488343894481659,
0.04927925392985344,
-0.663482129573822,
-0.22581501305103302,
0.042556893080472946,
0.17348822951316833,
-0.1927526444196701,
-0.07567361742258072,
0.010284556075930595,
0.2839604616165161,
-0.06733689457178116,
0.5837400555610657,
-0.11028372496366501,
0.17550764977931976,
0.05653681233525276,
0.3824923038482666,
0.28618836402893066,
-0.00004609043025993742,
-0.6113123893737793,
0.3534209132194519,
-0.6317672729492188,
0.28089281916618347,
0.5120736956596375,
-0.20258091390132904,
0.6697617769241333,
-0.10729092359542847,
-0.817172646522522,
0.49929508566856384,
-0.9454308152198792,
0.6064783930778503,
-0.8432413339614868,
-0.311901718378067,
-0.7689967751502991,
0.3050086200237274,
0.33004996180534363,
0.2285190224647522,
-0.45487186312675476,
-0.32625532150268555,
-0.2246878743171692,
-0.4578383266925812,
0.16779953241348267,
-0.09219475090503693,
-0.3737792670726776,
-0.3907308280467987,
0.6355218887329102,
0.3782925009727478,
0.26519501209259033,
0.2200014889240265,
0.16099412739276886,
-0.11580990254878998,
0.5720202326774597,
0.14631523191928864,
-0.11238916963338852,
-0.23579642176628113,
0.34654557704925537,
0.8225407600402832,
0.2732691764831543,
0.2331615835428238,
-0.23275095224380493,
0.16310332715511322,
-0.3032797873020172,
0.01869998872280121,
-0.3547813296318054,
-0.07463338971138,
-0.30668842792510986,
0.32428106665611267,
0.14855313301086426,
0.047228895127773285,
0.00976086687296629,
-0.2346331626176834,
0.40035122632980347,
0.047734204679727554,
0.21916602551937103,
-0.3331465721130371,
-0.20131076872348785,
-0.4810440242290497,
0.2143145203590393,
-0.4028477370738983,
-0.3655607998371124,
0.17086417973041534,
-0.09542112052440643,
-0.1893046349287033,
-0.18601931631565094,
0.6235885620117188,
0.14593443274497986,
-0.24575094878673553,
-0.11725418269634247,
0.14986971020698547,
-0.4851645529270172,
-0.02906784787774086,
0.7130411863327026,
0.5140998959541321,
-0.16479822993278503,
0.36165672540664673,
-0.5108525156974792,
-0.4476807415485382,
0.7492610216140747,
0.33100655674934387,
-0.3583389222621918,
0.1797092705965042,
-0.09789003431797028,
-0.4260511100292206,
0.5067145228385925,
-0.030683813616633415,
-0.1031167283654213,
0.17165322601795197,
-0.2923360764980316,
0.10809100419282913,
-0.6237698197364807,
0.4875941276550293,
1.0997047424316406,
-0.48344123363494873,
-0.9150696992874146,
-0.35697928071022034,
0.17881257832050323,
-0.1969338357448578,
0.28486549854278564,
0.4902331233024597,
0.06545647233724594,
-0.5547437071800232,
0.04910207539796829,
0.10698889940977097,
-0.5225484371185303,
-0.36908599734306335,
0.5416723489761353,
-0.12852030992507935,
-0.4804413914680481,
0.13321302831172943,
0.6431649327278137,
-0.4913036525249481,
0.5367480516433716,
0.025629617273807526,
-0.05184509605169296,
0.13222387433052063,
0.03673197701573372,
-0.5938767194747925,
-0.11027771979570389,
0.014109092764556408,
-0.6784015893936157,
-0.139581099152565,
0.5312305688858032,
-0.2697897255420685,
0.1247335895895958,
-0.07359401881694794,
-0.4786982834339142,
-0.3702184855937958,
-0.07161898165941238,
-0.2645491361618042,
-0.7382854223251343,
-0.054351821541786194,
-0.26112791895866394,
-0.40982726216316223,
0.7844188213348389,
0.019218023866415024,
-1.090570092201233,
0.3938642740249634,
0.00729323597624898,
-0.3602299392223358,
-0.7251191139221191,
0.7826218605041504,
0.40990376472473145,
0.18323801457881927,
-0.03560454025864601,
-0.29944318532943726,
-0.5419819355010986,
0.2630447745323181,
-0.08061128109693527,
0.5532036423683167,
0.4407060444355011,
0.1511748731136322,
-0.4781690537929535,
-0.02265353873372078,
0.04451999440789223,
0.05808333680033684,
-0.9596191048622131,
-0.8814518451690674,
0.4847385287284851,
-0.09351903200149536,
-0.08414162695407867,
-0.7469828128814697,
-0.010375221259891987,
1.1581429243087769,
-0.5593640208244324,
-0.5431854128837585,
0.09021693468093872,
-0.010762480087578297,
0.18524031341075897,
-0.6462261080741882,
-0.6630802750587463,
-0.6351178884506226,
0.3404077887535095,
-0.1697019338607788,
-0.4310530126094818,
-0.3042962849140167,
-0.30430352687835693,
-0.3619551956653595,
-0.24356907606124878,
-0.2509681284427643,
-0.7992889285087585,
0.7918803691864014,
0.02558295801281929,
0.10171685367822647,
-0.11909215897321701,
0.07362566143274307,
0.4351691007614136,
-0.14943383634090424,
-0.0875108540058136,
-0.40833917260169983,
-0.4426140785217285,
0.013311085291206837,
-0.6853761672973633,
0.23595568537712097,
-0.28425881266593933,
0.36371952295303345,
-0.06157722324132919,
-0.4443484842777252,
-0.21542540192604065,
-0.4323575794696808,
-0.22314323484897614,
-0.08624586462974548,
-0.2906319200992584,
0.03889716416597366,
0.41760239005088806,
0.02385907992720604,
0.519660472869873,
-0.32615265250205994,
-0.2977316975593567,
-0.07212063670158386,
0.8471082448959351,
-0.21504034101963043,
-0.362926185131073,
-0.444776713848114,
0.005807650275528431,
0.5026739835739136,
-0.09425213187932968,
0.708478569984436,
0.2409200370311737,
0.6448138952255249,
0.6883920431137085,
0.10953959077596664,
0.2926994860172272,
0.08988193422555923,
0.03414765000343323,
0.36021023988723755,
-0.15804001688957214,
0.11412438005208969,
0.5244860053062439,
0.24316614866256714,
0.16400226950645447,
0.30840134620666504,
0.5287225842475891,
-0.017873093485832214,
0.5994568467140198,
-0.05339134484529495,
-0.4947950541973114,
-0.09495442360639572,
0.401253879070282,
-0.12188035249710083,
-0.5853688716888428,
-0.5081420540809631,
-0.20233292877674103,
-0.028819801285862923,
-0.7056546211242676,
0.14068827033042908,
-0.08352251350879669,
0.5162327289581299,
0.6027717590332031,
0.05165543034672737,
0.6239436268806458,
-0.19826045632362366,
0.3386111557483673,
-0.4294878840446472,
0.19572579860687256,
-0.01329416036605835,
0.17927856743335724,
-0.31453821063041687,
-0.10050258785486221,
0.057766128331422806,
0.12247847765684128,
0.05580867454409599,
-0.414617657661438,
0.7513654828071594,
0.050405725836753845,
0.1825428009033203,
0.42378494143486023,
0.01296540442854166,
-0.46043965220451355,
0.3261876702308655,
0.09862776100635529,
0.051585305482149124,
-0.0863499641418457,
0.22469396889209747,
-0.33319535851478577,
0.1561591923236847,
-0.9626761078834534,
-0.8528443574905396,
-0.007699584122747183,
0.08394680172204971,
-0.25064969062805176,
0.23644299805164337,
0.31710129976272583,
0.12531156837940216,
0.16643500328063965,
-0.3620619773864746,
0.30119046568870544,
0.3402996361255646,
0.8527801632881165,
0.08402637392282486,
0.046516530215740204,
0.3378569483757019,
-0.4336048662662506,
-0.004157630726695061,
-0.4052466154098511,
0.05136686936020851,
0.27901849150657654,
-1.0560328960418701,
-0.557935357093811,
-0.053830716758966446,
-0.039403609931468964,
-0.16385991871356964,
-0.5466651916503906,
0.15290670096874237,
-0.16097800433635712,
-0.08054783195257187,
0.4703170657157898,
0.4008210599422455,
-0.5216752886772156,
0.13809971511363983,
0.7757324576377869,
0.40348657965660095,
-0.007832108065485954,
-0.08838143199682236,
0.3353656232357025,
-0.43439027667045593,
0.5073295831680298,
-0.5691606998443604,
0.2542862296104431,
0.13285085558891296,
-0.5643478035926819,
0.16160452365875244,
-0.0274914912879467,
-0.5376607179641724,
-0.2354172319173813,
0.5583707690238953,
-0.2795385420322418,
0.2718560993671417,
-0.5922551155090332,
-0.07965695858001709,
-1.0300095081329346,
-0.416392982006073,
0.28417104482650757,
0.007753817830234766,
-0.43072980642318726,
0.36369574069976807,
0.7732079029083252,
-0.6812430620193481,
0.6740010380744934,
0.6624510884284973,
-0.4917439818382263,
-0.4175354540348053,
0.003249910194426775,
-0.1336805373430252,
-0.30542701482772827,
0.163109689950943,
0.4486604630947113,
0.58920818567276,
-0.34930726885795593,
0.43102404475212097,
0.3097243309020996,
0.27239376306533813,
-0.3781045079231262,
-0.35633596777915955,
-0.21447442471981049,
-0.4423425495624542,
-0.1695939600467682,
-0.8048571944236755,
1.3975590467453003,
0.3871415853500366,
0.3710651695728302,
0.49269533157348633,
-0.6058422327041626,
0.3219454288482666,
-0.38113081455230713,
0.30866676568984985,
-0.5939246416091919,
0.14526523649692535,
-0.15843932330608368
] |
203574
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siwa%20Oasis
|
Siwa Oasis
|
The Siwa Oasis (, Wāḥat Sīwah, ; ) is an urban oasis in Egypt between the Qattara Depression and the Great Sand Sea in the Western Desert, 50 km (30 mi) east of the Libyan border, and 560 km (348 mi) from Cairo. About 80 km (50 mi) in length and 20 km (12 mi) wide, Siwa Oasis is one of Egypt's most isolated settlements with about 33,000 people, mostly Berbers, who developed a unique and isolated desert culture and a language called Siwi; they are also fluent in the Egyptian dialect of Arabic which is called "Masry" meaning Egyptian.
Its fame derives primarily from its ancient role as the home to an oracle of Ammon, the ruins of which are a popular tourist attraction which gave the oasis its ancient name Oasis of Amun Ra.
Geography
The Siwa oasis is in a deep depression that reaches below sea level, to about . To the west the Jaghbub oasis rests in a similar depression and to the east , the large Qattara Depression is also below sea level.
Name
The Ancient Egyptian name of the oasis was sḫt jꜣmw, meaning "Field of Trees". The native Libyan toponym may be preserved in the Egyptian t̠ꜣ(j) n d̠rw “tꜣj on the fringe” where t̠ꜣ transcribed the local Palaeo-Berber name *Se or *Sa. This name survived in the works of Muslim geographers as Santariyyah.
The etymology of the word سيوة Siwah is unclear. Champollion derives it from ⲥⲟⲟⲩϩ – a corruption of Egyptian word for "oasis", ⲟⲩⲁϩ. The additional evidence of the Egyptian source of Siwa's name is another place name in Kharga Oasis that may share the same etymology – S.t-wȝḥ, modern Deir el-Hagar). Basset links it to a Berber tribal name swh attested further west in the early Islamic period, while Ilahiane, following Chafik, links it to the Tašlḥiyt Berber word asiwan, a type of bird of prey, and hence to Amun-Ra, one of whose symbols was the falcon. Some classical authors referred to the site as "Ammonium".
History
Although the oasis is known to have been settled since at least the 10th millennium BC, the earliest evidence of any connection with Ancient Egypt is the 26th Dynasty, when a necropolis was established. Ancient Greek settlers at Cyrene made contact with the oasis around the same time (7th century BC), and the oracle temple of Amun (Greek: Zeus Ammon), who, Herodotus was told, took the image here of a ram. Herodotus knew of a "fountain of the Sun" that ran coldest in the noontime heat. During his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great reached the oasis, supposedly by following birds across the desert. The oracle, Alexander's court historians alleged, confirmed him as both a divine personage and the legitimate Pharaoh of Egypt, though Alexander's motives in making the excursion, following his founding of Alexandria, remain to some extent inscrutable and contested. During the Ptolemaic Kingdom, its Ancient Egyptian name was sḫ.t-ỉm3w, meaning "Field of Trees".
Evidence of Christianity at Siwa is uncertain, but in 708 the Siwans resisted an Islamic army, and probably did not convert until the 12th century. A local manuscript mentions only seven families totaling 40 men living at the oasis in 1203.
In the 12th century, Al-Idrisi mentions it as being inhabited mainly by Berbers, with an Arab minority; a century before Al-Bakri stated that only Berbers lived there. The Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi traveled to Siwa in the 15th century and described how the language spoken there 'is similar to the language of the Zenata'.
The first European to visit since Roman times was the English traveler William George Browne, who came in 1792 to see the ancient temple of the Oracle of Amun. Bompiani, in her description of the 19th-century explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, called this site the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon.
Egyptian sovereignty was confirmed on Siwa by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1819. In the spring of 1893, German explorer and photographer, Hermann Burchardt, took photographs of the architecture of the town of Siwa, now stored at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.
The Siwans are a Berber people, so demographically and culturally they were more closely related to nearby Libya, which has a large Berber population, than to Egypt, which has a negligible Berber population. Consequently, Arab rule from distant Cairo was at first tenuous and marked by several revolts. Egypt began to assert firmer control after a 1928 visit to the Oasis by King Fuad I, who berated the locals for "a certain vice" and specified punishments to bring Siwan behaviour in line with Egyptian morals (see next section).
Siwa was also the site of some fighting during World War I and World War II. The British Army's Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) was based here, but Rommel's Afrika Korps also took possession three times. German soldiers went skinny dipping in the lake of the oracle, contrary to local customs which prohibit public nudity. In 1942 while the Italian 136th Infantry Division Giovani Fascisti occupied the oasis, a tiny Egyptian puppet government-in-exile was set up at Siwa. The oasis makes a brief appearance as a base of the LRDG in the 1958 war film Ice Cold in Alex.
The ancient fortress of Siwa, known as the Shali Ghadi (Shali being the name of the town, and Ghadi meaning "remote"), was built on natural rock (an inselberg) and made of kershif (salt and mud-brick) and palm logs. After it was damaged by three days of heavy rains in 1926 it was abandoned for similar unreinforced construction housing on the plain surrounding it, and in some cases those, in turn, have been replaced by more modern cinder block and sheet metal roof buildings. Only one building in the Shali complex has been repaired and is in use, a mosque. Gradually eroded by infrequent rains and slowly collapsing, the Shali remains a prominent feature, towering five stories above the modern town and lit at night by floodlights. It is most easily approached from its southwest side, south of the end of the paved road which curves around from the north side of the Shali. Several uneven pedestrian streets lead from the southwest end of the Shali into it, the ground rent in places by deep cracks. Many of the unreinforced kershif buildings bordering the streets of the Shali are also split by large cracks, or they are partially collapsed.
Other local historic sites of interest include the remains of the oracle temple; the Gebel al Mawta (the Mountain of the Dead), a Roman-era necropolis featuring dozens of rock-cut tombs; and "Cleopatra's Bath", an antique natural spring. The fragmentary remains of the oracle temple, with some inscriptions dating from the 4th century BC, lie within the ruins of Aghurmi. The revelations of the oracle fell into disrepute under the Roman occupation of Egypt.
Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh), as the rest of Egypt.
Culture
The traditional culture of Siwa shows many unique elements, some reflecting its longstanding links with the isolated Oasis life and the fact that the inhabitants are Siwi Berbers. Until a tarmac road was built to the Mediterranean coast in the 1980s Siwa's only links with the outside world were by arduous camel tracks through the desert. These were used to export dates and olives, bring trade goods, or carry pilgrims on the route which linked the Maghreb to Cairo and hence to Mecca.
As a result of this isolation, Siwis developed a unique natural culture manifested in its crafts of basketry, pottery, silverwork and embroidery and in its style of dress. The most visible and celebrated examples of this were the bridal silver and the ensemble of silver ornaments and beads that women wore in abundance to weddings and other ceremonies. These pieces were decorated with symbols which related to Siwa's history and beliefs and attitudes.
The best known of these pieces is a huge silver disc called 'adrim' and a round necklace, called 'aghraw', from which it hung over the breast. A girl would give up the disc at a special ceremony in the spring the day she was married. The jewelry, which was made by local silversmiths, consisted of silver necklaces, earrings, bangles, hair ornaments, pendants, and many rings. For a wealthy woman, the full ensemble could weigh as much as five or six kilos. These pieces are decorated with symbols common to Berber people across North Africa designed to promote good health, fertility and to protect the wearer from misfortune. Some of the same signs and patterns are found on the embroidery which embellishes women's dresses, trousers, and shawls.
Art and local customs
The arrival of the road and of television exposed the oasis to the styles and fashions of the outside world and the traditional silver ornaments were gradually replaced by jewelry made of gold. Evidence of the old styles and traditions are however still in evidence in the women's embroidery and costume. The material for the "tarfutet", the distinctive all-enveloping shawl worn by women, are brought from outside the oasis, specifically from the town of Kirdasa, in the Giza Governorate.
Festivals
Siwi people are very religious so on Ramadan, they tend to close all the shops and stay at home for the whole month. Like other Muslim Egyptians, Siwis celebrate Eid al-Fitr (lʕid ahakkik,"the Little Eid") and Eid al-Adha (lʕid azuwwar,"the Big Eid"). Unlike other Egyptians, however, on Eid al-Adha Siwis cook the skin of the sheep (along with its innards) as a festival delicacy, after removing the hair. They also eat heart of palm (agroz).
The Siyaha Festival (Eid El Solh - Eid El Hasad), in honour of the town's traditional patron saint Sidi Sulayman, is unique to Siwa. (The name is often misunderstood as a reference to "tourism", but in fact predates tourism.), it is known that on this occasion Siwi men meet on a mountain near the town, Gabal Al - Dakrour, to eat together, sing chants while thanking God, and reconcile with one another; all Siwi houses co-operate in preparing and cooking food, in this day Siwian people eat fattah (rice, toasted bread and meat), after Dohr prayer (12:00 PM) all Siwian youth gather to set the banquet, nobody is allowed to eat before the caller announces to start eating so they can all eat together, the women stay behind in the village, and celebrate with dancing, singing, and drums. The food for the festival is bought collectively, with funds gathered by the oasis' mosques, celebrations last for 3 Qamari days, and in the early morning of the fourth day, siwian men form a big march, while holding flags and singing spiritual songs, march sarts from Gabal El - Dakrour and ends in Sidi Solayman square - in the center of Siwa - declaring ending of festivals, and beginning of a new year without hatred or grudge, and with love, respect and reconciliation.
Siwi children traditionally also celebrated Ashura by lighting torches, singing, and exchanging sweets. Adults' celebration was limited to the preparation of a large meal.
Relations with the Bedouins
Siwans are preferentially endogamous, only rarely marrying non-Siwans. Nonetheless, Bedouin brides command a higher brideprice in Siwa than Siwan ones.
According to older members of the Awlad Ali Bedouins, the Bedouin relations with Siwans were traditionally mediated through a system of "friendship", whereby a specific Siwan (and his descendants) would be the friend of a specific Bedouin (and his descendants). The Bedouin would stay at the Siwan's house when he came to Siwa, and would exchange his animal products and grain for the Siwan's dates and olive oil.
Siwa's Berbers are close to 30,000 in number.
The hot springs are an attraction to visitors.
Siwan homosexual tradition
Siwa is of special interest to anthropologists and sociologists because of its historical acceptance of male homosexuality and even rituals celebrating same-sex marriage - traditions that the Egyptian authorities have sought to repress, with increasing success, since the early twentieth century.
The German egyptologist Georg Steindorff explored the Oasis in 1900 and reported that homosexual relations were common and often extended to a form of marriage: "The feast of marrying a boy was celebrated with great pomp, and the money paid for a boy sometimes amounted to fifteen pounds, while the money paid for a woman was a little over one pound." Mahmud Mohammad Abd Allah, writing of Siwan customs for the Harvard Peabody Museum in 1917, commented that although Siwan men could take up to four wives, "Siwan customs allow a man but one boy to whom he is bound by a stringent code of obligations."
In 1937 the anthropologist Walter Cline wrote the first detailed ethnography of the Siwans in which he noted: "All normal Siwan men and boys practice sodomy...among themselves the natives are not ashamed of this; they talk about it as openly as they talk about love of women, and many if not most of their fights arise from homosexual competition....Prominent men lend their sons to each other. All Siwans know the matings which have taken place among their sheiks and their sheiks' sons....Most of the boys used in sodomy are between twelve and eighteen years of age." After an expedition to Siwa, the archaeologist Count Byron de Prorok reported in 1937 "an enthusiasm [that] could not have been approached even in Sodom... Homosexuality was not merely rampant, it was raging...Every dancer had his boyfriend...[and] chiefs had harems of boys".
In the late 1940s a Siwan merchant told the visiting British novelist Robin Maugham that the Siwan women were "badly neglected", but that Siwan men "will kill each other for boy. Never for a woman", although as Maugham noted, marriage to a boy had become illegal by then. The Egyptian archaeologist Ahmed Fakhry, who studied Siwa for three decades, observed in 1973 that "While the Siwans were still living inside their walled town, none of these bachelors was allowed to spend the night in the town and had to sleep outside the gates...Under such circumstances it is not surprising that homosexuality was common among them....Up to the year 1928, it was not unusual that some kind of written agreement, which was sometimes called a marriage contract, was made between two males; but since the visit of King Fu'ad to this oasis it has been completely forbidden...However, such agreements continued, but in great secrecy, and without the actual writing, until the end of World War II. Now the practice is not followed."
Despite the multiplicity of sources for these practices, the Egyptian authorities and even the Siwan tribal elders have attempted to repress the historical and anthropological record. When the Siwa-born anthropologist Fathi Malim included reference to Siwan homosexuality (especially a love poem from a man to a youth) in his book Oasis Siwa (2001), the tribal council demanded that he blank out the material in the current edition of the book and remove it from future editions, or be expelled from the community. Malim reluctantly agreed and physically deleted the passages in the first edition of his book, and excluded them from the second. A newer book, Siwa Past and Present (2005) by A. Dumairy, the Director of Siwa Antiquities, discreetly omits all mention of the famous historical practices of the inhabitants.
Economy
Agriculture is the main activity of modern Siwa, particularly the cultivation of dates and olives. Handicrafts like basketry are also of regional importance.
Tourism has in recent decades become a vital source of income. Much attention has been given to creating hotels that use local materials and display local styles.
Archaeology
In the mid-20th century, Egyptian archaeologist Ahmed Fakhry worked at Siwa (and elsewhere in the Western Desert).
In 1995, Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi announced that she had identified one alleged tomb in Siwa with that of Alexander the Great. The claim was put in doubt by George Thomas, then general secretary of the Greek Ministry of Culture, who said that it was unclear whether the excavated structure was even a tomb or its style Macedonian, while the fragments of tablets shown did not support any of the translations provided by Souvaltzi.
An extremely old hominid footprint was discovered in 2007 at Siwa Oasis. Egyptian scientists claimed it could be 2–3 million years old, which would make it the oldest fossilized hominid footprint ever found. However, no proof of this conjecture was ever presented.
In late 2013, an announcement was made regarding the apparent Archaeoastronomy discovery of precise spring and fall Equinox sunrise alignments over the Aghurmi mound/Amun Oracle when viewed from Timasirayn temple in the Western Desert, 12 km away across Lake Siwa. The first known recent public viewing of this event occurred on 21 March 2014 during the spring Equinox.
In popular culture
Siwa Oasis is an official map for Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory which belongs to North Africa Campaign. The fifth mission from the game Sniper Elite III takes place on the Siwa Oasis. Siwa is prominently featured in Assassin's Creed: Origins and is the birthplace and home of protagonist Bayek. In British author Anthony Horowitz's Alex Rider series, the ninth and eleventh instalments Scorpia Rising and Never Say Die feature Siwa. In Australian author Matthew Reilly's Jack West series of seven novels starting with Seven Ancient Wonders feature prominently the Oracle of Siwa.
Gallery
See also
List of cities and towns in Egypt
References
Bibliography
Pocket edition : éditions Payot, "Petite Bibliothèque Voyageurs", Paris, 1994. (see link below).
External links
Ministry of Environment Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency - Natural Protectorates Description
The Locally Run Website of Siwa Oasis.
Siwawi.com The guide for visiting Siwa Oasis.
Siwa Oasis – Extraordinary. Archived on Archive.is
Alain Blottière's Travel book on Siwa .
Siwa Oasis Photo Gallery.
Olive and Palm Groves in Siwa Oasis
Parks in Egypt
Classical oracles
Oases of Egypt
Berbers in Egypt
Populated places in Matrouh Governorate
Tourism in Egypt
National parks of Egypt
LGBT in Egypt
Springs of Egypt
Tourist attractions in Egypt
|
[
0.19559870660305023,
0.1757100224494934,
-0.22777844965457916,
-0.38761797547340393,
0.04437657818198204,
0.3387089967727661,
0.3651169538497925,
0.09025371819734573,
0.0538572333753109,
-0.5206525325775146,
-0.7226437330245972,
-0.05797380208969116,
-0.1657181680202484,
0.22472847998142242,
-0.08950001746416092,
0.6633197069168091,
0.14254263043403625,
0.12966899573802948,
0.4586842954158783,
0.02387692965567112,
0.058166395872831345,
-0.2206740528345108,
-0.18781724572181702,
-0.33344483375549316,
0.021255502477288246,
-0.10520392656326294,
0.28450459241867065,
0.6165624260902405,
-0.1255330592393875,
-0.048253774642944336,
0.013964791782200336,
0.415673166513443,
-0.4044189751148224,
-0.3616441786289215,
0.37059658765792847,
0.21404039859771729,
0.005251716356724501,
-0.5166940689086914,
-0.34811121225357056,
-0.8203625082969666,
-0.30907997488975525,
-0.5519014596939087,
0.28739091753959656,
0.3508477807044983,
-0.21651554107666016,
-0.5926941633224487,
-1.011051893234253,
0.3845686912536621,
-0.6276265978813171,
0.2547600567340851,
-0.616946280002594,
0.3926132619380951,
0.09593816101551056,
-0.03567931428551674,
0.3673475980758667,
0.4234347939491272,
-0.7868068218231201,
0.32697877287864685,
0.7214932441711426,
0.05791939049959183,
0.8674128651618958,
0.21579957008361816,
-0.2638503313064575,
0.3248150050640106,
-0.3947848081588745,
0.41382041573524475,
-0.02383621595799923,
0.119766965508461,
0.4286274313926697,
0.1882895529270172,
0.5055570006370544,
-0.05093860998749733,
-0.4687991440296173,
0.09110908210277557,
-0.4426364004611969,
0.1662014275789261,
-0.3414139747619629,
-0.29450851678848267,
0.006578411906957626,
0.5734145641326904,
0.3881424367427826,
-0.3482307195663452,
1.0424323081970215,
-0.18325194716453552,
0.312930166721344,
-0.09391361474990845,
-0.3938315212726593,
0.44347110390663147,
-1.0061149597167969,
0.08464718610048294,
-0.5514171719551086,
-0.35154950618743896,
0.25163254141807556,
0.03366227447986603,
-0.6221476197242737,
-0.0837797224521637,
0.1302814781665802,
0.30642953515052795,
-0.28560906648635864,
0.2165653109550476,
-0.5491403937339783,
0.29827430844306946,
0.14090928435325623,
0.2723415791988373,
-0.6509837508201599,
0.003720211796462536,
-0.4668654203414917,
-0.34814268350601196,
-0.1599012315273285,
-0.10306433588266373,
-0.3822074830532074,
0.33063632249832153,
0.17134927213191986,
0.07829496264457703,
0.03378405421972275,
0.20925766229629517,
0.15658719837665558,
0.26667141914367676,
-0.2546052932739258,
-0.3324226140975952,
0.703346848487854,
0.4831032156944275,
-0.1024337112903595,
-0.2896931767463684,
0.39968591928482056,
-0.18259258568286896,
0.27581557631492615,
-0.1125536561012268,
-0.638727605342865,
0.9303986430168152,
0.3751383423805237,
0.4014129042625427,
0.04391058534383774,
-0.012388643808662891,
0.3678131401538849,
-0.6383659839630127,
-0.45800578594207764,
0.15551099181175232,
0.7598455548286438,
0.35243743658065796,
-0.913130521774292,
0.463686466217041,
-0.5069899559020996,
0.10273033380508423,
0.1708781123161316,
-0.05419347062706947,
-0.049623042345047,
-0.46943041682243347,
-0.3499961197376251,
-0.35794612765312195,
-0.5127747058868408,
-0.5682147741317749,
-0.2287207841873169,
0.10593854635953903,
-0.22190678119659424,
-0.04083215445280075,
0.03472675010561943,
0.2253360152244568,
0.3305211067199707,
-0.026239801198244095,
0.31450510025024414,
0.2125067561864853,
0.607349157333374,
-0.0036936767864972353,
-0.007654170971363783,
0.05298680439591408,
0.3885343074798584,
0.1903659701347351,
-0.048860251903533936,
0.600570559501648,
-0.058264221996068954,
-0.5124119520187378,
0.32320719957351685,
-0.26487258076667786,
0.016401613131165504,
-0.23205894231796265,
0.997460126876831,
0.3780662417411804,
0.2589415907859802,
0.5445181131362915,
-0.7615483403205872,
-0.3281201720237732,
-0.17452454566955566,
0.1889035850763321,
0.31200459599494934,
-0.2816419303417206,
0.24488362669944763,
0.23990386724472046,
-0.08308731019496918,
0.11667980998754501,
-0.6313276886940002,
-0.7265292406082153,
-0.06518129259347916,
-0.1101422905921936,
0.2301320731639862,
0.14293618500232697,
-0.22380457818508148,
0.43194088339805603,
-0.08931896835565567,
0.20016278326511383,
-0.311189740896225,
-0.15220078825950623,
0.45809686183929443,
-0.3590446710586548,
-0.2276390790939331,
0.566408634185791,
0.28754135966300964,
0.09644762426614761,
-0.1821562647819519,
0.3136153817176819,
0.18729081749916077,
-0.30686843395233154,
-0.2414657473564148,
-0.0059968214482069016,
0.3652031719684601,
-0.2693811058998108,
-0.21510055661201477,
0.06732040643692017,
0.1399989277124405,
-0.40785109996795654,
0.8175359964370728,
0.25866737961769104,
-0.39138099551200867,
-0.056804873049259186,
-0.4106184244155884,
-0.23156343400478363,
0.43104052543640137,
0.0387965589761734,
0.4042111039161682,
-0.3440569043159485,
-0.12153951078653336,
-0.21430067718029022,
0.4836934804916382,
-0.3966748118400574,
0.0533042810857296,
-0.16880597174167633,
0.06305816769599915,
-0.2575390338897705,
0.6322861909866333,
0.22905109822750092,
0.09042801707983017,
-0.09270451217889786,
-0.6639572978019714,
-0.14285555481910706,
0.35518017411231995,
0.40939557552337646,
0.09641250222921371,
0.2748110890388489,
-0.6387014985084534,
-0.08403677493333817,
-0.07519219815731049,
0.6357750296592712,
0.35501858592033386,
-0.3535647392272949,
0.5709477066993713,
-0.1510648876428604,
-0.30931970477104187,
0.3542354106903076,
1.0779324769973755,
-0.4224656820297241,
-0.586578369140625,
0.39833569526672363,
0.010137653909623623,
0.5406588912010193,
0.430164635181427,
0.31302130222320557,
-0.38998153805732727,
-0.9428547024726868,
0.016547350212931633,
0.2884320616722107,
0.6697930097579956,
0.14603851735591888,
0.1332811564207077,
0.19778259098529816,
0.08134973794221878,
0.06318919360637665,
0.09871070086956024,
-0.11191894114017487,
-0.42107611894607544,
-0.07644474506378174,
0.7889249920845032,
0.2523544132709503,
0.29859453439712524,
-0.4023551046848297,
-0.140027716755867,
-0.11061426252126694,
-0.06997573375701904,
-0.18351517617702484,
-0.6097800135612488,
-0.5107854008674622,
-0.660241425037384,
0.13865883648395538,
0.02166976034641266,
0.7645773887634277,
-0.32598480582237244,
-0.23470818996429443,
-0.12294282019138336,
-0.24982649087905884,
0.13162469863891602,
-0.32378146052360535,
-0.45927777886390686,
0.7902100086212158,
-0.4814378321170807,
0.038012631237506866,
0.10316295921802521,
0.3664851188659668,
-0.36326679587364197,
0.27614930272102356,
-5.683321475982666,
0.47979411482810974,
-0.26629334688186646,
-0.06887815147638321,
-0.027268603444099426,
-0.36702442169189453,
0.613312840461731,
0.1291457712650299,
-0.13204161822795868,
-0.033549316227436066,
-0.26558685302734375,
-0.37402933835983276,
0.06031763181090355,
0.26062580943107605,
0.3184816539287567,
0.6452752351760864,
0.22861813008785248,
-0.5415520668029785,
0.14992530643939972,
0.047554247081279755,
-0.43028903007507324,
0.03225869685411453,
-0.6147646903991699,
0.5559459924697876,
0.02671821042895317,
0.3175007402896881,
-0.4735479950904846,
-0.06481947749853134,
-1.1145342588424683,
-0.42810773849487305,
-0.054512422531843185,
-0.3318435251712799,
-0.2948931157588959,
0.7155857086181641,
0.36907362937927246,
0.6126760244369507,
0.41753318905830383,
-0.37676286697387695,
0.5009533762931824,
-0.5802708864212036,
-0.12162525951862335,
0.5423195958137512,
-0.27455565333366394,
0.11235347390174866,
0.0781334638595581,
-0.7735008001327515,
-0.7417691349983215,
0.07976815104484558,
0.376524955034256,
0.5379801988601685,
0.0733298659324646,
0.06100723519921303,
0.12029014527797699,
-0.05558792129158974,
-0.3522615432739258,
0.01160833053290844,
-0.27632418274879456,
0.015560973435640335,
0.14823171496391296,
0.5281869173049927,
0.33545786142349243,
-0.5232515335083008,
0.09639086574316025,
-0.4817095398902893,
0.4326101541519165,
-0.2752182185649872,
0.1099870353937149,
-0.2291100174188614,
-0.041495244950056076,
0.5716853141784668,
0.037507444620132446,
0.08607877790927887,
-0.7401485443115234,
-1.0080574750900269,
-0.005549866706132889,
-0.6589901447296143,
0.005861614365130663,
-0.1752910017967224,
-0.11720047146081924,
-0.017335528507828712,
-0.1852835714817047,
-0.6348193883895874,
0.8374902606010437,
0.41532841324806213,
-0.020652595907449722,
-0.8403878211975098,
0.5783954858779907,
0.12088123708963394,
0.2584454119205475,
-0.5039491057395935,
1.1575027704238892,
-0.3474039137363434,
0.8486500978469849,
0.35635894536972046,
-0.2947750687599182,
0.6106026768684387,
0.4876689314842224,
-0.4297240674495697,
0.45222845673561096,
-0.02454703114926815,
0.49466392397880554,
-0.6971545815467834,
0.15353159606456757,
0.0036757951602339745,
-0.3321278691291809,
0.27349022030830383,
-0.3751971125602722,
0.22341664135456085,
0.8881418704986572,
-0.4802105128765106,
-0.3333442807197571,
0.5457816123962402,
-0.2007703334093094,
0.23197172582149506,
1.0994900465011597,
0.0385955311357975,
-0.07089104503393173,
0.712282657623291,
0.5343945026397705,
0.7616007924079895,
0.3243858814239502,
-0.046570368111133575,
-0.14679257571697235,
-0.07063999772071838,
0.18114857375621796,
-0.026837356388568878,
0.22959285974502563,
0.1906900554895401,
-0.18718309700489044,
-0.029049595817923546,
0.08679370582103729,
-0.05338478088378906,
-0.1604136824607849,
-0.12921245396137238,
0.0738753005862236,
-0.4374604821205139,
-1.1740623712539673,
-0.8487153053283691,
0.24034377932548523,
0.3448373079299927,
0.23132333159446716,
-0.043611396104097366,
-0.25642630457878113,
0.16446833312511444,
0.14791327714920044,
0.2938588857650757,
0.2242027372121811,
-0.04876136779785156,
-0.7750064730644226,
0.5176346898078918,
-0.153849795460701,
0.11597805470228195,
-0.09696509689092636,
0.0913199633359909,
-0.4876365661621094,
-0.20078669488430023,
0.5450896620750427,
0.30153653025627136,
0.2316342443227768,
0.4729810059070587,
0.06404195725917816,
-0.1862739622592926,
-1.0862388610839844,
0.26944440603256226,
-0.07120679318904877,
-0.1686055064201355,
0.28277549147605896,
-0.19594456255435944,
-0.028370710089802742,
0.4033706486225128,
0.20383377373218536,
-0.755693793296814,
-0.36709797382354736,
-0.4571223258972168,
0.07305806130170822,
-0.5398378372192383,
-0.1106375902891159,
0.3774186074733734,
0.1947212517261505,
-0.6659236550331116,
-0.28560972213745117,
0.003445243462920189,
-0.4000474810600281,
0.20279273390769958,
0.3671630620956421,
-0.1260441243648529,
-0.42513078451156616,
-0.2583169639110565,
-0.20498588681221008,
0.10714086890220642,
0.8115924000740051,
-0.2113601565361023,
-0.14989390969276428,
0.5299701690673828,
-0.28267374634742737,
-0.6790614724159241,
0.21632951498031616,
0.43813592195510864,
-0.3743196129798889,
-0.16692866384983063,
-0.0399891659617424,
-0.15273579955101013,
-0.9354789853096008,
0.6589491963386536,
-0.43810945749282837,
-0.6632210612297058,
0.8375380039215088,
0.2096652090549469,
-0.702597975730896,
-0.14745421707630157,
-0.5628060698509216,
-0.5715583562850952,
0.3862311840057373,
0.5348939299583435,
-0.8714950680732727,
-0.020303495228290558,
-0.37687617540359497,
-0.1538456529378891,
-0.5287332534790039,
-0.2076958566904068,
0.040524326264858246,
-0.6141315698623657,
0.2637515366077423,
-0.23523341119289398,
-0.29234686493873596,
0.3840841054916382,
0.49862077832221985,
-0.20721860229969025,
-0.33480891585350037,
0.2705810070037842,
0.46153438091278076,
0.3850964307785034,
0.4542357325553894,
0.19557318091392517,
-0.11740777641534805,
-0.0617719367146492,
-0.13943080604076385,
-0.5299520492553711,
-0.19345127046108246,
0.1816551685333252,
0.393372118473053,
0.4542044997215271,
-0.06236967816948891,
-0.6940817832946777,
0.07368693500757217,
0.34318917989730835,
-0.22838011384010315,
-0.7252470850944519,
-0.6764683723449707,
0.5955662131309509,
0.6469524502754211,
0.24285468459129333,
-0.5336061120033264,
-0.5283754467964172,
0.4284491539001465,
-0.1375994235277176,
0.1923513412475586,
0.3524966537952423,
-0.34125012159347534,
0.696705162525177,
0.7113584876060486,
-0.22099602222442627,
-0.13415727019309998,
0.07732946425676346,
-0.014464209787547588,
-0.6591580510139465,
0.011486489325761795,
-0.4171544909477234,
0.5466616749763489,
-1.0775830745697021,
-0.031973689794540405,
-0.793458104133606,
0.1735382080078125,
0.7589741945266724,
-0.0581602044403553,
-0.43605878949165344,
0.1634926050901413,
-0.5429463982582092,
-0.04019235819578171,
0.2501882016658783,
-0.7653836607933044,
-0.15018244087696075,
0.11105015128850937,
0.18633995950222015,
0.22035107016563416,
-0.3295334577560425,
-0.10379666090011597,
-0.07383501529693604,
-0.3471619784832001,
0.1963496059179306,
0.15917733311653137,
-0.47521981596946716,
0.05723795294761658,
0.31306079030036926,
0.30851778388023376,
0.39690089225769043,
0.5128564834594727,
0.46667173504829407,
-0.256719172000885,
-0.08827017992734909,
-0.417020708322525,
0.6039461493492126,
0.3715040981769562,
-0.24912194907665253,
0.28612640500068665,
-0.3829229474067688,
-0.12295948714017868,
-0.39345547556877136,
0.07722983509302139,
-0.2856942117214203,
-0.03194142132997513,
0.407377153635025,
0.297261506319046,
0.8838987946510315,
-0.47904351353645325,
0.48919427394866943,
0.1751769632101059,
-0.24610787630081177,
0.23048636317253113,
0.5784820318222046,
0.03869088366627693,
0.17628321051597595,
0.054497890174388885,
0.29930445551872253,
-0.45117899775505066,
0.7649100422859192,
-0.15054596960544586,
0.11830467730760574,
0.3738619089126587,
0.4563680589199066,
0.18000362813472748,
-0.2738040089607239,
0.19175253808498383,
-0.08867752552032471,
-0.3541344404220581,
0.13691435754299164,
0.1608162522315979,
-0.5936782956123352,
-0.09267545491456985,
0.009208157658576965,
0.16097809374332428,
0.2033470720052719,
-0.08907106518745422,
-0.022290315479040146,
-0.09842342138290405,
0.4846813380718231,
-0.24926850199699402,
0.28630927205085754,
0.6275336742401123,
-0.09031402319669724,
0.3076357841491699,
-0.15709547698497772,
-0.23142586648464203,
-0.4422473907470703,
-0.024574758484959602,
0.1559508889913559,
-0.0943366214632988,
0.1472717970609665,
-0.6018854975700378,
1.0077601671218872,
0.0037882954347878695,
0.3329230546951294,
0.4668540060520172,
0.20773574709892273,
0.04565082862973213,
-0.19146396219730377,
0.11540545523166656,
-1.2800885438919067,
0.30058997869491577,
0.28010085225105286,
0.45923560857772827,
0.39560964703559875,
-0.3615824282169342,
0.3229779005050659,
0.9570067524909973,
0.4465670585632324,
-0.10575097799301147,
0.4032800495624542,
-0.01283726841211319,
0.2969973683357239,
0.3067946434020996,
-0.18386951088905334,
-0.18464159965515137,
-0.2015618085861206,
0.0607769675552845,
-0.037464357912540436,
-0.0972374826669693,
-0.30270057916641235,
-0.7453399300575256,
-0.018167445436120033,
-0.22219310700893402,
-0.3224983513355255,
0.09422528743743896,
-0.6321831941604614,
-0.19082759320735931,
0.08434043824672699,
-0.27195942401885986,
0.7005916833877563,
-0.04193434491753578,
-0.37807080149650574,
0.3590659499168396,
0.03240194171667099,
0.16162411868572235,
0.27355772256851196,
-0.3389327824115753,
0.5374184846878052,
-0.2724545896053314,
0.09703458100557327,
-0.2721758186817169,
0.3425704538822174,
0.4060666859149933,
0.6189190149307251,
0.20323976874351501,
0.7312271595001221,
-0.30635300278663635,
0.3336435556411743,
0.19173818826675415,
0.09046357125043869,
0.5184933543205261,
-0.9589523077011108,
-0.5264573097229004,
-0.6796980500221252,
-0.34062424302101135,
0.10566035658121109,
0.07779090106487274,
-0.31872043013572693,
0.21381624042987823,
0.34178799390792847,
-0.61100172996521,
0.6676868200302124,
0.3193204998970032,
-0.2541908919811249,
-0.7184139490127563,
-0.041627395898103714,
-0.8960847854614258,
-0.3447750508785248,
0.1633749157190323,
0.9530880451202393,
0.08429619669914246,
-0.08452282845973969,
0.22793853282928467,
-0.11261666566133499,
0.07137627899646759,
-0.14605289697647095,
-0.3679554760456085,
-0.22368372976779938,
-0.9550883769989014,
-0.5981702208518982,
-0.9456297755241394,
0.7585538625717163,
0.23848511278629303,
-0.31671246886253357,
-0.11479491740465164,
-0.053704194724559784,
-0.20851662755012512,
-0.3793242573738098,
0.08880197256803513,
-0.9384697675704956,
0.29195523262023926,
-0.031204987317323685
] |
203579
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northampton-class%20cruiser
|
Northampton-class cruiser
|
The Northampton-class cruisers were a group of six heavy cruisers built for the United States Navy, and commissioned between 1928 and 1931.
The Northamptons saw much action in World War II. Three (Northampton, Chicago, and Houston) were lost during the war. The other three were decommissioned soon after the end of the war, and scrapped in 1959–1961.
Design
The design of the ships was heavily influenced by the Washington Naval Treaty, which limited cruisers to a maximum of 10,000 tons displacement and a maximum main battery caliber of . The Northamptons were a reaction to the weight and cost of the immediately preceding , differing in several ways. The Pensacolas mounted a main battery of 10 guns in four turrets, a twin and superfiring triple fore and aft. In contrast, the Northamptons mounted 9 guns in three triple turrets, two forward and one aft, the layout followed in all subsequent U.S. heavy cruisers.
Although armor was increased, the Northamptons turned out to be lighter than the Pensacolas, and nearly 1,000 tons below the treaty limitations. Freeboard was increased in the Northamptons by adopting a high forecastle, which was extended aft in the last three for use as flagships. These ships were also the first U.S. ships to adopt a hangar for aircraft, and bunks instead of hammocks. Their lighter than expected weight caused them to roll excessively, which necessitated the fitting of deep bilge keels. The immediately following was essentially a modified Northampton.
Ships in class
References
External links
Global Security.org – Northampton class cruiser
Global Security.org – Northampton class cruiser specifications
Cruiser classes
|
[
-0.2966591715812683,
-0.4094063937664032,
-0.40679270029067993,
0.19397994875907898,
-0.20710957050323486,
0.730831503868103,
0.5480825304985046,
-0.2071896493434906,
-0.22525142133235931,
-0.2196917086839676,
0.13198745250701904,
0.8218837976455688,
-0.3515720069408417,
0.2590993046760559,
0.08636175096035004,
0.40249258279800415,
0.480832576751709,
0.30654647946357727,
-0.004930892493575811,
-0.3031523823738098,
0.1098172590136528,
-0.0032108810264617205,
0.8543094396591187,
-0.04049355164170265,
-0.01827552169561386,
0.40181830525398254,
0.9989449381828308,
0.36350148916244507,
0.42097601294517517,
0.4730183780193329,
0.31982797384262085,
0.8788577914237976,
-0.07531518489122391,
0.25493481755256653,
0.1839626282453537,
-0.23297925293445587,
-0.089229516685009,
-0.31736934185028076,
0.18631702661514282,
-0.3305743634700775,
-0.5009317994117737,
-0.18682587146759033,
0.07377149909734726,
0.4845612943172455,
-0.029895739629864693,
0.2740636169910431,
-1.5041621923446655,
-0.23144805431365967,
-0.09618862718343735,
-0.18674539029598236,
-0.4271743595600128,
0.6712029576301575,
0.6838530898094177,
0.6277713775634766,
0.3776167035102844,
0.4697987139225006,
-0.6299377083778381,
-0.08618294447660446,
-0.285829097032547,
-0.37821584939956665,
0.2508094608783722,
0.4610011875629425,
0.728411078453064,
0.1734556257724762,
-0.17789986729621887,
0.02371923066675663,
-0.45797058939933777,
0.023813478648662567,
0.013166265562176704,
-0.7481796741485596,
0.43259915709495544,
-0.3855495750904083,
0.10417291522026062,
0.24215956032276154,
-0.08223799616098404,
-0.08363713324069977,
0.0045416634529829025,
-0.8242783546447754,
0.22545519471168518,
0.024680085480213165,
0.4195350110530853,
-0.1619817465543747,
0.8540555834770203,
0.4180784821510315,
-0.380383163690567,
0.3019661605358124,
-0.594996452331543,
0.2348441481590271,
-0.3898792266845703,
1.1475480794906616,
-0.6428552865982056,
-0.012568805366754532,
0.4603881239891052,
0.4968482553958893,
-0.15574464201927185,
0.1784568578004837,
-0.08013393729925156,
-0.10224049538373947,
0.31491607427597046,
-0.1457376480102539,
-0.07098355889320374,
0.5745570659637451,
0.5236341953277588,
-0.22899432480335236,
-0.5514315366744995,
-0.28199732303619385,
-0.01806260645389557,
-0.4042060971260071,
-0.7334454655647278,
-0.08225015550851822,
-0.34221288561820984,
-0.14629845321178436,
-0.08170640468597412,
0.13652805984020233,
0.6787852644920349,
-0.3508723974227905,
-0.048105694353580475,
-0.976376473903656,
-0.6513479351997375,
-0.3475179672241211,
0.06304651498794556,
0.5861852169036865,
-0.1497657597064972,
-0.1759805828332901,
0.0769970566034317,
0.4775254726409912,
0.5754321813583374,
0.3766942024230957,
-0.6188474893569946,
-0.5964059233665466,
0.5157040357589722,
0.6097843647003174,
-0.39664214849472046,
0.2163042426109314,
-0.5267295837402344,
0.03832089155912399,
0.17363053560256958,
-0.10261761397123337,
0.4176346957683563,
0.43829748034477234,
-0.3930175304412842,
-0.38350003957748413,
0.1965259164571762,
-0.802484393119812,
0.765519380569458,
-0.4441409409046173,
0.5781517624855042,
-0.34536996483802795,
-0.47771650552749634,
-0.35875803232192993,
0.15255706012248993,
-0.47735488414764404,
0.12308730185031891,
0.14848875999450684,
-0.3196570575237274,
-0.11124718934297562,
0.3789379894733429,
-0.20346137881278992,
0.21715086698532104,
-0.005816966760903597,
-0.6833182573318481,
0.1939234733581543,
-0.37067240476608276,
0.030374988913536072,
-0.09948497265577316,
0.22501406073570251,
0.13607540726661682,
-0.051423799246549606,
0.2159452885389328,
-0.1586710661649704,
-0.38838300108909607,
-0.06908747553825378,
0.2693455219268799,
-0.018622945994138718,
-0.3707870543003082,
0.15613241493701935,
0.8190624117851257,
-0.0605752095580101,
0.4158715605735779,
-0.650966465473175,
-0.18566517531871796,
0.04429929330945015,
0.8164302706718445,
0.3627016544342041,
0.4154384136199951,
0.30489078164100647,
0.14312875270843506,
-0.019609905779361725,
0.08036067336797714,
-0.17607490718364716,
0.1144668385386467,
-0.1982470154762268,
0.23658880591392517,
0.08558878302574158,
1.2883011102676392,
0.24545998871326447,
-0.5741332769393921,
-0.02437463216483593,
0.17358870804309845,
0.34000280499458313,
0.4108990430831909,
-0.015992728993296623,
0.10529973357915878,
0.05535019561648369,
-0.7041143774986267,
-0.3454855680465698,
-0.06385944783687592,
0.5933266282081604,
-0.34312504529953003,
0.6187115907669067,
-0.006030382588505745,
-1.0111294984817505,
0.17896366119384766,
0.5221941471099854,
-0.0998888611793518,
0.07459339499473572,
-0.25947171449661255,
0.1869245171546936,
0.35612115263938904,
-0.7525988817214966,
0.6186739802360535,
0.09041982144117355,
-0.19927673041820526,
-0.07849100977182388,
0.07539345324039459,
-0.15488970279693604,
-0.06732384860515594,
0.4254651367664337,
-0.03923321142792702,
-0.11420978605747223,
0.05950076878070831,
0.14262042939662933,
-0.7083996534347534,
-0.5309454798698425,
0.44109848141670227,
0.5421589612960815,
-0.2010187953710556,
-0.19619083404541016,
0.3437754511833191,
-0.4264831840991974,
-0.09473278373479843,
0.09593284130096436,
-0.4630565047264099,
-0.053020868450403214,
0.5501285195350647,
-0.21617454290390015,
0.2102118879556656,
0.15988002717494965,
-0.1983669400215149,
-0.5755465030670166,
0.04559822008013725,
0.49038204550743103,
0.3871515691280365,
-0.2961024343967438,
0.06715170294046402,
0.07692135125398636,
-0.10312140733003616,
-0.42664727568626404,
0.8595350384712219,
-0.030940335243940353,
-0.19390156865119934,
0.553321123123169,
0.008847267366945744,
0.1386556774377823,
0.28042304515838623,
-0.4074259102344513,
-0.2613663077354431,
-0.10031260550022125,
0.09746377170085907,
-0.432175874710083,
0.015845712274312973,
0.37419313192367554,
0.14427930116653442,
-0.3479979634284973,
0.2048768699169159,
-0.32899942994117737,
-0.07594828307628632,
0.8210936188697815,
-0.5971604585647583,
-0.7723235487937927,
0.42166343331336975,
0.7474663257598877,
0.09332706034183502,
-0.5457678437232971,
-0.313431054353714,
-0.504655659198761,
0.1521693915128708,
-0.9333041310310364,
-0.14544399082660675,
-0.18340815603733063,
-0.004428269807249308,
-0.15008723735809326,
-0.5883462429046631,
-0.23439939320087433,
-0.5897356867790222,
0.6651777625083923,
-0.4197987914085388,
0.014671018347144127,
0.03377273678779602,
0.0370025634765625,
-0.4524437487125397,
0.4251391887664795,
-0.24639861285686493,
0.017914820462465286,
0.10574928671121597,
0.35274821519851685,
-0.6686140298843384,
0.07748234272003174,
-5.4984846115112305,
-0.255951464176178,
-0.2659195363521576,
0.22097599506378174,
-0.10199862718582153,
0.50664883852005,
0.030585097149014473,
-0.0810336098074913,
-0.2024998515844345,
-0.6883010864257812,
1.012762188911438,
0.034720294177532196,
-0.3722953200340271,
-0.19223900139331818,
0.48930639028549194,
0.17761953175067902,
1.032342791557312,
-0.2560095489025116,
0.41309502720832825,
0.008273977786302567,
0.5943808555603027,
-0.38787299394607544,
-0.06888523697853088,
0.34931254386901855,
0.18109320104122162,
-0.08163795620203018,
-0.4643997251987457,
0.14796891808509827,
-0.6350575089454651,
-0.3067593574523926,
-0.2941268980503082,
0.0273261908441782,
-0.07632441818714142,
-0.02397281490266323,
-0.11476875841617584,
-0.28487396240234375,
0.553351879119873,
0.18072767555713654,
0.14821253716945648,
-0.7951830625534058,
-0.383653849363327,
0.20649950206279755,
-0.10483542084693909,
-0.44431543350219727,
0.05204062536358833,
-0.15383189916610718,
0.10205496847629547,
0.2833365499973297,
0.11795925348997116,
0.8394038081169128,
0.39377930760383606,
0.2927404046058655,
0.2580745220184326,
0.5126779675483704,
0.45284733176231384,
-0.2898710370063782,
-0.3810268044471741,
0.08586204797029495,
-0.4724781811237335,
0.16284780204296112,
0.10562649369239807,
-0.25696057081222534,
-0.03572295606136322,
-0.11526380479335785,
-0.25507813692092896,
0.11875804513692856,
-0.4454834461212158,
0.25050708651542664,
0.5491010546684265,
0.15713082253932953,
0.18518801033496857,
1.5756536722183228,
-0.09138069301843643,
-0.8848963975906372,
-0.0034664629492908716,
-0.3931393325328827,
0.41842642426490784,
-0.17134757339954376,
-0.20889098942279816,
0.19628310203552246,
0.3155902922153473,
-0.45253023505210876,
0.0059701367281377316,
0.8237501382827759,
0.6545334458351135,
-0.8486678600311279,
-0.4280715584754944,
0.45092594623565674,
-0.4624192416667938,
-0.28171756863594055,
0.2545442581176758,
-0.38421958684921265,
0.49579665064811707,
0.35206112265586853,
1.033294677734375,
-0.5393896102905273,
-0.10239129513502121,
0.4476335048675537,
0.3080761134624481,
-0.2982325553894043,
0.2901938259601593,
-0.16655413806438446,
0.7417353987693787,
0.03967393934726715,
-0.7251347303390503,
-0.05026103928685188,
-0.40357664227485657,
0.2426549345254898,
0.8436398506164551,
0.009118086658418179,
-0.343972384929657,
-0.8396318554878235,
-0.1692635864019394,
-0.7038367390632629,
1.1037209033966064,
0.01419660821557045,
-0.009559265337884426,
0.4984127879142761,
0.5201196074485779,
0.5953372120857239,
-0.2904037833213806,
0.5319302082061768,
-0.33893129229545593,
-0.3722701072692871,
-0.11414866894483566,
-0.7011247277259827,
0.528380274772644,
0.002216751454398036,
-0.5287513732910156,
0.22518880665302277,
0.32568904757499695,
0.3339981138706207,
-0.2922275960445404,
0.022612053900957108,
-0.09513288736343384,
-0.22212789952754974,
-0.7291338443756104,
-0.17265503108501434,
-0.05322398245334625,
0.465003103017807,
-0.9285857081413269,
-0.2243538349866867,
-0.34045690298080444,
0.2740672528743744,
1.1732158660888672,
0.5263530611991882,
0.5777019262313843,
-0.3468921184539795,
-0.2288604974746704,
0.32970523834228516,
-0.2757984399795532,
-0.3486179709434509,
0.3330627679824829,
-0.9569801092147827,
0.19617967307567596,
0.13957996666431427,
0.5496779680252075,
-0.10235178470611572,
-0.09891732037067413,
-0.5416785478591919,
0.3210738003253937,
-0.06157445162534714,
-0.38486915826797485,
-0.5599705576896667,
0.2967308461666107,
0.4587641954421997,
-0.642440915107727,
-0.6642091870307922,
-0.03603255748748779,
0.12499528378248215,
0.5188018083572388,
-0.4681231677532196,
-0.6153735518455505,
-0.23327140510082245,
0.2117527574300766,
0.44892242550849915,
-1.0085151195526123,
-0.27348029613494873,
-0.4655502140522003,
0.04584213346242905,
-0.23459337651729584,
0.07868693023920059,
-0.17186321318149567,
0.09753275662660599,
0.24939805269241333,
-0.041934531182050705,
-0.7170938849449158,
0.39223265647888184,
-0.22593876719474792,
0.0489083006978035,
-0.2745504081249237,
-0.5813290476799011,
0.5587507486343384,
0.5713006258010864,
-1.0581974983215332,
0.2239709049463272,
0.23534531891345978,
0.46897250413894653,
0.26617762446403503,
-0.8601795434951782,
0.24349063634872437,
0.6358623504638672,
-0.6626589894294739,
-0.177089124917984,
0.4099835455417633,
-0.2493804544210434,
-0.21716748178005219,
-0.6340335607528687,
0.06776539236307144,
0.4448206126689911,
-0.43549206852912903,
-0.8672484755516052,
0.45082488656044006,
0.5461567640304565,
-0.43576592206954956,
-0.0964755117893219,
-0.21947497129440308,
-0.003460192121565342,
-0.30830514430999756,
-0.9097639322280884,
-0.643679141998291,
-0.09933657199144363,
-0.3218676745891571,
-0.6019697189331055,
-0.8821465969085693,
0.39605599641799927,
-0.10477398335933685,
-0.07970600575208664,
-0.1448003202676773,
0.18470823764801025,
-0.28597205877304077,
0.15458454191684723,
-0.2989126741886139,
-0.45299896597862244,
0.8343473076820374,
-0.26851820945739746,
-0.1501038372516632,
-0.14220912754535675,
0.335886687040329,
0.1949450820684433,
0.2850516438484192,
1.389392375946045,
0.11097779870033264,
-0.61577969789505,
-0.16110771894454956,
0.16362234950065613,
0.22087451815605164,
-0.2664637863636017,
-0.0982334241271019,
0.10651017725467682,
-0.308784157037735,
-0.7605273723602295,
-0.7653523683547974,
-0.14945483207702637,
0.7009759545326233,
-0.6051197648048401,
0.0696525052189827,
-0.24615831673145294,
0.09894724935293198,
0.33731937408447266,
-0.27714237570762634,
0.3426721394062042,
-0.8715530037879944,
-0.16998080909252167,
0.3940906822681427,
0.3982667922973633,
-0.4241175353527069,
0.03447755426168442,
0.4445178806781769,
0.16310150921344757,
0.16537323594093323,
0.5868557691574097,
0.06739376485347748,
0.537929356098175,
-0.1652137190103531,
-0.05671415850520134,
-0.038289982825517654,
-0.7213670015335083,
0.4636247456073761,
0.1401491016149521,
-0.8495544195175171,
0.3682844936847687,
-0.16080747544765472,
-0.43114393949508667,
-0.6339729428291321,
-0.5390837788581848,
-0.3296378254890442,
-0.7468341588973999,
0.06850939244031906,
0.01539827510714531,
0.31086230278015137,
-0.11195611208677292,
-0.41857317090034485,
0.034315165132284164,
-0.10342559963464737,
0.5148747563362122,
-0.0283412616699934,
0.37485364079475403,
-0.27611401677131653,
0.6026303172111511,
0.01643763668835163,
0.4882994592189789,
-0.4922482371330261,
-0.4116232395172119,
0.37912994623184204,
0.010049358941614628,
0.07856207340955734,
0.04813549667596817,
-0.11319044977426529,
-0.23643775284290314,
-0.30251672863960266,
-0.8064866662025452,
0.3325001299381256,
0.6862509250640869,
-0.8891565799713135,
0.13614718616008759,
0.29873040318489075,
-0.07864605635404587,
-0.41838523745536804,
-0.31544607877731323,
0.29567185044288635,
0.9598647952079773,
-0.05283430591225624,
0.36266934871673584,
-0.43264806270599365,
0.6761893630027771,
-0.6517465114593506,
-0.032244306057691574,
0.1122199073433876,
1.1836928129196167,
-0.2184285819530487,
-0.3734423816204071,
-0.4486094117164612,
0.6468269228935242,
-0.13521365821361542,
0.02727350778877735,
0.49956345558166504,
-0.5260643362998962,
-0.3462640345096588,
0.491268128156662,
0.12077952921390533,
-0.3609852194786072,
0.06856594234704971,
-0.3680479824542999,
-0.010406766086816788,
0.05500518158078194,
0.0009671706357039511,
-0.05639692768454552,
0.573210597038269,
0.10255011916160583,
0.4313802421092987,
0.3529575765132904,
0.5464731454849243,
0.015163283795118332,
-0.0048078736290335655,
0.44259336590766907,
0.37923359870910645,
-0.42812129855155945,
-0.35657984018325806,
-0.6616626381874084,
-0.2993108332157135,
-0.11649249494075775,
0.33120372891426086,
-0.07310499995946884,
-0.21790815889835358,
0.5013455748558044,
-0.06682657450437546,
0.2951960265636444,
0.08268830925226212,
0.24515092372894287,
0.25806936621665955,
0.2854985296726227,
-0.10839293152093887,
0.1171708032488823,
0.3302170932292938,
0.17973001301288605,
0.4978923201560974,
-0.08956930786371231,
0.39153701066970825,
0.050817232578992844,
-0.028176743537187576,
0.6069780588150024,
-0.13058355450630188,
-1.1535171270370483,
-0.2885725796222687,
0.20669865608215332,
-0.345529168844223,
0.06652544438838959,
0.49234023690223694,
-0.21291759610176086,
0.4488232731819153,
-0.05836603790521622,
-0.47113311290740967,
-0.03278372064232826,
-0.42734456062316895,
0.1557808369398117,
-0.3308864235877991,
0.5765660405158997,
-0.06668123602867126,
0.46963581442832947,
-0.22740444540977478,
-0.21419116854667664,
0.0700535848736763,
0.47718778252601624,
0.13147316873073578,
-0.231700137257576,
-0.5461471080780029,
-0.19881370663642883,
-0.4235301911830902,
0.4136900007724762,
-0.006262651644647121,
-0.5368713140487671,
-0.08409249037504196,
0.016233183443546295,
0.023957528173923492,
-0.11595029383897781,
0.823334276676178,
-0.4690302014350891,
-0.8977769613265991,
-0.14606145024299622,
0.6005276441574097,
-0.12830840051174164,
-0.23131969571113586,
0.03402570262551308,
-0.3273857533931732,
-0.22273226082324982,
-0.0321674570441246,
-0.6650509238243103,
0.23420128226280212,
0.6547715663909912,
0.019753115251660347,
0.09985824674367905,
-0.4116417169570923,
0.2908860743045807,
-0.11759818345308304,
-0.37350204586982727,
0.19640274345874786,
0.5115303993225098,
0.8718954920768738,
0.16809138655662537,
0.33185505867004395,
-0.629689633846283,
0.2549813985824585,
0.18909847736358643,
0.5307276248931885,
0.1156279593706131,
0.5245459675788879,
-0.39077669382095337,
0.10990583151578903,
0.7427799701690674,
-0.21808822453022003,
-0.5652628540992737,
0.06654858589172363,
0.011326797306537628,
0.22122296690940857,
-0.3000420033931732,
0.3594815135002136,
-0.2984263002872467,
-0.16539664566516876,
-0.6303949356079102
] |
203582
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syagrius
|
Syagrius
|
Syagrius (430 – 486 or 487 or 493–4) was a Roman general and the last ruler of a Roman rump state in northern Gaul, now called the Kingdom of Soissons. Gregory of Tours referred to him as King of the Romans. Syagrius's defeat by king Clovis I of the Franks is considered the end of Western Roman rule outside of Italy. He inherited his position from his father, Aegidius, the last Roman magister militum per Gallias. Syagrius preserved his father's territory between the Somme and the Loire around Soissons after the collapse of central rule in the Western Empire, a domain Gregory of Tours called the "Kingdom" of Soissons. Syagrius governed this Gallo-Roman enclave from the death of his father in 464 until 486, when he was defeated in battle by Clovis I.
Historians have mistrusted the title "Rex Romanorum" that Gregory of Tours gave him, at least as early as Godefroid Kurth, who dismissed it as a gross error in 1893. The common consensus has been to follow Kurth, based on the historical truism that Romans hated kingship from the days of the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud; for example, Syagrius' article in the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire omits this title, preferring to refer to him as a "Roman ruler (in North Gaul)". However, Steven Fanning has assembled a number of examples of rex being used in a neutral, if not favorable, context, and argues that "the phrase Romanorum rex is not peculiar to Gregory of Tours or to Frankish sources", and that Gregory's usage may indeed show "that they were, or were seen to be, claiming to be Roman emperors."
End of Roman Gaul
Despite being isolated from the surviving portions of the Roman Empire, Syagrius managed to maintain a degree of Roman authority in northern Gaul for twenty years, and his state outlived the end of the Western Empire itself, the last Emperors being overthrown or killed in 476 and 480. Syagrius managed to hold off the neighbouring Salian Franks, who were internally divided under kings including Childeric. However, it is known that Childeric had previously come to the aid of the Gallo-Romans, joining a certain officer named Paul in operations against Saxons who at one point seized Angers.
Upon Childeric's death in 481 his son Clovis succeeded him. While Childeric had seen no need to overthrow the last Roman foothold in the west, Clovis assembled an army, issued a challenge, and met Syagrius's forces. Few details are known of the subsequent clash, the Battle of Soissons, but Syagrius was decisively defeated and fled. His domain passed to the Franks.
As Edward Gibbon later wrote, "It would be ungenerous, without some more accurate knowledge of his strength and resources, to condemn the rapid flight of Syagrius, who escaped after the loss of a battle to the distant court of Toulouse." Toulouse was the capital of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths. Intimidated by the victorious Franks, the Visigoths imprisoned Syagrius, then surrendered him to Clovis. He died not long after, stabbed in secret according to Gregory of Tours.
Descendants
Despite the assassination of Syagrius, the family evidently prospered under Frankish rule. King Guntram sent a Count Syagrius on a diplomatic mission to the Byzantine Empire in 585. A member of the family, Syagria, made a large donation of land to the monks of Novalesa Abbey in 739. "The last known member of the Syagrii was an abbot of Nantua who was mentioned in 757."
See also
Last of the Romans
Neustria
Notes
Further reading
430 births
486 deaths
5th-century Gallo-Roman people
5th-century monarchs in Europe
Last of the Romans
Kingdom of Soissons
|
[
-0.7908692955970764,
-0.2376597374677658,
-0.43844467401504517,
0.09830651432275772,
-0.3240475356578827,
0.8897384405136108,
0.5561227798461914,
0.21808619797229767,
-0.534857988357544,
-0.130594402551651,
-0.12746280431747437,
-0.1552695780992508,
-0.6492288112640381,
-0.04428118094801903,
0.011621074751019478,
0.3581799864768982,
-0.13039270043373108,
0.06748879700899124,
-0.04686661437153816,
-0.05634655803442001,
0.34368640184402466,
0.06347301602363586,
-0.003192412666976452,
-0.16071544587612152,
0.2917572259902954,
0.1693810671567917,
0.16479070484638214,
0.2896883189678192,
-0.22503525018692017,
-0.5610523819923401,
-0.15038874745368958,
0.443157434463501,
-0.009572798386216164,
-0.3235916197299957,
-0.434713751077652,
0.3869003355503082,
-0.02490781620144844,
-0.08167820423841476,
0.07957983762025833,
-0.09647752344608307,
-0.35762590169906616,
0.2466816008090973,
0.195253387093544,
0.1394401341676712,
-0.19149436056613922,
0.00878229457885027,
-1.3005036115646362,
0.31033971905708313,
-0.396864116191864,
-0.7425581812858582,
-0.14113658666610718,
0.23065899312496185,
-0.22850348055362701,
0.059281785041093826,
-0.000585510628297925,
0.32047396898269653,
-0.646361231803894,
-0.6651514768600464,
0.07065373659133911,
-0.017068417742848396,
1.0773978233337402,
-0.26093590259552,
0.33565568923950195,
-0.19228105247020721,
0.16561198234558105,
-0.09117457270622253,
-0.013028333894908428,
0.5090864896774292,
0.16231082379817963,
-0.16204766929149628,
-0.0968272015452385,
0.42463794350624084,
-0.3291047513484955,
0.3080269694328308,
-0.20596319437026978,
-0.46408405900001526,
0.2106991410255432,
0.31234368681907654,
0.6749841570854187,
0.3111165463924408,
-0.38234472274780273,
-0.38297706842422485,
0.7696650624275208,
-0.10254256427288055,
0.13312360644340515,
-0.018921617418527603,
0.007810883689671755,
0.502215564250946,
-0.48564937710762024,
-0.3818158209323883,
0.04975641518831253,
-0.6657048463821411,
0.5274328589439392,
0.08923828601837158,
-0.7296218276023865,
-0.07536070048809052,
-0.7602464556694031,
0.11123476922512054,
-0.28254908323287964,
-0.23904038965702057,
-0.5262035131454468,
0.6072174310684204,
-0.5102020502090454,
-0.41114410758018494,
-0.1073695570230484,
0.07353194057941437,
0.21010734140872955,
-0.2731142044067383,
-0.648368775844574,
-0.047732044011354446,
-0.35589268803596497,
0.12467261403799057,
0.0967366024851799,
-0.2796533703804016,
-0.12743645906448364,
0.4482295513153076,
-0.19128774106502533,
-0.4874315857887268,
-0.4626290500164032,
-0.09899915754795074,
0.40270230174064636,
0.18089079856872559,
-0.25819841027259827,
-0.08492545783519745,
0.04082770273089409,
-0.6301251649856567,
0.6649166345596313,
0.2472488135099411,
-0.4151274859905243,
0.5054841637611389,
0.5292654633522034,
0.7136364579200745,
-1.010893702507019,
0.14751218259334564,
0.42745643854141235,
0.2578410804271698,
-0.3132631182670593,
0.3905982971191406,
-0.2596249282360077,
-0.295868843793869,
-0.35672637820243835,
0.20318840444087982,
-0.2856728136539459,
0.47322529554367065,
0.10890702158212662,
0.16656708717346191,
0.37145254015922546,
0.18147200345993042,
-0.03603651002049446,
-0.39062267541885376,
-0.10293776541948318,
-0.284652978181839,
-0.13470116257667542,
-0.038321834057569504,
-0.04195132479071617,
-0.15051832795143127,
0.29265472292900085,
-0.0762539654970169,
0.22241903841495514,
0.3225463926792145,
0.3307318687438965,
0.3794780969619751,
-0.7216536402702332,
-0.044144243001937866,
0.7132167816162109,
0.026401838287711143,
-0.017857927829027176,
-0.12559951841831207,
-0.1636773943901062,
-0.41083839535713196,
-0.30809810757637024,
0.1494487226009369,
-0.11243915557861328,
-0.05086066573858261,
0.1295858472585678,
0.561252236366272,
1.0558068752288818,
-0.14979173243045807,
0.08234457671642303,
-0.5177298784255981,
-0.6637557148933411,
0.09436608105897903,
-0.21178407967090607,
0.35937315225601196,
0.6268408894538879,
0.6697761416435242,
0.09654460847377777,
-0.496990442276001,
0.1635565310716629,
-0.6207374930381775,
-0.4121641516685486,
-0.5682112574577332,
-0.14117275178432465,
-0.40944579243659973,
0.8015393018722534,
-0.08232036978006363,
-0.4106728434562683,
0.53803551197052,
0.0955602154135704,
0.5546280741691589,
-0.6823276877403259,
-0.5552007555961609,
0.2646885812282562,
0.03271172568202019,
0.1914583146572113,
0.4535028338432312,
0.07977640628814697,
0.48759526014328003,
0.46458700299263,
1.2434003353118896,
0.4879498779773712,
-0.7188088893890381,
-0.25360533595085144,
-0.09544265270233154,
-0.22369436919689178,
-0.1893778294324875,
-0.2728157639503479,
0.07329696416854858,
-0.07025889307260513,
0.10900760442018509,
0.8343096375465393,
-0.5552228093147278,
-0.15718089044094086,
0.5023230314254761,
-0.28204914927482605,
0.5628741979598999,
0.2790246307849884,
-0.48162901401519775,
-0.3153355121612549,
-1.066804051399231,
0.06946832686662674,
0.24225278198719025,
0.09861584007740021,
-0.13297921419143677,
-0.2857508063316345,
0.014103037305176258,
-0.014939777553081512,
-0.07428722828626633,
0.5920520424842834,
-0.7333723306655884,
0.028774065896868706,
0.05034628510475159,
-0.04655836150050163,
0.14874540269374847,
-0.08642320334911346,
0.539158284664154,
0.11238127946853638,
0.19780483841896057,
0.11149344593286514,
-0.28100740909576416,
0.06592316925525665,
0.36180081963539124,
0.048477012664079666,
-0.42534035444259644,
0.6999396681785583,
-0.3368183672428131,
0.5873784422874451,
0.4562029540538788,
0.40591081976890564,
-0.3199664056301117,
-0.09641093760728836,
-0.23414477705955505,
0.12010830640792847,
0.45938822627067566,
0.7498453855514526,
0.19618302583694458,
-0.5514699220657349,
-0.44263675808906555,
0.3123479187488556,
0.10396049916744232,
0.0549805723130703,
-0.5681540966033936,
-0.03872796520590782,
-0.08355828374624252,
0.13827696442604065,
-0.2894461750984192,
-0.6006143093109131,
0.19002290070056915,
0.04043898731470108,
-0.6119654178619385,
0.15497130155563354,
0.40844568610191345,
-0.23970849812030792,
-0.051368605345487595,
-0.4126441180706024,
-0.08655082434415817,
0.0439925454556942,
0.23383481800556183,
0.2540202736854553,
-0.9196959733963013,
0.18011754751205444,
0.263272762298584,
-0.15800704061985016,
0.1846024990081787,
-0.28597772121429443,
0.6496096849441528,
-0.4447365403175354,
0.1718369424343109,
0.40086373686790466,
-0.41559386253356934,
-0.594823956489563,
0.3307841420173645,
0.18809553980827332,
0.222443625330925,
0.5211889147758484,
-0.12805381417274475,
-0.0738806501030922,
-0.14885857701301575,
-5.834896564483643,
0.24652980268001556,
-0.310708612203598,
-0.03259320184588432,
-0.2621762752532959,
0.19325481355190277,
0.3682001233100891,
0.05973488464951515,
0.6073142290115356,
-0.1690976619720459,
0.17829394340515137,
-0.2521040737628937,
-0.30359476804733276,
0.22910578548908234,
0.9253126382827759,
0.3267909288406372,
0.5617144107818604,
0.028828706592321396,
0.09420277178287506,
0.2534005641937256,
0.18994098901748657,
0.289633572101593,
-0.2441769689321518,
-0.02792458049952984,
0.02429022639989853,
-0.0948856994509697,
-0.40012726187705994,
0.3156996965408325,
-0.9822273254394531,
0.18156063556671143,
0.22722376883029938,
-0.46440571546554565,
0.1161741241812706,
0.37194862961769104,
-0.14418232440948486,
-0.10931625962257385,
0.5836723446846008,
0.5603341460227966,
0.1594030112028122,
0.10097603499889374,
0.10205547511577606,
0.19152002036571503,
-0.4323749840259552,
0.7219405174255371,
0.5630107522010803,
-0.15771381556987762,
-0.7236419320106506,
0.012575812637805939,
-0.23976962268352509,
0.42957237362861633,
0.17730607092380524,
-0.16346079111099243,
-0.48950791358947754,
0.14185814559459686,
0.1996527463197708,
0.17857015132904053,
0.10741352289915085,
0.5197692513465881,
-0.24792540073394775,
0.6087825298309326,
0.8530157208442688,
-0.4706631600856781,
-0.08178343623876572,
-0.42204514145851135,
-0.1658157855272293,
-0.059927526861429214,
-0.3180670738220215,
0.1416260302066803,
-0.11378758400678635,
-0.003957467619329691,
-0.027866248041391373,
0.24264176189899445,
-0.4420255124568939,
-0.8795160055160522,
0.4698806703090668,
-0.5926346778869629,
-0.32577571272850037,
0.3507119119167328,
-0.16242855787277222,
0.31093329191207886,
-0.4199288785457611,
-0.6201089024543762,
0.3545534312725067,
0.29656389355659485,
0.37610676884651184,
0.09811201691627502,
0.353088915348053,
0.44502657651901245,
-0.2070806473493576,
0.10896918177604675,
0.38050273060798645,
-0.5557640790939331,
0.1715046912431717,
0.5051174163818359,
-0.2203197032213211,
0.3616197407245636,
-0.5817818641662598,
-0.3088311553001404,
0.7574629187583923,
0.7751592397689819,
0.20994050800800323,
0.03521539270877838,
-0.34447136521339417,
-0.4235595762729645,
-0.13329282402992249,
0.23418518900871277,
-0.04881492629647255,
0.16370311379432678,
0.691307544708252,
0.45068031549453735,
0.5117637515068054,
0.3009100556373596,
-0.146236851811409,
-0.3770086467266083,
0.3750954270362854,
-0.09848799556493759,
-0.11304706335067749,
-0.02667849324643612,
0.6819015145301819,
-0.15407468378543854,
-0.24133741855621338,
-0.007762145716696978,
-0.1569562703371048,
0.0052616652101278305,
-0.6179677844047546,
-0.23654425144195557,
-0.2140756994485855,
0.13797904551029205,
-0.17105579376220703,
0.11207552999258041,
0.11548303067684174,
-0.22961334884166718,
-0.07265171408653259,
0.21616961061954498,
0.09046891331672668,
-0.7021504044532776,
0.32269206643104553,
-0.6198748350143433,
-0.09873783588409424,
-0.17780064046382904,
-0.38930028676986694,
-0.20677389204502106,
-0.4749268889427185,
0.41279640793800354,
-0.1511532962322235,
0.18517610430717468,
0.4665876030921936,
0.12908343970775604,
0.21053719520568848,
0.29564017057418823,
0.009461728855967522,
-0.22254931926727295,
0.3283054232597351,
-0.25173938274383545,
-0.4259593188762665,
-0.44185107946395874,
0.598574161529541,
0.035269539803266525,
0.3107696771621704,
0.06307777017354965,
-0.5524278283119202,
-0.21744561195373535,
-0.9251388907432556,
-0.24230769276618958,
-0.06589239090681076,
-0.3718303143978119,
0.26495614647865295,
-0.7023022174835205,
-0.07565619796514511,
0.45246973633766174,
-0.053196847438812256,
-0.1331380158662796,
0.11102204769849777,
-0.11855176091194153,
0.18617112934589386,
-0.5083471536636353,
0.0488588809967041,
-0.16207417845726013,
-0.4866741895675659,
-0.06085881590843201,
-0.05379032716155052,
-0.00753998477011919,
-0.2651437819004059,
0.031132778152823448,
-0.07818156480789185,
0.22881613671779633,
-0.23537826538085938,
-0.5945459008216858,
-0.7805958390235901,
-0.5881288051605225,
-0.5394086837768555,
0.5893222093582153,
-0.28023087978363037,
0.5174926519393921,
-0.10204313695430756,
-0.347066730260849,
0.07712770998477936,
0.3357534110546112,
0.20088286697864532,
-0.09375904500484467,
-0.23185504972934723,
0.0721857100725174,
-0.3731916844844818,
0.03482590988278389,
-0.26821577548980713,
-0.6422651410102844,
0.7196915745735168,
-0.1477258950471878,
-0.4445143938064575,
0.2791564166545868,
-0.6642054319381714,
-0.4018150866031647,
-0.3463561534881592,
0.8820853233337402,
-0.5440108776092529,
0.2950800657272339,
-0.5389241576194763,
0.24874365329742432,
-0.30492454767227173,
-0.4413345754146576,
-0.5885183811187744,
-0.2421584576368332,
-0.3022567331790924,
-0.4102897346019745,
-0.4677595794200897,
0.4890362322330475,
0.6225285530090332,
-0.380047082901001,
0.5080256462097168,
-0.04660038650035858,
0.21315689384937286,
-0.5665953159332275,
0.28913214802742004,
-0.23760750889778137,
-0.0638665035367012,
-0.05515013635158539,
0.6645377278327942,
-0.052531518042087555,
-0.8999862670898438,
0.3500782549381256,
0.2083839774131775,
0.9388033747673035,
0.07467887550592422,
-0.4180464744567871,
-0.01186628919094801,
-0.31907323002815247,
0.0008286561933346093,
0.2390872836112976,
0.3710637390613556,
-0.23982763290405273,
0.14798830449581146,
0.21837405860424042,
-0.272416889667511,
0.23385006189346313,
1.1742404699325562,
-0.21073095500469208,
-0.12671388685703278,
-0.526138424873352,
0.495402455329895,
0.019344516098499298,
0.37100932002067566,
0.23076452314853668,
0.2819029986858368,
0.08300133049488068,
-0.08499497920274734,
-0.025255640968680382,
0.06257680803537369,
0.07405225187540054,
0.476269394159317,
-0.4701424241065979,
-0.5260410308837891,
-0.30111008882522583,
-0.005434638820588589,
0.160909503698349,
-0.19180747866630554,
-0.1494162380695343,
0.3041212856769562,
-0.12515340745449066,
0.7839665412902832,
-0.10717266798019409,
-1.3107391595840454,
-0.4505578875541687,
0.030941395089030266,
-0.007620320189744234,
0.19299407303333282,
-0.5784717202186584,
-0.1286184936761856,
0.5400434136390686,
-0.3802230954170227,
0.41832321882247925,
-0.045031383633613586,
-0.10825588554143906,
-0.16035997867584229,
0.5256305932998657,
-0.3084937632083893,
0.37583741545677185,
-0.9107513427734375,
0.725538432598114,
-0.077718585729599,
-0.03973656892776489,
-0.6569951176643372,
0.34048718214035034,
0.46807101368904114,
-0.7002367973327637,
-0.300972044467926,
0.28444480895996094,
-0.2043195217847824,
-0.37346351146698,
0.027181925252079964,
-0.07394333928823471,
-0.11586807668209076,
-0.3640574514865875,
0.5297738313674927,
-0.5227128863334656,
-0.5258616209030151,
-0.4799562394618988,
0.34287723898887634,
-0.05874636396765709,
0.24923859536647797,
-0.07935470342636108,
0.7274342775344849,
-0.3103199601173401,
0.06830155104398727,
0.09211990237236023,
0.08265826106071472,
0.39757153391838074,
-0.2497681975364685,
0.604651689529419,
0.2843955457210541,
0.29766982793807983,
-0.09333813935518265,
-0.26715248823165894,
-0.1996287703514099,
0.5504104495048523,
-0.1041041761636734,
-0.3201179802417755,
0.12158217281103134,
-0.6029883027076721,
0.32847508788108826,
0.17936548590660095,
0.4689754843711853,
0.7861706018447876,
-0.27594345808029175,
0.361352801322937,
-0.4926811456680298,
1.119045615196228,
-0.19652219116687775,
-0.4883746802806854,
0.36223381757736206,
-0.04298110678792,
0.1860450655221939,
0.0008926999289542437,
-0.07513086497783661,
-0.3125874400138855,
0.12859494984149933,
0.17006324231624603,
0.4486500024795532,
0.22378692030906677,
-0.7022412419319153,
-0.3380008935928345,
0.4965367317199707,
-0.15055686235427856,
0.7276289463043213,
0.01473884005099535,
-0.1276104599237442,
-0.07431630045175552,
-0.4414318799972534,
-0.6738460063934326,
0.004879482090473175,
0.2495461255311966,
0.036948513239622116,
-0.15723498165607452,
-0.1584627330303192,
0.3741387128829956,
0.37778183817863464,
0.2517220973968506,
0.3777107000350952,
0.49891799688339233,
-0.3165363669395447,
-0.13567757606506348,
-0.41390877962112427,
0.13540136814117432,
0.03612152487039566,
-0.4453009068965912,
0.15205278992652893,
0.023312019184231758,
0.5931544303894043,
-0.22063535451889038,
-0.4099396765232086,
0.05496365949511528,
-0.05002708360552788,
-0.41712239384651184,
-0.25107046961784363,
-0.02298029325902462,
0.0345563106238842,
-0.061431884765625,
0.1054464727640152,
0.9960694313049316,
0.5724067687988281,
-0.13023501634597778,
0.254642128944397,
-0.056244999170303345,
-0.09080123901367188,
0.44716933369636536,
0.23963405191898346,
0.5015913248062134,
0.42588841915130615,
0.0689103901386261,
-0.6647530794143677,
0.4864516258239746,
0.39525115489959717,
0.5434557795524597,
0.04560989513993263,
0.29041972756385803,
0.2844710946083069,
-0.19967591762542725,
0.36523526906967163,
-0.0741744339466095,
-0.19104120135307312,
-0.22676514089107513,
0.40970170497894287,
0.07262734323740005,
0.22370244562625885,
0.14600513875484467,
-0.11738899350166321,
0.027034737169742584,
-0.10943316668272018,
0.13835105299949646,
-0.6102738976478577,
0.8175855278968811,
0.28238987922668457,
-0.11544113606214523,
-0.3223867118358612,
-0.2665381133556366,
-0.1544862687587738,
0.10547526925802231,
0.2255789190530777,
-0.7304216027259827,
0.44594892859458923,
0.039520710706710815,
0.5565857887268066,
-0.14305256307125092,
0.3906641900539398,
-0.19587385654449463,
0.2698105275630951,
0.09570089727640152,
-0.16047051548957825,
-0.8251170516014099,
-0.46464288234710693,
0.7996060848236084,
-0.22500421106815338,
0.36695989966392517,
0.8919323682785034,
-0.6850718259811401,
-0.1372530460357666,
0.2397228628396988,
0.04595073312520981,
-0.18816550076007843,
-0.4135332405567169,
0.15576499700546265
] |
203583
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Sea%20Jazz%20Festival
|
North Sea Jazz Festival
|
The North Sea Jazz Festival is an annual festival held each second weekend of July in the Netherlands at the Ahoy venue. It used to be in The Hague but since 2006 it has been held in Rotterdam. This is because the Statenhal where the festival was held before was demolished in 2006. As of 3 November 2017 the festival officially will be known as the NN North Sea Jazz Festival.
Biography
The founder of the three-day festival was Paul Acket, a businessman and jazz lover who made a fortune in the 1960s with his pop magazine publishing company. When Acket sold his company in 1975, he was able to start and sponsor the North Sea Jazz Festival. Acket wanted to present American jazz and European avant-garde jazz. In 1976 the first edition of the festival took place. It was an immediate success: six stages, thirty hours of music, and 300 performances drew over 9000 visitors. Acts included Count Basie, Miles Davis, Billy Eckstine, Stan Getz, Dizzy Gillespie, James Taylor, Benny Goodman, and Sarah Vaughan among others.
The Edison Jazz Awards and the Bird Awards are presented at the North Sea Jazz Festival.
In 1990, two sub-festivals were introduced: North Sea Jazz Heats, a free festival performed in pubs throughout The Hague, and the more exclusive Midsummer Jazz Gala. Both take place on the evening before the festival. Musicians that have performed at the Midsummer Jazz Gala include Tony Bennett, Herbie Hancock, and Oscar Peterson. Amy Winehouse performed at the festival in 2004 and Adele performed in 2009.
The festival has grown to fifteen stages, 1,200 musicians, and about 25,000 visitors a day. The festival presents concerts in New Orleans jazz, swing, fusion, blues, gospel, funk, soul and drum and bass.
The festival is acknowledged as the "biggest indoor jazz festival in the world" and has a reputation for showcasing different areas of jazz from all eras.
References
External links
Official site
1976 establishments in the Netherlands
Culture in Rotterdam
Jazz festivals in the Netherlands
July events
Music festivals established in 1976
Tourist attractions in Rotterdam
|
[
-0.09496227651834488,
0.0034801047295331955,
0.26856595277786255,
-0.4474385380744934,
0.2309529185295105,
-0.2050905078649521,
0.3362981081008911,
0.5939791798591614,
-0.7005108594894409,
-0.37796691060066223,
-0.4813580811023712,
-0.08439194411039352,
0.07686629146337509,
0.3042968809604645,
-0.35092246532440186,
0.4806734025478363,
1.064742088317871,
-0.05740511789917946,
0.01665291003882885,
-0.8951675891876221,
-0.0019846665672957897,
-0.2598521113395691,
0.5395516157150269,
0.10104008764028549,
0.12108955532312393,
-0.28740859031677246,
-0.3535006642341614,
0.43518486618995667,
0.06503180414438248,
-0.034252215176820755,
-0.04713913053274155,
0.9291554689407349,
-0.529730498790741,
-0.609730064868927,
0.39684364199638367,
-0.016116328537464142,
0.04729756712913513,
-0.5279285907745361,
-0.31621095538139343,
-0.2379082441329956,
0.18116000294685364,
-0.32829606533050537,
0.4830133020877838,
0.6684204339981079,
0.24662496149539948,
-0.5213965773582458,
-0.8992829322814941,
0.40909329056739807,
-0.29094281792640686,
0.1430274397134781,
0.09599077701568604,
-0.2188647985458374,
0.23795297741889954,
0.7608336806297302,
0.7803592085838318,
0.017786996439099312,
-0.7055871486663818,
0.3627241253852844,
-0.032749537378549576,
-0.2523033320903778,
0.3741911053657532,
0.7499833106994629,
-0.6950576901435852,
-0.40640318393707275,
0.0713057816028595,
0.31962108612060547,
0.4050644040107727,
0.8575689792633057,
0.5479415655136108,
-0.5760311484336853,
0.258798748254776,
0.06670472770929337,
-0.06799855828285217,
-0.05414866283535957,
0.2454921305179596,
-0.5577627420425415,
0.4257241189479828,
-0.14059780538082123,
-0.13437910377979279,
0.299994558095932,
0.576760470867157,
-0.5120342373847961,
1.3158750534057617,
-0.3028103709220886,
0.4545520842075348,
-0.07904902845621109,
-0.8324339985847473,
-0.34125059843063354,
-1.2402805089950562,
-0.22432897984981537,
-0.23612703382968903,
-0.9066846370697021,
1.1267549991607666,
0.7271201014518738,
0.328794002532959,
0.7997052669525146,
-0.15158198773860931,
0.39482998847961426,
0.6763473749160767,
0.4906809329986572,
0.08341699093580246,
0.19403979182243347,
0.4219770133495331,
0.4463251531124115,
-0.5326438546180725,
-0.0129197733476758,
-0.08509750664234161,
-0.6213197708129883,
-0.13078461587429047,
-0.6014615297317505,
-0.3851146101951599,
0.3186664581298828,
0.1773161143064499,
-0.0464964434504509,
0.16477228701114655,
0.28903040289878845,
-0.002480017254129052,
-0.02724127098917961,
-0.9574427008628845,
-0.39638689160346985,
0.3970335125923157,
0.7814755439758301,
-0.09102585166692734,
0.5158247947692871,
-0.24558517336845398,
0.34048596024513245,
0.48817649483680725,
0.9081348776817322,
-0.08815709501504898,
-0.41327252984046936,
0.19575659930706024,
0.24642573297023773,
0.020520523190498352,
-0.10541212558746338,
-0.1172398030757904,
0.08219848573207855,
0.42440834641456604,
0.015681905671954155,
0.29997071623802185,
0.6033462285995483,
-0.9192901253700256,
-0.2177763432264328,
-0.8563244938850403,
-0.245406374335289,
0.05156034976243973,
-0.42740049958229065,
-0.3945271670818329,
-0.27355924248695374,
0.322788268327713,
0.4145359396934509,
0.6884540319442749,
0.47691768407821655,
-0.7294971942901611,
-0.12383182346820831,
-0.6659939289093018,
0.3700771927833557,
0.33768031001091003,
-0.053328484296798706,
0.7415206432342529,
0.0500684455037117,
0.019731679931282997,
-0.4015962779521942,
0.190808966755867,
0.5523614883422852,
0.16634956002235413,
-0.32543694972991943,
-0.31956031918525696,
0.0815236046910286,
0.12657184898853302,
0.26516690850257874,
-0.2520543336868286,
0.9130444526672363,
0.6444701552391052,
0.07973981648683548,
-0.47055089473724365,
-0.055490825325250626,
0.647969663143158,
0.17600367963314056,
-0.08711090683937073,
0.08279043436050415,
-0.6366159915924072,
-0.3534826636314392,
0.5062850117683411,
-0.8877553343772888,
0.5258364081382751,
-0.44672495126724243,
-0.3662576377391815,
0.38831210136413574,
0.14361868798732758,
-0.2469598799943924,
0.14724832773208618,
-0.3288135230541229,
0.5946367383003235,
-0.43175008893013,
0.9968923330307007,
-0.09810225665569305,
-0.3012666702270508,
1.240578293800354,
-0.06134640797972679,
0.29892876744270325,
-0.20559236407279968,
-0.06736084073781967,
0.7310540676116943,
0.5093393325805664,
-0.23506435751914978,
0.460369735956192,
0.30547383427619934,
-0.9222724437713623,
0.03269489109516144,
0.4209616780281067,
0.0046523939818143845,
-0.897224485874176,
0.04826870933175087,
0.39536529779434204,
-0.1855061799287796,
-0.7055102586746216,
-0.3076007664203644,
0.29750901460647583,
-0.18148627877235413,
-0.15179231762886047,
0.9433300495147705,
0.2330426573753357,
0.03794775903224945,
0.3397071063518524,
-0.26839932799339294,
0.7130143046379089,
-0.524288535118103,
-0.1948455423116684,
0.41322603821754456,
0.5730524063110352,
0.33067449927330017,
0.12633907794952393,
-0.1117779091000557,
-0.6669390797615051,
0.25709331035614014,
0.03259364888072014,
-0.1179526299238205,
0.07784681767225266,
0.041467469185590744,
0.3482515215873718,
0.45070239901542664,
0.16423632204532623,
-1.526451826095581,
0.8768038749694824,
0.05119245499372482,
0.7401924729347229,
0.3123486638069153,
0.10507986694574356,
-0.175217404961586,
-0.4916265606880188,
0.25311702489852905,
0.004136707168072462,
-0.14835937321186066,
-0.7927688956260681,
-0.28277212381362915,
0.012652280740439892,
0.23927432298660278,
-0.322726309299469,
0.8637238144874573,
0.05488752946257591,
-0.09375794231891632,
-0.7866222858428955,
0.16208474338054657,
0.6421999931335449,
-0.2746998071670532,
-0.5971647500991821,
-0.09990512579679489,
-1.0477827787399292,
0.7377064824104309,
0.13330107927322388,
0.2787131369113922,
0.7147037386894226,
-0.41738539934158325,
-0.08946254104375839,
-0.894126296043396,
0.21989843249320984,
-0.9136177897453308,
-0.22402019798755646,
-0.14324110746383667,
-0.3767690062522888,
0.19092586636543274,
0.3759818375110626,
0.04891904816031456,
-0.41613250970840454,
-0.4514947235584259,
0.2046811431646347,
-0.10660305619239807,
-0.058545902371406555,
0.11907131224870682,
-0.3587653934955597,
-0.21050341427326202,
-0.10191673785448074,
-0.277916818857193,
0.15664000809192657,
-0.07493524253368378,
0.061322517693042755,
0.21928639709949493,
-0.35685381293296814,
-0.00962628610432148,
-0.25283682346343994,
-0.09242063760757446,
-0.08958718180656433,
-0.17811307311058044,
0.42202532291412354,
0.46087580919265747,
-0.6164053082466125,
-0.6365460157394409,
-0.06707456707954407,
-5.127511024475098,
0.10051160305738449,
-0.5195904970169067,
0.042983464896678925,
-0.41327640414237976,
-0.0769052729010582,
0.5827203989028931,
-0.4360481798648834,
0.6950868368148804,
-0.10831545293331146,
-0.6281158924102783,
0.20432759821414948,
-0.4145500957965851,
1.0113251209259033,
0.305757075548172,
0.358974814414978,
-0.054733313620090485,
-0.336393266916275,
0.34805119037628174,
0.058243248611688614,
0.10540460050106049,
-0.050746843218803406,
-0.1801285594701767,
0.23593559861183167,
0.2785346508026123,
0.7640708684921265,
-1.0636898279190063,
0.3629932403564453,
-0.6992180347442627,
-0.48783639073371887,
-0.2928391396999359,
-0.21740446984767914,
0.16742628812789917,
-0.5726944804191589,
0.08182762563228607,
0.44187989830970764,
0.2519233524799347,
0.5022364854812622,
-0.0011768362019211054,
-0.6162880063056946,
0.11237985640764236,
0.8191041350364685,
-0.4482804834842682,
0.10281234979629517,
0.7277315258979797,
-0.638531506061554,
-0.3605296313762665,
0.26887696981430054,
0.11108879745006561,
1.075370192527771,
-0.09750717133283615,
-0.3186213970184326,
0.49981898069381714,
0.07660047709941864,
-0.21212470531463623,
-0.9463521838188171,
-0.38612157106399536,
-0.0653899684548378,
0.39919260144233704,
-0.09001326560974121,
0.5789301991462708,
-0.5248087644577026,
-0.0015459436690434813,
-0.9711658954620361,
-0.4338327944278717,
-0.15971414744853973,
-0.2693837881088257,
0.2539931833744049,
0.22630272805690765,
0.1479855626821518,
0.26560014486312866,
-0.2850504517555237,
-0.34478893876075745,
-0.7616207003593445,
0.21585413813591003,
-0.5936846137046814,
-0.6595909595489502,
-0.3502255976200104,
0.004508134908974171,
0.02522103115916252,
-0.19762422144412994,
-0.11954008787870407,
-0.286395400762558,
0.9425842761993408,
0.051448095589876175,
-0.6352779269218445,
-0.3809189796447754,
0.36177319288253784,
-0.6331071853637695,
-0.784426748752594,
0.8520945310592651,
-0.23223312199115753,
-0.08754876255989075,
0.6967281103134155,
-0.04272172600030899,
0.6420979499816895,
-0.0962231308221817,
0.1469210535287857,
0.5974391102790833,
-0.2573259472846985,
0.8557222485542297,
-0.2824019193649292,
-0.24464070796966553,
-0.31699177622795105,
-0.5339977145195007,
-0.06548646092414856,
0.45036381483078003,
0.4840969145298004,
0.5244463682174683,
-0.068410724401474,
0.31456783413887024,
0.2516789436340332,
-0.40546557307243347,
0.018326878547668457,
0.36316296458244324,
-0.299378901720047,
-0.6474622488021851,
0.39623942971229553,
0.2406134307384491,
-0.38900795578956604,
0.05480597913265228,
0.07754886895418167,
0.1466229110956192,
0.35501959919929504,
0.3103480339050293,
-0.16606704890727997,
-0.6226062178611755,
-0.02745295874774456,
-0.7232851982116699,
0.3983287215232849,
-0.02389058656990528,
0.16743376851081848,
0.3890056610107422,
0.19690373539924622,
0.5480915904045105,
-0.7313992977142334,
-0.5070992708206177,
-0.5327203869819641,
0.26921170949935913,
0.006793441250920296,
0.40858930349349976,
-0.26483431458473206,
0.3251866400241852,
0.43081533908843994,
-0.2670027017593384,
0.8526543974876404,
-0.29186174273490906,
-0.2722107470035553,
-0.18022699654102325,
0.5206608772277832,
-0.13231265544891357,
0.1381579041481018,
0.1291096806526184,
-0.6017249822616577,
0.16807769238948822,
0.04339124634861946,
0.18835566937923431,
0.2443380355834961,
0.28853774070739746,
-0.27184009552001953,
0.5348135232925415,
-0.373129278421402,
-1.0788474082946777,
0.5108780860900879,
-0.08007194846868515,
-0.44410836696624756,
-0.5823027491569519,
0.25341925024986267,
-0.7140474915504456,
0.27563801407814026,
-0.580399215221405,
-0.4804619252681732,
-0.24222132563591003,
-0.5969446301460266,
0.18052753806114197,
-0.6614376902580261,
-0.6664886474609375,
0.0955137312412262,
-0.3502660095691681,
-0.6697998642921448,
-0.10615144670009613,
0.3454286754131317,
-0.3897264003753662,
0.5214008092880249,
0.47427207231521606,
-0.210813969373703,
-0.23852090537548065,
-0.3777593970298767,
0.17369480431079865,
-0.15296810865402222,
0.2609083652496338,
0.7222667336463928,
0.159697487950325,
0.047029294073581696,
-0.6318907737731934,
-0.8703092932701111,
-0.1714976280927658,
0.6256487369537354,
-0.16326555609703064,
-0.384296715259552,
0.36345770955085754,
0.0500078909099102,
-0.38686639070510864,
1.0385708808898926,
-0.19933322072029114,
-0.423979252576828,
0.379194051027298,
0.07954636961221695,
-0.22662712633609772,
-0.10487303882837296,
-0.9130390286445618,
-0.9337772130966187,
0.47662729024887085,
0.19186989963054657,
-0.881218671798706,
0.08949867635965347,
0.2676583230495453,
-0.38258978724479675,
-0.25529342889785767,
0.7006831169128418,
-0.3346690535545349,
-0.30054327845573425,
-0.813983678817749,
-0.4691753685474396,
-0.6491934657096863,
0.4920082688331604,
0.5338675379753113,
-0.05159759148955345,
0.14055199921131134,
-0.48882991075515747,
0.7066972851753235,
0.07348619401454926,
-0.4457617998123169,
-0.08178871124982834,
-0.32238659262657166,
0.47979095578193665,
-0.36858028173446655,
0.15375916659832,
0.17602816224098206,
0.9528331756591797,
0.7759342789649963,
0.28432154655456543,
-0.021699225530028343,
-0.9978784918785095,
-0.6589447259902954,
0.1329643279314041,
0.6907436847686768,
-0.07580216228961945,
-0.7647855877876282,
-0.3035215735435486,
0.05348486453294754,
-0.1036025732755661,
-0.6369931697845459,
-0.5112333297729492,
1.1207141876220703,
-0.502204179763794,
-0.21925944089889526,
0.17801755666732788,
-0.15743544697761536,
-0.24486862123012543,
0.7961883544921875,
0.10918264091014862,
-0.5241941809654236,
0.15283463895320892,
0.4004278779029846,
-0.3283117413520813,
-0.6935381293296814,
-0.5119364261627197,
-0.3404242694377899,
0.21197938919067383,
-0.6349812150001526,
-0.11475273966789246,
0.6402662992477417,
0.5692118406295776,
-0.24810926616191864,
0.16175547242164612,
0.5816692113876343,
-0.7246187925338745,
0.4014066159725189,
0.4941885769367218,
0.2255723774433136,
-0.009921577759087086,
-0.023385673761367798,
-0.23105940222740173,
0.23633646965026855,
-0.7603702545166016,
-0.7415321469306946,
0.10504228621721268,
0.6103903651237488,
0.0015692231245338917,
0.5067017674446106,
-0.24977953732013702,
0.08961609750986099,
0.06695784628391266,
0.00809945072978735,
0.40357014536857605,
0.33256855607032776,
0.3639208972454071,
0.3702337443828583,
-0.17865636944770813,
-0.6418257355690002,
0.40840137004852295,
0.3231072425842285,
-0.5191652178764343,
0.16127777099609375,
-0.1338549107313156,
0.16839946806430817,
0.09904234111309052,
0.24049976468086243,
0.7119989395141602,
0.310761034488678,
0.020255418494343758,
-0.5870620608329773,
1.0627484321594238,
-0.5098576545715332,
0.6889263391494751,
0.49829378724098206,
-0.9168142676353455,
0.5253648161888123,
0.455883651971817,
-0.13514702022075653,
-0.04910609498620033,
-0.013917846605181694,
0.22700166702270508,
0.387551873922348,
0.5341624021530151,
-0.011150345206260681,
-0.597389817237854,
0.44527730345726013,
-0.21748732030391693,
0.06070927530527115,
-0.14880304038524628,
0.007625278551131487,
0.35014837980270386,
-0.17822781205177307,
0.2973857820034027,
0.14006741344928741,
-0.6451369524002075,
-0.9503554701805115,
0.3022208511829376,
0.1705206334590912,
0.316540002822876,
-0.4097866117954254,
-0.36344462633132935,
0.5318164229393005,
0.17769920825958252,
-0.5451731085777283,
0.08993680775165558,
0.19403167068958282,
-0.6032994389533997,
1.0658899545669556,
-0.47634363174438477,
-0.011902510188519955,
-0.793027937412262,
0.44190317392349243,
-0.3901485800743103,
-0.15673790872097015,
0.12140189856290817,
0.16761764883995056,
0.2033262699842453,
0.36789262294769287,
0.4783353805541992,
0.4132722318172455,
0.29008445143699646,
-0.48819997906684875,
-0.016059134155511856,
0.34234756231307983,
-0.2771020829677582,
0.13955886662006378,
0.21237432956695557,
0.35053837299346924,
-0.2011565864086151,
-0.595768928527832,
-0.14058542251586914,
0.16467994451522827,
0.057692695409059525,
-0.462215393781662,
0.036739811301231384,
-0.16503587365150452,
0.3972204923629761,
-0.5777115225791931,
0.6772835850715637,
-0.9973734617233276,
0.4628821909427643,
-0.13617810606956482,
-0.5041956305503845,
-0.39121362566947937,
0.43695807456970215,
-0.8770660758018494,
0.017008565366268158,
0.232069730758667,
-0.05700768157839775,
0.00584201468154788,
-0.10470300167798996,
-0.6146597266197205,
-0.6240637302398682,
0.1235046461224556,
1.1444337368011475,
-0.32807987928390503,
-0.23035928606987,
-0.023403963074088097,
0.25731033086776733,
0.5138666033744812,
0.5407535433769226,
0.38125693798065186,
0.21205240488052368,
-0.7996501326560974,
-0.2378757745027542,
-0.24222424626350403,
1.047235131263733,
0.6232864856719971,
0.16734910011291504,
-0.2814190685749054,
0.6164460182189941,
0.19618633389472961,
0.4414764642715454,
0.7148435115814209,
-0.5407271385192871,
-0.3010402321815491,
-0.3384247124195099,
-0.3420528471469879,
0.0339798703789711,
0.05178780108690262,
0.10246924310922623,
-0.16327932476997375,
-0.3065323531627655,
0.49451082944869995,
0.26577213406562805,
-0.41638603806495667,
0.5598208904266357,
0.21237123012542725,
-0.37121957540512085,
-0.514522910118103,
0.028084449470043182,
-0.9802898168563843,
-0.7931076884269714,
0.5339054465293884,
0.22992493212223053,
0.7483566403388977,
0.0101315313950181,
-0.021031957119703293,
-0.24989353120326996,
0.7616217136383057,
-0.2183218151330948,
-0.40068015456199646,
-0.2808971107006073,
-0.05768824741244316,
0.07586562633514404,
-1.232909083366394,
0.4332236647605896,
0.33451080322265625,
-0.5960501432418823,
-0.10480396449565887,
-0.13004620373249054,
-0.20369067788124084,
-0.12127624452114105,
0.3278607428073883,
0.16591297090053558,
0.541509211063385,
-0.6257595419883728
] |
203584
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Clayton
|
Pat Clayton
|
Patrick Andrew Clayton DSO MBE (16 April 1896 – 17 March 1962) was a British surveyor and soldier. He was the basis for the character of Peter Madox in The English Patient.
Career
Clayton spent nearly 20 years with the Egyptian Survey department during the 1920s and 1930s extensively mapping large areas of previously unmapped desert. In 1931, Clayton was running triangulation from Wadi Halfa to Uweinat when he came across refugees fleeing from the Italian occupation of Kufra, via Uweinat and helped save many from death in the arid desert. Clayton had collaborated extensively with Ralph Bagnold in the preparation and mapping associated with Bagnold's pre-war exploration trips.
At the start of the war Clayton was a government surveyor in Tanganyika. Bagnold had him returned to Egypt because of his detailed knowledge of the Western Desert. He was commissioned into the Intelligence Corps and served in the British Army's Long Range Desert Group (LRDG).
Clayton was leading "T" Patrol in a planned attack on Kufra when the patrol was engaged by the Italian Auto-Saharan Company on 31 January 1941, near Gebel Sherif. During the action Captain Clayton was wounded and his car damaged. He along with his colleagues was taken prisoner. He was moved to the Abruzzo region in Italy where he was visited by Laszlo Almasy after Almasy's spy mission, Operation Salaam, to transport two German spies across the Libyan desert to Cairo.
He was awarded the Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Gold Medal in 1941 for his work in the Libyan desert.
Death
Pat Clayton died on 17 March 1962 at the age of 65 of an aneurism.
See also
László Almásy
Guy Lenox Prendergast
Bill Kennedy Shaw
Zerzura
References
External links
New Zealand Electronic Text centre on the LRDG, 1940-41
LRDG Preservation Society
British Army Officers 1939-1945
Notes
Desert Explorer: A Biography of Colonel P.A. Clayton by Peter Clayton
P. A. Clayton, "The Western Side of the Gilf Kebir" Geographical Journal 81, 254–259, (1933)
Libyan Sands, Travel in a Dead World about the travels of R.A.Bagnold by Ralph Alger Bagnold
Long Range Desert Group about the LRDG by Bill Kennedy Shaw
The Long Range Desert Group about the LRDG by David Lloyd Owen
The Hunt for Zerzura and World War II about members of the Zerzura Club in World War II by Saul Kelly
The Secret Life of Laszlo Almasy by John Bierman
1896 births
1962 deaths
Intelligence Corps officers
British Army personnel of World War II
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Members of the Order of the British Empire
World War II prisoners of war held by Italy
British surveyors
British World War II prisoners of war
Long Range Desert Group personnel
|
[
-0.32356271147727966,
0.6396836638450623,
-0.6288060545921326,
-0.19201236963272095,
-0.002012295415624976,
1.1871789693832397,
0.8182485103607178,
-0.37158066034317017,
-0.4555431604385376,
-0.19098858535289764,
-0.7072386741638184,
-0.19820314645767212,
-0.3468727171421051,
0.11054296791553497,
0.1923314779996872,
0.4051981568336487,
-0.34478670358657837,
0.01577996462583542,
-0.35489997267723083,
-0.008918632753193378,
-0.07186229526996613,
-0.5558115839958191,
0.029887115582823753,
0.09059165418148041,
-0.21881331503391266,
0.02501126006245613,
0.06687752902507782,
0.6768632531166077,
-0.16460907459259033,
-0.43820977210998535,
-0.14744292199611664,
0.5867803692817688,
0.5148573517799377,
-0.5003280639648438,
-0.3017919957637787,
0.3008855879306793,
-0.4555492103099823,
-0.7054774761199951,
-0.31687143445014954,
0.07972460240125656,
-0.4533628225326538,
-0.20175500214099884,
-0.07137264311313629,
-0.04881840571761131,
0.09538485109806061,
-0.148635134100914,
-1.9135360717773438,
-0.005261122714728117,
-0.2736758589744568,
-0.2447100579738617,
-0.28416907787323,
0.5038072466850281,
0.4098385274410248,
-0.8585471510887146,
0.9061486124992371,
0.3402809798717499,
-0.3645831346511841,
0.0021932891104370356,
0.003789181588217616,
-0.504443883895874,
0.5546576976776123,
-0.05220659077167511,
0.3160429000854492,
-0.47491300106048584,
0.3152574896812439,
-0.5617578029632568,
-0.5085217356681824,
0.42464014887809753,
0.174584299325943,
0.08899319916963577,
0.43271851539611816,
-0.017933795228600502,
0.6045417785644531,
0.409030944108963,
-0.26058951020240784,
-0.15851204097270966,
-0.11326611042022705,
-0.15130048990249634,
-0.43888044357299805,
0.3274131417274475,
0.15704932808876038,
0.1477310210466385,
0.4425528347492218,
0.6138734817504883,
-0.1843009889125824,
0.18009676039218903,
-0.769253671169281,
0.1399448812007904,
-0.6415682435035706,
-0.043366577476263046,
-0.2705010175704956,
-0.07009655237197876,
0.3667944073677063,
-0.054042473435401917,
0.2811562716960907,
0.4197007715702057,
-0.6981093287467957,
0.6463482975959778,
0.34356820583343506,
-0.5920511484146118,
-0.08374980092048645,
-0.051709964871406555,
-0.1512650102376938,
0.22418780624866486,
-0.45110049843788147,
0.03009610064327717,
-0.2228434830904007,
-0.43854203820228577,
0.13560742139816284,
-1.1561850309371948,
-0.6521285176277161,
-0.13036850094795227,
-0.37266871333122253,
-0.20403920114040375,
0.5111581087112427,
-0.04735143855214119,
0.5107064843177795,
-0.5765600800514221,
-0.6409907341003418,
0.0674808993935585,
-0.3328510522842407,
0.48285141587257385,
-0.43856990337371826,
0.3603516221046448,
-1.0473109483718872,
0.16270431876182556,
0.2038845717906952,
0.21876758337020874,
-0.2811281979084015,
0.9760095477104187,
0.4957377016544342,
1.5691109895706177,
-0.7516443133354187,
-0.033096447587013245,
-0.7067867517471313,
-0.04248451441526413,
-0.4158434569835663,
0.2250746637582779,
-0.7674079537391663,
-0.11936606466770172,
-0.6288073062896729,
0.6424968242645264,
-1.4240152835845947,
0.1994253247976303,
-0.3598977029323578,
0.3477972149848938,
-0.4836524426937103,
0.08785656839609146,
0.10244597494602203,
-0.41224053502082825,
0.5426555275917053,
-0.29288870096206665,
0.3765399754047394,
-0.03372465819120407,
-0.5561797618865967,
1.0681861639022827,
0.9439500570297241,
0.4005320966243744,
-0.19138909876346588,
0.21180367469787598,
0.07001323997974396,
-0.4348907172679901,
0.03752909600734711,
0.35109707713127136,
0.5675909519195557,
0.5748968720436096,
0.20694750547409058,
-0.550980806350708,
0.29582804441452026,
0.5629132986068726,
0.3315850794315338,
-0.19929702579975128,
0.3802691400051117,
-0.15383592247962952,
-0.4288875460624695,
0.09693969786167145,
0.47757986187934875,
0.49567532539367676,
0.16304513812065125,
-0.32845649123191833,
-0.6921725869178772,
-0.3534417450428009,
0.38720282912254333,
0.2124638557434082,
0.6341003179550171,
0.24164190888404846,
0.6168360114097595,
-0.5142724514007568,
0.8452138304710388,
-0.2862931787967682,
-0.12819242477416992,
-0.9690077900886536,
0.010503380559384823,
-0.4046288728713989,
0.7729601263999939,
0.24570214748382568,
-0.40984243154525757,
-0.4063762128353119,
0.6429639458656311,
0.8492096066474915,
0.1619577705860138,
-0.019686264917254448,
-0.15108856558799744,
-0.2847146689891815,
0.09763876348733902,
1.5865070819854736,
0.9063552618026733,
0.4455902576446533,
-0.32170388102531433,
0.8281441926956177,
0.46307140588760376,
-0.8542300462722778,
-0.40883997082710266,
0.4559478759765625,
-0.21089057624340057,
-0.7408106923103333,
-0.6865677237510681,
-0.6432392597198486,
0.6689296364784241,
-0.956507682800293,
0.10151167213916779,
0.39918893575668335,
-0.25968289375305176,
0.942204475402832,
0.13434381783008575,
0.8508172035217285,
0.21887892484664917,
0.11653465777635574,
-0.18328073620796204,
-1.3873536586761475,
-0.04254724830389023,
0.3180602788925171,
0.3118348717689514,
-0.5065902471542358,
0.30155879259109497,
0.026142805814743042,
0.4085675776004791,
-0.12619082629680634,
0.0374271497130394,
-0.4013657867908478,
-0.617942214012146,
0.4869403541088104,
-0.016495196148753166,
-0.028290336951613426,
-0.10049419850111008,
0.38753291964530945,
0.3318253457546234,
0.04358098283410072,
0.0079996008425951,
0.03784506767988205,
0.18348276615142822,
0.8914535045623779,
0.848020076751709,
-0.1951579600572586,
-0.10593456774950027,
-0.12659618258476257,
0.10374338179826736,
-0.43351829051971436,
0.25769636034965515,
0.3988895118236542,
0.5372819304466248,
0.4026099145412445,
-0.2214585244655609,
0.03235568478703499,
-0.15000271797180176,
-0.802326500415802,
-0.17409387230873108,
-0.4061088263988495,
0.2358410507440567,
0.06435607373714447,
0.04707668721675873,
-0.6877785325050354,
0.18106862902641296,
-1.0744737386703491,
-0.10324700176715851,
0.21641123294830322,
-0.02326408214867115,
-0.034653376787900925,
-0.5035011768341064,
-0.7874574065208435,
1.0111454725265503,
0.7667484283447266,
0.12669514119625092,
0.25661376118659973,
0.19779284298419952,
0.5722188353538513,
-0.3982798457145691,
0.1701204925775528,
0.5216598510742188,
-0.7847007513046265,
-0.45499783754348755,
0.8422959446907043,
-0.3537806272506714,
0.6728011965751648,
-0.13877719640731812,
0.02802002802491188,
-0.2808718681335449,
-0.758610188961029,
0.6112616062164307,
-0.33155035972595215,
-0.9845819473266602,
0.48973700404167175,
0.453111469745636,
0.14149777591228485,
0.16482312977313995,
0.622075617313385,
-0.38838425278663635,
-0.30699101090431213,
-4.469571113586426,
0.17696432769298553,
0.6177703738212585,
-0.44474634528160095,
-0.14438188076019287,
0.39842453598976135,
0.47408434748649597,
-0.2507566809654236,
-0.32729920744895935,
-0.5916014909744263,
0.5676553249359131,
-0.019110295921564102,
0.4608999788761139,
0.1371053010225296,
1.1442610025405884,
-0.027898088097572327,
0.768497884273529,
-0.543744683265686,
0.8166989088058472,
0.25694146752357483,
0.07894635200500488,
0.15081577003002167,
-0.24943363666534424,
-0.2654030919075012,
-0.5403152108192444,
0.19136488437652588,
-0.3746221661567688,
0.41910266876220703,
-1.0245070457458496,
-0.16948622465133667,
0.40901124477386475,
-0.09230892360210419,
-0.7045320272445679,
0.043464694172143936,
-0.33736440539360046,
0.07330630719661713,
0.14328958094120026,
0.963304340839386,
-0.2731623351573944,
-0.1457800716161728,
0.42076799273490906,
-0.22255809605121613,
-0.8366948366165161,
0.010955595411360264,
0.40906310081481934,
-0.6269079446792603,
-0.8051024675369263,
-0.05744054168462753,
0.12156105786561966,
0.7200339436531067,
0.6816356778144836,
0.6415899395942688,
0.42478135228157043,
0.09276413917541504,
-0.33525341749191284,
0.16062979400157928,
0.9442957043647766,
-0.237009197473526,
-1.1793043613433838,
0.7002001404762268,
0.23985417187213898,
-0.6608483791351318,
0.4630048871040344,
0.13710372149944305,
-0.6317036151885986,
0.2931784987449646,
0.09997306764125824,
-0.05302544683218002,
-0.21040885150432587,
-0.6231615543365479,
-0.17622122168540955,
0.9652373790740967,
-0.028188832104206085,
-0.8441126346588135,
-0.5281887054443359,
-0.6211562156677246,
0.09315527975559235,
-0.19237110018730164,
-0.7790340781211853,
-0.4173346161842346,
0.21266530454158783,
-0.9306446313858032,
0.1872512698173523,
0.4730895161628723,
0.40385523438453674,
0.2538242042064667,
-0.5704771280288696,
0.4414929151535034,
0.478984534740448,
-0.9342160820960999,
-0.3375498652458191,
-0.42879900336265564,
0.039876773953437805,
0.37228336930274963,
0.4532214403152466,
0.2451176643371582,
0.26402708888053894,
-0.29654642939567566,
0.26359209418296814,
-0.2624932825565338,
-1.5929110050201416,
-0.21045851707458496,
0.10162487626075745,
-0.6927143335342407,
-0.3791863024234772,
-0.13881716132164001,
-0.23597018420696259,
0.5016258955001831,
0.08624906837940216,
0.39317336678504944,
0.27986449003219604,
0.491333544254303,
-0.21005719900131226,
0.12135763466358185,
0.5494136810302734,
0.0225272998213768,
0.03818434104323387,
0.6515015363693237,
0.8651770949363708,
0.4539000988006592,
0.1425144374370575,
0.0007027339888736606,
-0.030900150537490845,
-0.6673396229743958,
0.2094360888004303,
0.14965112507343292,
0.5206103920936584,
-0.4339119493961334,
-0.39539816975593567,
0.0815964937210083,
-0.31606584787368774,
1.3263931274414062,
-0.09503563493490219,
0.6530500054359436,
-0.6833563446998596,
-0.1857273280620575,
-0.6890367269515991,
0.5444262623786926,
0.5493049621582031,
-0.10781820863485336,
0.19690053164958954,
-0.10079004615545273,
-0.29191336035728455,
-0.06484422832727432,
0.08568111062049866,
-0.11198574304580688,
-0.09497895836830139,
-0.186613067984581,
-0.15666478872299194,
0.49087706208229065,
-0.49813809990882874,
-0.3785046637058258,
-0.021400848403573036,
-1.0035085678100586,
-0.5845620632171631,
0.24072161316871643,
-0.40321314334869385,
0.14216963946819305,
0.3943512737751007,
-0.44750964641571045,
-0.3066086173057556,
0.21240152418613434,
-1.5471898317337036,
-0.3470310866832733,
0.27516424655914307,
-0.19849160313606262,
-0.05361521616578102,
-0.2122194766998291,
0.25219810009002686,
0.3461097478866577,
0.0982300415635109,
-0.5207547545433044,
-0.4663684368133545,
-0.20821012556552887,
-0.21591652929782867,
0.14028765261173248,
0.13307690620422363,
-0.732123076915741,
-0.5301844477653503,
0.19213268160820007,
-0.42418918013572693,
0.4622749388217926,
-0.4369124174118042,
0.08298438042402267,
0.5926016569137573,
-0.028413042426109314,
-0.9139693975448608,
-0.3345170319080353,
0.4996989369392395,
0.10206879675388336,
-0.36389288306236267,
-0.6684885621070862,
0.39920681715011597,
0.975995659828186,
0.12383411824703217,
0.08660614490509033,
-0.210911363363266,
-0.11210836470127106,
-0.1106296107172966,
-0.10381798446178436,
-0.061496783047914505,
0.12682731449604034,
0.057021670043468475,
-0.2702195644378662,
-0.07097568362951279,
-1.4160937070846558,
-0.5064469575881958,
0.3635418117046356,
-0.3995501697063446,
0.18729881942272186,
0.0011931979097425938,
-0.30424201488494873,
-0.7257728576660156,
0.6012940406799316,
-0.7126503586769104,
0.18508824706077576,
0.06208428740501404,
1.188171625137329,
-0.6131077408790588,
-0.2721041738986969,
-0.5985206365585327,
0.22868289053440094,
-0.16591037809848785,
-0.23143921792507172,
-0.1997925043106079,
-0.48589247465133667,
0.43980342149734497,
-0.1037406399846077,
0.5441135168075562,
0.4233303666114807,
-0.290954053401947,
-0.09246139973402023,
-0.10268937796354294,
0.16863995790481567,
0.19462332129478455,
0.16225223243236542,
0.10831241309642792,
0.13398340344429016,
-0.336615651845932,
0.19545972347259521,
0.7260069847106934,
1.4631110429763794,
0.7332954406738281,
-0.8755857944488525,
-0.14483170211315155,
-0.24585291743278503,
0.6084305047988892,
-0.6557745337486267,
0.1107475757598877,
0.35252806544303894,
0.3222144842147827,
0.19467537105083466,
-0.8512424230575562,
0.01938662864267826,
0.6507797241210938,
-0.06966418772935867,
-0.6159936189651489,
-0.15586382150650024,
0.6058171987533569,
0.2273496836423874,
0.6382938623428345,
0.3706999719142914,
0.27726417779922485,
0.4401402175426483,
0.02380806766450405,
0.37471604347229004,
-0.16635937988758087,
-0.13798530399799347,
0.6325347423553467,
-0.5975816249847412,
-0.5871812105178833,
-0.23924459517002106,
-0.21705859899520874,
0.7766737937927246,
-0.649427592754364,
-0.22912439703941345,
0.5893959403038025,
-1.0581789016723633,
0.4413928687572479,
-0.3999637961387634,
-0.26351678371429443,
-0.24592168629169464,
0.9896951913833618,
-0.24894443154335022,
-0.5779758095741272,
-0.5593070983886719,
-0.26616477966308594,
0.3539893925189972,
-0.3309817314147949,
-0.48881298303604126,
-0.3185576796531677,
0.1325194239616394,
-0.9407933354377747,
0.20990599691867828,
0.037106480449438095,
-0.42955806851387024,
-1.0906678438186646,
0.3277045786380768,
-0.07491003721952438,
-0.08824014663696289,
-0.8914218544960022,
0.5212024450302124,
0.3001165986061096,
0.07405199855566025,
0.11684191972017288,
0.07091495394706726,
0.3212718963623047,
-0.09586682915687561,
-0.47427260875701904,
0.23781061172485352,
0.4187932014465332,
-0.42665398120880127,
0.42277342081069946,
0.1884828507900238,
-0.4197215139865875,
-0.13392959535121918,
0.15581636130809784,
-0.8291771411895752,
0.07481648027896881,
0.1381685733795166,
-0.5664590001106262,
0.32217809557914734,
0.504036009311676,
-0.2748750150203705,
-0.2998315095901489,
0.7145535945892334,
0.0587182343006134,
-0.25850382447242737,
0.23040352761745453,
0.5955381989479065,
0.14826363325119019,
-0.5638366937637329,
-0.33361533284187317,
0.5867841839790344,
0.0490754097700119,
-0.0509665310382843,
0.2106444090604782,
-0.1273527294397354,
0.027703575789928436,
0.3175196349620819,
-0.5442157983779907,
0.6806647181510925,
-0.061419110745191574,
0.5950296521186829,
0.4747826159000397,
0.2934206426143646,
-0.5999193787574768,
0.3689008355140686,
0.30919215083122253,
-0.12895679473876953,
0.13704170286655426,
0.631757915019989,
0.20458586513996124,
-0.42277953028678894,
-0.027363082394003868,
0.3676459491252899,
1.041548252105713,
-0.17966245114803314,
-0.48349353671073914,
-0.6088595390319824,
0.1913103461265564,
0.09603316336870193,
0.6236714124679565,
0.4815756380558014,
-0.33180466294288635,
-0.45466774702072144,
0.911432147026062,
-0.6128466725349426,
0.1849154382944107,
0.8107835650444031,
0.7268317341804504,
0.10694368183612823,
-0.22044304013252258,
0.878145158290863,
0.46122902631759644,
0.10557020455598831,
0.5442304015159607,
0.49755674600601196,
-0.2689380943775177,
-0.33066898584365845,
-0.11047519743442535,
0.615498423576355,
0.1597873568534851,
-0.3532509505748749,
-0.002474798122420907,
-0.780225396156311,
0.10778164118528366,
0.011592683382332325,
0.11616331338882446,
-0.7258911728858948,
0.3712417781352997,
-0.713103711605072,
-0.5029654502868652,
0.34006258845329285,
-0.7962709665298462,
0.12576432526111603,
-0.31807905435562134,
1.155516505241394,
1.0698955059051514,
-0.6166233420372009,
-0.28999197483062744,
-0.09187373518943787,
-0.244331493973732,
0.029530202969908714,
0.026959285140037537,
0.507400393486023,
0.44873279333114624,
0.12641119956970215,
-0.21628396213054657,
0.3749314248561859,
0.3968571424484253,
0.9319826364517212,
-0.41456735134124756,
0.05930432304739952,
-0.03628406673669815,
-0.05759044736623764,
0.14721059799194336,
-0.2221759855747223,
-0.07724986225366592,
-0.7563226222991943,
0.5544920563697815,
-0.2925094664096832,
0.2018059641122818,
-0.4940941333770752,
0.1141013503074646,
0.15234526991844177,
0.03111378289759159,
-0.07839842140674591,
0.2900659441947937,
0.12577801942825317,
0.2726386785507202,
-0.2723781168460846,
-0.616462230682373,
0.026072537526488304,
-0.4705791771411896,
-0.23692484200000763,
0.5465638041496277,
0.7106759548187256,
0.1789502501487732,
-0.4068443477153778,
0.8527138829231262,
0.42964842915534973,
-0.04834870994091034,
-0.522377073764801,
-2.154644250869751,
0.21732746064662933,
-0.14856956899166107,
-0.30285534262657166,
0.23345282673835754,
0.3206791579723358,
0.15426407754421234,
0.006049423478543758,
0.5213597416877747,
-1.3521349430084229,
0.5714790225028992,
-0.1460433155298233,
-0.7058935761451721,
0.6097457408905029,
-0.057320818305015564,
0.10022944957017899
] |
203589
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensacola-class%20cruiser
|
Pensacola-class cruiser
|
The Pensacola class was a class of United States Navy heavy cruiser, the first "treaty cruisers" designed under the limitations set by the Washington Naval Treaty, which limited cruisers to a maximum of displacement and a maximum main battery caliber of .
Description
In an effort to remain within treaty limits, while still mounting a very heavy main battery of ten guns, the hull was of welded construction, and the armor belt was thin (varying from in thickness). This was inadequate to protect her vitals from enemy 8-inch shells and was no thicker than the armor on gun cruisers. In fact, and were classified as light cruisers due to their minimal armor until re-designated in July 1931, as heavy cruisers in accord with international practice of designating all cruisers with guns larger than 6-inch as heavy cruisers.
Their main armament consisted of ten 8-inch guns, in two twin turrets on the main deck, and two triple turrets two decks above, making it one of the two US Navy ship classes (besides the s) to have different-sized turrets for main armament. All the guns in each turret were mounted in a single slide, and were unable to elevate independently of each other. Also, unlike the very few other ships with different sized main battery turrets (Nevada-class battleships and King George V-class battleships) the Pensacolas had the larger turrets superfiring over the smaller turrets, whereas the others had the larger turrets on "bottom". Placing heavier turrets above lighter ones allows for finer lines for a given length, however this causes top heaviness and reduces stability.
Unfortunately, because of the rather unusual main battery layout and their heavy tripod fore-masts, they were top-heavy and prone to excessive rolling. This combined with low freeboard forward made them inferior seaboats compared to later designs. Rework in the shipyards modified the hull and superstructure in the 1930s to eliminate the rolling.
The Navy built only two ships in this class before switching to the design. Many of the deficiencies of the Pensacolas were corrected by reducing the main battery to three triple turrets (two forward, one aft) and adding another upper deck forward of amidships.
Ships in class
See also
County-class cruiser, a contemporary class of RN cruisers built to the same Treaty limits
Furutaka-class cruiser, a contemporary class of IJN cruisers built to the same Treaty limits
References
External links
Global Security.org – Pensacola-class cruiser
Global Security.org – Pensacola-class cruiser specifications
Cruiser classes
|
[
-0.26224246621131897,
-0.15524129569530487,
-0.5242440104484558,
0.3087080419063568,
-0.1345868557691574,
0.09858579188585281,
0.339226633310318,
-0.4290039539337158,
-0.09898047894239426,
0.11985673755407333,
0.19887171685695648,
0.8665368556976318,
-0.39166179299354553,
0.425872802734375,
-0.009230888448655605,
0.4162355959415436,
0.42081573605537415,
0.25424715876579285,
0.258749783039093,
-0.22581207752227783,
-0.25702354311943054,
-0.018149256706237793,
0.35566505789756775,
-0.08594764024019241,
0.36541441082954407,
0.19127802550792694,
0.7195668816566467,
0.41484469175338745,
0.21821559965610504,
0.20068801939487457,
0.5341779589653015,
0.6860560774803162,
-0.5720202922821045,
0.08689062297344208,
-0.5485567450523376,
-0.02383272908627987,
-0.12188341468572617,
-0.377515584230423,
0.03223438560962677,
-0.34868091344833374,
-0.37312087416648865,
-0.1193053275346756,
0.19976867735385895,
0.5272517204284668,
-0.18946781754493713,
0.14525513350963593,
-1.5818185806274414,
-0.30139943957328796,
-0.07000648230314255,
-0.22007572650909424,
-0.4126632809638977,
0.21118050813674927,
0.4508979618549347,
0.35769951343536377,
0.010331417433917522,
0.3320372402667999,
-0.8139203190803528,
0.20275148749351501,
-0.36339524388313293,
-0.6962842345237732,
0.21411438286304474,
0.8999165296554565,
1.0030348300933838,
0.16980697214603424,
0.11779039353132248,
0.2309717983007431,
-0.42861706018447876,
-0.17665545642375946,
-0.22372178733348846,
-0.2408888041973114,
0.46844619512557983,
-0.3244110941886902,
0.07072368264198303,
-0.125277578830719,
-0.31845974922180176,
-0.07736275345087051,
0.021474992856383324,
-0.3285403847694397,
0.18337392807006836,
0.4780673384666443,
0.4357444643974304,
-0.23732493817806244,
0.910405158996582,
-0.1903613656759262,
-0.353323370218277,
0.06624871492385864,
-0.5550715923309326,
-0.03337160870432854,
-0.4174954891204834,
0.515228807926178,
-0.28366002440452576,
0.23433572053909302,
0.7845797538757324,
0.4400715231895447,
0.12043590843677521,
0.015959052368998528,
-0.1830805242061615,
0.07821635156869888,
0.07867610454559326,
0.4836319088935852,
-0.11364278942346573,
0.2871931195259094,
0.5884560346603394,
0.12848412990570068,
-0.6586230397224426,
-0.02254243940114975,
-0.08313480764627457,
-0.08137194812297821,
-0.6916288733482361,
0.15183481574058533,
0.053663287311792374,
0.05222289636731148,
0.2302120178937912,
-0.019550301134586334,
0.03835543990135193,
-0.4034688472747803,
-0.1115598976612091,
-0.4794730544090271,
-0.2019205093383789,
-0.18657894432544708,
0.07072795182466507,
0.7045668363571167,
-0.6704869866371155,
-0.38748207688331604,
0.04050712659955025,
0.41744497418403625,
0.5892444252967834,
0.8997278213500977,
-0.7639502286911011,
-0.4038360118865967,
0.23923340439796448,
0.645480751991272,
-0.4054841101169586,
0.19780565798282623,
-0.6865830421447754,
-0.4314207434654236,
-0.195775106549263,
-0.0781618058681488,
0.5555523633956909,
0.30852583050727844,
-0.4766576588153839,
-0.6413136124610901,
-0.20805613696575165,
-0.6412416100502014,
0.23231610655784607,
-0.5962278246879578,
0.5860186815261841,
-0.05179247260093689,
-0.5930073857307434,
-0.3292447030544281,
0.15582746267318726,
-0.5742049813270569,
-0.06878571957349777,
0.6193487644195557,
-0.047316908836364746,
-0.40942636132240295,
0.362626314163208,
-0.3467957377433777,
0.3229445815086365,
0.2838951349258423,
-0.8083022832870483,
-0.022123955190181732,
-0.2936197519302368,
0.06515547633171082,
-0.1297440379858017,
0.21998050808906555,
-0.12676575779914856,
-0.36488690972328186,
0.27987489104270935,
0.03891768306493759,
0.32185283303260803,
-0.010406112298369408,
0.13735896348953247,
0.1552543342113495,
-0.4641925096511841,
0.19220003485679626,
0.39134088158607483,
-0.2935963273048401,
0.17286497354507446,
-0.6184450387954712,
-0.32754504680633545,
0.1808917075395584,
0.47177907824516296,
0.18677549064159393,
0.23013868927955627,
0.07927346974611282,
0.06365703791379929,
0.14057207107543945,
-0.2627737820148468,
-0.5203840136528015,
0.39809033274650574,
0.03944095969200134,
-0.10254283249378204,
-0.06284736841917038,
1.3551491498947144,
0.009615996852517128,
-0.695722222328186,
0.5507847666740417,
0.45861536264419556,
0.4501824378967285,
0.6550780534744263,
-0.027790570631623268,
0.31194767355918884,
0.2474292814731598,
-0.8286832571029663,
-0.40879613161087036,
-0.031937893480062485,
0.9635692834854126,
0.07525313645601273,
0.5765727758407593,
0.1792599856853485,
-0.6348721385002136,
0.31365537643432617,
0.053617097437381744,
0.004405508749186993,
-0.29812923073768616,
-0.2048194706439972,
0.05323414131999016,
0.10828564316034317,
-0.2890509068965912,
0.7107955813407898,
-0.1271008998155594,
-0.1101420596241951,
0.4120815396308899,
-0.3159017264842987,
-0.47516393661499023,
-0.33860063552856445,
0.505024254322052,
0.06785092502832413,
-0.3365563452243805,
0.46491315960884094,
-0.19557932019233704,
-0.08426562696695328,
-0.8084141612052917,
0.4755689203739166,
0.5399045348167419,
-0.15120506286621094,
0.03468584269285202,
0.3420056402683258,
-0.4725126326084137,
-0.13348288834095,
-0.18005257844924927,
-0.7867130041122437,
0.42378178238868713,
0.11422461271286011,
-0.534412145614624,
0.10892156511545181,
-0.15215696394443512,
0.0206956434994936,
-0.7052853107452393,
0.48775550723075867,
0.28337547183036804,
0.21445424854755402,
-0.3058244287967682,
0.2457674890756607,
0.12000436335802078,
-0.08583133667707443,
-0.5023238658905029,
0.3809211552143097,
-0.30110296607017517,
0.12195441126823425,
0.8166078329086304,
-0.3682405650615692,
0.09851943701505661,
0.38592973351478577,
-0.5809633731842041,
-0.00017449203005526215,
0.1431228220462799,
0.08847443014383316,
0.3707660734653473,
0.06829321384429932,
0.5204117298126221,
0.038786254823207855,
-0.41183120012283325,
-0.14071723818778992,
-0.00019876909209415317,
0.03992082551121712,
0.8617481589317322,
-0.5259324908256531,
-0.3314361274242401,
0.4547083079814911,
0.22617091238498688,
-0.21292617917060852,
-0.647113025188446,
-0.5684595704078674,
-0.8896479606628418,
0.1610506922006607,
-0.794917106628418,
-0.21943573653697968,
-0.36549505591392517,
-0.4388090968132019,
-0.26422119140625,
-0.3832766115665436,
0.2579236328601837,
-0.4443824589252472,
0.7182762026786804,
-0.4679332971572876,
0.044521939009428024,
-0.04022962227463722,
-0.2986901104450226,
-0.6093116402626038,
0.4036664366722107,
-0.2955118417739868,
-0.21049685776233673,
-0.26333126425743103,
0.28155815601348877,
-0.5960861444473267,
0.382018506526947,
-5.614550590515137,
-0.09404057264328003,
-0.59352707862854,
-0.038925640285015106,
-0.7887383699417114,
0.1909852772951126,
0.31242555379867554,
-0.21309393644332886,
0.12459179759025574,
-0.6089839339256287,
0.5193179249763489,
0.4473150074481964,
-0.06861332058906555,
-0.054457925260066986,
0.6534172892570496,
0.4144422709941864,
0.6956899762153625,
-0.40004971623420715,
-0.061866387724876404,
-0.04193074628710747,
0.36235737800598145,
-0.1914488971233368,
0.36756590008735657,
0.32753679156303406,
0.33361124992370605,
-0.28452637791633606,
-0.1677512675523758,
0.03389018401503563,
-0.648104727268219,
-0.30950242280960083,
-0.2471369057893753,
0.36921119689941406,
-0.013050515204668045,
-0.10739751905202866,
0.42466065287590027,
-0.05938468128442764,
0.3788553774356842,
0.3580128848552704,
-0.05240042507648468,
-0.6239281296730042,
-0.5668092370033264,
0.20668300986289978,
-0.14186498522758484,
-0.015056304633617401,
0.31208887696266174,
-0.2674410045146942,
0.10270268470048904,
0.4812185764312744,
-0.017856746912002563,
1.180509328842163,
0.03227353096008301,
0.3182753622531891,
0.3244870603084564,
0.6420044302940369,
0.5139736533164978,
0.029144015163183212,
-0.10183435678482056,
-0.3347548246383667,
-1.057092547416687,
0.15800467133522034,
0.40802860260009766,
-0.2733839452266693,
-0.3061336278915405,
-0.17164190113544464,
0.07950291782617569,
-0.2648628354072571,
-0.5430068373680115,
-0.14202004671096802,
0.40137743949890137,
0.34692564606666565,
0.1576400101184845,
1.3815102577209473,
0.16652263700962067,
-0.9447079300880432,
0.28324976563453674,
-0.1255122274160385,
0.12745319306850433,
-0.16306072473526,
-0.039037179201841354,
-0.06105969101190567,
0.11925096809864044,
0.12051712721586227,
-0.4081069827079773,
1.0059177875518799,
0.35094115138053894,
-0.49233734607696533,
-0.19546249508857727,
0.3716743290424347,
-0.41545143723487854,
0.06518588215112686,
0.446561336517334,
-0.07919717580080032,
0.8048014044761658,
0.03461186960339546,
0.6882663369178772,
-0.7319772839546204,
-0.0672900378704071,
0.5707857608795166,
0.9078825116157532,
-0.4955054521560669,
0.5528362393379211,
0.00850786454975605,
0.6920869946479797,
-0.22922773659229279,
-0.34842759370803833,
-0.25638291239738464,
-0.19829429686069489,
0.20258334279060364,
1.088419795036316,
-0.26833218336105347,
-0.46173202991485596,
-0.6671296954154968,
-0.30854037404060364,
-0.23203562200069427,
1.1532396078109741,
0.041526250541210175,
0.31979963183403015,
0.3879392743110657,
0.785537600517273,
0.3599413335323334,
-0.023246003314852715,
0.3677424490451813,
-0.009417018853127956,
-0.1237402930855751,
-0.3691239058971405,
-0.19605852663516998,
0.45022308826446533,
-0.04446427896618843,
-0.6302971243858337,
0.4842405319213867,
0.19496355950832367,
0.5733595490455627,
-0.3051608204841614,
0.023133251816034317,
0.1188238337635994,
-0.25839048624038696,
-0.3907613456249237,
-0.5090099573135376,
0.23154261708259583,
-0.11680774390697479,
-0.695090651512146,
-0.3298933506011963,
-0.20830273628234863,
0.029416333884000778,
1.0340992212295532,
0.021110128611326218,
0.2856403887271881,
-0.2563149034976959,
-0.07254278659820557,
0.40474388003349304,
-0.6641188263893127,
-0.570173978805542,
0.10992666333913803,
-0.7954730987548828,
-0.1385432779788971,
0.18329530954360962,
0.6642606854438782,
0.07432522624731064,
-0.09494360536336899,
-0.37979403138160706,
0.06051437184214592,
-0.07134445756673813,
-0.38616684079170227,
-0.36013126373291016,
0.5075247883796692,
0.11806061863899231,
-1.0681694746017456,
-0.1935177445411682,
-0.22853361070156097,
0.36324092745780945,
0.4048402011394501,
-0.530799388885498,
-1.024062156677246,
-0.3405654728412628,
0.09849625080823898,
0.154571071267128,
-1.1325372457504272,
-0.01162081491202116,
-0.5253745913505554,
-0.25443652272224426,
0.18033088743686676,
-0.46200305223464966,
-0.359962522983551,
0.060770172625780106,
0.3532307744026184,
-0.03722558915615082,
-0.7104943990707397,
0.0857473835349083,
-0.17299555242061615,
0.2512011229991913,
-0.0782909169793129,
-0.4364768862724304,
0.6201909184455872,
0.061084117740392685,
-0.9609897136688232,
-0.10627520829439163,
0.10110782831907272,
0.820278525352478,
0.4408945143222809,
-0.5684629082679749,
-0.06597992777824402,
0.2702086567878723,
-0.5962335467338562,
0.1275671273469925,
0.041294340044260025,
-0.09763102233409882,
0.26709261536598206,
-0.39459648728370667,
-0.12819671630859375,
0.7703023552894592,
-0.0776100605726242,
-1.0400652885437012,
0.34854772686958313,
0.49913617968559265,
-0.09306593239307404,
0.2297123819589615,
-0.15327420830726624,
0.39229685068130493,
-0.5072960257530212,
-0.6725873947143555,
-0.20653274655342102,
-0.05964663252234459,
0.018006358295679092,
-0.5943477153778076,
-0.46231746673583984,
0.6326927542686462,
-0.2424393743276596,
0.11104217171669006,
-0.2430967092514038,
0.41855961084365845,
-0.28589895367622375,
-0.14645563066005707,
-0.04585926979780197,
-0.32862547039985657,
0.5249993205070496,
-0.1836831271648407,
-0.32674434781074524,
-0.15084342658519745,
-0.3198793828487396,
0.595950722694397,
0.5829775929450989,
1.22164785861969,
-0.02041531726717949,
-0.45629242062568665,
-0.003906792961061001,
0.08239264786243439,
0.27339065074920654,
0.1515854448080063,
-0.3367696702480316,
0.1366066187620163,
-0.1925649344921112,
-0.6051321029663086,
-0.7967898845672607,
-0.2505768835544586,
0.8805385828018188,
-0.09936673194169998,
0.23869746923446655,
0.3382052481174469,
-0.18434953689575195,
0.1601330190896988,
0.017959779128432274,
0.6134322285652161,
-0.7089878916740417,
-0.06533767282962799,
0.44448256492614746,
0.2240287810564041,
-0.5047720670700073,
-0.1766880452632904,
0.3688153922557831,
-0.023273173719644547,
0.08000359684228897,
0.48734357953071594,
0.4865133464336395,
0.8333079218864441,
-0.1578383594751358,
0.20934361219406128,
-0.20936138927936554,
-0.4253694415092468,
0.48031848669052124,
0.21636979281902313,
-0.7342288494110107,
0.2818276584148407,
-0.13199558854103088,
-0.43939244747161865,
-0.6286860704421997,
-0.48842811584472656,
-0.3779265284538269,
-0.16742858290672302,
0.10428983718156815,
-0.19538159668445587,
0.13008370995521545,
-0.1709955930709839,
-0.4234544634819031,
0.4096794128417969,
-0.3438122570514679,
0.38428935408592224,
-0.2550508379936218,
0.12919092178344727,
-0.04274866357445717,
0.7343628406524658,
-0.16985976696014404,
0.665517270565033,
-0.32890740036964417,
-0.35299578309059143,
0.2966913878917694,
-0.058674365282058716,
0.8136605024337769,
0.3110112249851227,
-0.3893738090991974,
-0.3850427567958832,
-0.32410722970962524,
-0.6286848187446594,
0.20192328095436096,
0.5384280681610107,
-0.6434626579284668,
0.1508747637271881,
0.6775028109550476,
0.13655103743076324,
-0.19654527306556702,
-0.21917596459388733,
0.30958637595176697,
0.4040447175502777,
0.017270058393478394,
0.4888032376766205,
0.03722628578543663,
0.3121732771396637,
-0.6871532201766968,
-0.09569151699542999,
0.41073569655418396,
0.9134368300437927,
-0.07674974948167801,
-0.4032030403614044,
-0.2376042902469635,
0.27324146032333374,
-0.5339731574058533,
0.08199121803045273,
0.3416435122489929,
-0.37593141198158264,
-0.5789259076118469,
0.5735415816307068,
0.396702378988266,
0.053439583629369736,
-0.15854279696941376,
-0.4199995994567871,
0.09824962168931961,
0.4530751705169678,
0.0433628149330616,
0.3355242609977722,
0.33540093898773193,
0.2190759778022766,
0.3541109263896942,
0.11837539821863174,
0.5722670555114746,
0.32583317160606384,
-0.1488749086856842,
0.2321474552154541,
0.43037769198417664,
-0.2582913339138031,
-0.2326696515083313,
-0.6365038156509399,
-0.6473712921142578,
0.11520521342754364,
0.8910883665084839,
-0.07641119509935379,
-0.2888402044773102,
0.49153488874435425,
-0.11941161751747131,
0.3342095613479614,
0.10696173459291458,
0.013818422332406044,
0.3082338273525238,
0.10992459207773209,
0.0015067784115672112,
0.09981914609670639,
-0.04494201019406319,
0.33818942308425903,
0.6041573286056519,
-0.07043686509132385,
0.4628739058971405,
0.09286777675151825,
-0.24281874299049377,
0.6964223980903625,
-0.08578453212976456,
-0.8923038244247437,
-0.11123860627412796,
-0.04760384187102318,
-0.09659688919782639,
0.21313855051994324,
0.3098846673965454,
0.026493318378925323,
0.23833872377872467,
-0.4874553680419922,
-0.5697752833366394,
-0.03301142156124115,
-0.40894216299057007,
0.25377193093299866,
0.02997528947889805,
0.37153133749961853,
0.22668518126010895,
-0.008723966777324677,
-0.6797710061073303,
-0.014748835004866123,
0.12429607659578323,
-0.30055707693099976,
-0.09025420993566513,
0.2184094935655594,
-0.6282009482383728,
-0.09249189496040344,
-0.3246649503707886,
0.2830764651298523,
-0.3590410053730011,
-0.5074446201324463,
-0.19323717057704926,
0.09237241744995117,
-0.194266214966774,
0.06785168498754501,
0.7950511574745178,
-0.6877437233924866,
-0.7301568984985352,
-0.22664260864257812,
0.3575723171234131,
-0.20447033643722534,
-0.34774312376976013,
-0.22536484897136688,
-0.010054307989776134,
-0.45872801542282104,
-0.1393904685974121,
-0.5260555744171143,
0.20082101225852966,
0.2869420647621155,
0.41561374068260193,
-0.4831205904483795,
-0.10703840851783752,
0.865700900554657,
-0.3437216877937317,
-0.3872429132461548,
-0.019084064289927483,
0.221766859292984,
0.5155737400054932,
0.12121853977441788,
0.3775569796562195,
-0.6044507622718811,
0.15946698188781738,
0.2923641502857208,
0.6186229586601257,
0.002066422486677766,
0.04241663217544556,
-0.24481473863124847,
-0.10168412327766418,
0.4332258105278015,
-0.2676095962524414,
-0.5474895238876343,
0.23321464657783508,
-0.2784678041934967,
0.024328766390681267,
-0.22892189025878906,
0.3463447391986847,
-0.5328572988510132,
-0.19216607511043549,
-0.05960499867796898
] |
203592
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulda%20%28district%29
|
Fulda (district)
|
The Fulda District (; ) is a Kreis (district) in the north-east of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Hersfeld-Rotenburg, Wartburgkreis, Schmalkalden-Meiningen, Rhön-Grabfeld, Bad Kissingen, Main-Kinzig, Vogelsbergkreis.
History
The district was created in 1821, when the duchy of Fulda became a province of Hesse, and was split into four districts. In 1866 the north of Hesse became a part of Prussia, including the Gersfeld area which previously belonged to Bavaria. In 1927 the city of Fulda left the district to become a district-free city, and in 1932 the remaining district was merged with the district of Gersfeld. In 1972, the previously small municipalities were merged into 23 bigger ones, and in 1974 the city of Fulda lost its status as district-free city and joined the district again. In 1972 the major part of the Hünfeld district was added to the district.
Geography
The district is located in the Rhön and Vogelsberg mountains. The main river of the district is the Fulda.
Coat of arms
The left side of the coat of arms shows a black cross, the sign of the monastery of Fulda. The lion on the right side is taken from the Hesse coat of arms, symbolizing that the district was part of Hesse 1821–1866, and again after 1945. The coat of arms was granted in 1936.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
allround Informationportal of Fulda
360 degree virtual tour through the hessian rhoen
Districts of Hesse
Districts of Prussia
|
[
0.08430028706789017,
0.5258873701095581,
0.95313960313797,
-0.3404724895954132,
-0.46482425928115845,
0.10650520771741867,
0.9256072044372559,
0.036598917096853256,
0.08388730138540268,
-0.4673319160938263,
-0.139517679810524,
-0.06402917206287384,
-0.1652209460735321,
0.2665106952190399,
-0.25090327858924866,
0.44679751992225647,
0.8996924161911011,
0.37728551030158997,
-0.2054949253797531,
-0.8249043226242065,
-0.3422883152961731,
0.35113954544067383,
0.5795542001724243,
0.3216867744922638,
-0.3602253794670105,
-0.27937155961990356,
0.6964207291603088,
0.16232526302337646,
-0.16949400305747986,
0.28973817825317383,
-0.3487686216831207,
0.8217766284942627,
-0.3029834032058716,
-0.1846374124288559,
0.6792927384376526,
0.460384339094162,
0.045931700617074966,
-0.887431800365448,
0.08364841341972351,
-0.4515777826309204,
-0.18538782000541687,
0.39974966645240784,
-0.009716088883578777,
-0.2891266644001007,
0.3231060206890106,
-0.5696254372596741,
-1.45612633228302,
-0.041013337671756744,
-0.7329123616218567,
0.0676795169711113,
-0.7374387383460999,
-0.22282721102237701,
0.23567844927310944,
0.31444212794303894,
0.36010104417800903,
0.1452348828315735,
-1.3383381366729736,
0.16150277853012085,
0.5405073761940002,
0.774517297744751,
0.48421409726142883,
0.18590547144412994,
-0.5116150379180908,
0.6362705826759338,
0.40199413895606995,
0.0355164110660553,
-0.010546041652560234,
0.7433178424835205,
-0.17804618179798126,
-1.1783642768859863,
-0.6279425621032715,
-0.2683275043964386,
-0.3453349769115448,
-0.2885105609893799,
-0.07075946778059006,
-0.09237499535083771,
-0.7780497074127197,
-0.25594857335090637,
0.11163528263568878,
-0.2983821630477905,
-0.4801836609840393,
0.0759965032339096,
0.9904187917709351,
-0.22168509662151337,
0.43791481852531433,
0.414935827255249,
-0.2076941877603531,
-0.2845449447631836,
-0.2586682438850403,
0.6716201305389404,
-0.2696847915649414,
-0.2887457311153412,
-0.3444423973560333,
0.16468694806098938,
0.5649183392524719,
-1.0295727252960205,
0.11295207589864731,
-0.134152352809906,
0.7911083698272705,
0.9619458317756653,
-0.1451217532157898,
0.29710471630096436,
0.5094598531723022,
0.18967710435390472,
-0.39621859788894653,
-0.3769497275352478,
-0.22544407844543457,
-0.8385341167449951,
-0.7142156958580017,
-0.01315438561141491,
-0.7137603759765625,
0.5305576324462891,
0.37183618545532227,
-0.5072384476661682,
-0.0589510053396225,
-0.16072577238082886,
0.5236480832099915,
-0.6161261200904846,
-0.16880640387535095,
0.42553815245628357,
0.902275800704956,
0.6913959980010986,
-0.1432131975889206,
0.36956802010536194,
0.2793441414833069,
-0.28622785210609436,
0.1434965431690216,
1.069098711013794,
-0.500829815864563,
-0.010508693754673004,
0.7178536653518677,
0.6249674558639526,
-0.10329970717430115,
-0.1250372976064682,
0.31434518098831177,
-0.5348456501960754,
0.6715130805969238,
0.2197096198797226,
0.21532724797725677,
-0.09739179909229279,
-0.5405191779136658,
0.31880447268486023,
-1.3609118461608887,
-0.2233465015888214,
0.2595299482345581,
-0.24880440533161163,
-0.38624221086502075,
-0.6144126653671265,
-0.04721692577004433,
-0.08282161504030228,
0.12348033487796783,
0.531688928604126,
-0.6446823477745056,
0.569826066493988,
-1.029695749282837,
0.5044625401496887,
0.7245346307754517,
-0.18296001851558685,
0.3278955817222595,
0.3299594223499298,
0.38813406229019165,
-0.8234996199607849,
0.2586251497268677,
0.2465200573205948,
0.2452845424413681,
-0.09260442852973938,
0.30161231756210327,
-0.0012927596690133214,
0.09495517611503601,
0.1773141324520111,
-0.6692333221435547,
-0.06204785406589508,
-0.20937076210975647,
-0.35062485933303833,
0.004656295757740736,
-0.40072908997535706,
0.5150482058525085,
0.6303253173828125,
0.16133306920528412,
-0.534617006778717,
-0.9033945798873901,
-0.245109423995018,
0.32514041662216187,
0.6169353723526001,
-0.14784330129623413,
0.30713075399398804,
-0.5364082455635071,
-0.003677170956507325,
0.5114692449569702,
0.22224335372447968,
0.5670192837715149,
-0.9901972413063049,
0.5990528464317322,
0.13857166469097137,
0.5932806134223938,
0.530926525592804,
-0.35895201563835144,
-0.31016936898231506,
-0.4783225357532501,
0.16714605689048767,
-0.17048504948616028,
-0.8416780829429626,
-0.06451717764139175,
0.19602903723716736,
0.17743419110774994,
0.48950469493865967,
-0.6392013430595398,
-0.3421366512775421,
-0.4983524680137634,
0.175336092710495,
0.04604662209749222,
-0.02351890318095684,
-0.012392445467412472,
-0.17837956547737122,
0.31823021173477173,
-0.45469364523887634,
-0.278286337852478,
-0.4111429452896118,
0.13858512043952942,
-0.4410351812839508,
-0.12358138710260391,
0.6579888463020325,
-0.3862778842449188,
0.6170886754989624,
-0.27590540051460266,
0.6434566378593445,
-0.08486469089984894,
0.6673451662063599,
-0.07864906638860703,
-0.4643133282661438,
0.4350126087665558,
0.4730879068374634,
0.5789790749549866,
0.2506626844406128,
0.48653629422187805,
0.025380026549100876,
-0.4876326620578766,
0.1920287311077118,
0.44786593317985535,
-0.982390820980072,
0.5132544636726379,
0.1348298043012619,
-0.4735301733016968,
0.27836906909942627,
0.32764819264411926,
0.5163877606391907,
-0.6020877957344055,
0.06598260253667831,
-0.6524164080619812,
-0.21231339871883392,
0.7486518025398254,
-0.11818528175354004,
0.03858192265033722,
-0.6470637321472168,
0.4652813673019409,
-0.2537856698036194,
0.06485414505004883,
0.5014506578445435,
0.09884528815746307,
0.2420259267091751,
0.021539153531193733,
0.3307279646396637,
0.29287663102149963,
-0.26774170994758606,
-0.6797140836715698,
0.23074935376644135,
0.15365950763225555,
-0.18131721019744873,
-0.3428977131843567,
0.027795597910881042,
0.009384886361658573,
0.07000844925642014,
-0.4597592055797577,
-0.6291951537132263,
0.08788800239562988,
-0.5200241804122925,
-0.5773801803588867,
0.9160693287849426,
-0.8319937586784363,
0.19175559282302856,
0.30294641852378845,
0.8608859777450562,
-0.1876392960548401,
-0.7618404030799866,
-0.6005276441574097,
0.009359234012663364,
0.6751682758331299,
-0.23396843671798706,
-0.6222791075706482,
0.2521982789039612,
-0.30169913172721863,
0.09984586387872696,
-0.36711034178733826,
-0.18462355434894562,
-0.38105061650276184,
0.251510351896286,
-0.4317176043987274,
0.2735103964805603,
0.40996065735816956,
-0.6310316920280457,
-0.8141145706176758,
0.04396067559719086,
-0.29721730947494507,
0.24206015467643738,
-0.8366423845291138,
-0.7052273750305176,
-0.6756754517555237,
-0.1169838011264801,
-4.598341464996338,
-0.7190122008323669,
-0.41635048389434814,
0.05534419044852257,
0.14437039196491241,
0.09493903070688248,
-0.3894903063774109,
-0.5375145673751831,
-0.2701478600502014,
-0.2837565243244171,
0.6610880494117737,
-0.3228713870048523,
0.05996118113398552,
0.9355224967002869,
0.9471101760864258,
-0.14758603274822235,
0.37735608220100403,
0.24055589735507965,
0.04617667943239212,
-0.3904764950275421,
-0.39475491642951965,
0.3310031294822693,
0.4958275258541107,
0.3956741392612457,
0.5831362009048462,
0.2551049292087555,
-0.15132077038288116,
-0.11898116022348404,
-0.9071975350379944,
-1.0123684406280518,
0.48745056986808777,
-0.18403872847557068,
-0.6886876225471497,
0.4734075963497162,
0.2684107720851898,
0.14160673320293427,
1.090008020401001,
0.7978923916816711,
0.5571620464324951,
-0.38727617263793945,
0.3998825252056122,
0.9761319756507874,
-0.38036036491394043,
0.22714287042617798,
0.26872146129608154,
-0.33443549275398254,
-0.7120712399482727,
0.28445231914520264,
-0.7648999094963074,
1.628531813621521,
0.02810593880712986,
-0.45677605271339417,
0.3461720049381256,
-0.44226932525634766,
0.11831457912921906,
-0.21569715440273285,
-0.23656798899173737,
-0.2888447344303131,
-0.14498083293437958,
0.7484571933746338,
0.209871307015419,
0.01096744742244482,
-0.10992531478404999,
-0.12856678664684296,
-0.7264034748077393,
0.008657648228108883,
-0.4642481505870819,
0.4025745391845703,
0.6921932697296143,
-0.052881743758916855,
-0.764981210231781,
0.2584593892097473,
-0.14308606088161469,
-0.9802639484405518,
-0.12196557968854904,
-0.8847954273223877,
-0.7384197115898132,
-0.5496804118156433,
0.035972949117422104,
-0.11062532663345337,
0.3050425946712494,
-0.05965806171298027,
0.30239439010620117,
0.5586808919906616,
0.8936779499053955,
-0.2243558168411255,
-0.8367788791656494,
-0.23287513852119446,
0.39675623178482056,
-0.19942347705364227,
-0.0071850852109491825,
-0.11419901996850967,
0.3328537046909332,
0.5630946755409241,
-0.8070988059043884,
0.8506768941879272,
-0.6013719439506531,
-0.598913848400116,
0.050110824406147,
-0.5936408638954163,
1.3322021961212158,
-0.4153866469860077,
0.18842847645282745,
0.215691477060318,
0.01197770331054926,
0.18786776065826416,
0.4709104001522064,
0.22171615064144135,
0.2121892124414444,
0.26466578245162964,
-0.05923830345273018,
-0.07472369074821472,
0.027214905247092247,
-1.2005159854888916,
0.5285592675209045,
-1.3667010068893433,
-1.6130492687225342,
1.4222590923309326,
-0.3668802082538605,
0.4564535319805145,
0.7526575922966003,
-0.08389472961425781,
0.3753320276737213,
-0.7586608529090881,
-0.39177873730659485,
0.6117708086967468,
0.2570743262767792,
-0.18004341423511505,
0.16244010627269745,
0.7758785486221313,
0.35613176226615906,
-0.04228797182440758,
-0.4014471173286438,
-0.5890856981277466,
0.10375604778528214,
-0.5551232099533081,
-0.06970096379518509,
-0.014603636227548122,
-0.2898945212364197,
0.025045033544301987,
0.8875431418418884,
0.530863881111145,
-0.18286040425300598,
0.21478137373924255,
0.10830675065517426,
-0.0037127486430108547,
0.5008028745651245,
-0.33044373989105225,
-0.8403043746948242,
0.4198078215122223,
-0.12897656857967377,
-0.41107434034347534,
0.4082135856151581,
-0.3651859760284424,
-0.2420153170824051,
0.11462968587875366,
0.24459415674209595,
0.5184330344200134,
0.5980822443962097,
-0.3951287567615509,
0.2797098755836487,
-0.2066621482372284,
-0.5782728791236877,
0.7325664758682251,
0.49789392948150635,
0.1935112476348877,
-0.3092552125453949,
0.11707241833209991,
-0.6750784516334534,
0.7655032277107239,
0.00026761373737826943,
-0.5901896953582764,
-0.6276924014091492,
0.516376793384552,
-0.20634935796260834,
-0.2796481251716614,
-0.4713866710662842,
0.45684951543807983,
0.09470394253730774,
-0.5137814879417419,
0.16551366448402405,
-0.08065539598464966,
-0.5926036238670349,
0.4399282932281494,
0.6269978284835815,
-0.651904284954071,
-0.2787305414676666,
0.058681413531303406,
-0.6074228286743164,
-0.13788840174674988,
0.5647357702255249,
-0.6229388117790222,
0.8046194911003113,
0.16596227884292603,
-0.22319291532039642,
-1.480680227279663,
0.11543159186840057,
0.11739607900381088,
-0.13620169460773468,
-0.019653405994176865,
0.16481170058250427,
0.4794655442237854,
-0.4657486081123352,
0.8393176794052124,
0.3268658518791199,
-0.4568881392478943,
0.46187037229537964,
0.5208017230033875,
0.13110433518886566,
0.653969943523407,
-0.6862937808036804,
-0.3646698296070099,
0.09919153898954391,
0.7417258620262146,
-0.5845576524734497,
0.3328741490840912,
-0.08336241543292999,
-0.935497522354126,
-0.32966676354408264,
-0.23301967978477478,
-0.9606667160987854,
-0.5397925972938538,
-0.2717653512954712,
0.2399166375398636,
-0.5798324942588806,
-0.14039459824562073,
0.12493819743394852,
-0.8391125798225403,
0.47412726283073425,
-0.29942038655281067,
0.4498680830001831,
0.264145165681839,
0.44058945775032043,
-0.12025057524442673,
-0.2102649211883545,
-0.2710488438606262,
0.26311612129211426,
0.6041721701622009,
-0.23626334965229034,
0.621436357498169,
0.17188043892383575,
0.9883871674537659,
0.6828402280807495,
-0.7935019731521606,
0.3187626302242279,
-0.2201434075832367,
0.5747602581977844,
-0.7673324346542358,
-0.9051650762557983,
0.7225891947746277,
-0.024804163724184036,
0.12440325319766998,
-0.5212634801864624,
-0.24390166997909546,
0.8680049777030945,
-0.5402137041091919,
-0.13970081508159637,
0.4642256498336792,
0.8328315615653992,
0.05718333274126053,
-0.30316615104675293,
-0.23392298817634583,
-0.08478344976902008,
-0.1871449202299118,
-0.13831549882888794,
-0.13365085422992706,
-0.5086986422538757,
0.20293636620044708,
-0.07168738543987274,
-0.15950441360473633,
-0.3655111789703369,
-0.21890777349472046,
-0.5282377600669861,
0.10833369195461273,
-0.2478504627943039,
0.1640133559703827,
-0.25349149107933044,
-0.23644527792930603,
0.414400577545166,
-0.1654973328113556,
-0.5205151438713074,
0.3410749137401581,
-0.15458495914936066,
-1.2139848470687866,
-0.029547516256570816,
-0.9880561828613281,
-0.8551904559135437,
0.21630501747131348,
-0.9604666829109192,
0.48839905858039856,
-0.0797077938914299,
-0.641741931438446,
-0.8276219367980957,
0.30632930994033813,
0.08024171739816666,
0.26780569553375244,
-0.15899847447872162,
0.4424935281276703,
-0.34857532382011414,
-0.11284910142421722,
-0.22298994660377502,
0.08952435106039047,
0.2814808785915375,
0.5159939527511597,
0.3766183853149414,
-0.04986568167805672,
-0.7718842029571533,
-0.40127596259117126,
-0.613892674446106,
0.06940855830907822,
0.3614889681339264,
-0.3862724006175995,
-0.018632635474205017,
1.4257152080535889,
0.24863742291927338,
0.9928774237632751,
0.8411104083061218,
0.07206816971302032,
0.08511985093355179,
0.4597407579421997,
0.40264299511909485,
-0.32357627153396606,
0.9310115575790405,
0.49165788292884827,
-0.1383865922689438,
0.7131247520446777,
0.2480504810810089,
-0.13882911205291748,
0.2975749373435974,
-0.5007413625717163,
0.33269503712654114,
-0.36092573404312134,
-0.38107773661613464,
0.5656228065490723,
-0.10618537664413452,
-0.5225555300712585,
-0.14332705736160278,
0.2808537781238556,
-0.3062342405319214,
-0.05469773709774017,
0.15747927129268646,
1.0916575193405151,
-0.03081490844488144,
0.11876364797353745,
0.5645701885223389,
0.4364604949951172,
0.137498676776886,
-0.3589683771133423,
0.2500113844871521,
-0.3199559152126312,
0.7807595133781433,
-0.14491617679595947,
0.42885100841522217,
-0.6653319001197815,
0.1410888433456421,
0.8025143146514893,
0.6678109765052795,
-0.4475499391555786,
-0.18434320390224457,
0.22764858603477478,
0.17468151450157166,
-1.046159029006958,
-0.21678869426250458,
0.4374252259731293,
-0.17852374911308289,
-0.5820924043655396,
-0.16191229224205017,
-0.24611549079418182,
-0.4652458727359772,
-0.009277485311031342,
0.375737726688385,
0.053336720913648605,
0.17249584197998047,
-0.23035407066345215,
0.7298480868339539,
0.22090905904769897,
0.22633589804172516,
-0.28901275992393494,
0.03150319680571556,
0.5200827121734619,
-0.2775144577026367,
0.19005368649959564,
0.15660759806632996,
-0.5631011128425598,
-0.39272961020469666,
-0.12534447014331818,
0.6557570695877075,
-0.5387006402015686,
0.6943317651748657,
-0.029649827629327774,
0.05621751397848129,
0.20222622156143188,
-0.22009406983852386,
-0.4245184063911438,
-0.5360081791877747,
-0.1416550874710083,
-0.1004108339548111,
0.7446178793907166,
0.13565202057361603,
0.12945926189422607,
0.4561799168586731,
0.7366092801094055,
0.04918546974658966,
0.5350973010063171,
-0.26859530806541443,
0.20571091771125793,
-0.46502140164375305,
0.5083551406860352,
0.26107257604599,
0.9256718158721924,
0.7805982828140259,
0.14467816054821014,
0.1781902015209198,
0.3919107913970947,
0.21501469612121582,
-0.16457417607307434,
1.0705029964447021,
-0.36470189690589905,
-0.05357036367058754,
0.33578911423683167,
0.4529029428958893,
0.023165592923760414,
-0.21590137481689453,
0.2543676495552063,
-0.2560308575630188,
-0.20361652970314026,
-0.01945166289806366,
0.06978557258844376,
-0.9478911757469177,
0.19351910054683685,
-0.34054750204086304,
-0.33624789118766785,
-1.1128151416778564,
0.07150429487228394,
-0.40587446093559265,
-0.017421109601855278,
-0.08562367409467697,
0.3677671551704407,
0.15001638233661652,
-0.35278794169425964,
-0.2443852424621582,
-0.3172701895236969,
0.5737266540527344,
0.3907822370529175,
-1.1447181701660156,
0.1826459765434265,
-0.1651129275560379,
-0.58210289478302,
0.1474655568599701,
0.1623738557100296,
0.1878584921360016,
-0.44096511602401733,
0.26014700531959534,
-0.15486297011375427,
-0.14409397542476654,
0.41029036045074463,
0.2785143554210663,
-0.7345937490463257,
0.5886403322219849,
0.11881986260414124
] |
203595
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugarit
|
Ugarit
|
Ugarit (; , ʼUgart; Ūġārīt or Ūǧārīt) was an ancient port city in northern Syria, in the outskirts of modern Latakia, discovered by accident in 1928 together with the Ugaritic texts. Its ruins are often called Ras Shamra after the headland where they lie.
Ugarit had close connections to the Hittite Empire, sent tribute to Egypt at times, and maintained trade and diplomatic connections with Cyprus (then called Alashiya), documented in the archives recovered from the site and corroborated by Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery found there. The polity was at its height from c. 1450 BC until its destruction in c. 1200 BC; this destruction was possibly caused by the mysterious Sea Peoples or internal struggle. The kingdom would be one of the many dismantled during the Bronze Age Collapse.
History
Ras Shamra lies on the Mediterranean coast, some north of Latakia, near modern Burj al-Qasab.
Origins and the second millennium
Neolithic Ugarit was important enough to be fortified with a wall early on, perhaps by 6000 BC, though the site is thought to have been inhabited earlier. Ugarit was important perhaps because it was both a port and at the entrance of the inland trade route to the Euphrates and Tigris lands. The city reached its heyday between 1800 and 1200 BC, when it ruled a trade-based coastal kingdom, trading with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean, Syria, the Hittites, and much of the eastern Mediterranean.
The first written evidence mentioning the city comes from the nearby city of Ebla, c. 1800 BC. Ugarit passed into the sphere of influence of Egypt, which deeply influenced its art. Evidence of the earliest Ugaritic contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments were brought to Ugarit. Amarna letters from Ugarit c. 1350 BC record one letter each from Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen.
From the 16th to the 13th century BC, Ugarit remained in regular contact with Egypt and Alashiya (Cyprus).
In the second millennium BC, Ugarit's population was Amorite, and the Ugaritic language probably has a direct Amoritic origin. The kingdom of Ugarit may have controlled about 2,000 km2 on average.
During some of its history it would have been in close proximity to, if not directly within the Hittite Empire.
Destruction
The last Bronze Age king of Ugarit, Ammurapi (circa 1215 to 1180 BC), was a contemporary of the last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II. The exact dates of his reign are unknown. However, a letter by the king is preserved, in which Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis faced by many Near Eastern states due to attacks. Ammurapi pleads for assistance from the king of Alashiya, highlighting the desperate situation Ugarit faced:
Eshuwara, the senior governor of Cyprus, responded:
The ruler of Carchemish sent troops to assist Ugarit, but Ugarit had been sacked. A letter sent after Ugarit had been destroyed said:
By excavating the highest levels of the city's ruins, archaeologists can study various attributes of Ugaritic civilization just before their destruction, and compare artifacts with those of nearby cultures to help establish dates. Ugarit also contained many caches of cuneiform tablets, actual libraries that contained a wealth of information. The destruction levels of the ruin contained Late Helladic IIIB pottery ware, but no LH IIIC (see Mycenaean period). Therefore, the date of the destruction of Ugarit is important for the dating of the LH IIIC phase in mainland Greece. Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah was found in the destruction levels, 1190 BC was taken as the date for the beginning of the LH IIIC. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed after the death of Merneptah (1203 BC). It is generally agreed that Ugarit had already been destroyed by the eighth year of Ramesses III (1178 BC). Recent radiocarbon work, combined with other historical dates and the eclipse of January 21, 1192, indicates a destruction date between 1192 and 1190 BC.
Whether Ugarit was destroyed before or after Hattusa, the Hittite capital, is debated. The destruction was followed by a settlement hiatus. Many other Mediterranean cultures were deeply disordered just at the same time. Some of the disorder was apparently caused by invasions of the mysterious Sea Peoples.
Kings
Language and literature
Alphabet
Scribes in Ugarit appear to have originated the "Ugaritic alphabet" around 1400 BC: 30 letters, corresponding to sounds, were inscribed on clay tablets. Although they are cuneiform in appearance, the letters bear no relation to Mesopotamian cuneiform signs; instead, they appear to be somehow related to the Egyptian-derived Phoenician alphabet. While the letters show little or no formal similarity to the Phoenician, the standard letter order (seen in the Phoenician alphabet as ʔ, B, G, D, H, W, Z, Ḥ, Ṭ, Y, K, L, M, N, S, ʕ, P, Ṣ, Q, R, ʃ) shows strong similarities between the two, suggesting that the Phoenician and Ugaritic systems were not wholly independent inventions.
Ugaritic language
The existence of the Ugaritic language is attested to in texts from the 14th through the 12th century BC. Ugaritic is usually classified as a Northwest Semitic language and therefore related to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician, among others. Its grammatical features are highly similar to those found in Classical Arabic and Akkadian. It possesses two genders (masculine and feminine), three cases for nouns and adjectives (nominative, accusative, and genitive); three numbers: (singular, dual, and plural); and verb aspects similar to those found in other Northwest Semitic languages. The word order in Ugaritic is verb–subject–object, subject-object-verb (VSO)&(SOV); possessed–possessor (NG) (first element dependent on the function and second always in genitive case); and noun–adjective (NA) (both in the same case (i.e. congruent)).
Ugaritic literature
Apart from royal correspondence with neighboring Bronze Age monarchs, Ugaritic literature from tablets found in the city's libraries include mythological texts written in a poetic narrative, letters, legal documents such as land transfers, a few international treaties, and a number of administrative lists. Fragments of several poetic works have been identified: the "Legend of Keret", the "Legend of Danel", the Ba'al tales that detail Baal-Hadad's conflicts with Yam and Mot, among other fragments.
The discovery of the Ugaritic archives in 1929 has been of great significance to biblical scholarship, as these archives for the first time provided a detailed description of Canaanite religious beliefs, during the period directly preceding the Israelite settlement. These texts show significant parallels to Hebrew biblical literature, particularly in the areas of divine imagery and poetic form. Ugaritic poetry has many elements later found in Hebrew poetry: parallelisms, metres, and rhythms. The discoveries at Ugarit have led to a new appraisal of the Hebrew Bible as literature.
Religion
The important textual finds from the site shed a great deal of light upon the cultic life of the city.
The foundations of the Bronze Age city Ugarit were divided into quarters. In the north-east quarter of the walled enclosure, the remains of three significant religious buildings were discovered, including two temples (of the gods Baal Hadad and Dagon) and a building referred to as the library or the high priest's house. Within these structures atop the acropolis numerous invaluable mythological texts were found. These texts have provided the basis for understanding of the Canaanite mythological world and religion. The Baal cycle represents Baal Hadad's destruction of Yam (the god of chaos and the sea), demonstrating the relationship of Canaanite chaoskampf with those of Mesopotamia and the Aegean: a warrior god rises up as the hero of the new pantheon to defeat chaos and bring order.
Archaeology
Discovery
After its destruction in the early 12th century BC, Ugarit's location was forgotten until 1928 when a peasant accidentally opened an old tomb while ploughing a field. The discovered area was the necropolis of Ugarit located in the nearby seaport of Minet el-Beida. Excavations have since revealed a city with a prehistory reaching back to c. 6000 BC.
Site and palace
The site is a sixty-five foot high mound. Archaeologically, Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite. A brief investigation of a looted tomb at the necropolis of Minet el-Beida was conducted by Léon Albanèse in 1928, who then examined the main mound of Ras Shamra. But in the next year scientific excavations of Tell Ras Shamra were commenced by archaeologist Claude Schaeffer from the Musée archéologique in Strasbourg. Work continued under Schaeffer until 1970, with a break from 1940 to 1947 because of World War II.
The excavations uncovered a royal palace of ninety rooms laid out around eight enclosed courtyards, and many ambitious private dwellings. Crowning the hill where the city was built were two main temples: one to Baal the "king", son of El, and one to Dagon, the chthonic god of fertility and wheat. 23 stelae were unearthed: nine stelae, including the famous Baal with Thunderbolt, near the Temple of Baal, four in the Temple of Dagon and ten more at scattered places around the city.
Texts
On excavation of the site, several deposits of cuneiform clay tablets were found. These have proven to be of great historical significance.
See also
Asherah
Cities of the ancient Near East
Elohim (gods)
Short chronology timeline
Ugaritic mythology
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General sources
internal strugle Annalee Newitz, What Happened to the Original 1 Percent?, New York Times, May 11, 2020
Ugarit Forschungen (Neukirchen-Vluyn). UF-11 (1979) honors Claude Schaeffer, with about 100 articles in 900 pages. pp. 95, ff, "Comparative Graphemic Analysis of Old Babylonian and Western Akkadian", ( i.e. Ugarit and Amarna (letters), three others, Mari, OB,Royal, OB,non-Royal letters). See above, in text.
Bourdreuil, P. 1991. "Une bibliothèque au sud de la ville : Les textes de la 34e campagne (1973)". in Ras Shamra-Ougarit, 7 (Paris).
Caquot, André & Sznycer, Maurice. Ugaritic Religion. Iconography of Religions, Section XV: Mesopotamia and the Near East; Fascicle 8; Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1980.
Drews, Robert. 1995. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC (Princeton University Press).
de Moor, Johannes C. The Seasonal Pattern in the Ugaritic Myth of Ba'lu, According to the Version of Ilimilku. Alter Orient und Altes Testament, Band 16. Neukirchen – Vluyn: Verlag Butzon & Berker Kevelaer, Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1971
Gibson, J.C.L., originally edited by G.R. Driver. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, Ltd., 1956, 1977.*K. Lawson and K. L. Younger Jr, "Ugarit at Seventy-Five," Eisenbrauns, 2007,
L'Heureux, Conrad E. Rank Among the Canaanite Gods: El, Ba'al, and the Repha'im. Harvard Semitic Museum, Harvard Semitic Monographs No. 21, Missoula MT: Scholars Press, 1979.
Meletinskii, E. M., 2000 The Poetics of Myth
Mullen, E. Theodore, Jr. The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature. Harvard Semitic Museum, Harvard Semitic Monographs No. 24, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Press, 1980/ Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press Reprint, 1986. (comparison of Ugaritic and Old Testament literature).
Dennis Pardee, Ritual and Cult at Ugarit, (Writings from the Ancient World), Society of Biblical Literature, 2002,
William M. Schniedewind, Joel H. Hunt, 2007. A primer on Ugaritic: language, culture, and literature p. 14.
Smith, Mark S. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 1. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2, (Vetus Testamentum Supplements series, volume 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994).
Smith, Mark S. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 2. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.3–1.4, (Vetus Testament Supplement series, volume 114; Leiden: Brill, 2008). Co-authored with Wayne Pitard.
Smith, Mark S., 2001. Untold Stories. The Bible and Ugaritic Studies in the Twentieth Century Chapter 1: "Beginnings: 1928–1945"
Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), Canaanites (British Museum People of the Past).
Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, Handbook of Ugaritic Studies, Brill, 1999,
Wyatt, Nicolas (1998): Religious texts from Ugarit: the worlds of Ilimilku and his colleagues, The Biblical Seminar, volume 53. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, paperback, 500 pages.
External links
Ugarit (Tell Shamra) 1999 application for UNESCO World Heritage Site
RSTI. The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory: an online catalog of inscribed objects from Ras Shamra-Ugarit produced at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory Blog
Ugarit - World History Encyclopedia
Ugarit and the Bible - Quartz Hill School of Theology
The Edinburgh Ras Shamra project includes an introduction to the discovery of Ugarit.
Le Royaume d'Ougarit (in French)
Dennis Pardee, Ugarit Ritual texts – Oriental Institute
Pictures from 2009
1928 archaeological discoveries
Amarna letters locations
Bronze Age sites in Syria
Destroyed cities
Former populated places in Syria
Late Bronze Age collapse
Neolithic sites in Syria
Phoenician cities
Populated places disestablished in the 2nd millennium BC
Populated places established in the 6th millennium BC
States and territories disestablished in the 12th century BC
States and territories established in the 18th century BC
|
[
-0.3664194643497467,
0.5081631541252136,
-0.40856868028640747,
-0.32961297035217285,
-0.08502159267663956,
1.1593564748764038,
0.21549385786056519,
0.3549676835536957,
0.07525993883609772,
-0.07351760566234589,
-0.24645689129829407,
0.10614210367202759,
-0.6152276992797852,
0.2661738097667694,
0.015163357369601727,
0.45792147517204285,
0.08558528870344162,
0.18632853031158447,
0.153333380818367,
0.14587536454200745,
0.10454585403203964,
0.08713851124048233,
0.059956394135951996,
-0.1141444742679596,
0.44561871886253357,
-0.16965025663375854,
0.44373273849487305,
0.04698866978287697,
-0.5825507044792175,
-0.10686871409416199,
-0.24569760262966156,
0.6146737933158875,
-0.43355000019073486,
-0.5216965675354004,
-0.29198768734931946,
0.3353058099746704,
-0.11720834672451019,
0.0012868891935795546,
-0.09313146024942398,
-0.5909300446510315,
-0.4244599938392639,
-0.011451291851699352,
-0.2378368377685547,
0.9638070464134216,
-0.5341508388519287,
0.14063143730163574,
-1.4352189302444458,
0.6458597183227539,
-0.6096653342247009,
-0.14714111387729645,
-1.0300098657608032,
0.16659079492092133,
-0.12073017656803131,
-0.061907704919576645,
-0.12474214285612106,
0.44441360235214233,
-0.23246479034423828,
0.08766070753335953,
0.36718854308128357,
0.06700700521469116,
0.5301579833030701,
0.40569591522216797,
0.0825093612074852,
0.09983332455158234,
-0.027825497090816498,
-0.18710538744926453,
0.02589872106909752,
0.1315125823020935,
0.47433432936668396,
-0.02913435362279415,
-0.05486695095896721,
0.4655013680458069,
-0.8532854318618774,
-0.47088393568992615,
-0.28407377004623413,
-0.1185416504740715,
-0.6723152995109558,
0.09494873136281967,
0.2326086461544037,
0.3438335359096527,
-0.04522881656885147,
-0.07746931910514832,
0.6957666873931885,
-0.6936124563217163,
0.3338174819946289,
-0.3664382994174957,
-0.3018779456615448,
0.2729879319667816,
-0.6233659386634827,
0.07957719266414642,
-0.13669802248477936,
-0.4507148563861847,
-0.10141061991453171,
-0.4843387305736542,
-0.8058536648750305,
-0.37480661273002625,
-0.6070961356163025,
0.2254178673028946,
-0.044278815388679504,
-0.22593942284584045,
-0.35523343086242676,
0.3715941607952118,
0.5863003730773926,
-0.05845007672905922,
-0.09301016479730606,
0.12305676937103271,
0.006918914150446653,
-0.029988711699843407,
-0.3364386260509491,
-0.28291380405426025,
0.1994723677635193,
0.4517366588115692,
0.14368298649787903,
0.2775252163410187,
-0.001346857170574367,
0.21132792532444,
-0.12779124081134796,
-0.10254158079624176,
-0.6730828285217285,
-0.17547635734081268,
0.014710644260048866,
0.7723460793495178,
-0.1453118771314621,
-0.14778615534305573,
0.4112398326396942,
-0.06523539125919342,
0.4273226261138916,
0.1618299037218094,
-1.9374326467514038,
-0.08250785619020462,
0.2852660119533539,
0.5949885845184326,
-0.12097836285829544,
0.4021873474121094,
-0.14576637744903564,
-0.06962638348340988,
-0.5266236662864685,
-0.06319428980350494,
0.5715137720108032,
-0.21323108673095703,
-0.714039146900177,
0.36056992411613464,
-0.6536650061607361,
0.04389467090368271,
-0.1995648592710495,
-0.14749783277511597,
0.9617291688919067,
-0.5993363261222839,
-0.28964078426361084,
-0.445733904838562,
-0.271840363740921,
-0.2245635688304901,
0.010701246559619904,
0.40252405405044556,
-0.13709811866283417,
-0.5662129521369934,
-0.18432208895683289,
0.6649557948112488,
0.0751371830701828,
-0.3826223313808441,
-0.1597883701324463,
0.34930741786956787,
-0.1367194801568985,
0.19599059224128723,
-0.0956832766532898,
-0.1817900538444519,
0.48460808396339417,
0.3640096187591553,
0.34922710061073303,
-0.27495676279067993,
-0.48261839151382446,
-0.21170468628406525,
0.7254679203033447,
0.10258099436759949,
-0.299363374710083,
-0.13505075871944427,
0.9525718688964844,
0.1120627149939537,
0.3193892240524292,
0.014024720527231693,
-0.8610139489173889,
0.017581133171916008,
-0.013926836661994457,
0.3212660849094391,
0.25049033761024475,
0.3683367669582367,
0.09101442992687225,
-0.3748915195465088,
-0.05739487335085869,
-0.21046945452690125,
-0.21079719066619873,
-0.22226813435554504,
-0.41104990243911743,
0.10962355136871338,
0.5843985676765442,
0.45832934975624084,
-0.23295094072818756,
0.4592982530593872,
-0.03539837896823883,
0.8137484192848206,
-0.6926937699317932,
-0.33749625086784363,
0.48455265164375305,
-0.6809908151626587,
0.5465578436851501,
0.33155345916748047,
-0.06851203739643097,
0.6650822162628174,
0.38127601146698,
0.4096313416957855,
0.476485013961792,
-0.4090668857097626,
0.2896445691585541,
0.22520075738430023,
-0.45512962341308594,
0.09113802760839462,
-0.41273441910743713,
0.5071454644203186,
0.09920694679021835,
-0.37399545311927795,
0.8601738810539246,
0.2352447360754013,
-0.20026423037052155,
0.31030675768852234,
-0.5496289730072021,
0.420889288187027,
0.41741421818733215,
0.12083017826080322,
0.18121369183063507,
-0.8037960529327393,
0.34079068899154663,
0.23823127150535583,
0.20810389518737793,
-0.03629675880074501,
-0.13388565182685852,
-0.1068955808877945,
-0.09664622694253922,
0.044833190739154816,
0.566794753074646,
-0.057817794382572174,
0.27608269453048706,
0.0872550904750824,
0.1360199749469757,
0.13755621016025543,
0.5607377886772156,
0.05047357454895973,
0.41333484649658203,
-0.01531075220555067,
-0.15465503931045532,
0.024916967377066612,
-0.08322963863611221,
-0.045191992074251175,
-0.1574702262878418,
0.0588359460234642,
-0.012117458507418633,
-0.4772336184978485,
-0.14866504073143005,
0.3589206337928772,
1.069451093673706,
0.11043845862150192,
0.040149010717868805,
0.2917356789112091,
-0.3991524577140808,
0.17771409451961517,
0.49771222472190857,
-0.43126869201660156,
0.25527095794677734,
-0.8814233541488647,
0.6899139881134033,
0.19519469141960144,
0.1407584547996521,
0.2702004015445709,
-0.22232948243618011,
0.4418950080871582,
-0.18259860575199127,
-0.2877262830734253,
-0.24241386353969574,
-0.13528311252593994,
-0.3159644305706024,
0.1324758380651474,
0.13819468021392822,
0.2739022970199585,
-0.061446648091077805,
-0.8569250702857971,
-0.6038028001785278,
-0.3228094279766083,
-0.2034500539302826,
-0.6106524467468262,
0.4026702046394348,
-0.30873721837997437,
-0.35411709547042847,
0.02449951134622097,
-0.019233638420701027,
0.6563733220100403,
0.0365276113152504,
0.24703451991081238,
0.4343079924583435,
0.0790376365184784,
-0.09015092998743057,
-0.45676568150520325,
-0.6579417586326599,
0.6392493844032288,
-0.6882832050323486,
0.47098833322525024,
0.095624178647995,
0.26780498027801514,
-0.020267605781555176,
0.004740212578326464,
-5.646833896636963,
0.014663761481642723,
0.11359571665525436,
-0.7249447107315063,
0.6377084255218506,
-0.034041136503219604,
0.21571750938892365,
0.3894572854042053,
0.31664371490478516,
0.029340608045458794,
-0.02291741594672203,
-0.15134359896183014,
-0.4288026690483093,
0.3240911364555359,
0.6863346099853516,
0.5093290209770203,
0.559932291507721,
0.3674784004688263,
-0.6049723625183105,
-0.028500856831669807,
-0.7622740864753723,
-0.04666956141591072,
-0.1728709638118744,
0.7668357491493225,
-0.13123653829097748,
0.22858859598636627,
-0.022323114797472954,
-0.02603108063340187,
-0.6359883546829224,
-0.41556882858276367,
-0.22810609638690948,
-0.37936049699783325,
0.3975526690483093,
0.687950849533081,
0.1289907693862915,
0.3913899064064026,
0.9125056266784668,
0.15255677700042725,
0.6296834945678711,
-0.34797146916389465,
-0.37751469016075134,
0.6481593251228333,
0.11231052875518799,
-0.22508403658866882,
0.48404446244239807,
-0.9512312412261963,
-0.43719160556793213,
0.01601085625588894,
-0.25608524680137634,
0.45396167039871216,
0.1499624401330948,
-0.2993319034576416,
0.30496397614479065,
-0.23886294662952423,
0.186719611287117,
0.011559267528355122,
0.4084339737892151,
0.20805302262306213,
-0.2677616775035858,
0.4398726522922516,
0.6705338358879089,
-0.04311618208885193,
-0.5968111157417297,
-0.4798274338245392,
0.03882391005754471,
-0.31887733936309814,
0.10447246581315994,
-0.026558812707662582,
-0.27486440539360046,
0.2537914514541626,
-0.49468666315078735,
0.35750612616539,
-0.5823513865470886,
-0.6835679411888123,
0.2110600471496582,
-0.5537022948265076,
-0.01778881624341011,
-0.1239967942237854,
-0.31437647342681885,
0.14530768990516663,
-0.4187485873699188,
-0.3197930157184601,
0.5537710189819336,
0.3063867390155792,
0.33412712812423706,
-0.17136962711811066,
0.8207818269729614,
0.17875456809997559,
-0.17725810408592224,
-0.19277392327785492,
1.2996206283569336,
-0.49026045203208923,
0.4087521433830261,
0.23906271159648895,
-0.4024345278739929,
0.6567502617835999,
-0.15138395130634308,
-0.2794547379016876,
1.3390973806381226,
0.3421083688735962,
0.7418221831321716,
0.08754054456949234,
0.0464671291410923,
0.2696838676929474,
-0.23288196325302124,
0.16063563525676727,
-0.2648800313472748,
0.39578115940093994,
1.3037347793579102,
-0.4709126651287079,
-0.12335539609193802,
0.5679344534873962,
0.1604645699262619,
0.1006276085972786,
0.3564693331718445,
0.3687875270843506,
0.23292897641658783,
0.49289536476135254,
0.7670495510101318,
0.23584093153476715,
0.33225148916244507,
-0.22147758305072784,
-0.32672879099845886,
0.07279813289642334,
-0.22782360017299652,
-0.2849474549293518,
-0.4614869952201843,
0.43515753746032715,
-0.19000962376594543,
-0.3971017301082611,
0.32081151008605957,
-0.842314600944519,
0.3471633791923523,
-0.0914684310555458,
0.33797726035118103,
0.13875122368335724,
-0.6275722980499268,
-0.7094897031784058,
0.07279089093208313,
0.2946506440639496,
-0.4830067455768585,
-0.5316160917282104,
-0.318011999130249,
-0.25802847743034363,
0.31670016050338745,
0.07878008484840393,
-0.0638662800192833,
0.27368441224098206,
-0.04429761320352554,
-0.1547631025314331,
-0.724513828754425,
-0.3497164249420166,
-0.22433559596538544,
0.11082614213228226,
0.07714282721281052,
0.13479101657867432,
0.44332394003868103,
0.3115570843219757,
-0.18621572852134705,
-0.07798004150390625,
-0.14336058497428894,
-0.7332763671875,
-0.2479696124792099,
0.1275756061077118,
-0.20111611485481262,
0.061257246881723404,
0.8558658361434937,
-0.3940851390361786,
0.06634222716093063,
0.20585978031158447,
0.3124515414237976,
0.022381430491805077,
-0.5062986016273499,
-0.25359585881233215,
0.42264288663864136,
0.1803188920021057,
-0.09262704849243164,
0.3436475694179535,
0.294442743062973,
-0.29909586906433105,
0.046721283346414566,
-0.002965362509712577,
-0.020821645855903625,
0.1376735419034958,
0.18616800010204315,
-0.16133329272270203,
-0.7916320562362671,
-0.07494742423295975,
-0.5329980254173279,
-0.29859867691993713,
0.14308227598667145,
-0.5606399178504944,
-0.5201719999313354,
0.3466130197048187,
-0.4519222676753998,
-0.6708506345748901,
0.29238924384117126,
-0.08259207010269165,
0.1533745378255844,
0.2430427372455597,
-0.13103355467319489,
0.347131609916687,
-0.7046482563018799,
0.3404501974582672,
-0.44436049461364746,
-0.8197340369224548,
0.8696383237838745,
0.037119071930646896,
0.0363878533244133,
0.23926593363285065,
-0.4166100025177002,
-0.3757046163082123,
-0.37582969665527344,
0.3182293176651001,
-0.4096725285053253,
0.06805968284606934,
-0.21609917283058167,
-0.23053348064422607,
-0.3375712037086487,
-0.44559943675994873,
-0.09299828857183456,
-0.20748938620090485,
0.5206236243247986,
0.4317253530025482,
0.23120859265327454,
0.48584529757499695,
-0.2674367427825928,
-0.40795576572418213,
-0.4935329556465149,
-0.06420685350894928,
0.526577353477478,
0.3479765057563782,
0.4982437193393707,
0.13586808741092682,
0.31887513399124146,
-0.1348351538181305,
0.2818976044654846,
-0.5456361174583435,
-0.6930765509605408,
0.23801760375499725,
0.24897325038909912,
0.49338042736053467,
0.06348065286874771,
0.3981960117816925,
-0.13759149610996246,
0.31754109263420105,
-0.4178396463394165,
0.12411080300807953,
-0.2484297901391983,
0.1274968385696411,
0.2176237553358078,
0.46690282225608826,
-0.5753792524337769,
-0.4285126030445099,
0.1821340024471283,
-0.2974352240562439,
0.5358700752258301,
0.07700210809707642,
-0.0917077511548996,
0.05805032327771187,
0.11765040457248688,
0.17781805992126465,
0.3634171783924103,
-0.0011639046715572476,
-0.13809014856815338,
-0.10136725008487701,
-0.667918860912323,
-0.26408877968788147,
0.23507854342460632,
-0.6597668528556824,
-0.3274329900741577,
-0.5839689373970032,
0.48800137639045715,
-0.08548348397016525,
0.055346593260765076,
-0.3802531957626343,
0.04702792316675186,
0.2875136733055115,
0.5902460217475891,
-0.04013972356915474,
-1.14143705368042,
-0.07340627908706665,
-0.30167800188064575,
0.09984131157398224,
-0.2370261400938034,
-0.5712535977363586,
-0.29998213052749634,
0.29563605785369873,
-0.141315758228302,
-0.29465267062187195,
-0.37652674317359924,
0.4309510886669159,
-0.593723714351654,
0.714151918888092,
-0.37942537665367126,
0.08550874143838882,
-0.14975112676620483,
1.0262768268585205,
-0.4005638360977173,
-0.058072302490472794,
-0.7583422064781189,
-0.2715943455696106,
0.2752012610435486,
-0.41429996490478516,
0.3297790586948395,
0.005915770772844553,
0.1784496307373047,
0.25891029834747314,
-0.3561830222606659,
-0.37573906779289246,
0.234933003783226,
0.3696449398994446,
0.6522796154022217,
0.5063816905021667,
0.045974377542734146,
-0.23547090590000153,
1.0910333395004272,
-0.27636268734931946,
-0.13424161076545715,
0.4829864203929901,
0.23005729913711548,
-0.029348859563469887,
-0.18438449501991272,
0.2546481788158417,
0.3501778841018677,
-0.0005101666902191937,
0.027970092371106148,
-0.17944583296775818,
-0.3749750256538391,
0.46560969948768616,
0.30066534876823425,
-0.317966103553772,
-0.18664048612117767,
0.09216039627790451,
-0.028603294864296913,
-0.5817856788635254,
0.4256289601325989,
-0.7669448852539062,
0.423714816570282,
0.5915940403938293,
-0.03715682402253151,
0.6102539300918579,
-0.276971697807312,
-0.26259949803352356,
-0.5451968908309937,
0.7722605466842651,
-0.09015155583620071,
-0.05036000534892082,
0.09315896034240723,
-0.0027367942966520786,
0.23933658003807068,
0.020912975072860718,
-0.06838148832321167,
-0.23993611335754395,
-0.19767865538597107,
-0.2174065113067627,
0.18207432329654694,
0.20000720024108887,
-0.5378546714782715,
0.4692705571651459,
0.23003092408180237,
0.10526284575462341,
0.34235814213752747,
-0.03908070921897888,
0.033566806465387344,
0.1332055777311325,
-0.10160472989082336,
-0.9580211043357849,
-0.15573863685131073,
0.15992029011249542,
0.06269741803407669,
0.48276522755622864,
-0.1895611584186554,
0.42287126183509827,
0.5438941717147827,
0.5067359805107117,
0.2772994339466095,
0.6406617760658264,
-0.17714078724384308,
0.2736353576183319,
-0.45070430636405945,
-0.03315504267811775,
0.48519542813301086,
-0.5053272843360901,
-0.4455476999282837,
-0.341718852519989,
0.2147645354270935,
0.05147656053304672,
-0.7504062056541443,
-0.22621464729309082,
-0.6503329873085022,
-0.4561390280723572,
-0.579357385635376,
-0.15392599999904633,
-0.2806306481361389,
-0.3909947872161865,
-0.03141602873802185,
0.34571248292922974,
-0.19433428347110748,
0.42400962114334106,
-0.025950487703084946,
0.06955170631408691,
-0.08116890490055084,
0.1766427904367447,
-0.21593362092971802,
0.2916772663593292,
0.23861829936504364,
0.16111281514167786,
0.04709722846746445,
0.21231608092784882,
-0.12627549469470978,
0.43902018666267395,
0.24005162715911865,
-0.030778521671891212,
-0.7993782758712769,
-0.2817646861076355,
0.2522463798522949,
0.41526755690574646,
0.5806108713150024,
-0.16638194024562836,
-0.1704108566045761,
-0.23047301173210144,
-0.8740760087966919,
0.5066294074058533,
-0.1484166830778122,
-0.20098480582237244,
-0.047057271003723145,
0.29204949736595154,
-1.2141717672348022,
0.5673499703407288,
0.8084115982055664,
-0.44808244705200195,
-0.5773500800132751,
-0.15525753796100616,
-0.1096421480178833,
-0.09399447590112686,
-0.09152860194444656,
0.12949535250663757,
0.6261861324310303,
-0.45998910069465637,
0.4475386142730713,
0.3375493288040161,
-0.027190838009119034,
-0.01495694275945425,
-0.5727157592773438,
0.5910029411315918,
-0.5545404553413391,
-0.2770419120788574,
-0.631089448928833,
1.0560154914855957,
0.11051184684038162,
-0.16361014544963837,
-0.04985683783888817,
0.2392653226852417,
-0.1981315314769745,
-0.3118368983268738,
0.049024928361177444,
-1.139545202255249,
0.055052101612091064,
-0.011291015893220901
] |
203600
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Indianapolis
|
USS Indianapolis
|
Four ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Indianapolis:
was a cargo ship commissioned 12 December 1918 and decommissioned 9 July 1919.
was a heavy cruiser commissioned in 1932 and sunk in July 1945.
was a Los Angeles-class attack submarine in service from 1980 to 1998.
is a , commissioned in 2019.
See also
USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage, a 2016 film starring Nicolas Cage.
United States Navy ship names
United States Navy Indiana-related ships
|
[
-0.6727893948554993,
0.0659409686923027,
-0.7677318453788757,
0.4311704635620117,
0.055386174470186234,
0.8332948684692383,
0.40878865122795105,
0.0038017735350877047,
-0.4178645610809326,
-0.4017142355442047,
0.40851232409477234,
0.465320348739624,
-0.18733738362789154,
0.7476426362991333,
0.03865380212664604,
0.21773968636989594,
-0.13210849463939667,
0.8324541449546814,
-0.3462880253791809,
-0.19418585300445557,
-0.2701767086982727,
-0.011613884940743446,
0.2695125639438629,
0.20839974284172058,
-0.12224782258272171,
0.18308116495609283,
-0.03976339474320412,
-0.008728579618036747,
0.34175556898117065,
0.47103291749954224,
0.37148919701576233,
0.33482298254966736,
-0.015625732019543648,
0.18237948417663574,
-0.2344760000705719,
-0.6142847537994385,
-0.107240691781044,
-0.4395369291305542,
0.3879131078720093,
-0.09490858018398285,
-0.4807397127151489,
0.047592684626579285,
0.5136557817459106,
0.10372930765151978,
0.044375643134117126,
0.28685545921325684,
-1.916390299797058,
0.036593057215213776,
0.30613529682159424,
0.33582425117492676,
-0.6960692405700684,
-0.009836001321673393,
0.9262887835502625,
0.8053718209266663,
-0.18739235401153564,
0.49860426783561707,
-0.44014760851860046,
0.4381047785282135,
-0.17060315608978271,
-0.7171117067337036,
0.4625801742076874,
0.6487128734588623,
0.9822277426719666,
0.6196931004524231,
-0.1435953676700592,
0.04615667834877968,
0.11084325611591339,
0.364675909280777,
-0.30128002166748047,
0.15164057910442352,
0.22870999574661255,
-0.36318832635879517,
-0.2323799580335617,
0.23489247262477875,
-0.19776807725429535,
-0.3923148512840271,
0.02918727695941925,
-0.22330856323242188,
-0.13431225717067719,
0.8439304828643799,
0.0677712932229042,
-0.13819332420825958,
0.7296565771102905,
0.17764288187026978,
-0.04734864830970764,
0.18026688694953918,
-1.2075114250183105,
0.18295058608055115,
-0.39932963252067566,
0.6923062801361084,
-0.521375834941864,
-0.2844052314758301,
0.3155508041381836,
0.2236427664756775,
-0.25752004981040955,
0.16381359100341797,
0.09808919578790665,
-0.22132886946201324,
0.3125690519809723,
0.1833401471376419,
0.019284864887595177,
0.20642805099487305,
0.22283750772476196,
-0.08134732395410538,
-0.5726286768913269,
-0.019226057454943657,
0.18735024333000183,
-0.052203282713890076,
0.22221608459949493,
0.036412693560123444,
-0.005976113956421614,
-0.1928843855857849,
0.14188121259212494,
-0.055376119911670685,
-0.198771134018898,
-0.3580278158187866,
-0.028172064572572708,
-0.5601773262023926,
-0.3256567418575287,
-0.5184511542320251,
-0.2922031283378601,
0.5704087018966675,
-0.04819994047284126,
-0.04312684014439583,
-0.12446606159210205,
0.7294259071350098,
0.27049919962882996,
0.4458540678024292,
-0.5881104469299316,
-0.22746792435646057,
0.2325109988451004,
0.6452963948249817,
-0.5813019275665283,
-0.01637534610927105,
-0.1232457160949707,
-0.6396428942680359,
-0.35777541995048523,
0.6131871938705444,
0.6891644597053528,
0.11468848586082458,
-0.358711838722229,
-0.1953042447566986,
-0.436038076877594,
-0.6153010725975037,
-0.027877794578671455,
-0.6013397574424744,
-0.019179577007889748,
0.07431565970182419,
-0.14491486549377441,
-0.13039399683475494,
0.21040409803390503,
-0.7200636267662048,
-0.015957064926624298,
0.2435251623392105,
-0.3165079355239868,
-0.008745916187763214,
-0.08086185902357101,
-0.38566988706588745,
0.29973191022872925,
0.6685846447944641,
-0.24204030632972717,
0.108672134578228,
-0.42208924889564514,
0.030055079609155655,
-0.019398963078856468,
0.18980532884597778,
0.24447466433048248,
-0.34952956438064575,
0.290385901927948,
-0.4745235741138458,
-0.12691953778266907,
-0.2233806699514389,
0.11784831434488297,
0.17828468978405,
-0.4512602984905243,
0.4909868836402893,
0.18759794533252716,
-0.14976440370082855,
0.22842051088809967,
-0.7998848557472229,
-0.3082578778266907,
-0.1381579041481018,
0.15169236063957214,
0.6344780325889587,
0.3066813051700592,
-0.21447497606277466,
-0.1759898066520691,
-0.518065869808197,
0.2544930875301361,
0.10667392611503601,
0.04089061915874481,
-0.46234220266342163,
-0.08924667537212372,
-0.2642362117767334,
1.4807018041610718,
0.29299792647361755,
-0.660459578037262,
0.058403532952070236,
0.014716911129653454,
0.13692468404769897,
0.9543971419334412,
-0.39274320006370544,
0.3013927936553955,
-0.19768814742565155,
-0.6043152213096619,
0.06505929678678513,
0.23386086523532867,
0.5254450440406799,
-0.43709686398506165,
0.46180081367492676,
0.18269474804401398,
-0.7155693769454956,
0.09936890006065369,
0.20860989391803741,
0.19005270302295685,
-0.029154596850275993,
-0.13183218240737915,
-0.46294349431991577,
0.21723710000514984,
-0.4816788136959076,
0.8033673763275146,
-0.0036066207103431225,
-0.07677693665027618,
0.03689754754304886,
0.09506997466087341,
0.2128269076347351,
-0.6265413165092468,
0.6248106956481934,
-0.07210694998502731,
-0.3613159954547882,
0.07830457389354706,
-0.17770357429981232,
-0.28677982091903687,
-0.5106821060180664,
0.6267999410629272,
0.046606529504060745,
0.37186676263809204,
-0.15575885772705078,
0.4191250503063202,
-0.06288155913352966,
0.25063860416412354,
0.3124740719795227,
-0.6742569208145142,
0.20653484761714935,
0.9308191537857056,
-0.4086712896823883,
0.31658923625946045,
-0.3177720606327057,
-0.36234143376350403,
-0.6092209815979004,
0.35436561703681946,
-0.06976037472486496,
0.8216236233711243,
-0.20542138814926147,
-0.2849753201007843,
-0.41885364055633545,
-0.029270576313138008,
0.05945238843560219,
0.41541337966918945,
-0.09660109877586365,
0.014687227085232735,
-0.2913610637187958,
-0.3976143002510071,
0.24361471831798553,
0.7780062556266785,
-0.285916805267334,
-0.42569300532341003,
-0.1631629467010498,
0.03508908674120903,
-0.07492876052856445,
0.5646288990974426,
0.1328849494457245,
0.41030004620552063,
-0.648018479347229,
0.24235527217388153,
0.5136698484420776,
-0.43329501152038574,
0.7521141767501831,
-0.6948829889297485,
-0.4091434180736542,
0.5165565013885498,
0.23951630294322968,
-0.15109291672706604,
-0.7970139980316162,
-0.18125192821025848,
-0.2901022434234619,
0.06162127107381821,
-0.34847602248191833,
-0.7547904849052429,
0.07769931852817535,
0.06400799751281738,
-0.3109908699989319,
-0.23848854005336761,
0.5788683891296387,
0.28059977293014526,
0.5332180261611938,
-0.6367886066436768,
0.12664027512073517,
-0.08399666845798492,
-0.4567555785179138,
-0.2974931001663208,
0.742961049079895,
-0.4392220973968506,
-0.43610990047454834,
0.247681125998497,
-0.04172728583216667,
-0.46836620569229126,
-0.2158370018005371,
-5.528674602508545,
0.040075480937957764,
-0.5531322956085205,
-0.413737952709198,
-0.32083773612976074,
0.05753132700920105,
-0.04206537455320358,
-0.19792181253433228,
-0.011001477017998695,
-0.4026559889316559,
0.9904263019561768,
0.3943289518356323,
-0.09995317459106445,
0.24941571056842804,
0.1261228621006012,
0.5273419618606567,
1.3674341440200806,
-0.434835821390152,
0.13519993424415588,
-0.22108812630176544,
-0.09721639007329941,
-0.17474208772182465,
-0.017611220479011536,
0.49871599674224854,
0.39055120944976807,
-0.2300664484500885,
-0.7795040607452393,
0.08109207451343536,
-0.5197781324386597,
0.05025750771164894,
0.01661820523440838,
-0.09187201410531998,
-0.007708901073783636,
0.2972332239151001,
-0.0824798122048378,
-0.2685270309448242,
-0.17167803645133972,
-0.41801509261131287,
-0.17998282611370087,
-0.47580966353416443,
-0.8553369641304016,
0.14729996025562286,
-0.367563396692276,
-0.7822457551956177,
0.38843774795532227,
-0.33117052912712097,
0.1732860654592514,
-0.019100185483694077,
0.12997381389141083,
0.9855781197547913,
0.2252737283706665,
0.17208963632583618,
0.03904621675610542,
0.5611264109611511,
0.764050304889679,
-0.05809541046619415,
-0.14115750789642334,
-0.00786550436168909,
-0.5524546504020691,
-0.11063745617866516,
0.05971208214759827,
-0.15608346462249756,
0.2051994353532791,
-0.24233730137348175,
-0.3605496883392334,
0.000995481968857348,
-0.5516024827957153,
-0.13366654515266418,
0.32587701082229614,
0.3128906488418579,
-0.29889529943466187,
1.0468461513519287,
0.40303516387939453,
-0.9334409832954407,
-0.079926997423172,
-0.13732367753982544,
-0.30280816555023193,
-0.006835374515503645,
-0.29071128368377686,
-0.2495400458574295,
-0.2269945740699768,
0.012804501689970493,
-0.10137096047401428,
0.6056733727455139,
0.47378477454185486,
-0.06095438450574875,
-0.29997867345809937,
0.11742469668388367,
-0.010721832513809204,
-0.43441951274871826,
0.1710101068019867,
-0.3275967240333557,
0.3804626166820526,
0.3878392279148102,
0.19253931939601898,
-0.2927584946155548,
-0.28929466009140015,
0.6664403676986694,
0.6156700253486633,
-0.23997685313224792,
0.5396696329116821,
-0.9053773880004883,
0.2600348889827728,
0.12357336282730103,
0.22103580832481384,
-0.16557088494300842,
-0.314927339553833,
-0.5173983573913574,
0.9049161672592163,
-0.18325093388557434,
-0.5260950922966003,
-0.7197367548942566,
-0.39215999841690063,
-1.0285885334014893,
1.1012217998504639,
-0.48028698563575745,
0.6265336275100708,
0.7021250128746033,
0.7982730865478516,
0.15992435812950134,
0.20200896263122559,
0.5036529898643494,
0.05217514559626579,
-0.29708239436149597,
-0.5055006146430969,
-0.16222800314426422,
0.5186781883239746,
-0.044112931936979294,
-0.3969982862472534,
0.2270723581314087,
0.05937059223651886,
0.4777749180793762,
0.32620465755462646,
0.5297780632972717,
-0.025076856836676598,
-0.34341534972190857,
-0.17188505828380585,
-0.5975621342658997,
0.1529746949672699,
-0.0004930521245114505,
-0.2588125765323639,
0.2279626727104187,
-0.9328763484954834,
-0.461707204580307,
1.1528136730194092,
0.39965006709098816,
0.21560817956924438,
-0.416077584028244,
-0.5201998353004456,
0.6141237616539001,
-0.5624255537986755,
-1.1515969038009644,
0.014970463700592518,
-0.4432140290737152,
-0.22223873436450958,
0.5041735768318176,
0.6612010598182678,
-0.06136617437005043,
-0.7753748893737793,
0.33189424872398376,
0.11976400017738342,
0.08337265998125076,
-0.27864110469818115,
-0.6480280160903931,
0.4490179419517517,
0.16735483705997467,
-0.38378840684890747,
-0.4998737573623657,
-0.35247763991355896,
0.23173734545707703,
0.3006771504878998,
-0.1668088138103485,
-0.5881034135818481,
-0.07267140597105026,
0.0856800526380539,
0.3874010145664215,
-0.6783366203308105,
-0.14732594788074493,
0.21786445379257202,
0.20421381294727325,
-0.28163114190101624,
-0.3770386278629303,
-0.6402791738510132,
0.1304047703742981,
-0.15311962366104126,
0.057763371616601944,
-0.4413486421108246,
0.06693975627422333,
-0.17796719074249268,
0.37455445528030396,
0.14915187656879425,
-0.5679411888122559,
-0.01352578867226839,
0.34225720167160034,
-0.44602110981941223,
0.5085713863372803,
0.169945627450943,
-0.07068958133459091,
0.3526117503643036,
-0.6599705815315247,
-0.20164434611797333,
0.22986668348312378,
-1.1129359006881714,
-0.13578113913536072,
0.05669271573424339,
-0.46129515767097473,
0.19785241782665253,
0.22638294100761414,
-0.0350821278989315,
0.4014807343482971,
-0.06017234921455383,
-0.8215819597244263,
0.4924750328063965,
0.256487101316452,
0.23704247176647186,
0.04982588067650795,
-0.054587770253419876,
0.01108891423791647,
-0.4442213475704193,
-0.6886981129646301,
-0.4853578805923462,
-0.052113015204668045,
0.23091952502727509,
-0.8348715305328369,
-0.05889247730374336,
0.8309233784675598,
-0.09222863614559174,
-0.0355854369699955,
0.2648593485355377,
-0.1269453763961792,
-0.8780016303062439,
0.1801253855228424,
-0.17321521043777466,
0.033045217394828796,
0.8137755990028381,
-0.5119867920875549,
-0.16258151829242706,
-0.28311437368392944,
0.19919918477535248,
0.42081400752067566,
0.768272340297699,
0.6591179370880127,
-0.3675130009651184,
-0.30802667140960693,
0.18112213909626007,
0.2207886129617691,
0.17561137676239014,
-0.13499398529529572,
-0.2998239994049072,
0.21703702211380005,
-0.04893721267580986,
-0.6977674961090088,
-0.9215903878211975,
-0.8809933066368103,
0.6167047023773193,
-0.34729427099227905,
0.0367061011493206,
0.24111613631248474,
-0.2506655752658844,
-0.2745465040206909,
-0.35372981429100037,
0.4345921576023102,
-0.7364555597305298,
0.13057850301265717,
0.6274082660675049,
0.5634856224060059,
-0.30442243814468384,
-0.29775920510292053,
0.1506965309381485,
-0.09594683349132538,
0.14849713444709778,
0.5829446911811829,
0.9227189421653748,
-0.06179468706250191,
-0.4729168713092804,
0.26094427704811096,
-0.34117814898490906,
-0.29694509506225586,
0.48474040627479553,
0.014325090683996677,
-0.49213433265686035,
0.12930135428905487,
-0.5020959377288818,
0.06187700107693672,
-0.07928070425987244,
-0.39864206314086914,
-0.23428688943386078,
-0.48795413970947266,
-0.23613190650939941,
0.17584851384162903,
0.3686646819114685,
-0.3338070511817932,
0.12959444522857666,
0.2244950234889984,
-0.17213144898414612,
0.34159886837005615,
-0.05186573043465614,
0.7363157868385315,
-0.19549322128295898,
1.1254695653915405,
-0.5961021184921265,
0.8754059076309204,
-0.12253919243812561,
-0.3155854046344757,
-0.06336656212806702,
0.08627977222204208,
-0.21965473890304565,
-0.0031752896029502153,
-0.1731044501066208,
-0.3865461051464081,
0.017186494544148445,
-0.5093585252761841,
0.2947829067707062,
0.7496580481529236,
-0.5643188953399658,
0.031242450699210167,
0.5180439352989197,
-0.3148990869522095,
-0.4824230372905731,
-0.16580088436603546,
0.10320131480693817,
0.19708740711212158,
0.22547361254692078,
0.5968791842460632,
-0.09464649111032486,
0.6784444451332092,
-0.15647034347057343,
0.29939723014831543,
0.022776862606406212,
1.2645933628082275,
0.2555466294288635,
-0.8383013606071472,
0.00988035649061203,
0.4900570213794708,
-0.07198623567819595,
-0.1338585615158081,
0.38666096329689026,
-0.8830477595329285,
-0.7818529009819031,
0.43777477741241455,
0.5436310768127441,
-0.027459707111120224,
-0.0520586334168911,
0.03590847924351692,
0.027131762355566025,
0.43317893147468567,
-0.23642513155937195,
0.37862348556518555,
0.2989373207092285,
-0.48418381810188293,
0.29086267948150635,
0.5390154719352722,
0.30796337127685547,
-0.06252783536911011,
0.005031032022088766,
0.31623175740242004,
0.4719526767730713,
-0.35912176966667175,
-0.2111319750547409,
-0.22795231640338898,
-0.20329368114471436,
-0.10410076379776001,
1.0713084936141968,
-0.15751613676548004,
-0.3430526554584503,
0.16494037210941315,
0.23592358827590942,
0.5240723490715027,
0.0884503498673439,
-0.1606675386428833,
0.4036051332950592,
0.39471834897994995,
-0.6988601684570312,
-0.45908093452453613,
0.347962349653244,
0.3341173529624939,
0.5099384784698486,
0.06723035126924515,
0.7081400156021118,
0.538291871547699,
0.0793369933962822,
0.5317366719245911,
-0.338661253452301,
-1.1205700635910034,
0.27055472135543823,
0.2269946038722992,
-0.2823401391506195,
0.3142435848712921,
0.7157400250434875,
-0.06015481427311897,
0.6517148613929749,
-0.4098162055015564,
-0.09875866770744324,
-0.18277235329151154,
0.345895916223526,
-0.25599974393844604,
-0.14187566936016083,
0.2730523347854614,
0.4672183692455292,
0.004370829090476036,
0.013084463775157928,
-0.11355748027563095,
-0.0197073295712471,
0.1436453014612198,
-0.19282405078411102,
0.05737646296620369,
-0.23049896955490112,
0.13281850516796112,
0.03497539460659027,
-0.17768336832523346,
-0.49647969007492065,
-0.17280016839504242,
-0.3676914870738983,
-0.029227765277028084,
-0.15675191581249237,
-0.2437536120414734,
0.8445519804954529,
-0.4488682448863983,
-0.8294379711151123,
-0.18929815292358398,
0.36647629737854004,
0.06616045534610748,
-0.3037942051887512,
0.3676412105560303,
0.09328678995370865,
0.012966645881533623,
-0.20151403546333313,
-0.6099581718444824,
0.44113656878471375,
0.04042968153953552,
0.1601044088602066,
-0.004502914845943451,
-0.43167969584465027,
0.1358519196510315,
-0.19175763428211212,
-0.06720713526010513,
-0.1395074725151062,
0.6571829319000244,
0.5573915839195251,
0.22112366557121277,
0.2954193353652954,
-0.4763607382774353,
-0.1541050523519516,
-0.3854773938655853,
0.6500224471092224,
-0.002729731844738126,
-0.4124714732170105,
-0.5687822699546814,
0.2137710154056549,
0.8348788619041443,
0.37561267614364624,
-0.2758850157260895,
0.24094004929065704,
-0.13292226195335388,
0.5096938610076904,
-0.690367579460144,
0.33544284105300903,
-0.5664701461791992,
0.2563634514808655,
0.25208282470703125
] |
203602
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20South%20Carolina%20Aiken
|
University of South Carolina Aiken
|
The University of South Carolina Aiken (USC Aiken, USCA, or South Carolina Aiken) is a public university in Aiken, South Carolina. It is part of the University of South Carolina System and offers undergraduate degree programs as well as master's degrees. Additional graduate courses and degree programs are offered through the University of South Carolina Extended Graduate Campus program. The University of South Carolina Aiken awards baccalaureate degrees in more than 30 major areas of study include the bachelor of science in business administration online through Palmetto College.
Campus
The campus is located on in Aiken, from Augusta, Georgia, and 60 miles from Columbia, South Carolina.
Academics
The University of South Carolina Aiken is ranked #1 among top public regional colleges in the South in the 2019 edition of U.S. News & World Report's guide, "America's Best Colleges." Since U.S. News & World Report created this ranking category seventeen years ago, the university has been ranked in the top three public regional colleges every year, totaling twenty-one consecutive years. USC Aiken has been ranked first eleven times: 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2021.
Accreditation
The School of Education's undergraduate programs in Early Childhood, Elementary, Secondary and Special Education are accredited by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). Its graduate program for the M. Ed. in Educational Technology also is accredited by NCATE.
The School of Business is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business-International. AACSB accreditation assures quality and promotes excellence and continuous improvement in undergraduate and graduate education for business administration and accounting.
The School of Nursing's program is approved by the South Carolina State Board of Nursing and is fully accredited by the National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission.
USC Aiken's master of science in applied clinical psychology degree program is fully accredited by the Master's in Psychology Accreditation Council (MPAC).
USC Aiken's Department of Chemistry and Physics is nationally certified by the American Chemical Society. USC Aiken is the smallest university in the state of South Carolina to be nationally certified by The American Chemical Society, and one of only nine in the state.
Students
USC Aiken is one of the fastest growing institutions in the USC system, with approximately 3,450 undergraduate students and 250 graduate students. The University reached record enrollment rates in the fall of 2018. Students enjoy a low faculty-to-student ratio of 15:1 and an average class size of 15.
Student life
Fraternities and sororities
The Greek system at USC Aiken consists of 7 fraternities and 7 sororities. In 2019, nine percent of undergraduate men and nine percent of undergraduate women were active in USC Aiken's Greek system.
IFC fraternities
Delta Sigma Phi 2014
Lambda Chi Alpha 2003
Tau Kappa Epsilon 2008
NPHC fraternities
Alpha Phi Alpha 1993
Kappa Alpha Psi 1988
Phi Beta Sigma
Omega Psi Phi 1977
NPHC sororities
Alpha Kappa Alpha 1978
Delta Sigma Theta
Zeta Phi Beta 1999
Sigma Gamma Rho 2002
NPC sororities
Alpha Omicron Pi 2006
Phi Mu 1988 recolonized 2003
Zeta Tau Alpha 2001
Student publications
The school newspaper is the weekly Pacer Times, founded in 1963 as the Rebellaire. The school also has a student-run literary journal, Broken Ink.
Athletics
NCAA Division II; Peach Belt Conference. The University fields men's teams in baseball, basketball, golf, soccer, and tennis and women's teams in basketball, cross country, softball, volleyball, soccer, and tennis. Cheerleading and the award-winning dance team are also an important part of the athletics department.
Notable alumni
Adam Riggs — former Major League Baseball player
Roberto Hernandez — former 16-year Major League Baseball veteran and two-time all-star
William Garrett Wright — poet and editor
References
External links
Official athletics website
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Education in Aiken County, South Carolina
Buildings and structures in Aiken, South Carolina
Educational institutions established in 1961
1961 establishments in South Carolina
University of South Carolina Aiken
|
[
-0.43236982822418213,
-0.4594259262084961,
0.15471692383289337,
-0.07889831066131592,
0.2788476347923279,
0.34930354356765747,
0.8076194524765015,
0.5023937225341797,
-0.7995985150337219,
-0.38250598311424255,
0.02571260556578636,
0.2134326994419098,
-0.0634043738245964,
0.7453129887580872,
-0.30740949511528015,
0.12187382578849792,
0.36108800768852234,
0.28225505352020264,
-0.08388425409793854,
-0.2744038999080658,
-0.6266611814498901,
0.006821612827479839,
0.4942871332168579,
-0.05483001098036766,
0.051957640796899796,
-0.015269567258656025,
0.4215431809425354,
-0.19194699823856354,
0.6702045798301697,
0.5240598320960999,
-0.07190436124801636,
0.23528535664081573,
-0.21682928502559662,
-0.19956234097480774,
-0.19553332030773163,
-0.12203683704137802,
-0.040054067969322205,
0.123550646007061,
0.525245726108551,
-0.17089229822158813,
-0.8736275434494019,
-0.237972229719162,
0.02217581495642662,
0.10850120335817337,
0.3953067362308502,
-1.0069797039031982,
-1.3491994142532349,
0.25835981965065,
-0.3917745053768158,
0.24812163412570953,
-0.2464687079191208,
0.29470154643058777,
0.5639812350273132,
0.013940357603132725,
0.024749699980020523,
0.24451600015163422,
-0.7080840468406677,
0.028815649449825287,
0.3295833170413971,
-0.25756123661994934,
0.05070720613002777,
0.7586027979850769,
0.3377276360988617,
0.44840580224990845,
-0.33755066990852356,
0.3045857548713684,
-0.21086297929286957,
0.7013531923294067,
-0.5037064552307129,
-0.27724817395210266,
0.08340629935264587,
0.2544374465942383,
-0.3515620827674866,
-0.16175444424152374,
-0.06328823417425156,
-0.6211406588554382,
-0.12088318914175034,
0.4603615999221802,
0.0911974161863327,
0.3380649983882904,
-0.1721877157688141,
0.5293703675270081,
0.7149260640144348,
0.2456730157136917,
0.7065231204032898,
0.15310613811016083,
-0.9367748498916626,
0.2753579318523407,
0.03775034472346306,
0.20278286933898926,
-0.33347731828689575,
0.3407289683818817,
0.13679544627666473,
0.003306166734546423,
0.10973229259252548,
-0.22852016985416412,
0.09961622208356857,
0.39074110984802246,
-0.014706075191497803,
0.6421138644218445,
-0.1880752444267273,
0.20396877825260162,
0.36036962270736694,
-0.09435977041721344,
-0.17470380663871765,
0.22119192779064178,
-0.4236413240432739,
-0.467231810092926,
-0.5122434496879578,
0.07462569326162338,
-1.483640193939209,
0.20390208065509796,
-0.3653022050857544,
-0.48883602023124695,
-0.39503902196884155,
0.6769854426383972,
0.677111804485321,
-0.8722614049911499,
-0.010241786018013954,
-0.13743558526039124,
0.34718599915504456,
0.3725447654724121,
-0.3913530111312866,
-0.023605158552527428,
-0.012906024232506752,
0.6380763649940491,
0.5849089026451111,
0.19534678757190704,
-0.34732720255851746,
0.18055590987205505,
0.6271560192108154,
0.60564786195755,
0.22964420914649963,
0.281239777803421,
0.21280159056186676,
-0.11606380343437195,
0.24449777603149414,
0.47843897342681885,
0.23332524299621582,
0.1029464527964592,
-0.8818220496177673,
-0.1218598335981369,
-1.0370393991470337,
-0.6754626631736755,
-0.1736801117658615,
-0.3918156921863556,
-0.5768705606460571,
-0.23782098293304443,
0.07624682039022446,
-0.11454588174819946,
0.330643892288208,
-0.04853174462914467,
-0.27352526783943176,
0.45460760593414307,
-0.7483344674110413,
0.07015016674995422,
0.6656733751296997,
-0.46586498618125916,
0.7456689476966858,
0.3523623049259186,
-0.4465935528278351,
0.3350086510181427,
0.182846337556839,
0.06201967969536781,
-0.06150629371404648,
0.39371469616889954,
0.31959471106529236,
-0.2420249730348587,
-0.35735833644866943,
0.1472068727016449,
-0.5175982713699341,
-0.07982993870973587,
0.15995769202709198,
-0.17921575903892517,
0.22006240487098694,
-0.7042557001113892,
0.44719192385673523,
0.10521017760038376,
0.22972513735294342,
-0.05658109113574028,
-0.9232111573219299,
-0.12679171562194824,
0.7971245050430298,
-0.05972287431359291,
-0.1512134075164795,
-0.5271568894386292,
0.25029608607292175,
0.22716069221496582,
-0.05673307180404663,
0.22886063158512115,
-0.7582802176475525,
-0.5049837231636047,
0.24842150509357452,
0.38193225860595703,
1.0833168029785156,
0.0076723224483430386,
-0.8143328428268433,
1.2388683557510376,
-0.5932086706161499,
0.41358044743537903,
0.2227751463651657,
-0.8017878532409668,
0.1033049151301384,
-0.11708987504243851,
-0.619331419467926,
-0.3188774585723877,
0.4323473572731018,
0.08191081136465073,
0.4189909100532532,
0.12741155922412872,
-0.07835021615028381,
-1.2293791770935059,
0.09791339188814163,
-0.0109531469643116,
-0.04528707265853882,
-0.34084007143974304,
-0.5469480752944946,
-0.06654036790132523,
0.28891345858573914,
-0.5204982757568359,
1.449505090713501,
-0.3515182435512543,
0.38874074816703796,
0.03284852206707001,
0.10601574927568436,
0.16717956960201263,
-0.2903940677642822,
0.028643619269132614,
0.03904246538877487,
0.1075044795870781,
0.4704146683216095,
-0.4520513713359833,
0.026023000478744507,
-0.951545238494873,
0.07598156481981277,
0.05893684923648834,
-0.5612161755561829,
-0.538350522518158,
0.09152090549468994,
-0.7302497029304504,
0.48023906350135803,
0.5470157861709595,
-1.3635354042053223,
0.4189634621143341,
0.3698105216026306,
-0.47050389647483826,
0.26916998624801636,
-0.23972854018211365,
-0.24924121797084808,
-0.5497045516967773,
0.19744166731834412,
0.09385748207569122,
0.07487982511520386,
-0.18942891061306,
-0.23899142444133759,
0.4115941524505615,
0.2863612771034241,
0.44556519389152527,
0.3222915828227997,
-0.4988403022289276,
-0.16827821731567383,
0.25653573870658875,
-0.18683390319347382,
0.21711233258247375,
-0.27759724855422974,
-0.13393810391426086,
0.07472305744886398,
-0.6621967554092407,
0.10204411298036575,
0.16394278407096863,
0.40364909172058105,
-0.27194634079933167,
0.0918249785900116,
0.014555894769728184,
-0.9548600316047668,
0.11813996732234955,
0.4324977993965149,
-0.294179230928421,
-0.8981573581695557,
-0.18529292941093445,
0.44514724612236023,
0.5132482051849365,
-0.05120221897959709,
-0.5459638833999634,
0.037546783685684204,
-0.2688976526260376,
0.2898715138435364,
0.25515538454055786,
-0.792270839214325,
0.032090190798044205,
-0.5397192239761353,
0.21332469582557678,
-0.06316211074590683,
0.3904794454574585,
-0.4548693895339966,
0.1883433759212494,
0.2313096970319748,
0.08597201853990555,
0.7665389180183411,
-0.7214095592498779,
-0.7921150922775269,
0.17234575748443604,
-0.4648956060409546,
-0.1952982395887375,
0.12407122552394867,
-0.5946657061576843,
0.10150499641895294,
-0.00901193916797638,
-5.18852424621582,
0.3004229664802551,
-0.767489492893219,
-0.18214336037635803,
0.5909981727600098,
-0.4433377981185913,
0.34089231491088867,
-0.5145463943481445,
-0.1789335012435913,
-0.09150636196136475,
-0.3526785373687744,
0.19857026636600494,
0.07818145304918289,
0.4782760441303253,
0.08469485491514206,
1.0576149225234985,
0.32307273149490356,
-0.33864498138427734,
0.24966667592525482,
0.2427082657814026,
-0.18533095717430115,
-0.12766437232494354,
-0.2653883099555969,
0.4198070466518402,
0.545387864112854,
1.0865638256072998,
-0.554257869720459,
-0.581682026386261,
-0.29158756136894226,
-0.6453966498374939,
0.0839259997010231,
-0.3517596125602722,
-0.00984694343060255,
0.0883217602968216,
0.05437879264354706,
-0.31594252586364746,
0.40946653485298157,
-0.05767371505498886,
-0.2997295558452606,
-0.5306630730628967,
0.04953053593635559,
-0.09402987360954285,
-0.5078639984130859,
0.46547842025756836,
0.6547905206680298,
-0.75379478931427,
-0.4408101439476013,
0.09470757097005844,
-0.28601425886154175,
0.591917097568512,
-0.5440195202827454,
-0.2677415907382965,
0.3038727343082428,
0.30068719387054443,
-0.2611428201198578,
-0.2709699273109436,
0.1310633420944214,
0.3428889811038971,
0.3824523389339447,
0.20018553733825684,
0.0645926371216774,
-0.5742501020431519,
-0.47208040952682495,
-0.1284075677394867,
-0.8735437393188477,
-0.47319790720939636,
-0.006346880458295345,
0.6064306497573853,
0.23597608506679535,
0.2389804869890213,
0.4001626670360565,
0.14049334824085236,
-0.21452073752880096,
-0.8497116565704346,
0.2970294952392578,
-0.22444215416908264,
-0.8421725034713745,
-0.7738548517227173,
-0.3444310426712036,
0.256050705909729,
-0.2705191373825073,
0.16504168510437012,
0.21540069580078125,
0.7878292202949524,
0.14492972195148468,
-0.38767802715301514,
0.03951182961463928,
0.07753915339708328,
-0.3557839095592499,
0.13848361372947693,
-0.08222836256027222,
-0.4367105960845947,
0.9799711108207703,
-0.2814168334007263,
-0.007733650039881468,
0.48673537373542786,
0.3265119791030884,
0.4735497236251831,
-0.08220574259757996,
-0.3621428906917572,
0.5545305013656616,
-0.2384689599275589,
0.2813333570957184,
-0.279160737991333,
0.27649986743927,
-0.06012248247861862,
-0.01950138434767723,
0.35052600502967834,
0.8407737016677856,
0.1630978286266327,
-0.08096199482679367,
-0.6546182036399841,
-0.20276549458503723,
-0.06094403564929962,
0.1949882060289383,
-0.44476932287216187,
-0.4525740444660187,
0.5605152249336243,
-0.06148786470293999,
0.6268472075462341,
-0.021853597834706306,
0.37649309635162354,
0.4040147662162781,
-0.10380789637565613,
-0.36398953199386597,
-0.43513223528862,
0.47839441895484924,
0.26028913259506226,
-0.286269873380661,
0.5293720364570618,
0.3582737445831299,
-0.025900350883603096,
-0.03631998226046562,
0.14337562024593353,
-0.40454891324043274,
-0.10645809024572372,
0.14493803679943085,
-0.6678374409675598,
0.5854238867759705,
-0.18458835780620575,
0.2929342985153198,
0.16182146966457367,
-0.3740920126438141,
0.37593531608581543,
0.5474534034729004,
0.6130290031433105,
0.12906229496002197,
0.03949986398220062,
-0.9050320386886597,
-0.12964430451393127,
-0.5211207866668701,
-0.8333976864814758,
-0.26342910528182983,
-0.38063111901283264,
-0.1633218675851822,
-0.3992477357387543,
-0.275033563375473,
-0.1590193510055542,
0.20742268860340118,
0.2967233657836914,
-0.5181492567062378,
-0.13825419545173645,
-1.3129149675369263,
0.3694312870502472,
-0.15809345245361328,
0.15628869831562042,
-0.26982662081718445,
-0.23797444999217987,
-0.6056925058364868,
0.32438892126083374,
0.28769001364707947,
-0.6994015574455261,
-0.04283475875854492,
-0.9425057768821716,
0.45688748359680176,
-0.04235690087080002,
0.0911317765712738,
0.32526999711990356,
-0.3621045649051666,
0.12270369380712509,
0.3263373374938965,
-0.485228031873703,
-0.4144589602947235,
0.34191495180130005,
0.18404115736484528,
-0.5786709189414978,
-0.2492324262857437,
-0.32585784792900085,
0.27719971537590027,
0.29935580492019653,
0.3237420320510864,
-0.295896053314209,
0.12158451974391937,
0.37145984172821045,
-0.4462742209434509,
-0.4856603145599365,
-0.030174102634191513,
0.04452332481741905,
0.1327238231897354,
-0.01613815873861313,
0.23132812976837158,
0.8374665975570679,
-0.2890450954437256,
0.8773747086524963,
-0.2049981653690338,
-0.16534657776355743,
0.5494579672813416,
-0.052532341331243515,
0.32301145792007446,
0.21469300985336304,
-0.3026021122932434,
-0.5612229108810425,
0.530285120010376,
0.942776620388031,
-0.8147125840187073,
0.2604852318763733,
0.013183178380131721,
-0.7178094983100891,
-0.6868590116500854,
-0.08957135677337646,
-0.1929277926683426,
0.2470058649778366,
-0.2944524586200714,
-0.12780772149562836,
-0.9005812406539917,
0.721618115901947,
0.03387487679719925,
-0.8132953643798828,
0.5279331207275391,
-0.5804329514503479,
-0.10069475322961807,
-0.15570907294750214,
-0.0472630113363266,
-0.003071211976930499,
-0.20382699370384216,
0.08760415762662888,
0.029649600386619568,
0.23543395102024078,
0.2186877727508545,
0.2971994876861572,
0.017336424440145493,
0.8129099011421204,
-0.18075528740882874,
-0.7939821481704712,
-0.38084396719932556,
-0.1575421690940857,
0.7429417371749878,
-0.25340044498443604,
-0.8319072723388672,
0.7139904499053955,
0.6343865394592285,
-0.7846587300300598,
-0.8500640392303467,
-0.16445064544677734,
0.7595663666725159,
0.09773208945989609,
-0.04148625209927559,
0.18918409943580627,
-0.21950286626815796,
-0.681736409664154,
0.021812833845615387,
-0.03841254860162735,
-1.0191634893417358,
0.05996592342853546,
-0.3167836368083954,
-0.4626011550426483,
0.16375848650932312,
-0.7452577948570251,
1.0848665237426758,
-1.059537410736084,
-0.05674875155091286,
-0.16222789883613586,
0.13345547020435333,
0.2239464819431305,
-0.6002253293991089,
0.6244845390319824,
-0.21541304886341095,
-0.2914852201938629,
0.08716949075460434,
0.34162819385528564,
-0.3838649094104767,
0.14126887917518616,
-0.3457307517528534,
-0.004775817506015301,
0.5205484628677368,
-0.4831668734550476,
0.3427678942680359,
0.1770847886800766,
-0.7845638394355774,
0.03294158726930618,
0.23410817980766296,
-0.9454159736633301,
0.12430597841739655,
0.2787590026855469,
-0.6943981051445007,
0.2952004671096802,
0.49131518602371216,
-0.24709191918373108,
0.4677961766719818,
0.1297437697649002,
-1.106836199760437,
0.5457096695899963,
0.21223601698875427,
-0.014232954941689968,
0.50922691822052,
-0.2954944670200348,
-0.011818383820354939,
-0.4140242040157318,
0.16833524405956268,
-0.13930942118167877,
0.05552617087960243,
0.1176382303237915,
0.4920121431350708,
0.7353280782699585,
-0.49109989404678345,
0.2679465413093567,
-0.043444178998470306,
-0.23831111192703247,
0.7846785187721252,
0.22316110134124756,
-0.572357177734375,
0.4373960494995117,
0.311357706785202,
0.2751780152320862,
0.27779620885849,
1.1149258613586426,
0.04446827992796898,
0.2694794535636902,
0.5073858499526978,
-0.08266139775514603,
0.24338717758655548,
-0.8838139772415161,
-0.25075018405914307,
1.1402405500411987,
-0.04124561324715614,
-0.019961632788181305,
0.3597677946090698,
-0.6897171139717102,
-1.1030889749526978,
0.7895565629005432,
0.21826191246509552,
1.1135309934616089,
0.5184227228164673,
0.049558695405721664,
-0.5694724321365356,
-0.11492540687322617,
0.19867141544818878,
0.9833607077598572,
0.0704590305685997,
-0.8848817944526672,
0.29612523317337036,
0.18177862465381622,
0.02625241130590439,
-0.13381275534629822,
0.035860296338796616,
0.3148249387741089,
0.22942626476287842,
-0.8405218124389648,
-0.4902486801147461,
0.05984628573060036,
0.4349158704280853,
0.8692852258682251,
0.4046821892261505,
-0.05971015244722366,
-0.2459462583065033,
-0.24624207615852356,
0.39991870522499084,
-0.3273812532424927,
-0.4175179600715637,
0.49735432863235474,
0.586548388004303,
0.5252711772918701,
0.5099223852157593,
-0.049939412623643875,
0.7352558970451355,
0.9968973994255066,
0.49128279089927673,
0.5568659901618958,
0.16871729493141174,
-0.13176403939723969,
-0.23059585690498352,
0.21379968523979187,
0.20716795325279236,
-0.3044552803039551,
0.1193152591586113,
-0.2663678824901581,
-0.47533079981803894,
0.38225963711738586,
-0.07959964126348495,
-0.2548322081565857,
0.16936875879764557,
-0.20946703851222992,
0.29684025049209595,
0.14283908903598785,
0.1959761083126068,
0.5194355249404907,
0.052164189517498016,
0.7164984345436096,
0.3757557272911072,
0.26021745800971985,
0.1547662615776062,
-0.01705658808350563,
-0.09696830064058304,
-0.005039585754275322,
-1.13792884349823,
0.4401989281177521,
0.1771872192621231,
0.5173871517181396,
-0.2908209562301636,
0.7399888038635254,
0.35240638256073,
0.21644525229930878,
0.14568737149238586,
0.7486144304275513,
-0.05153235048055649,
0.730521023273468,
1.0463413000106812,
-0.4543248414993286,
-0.5730175971984863,
-0.22346684336662292,
-0.21064899861812592,
-0.41180282831192017,
0.09827612340450287,
1.2024321556091309,
-0.15916544198989868,
-0.47861990332603455,
-0.20440538227558136,
0.3376912474632263,
-0.5244157314300537,
0.24803557991981506,
0.5091150999069214,
-0.19476966559886932,
-0.10766288638114929,
-0.042165357619524,
-0.4218391478061676,
0.35830339789390564,
-0.3351183831691742,
1.0084525346755981,
0.7295021414756775,
-0.34371304512023926,
0.15538549423217773,
-0.12494605034589767,
0.20607852935791016,
0.056934840977191925,
0.39235439896583557,
0.19674265384674072,
-0.5002830028533936,
-0.733568549156189,
-0.1693512201309204,
0.27363908290863037,
-0.31629711389541626,
-0.9746981263160706,
0.030674751847982407,
0.04005734249949455,
-0.4826914072036743,
0.1387614607810974,
0.06001327186822891,
-0.13824377954006195,
0.3103581666946411,
0.014930612407624722
] |
203604
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-visibility%20clothing
|
High-visibility clothing
|
High-visibility clothing, sometimes shortened to hi vis or hi viz, is any clothing worn that is highly luminescent in its natural matt property or a color that is easily discernible from any background. It is most commonly worn on the torso and arm area of the body. Health and safety regulations often require the use of high visibility clothing as it is a form of personal protective equipment. Many colors of high visibility vests are available, with yellow and orange being the most common examples. Colors other than yellow or orange may not provide adequate luminescence for conformity to standards such as ISO 20471.
As a form of personal protective equipment, high-visibility clothing is worn to increase a person's visibility and therefore prevent accidents caused by persons not being seen. As a result, it is often worn in occupations where hazardous situations are created by moving vehicles or low lighting conditions. These occupations include railway and road workers, airport workers and emergency services. Cyclists and motorcyclists may also use high-visibility clothing to increase their visibility when operating amongst motor traffic. Hunters may be required to wear designated high-visibility clothing to prevent accidental shooting.
Some reflective tapes used on high-visibility clothing can reflect as much as 82% of the source light, causing retinal damage. It is therefore recommended that aircraft pilots, professional truck/bus drivers, and operators of heavy machinery refrain from wearing highly reflective clothing while conducting their duties.
Application for rail workers in the United Kingdom
Experimental use of high-visibility clothing began in 1964 on the Scottish Region of British Railways. Fluorescent orange jackets, known as "fire-flies", were issued to track workers on the Pollokshields to electrified section in Glasgow; they were later tried in other areas, such as Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Inverness. Train drivers operating in these areas were asked their opinion as to the effectiveness of the jackets. Following trials, high-visibility clothing was issued to engineering and other staff working on the electrified lines of the London Midland Region of British Railways in 1965. It was thought to be more important due to the higher speeds of the newly electrified West Coast Main Line route from London Euston to Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool. The first version was worn as a jerkin and was "visible at ... half a mile in normal weather conditions".
Since then, features of high-visibility clothing such as the EN510 quick release standard and the EN471 and its successor EN ISO 20471:2013 high visibility standards, have improved the effectiveness and contributed to improved safety for rail workers and other staff.
The specifications for Rail Industry Standard RIS-3279-TOM (fluorescent orange) high-visibility clothing suitable for use on railways in the United Kingdom are published by the Rail Safety and Standards Board.
Effectiveness
Motorcyclists
The Hurt Report found that very few motorcyclists involved in collisions wore high-visibility clothing, and that just over half of the collisions studied, nearly two-thirds of those involving another vehicle, were due to the motorist unintentionally violating the motorcyclist's right of way. "This dominant culpability of the driver of the other vehicle... emphasizes the special need for high contrast conspicuity for the motorcycle and rider."
A New Zealand case-control study found that the population attributable risks were 33% for wearing no reflective or fluorescent clothing; one third of motorbike accidents might have been prevented by wearing high-visibility clothing.
Cyclists
Traffic risks to the cyclist are similar to those faced by motorcyclists, with the main differences being that bicycling speeds are typically lower, and the bicyclist wears less protective gear. In a 2009 study, most UK cyclists and almost all motorists believed that high-visibility clothing would increase cyclists' visibility. Almost all drivers agreed that cyclists need to wear reflective clothing in low lighting environments, whereas less than three-quarters of cyclists (72%) agreed, and less than half claimed that they always did so.
A Cochrane Systematic Review of research evidence for the effectiveness of visibility aids (fluorescent and retroreflective clothing and equipment) was carried out by Kwan and Mapstone in 2006. The authors found 42 studies which collectively suggested that fluorescent clothing could increase the distance at which drivers could detect and then recognise cyclists in daylight conditions. The same review found evidence that retro-reflective materials worn by cyclists at night had a similar effect on driver perceptions. At that time there were no studies published that had actually demonstrated a reduction in collision crashes for bicyclists wearing fluorescent or retroreflective clothing whilst on public roads.
A 2009 Australian study of drivers trying to see stationary cyclists on a closed circuit found that fluorescent vests (without retro-reflective stripes) were not a significant improvement on black clothing at night and that retro-reflective strips were more effective when attached to knees and ankles than on a more or less static jacket.
A 2012 British case-control study showed a non-significant increase in the odds of a crash for users of reflective conspicuity aids whilst cycling. In 2014, a further case-control study conducted in Canada reported a decrease in the odds of a collision with a motor vehicle when wearing 'light' coloured (not specifically fluorescent) clothing in daylight but an increase in the odds of a collision for cyclists using fluorescent clothing (and lights) at night. The number of conspicuity aids used was positively associated with an increase in collision crash odds but a non-significant reduction in the likelihood of hospitalisation.
A randomized controlled trial was conducted in Denmark between 2012 and 2013. The study collected data from 6793 regular cyclists for a year. The results suggest that conspicuity enhancing jackets can reduce by 47% the risk of collisions with other road users that cause injury and 55% for those collisions involving a motor vehicle. The effect of the intervention was higher in winter compared to summer (56% vs 39%), in daylight (51% vs the overall effect 47%) and for those participants who reported 'high' use of the jackets vs 'low' use (60% vs 33%). The study was based on participants self-reporting data, and there was evidence of response bias, which the authors attempt to correct for, reducing the 47% figure to 38%.
Since April 2013, New York City regulations require commercial cyclists, such as restaurant delivery persons or bike messengers, to wear high visibility clothing while riding.
Standards
INDIA
The latest Indian standards for High Visibility Warning Clothes - Specification is IS 15809 : 2017.
ANSI/ISEA
The American National Standards Institute published standard 107 for high-visibility clothing in 1999. The standard defines three classes of successively more-visible garments, to protect workers exposed to successively higher levels of risk from motor vehicles and heavy equipment. The International Safety Equipment Association developed the standard, with revisions in 2004, 2010 and 2015.
The 207 standard has different requirements for fluorescent background material, specifically allowing for a shorter design that allows equipment belt access. It also includes many optional features, such as a 5-point breakaway design for easy removal, panels readily identifying the wearer as an emergency responder, and radio and badge holders.
Regulation (EU) 2016/425
A European Union directive which covers high-visibility clothing.
North American hunting regulations
Hunting laws in each state or province may require hunters to wear designated garments in blaze orange to prevent misidentification of humans as game animals, and resulting shooting accidents. The required total visible area and times of use vary by jurisdiction and by the type of hunting in the area. Hunting clothes are available in blaze orange camouflage, where the bright orange color is plainly visible to human eyes, but the shape of the hunter is broken up by irregular patterns to prevent identification as a threat by game animals such as deer, who cannot see the color.
ISO 20471
The International Organization for Standardization published standard ISO 20471 for high-visibility clothing in 2013.
Australia
Australian/New Zealand Standard - AS/NZS 4602.1:2011 High visibility safety garments Garments for high risk applications from Standards Australia.
Part 1: Garments for high risk applications - Sample of the standard.
Safe Work Australia - general Personal Protective Equipment guide including references to high visibility clothing
Canada
Canadian Standards: Z96-15 - High-visibility safety apparel
Canadian Center for Occupational Health and safety (CCOHS): Guide High-Visibility Safety Apparel: "Requirements for high-visibility safety clothing for Canadian workers are found in the CSA Standard Z96-15 High-Visibility Safety Apparel".
Gallery
See also
Safety yellow
Chartreuse yellow (also called neon yellow)
Display (zoology) – High-visibility in nature
Retroglo
Retroreflector
Retroreflective sheeting
Safety orange
Yellow vests movement
References
External links
Understanding the updated ANSI/ISEA 107-2015 standard
Towards bottom of page information on track workers, and hgh-visibility gear is detailed.
Working on creating a safer standard for high-visibility clothing.
Safety clothing
|
[
0.45507609844207764,
-0.2895113229751587,
-0.23977705836296082,
0.4311900734901428,
-0.1754017174243927,
-0.4957505762577057,
0.3234398365020752,
0.35880571603775024,
0.07441782206296921,
-0.5051625967025757,
-0.8050168752670288,
0.2878778874874115,
-0.31677430868148804,
-0.21091622114181519,
-0.16413044929504395,
0.6604968905448914,
0.2644886374473572,
0.8232873678207397,
-0.04539387673139572,
0.256539523601532,
-0.5019012093544006,
-0.3424168825149536,
-0.2877519726753235,
-0.20742711424827576,
0.3652695417404175,
-0.0938991829752922,
0.16694286465644836,
0.44039130210876465,
0.11188868433237076,
0.08474336564540863,
0.2862193286418915,
0.5478558540344238,
-0.00014094232756178826,
0.01686111092567444,
0.27618592977523804,
0.020028693601489067,
0.2630590498447418,
-0.2919858992099762,
-0.17013460397720337,
-0.5521866083145142,
-0.2547835111618042,
-0.1480366438627243,
0.4475398361682892,
0.04413718357682228,
-0.21783171594142914,
-0.8807018399238586,
-1.1193475723266602,
0.4229743778705597,
-0.9998820424079895,
0.196258544921875,
-0.2045842558145523,
0.1616932898759842,
-0.201170414686203,
0.6727131605148315,
0.2908560335636139,
0.7100443840026855,
-0.20051209628582,
0.299972265958786,
-0.12888103723526,
-0.5422066450119019,
0.7373914122581482,
-0.4738094210624695,
-0.16942934691905975,
0.22289514541625977,
0.23486632108688354,
0.20753923058509827,
-0.24923674762248993,
-0.5412728190422058,
-0.5416300296783447,
-0.18581940233707428,
-0.13526640832424164,
0.21788568794727325,
0.17904597520828247,
-0.21526481211185455,
-0.471536248922348,
0.46027451753616333,
0.2175000011920929,
-0.37707430124282837,
-0.30311164259910583,
0.1412922441959381,
-0.15123173594474792,
0.30040231347084045,
0.3621157705783844,
0.7398778796195984,
0.2490328997373581,
0.3812102675437927,
-0.5471215844154358,
0.7775627374649048,
0.241698756814003,
0.7043396234512329,
0.38795650005340576,
-0.08709903806447983,
1.0300147533416748,
0.3830675482749939,
0.17493021488189697,
0.14206072688102722,
0.08674894273281097,
-0.22380533814430237,
0.21003808081150055,
-0.17699864506721497,
0.029054727405309677,
-0.022946516051888466,
-0.05216938629746437,
-0.11008672416210175,
-0.46283093094825745,
-0.07905153930187225,
-0.38120901584625244,
0.06632259488105774,
0.13337725400924683,
0.187611386179924,
-0.1949714571237564,
0.34141242504119873,
-0.11818059533834457,
-0.03311470150947571,
-0.49127763509750366,
0.5953030586242676,
0.17271555960178375,
0.6029283404350281,
-0.26081785559654236,
0.2164882868528366,
-0.186432883143425,
0.45766782760620117,
0.0481705479323864,
-0.10277234017848969,
-0.030009867623448372,
0.39897119998931885,
0.5025849342346191,
0.6167047023773193,
-0.2606458067893982,
0.4815526008605957,
0.0889798030257225,
0.4210386276245117,
-0.15645542740821838,
0.006725701503455639,
-0.21943624317646027,
-0.4515262544155121,
0.4532509446144104,
0.4955192506313324,
0.4613811671733856,
0.026234347373247147,
-0.8860637545585632,
-0.6955186724662781,
-0.48647698760032654,
-0.6080561876296997,
0.3100409507751465,
-0.6768661141395569,
0.15356290340423584,
-0.2789469063282013,
-0.4834769070148468,
0.09148375689983368,
0.2912881076335907,
-0.5214583873748779,
-0.12588636577129364,
-0.028058454394340515,
-0.01288655586540699,
-0.11132656782865524,
0.5642489194869995,
-0.22333526611328125,
0.16017596423625946,
-0.22393542528152466,
0.24663105607032776,
0.030715420842170715,
-0.7266994714736938,
0.47410163283348083,
0.2865677773952484,
0.2071760594844818,
-0.5003622770309448,
0.4425615668296814,
0.17740948498249054,
0.6850019097328186,
0.4042564928531647,
0.11465706676244736,
-0.36883577704429626,
-0.0923764631152153,
0.21814857423305511,
0.872524619102478,
0.2265285700559616,
0.4814271032810211,
0.2891903817653656,
0.05047982558608055,
-0.7770477533340454,
0.1564437448978424,
0.6694027781486511,
-0.26111340522766113,
-0.016869397833943367,
-0.05207952484488487,
0.1275763362646103,
0.08938073366880417,
-0.3357335031032562,
-0.4836048483848572,
-1.0114796161651611,
-0.3167499601840973,
0.0026145195588469505,
-0.8108257055282593,
0.7963601350784302,
-0.12059935927391052,
-0.09703659266233444,
1.1460429430007935,
-0.016734769567847252,
0.28806591033935547,
0.36439964175224304,
0.4025087356567383,
0.4182988405227661,
-0.371460884809494,
-0.8440182209014893,
0.27075856924057007,
0.3742525577545166,
0.6823490858078003,
-0.20060063898563385,
-0.2518540024757385,
0.7239387631416321,
-0.44971200823783875,
0.3733046352863312,
0.009494653902947903,
-0.031903404742479324,
-0.23156848549842834,
-0.6719940900802612,
0.33620205521583557,
0.39322057366371155,
-0.5327335596084595,
0.08208933472633362,
-0.3023909628391266,
-0.7303404808044434,
0.006666294764727354,
-0.1833045333623886,
0.2662077844142914,
0.05755430832505226,
-0.0980023592710495,
0.6006805300712585,
-0.4980868697166443,
0.29127973318099976,
-0.47745048999786377,
0.15851324796676636,
-0.2969644069671631,
-0.6926147937774658,
-0.21798256039619446,
0.4829702377319336,
-0.289678692817688,
0.5443521738052368,
-0.6909262537956238,
-0.054441001266241074,
-0.04135863482952118,
-0.3341997265815735,
0.06411732733249664,
-0.04561574012041092,
-0.20471452176570892,
0.46015313267707825,
0.22945861518383026,
0.09286715090274811,
-0.17879752814769745,
0.2553093731403351,
0.47032350301742554,
0.21315406262874603,
-0.330098956823349,
0.7051185965538025,
-0.056754205375909805,
0.07724585384130478,
-0.005177313461899757,
0.37107157707214355,
-0.39206641912460327,
-0.10826785117387772,
0.29469603300094604,
0.416797935962677,
0.2806015610694885,
-0.43101927638053894,
-0.122174933552742,
0.05294466018676758,
-0.2975761890411377,
0.05339301750063896,
0.11724157631397247,
0.18747586011886597,
0.23156888782978058,
-0.5941365957260132,
-0.09555371850728989,
-0.29379382729530334,
-0.6107514500617981,
0.8572521805763245,
0.4393159747123718,
-0.19178198277950287,
0.13017240166664124,
0.5898100137710571,
0.5292714238166809,
0.5239858627319336,
-0.27079862356185913,
-0.5006454586982727,
-0.8104724884033203,
0.4007869064807892,
0.1743961125612259,
-0.411442369222641,
-0.2500039339065552,
-0.41820457577705383,
0.2159949243068695,
-0.19916580617427826,
0.27020227909088135,
-0.2773975431919098,
0.23042763769626617,
-0.04768072068691254,
0.4334678053855896,
-0.11386749893426895,
-0.1915006786584854,
0.13764826953411102,
-0.03152261674404144,
-0.1278739720582962,
-0.22070004045963287,
0.030320700258016586,
-0.026632001623511314,
0.07253053039312363,
-0.3379483222961426,
-5.749780654907227,
0.6873546242713928,
-0.012936625629663467,
-0.14686357975006104,
-0.45218831300735474,
-0.0058745332062244415,
0.4677092432975769,
-0.03940636292099953,
-0.03734970465302467,
-0.16452477872371674,
-0.3262215852737427,
0.13099372386932373,
0.17521347105503082,
0.32298678159713745,
0.3546353578567505,
0.5108737945556641,
0.39059212803840637,
-0.3228449821472168,
0.38290154933929443,
-0.01938546448945999,
-0.30887681245803833,
0.6320163607597351,
-0.045623667538166046,
0.5747169256210327,
-0.0438554547727108,
-0.08294513821601868,
-0.5964327454566956,
0.026554884389042854,
-0.28671589493751526,
-0.21234016120433807,
0.5532892346382141,
-0.1467357724905014,
0.007527343463152647,
0.17280174791812897,
0.324317991733551,
0.14186790585517883,
0.22582440078258514,
0.12567295134067535,
-0.26839327812194824,
-0.30531546473503113,
-0.1296200007200241,
0.9665536284446716,
-0.3887002766132355,
0.3580440878868103,
0.7632384300231934,
0.027044516056776047,
-0.08169027417898178,
-0.6923763155937195,
0.2669181525707245,
0.15088865160942078,
-0.4262862205505371,
-0.10155162960290909,
-0.2232278287410736,
-0.12806856632232666,
-0.0558498352766037,
0.35162353515625,
0.5304978489875793,
0.3353675603866577,
-0.17461861670017242,
-0.18941546976566315,
-0.3517458736896515,
-0.1718917042016983,
-0.013712466694414616,
-0.2045150101184845,
0.4433688819408417,
0.04120306298136711,
-0.6174262762069702,
-0.511316180229187,
-0.0249825119972229,
0.24291327595710754,
-0.1742626130580902,
0.20563556253910065,
0.0850597396492958,
-1.0295894145965576,
0.014105334877967834,
-0.46967682242393494,
0.24811586737632751,
-0.3761894404888153,
0.5378493666648865,
-0.36982840299606323,
-0.20599792897701263,
-0.258323609828949,
-0.4365934729576111,
0.07018241286277771,
0.261000394821167,
-0.8625230193138123,
0.17691460251808167,
-0.11242326349020004,
0.4724138677120209,
-0.051349394023418427,
1.3327608108520508,
0.11879727244377136,
-0.04919238016009331,
0.0882006585597992,
0.3063236474990845,
0.4949558973312378,
0.43916866183280945,
-0.09831031411886215,
0.7527911067008972,
-0.5834105014801025,
-0.08953899890184402,
-0.24671320617198944,
-0.08909670263528824,
-0.670090913772583,
-0.11496897786855698,
0.09449370205402374,
-0.4049763083457947,
0.1576046198606491,
1.0645625591278076,
-0.7004488110542297,
0.390847384929657,
0.025359131395816803,
-0.4410887360572815,
-0.14531788229942322,
0.6414860486984253,
-0.12423715740442276,
-0.09083522856235504,
0.5582990050315857,
0.45285093784332275,
-0.0175627488642931,
0.568824291229248,
0.1162101998925209,
0.2196270227432251,
-0.32203054428100586,
-0.4999818801879883,
0.24645161628723145,
-0.1572214663028717,
0.33976730704307556,
-0.4203086793422699,
0.03732534497976303,
0.442160040140152,
0.3812349736690521,
0.1855228990316391,
0.03767866641283035,
0.21907611191272736,
-0.6276162266731262,
-0.15283212065696716,
-0.07045473903417587,
0.0157777089625597,
-0.7670319676399231,
-0.007838551886379719,
-0.03637663647532463,
-0.04004296287894249,
0.5372548699378967,
0.952256441116333,
0.5188289880752563,
-0.16660772264003754,
-0.37461182475090027,
-0.3683522343635559,
0.715977132320404,
0.15008129179477692,
-0.3751974403858185,
-0.3181315064430237,
-0.803228497505188,
-0.1964005082845688,
0.23249250650405884,
0.7040759325027466,
0.24802394211292267,
-0.35548776388168335,
-0.6780810356140137,
0.19250710308551788,
0.43950289487838745,
-1.5421099662780762,
0.1996467411518097,
-0.3456389605998993,
-0.027527932077646255,
-0.6849603652954102,
-0.17575135827064514,
-0.7314611673355103,
0.2409631758928299,
0.04257352277636528,
-0.3205462694168091,
-0.7884086966514587,
-0.5591975450515747,
0.24012847244739532,
0.014551219530403614,
0.06342318654060364,
0.6632475852966309,
-0.24931667745113373,
-0.3311482071876526,
0.23399357497692108,
-0.17465174198150635,
-0.6341752409934998,
-0.3037826418876648,
0.6128391027450562,
-0.20640432834625244,
-0.01883077435195446,
0.18190261721611023,
-0.47333887219429016,
-0.010427895002067089,
0.3334268033504486,
0.10978008061647415,
0.14926783740520477,
-0.290835976600647,
-0.34697315096855164,
-0.6199384331703186,
0.04613189771771431,
0.20525892078876495,
-0.030082372948527336,
-0.1794639229774475,
-0.3548639118671417,
0.17205645143985748,
-0.9736281633377075,
0.2563766539096832,
-0.47554245591163635,
-0.6120227575302124,
0.5142709016799927,
0.38931459188461304,
-0.9257540106773376,
0.2087845802307129,
-0.42449694871902466,
-0.5585266947746277,
0.273825079202652,
0.11866538971662521,
-0.5853028297424316,
0.08930295705795288,
-0.7152309417724609,
-0.49312156438827515,
-0.15354707837104797,
-0.509898841381073,
0.24004453420639038,
0.041388146579265594,
-0.023966645821928978,
0.13644205033779144,
0.04004918038845062,
-0.40123873949050903,
0.883672833442688,
-0.18317864835262299,
0.3007151484489441,
-0.3830625116825104,
-0.31806960701942444,
0.20436803996562958,
0.11590594798326492,
0.04544265195727348,
-0.4433639645576477,
0.12672176957130432,
-0.5665199160575867,
0.06838216632604599,
0.42388057708740234,
0.4829275608062744,
0.2248753160238266,
0.5420858263969421,
-0.5058549642562866,
-0.8625498414039612,
-0.269854336977005,
0.5552685260772705,
-0.1627880036830902,
-0.4026048183441162,
-0.946987509727478,
0.13128246366977692,
0.2989015579223633,
-0.4294244647026062,
-0.49880069494247437,
-0.41251662373542786,
0.27051761746406555,
-0.41588908433914185,
0.0317295603454113,
-0.03332788124680519,
-0.1328095942735672,
0.49119633436203003,
-0.14925184845924377,
-0.21867625415325165,
-0.2550885081291199,
-0.1733977347612381,
-0.16141265630722046,
-0.026116548106074333,
-0.24323250353336334,
0.10392314940690994,
-0.010985503904521465,
-0.24729500710964203,
0.38935986161231995,
0.08985185623168945,
0.9833992719650269,
-0.22428660094738007,
-0.15517602860927582,
-0.1441393345594406,
-0.24613215029239655,
-0.24203632771968842,
-0.11019210517406464,
0.0983099639415741,
-0.5954278707504272,
-0.43031102418899536,
0.6395800113677979,
-0.3620266318321228,
-0.03565622866153717,
-0.44690263271331787,
0.5359590649604797,
-0.13127540051937103,
-1.1106681823730469,
-0.20542530715465546,
0.008029435761272907,
0.06515202671289444,
-0.15186479687690735,
0.2608686089515686,
0.05191227048635483,
0.02566063404083252,
0.27904680371284485,
0.08147132396697998,
-0.11914980411529541,
0.14536485075950623,
-0.31235092878341675,
0.6400771737098694,
0.07275622338056564,
-0.47873544692993164,
0.9231160283088684,
-0.01867910660803318,
0.5980047583580017,
-0.8764525055885315,
0.293311208486557,
-0.08520378917455673,
0.1210770234465599,
0.32729488611221313,
-0.06206633523106575,
0.8616254925727844,
-0.10913538187742233,
0.17774471640586853,
0.39024075865745544,
0.10049012303352356,
0.9592637419700623,
0.3197977542877197,
0.22024647891521454,
-0.376166969537735,
0.6138424277305603,
0.33654168248176575,
-0.3642040193080902,
0.46444183588027954,
0.13187158107757568,
0.07857591658830643,
0.5433410406112671,
0.5594300627708435,
0.43056365847587585,
0.04709147289395332,
-0.10759544372558594,
0.29444292187690735,
-0.3656473159790039,
-0.11186855286359787,
0.010835210792720318,
-0.5627776980400085,
-1.0700746774673462,
0.7262586355209351,
0.8384036421775818,
0.21665623784065247,
0.26232486963272095,
0.03127319738268852,
-0.40829548239707947,
0.5937928557395935,
-0.04400917887687683,
0.39852994680404663,
-0.20932988822460175,
-0.43166568875312805,
0.04437672719359398,
0.018235037103295326,
0.3279303014278412,
-0.2115587294101715,
0.1627838909626007,
-0.08594866096973419,
0.46596407890319824,
-0.27675092220306396,
-0.6375823020935059,
-0.09437741339206696,
-0.10252521932125092,
0.17110507190227509,
0.09901470690965652,
0.44455280900001526,
0.07214698940515518,
-0.6969748735427856,
0.1031915545463562,
-0.31872743368148804,
0.10372504591941833,
0.039168886840343475,
0.29210296273231506,
0.7970573306083679,
-0.44462549686431885,
0.29414573311805725,
0.15496177971363068,
0.019974360242486,
0.49126139283180237,
0.26199689507484436,
0.48329880833625793,
0.15412770211696625,
-0.489900141954422,
0.08621113002300262,
-0.3538510501384735,
-0.5644620656967163,
0.3022526204586029,
-0.2625010013580322,
-0.3476206362247467,
0.24459919333457947,
-0.14900636672973633,
0.2020370364189148,
0.16481924057006836,
-0.5484769344329834,
-0.44678202271461487,
0.17914538085460663,
-0.2696143090724945,
0.09407524019479752,
0.5133548378944397,
0.7852505445480347,
-0.15542984008789062,
-0.17907513678073883,
-0.3234376013278961,
0.08737112581729889,
0.13072949647903442,
0.30970507860183716,
-0.7898755669593811,
0.4928852617740631,
-0.3452092111110687,
0.39088258147239685,
-0.7786499857902527,
0.3015387952327728,
0.19665813446044922,
-0.2409828007221222,
0.36365199089050293,
0.26806262135505676,
0.3710375428199768,
0.21111199259757996,
0.10236448794603348,
-0.39701345562934875,
-0.014669885858893394,
-0.3515448272228241,
-0.14328743517398834,
-0.3067832887172699,
-0.08676685392856598,
0.3165355324745178,
0.3178967237472534,
0.5891491174697876,
0.3016296327114105,
0.4445919692516327,
-0.13283643126487732,
0.1814471334218979,
-0.5695000290870667,
0.2715310752391815,
-0.6783367395401001,
0.3867422640323639,
-0.3223879337310791,
0.1965266466140747,
-0.1948094367980957,
0.3052932620048523,
0.31958308815956116,
-0.2246539294719696,
0.29225781559944153,
-0.6478532552719116,
-0.1702636033296585,
-0.3322306275367737,
-0.5945853590965271,
0.10516948997974396,
-0.6629641056060791,
0.08668944984674454,
-0.348315954208374,
-0.12018365412950516,
-0.04159785434603691,
-0.9513970613479614,
0.5779518485069275,
-0.3212258219718933,
-0.22426456212997437,
0.06410933285951614,
0.336301326751709,
-0.39601755142211914,
-0.3195251226425171,
-0.007225427310913801
] |
203610
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum%20lucidum
|
Tapetum lucidum
|
The tapetum lucidum (; ; ) is a layer of tissue in the eye of many vertebrates. Laying immediately behind the retina, it is a retroreflector. It reflects visible light back through the retina, increasing the light available to the photoreceptors (although slightly blurring the image). The tapetum lucidum contributes to the superior night vision of some animals. Many of these animals are nocturnal, especially carnivores, while others are deep sea animals.
Similar adaptations occur in some species of spiders. Haplorhine primates, including humans, are diurnal and lack a tapetum lucidum.
Function and mechanism
Presence of a tapetum lucidum enables animals to see in dimmer light than would otherwise be possible. The tapetum lucidum, which is iridescent, reflects light roughly on the interference principles of thin-film optics, as seen in other iridescent tissues. However, the tapetum lucidum cells are leucophores, not iridophores.
The tapetum functions as a retroreflector which reflects light directly back along the light path. This serves to match the original and reflected light, thus maintaining the sharpness and contrast of the image on the retina. The tapetum lucidum reflects with constructive interference, thus increasing the quantity of light passing through the retina. In the cat, the tapetum lucidum increases the sensitivity of vision by 44%, allowing the cat to see light that is imperceptible to human eyes.
It has been speculated that some flashlight fish may use eyeshine both to detect and to communicate with other flashlight fish.
Classification
A classification of anatomical variants of tapeta lucida defines four types:
Retinal tapetum, as seen in teleosts, crocodiles, marsupials and fruit bats. The tapetum lucidum is within the retinal pigment epithelium; in the other three types the tapetum is within the choroid behind the retina.
Choroidal guanine tapetum, as seen in cartilaginous fish. The tapetum is a palisade of cells containing stacks of flat hexagonal crystals of guanine.
Choroidal tapetum cellulosum, as seen in carnivores, rodents and cetacea. The tapetum consists of layers of cells containing organized, highly refractive crystals. These crystals are diverse in shape and makeup.
Choroidal tapetum fibrosum, as seen in cows, sheep, goats and horses. The tapetum is an array of extracellular fibers.
The functional differences between these four types of tapeta lucida are not known.
This classification does not include tapeta lucida in birds. Kiwis, stone-curlews, the boat-billed heron, the flightless kakapo and many nightjars, owls, and other night birds such as the swallow-tailed gull also possess a tapetum lucidum. This classification also does not include the extraordinary focusing mirror in the eye of the brownsnout spookfish.
Like humans, some animals lack a tapetum lucidum and they usually are diurnal. These include haplorhine primates, squirrels, some birds, red kangaroo, and pigs. Strepsirrhine primates are mostly nocturnal and, with the exception of several diurnal Eulemur species, have a tapetum lucidum.
When a tapetum lucidum is present, its location on the eyeball varies with the placement of the eyeball in the head, such that in all cases the tapetum lucidum enhances night vision in the center of the animal's field of view.
Apart from its eyeshine, the tapetum lucidum itself has a color. It is often described as iridescent. In tigers it is greenish. In ruminants it may be golden green with a blue periphery, or whitish or pale blue with a lavender periphery. In dogs it may be whitish with a blue periphery. The color in reindeer changes seasonally, allowing the animals to better avoid predators in low-light winter at the price of blurrier vision.
Eyeshine
Eyeshine is a visible effect of the tapetum lucidum. When light shines into the eye of an animal having a tapetum lucidum, the pupil appears to glow. Eyeshine can be seen in many animals, in nature and in flash photographs. In low light, a hand-held flashlight is sufficient to produce eyeshine that is highly visible to humans (despite their inferior night vision). Eyeshine occurs in a wide variety of colors including white, blue, green, yellow, pink and red. However, since eyeshine is a type of iridescence, the color varies with the angle at which it is seen and the minerals which make up the reflective tapetum-lucidum crystals.
White eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.
Although human eyes lack a tapetum lucidum, they still exhibit a weak reflection from the fundus, as can be seen in photography with the red-eye effect and with near-infrared eyeshine. Another effect in humans and other animals that may resemble eyeshine is leukocoria, which is a white shine indicative of abnormalities such as cataracts and cancers.
In blue-eyed cats and dogs
Cats and dogs with a blue eye color may display both eyeshine and red-eye effect. Both species have a tapetum lucidum, so their pupils may display eyeshine. In flash color photographs, however, individuals with blue eyes may also display a distinctive red eyeshine. Individuals with heterochromia may display red eyeshine in the blue eye and normal yellow/green/blue/white eyeshine in the other eye. These include odd-eyed cats and bi-eyed dogs. The red-eye effect is independent of the eyeshine: in some photographs of individuals with a tapetum lucidum and heterochromia, the eyeshine is dim, yet the pupil of the blue eye still appears red. This is most apparent when the individual is not looking into the camera because the tapetum lucidum is far less extensive than the retina.
In spiders
Most species of spider also have a tapetum, which is located only in their smaller, lateral eyes; the larger central eyes have no such structure. This consists of reflective crystalline deposits, and is thought to have a similar function to the structure of the same name in vertebrates. Four general patterns can be distinguished in spiders:
Primitive type (e.g. Mesothelae, Orthognatha)a simple sheet behind the retina
Canoe-shape type (e.g. Araneidae, Theridiidae)two lateral walls separated by a gap for the nerve fibres
Grated type (e.g. Lycosidae, Pisauridae)a relatively complex, grill-shaped structure
No tapetum (e.g. Salticidae)
Uses by humans
Humans use scanning for reflected eyeshine to detect and identify the species of animals in the dark, and deploying trained search dogs and search horses at night, as these animals benefit from improved night vision through this effect.
Using eyeshine to identify animals in the dark employs not only its color but also several other features. The color corresponds approximately to the type of tapetum lucidum, with some variation between species. Other features include the distance between pupils relative to their size; the height above ground; the manner of blinking (if any); and the movement of the eyeshine (bobbing, weaving, hopping, leaping, climbing, flying).
Artificial tapetum lucidum
Manufactured retroreflectors modeled after a tapetum lucidum are described in numerous patents and today have many uses. The earliest patent, first used in "Catseye" brand raised pavement markers, was inspired by the tapetum lucidum of a cat's eye.
Pathology
In dogs, certain drugs are known to disturb the precise organization of the crystals of the tapetum lucidum, thus compromising the dog's ability to see in low light. These drugs include ethambutol, macrolide antibiotics, dithizone, antimalarial medications, some receptor H2-antagonists, and cardiovascular agents. The disturbance "is attributed to the chelating action which removes zinc from the tapetal cells."
Gallery
Traditionally it has been difficult to take retinal images of animals with a tapetum lucidum because ophthalmoscopy devices designed for humans rely on a high level of on-axis illumination. This kind of illumination causes a great deal of reflex, or back-scatter, when it interacts with the tapetum. New devices with variable illumination can make this possible, however.
See also
Defense mechanism (biology)
Emission theory (vision)
Nocturnal bottleneck
Walleye
Notes
References
External links
Vertebrate anatomy
Animal communication
Science of photography
Eye anatomy
|
[
0.6764896512031555,
0.020864950492978096,
0.3671092391014099,
-0.26578792929649353,
0.3414677083492279,
0.4194251000881195,
0.49540701508522034,
0.31225717067718506,
0.04840656369924545,
-0.9816755056381226,
-0.4738495647907257,
1.1850693225860596,
0.0415070615708828,
0.17127133905887604,
-0.11300601810216904,
0.07066463679075241,
0.590967059135437,
0.35881176590919495,
0.005790614988654852,
0.2029016762971878,
-0.33516478538513184,
-0.36826083064079285,
-0.09847588837146759,
-0.3151440918445587,
0.3685755431652069,
-0.29398244619369507,
-0.36158287525177,
0.3440755307674408,
0.08593954145908356,
-0.13332319259643555,
-0.2785666286945343,
0.3964127004146576,
-0.056145358830690384,
-0.3582223951816559,
0.23447711765766144,
0.008829397149384022,
0.02748710848391056,
-0.5632756352424622,
-0.2896482050418854,
-0.24831287562847137,
0.015643563121557236,
0.7555555105209351,
0.3899936079978943,
-0.17849023640155792,
-1.060347557067871,
-0.44728872179985046,
-0.9813684821128845,
0.8042909502983093,
-0.4167114794254303,
0.5057952404022217,
-0.36670365929603577,
-0.03375595062971115,
0.6173616647720337,
0.055793412029743195,
-0.009246230125427246,
0.5312840938568115,
-0.6774061918258667,
0.17066064476966858,
0.20919136703014374,
-0.4760144054889679,
0.2525445222854614,
0.18038757145404816,
0.004617186263203621,
0.4051312506198883,
0.22384078800678253,
0.3777415156364441,
0.07362793385982513,
-0.3186468482017517,
-0.3123263716697693,
0.049189381301403046,
0.2760836184024811,
-0.36269986629486084,
-0.003139329142868519,
0.2105657458305359,
-0.6546765565872192,
-0.005611847620457411,
-0.21995370090007782,
-0.39178159832954407,
0.20482882857322693,
-0.010195322334766388,
-0.025480842217803,
0.37925752997398376,
0.5110357999801636,
-0.023880543187260628,
0.06639387458562851,
0.16085022687911987,
-0.9531499147415161,
0.3280825912952423,
-0.6203195452690125,
0.20297740399837494,
-0.0011607558699324727,
0.06349232792854309,
0.1953096240758896,
0.3624099791049957,
0.10675056278705597,
-0.6527817845344543,
0.2303200513124466,
-0.4343269467353821,
0.2090228646993637,
0.24944813549518585,
-0.5234429836273193,
0.04544859379529953,
0.9280949831008911,
-0.1535574346780777,
-0.351140558719635,
-0.08772476762533188,
-0.46007752418518066,
-0.29547572135925293,
-0.6552844643592834,
0.6877930164337158,
0.03663632273674011,
-0.059105485677719116,
-0.1747063249349594,
0.20520469546318054,
-0.8068773746490479,
0.48270532488822937,
0.10333176702260971,
0.14682945609092712,
-0.35219183564186096,
-0.3799212872982025,
-0.16425709426403046,
0.33285078406333923,
0.28934770822525024,
-0.16991348564624786,
-0.4191076159477234,
-0.25195568799972534,
-0.005029067397117615,
0.42833489179611206,
-0.4244375228881836,
0.1898651123046875,
0.3862045109272003,
0.7741406559944153,
-0.2661783695220947,
0.18570217490196228,
-0.20055246353149414,
0.022261442616581917,
0.016536692157387733,
0.11892440915107727,
0.8396798968315125,
0.28337305784225464,
-0.37980273365974426,
-0.4806220531463623,
-1.168367624282837,
-0.3440050780773163,
-0.13121937215328217,
-1.046069622039795,
-0.11835774034261703,
-0.14048552513122559,
-0.7302424907684326,
-0.20305100083351135,
0.28106799721717834,
0.33165955543518066,
0.017275312915444374,
-0.4393211305141449,
-0.3785572648048401,
-0.077080138027668,
0.6855781674385071,
0.2286539375782013,
0.09496831148862839,
-0.348928838968277,
0.21563848853111267,
0.25594672560691833,
-0.24156500399112701,
0.2767558991909027,
-0.4406557083129883,
0.08552561700344086,
0.6775857210159302,
0.30538955330848694,
0.2510434091091156,
0.8407691717147827,
0.6127088665962219,
0.2626129388809204,
0.5976594090461731,
0.23340484499931335,
-0.1562170535326004,
0.25384899973869324,
0.5016756653785706,
0.4748835861682892,
0.830196738243103,
-0.2709527611732483,
-0.6792513132095337,
0.3803667426109314,
0.25502198934555054,
0.223070427775383,
0.050310321152210236,
-0.16241362690925598,
0.340108186006546,
0.12132451683282852,
-0.6725338697433472,
-0.6380358338356018,
-0.6538165807723999,
-0.5076406002044678,
0.018787354230880737,
0.06707767397165298,
0.9425397515296936,
0.24645687639713287,
-0.0575750358402729,
0.37708166241645813,
0.13445474207401276,
0.5018775463104248,
-0.17826347053050995,
0.10037839412689209,
-0.18798375129699707,
-0.1228402778506279,
-0.6963613033294678,
0.32760125398635864,
0.2807111144065857,
0.4656490981578827,
0.5220940113067627,
0.3363816440105438,
0.6988905072212219,
-0.5202762484550476,
-0.15336178243160248,
-0.36860013008117676,
0.48350605368614197,
-0.45897579193115234,
-0.24479325115680695,
0.1816001981496811,
-0.20725058019161224,
-0.46441489458084106,
0.6818620562553406,
0.006371792405843735,
0.0008946341695263982,
0.6095488667488098,
-0.16487029194831848,
1.1380497217178345,
0.1090049147605896,
-0.15519094467163086,
0.45844322443008423,
-0.7571538686752319,
0.08207019418478012,
-0.6159153580665588,
0.38473349809646606,
-0.34781622886657715,
-0.3860926926136017,
0.05035010725259781,
0.48338526487350464,
-0.7292479276657104,
0.763143002986908,
-0.7917006015777588,
0.1347857266664505,
-0.5939059257507324,
-0.34549498558044434,
-0.29543063044548035,
0.584631621837616,
0.05690059810876846,
0.6375740766525269,
0.31255069375038147,
0.27120354771614075,
0.07428425550460815,
-0.013923553749918938,
0.6785483956336975,
-0.229984313249588,
-0.30038511753082275,
0.3338821828365326,
-0.19471776485443115,
0.06919141858816147,
0.3277418911457062,
0.569006085395813,
-0.04817190766334534,
0.34783926606178284,
0.5421990752220154,
0.5119858384132385,
-0.3116690516471863,
-0.604943573474884,
-0.24404795467853546,
0.02652178332209587,
-0.055152229964733124,
0.6686752438545227,
0.5917123556137085,
0.1187465563416481,
0.44954729080200195,
-0.9147158861160278,
0.02963392809033394,
0.08199501782655716,
-0.748234212398529,
0.545846700668335,
0.2247917652130127,
-0.3254036009311676,
-0.16995714604854584,
0.43478190898895264,
0.007738160435110331,
0.23701032996177673,
0.09492345154285431,
-0.12316162139177322,
-0.6632456183433533,
-0.040772695094347,
-0.514366626739502,
-0.12522491812705994,
-0.38555285334587097,
-0.7825211882591248,
0.48617610335350037,
-0.5229417681694031,
0.37948644161224365,
-0.9505197405815125,
0.6194582581520081,
-0.06649410724639893,
-0.19124576449394226,
0.46898338198661804,
-1.0995045900344849,
0.18948644399642944,
-0.18836723268032074,
-0.005676498636603355,
0.2670145332813263,
-0.10365992784500122,
0.08083726465702057,
-0.052676621824502945,
-0.20691710710525513,
-5.55308723449707,
0.2397451549768448,
0.3425388038158417,
-0.08413480222225189,
0.42472490668296814,
0.2306479960680008,
0.4164314270019531,
-0.028558623045682907,
0.03427805006504059,
-0.1102428212761879,
0.1340818703174591,
0.3793170154094696,
0.21053585410118103,
0.7031171321868896,
0.2741943895816803,
-0.03607094660401344,
-0.30335450172424316,
-0.13876302540302277,
0.08486520498991013,
0.18108028173446655,
-0.19164922833442688,
0.13463304936885834,
0.13359300792217255,
0.5946342349052429,
-0.4497966766357422,
0.02246330864727497,
-0.3538917303085327,
-0.09935813397169113,
-0.5772093534469604,
-0.04027313366532326,
-0.39771682024002075,
-0.40324270725250244,
0.04716641828417778,
-0.16254417598247528,
0.028098952025175095,
0.06852727383375168,
-0.0902290940284729,
-0.20905600488185883,
0.17008307576179504,
-0.39635345339775085,
-0.4256994426250458,
0.7688018083572388,
0.01965165138244629,
0.13773776590824127,
0.5787678956985474,
-0.44241100549697876,
-0.2053825557231903,
-0.3446091413497925,
0.38356485962867737,
0.7135399580001831,
0.010847453959286213,
0.3479343354701996,
-0.45193788409233093,
0.0437585711479187,
0.11434651911258698,
-0.06028585508465767,
0.7506611347198486,
0.12356697022914886,
-0.6387074589729309,
-0.10992252826690674,
-0.10193374007940292,
-0.4688189625740051,
-0.645646870136261,
-0.23874710500240326,
0.01552253682166338,
-0.09234163910150528,
-1.1679446697235107,
-0.22405065596103668,
0.5492649078369141,
0.2736157774925232,
0.16558028757572174,
0.0458967462182045,
-0.06701186299324036,
-0.9156107306480408,
0.2900788187980652,
-0.0994953066110611,
-0.48013225197792053,
-0.488077312707901,
0.21559174358844757,
0.04101491719484329,
-0.08082699775695801,
-0.26824691891670227,
0.22849604487419128,
0.18881012499332428,
0.11645130813121796,
-0.5385398864746094,
-0.07439969480037689,
0.000946550106164068,
-0.6364918947219849,
-0.4781922399997711,
0.762874186038971,
-0.08950834721326828,
-0.3168689012527466,
0.12819689512252808,
-0.407745897769928,
0.29911747574806213,
0.031265806406736374,
0.4447222054004669,
0.6292127370834351,
-0.15253156423568726,
0.8393711447715759,
-0.03662755712866783,
-0.05500642582774162,
-0.2659618556499481,
0.07161266356706619,
-0.11132051050662994,
-0.5047271847724915,
0.3387528359889984,
0.9569374322891235,
-0.14774364233016968,
0.039002396166324615,
0.5662617087364197,
0.16984008252620697,
0.16072219610214233,
0.23466293513774872,
-0.4244626462459564,
-0.5740615129470825,
0.29169169068336487,
0.29401689767837524,
-0.4101077616214752,
0.4205060303211212,
0.22361531853675842,
-0.18268997967243195,
0.27276358008384705,
-0.26322823762893677,
-0.037755485624074936,
0.34662503004074097,
-0.10350117832422256,
-0.4675425589084625,
0.47180938720703125,
0.14996330440044403,
-0.2182759940624237,
0.1409243941307068,
0.018536103889346123,
-0.0898638665676117,
-0.5081283450126648,
-0.6195748448371887,
0.2963307499885559,
0.04707864671945572,
-0.32102659344673157,
0.3771842420101166,
-0.12798818945884705,
0.17677439749240875,
-0.028295809403061867,
0.45768502354621887,
0.02352183870971203,
-0.5002043843269348,
-0.5151221752166748,
-0.25783422589302063,
0.740380585193634,
0.3884580433368683,
-0.03930719569325447,
-0.24875418841838837,
-0.5848766565322876,
-0.12552295625209808,
0.04960388317704201,
0.5204015970230103,
-0.24848848581314087,
0.08797887712717056,
-0.39021578431129456,
-0.11779025197029114,
0.8761637806892395,
-0.9120648503303528,
0.32954809069633484,
-0.015031062066555023,
-0.7664742469787598,
-0.6649478673934937,
-0.47539517283439636,
-0.2408243864774704,
0.043805964291095734,
-0.1639023870229721,
0.2272878736257553,
-0.6809046864509583,
0.18349899351596832,
-0.06346913427114487,
0.1359761506319046,
0.1644010841846466,
0.5217869281768799,
-0.38149985671043396,
0.023090556263923645,
0.47916078567504883,
-0.5149495601654053,
0.07622615247964859,
-0.1778966188430786,
0.12048240751028061,
-0.3119613826274872,
0.007236949168145657,
-0.8241520524024963,
-0.6747984290122986,
-0.2234983593225479,
0.28040677309036255,
0.047870635986328125,
0.23719152808189392,
-0.07797408849000931,
-0.6791956424713135,
0.09216440469026566,
-0.5841545462608337,
0.782586932182312,
-0.47311463952064514,
-0.3533635437488556,
-0.23107124865055084,
0.5282718539237976,
-0.9626882672309875,
0.17959119379520416,
-0.016610415652394295,
-0.42468756437301636,
0.6889174580574036,
0.44557997584342957,
-0.16718699038028717,
0.3425551950931549,
-0.5553023815155029,
-0.013526542112231255,
-0.30258166790008545,
0.393404483795166,
-0.51518714427948,
-0.20371001958847046,
0.21716399490833282,
-0.13158370554447174,
-0.14451739192008972,
-0.31558719277381897,
0.42136886715888977,
-0.0897984504699707,
-0.011905637569725513,
-0.3437424898147583,
-0.21274767816066742,
0.014523830264806747,
-0.26063787937164307,
-0.32954537868499756,
0.4554575979709625,
-0.24005816876888275,
0.06439394503831863,
-0.30663278698921204,
-0.03810746222734451,
0.39660751819610596,
-0.19929437339305878,
0.287288099527359,
-0.36394694447517395,
-0.02206035889685154,
0.6232824921607971,
0.2819976210594177,
1.614442229270935,
0.8489494323730469,
-0.37204357981681824,
0.4112052023410797,
-0.2945452332496643,
0.8597597479820251,
-0.048157140612602234,
-0.8371661305427551,
-0.9088072180747986,
0.3381969630718231,
0.8574384450912476,
-0.2904287278652191,
-0.3197077214717865,
-0.3753672242164612,
0.4052600562572479,
-0.018392793834209442,
0.4824232757091522,
0.21028001606464386,
-0.7709610462188721,
0.6417672038078308,
-0.11660391092300415,
-0.3109106421470642,
0.08694880455732346,
-0.2876448631286621,
0.14306053519248962,
-0.12281540781259537,
-0.7452658414840698,
0.24614760279655457,
0.32315585017204285,
-1.038627028465271,
0.39072269201278687,
0.09880727529525757,
0.10353171080350876,
-0.023585248738527298,
0.34334808588027954,
0.5123539566993713,
0.08196772634983063,
-0.471457839012146,
0.21241527795791626,
-0.4982728064060211,
-0.47364574670791626,
-0.291753888130188,
-0.19081296026706696,
-0.5047389268875122,
-0.15789252519607544,
-0.40306469798088074,
-0.12804435193538666,
0.6265991926193237,
-0.2001665234565735,
-0.49109211564064026,
-0.591783344745636,
-0.4716566503047943,
-0.3157670795917511,
0.15626594424247742,
0.29249829053878784,
0.355712890625,
-0.10233106464147568,
0.7085556387901306,
-0.16051450371742249,
0.39956849813461304,
-0.6264150142669678,
0.3500402271747589,
0.5686911344528198,
-0.6971408724784851,
0.7391746640205383,
0.4218499958515167,
0.13135679066181183,
-0.024016274139285088,
-0.2901420295238495,
-0.3646467626094818,
-0.025596998631954193,
0.006427237298339605,
-0.05839333310723305,
0.38976114988327026,
0.3013264238834381,
-0.12649869918823242,
0.23538440465927124,
-0.5445379018783569,
0.33487173914909363,
0.6936537623405457,
-0.20340853929519653,
-0.43223047256469727,
0.07988205552101135,
-0.09723269939422607,
-0.6065067052841187,
0.3198930323123932,
0.1808622032403946,
0.43271246552467346,
-0.13244566321372986,
0.44235533475875854,
0.5584431290626526,
-0.13366636633872986,
0.15703895688056946,
0.13423511385917664,
0.07143838703632355,
-0.2648429572582245,
0.2783981263637543,
-0.8377984762191772,
-0.5245853662490845,
0.8545793294906616,
0.627275824546814,
1.1594082117080688,
0.4896255433559418,
0.22638259828090668,
-0.1695346236228943,
0.24434252083301544,
-0.29007235169410706,
0.2224452793598175,
-0.12596456706523895,
-0.2771078944206238,
0.38268184661865234,
-0.7690505981445312,
0.7670761346817017,
-0.04166179522871971,
0.4555499851703644,
0.21249817311763763,
0.9362428188323975,
-0.29009944200515747,
-0.3407425582408905,
0.025942936539649963,
-0.64305579662323,
-0.1833486706018448,
0.2034255415201187,
0.41675809025764465,
-0.36796408891677856,
-0.43273472785949707,
-0.007001875899732113,
-0.3204232156276703,
-0.3381202220916748,
-0.35829290747642517,
-0.15063577890396118,
0.1346595734357834,
-0.3451269567012787,
-0.13843658566474915,
0.3646223247051239,
0.1653357893228531,
0.11606912314891815,
0.04391464591026306,
0.5683099627494812,
-0.2759438455104828,
-0.4007990062236786,
-0.4188061058521271,
0.20435401797294617,
-0.29363447427749634,
-0.3310765027999878,
0.5024306774139404,
-0.006405615247786045,
-0.07842664420604706,
-0.1537490338087082,
-0.11563323438167572,
-0.16063207387924194,
-0.060953687876462936,
-0.03082728385925293,
-0.12052927166223526,
-0.3834858238697052,
0.12889523804187775,
-0.1534164994955063,
0.5815567970275879,
0.1980823427438736,
-0.19584481418132782,
-0.13311472535133362,
0.9077159762382507,
-0.1636805683374405,
-0.22527526319026947,
-0.35747936367988586,
0.4117371737957001,
-0.027340874075889587,
0.9020910859107971,
-0.6445673108100891,
-0.19555053114891052,
0.5269994139671326,
-0.1188543364405632,
0.051765795797109604,
0.06192629411816597,
0.07409366220235825,
0.10250358283519745,
0.3007107973098755,
0.043406594544649124,
0.24954137206077576,
-0.5016279816627502,
0.10753729194402695,
-0.1899813413619995,
-0.22025851905345917,
0.465626060962677,
0.21551556885242462,
-0.15293601155281067,
0.46977996826171875,
0.7508362531661987,
-0.7742006182670593,
0.22183236479759216,
-0.3545002341270447,
0.3867572844028473,
-0.5359748005867004,
0.10398634523153305,
-0.4305903911590576,
-0.6961563229560852,
0.2049100697040558,
0.7864031791687012,
0.5013459920883179,
-0.3784516751766205,
0.3124036490917206,
-0.4643101096153259,
-0.04109460487961769,
-0.16042912006378174,
-0.35422948002815247,
-0.15532603859901428,
-0.29216286540031433,
-0.22780656814575195,
-0.7928966879844666,
0.3255530595779419,
-0.14715270698070526,
-0.998222291469574,
0.37578457593917847,
0.20150253176689148,
-0.4402923583984375,
0.060994748026132584,
-0.12485717236995697,
0.49278295040130615,
-0.33952796459198,
0.8079520463943481
] |
203614
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20mapping
|
Information mapping
|
Information Mapping(R) is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information, based on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method is applied primarily to designing and developing business and technical communications. It is used as a content standard within organizations throughout the world.
Overview of the information mapping method
The information mapping method is a research-based methodology used to analyze, organize and present information based on an audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method applies to all subject matter and media technology. Information mapping has close ties to information visualization, information architecture, graphic design, information design, data analysis, data visualization, experience design, graphic user interface design, and knowledge management systems.
Components of the method
Information mapping provides a number of tools for analyzing, organizing and presenting information.
Information types
Some of Robert E. Horn's best-known work was his development of the theory of information types. Horn identified six types of information that account for nearly all the content of business and technical communications. The types categorize elements according to their purpose for the audience:
Research-based principles
The information mapping method proposes six principles for organizing information so that it is easy to access, understand, and remember:
Units of information
Documents written according to information mapping have a modular structure. They consist of clearly outlined information units (maps and blocks) that take into account how much information a reader is able to assimilate.
There is an essential difference between an information unit and the traditional text paragraph. A block is limited to a single topic and consists of a single type of information. Blocks are grouped into maps, and each map consists only of relevant blocks. The hierarchical approach to structuring information greatly facilitates electronic control of content via content management systems and knowledge management systems.
Advantages of information mapping
The information mapping method offers advantages to writers and readers, as well as to an entire organization.
Advantages for writers
Information mapping offers these advantages for writers:
A systematic approach to the task of writing that once learned, enables writers to minimize downtime and start writing immediately
Can be applied to all business-related or technical content
A content standard that greatly facilitates team writing and management of writing projects
Enhanced productivity, with less time taken for both draft development and review, and
Easy revision of content throughout its life cycle
Advantages for readers
Information mapping offers these advantages for readers:
Quick, easy access to information at the right level of detail, even for diverse audiences
Improved comprehension
Fewer errors and misunderstandings
Fewer questions for supervisors, and
Shorter training cycles, less need for re-training
Advantages for organizations
Also an entire organization can benefit from using a content standard like information mapping if the method is used with the following objectives in mind:
Revenue growth by reducing time to create content and accelerating time to market
Cost reduction by capturing employee knowledge, increasing operational efficiency, reducing support calls, and decreasing translation costs
Risk mitigation by increasing safety and compliance
History
Information mapping was developed in the late 20th century by Robert E. Horn, a researcher in the cognitive and behavioral sciences. Horn was interested in the visual presentation of information to improve accessibility, comprehension, and performance. Horn's development of the information mapping method has won him recognition from the International Society for Performance Improvement and the Association for Computing Machinery.
Review of research
Many independent studies have confirmed that applying the information mapping method to business and technical communications results in quicker, easier access to information, improved comprehension, and enhanced performance. It also facilitates repurposing for publication in different formats.
Doubts have been raised over the strength of the research Horn uses to justify some of his principles. For instance, his chunking principle requires lists, paragraphs, subsections, and sections in a document to contain no more than 7±2 chunks of information. Horn does not state where he got this principle, but an Information Mapping website stated that the principle is "based on George A. Miller's 1956 research". Miller did write a paper in 1956 called "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information", but its relevance to writing is tenuous. Miller himself said that his research had nothing to do with writing. Insisting that lists, paragraphs, subsections, and sections throughout a document contain no more than 7±2 chunks of information paradoxically assumes that the size of what is not read in a document can influence a reader's ability to comprehend what they do read.
See also
Component content management system
Structured writing
Task analysis
References
Further reading
Robert E. Horn. Mapping Hypertext: The Analysis, Organization, and Display of Knowledge for the Next Generation of On-Line Text and Graphics.
Robert E. Horn. How High Can it Fly? Examining the Evidence on Information Mapping's Method of High-Performance Communication. Note: This publication is available for download on Horn's website: Chapter One and Chapter Two.
Educational technology
Technical communication
|
[
0.00444312347099185,
0.010847575962543488,
0.004091258160769939,
0.46882492303848267,
-0.10216748714447021,
0.03779510036110878,
-0.16810619831085205,
-0.05762813240289688,
0.08590646833181381,
-0.6357927322387695,
-0.7039205431938171,
0.552603006362915,
0.11777836829423904,
-0.1749892234802246,
0.13270972669124603,
0.4716454744338989,
-0.1417423039674759,
0.06513240933418274,
0.052940499037504196,
-0.30627551674842834,
-0.25677403807640076,
-0.18586575984954834,
-0.3977550268173218,
-0.3016369044780731,
0.7272321581840515,
0.10832357406616211,
0.2127964049577713,
-0.12094905972480774,
-0.4102742373943329,
-0.14615614712238312,
0.25332579016685486,
0.4512985646724701,
-0.5519586801528931,
-0.1756889522075653,
0.017222115769982338,
0.014459959231317043,
-0.18455815315246582,
-0.11453660577535629,
-0.1391579806804657,
-0.6061753034591675,
0.12058540433645248,
0.21498505771160126,
-0.0630493089556694,
0.18874254822731018,
-0.36973533034324646,
-0.7562851309776306,
-1.9861292839050293,
0.04484467953443527,
-0.6874706149101257,
0.07635354995727539,
-0.8821845650672913,
0.5777463912963867,
0.13250336050987244,
0.46876078844070435,
-0.31110021471977234,
0.7034862041473389,
-0.10753420740365982,
-0.19366607069969177,
0.22381971776485443,
-0.12345045059919357,
0.4185772240161896,
0.03639446198940277,
-0.46548330783843994,
-0.001297872280701995,
0.2598569393157959,
-0.25487539172172546,
-0.2541654706001282,
0.07243321090936661,
-0.29842808842658997,
-0.46596261858940125,
-0.19069631397724152,
-0.14348793029785156,
-0.1844906508922577,
0.4375269412994385,
-0.885334849357605,
0.3194144368171692,
0.45445215702056885,
-0.2675742506980896,
-0.33970168232917786,
0.0028099408373236656,
-0.4689709544181824,
0.6865234375,
0.4836999773979187,
-0.22133761644363403,
0.6630479693412781,
0.038233790546655655,
-0.30885371565818787,
0.5806804299354553,
-0.31489789485931396,
0.26634591817855835,
0.25497397780418396,
-0.6207441091537476,
0.5644149780273438,
0.15815284848213196,
0.6441415548324585,
0.10110406577587128,
0.2586043179035187,
-0.00027858983958140016,
0.011418530717492104,
0.16985438764095306,
-0.3002004027366638,
0.13882671296596527,
0.40346649289131165,
-0.08985139429569244,
-0.4938211441040039,
0.04262392595410347,
-0.4976983070373535,
-0.26321274042129517,
-0.15111252665519714,
0.09602923691272736,
-0.14664089679718018,
0.3754655718803406,
-0.044105589389801025,
-0.1237422451376915,
-0.13367001712322235,
0.13094492256641388,
0.20554526150226593,
0.4912903606891632,
-0.5620386004447937,
0.2689512073993683,
0.3049875795841217,
1.1494790315628052,
0.3138314485549927,
0.053582072257995605,
-0.07875120639801025,
0.14046858251094818,
0.6305460333824158,
0.5254594087600708,
-0.40085893869400024,
-0.13130401074886322,
0.4362322986125946,
0.6911531090736389,
0.1934560239315033,
0.1025499776005745,
-0.36225247383117676,
0.1150822564959526,
0.44969063997268677,
0.08305274695158005,
0.38510218262672424,
-0.0682237520813942,
-0.5502903461456299,
-0.5037318468093872,
-0.28907501697540283,
-0.06599745154380798,
0.7532308101654053,
-0.31260064244270325,
0.24711653590202332,
-0.6283059120178223,
-0.1883678138256073,
-0.06195564940571785,
0.09931223094463348,
0.46029213070869446,
-0.5077070593833923,
0.04540954530239105,
-0.22782710194587708,
0.8667812943458557,
-0.061961445957422256,
-0.3622869551181793,
0.19263795018196106,
-0.0022309813648462296,
0.3038803040981293,
0.30398687720298767,
-0.5765613317489624,
-0.13264407217502594,
-0.044491905719041824,
-0.723554253578186,
0.2514663338661194,
0.5777661204338074,
0.5567302703857422,
-0.3419216275215149,
-0.0807083398103714,
-0.34380045533180237,
0.12612928450107574,
-0.059465501457452774,
-0.16343384981155396,
0.22468270361423492,
0.2764168679714203,
0.4752155542373657,
0.5858973264694214,
0.08420053869485855,
-0.5860728621482849,
0.33333998918533325,
0.010057029314339161,
-0.7167107462882996,
-0.03605526313185692,
-0.28831779956817627,
0.4255196154117584,
-0.20338855683803558,
-0.10264820605516434,
0.044120341539382935,
-0.7993181347846985,
-0.5891773700714111,
0.10909712314605713,
-0.8939411044120789,
1.2730705738067627,
-0.13255301117897034,
-0.2962552607059479,
1.2956069707870483,
-0.01785586215555668,
0.31025242805480957,
0.025541331619024277,
-0.21402443945407867,
0.3798246681690216,
-0.3274914026260376,
-0.10649490356445312,
0.10915560275316238,
0.21489959955215454,
0.05597664788365364,
-0.41704654693603516,
0.047015003859996796,
0.015316282398998737,
0.3500003516674042,
0.4127320647239685,
0.010902169160544872,
0.22069403529167175,
0.12717792391777039,
-0.6205015778541565,
0.8701323866844177,
-0.3618624806404114,
-0.10482118278741837,
0.9211554527282715,
-0.42328885197639465,
-0.3402453064918518,
0.6947176456451416,
-0.4753018617630005,
0.6753607392311096,
0.32208728790283203,
0.5631236433982849,
1.2124499082565308,
-0.7468417286872864,
-0.2660009562969208,
0.19454416632652283,
-0.0024726337287575006,
-0.3088602125644684,
-0.4627026319503784,
-0.2093619555234909,
0.5010225176811218,
-0.2517465353012085,
0.12019664794206619,
-0.2975316047668457,
-0.13641631603240967,
0.011471654288470745,
-0.11103900521993637,
-0.06112493574619293,
0.40997114777565,
0.09197564423084259,
-0.2882724404335022,
0.022984787821769714,
-0.0617344006896019,
0.2214142084121704,
-0.23439763486385345,
0.38105839490890503,
0.2012176364660263,
-0.2765554189682007,
0.028628017753362656,
-0.0676427036523819,
-0.23864883184432983,
-0.16209860146045685,
0.34584033489227295,
0.29675909876823425,
0.13740114867687225,
-0.13751648366451263,
0.1039353534579277,
0.18780869245529175,
-0.19016475975513458,
-0.7073147296905518,
-0.31260108947753906,
-0.06859824061393738,
0.18633230030536652,
0.8673837184906006,
0.3603326976299286,
-0.32499635219573975,
0.21314594149589539,
0.016940297558903694,
-0.29741302132606506,
-0.9630338549613953,
0.5621873736381531,
0.2271697223186493,
-0.5707941651344299,
-0.6127884984016418,
-0.038621436804533005,
-0.22048291563987732,
0.4050220251083374,
-0.3590024709701538,
0.08358513563871384,
-0.38746076822280884,
0.08898991346359253,
-0.01968706212937832,
-0.190495103597641,
0.019429681822657585,
-0.5840508937835693,
0.3113898038864136,
-0.04721066355705261,
0.03613518550992012,
0.5103632807731628,
0.47596004605293274,
-0.012253107503056526,
-0.008874529972672462,
-0.013423386961221695,
-0.07300976663827896,
-0.659161388874054,
0.2242833971977234,
-0.010534475557506084,
-0.06551104038953781,
-0.10410630702972412,
-0.12295554578304291,
-0.01058898027986288,
0.4542466998100281,
-5.763915538787842,
-0.03883969783782959,
-0.23868709802627563,
-0.32961487770080566,
-0.3290974497795105,
-0.12613055109977722,
0.5408534407615662,
-0.2536798417568207,
0.07540442794561386,
0.08570683747529984,
-0.12253685295581818,
0.20310428738594055,
-0.20182150602340698,
0.7388327121734619,
0.5929213166236877,
0.44442763924598694,
0.4889557957649231,
0.5836923122406006,
0.2102600783109665,
0.5797914862632751,
-0.35562002658843994,
-0.1478075534105301,
-0.1507038176059723,
0.9182927012443542,
-0.06202240660786629,
-0.1873302310705185,
-0.37827199697494507,
0.3090086877346039,
0.00030237462488003075,
-0.3421039581298828,
0.722453236579895,
-0.44518062472343445,
0.004731381312012672,
0.13179448246955872,
0.07382649183273315,
0.407312273979187,
0.48216313123703003,
0.3037664294242859,
0.24959081411361694,
-0.6156050562858582,
-0.04970141872763634,
0.6892943382263184,
0.043423738330602646,
-0.25828611850738525,
0.1722681224346161,
-0.2227337509393692,
-0.26533934473991394,
0.19979240000247955,
-0.0040404340252280235,
0.43902820348739624,
-0.30586814880371094,
0.049898140132427216,
0.3944111466407776,
0.03445672243833542,
0.5436512231826782,
-0.13044197857379913,
0.6912554502487183,
-0.040385350584983826,
-0.5428823232650757,
0.3428848385810852,
1.0546185970306396,
-0.6103625297546387,
-0.3436577022075653,
-0.9942069053649902,
-0.5427230000495911,
-0.22781015932559967,
-0.7688502669334412,
-0.9825845956802368,
0.05099527910351753,
0.3170917332172394,
-0.3265070915222168,
0.10652221739292145,
0.23672237992286682,
-0.3580118715763092,
0.27114972472190857,
-0.6306632161140442,
0.35133984684944153,
-0.01976201869547367,
0.24276362359523773,
0.2640146315097809,
-0.5290833115577698,
-0.4015986919403076,
-0.24112515151500702,
-0.1121433898806572,
-0.2015518993139267,
-0.06921188533306122,
-0.07447727024555206,
-0.23414084315299988,
-0.2550860345363617,
-0.41398656368255615,
1.0335663557052612,
-0.17078693211078644,
0.22282268106937408,
0.43161261081695557,
0.36384525895118713,
-0.028674721717834473,
0.6443357467651367,
0.005160837899893522,
0.6368986964225769,
-0.42254093289375305,
0.493274986743927,
-0.19671867787837982,
-0.192061185836792,
-0.5794697999954224,
0.2964740991592407,
-0.03971606120467186,
-0.6244140267372131,
-0.07761604338884354,
1.124340534210205,
-0.5021933913230896,
-0.381236732006073,
0.7805244326591492,
-0.45223015546798706,
-0.05527452751994133,
0.05927538871765137,
0.3639889061450958,
-0.32202327251434326,
-0.18462248146533966,
0.3689144253730774,
-0.305629700422287,
0.20751914381980896,
-0.16775377094745636,
0.038951754570007324,
-0.0014155680546537042,
0.06537161022424698,
-0.41597780585289,
0.07813181728124619,
0.14138758182525635,
-0.5430431962013245,
-0.23110289871692657,
0.9622888565063477,
-0.018181636929512024,
0.08818905800580978,
-0.014744090847671032,
0.18627014756202698,
-0.8659310936927795,
0.11441822350025177,
0.4424344003200531,
0.05018804222345352,
-0.5672938227653503,
0.333448201417923,
-0.28908151388168335,
0.26188135147094727,
-0.14314760267734528,
0.7374748587608337,
-0.15663133561611176,
-0.7607486248016357,
-0.17583926022052765,
-0.47457271814346313,
0.3199959099292755,
-0.4983636140823364,
-0.12927891314029694,
-0.09911299496889114,
-0.3697599470615387,
0.5522723197937012,
-0.027901308611035347,
-0.25173744559288025,
-0.2999900281429291,
0.3541175425052643,
-0.4631017744541168,
0.12255429476499557,
0.20865988731384277,
-0.7554536461830139,
-0.0502156987786293,
-0.10434430092573166,
-0.4081581234931946,
-0.6955690383911133,
0.06069314479827881,
0.21631263196468353,
0.48547616600990295,
0.14425629377365112,
-0.6362662315368652,
-0.7652930021286011,
-0.595983624458313,
-0.10961784422397614,
-0.21464066207408905,
0.2732298970222473,
0.5649188756942749,
-0.033414326608181,
0.05821836739778519,
-0.2467021644115448,
-0.8348053097724915,
0.10830564051866531,
0.2868705987930298,
0.6189972758293152,
-0.0006429479108192027,
-0.10290424525737762,
0.10457362979650497,
-0.5107975602149963,
-0.6361391544342041,
0.2361777424812317,
0.22312763333320618,
0.09828730672597885,
-0.01455660816282034,
-0.03428148478269577,
-0.6487049460411072,
0.41647088527679443,
-0.049335069954395294,
-0.1325397938489914,
-0.6764969229698181,
-0.29543447494506836,
0.2933140695095062,
-0.3026808798313141,
0.4911632537841797,
0.07457171380519867,
-0.8125395178794861,
-0.03761954978108406,
0.10941357910633087,
-0.6534546613693237,
-0.00648091034963727,
-0.5273410081863403,
-0.21930931508541107,
-0.0678006261587143,
0.03467263653874397,
-0.32482609152793884,
0.17502062022686005,
0.07020676136016846,
-0.5613512396812439,
-0.07858327031135559,
0.10007762908935547,
0.2474571317434311,
-0.12437503784894943,
-0.3764001131057739,
0.19978521764278412,
-0.18944674730300903,
-0.19151078164577484,
0.1354512721300125,
-0.6138924360275269,
0.15154698491096497,
-0.10815625637769699,
-0.011142728850245476,
-0.04119712859392166,
0.22362735867500305,
0.3983420729637146,
0.10406702011823654,
0.07944533973932266,
-0.34897327423095703,
0.5239947438240051,
0.16262900829315186,
-0.10220382362604141,
0.14043274521827698,
0.7430967092514038,
-0.09397067874670029,
-0.21542756259441376,
0.15593989193439484,
0.7192491292953491,
-0.10306982696056366,
-0.2572217881679535,
-0.944148600101471,
-0.2024945765733719,
0.45577356219291687,
-0.46785590052604675,
-0.23835639655590057,
0.027663443237543106,
0.7247950434684753,
0.18371762335300446,
-0.4192115366458893,
-0.12579305469989777,
-0.11933489143848419,
0.5419676303863525,
0.4654937982559204,
-0.6457464694976807,
-0.2755611836910248,
-0.06912759691476822,
0.7141931056976318,
0.056693185120821,
-0.13566718995571136,
0.13511794805526733,
-0.0814390629529953,
-0.24305389821529388,
0.01343470998108387,
0.017348308116197586,
0.1882869154214859,
0.3480076789855957,
0.3051879107952118,
-0.43869760632514954,
0.19572857022285461,
-0.04887227714061737,
0.10093727707862854,
-0.29054224491119385,
-0.014025758020579815,
-0.22978320717811584,
0.4029342830181122,
-0.3983500897884369,
0.47508206963539124,
-0.11156535893678665,
0.5502343773841858,
0.06600307673215866,
-0.19796325266361237,
-0.42305636405944824,
-0.3916375935077667,
0.41361168026924133,
-0.34625378251075745,
0.7356239557266235,
-0.2022002935409546,
-0.057555731385946274,
0.2692142724990845,
0.5124980807304382,
-0.24163083732128143,
0.15101350843906403,
-0.2712996006011963,
0.5592721104621887,
0.1278640329837799,
-0.8564279675483704,
0.7885205745697021,
0.3878658711910248,
0.05618807673454285,
-0.21502692997455597,
0.3223453164100647,
-0.24884016811847687,
0.17127564549446106,
0.13035009801387787,
0.49368637800216675,
0.5057404637336731,
-0.3325769901275635,
-0.0035688583739101887,
0.35021448135375977,
-0.28479012846946716,
1.3073991537094116,
0.19120581448078156,
-0.3004184067249298,
0.09033072739839554,
0.6014789342880249,
-0.26905831694602966,
-0.2152353823184967,
0.11863773316144943,
-0.06717826426029205,
0.21519680321216583,
-0.08150855451822281,
0.026529062539339066,
0.7964487671852112,
0.432950884103775,
-0.04360244795680046,
0.3193332254886627,
-0.2067784070968628,
-0.6881087422370911,
0.23075833916664124,
-0.06721412390470505,
-0.18893426656723022,
0.19380255043506622,
0.36174455285072327,
0.5419334769248962,
-0.2997889220714569,
0.18009351193904877,
-0.31543469429016113,
0.05291770398616791,
0.6829837560653687,
0.8193495273590088,
-0.9306361675262451,
0.16424375772476196,
-0.08212368935346603,
0.1206541359424591,
0.40525388717651367,
-0.0852145329117775,
-0.1953112632036209,
-0.3476601243019104,
0.38654986023902893,
0.006048406008630991,
-0.3250267207622528,
-0.08326639235019684,
0.06913728266954422,
0.31988808512687683,
0.30343249440193176,
-0.11549607664346695,
-0.1859353631734848,
-0.25041401386260986,
0.5182733535766602,
-0.443954735994339,
0.6608906984329224,
0.42858102917671204,
-0.14730608463287354,
0.9091165065765381,
-0.570769727230072,
0.24083451926708221,
-0.23005962371826172,
-0.4691014289855957,
-0.08400604873895645,
-0.030168049037456512,
-0.06875917315483093,
0.3352842628955841,
0.03227652236819267,
-0.01039437111467123,
0.4249285161495209,
-0.4126141369342804,
0.17966555058956146,
-0.118125319480896,
-0.14062795042991638,
0.388685017824173,
-0.1465093046426773,
0.32440871000289917,
0.02922513522207737,
-0.543978214263916,
0.022646676748991013,
-0.21865446865558624,
-0.16842202842235565,
0.6377455592155457,
-0.13723836839199066,
0.9716491103172302,
0.1086035743355751,
0.018931368365883827,
-0.6287486553192139,
0.6355879306793213,
0.17867815494537354,
0.050341635942459106,
-0.5172850489616394,
0.4844008982181549,
-0.7394559383392334,
-0.060123544186353683,
-0.5004921555519104,
-0.05681939795613289,
0.4208453595638275,
-0.3714963495731354,
-0.13402827084064484,
-0.0579221248626709,
-0.011789972893893719,
0.3166663646697998,
0.11852245032787323,
0.0006472057430073619,
0.5333107113838196,
0.3573753535747528,
-0.18833968043327332,
0.2267187088727951,
0.017324231564998627,
0.17168234288692474,
-0.09962841868400574,
0.1434595286846161,
0.10397093743085861,
0.1909385621547699,
-0.21448493003845215,
0.07236618548631668,
-0.1085723415017128,
-0.16454392671585083,
-0.9504810571670532,
0.48619067668914795,
-0.31525909900665283,
-0.216927632689476,
-0.533574104309082,
0.48181045055389404,
0.5993854403495789,
-0.22934970259666443,
-0.4059346914291382,
-0.340595543384552,
0.18839521706104279,
0.2589642107486725,
-1.4573853015899658,
0.15899263322353363,
-0.09276199340820312,
-0.3575720489025116,
-0.8723465204238892,
0.2947517931461334,
0.03240378946065903,
-0.78119295835495,
-0.13556532561779022,
0.14002925157546997,
-0.5122432708740234,
0.458107590675354,
0.03841038793325424,
-0.885892927646637,
-0.3312971889972687,
0.4437338709831238
] |
203615
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886%20in%20literature
|
1886 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1886.
Events
January – MLN: Modern Language Notes, an academic journal, introduces European literary criticism into American scholarship. It is founded at Johns Hopkins University.
January 5 and January 9 – Robert Louis Stevenson's horror novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde appears in New York and London. Almost 40,000 copies are sold in the first six months.
January 17 – The Anglo-Irish writers and cousins Somerville and Ross first meet, at Castletownshend, County Cork, Ireland.
February – A list of 100 books considered "necessary for a liberal education", comiled by John Lubbock, is published.
February 22 – The first performance of William Gillette's American Civil War drama Held by the Enemy is held at the Criterion Theater, Brooklyn, New York.
April 10 – Anatole Baju begins publication of the magazine Le Décadent in Paris, in an effort to define and organize the Decadent movement.
May–July – Robert Louis Stevenson's Scottish historical novel Kidnapped is serialized in the London magazine Young Folks.
May 7 – Percy Bysshe Shelley's verse drama The Cenci, A Tragedy, in Five Acts, written and printed in Italy in 1819), is first played privately in England, sponsored by the Shelley Society, at the Grand Theatre, Islington, London, before an audience that includes Robert Browning (for whose birthday it is held), George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde. Oscar Wilde's review of it in Dramatic Review appears on May 15.
September 9 – The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works is signed.
September 18 – The "Symbolist Manifesto" (Le Symbolisme) is placed in the French newspaper Le Figaro by a Greek-born poet Jean Moréas, who calls Symbolism hostile to "plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description," and intended to "clothe the Ideal in a perceptible form" whose "goal was not in itself, but whose sole purpose was to express the Ideal."
Fall – Clifford Barnes is taken on as a clerk at the Manhattan book store Arthur Hinds & Co., which will become Barnes & Noble.
November – Rudyard Kipling's Plain Tales from the Hills begin to appear in the Lahore Civil and Military Gazette under the British Raj.
May 15 – Emily Dickinson dies aged 55 of Bright's disease at the family home in Amherst, Massachusetts, with fewer than a dozen of her 1,800 poems published. She is buried under the self-penned epitaph "Called Back". After publication of a first collection of her verse in 1890, she will be seen with Walt Whitman as one of the two quintessential nineteenth-century American poets.
unknown dates
A Japanese adaptation of Shakespeare's play Hamlet as Hamuretto Yamato Nishiki-e is serialized in the newspaper Tokyo Eiri Shimbun.
The first English language translation of Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary (1856), made by Eleanor Marx, is published by Henry Vizetelly in London.
New books
Fiction
Edmondo De Amicis – Heart (Cuore)
Herman Bang – Ved Vejen (published in the collection Stille Eksistenser)
Emilia Pardo Bazán – Los pazos de Ulloa (The House of Ulloa, publication commenced)
Leon Bloy – Disperato
Rhoda Broughton – Doctor Cupid
Hall Caine – A Son of Hagar
Mary Cholmondeley – The Danvers Jewels
Wilkie Collins
The Evil Genius
The Guilty River
Marie Corelli – A Romance of Two Worlds
Alice Diehl – Griselda
George Gissing – Demos; A Story of English Socialism
Maxwell Gray (Mary Gleed Tuttiett) – The Silence of Dean Maitland
Thomas Hardy – The Mayor of Casterbridge
William Dean Howells – Indian Summer
Fergus Hume – The Mystery of a Hansom Cab
Henry James – The Bostonians
Jerome K. Jerome – The Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow
Lie Kim Hok – Tjhit Liap Seng
Vladimir Korolenko – The Blind Musician
Pierre Loti – Pêcheur d'Islande
Jules Mary – Roger la Honte
Octave Mirbeau – Le Calvaire
George A. Moore
A Drama in Muslin
Confessions of a Young Man
Bolesław Prus – The Outpost (Placówka; serialization complete, book publication)
Britiffe Constable Skittowe – Sudden Death, or, My Lady the Wolf
Robert Louis Stevenson –Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
August Strindberg – Getting Married (Giftas), vol. II (short stories)
Leo Tolstoy – The Death of Ivan Ilyich (Смерть Ивана Ильича, Smert' Ivana Ilyicha)
Jules Verne
The Lottery Ticket
Robur the Conqueror
Eduard Vilde – Musta mantliga mees (Man in a Black Coat)
Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam – Eva Futura
Émile Zola – L'Œuvre
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Jo's Boys
Frances Hodgson Burnett – Little Lord Fauntleroy
L. T. Meade – A World of Girls. The Story of a School
Robert Louis Stevenson – Kidnapped
Drama
Anton Chekhov – On the Harmful Effects of Tobacco
Archibald Clavering Gunter – Prince Karl
Henrik Ibsen – Rosmersholm
Alexander Kielland – Tre Par
Leo Tolstoy – The Power of Darkness (not staged until 1902)
William Butler Yeats – Mosada
Non-fiction
Edwin Abbott Abbott – The Kernel and the Husk
Marian Alford – Needlework as Art
Edward Wilmot Blyden – Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race
Edward Dowden – The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley
Warren Felt Evans – Esoteric Christianity and Mental Therapeutics
William Morris – A Dream of John Ball
Emily Ruete – Memoirs of an Arabian Princess: An Autobiography
Charles Taze Russell – The Plan of the Ages (later The Divine Plan of the Ages, vol. 1 of Millennial Dawn, later Studies in the Scriptures)
A. E. Waite – The Mysteries of Magic
Births
January 1 – Ethel Carnie Holdsworth, English working class novelist and campaigner (died 1962)
January 14 – Hugh Lofting, English children's writer (died 1947)
February 11 – May Ziadeh, Lebanese-Palestinian poet, essayist and translator (died 1941)
February 13 – Ricardo Güiraldes, Argentinian novelist and poet (died 1927)
March 1 – Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian poet and artist (died 1980)
March 30 – Frances Cornford (née Darwin, FCC), English poet (died 1960)
April 1 – Brita von Horn, Swedish dramatist, novelist and theatre director (died 1983)
April 15 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian Acmeist poet (executed 1921)
May 16 – Vladislav Khodasevich, Russian poet and critic (died 1939)
June 26 – Donar Munteanu, Romanian poet and magistrate (died 1972)
July 16 – Pierre Benoît, French novelist (died 1962)
July 22 – Hella Wuolijoki, Estonian-born Finnish writer (died 1954)
July 24 – Jun'ichirō Tanizaki (谷崎 潤一郎), Japanese novelist (died 1965)
September 8 – Siegfried Sassoon, English poet and memoirist (died 1967)
September 20 – Charles Williams, English poet, novelist, playwright and theologian (died 1945)
October 4 – Lennox Robinson, Irish dramatist, poet and theatre producer (died 1958)
October 25 – Karl Polanyi (Károly Polányi), Austro-Hungarian economic historian and social philosopher (died 1964)
November 1 – Hermann Broch, Austrian Modernist writer (died 1951)
November 21 – Harold Nicolson, English author (died 1968)
November 29 – Thomas Burke, English novelist and story writer (died 1945)
December 5 – Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and libertarian (died 1968)
Victor Llona, Peruvian-born translator (died 1953)
Deaths
January 25 – Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, Chilean historian (born 1831)
March 17 – Pierre-Jules Hetzel, French publisher (born 1814)
March 27 – Sir Henry Taylor, English dramatist, poet and public official (born 1800)
April 9 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet and novelist (born 1826)
April 13 – Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, Dutch novelist (born 1812)
May 4 – Eliza Lanesford Cushing, American Canadian dramatist, short story writer, and editor (born 1794)
May 15 – Emily Dickinson, American poet (born 1830)
May 17 – Erskine May, English constitutional theorist (born 1815)
June 14 – Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian dramatist (born 1823)
July 9 – Roger Edwards, minister and writer (born 1811)
July 16 – Ned Buntline (Edward Zane Carroll Judson Sr.), American publisher, dime novelist and publicist (born 1821)
July 21 – Maximilian Wolfgang Duncker, German historian (born 1811)
August 9 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish poet and antiquary (born 1810)
October 21 – José Hernández, Argentine poet (born 1834)
October 22 – Matilda Jane Evans, English-born Australian novelist (born 1827)
November 21 – Johannes Scherr, German novelist and critic (born 1817)
November 22 – Mary Boykin Chesnut, American diarist (born 1823)
December 12 – Johan Nicolai Madvig, Danish philologist (born 1804)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – R. L. Gales
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
0.030021807178854942,
0.2457417994737625,
-0.46884390711784363,
-0.07353872805833817,
-0.6695253252983093,
-0.18146368861198425,
0.673434317111969,
0.560433566570282,
-0.6607639789581299,
-0.5967317819595337,
-0.0647319033741951,
0.00037861589225940406,
0.004042239859700203,
0.34872618317604065,
0.07262807339429855,
-0.06105993315577507,
0.2378367781639099,
-0.08405780792236328,
0.2173858880996704,
-0.48112431168556213,
-0.46225252747535706,
0.041040413081645966,
0.6741006970405579,
-0.2103377729654312,
0.27114951610565186,
-0.7711328268051147,
0.3730755150318146,
-0.33002933859825134,
0.2294923961162567,
-0.2512100636959076,
-0.16337831318378448,
0.24150876700878143,
0.37204015254974365,
0.18585222959518433,
-0.7406850457191467,
-0.47237545251846313,
-0.3417990505695343,
-0.4138568043708801,
0.18613559007644653,
-0.5123835206031799,
-0.31811410188674927,
0.12060322612524033,
0.5153859257698059,
0.42869943380355835,
0.024073835462331772,
-0.2549067437648773,
-2.018141746520996,
-0.03700878098607063,
-0.7303228378295898,
0.41430220007896423,
-0.2303650975227356,
0.5591913461685181,
1.0410746335983276,
0.3252784311771393,
-0.35752034187316895,
0.6894324421882629,
-0.35788285732269287,
0.03260130062699318,
-0.031822238117456436,
-0.4743659496307373,
0.38880395889282227,
0.3857020139694214,
0.06011677533388138,
0.2159530520439148,
0.6527664661407471,
0.08725594729185104,
-0.433135062456131,
-0.057272303849458694,
0.005678009707480669,
-0.4526805579662323,
0.030361885204911232,
-0.18832279741764069,
0.32338544726371765,
-0.15562215447425842,
0.3601240813732147,
-0.08188961446285248,
0.17294630408287048,
0.0022380324080586433,
-0.30975404381752014,
-0.12197871506214142,
-0.5829565525054932,
0.2858968675136566,
0.7788037061691284,
0.3001630902290344,
0.34137260913848877,
-0.022085826843976974,
-0.28889328241348267,
-0.15190310776233673,
0.09847602248191833,
-0.3336727023124695,
-0.024465840309858322,
-0.0023046722635626793,
0.40071791410446167,
0.216611847281456,
0.2493140548467636,
0.2938799262046814,
-0.1949108988046646,
0.1367630511522293,
-0.5936943292617798,
-0.07539327442646027,
0.16927798092365265,
0.573676586151123,
0.6452398896217346,
0.020121145993471146,
-0.6932979226112366,
0.03609813004732132,
0.2160547822713852,
-0.03586752340197563,
0.7926875352859497,
-0.7644287943840027,
-0.3157377243041992,
0.27708786725997925,
-0.4397291839122772,
-0.0025941182393580675,
0.17938639223575592,
-0.04528920352458954,
0.4013511836528778,
-0.14498648047447205,
-0.6582198143005371,
0.14861029386520386,
-0.6594378352165222,
0.12473978102207184,
0.08875979483127594,
0.6846543550491333,
-0.8685076832771301,
0.48751360177993774,
0.2818455398082733,
0.4999319314956665,
0.0563386008143425,
0.3992321789264679,
0.4439052939414978,
1.0196533203125,
-0.10191100090742111,
-0.3007100820541382,
0.09143189340829849,
-0.1931428760290146,
0.09005483984947205,
0.6377131342887878,
-0.03110462985932827,
0.33107349276542664,
-0.3775780498981476,
0.037957966327667236,
-1.9366047382354736,
-0.10789801925420761,
0.04161500930786133,
-0.6470524072647095,
0.07101262360811234,
-0.3014504313468933,
-0.04732205718755722,
-0.43159860372543335,
0.4042271077632904,
-0.5169506669044495,
-0.3769475817680359,
0.4567220211029053,
0.02016063965857029,
0.29075250029563904,
0.18752096593379974,
0.23536080121994019,
0.7466004490852356,
-0.03196407109498978,
-0.35722383856773376,
0.20273712277412415,
-0.02089005708694458,
0.05573057383298874,
-0.20530083775520325,
-0.40179598331451416,
0.23326097428798676,
-0.006020486354827881,
0.2928082346916199,
0.012162012048065662,
-0.4056614935398102,
0.11449360102415085,
0.35264062881469727,
-0.3704288899898529,
-0.4013281464576721,
-0.21785958111286163,
0.2213360071182251,
0.40615397691726685,
0.08679328113794327,
0.1704975813627243,
-0.7700740694999695,
0.3659895062446594,
-0.18087859451770782,
-0.5241193771362305,
0.7893460988998413,
0.21086576581001282,
0.43235644698143005,
0.15595805644989014,
-0.16255906224250793,
-0.4839264154434204,
-0.19810998439788818,
-0.3357587456703186,
0.017973314970731735,
-0.4114053249359131,
1.4121830463409424,
-0.1950691193342209,
-0.2001946121454239,
0.7575414776802063,
-0.1481216996908188,
0.08530270308256149,
0.47232455015182495,
0.12118522077798843,
0.2775115966796875,
0.011921994388103485,
-0.22190439701080322,
1.1763535737991333,
0.07396590709686279,
0.20346981287002563,
0.31166398525238037,
0.5654358863830566,
0.5822522044181824,
-0.17204083502292633,
0.1812698394060135,
0.1503303200006485,
-0.34920647740364075,
0.008369945921003819,
-0.3704555332660675,
0.41440439224243164,
0.23150195181369781,
0.1511349380016327,
0.5829296112060547,
-0.1578797847032547,
0.4007112979888916,
0.6673346161842346,
0.1360233575105667,
0.5239013433456421,
0.10249655693769455,
0.26114752888679504,
-0.1467670351266861,
-0.7426190972328186,
0.01838928647339344,
0.48551687598228455,
0.11499027907848358,
-0.5179063677787781,
0.044253867119550705,
0.09488489478826523,
0.017310619354248047,
-0.05301909148693085,
0.12198557704687119,
-0.06648116558790207,
0.6154555678367615,
-0.05760382115840912,
-0.014874153770506382,
0.4817155599594116,
0.12581531703472137,
0.4896928668022156,
-0.3681522309780121,
-0.13032233715057373,
-0.18642012774944305,
-0.49123722314834595,
0.7872740626335144,
0.49289143085479736,
-0.07119043916463852,
-0.15009509027004242,
-0.550349771976471,
-0.04957462102174759,
-0.42316514253616333,
-0.8097053170204163,
0.6713747978210449,
0.4034229815006256,
-0.1015862375497818,
-0.015994928777217865,
0.03229909762740135,
0.1759568750858307,
0.08221445232629776,
-0.1554550677537918,
-0.09447408467531204,
-1.0844390392303467,
0.42818483710289,
-0.021888626739382744,
0.07065942138433456,
0.2113131582736969,
-0.37681180238723755,
-1.1001965999603271,
0.3570874333381653,
0.20148304104804993,
0.19230931997299194,
-0.14716070890426636,
-0.4519916772842407,
-0.312931090593338,
-0.7591280937194824,
0.7488318681716919,
0.29887744784355164,
-0.48534828424453735,
0.09178029745817184,
-0.273503839969635,
0.1714469939470291,
-0.09327851235866547,
0.16154566407203674,
-0.44475317001342773,
-0.3051052987575531,
-0.010183512233197689,
-0.5950416922569275,
-0.17793431878089905,
-0.05820409208536148,
0.47377467155456543,
-0.42689627408981323,
0.4102538824081421,
0.07078144699335098,
-0.6885427236557007,
-0.30232441425323486,
0.31046998500823975,
-0.3798467516899109,
0.287102609872818,
0.1767023652791977,
0.5192932486534119,
-0.3678736984729767,
0.08867096155881882,
-5.46789026260376,
-0.11131610721349716,
-0.5132163763046265,
-0.505056619644165,
-0.33898216485977173,
0.22473527491092682,
0.4274342358112335,
-0.12354323267936707,
-0.4452870488166809,
-0.3952648341655731,
-0.30483683943748474,
-0.310164213180542,
-0.1993560791015625,
1.218609094619751,
0.19172680377960205,
0.46944737434387207,
0.4077320396900177,
-0.21172620356082916,
-0.3657068908214569,
0.19725212454795837,
0.17945179343223572,
0.3463136851787567,
-0.07769002765417099,
0.3092809319496155,
1.0093680620193481,
0.28119322657585144,
0.02468005381524563,
0.19429881870746613,
0.0983864888548851,
0.432496577501297,
0.08696607500314713,
-0.016539717093110085,
0.2629539966583252,
-0.0761987566947937,
0.17060743272304535,
0.10041043907403946,
0.8107928037643433,
0.6027564406394958,
0.7215675711631775,
0.2707907557487488,
-0.7925078272819519,
0.6935316920280457,
-0.4270402193069458,
0.4851820766925812,
0.13290511071681976,
-0.0028926823288202286,
-0.36763492226600647,
-0.23960597813129425,
-0.5380009412765503,
0.7504603266716003,
0.015266803093254566,
-0.23610946536064148,
0.4783904552459717,
0.6210076212882996,
0.5344226360321045,
-0.17641271650791168,
-0.33618855476379395,
-0.5046180486679077,
-0.5469990968704224,
-0.028816532343626022,
-0.08152185380458832,
-0.11206865310668945,
0.5996899604797363,
-0.6755186915397644,
-0.3714016377925873,
-0.2558598816394806,
-0.6474533081054688,
0.34269267320632935,
0.17971695959568024,
0.020206481218338013,
-0.089103564620018,
0.7692170143127441,
-0.343368798494339,
-0.822576105594635,
-0.0954490676522255,
0.18723787367343903,
-0.33935362100601196,
0.3569536805152893,
0.15231168270111084,
0.007642616983503103,
-0.16785411536693573,
-0.2472783327102661,
-0.34442976117134094,
0.6156983971595764,
0.13886402547359467,
-0.4383785128593445,
-0.010410158894956112,
-0.7144597768783569,
-0.9983041286468506,
-0.6967889070510864,
0.5985751152038574,
-0.13495035469532013,
-0.028050344437360764,
0.06159680336713791,
0.43037012219429016,
0.5055133700370789,
0.5529356002807617,
0.035697706043720245,
0.3155205547809601,
-0.30535003542900085,
0.2762429714202881,
-0.1408831626176834,
0.00884130410850048,
-0.15427753329277039,
-0.19423454999923706,
-0.30814293026924133,
-0.43858322501182556,
0.593738317489624,
0.59229576587677,
-0.9386774897575378,
-0.03671637922525406,
-0.16931994259357452,
-1.1273545026779175,
-0.07744848728179932,
0.7484656572341919,
-0.1416030079126358,
0.4362606406211853,
0.08484949916601181,
0.07136204093694687,
0.14149512350559235,
0.08309754729270935,
0.4020022749900818,
-0.04758646339178085,
-0.3694245219230652,
-0.36854368448257446,
-0.3373188376426697,
0.010094023309648037,
-0.380207896232605,
-0.39590635895729065,
-0.20670193433761597,
0.22696854174137115,
0.35212045907974243,
-0.11527105420827866,
-0.4796503186225891,
-0.02653917670249939,
-0.21809269487857819,
-0.08465354889631271,
-0.13235850632190704,
-0.05271194875240326,
-0.7078804969787598,
-0.1639041006565094,
-0.08691702038049698,
-0.1028960794210434,
-0.03787579387426376,
0.7391027808189392,
-0.07966341823339462,
-0.4270530343055725,
-0.45795953273773193,
-0.49489906430244446,
0.33681076765060425,
-0.29180631041526794,
0.07786928117275238,
0.2795531749725342,
0.3346948027610779,
-0.061114583164453506,
0.14507219195365906,
-0.10870028287172318,
0.6869072914123535,
-0.6032222509384155,
-0.2339031994342804,
-0.027788259088993073,
-0.28133073449134827,
-0.9407968521118164,
0.46308189630508423,
0.18099345266819,
-0.773535430431366,
-0.37098389863967896,
-0.17476370930671692,
-0.18179088830947876,
0.5542990565299988,
0.3444201648235321,
-0.21429717540740967,
-0.4571472108364105,
0.01478852890431881,
0.48903992772102356,
-0.3448280096054077,
0.07701926678419113,
0.07670843601226807,
-0.0076773338951170444,
-0.12231596559286118,
0.23923836648464203,
-0.5232332348823547,
-0.2648470103740692,
0.5696409344673157,
0.711638331413269,
0.01775692030787468,
-0.16307809948921204,
-0.28608784079551697,
-0.4946610629558563,
0.17472222447395325,
-0.35522112250328064,
0.25639426708221436,
0.7127962112426758,
-0.31855177879333496,
-0.9073314666748047,
-0.2878614366054535,
0.23836852610111237,
0.04672597721219063,
-0.19667886197566986,
-0.23076137900352478,
0.47063592076301575,
0.18484294414520264,
-0.13653181493282318,
-0.3141704201698303,
-0.06525552272796631,
-0.8465144634246826,
0.45387542247772217,
-0.5577707290649414,
-0.8635268807411194,
0.5950643420219421,
0.3495168685913086,
-0.38517871499061584,
0.10433124750852585,
0.45790958404541016,
0.16235405206680298,
-0.046045441180467606,
-0.0003166820388287306,
0.5304581522941589,
-0.5854127407073975,
-0.007077103015035391,
0.6530845761299133,
0.09156196564435959,
-0.9881222248077393,
-0.27573198080062866,
-0.37718114256858826,
0.10977990180253983,
0.2281370609998703,
-0.46890759468078613,
0.42520132660865784,
-0.2815088629722595,
0.06352966278791428,
0.03912985324859619,
0.2815479040145874,
0.16813302040100098,
-0.22138738632202148,
-0.18179668486118317,
-0.15515002608299255,
-0.06460936367511749,
0.062384285032749176,
0.08469121158123016,
0.3083812892436981,
0.6793586015701294,
-0.019290467724204063,
-0.05552710220217705,
0.12033022940158844,
0.6207535266876221,
0.04033290967345238,
-0.3613739013671875,
-0.7966371774673462,
0.2780442535877228,
0.31630268692970276,
-0.2223343849182129,
-0.7787014842033386,
-0.5222446918487549,
0.601345956325531,
-0.34591880440711975,
-0.523256778717041,
0.5136153101921082,
0.029755646362900734,
0.6365404725074768,
-0.1306556910276413,
0.15415096282958984,
-0.1591007262468338,
0.21326316893100739,
0.5212903618812561,
0.17410427331924438,
-0.014615308493375778,
0.26876452565193176,
0.42461496591567993,
0.029932770878076553,
-0.6335911154747009,
-0.3499224781990051,
-0.3638492822647095,
0.21720288693904877,
0.4062004089355469,
-0.2850363552570343,
-0.563924252986908,
-0.5734472870826721,
-0.2111247479915619,
-0.13866601884365082,
-0.07456103712320328,
-0.26230162382125854,
0.05138978362083435,
-0.26455965638160706,
-0.44529038667678833,
-0.3751909136772156,
-0.19073915481567383,
0.05455554276704788,
-0.12288670986890793,
-0.03563334047794342,
0.030113670974969864,
-0.28457358479499817,
-0.1370953470468521,
-0.314698189496994,
0.24752892553806305,
0.2470996230840683,
-0.19043974578380585,
0.22789835929870605,
-0.005848775152117014,
-0.14628271758556366,
-0.3458797037601471,
0.4507782459259033,
0.3637588322162628,
-0.5767003297805786,
0.9306378960609436,
0.03421575203537941,
-0.2259201556444168,
-0.18189646303653717,
-0.29595494270324707,
0.26262134313583374,
0.4490978419780731,
0.3205464482307434,
0.0319378487765789,
0.47751522064208984,
-0.4537200629711151,
-0.12107516825199127,
-0.048899102956056595,
-0.344451904296875,
0.6818257570266724,
-0.05202935263514519,
-0.06973505765199661,
0.3420833945274353,
0.5274454355239868,
-0.06621530652046204,
-0.3297787308692932,
0.3462461233139038,
-0.28420236706733704,
0.04984401911497116,
0.08267496526241302,
-0.10540970414876938,
0.20640894770622253,
0.2490895539522171,
0.08300485461950302,
0.8757689595222473,
-0.08866551518440247,
-0.4796944260597229,
0.18521997332572937,
-0.6239638924598694,
0.13012740015983582,
0.5162864327430725,
0.7333075404167175,
-0.12692609429359436,
0.5020277500152588,
0.02276691049337387,
0.24571576714515686,
-0.24392496049404144,
0.0772845521569252,
0.23852111399173737,
0.03737882897257805,
0.15402111411094666,
0.4175757169723511,
0.6121250987052917,
0.5491361021995544,
-0.5800647735595703,
0.28520089387893677,
-0.5218013525009155,
0.09816193580627441,
0.010656740516424179,
0.2237943857908249,
-1.0541856288909912,
0.10807189345359802,
0.2919375002384186,
0.37965065240859985,
-0.17677071690559387,
0.3296530842781067,
0.4978969097137451,
0.3391992449760437,
0.34343597292900085,
0.07870249450206757,
-0.08620072156190872,
0.2320549488067627,
-0.34898391366004944,
-0.09784506261348724,
-0.28503337502479553,
-0.15999792516231537,
0.7813330888748169,
0.7079683542251587,
-0.017278995364904404,
0.11701725423336029,
-0.01326783373951912,
-0.1208689734339714,
0.3540008068084717,
-0.36759909987449646,
0.034504763782024384,
0.2771225571632385,
-0.42702585458755493,
-0.09487929195165634,
0.45900100469589233,
-0.05390367656946182,
-0.7130448222160339,
-0.17239618301391602,
-0.11762600392103195,
0.22761015594005585,
0.09395963698625565,
-0.8167198300361633,
0.25833335518836975,
-0.6573730707168579,
1.5971599817276,
-0.009600095450878143,
-0.2871192395687103,
-0.4489729106426239,
-0.2244856357574463,
-0.07179655879735947,
0.13019545376300812,
-0.2944003939628601,
0.47403684258461,
-0.4488499164581299,
-0.022406810894608498,
-0.46820273995399475,
0.5977145433425903,
0.25587302446365356,
0.3816629648208618,
-0.24282820522785187,
0.6787030696868896,
-0.28664901852607727,
0.011782996356487274,
0.10200542211532593,
-0.2562570869922638,
-0.3024102449417114,
0.31109994649887085,
-0.3201126158237457,
0.15102191269397736,
0.2459760159254074,
-0.07111192494630814,
-0.35805386304855347,
0.20390300452709198,
0.21828283369541168,
0.4424102008342743,
0.20995722711086273,
0.0016845217905938625,
-0.37167227268218994,
-0.507400393486023,
-0.6106681823730469,
0.12495555728673935,
-0.24492214620113373,
0.977810800075531,
0.7699112296104431,
0.47753867506980896,
0.341195285320282,
-0.15372619032859802,
0.08632129430770874,
-0.25271058082580566,
0.34554523229599,
0.05823195353150368,
-2.4666574001312256,
0.08534611016511917,
-0.2102029025554657,
-0.16476571559906006,
-0.4611343741416931,
0.15780286490917206,
-0.0015434295637533069,
0.05955616012215614,
-0.1476142257452011,
-0.12856779992580414,
0.476887047290802,
-0.1034424677491188,
0.06202137470245361,
-1.1713207960128784,
0.4818449020385742,
0.07494871318340302
] |
203617
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1888%20in%20literature
|
1888 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1888.
Events
February 9 – During Joseph Conrad's career at sea as Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, he departs from Bangkok for Sydney in his first command as master, on the British barque Otago. This provides a basis for his novella The Shadow Line (1916).
March 6 – On the day of Amos Bronson Alcott's funeral at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts), his daughter, novelist Louisa May Alcott, already in poor health, suffers a fatal stroke.
March 16 – Foundation stone for a new National Library of Greece building is laid in Athens.
May 26 – In London, Punch magazine begins serialisation of George and Weedon Grossmith's humorous The Diary of a Nobody, the first entry being for "April 3".
June 3 – Ernest Thayer's baseball poem "Casey at the Bat" is first published under the pen name "Phin" as the last of his humorous contributions to The San Francisco Examiner.
July – Arthur Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes detective novel, A Study in Scarlet (1887), is first published separately as a book, by Ward Lock & Co in London with illustrations by the author's father, Charles Altamont Doyle.
October
The English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted in London by the National Vigilance Association and fined for obscene libel for his English translation of Zola's La Terre.
"Papus" founds the esoteric magazine L'Initiation in France.
The first book to feature Jack the Ripper in fiction is published while the Whitechapel murders attributed to Jack the Ripper are still taking place in London, the short Gothic novel The Curse Upon Mitre Square by John Francis Brewer, which features the murder of Catherine Eddowes in Mitre Square on September 30 as a key plot element.
unknown dates
Sholem Aleichem edits the first issue of the anthology Di Yidishe Folksbibliotek in Kiev, giving important exposure to young writers in Yiddish, including I. L. Peretz's long ballad "Monish".
The Finnish epic Kalevala is published for the first time in English, in a translation by American linguist John Martin Crawford.
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche writes Götzen-Dämmerung, oder, Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophiert ("Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer", published 1889), Der Antichrist (1895) and his autobiography, Ecce homo: Wie man wird, was man ist (posthumous, 1908), his last works before his total mental collapse.
probable – The sexual memoir My Secret Life by "Walter", perhaps Henry Spencer Ashbee, begins publication, being printed in Amsterdam for clandestine sale in Britain.
New books
Fiction
Grant Allen
The Devil's Die
The White Man's Foot
Edward Bellamy – Looking Backward: 2000–1887
Rolf Boldrewood – Robbery Under Arms (book publication)
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – The Fatal Three
Richard Francis Burton (translator) – The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night (publication completed)
Félicien Champsaur – L'Amant des danseuses
Archibald Clavering Gunter – Mr. Potter of Texas
Louis Couperus – Eline Vere
James De Mille – A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder
Antonio Fogazzaro – The Mystery of the Poet
Theodor Fontane – Irrungen, Wirrungen (On Tangled Paths)
H. Rider Haggard – Maiwa's Revenge
Thomas Hardy – Wessex Tales
Gerhart Hauptmann – Bahnwärter Thiel (Railway signalman Thiel, novella)
Henry James
The Aspern Papers
Princess Casamassima
Rudyard Kipling
The Man Who Would Be King
Plain Tales from the Hills
Amy Levy – Reuben Sachs
Jean Lombard – L'Agonie
Herman Melville – John Marr and Other Sailors
Octave Mirbeau – L'Abbé Jules
George Moore – Spring Days – A Prelude to Don Juan
Shardha Ram Phillauri – Bhagyawati
Raul Pompéia – O Ateneu
José Maria de Eça de Queiroz – Os Maias
Arthur Quiller-Couch – Troy Town
Henryk Sienkiewicz – Fire in the Steppe (Pan Wołodyjowski)
Theodor Storm – The Rider on the White Horse (Der Schimmelreiter)
Ivan Vazov – Under the Yoke (Под игото, Pod Igoto)
Lew Wallace – The Boyhood of Christ
Mrs Humphrey Ward – Robert Elsmere
Oscar Wilde – The Happy Prince and Other Tales
Children and young people
G. A. Henty
Bonnie Prince Charlie: A Tale of Fontenoy and Culloden
In the Reign of Terror: The Adventures of a Westminster Boy
George MacDonald – The Elect Lady
Robert Louis Stevenson – The Black Arrow (book publication)
Jules Verne
Family Without a Name (Famille-sans-nom)
Two Years' Vacation (Deux Ans de vacances)
Oscar Wilde – The Happy Prince and Other Tales
Drama
Sarah Bernhardt – L'Aveu, drame en un acte en prose
Félicien Champsaur – Lulu
Henrik Ibsen – The Lady from the Sea
Alexander Kielland – Professoren
August Strindberg – Miss Julie
Hall Caine – Ben-my-Chree
Poetry
Sir Edwin Arnold (translator) – With Saʿdi in the Garden; or, The Book of Love
W. E. Henley – A Book of Verses, including first publication of "Invictus"
Andrejs Pumpurs – Lāčplēsis (The Bear-Slayer)
Non-fiction
Joseph Bertrand – Calcul des probabilités
John D. Billings – Hard Tack and Coffee
Helena Blavatsky – The Secret Doctrine
Emilia Dilke – Art in the Modern State
Esperanza (Jane, Lady Wilde) – Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland, with sketches of the Irish past
Celia Fiennes – Through England on a Side Saddle (first complete edition, written 1702)
Charles Colcock Jones, Jr. – Negro Myths of the Georgia Coast
Benjamin Hall Kennedy (primarily written by his daughter Marion Kennedy) – Revised Latin Primer
Papus – Traité méthodique de science occulte
Joseph Prestwich – Geology, Chemical and Physical, Stratigraphical and Palaeontological
A. F. W. Schimper – Die epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas (The Epiphytic Vegetation of America)
Charlotte Carmichael Stopes – The Bacon/Shakespeare Question
A. E. Waite
Lives of the Alchemystical Philosophers
The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan
Births
January 24 – Vicki Baum, Austrian-born writer (died 1960)
January 25 – A. L. Zissu, Romanian novelist and Zionist leader (died 1956)
February 10 – Giuseppe Ungaretti, Italian modernist poet and writer (died 1970)
April 26 – Anita Loos, American novelist and screenwriter (died 1981)
June 13 – Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese writer (died 1935)
July 23 – Raymond Chandler, American novelist and screenwriter (died 1959)
September 4 – Margaret Henley, daughter of W. E. Henley and J. M. Barrie's inspiration for the name "Wendy" in Peter Pan (died 1894)
September 22 – Lucia Mantu, born Camelia Nădejde, Romanian writer (died 1971)
September 26 – T. S. Eliot, American-born English poet and playwright (died 1965)
October 14 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand short story writer (died 1923)
October 16 – Eugene O'Neill, American playwright and Nobel laureate (died 1953)
October 26 – Dem. Theodorescu, Romanian novelist and journalist (died 1946)
Deaths
January 30 – Mary Howitt, English writer, poet and translator (born 1799)
March 4 – Amos Bronson Alcott, American writer and philosopher (born 1799)
March 6 – Louisa May Alcott, American novelist (born 1832)
March 14 – James Hogg, Scottish-born publisher (born 1806)
April 15 – Matthew Arnold, English poet (born 1822)
May 12 – Edward Lear, English writer of comic verse and artist (born 1812)
August 9 – Charles Cros, French poet (born 1842)
August 20 – Henry Richard, Welsh political writer (born 1812)
September 24 – Karl von Prantl, German philosopher (born 1820)
September 30 – William Gifford Palgrave, English Arabic scholar and writer (born 1826)
November 17 – Dora d'Istria, Romanian-Albanian writer (born 1828)
December 8 – Frederick Apthorp Paley, English scholar (born 1815)
December 23 – Laurence Oliphant, Scottish travel writer and novelist (born 1829)
Awards
Newdigate prize – Arthur Waugh
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
0.020241308957338333,
0.3378413915634155,
-0.5856881737709045,
-0.04546240344643593,
-0.7544782757759094,
-0.1367131620645523,
0.6543475985527039,
0.5536518096923828,
-0.6119003295898438,
-0.8169829249382019,
0.03597789257764816,
-0.12271275371313095,
-0.005083300638943911,
0.3023113012313843,
0.047742437571287155,
-0.08842203766107559,
0.07387235760688782,
-0.16864705085754395,
0.0663626492023468,
-0.544445276260376,
-0.507275402545929,
0.03023635782301426,
0.758223295211792,
-0.3907873332500458,
0.4041862487792969,
-0.8478427529335022,
0.4598497152328491,
-0.24486689269542694,
0.13980922102928162,
-0.20097221434116364,
-0.09240014106035233,
0.16392570734024048,
0.40674492716789246,
0.2581807076931,
-0.7248626351356506,
-0.26193946599960327,
-0.28503990173339844,
-0.428695946931839,
0.2513722777366638,
-0.5737702250480652,
-0.3527766466140747,
0.18095798790454865,
0.5526993274688721,
0.51567542552948,
0.11779271066188812,
-0.11570490896701813,
-2.186336040496826,
-0.07327784597873688,
-0.8026099801063538,
0.280683696269989,
-0.2840920686721802,
0.5417482852935791,
1.1637914180755615,
0.2688242495059967,
-0.3139713406562805,
0.7380268573760986,
-0.4431094527244568,
0.006168247200548649,
-0.1058279424905777,
-0.4202516973018646,
0.48430338501930237,
0.37613046169281006,
0.21796247363090515,
0.14114966988563538,
0.6266842484474182,
0.0449092872440815,
-0.581194281578064,
-0.15972620248794556,
0.07885944098234177,
-0.4535861313343048,
0.20668385922908783,
-0.23240022361278534,
0.2740004062652588,
0.08985979110002518,
0.30352166295051575,
-0.11637253314256668,
0.23886093497276306,
0.011475854553282261,
-0.423066645860672,
-0.18950633704662323,
-0.7614565491676331,
0.2412387728691101,
0.8718193769454956,
0.39318689703941345,
0.38452664017677307,
-0.1225229874253273,
-0.320319265127182,
-0.1301221251487732,
0.08387651294469833,
-0.2118890881538391,
-0.0697418600320816,
0.0026329411193728447,
0.4168979823589325,
0.3052217662334442,
0.4697786569595337,
0.2982839047908783,
-0.014730273745954037,
0.1149100512266159,
-0.5774207711219788,
-0.1649460792541504,
0.0880606472492218,
0.5725535750389099,
0.6731277108192444,
0.03384235128760338,
-0.6327211260795593,
0.06476130336523056,
0.32966288924217224,
-0.09580006450414658,
0.8415699601173401,
-0.904127836227417,
-0.3636077046394348,
0.41698652505874634,
-0.3555436432361603,
-0.13379649817943573,
0.3910452425479889,
0.2373959869146347,
0.45616668462753296,
-0.09005925059318542,
-0.4894106686115265,
0.32766392827033997,
-0.5962018370628357,
0.19074112176895142,
-0.013498291373252869,
0.47799578309059143,
-1.0252474546432495,
0.6087596416473389,
0.3604743480682373,
0.5623235702514648,
0.08516479283571243,
0.41507425904273987,
0.33201125264167786,
1.1562503576278687,
-0.13274218142032623,
-0.35207614302635193,
0.17032332718372345,
-0.3309078514575958,
0.08737767487764359,
0.561998724937439,
0.021014569327235222,
0.31126174330711365,
-0.19413034617900848,
-0.09224466234445572,
-1.9577617645263672,
-0.34294426441192627,
0.0060595739632844925,
-0.7250075340270996,
0.3070562779903412,
-0.37138935923576355,
0.04796848073601723,
-0.3222883939743042,
0.5103850364685059,
-0.48014307022094727,
-0.4001803994178772,
0.4845452308654785,
0.12738855183124542,
0.10681132227182388,
0.21301260590553284,
0.26382550597190857,
0.7941228747367859,
0.13191527128219604,
-0.31048575043678284,
0.06608472019433975,
-0.00904843583703041,
-0.0554627999663353,
-0.35403120517730713,
-0.30124276876449585,
0.2333795726299286,
0.022318007424473763,
0.2334732860326767,
-0.11469210684299469,
-0.3730935752391815,
0.009969829581677914,
0.3590150475502014,
-0.28064143657684326,
-0.1568099558353424,
-0.2400798797607422,
0.3836498558521271,
0.4162355363368988,
0.012429211288690567,
0.0242311954498291,
-0.7767308354377747,
0.20487931370735168,
-0.13992470502853394,
-0.3655361533164978,
1.0133394002914429,
0.16961851716041565,
0.360079824924469,
0.20470081269741058,
0.028598356992006302,
-0.4241367280483246,
-0.14614512026309967,
-0.45469748973846436,
0.03255762159824371,
-0.5261442065238953,
1.310060977935791,
-0.27253809571266174,
-0.29251763224601746,
0.5981265306472778,
-0.2042514830827713,
0.08129580318927765,
0.46756482124328613,
0.1956283152103424,
0.35240647196769714,
-0.05017385631799698,
-0.24306157231330872,
1.0962733030319214,
0.04154016822576523,
0.24453482031822205,
0.10807296633720398,
0.5604808330535889,
0.6764917969703674,
-0.18182000517845154,
-0.05080481991171837,
0.2741639316082001,
-0.2910566031932831,
0.0010854871943593025,
-0.2495843470096588,
0.5837534666061401,
0.18367232382297516,
0.01949971355497837,
0.7636746168136597,
-0.15770739316940308,
0.316436767578125,
0.6575894951820374,
0.31331419944763184,
0.47607889771461487,
0.07880907505750656,
0.2004825621843338,
-0.0910654067993164,
-0.9340169429779053,
0.22346347570419312,
0.43606385588645935,
0.11113987863063812,
-0.7018437385559082,
0.025970978662371635,
0.23386500775814056,
0.046233102679252625,
-0.1386643350124359,
0.2126152515411377,
-0.12988083064556122,
0.6068010926246643,
-0.16150951385498047,
-0.09178739786148071,
0.4517347514629364,
0.09105518460273743,
0.5027831196784973,
-0.2752738893032074,
-0.1174539178609848,
-0.3635460138320923,
-0.41959238052368164,
0.8288311958312988,
0.4961111545562744,
0.018589351326227188,
-0.27094751596450806,
-0.6295238137245178,
0.05614117905497551,
-0.546234130859375,
-0.9068204164505005,
0.8010098338127136,
0.38024577498435974,
-0.1365395486354828,
-0.010546660982072353,
0.0742703303694725,
0.2208959460258484,
-0.012376083061099052,
-0.15379372239112854,
-0.07434356957674026,
-1.0364691019058228,
0.33726853132247925,
-0.08127150684595108,
0.0796254351735115,
0.4190259277820587,
-0.3055489957332611,
-1.0972633361816406,
0.3337594270706177,
0.22172634303569794,
0.2700909972190857,
-0.19159436225891113,
-0.4777500033378601,
-0.2157221883535385,
-0.616320788860321,
0.9506537914276123,
0.2662568986415863,
-0.3483797013759613,
-0.07385379076004028,
-0.27170631289482117,
0.3433809280395508,
-0.18706917762756348,
0.10759735107421875,
-0.1132945790886879,
-0.3383890390396118,
0.09276758879423141,
-0.5053793787956238,
-0.2614978849887848,
-0.04122022166848183,
0.3848222494125366,
-0.42673632502555847,
0.41846519708633423,
0.0014027443248778582,
-0.5375761389732361,
-0.2539657950401306,
0.3497672975063324,
-0.3351750075817108,
0.22437258064746857,
0.13604629039764404,
0.43422698974609375,
-0.5513061285018921,
0.2127574235200882,
-5.222531318664551,
-0.04461037367582321,
-0.5032380819320679,
-0.6213200688362122,
-0.4428052604198456,
0.32088544964790344,
0.33045274019241333,
-0.06566046923398972,
-0.5058820843696594,
-0.3359255790710449,
-0.21945682168006897,
-0.37496909499168396,
-0.03115992434322834,
1.0180250406265259,
0.21429748833179474,
0.3728906810283661,
0.3443901836872101,
-0.4428849518299103,
-0.4925757050514221,
0.1120104044675827,
0.1746482402086258,
0.24343039095401764,
0.03132374584674835,
0.4598432779312134,
1.1063116788864136,
0.22193528711795807,
0.17647893726825714,
0.08726803958415985,
0.1194828450679779,
0.30947983264923096,
0.2734895944595337,
0.16630543768405914,
0.377159059047699,
0.02309209480881691,
0.15927089750766754,
0.09229721128940582,
0.700291097164154,
0.5722275972366333,
0.7268041968345642,
0.08977869153022766,
-0.6205567717552185,
0.6052216291427612,
-0.5296798348426819,
0.1839989870786667,
0.25869327783584595,
0.024815324693918228,
-0.40975165367126465,
-0.14919401705265045,
-0.5711577534675598,
0.7602578401565552,
0.05765404552221298,
-0.2707047462463379,
0.27535000443458557,
0.6523303389549255,
0.42523375153541565,
-0.22119151055812836,
-0.274534672498703,
-0.5154372453689575,
-0.5938775539398193,
-0.20271889865398407,
0.027829712256789207,
-0.05170593410730362,
0.6327354907989502,
-0.47041070461273193,
-0.4026505649089813,
-0.22015053033828735,
-0.8298200964927673,
0.38179242610931396,
0.21796375513076782,
0.018833108246326447,
0.027009684592485428,
0.8314310312271118,
-0.3140932023525238,
-0.7661488056182861,
-0.24778509140014648,
0.25577402114868164,
-0.20580539107322693,
0.24413789808750153,
0.10283111780881882,
-0.018284648656845093,
-0.10748488456010818,
-0.2714937925338745,
-0.3019216060638428,
0.7524291276931763,
0.19378477334976196,
-0.4208364486694336,
-0.11188870668411255,
-0.6114453673362732,
-1.2099255323410034,
-0.7288951873779297,
0.8017655611038208,
-0.1516929566860199,
0.04128895699977875,
0.05985512211918831,
0.5323457717895508,
0.345252126455307,
0.6612387895584106,
0.21295198798179626,
0.5709725618362427,
-0.40406516194343567,
0.29207515716552734,
-0.15160341560840607,
0.14163117110729218,
-0.3301149904727936,
-0.1965005099773407,
-0.2148372083902359,
-0.4575534760951996,
0.5839439630508423,
0.7990042567253113,
-0.9416248202323914,
0.025103379040956497,
-0.34711208939552307,
-1.2666666507720947,
-0.18745431303977966,
0.846348226070404,
-0.1232474222779274,
0.36156249046325684,
0.09721671044826508,
0.08929120749235153,
0.2655060589313507,
-0.05279892310500145,
0.33868473768234253,
0.027319444343447685,
-0.30506351590156555,
-0.22918429970741272,
-0.19761723279953003,
0.10775064677000046,
-0.12479307502508163,
-0.5410889387130737,
-0.08361869305372238,
0.40471190214157104,
0.3158456087112427,
-0.21279677748680115,
-0.6711121797561646,
-0.1644739806652069,
-0.17236687242984772,
-0.30308783054351807,
0.03833058103919029,
0.1602458953857422,
-0.5878715515136719,
0.03053872473537922,
-0.13280309736728668,
-0.04729331657290459,
-0.1309823989868164,
0.7852060198783875,
-0.012386180460453033,
-0.4357549250125885,
-0.560480535030365,
-0.4899008274078369,
0.3246394097805023,
-0.2623998522758484,
0.012572890147566795,
0.20706360042095184,
0.13608288764953613,
-0.12151947617530823,
0.2399188131093979,
0.02827652171254158,
0.7777603268623352,
-0.8416773080825806,
-0.365448534488678,
-0.12179304659366608,
-0.46039170026779175,
-1.0472526550292969,
0.47156116366386414,
0.036094702780246735,
-0.5974550247192383,
-0.4217837452888489,
-0.272235244512558,
-0.27723824977874756,
0.5336824059486389,
0.583224892616272,
-0.374966561794281,
-0.5632859468460083,
-0.042083628475666046,
0.5139275789260864,
-0.4690370261669159,
-0.07379237562417984,
0.08388607949018478,
0.0957653596997261,
-0.32645320892333984,
0.2497909665107727,
-0.7785598635673523,
-0.26308339834213257,
0.5329733490943909,
0.6585858464241028,
-0.07745816558599472,
-0.0779981017112732,
-0.30944305658340454,
-0.6303263306617737,
0.2485094964504242,
-0.3914868235588074,
0.3059554100036621,
0.6461573839187622,
-0.1695326268672943,
-0.8415395021438599,
-0.2871018052101135,
0.2670820355415344,
0.022468362003564835,
-0.2553052604198456,
-0.3534606993198395,
0.41122421622276306,
0.2659873366355896,
-0.15015624463558197,
-0.32759201526641846,
-0.08746406435966492,
-0.9735719561576843,
0.42943212389945984,
-0.5173896551132202,
-0.8466429710388184,
0.666567862033844,
0.3520636558532715,
-0.19797539710998535,
-0.0524691604077816,
0.39768487215042114,
0.22524960339069366,
0.1304042637348175,
-0.06757315248250961,
0.47565561532974243,
-0.601974606513977,
-0.022429361939430237,
0.8247285485267639,
0.10523294657468796,
-0.9507157206535339,
-0.202340766787529,
-0.3284745216369629,
0.20489242672920227,
0.16711324453353882,
-0.50426185131073,
0.4543837308883667,
-0.42722293734550476,
-0.008497319184243679,
0.18578629195690155,
0.2459178864955902,
0.2950916290283203,
-0.09648123383522034,
-0.19957375526428223,
-0.24779793620109558,
-0.08761574327945709,
0.06589999049901962,
0.11422673612833023,
0.32519710063934326,
0.683566153049469,
-0.13832756876945496,
-0.03501266613602638,
0.12134639918804169,
0.6277899742126465,
-0.10716918110847473,
-0.3746383786201477,
-0.906206488609314,
0.1391051858663559,
0.5419518947601318,
-0.42507404088974,
-0.6958500742912292,
-0.598298966884613,
0.49533817172050476,
-0.35675662755966187,
-0.650366485118866,
0.5503053665161133,
-0.01906813122332096,
0.5752451419830322,
-0.20011717081069946,
0.2703458070755005,
-0.1390058845281601,
0.36274099349975586,
0.5651800632476807,
0.20599365234375,
0.1985304206609726,
0.22927848994731903,
0.44829022884368896,
0.0026535436045378447,
-0.6435381770133972,
-0.4340803027153015,
-0.3942026197910309,
0.2274428755044937,
0.41893237829208374,
-0.14463134109973907,
-0.5838136672973633,
-0.5802775025367737,
-0.267234206199646,
-0.19351661205291748,
-0.0732259601354599,
-0.14762982726097107,
0.18481329083442688,
-0.27857428789138794,
-0.398701548576355,
-0.5224107503890991,
-0.16502733528614044,
-0.10922075062990189,
-0.16021539270877838,
-0.1419902741909027,
0.2653484046459198,
-0.4139409363269806,
-0.06278009712696075,
-0.22816509008407593,
0.16011962294578552,
0.2636623978614807,
-0.26950499415397644,
0.12757991254329681,
-0.005253337789326906,
-0.1506594717502594,
-0.35022613406181335,
0.439345121383667,
0.32504746317863464,
-0.5871535539627075,
0.9436182975769043,
-0.055526115000247955,
-0.22617033123970032,
-0.2674233019351959,
-0.37535160779953003,
0.12417759001255035,
0.3818023204803467,
0.23528487980365753,
-0.009336965158581734,
0.6511203050613403,
-0.5320664644241333,
0.006509231403470039,
-0.17229677736759186,
-0.2932121157646179,
0.7722761631011963,
-0.038075655698776245,
-0.20205804705619812,
0.5763150453567505,
0.6640948057174683,
0.05718650296330452,
-0.3411441147327423,
0.29651743173599243,
-0.29983553290367126,
0.1357853263616562,
0.22838233411312103,
-0.20042665302753448,
0.12141769379377365,
0.19054992496967316,
0.042886342853307724,
0.9955899119377136,
-0.027973247691988945,
-0.4634406864643097,
0.1934678852558136,
-0.6075692176818848,
-0.1974177360534668,
0.41879773139953613,
0.7575667500495911,
-0.026943622156977654,
0.47849345207214355,
0.10223239660263062,
0.3158721327781677,
-0.23743322491645813,
-0.08249559998512268,
0.34798118472099304,
0.12269388884305954,
0.058134306222200394,
0.35525503754615784,
0.8016071319580078,
0.5345879793167114,
-0.4757422208786011,
0.20832279324531555,
-0.48964881896972656,
0.058339670300483704,
-0.17055636644363403,
0.17937882244586945,
-1.1211423873901367,
0.06553476303815842,
0.13801583647727966,
0.4009983241558075,
-0.41277581453323364,
0.4299459755420685,
0.44839513301849365,
0.18406392633914948,
0.3231703042984009,
0.017299016937613487,
-0.006885022856295109,
0.22536630928516388,
-0.31591978669166565,
-0.09093224257230759,
-0.2152998000383377,
-0.12334728240966797,
0.8863413333892822,
0.8420393466949463,
-0.12836477160453796,
0.2382010817527771,
-0.13423237204551697,
-0.09413868933916092,
0.373008131980896,
-0.3370780050754547,
-0.22493430972099304,
0.16639450192451477,
-0.46618521213531494,
-0.015044549480080605,
0.4493643045425415,
-0.04244814068078995,
-0.673701286315918,
-0.11231288313865662,
-0.17657850682735443,
0.1799270212650299,
-0.02677185647189617,
-0.8683289885520935,
0.09682176262140274,
-0.6929939389228821,
1.5304735898971558,
-0.12011804431676865,
-0.24117060005664825,
-0.4446682631969452,
-0.32312989234924316,
0.192347913980484,
-0.0016695742961019278,
-0.29217320680618286,
0.29475638270378113,
-0.4109119474887848,
-0.0673501193523407,
-0.44038984179496765,
0.6834224462509155,
0.1380448341369629,
0.3935787081718445,
-0.26625198125839233,
0.6758700013160706,
-0.23063220083713531,
0.02212773822247982,
0.013937423005700111,
-0.250032514333725,
-0.2891162633895874,
0.3098316490650177,
-0.2827480137348175,
0.28038260340690613,
0.22301499545574188,
-0.09188155829906464,
-0.41412362456321716,
0.2627081573009491,
0.2097562700510025,
0.48760849237442017,
0.43154942989349365,
0.08933411538600922,
-0.29708239436149597,
-0.3958212733268738,
-0.7084203362464905,
0.05798748880624771,
-0.31563493609428406,
1.0657341480255127,
0.8369885087013245,
0.4920024871826172,
0.1007988452911377,
-0.2363235503435135,
-0.008337955921888351,
-0.3404291868209839,
0.38629356026649475,
0.12367700040340424,
-2.714796304702759,
0.2317689210176468,
-0.04221818596124649,
-0.1391296088695526,
-0.34508535265922546,
0.3029573857784271,
-0.04529625549912453,
0.0016547972336411476,
-0.21799308061599731,
0.010223357938230038,
0.6829543709754944,
0.1860578954219818,
0.03539836034178734,
-1.3124395608901978,
0.39031681418418884,
0.14093105494976044
] |
203619
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting%20recognition
|
Handwriting recognition
|
Handwriting recognition (HWR), also known as Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR), is the ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input from sources such as paper documents, photographs, touch-screens and other devices. The image of the written text may be sensed "off line" from a piece of paper by optical scanning (optical character recognition) or intelligent word recognition. Alternatively, the movements of the pen tip may be sensed "on line", for example by a pen-based computer screen surface, a generally easier task as there are more clues available. A handwriting recognition system handles formatting, performs correct segmentation into characters, and finds the most plausible words.
Offline recognition
Offline handwriting recognition involves the automatic conversion of text in an image into letter codes that are usable within computer and text-processing applications. The data obtained by this form is regarded as a static representation of handwriting. Offline handwriting recognition is comparatively difficult, as different people have different handwriting styles. And, as of today, OCR engines are primarily focused on machine printed text and ICR for hand "printed" (written in capital letters) text.
Traditional techniques
Character extraction
Offline character recognition often involves scanning a form or document. This means the individual characters contained in the scanned image will need to be extracted. Tools exist that are capable of performing this step. However, there are several common imperfections in this step. The most common is when characters that are connected are returned as a single sub-image containing both characters. This causes a major problem in the recognition stage. Yet many algorithms are available that reduce the risk of connected characters.
Character recognition
After the extraction of individual characters occurs, a recognition engine is used to identify the corresponding computer character. Several different recognition techniques are currently available.
Feature extraction
Feature extraction works in a similar fashion to neural network recognizers. However, programmers must manually determine the properties they feel are important. This approach gives the recognizer more control over the properties used in identification. Yet any system using this approach requires substantially more development time than a neural network because the properties are not learned automatically.
Modern techniques
Where traditional techniques focus on segmenting individual characters for recognition, modern techniques focus on recognizing all the characters in a segmented line of text. Particularly they focus on machine learning techniques that are able to learn visual features, avoiding the limiting feature engineering previously used. State-of-the-art methods use convolutional networks to extract visual features over several overlapping windows of a text line image which a recurrent neural network uses to produce character probabilities.
Online recognition
Online handwriting recognition involves the automatic conversion of text as it is written on a special digitizer or PDA, where a sensor picks up the pen-tip movements as well as pen-up/pen-down switching. This kind of data is known as digital ink and can be regarded as a digital representation of handwriting. The obtained signal is converted into letter codes that are usable within computer and text-processing applications.
The elements of an online handwriting recognition interface typically include:
a pen or stylus for the user to write with.
a touch sensitive surface, which may be integrated with, or adjacent to, an output display.
a software application which interprets the movements of the stylus across the writing surface, translating the resulting strokes into digital text.
The process of online handwriting recognition can be broken down into a few general steps:
preprocessing,
feature extraction and
classification
The purpose of preprocessing is to discard irrelevant information in the input data, that can negatively affect the recognition. This concerns speed and accuracy. Preprocessing usually consists of binarization, normalization, sampling, smoothing and denoising. The second step is feature extraction. Out of the two- or higher-dimensional vector field received from the preprocessing algorithms, higher-dimensional data is extracted. The purpose of this step is to highlight important information for the recognition model. This data may include information like pen pressure, velocity or the changes of writing direction. The last big step is classification. In this step, various models are used to map the extracted features to different classes and thus identifying the characters or words the features represent.
Hardware
Commercial products incorporating handwriting recognition as a replacement for keyboard input were introduced in the early 1980s. Examples include handwriting terminals such as the Pencept Penpad
and the Inforite point-of-sale terminal.
With the advent of the large consumer market for personal computers, several commercial products were introduced to replace the keyboard and mouse on a personal computer with a single pointing/handwriting system, such as those from Pencept, CIC and others.
The first commercially available tablet-type portable computer was the GRiDPad from GRiD Systems, released in September 1989. Its operating system was based on MS-DOS.
In the early 1990s, hardware makers including NCR, IBM and EO released tablet computers running the PenPoint operating system developed by GO Corp. PenPoint used handwriting recognition and gestures throughout and provided the facilities to third-party software. IBM's tablet computer was the first to use the ThinkPad name and used IBM's handwriting recognition. This recognition system was later ported to Microsoft Windows for Pen Computing, and IBM's Pen for OS/2. None of these were commercially successful.
Advancements in electronics allowed the computing power necessary for handwriting recognition to fit into a smaller form factor than tablet computers, and handwriting recognition is often used as an input method for hand-held PDAs. The first PDA to provide written input was the Apple Newton, which exposed the public to the advantage of a streamlined user interface. However, the device was not a commercial success, owing to the unreliability of the software, which tried to learn a user's writing patterns. By the time of the release of the Newton OS 2.0, wherein the handwriting recognition was greatly improved, including unique features still not found in current recognition systems such as modeless error correction, the largely negative first impression had been made. After discontinuation of Apple Newton, the feature was incorporated in Mac OS X 10.2 and later as Inkwell.
Palm later launched a successful series of PDAs based on the Graffiti recognition system. Graffiti improved usability by defining a set of "unistrokes", or one-stroke forms, for each character. This narrowed the possibility for erroneous input, although memorization of the stroke patterns did increase the learning curve for the user. The Graffiti handwriting recognition was found to infringe on a patent held by Xerox, and Palm replaced Graffiti with a licensed version of the CIC handwriting recognition which, while also supporting unistroke forms, pre-dated the Xerox patent. The court finding of infringement was reversed on appeal, and then reversed again on a later appeal. The parties involved subsequently negotiated a settlement concerning this and other patents.
A Tablet PC is a notebook computer with a digitizer tablet and a stylus, which allows a user to handwrite text on the unit's screen. The operating system recognizes the handwriting and converts it into text. Windows Vista and Windows 7 include personalization features that learn a user's writing patterns or vocabulary for English, Japanese, Chinese Traditional, Chinese Simplified and Korean. The features include a "personalization wizard" that prompts for samples of a user's handwriting and uses them to retrain the system for higher accuracy recognition. This system is distinct from the less advanced handwriting recognition system employed in its Windows Mobile OS for PDAs.
Although handwriting recognition is an input form that the public has become accustomed to, it has not achieved widespread use in either desktop computers or laptops. It is still generally accepted that keyboard input is both faster and more reliable. , many PDAs offer handwriting input, sometimes even accepting natural cursive handwriting, but accuracy is still a problem, and some people still find even a simple on-screen keyboard more efficient.
Software
Early software could understand print handwriting where the characters were separated; however, cursive handwriting with connected characters presented Sayre's Paradox, a difficulty involving character segmentation. In 1962 Shelia Guberman, then in Moscow, wrote the first applied pattern recognition program. Commercial examples came from companies such as Communications Intelligence Corporation and IBM.
In the early 1990s, two companies – ParaGraph International and Lexicus – came up with systems that could understand cursive handwriting recognition. ParaGraph was based in Russia and founded by computer scientist Stepan Pachikov while Lexicus was founded by Ronjon Nag and Chris Kortge who were students at Stanford University. The ParaGraph CalliGrapher system was deployed in the Apple Newton systems, and Lexicus Longhand system was made available commercially for the PenPoint and Windows operating system. Lexicus was acquired by Motorola in 1993 and went on to develop Chinese handwriting recognition and predictive text systems for Motorola. ParaGraph was acquired in 1997 by SGI and its handwriting recognition team formed a P&I division, later acquired from SGI by Vadem. Microsoft has acquired CalliGrapher handwriting recognition and other digital ink technologies developed by P&I from Vadem in 1999.
Wolfram Mathematica (8.0 or later) also provides a handwriting or text recognition function TextRecognize.
Research
Handwriting recognition has an active community of academics studying it. The biggest conferences for handwriting recognition are the International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition (ICFHR), held in even-numbered years, and the International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR), held in odd-numbered years. Both of these conferences are endorsed by the IEEE and IAPR.
In 2021, the ICDAR proceedings will be published by LNCS, Springer.
Active areas of research include:
Online recognition
Offline recognition
Signature verification
Postal address interpretation
Bank-Check processing
Writer recognition
Results since 2009
Since 2009, the recurrent neural networks and deep feedforward neural networks developed in the research group of Jürgen Schmidhuber at the Swiss AI Lab IDSIA have won several international handwriting competitions. In particular, the bi-directional and multi-dimensional Long short-term memory (LSTM) of Alex Graves et al. won three competitions in connected handwriting recognition at the 2009 International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR), without any prior knowledge about the three different languages (French, Arabic, Persian) to be learned. Recent GPU-based deep learning methods for feedforward networks by Dan Ciresan and colleagues at IDSIA won the ICDAR 2011 offline Chinese handwriting recognition contest; their neural networks also were the first artificial pattern recognizers to achieve human-competitive performance on the famous MNIST handwritten digits problem of Yann LeCun and colleagues at NYU.
See also
AI effect
Applications of artificial intelligence
Electronic signature
Handwriting movement analysis
Intelligent character recognition
Live Ink Character Recognition Solution
Neocognitron
Optical character recognition
Pen computing
Sketch recognition
Stylus (computing)
Tablet PC
Lists
Outline of artificial intelligence
List of emerging technologies
References
External links
Annotated bibliography of references to gesture and pen computing
Notes on the History of Pen-based Computing (YouTube)
Artificial intelligence applications
Pointing-device text input
Machine learning task
|
[
-0.020520566031336784,
0.3874082565307617,
-0.11915049701929092,
0.21475882828235626,
-0.04735470935702324,
0.09249123185873032,
-0.07747941464185715,
0.10758639127016068,
-0.09913462400436401,
-0.5764195322990417,
-0.5255266427993774,
0.3815457820892334,
-0.0841902494430542,
-0.14879506826400757,
-0.2613076865673065,
0.03641204163432121,
0.5535612106323242,
0.43206551671028137,
0.10798700898885727,
0.05703197047114372,
-0.221803218126297,
0.22771358489990234,
-0.12489184737205505,
-0.5571008920669556,
0.3988867402076721,
-0.16661818325519562,
-0.011933003552258015,
-0.4811025857925415,
-0.600780189037323,
-0.2315782904624939,
0.25765568017959595,
0.21923193335533142,
0.05378694087266922,
-0.38684529066085815,
-0.33003339171409607,
0.05589472874999046,
-0.534166157245636,
-0.18372371792793274,
-0.25428274273872375,
-0.4323718845844269,
-0.20584602653980255,
-0.15550215542316437,
-0.4620303809642792,
0.4183753728866577,
-0.38643231987953186,
-0.6342443227767944,
-2.019803047180176,
0.6978455781936646,
-0.6619234681129456,
0.2781422734260559,
-0.5425443053245544,
0.21494384109973907,
-0.15476477146148682,
0.5026601552963257,
0.18246348202228546,
0.35675740242004395,
-0.15126261115074158,
-0.48645415902137756,
0.55267733335495,
0.05093595013022423,
0.33435291051864624,
-0.4626055061817169,
-0.4818727672100067,
0.1954626739025116,
0.23669356107711792,
-0.3159927427768707,
-0.1416027843952179,
-0.18483808636665344,
-0.7148774266242981,
-0.2393157184123993,
0.18406842648983002,
-0.1679650992155075,
0.14144183695316315,
-0.21247853338718414,
-0.6780689358711243,
0.22881346940994263,
0.2806926369667053,
-0.13586314022541046,
-0.32870715856552124,
-0.1861235648393631,
-0.450249046087265,
0.7955780625343323,
0.3435724079608917,
0.49782517552375793,
0.20375053584575653,
0.02603631652891636,
-0.7653546333312988,
0.4414530098438263,
-0.02366046980023384,
-0.12262459099292755,
0.10665127635002136,
-0.2709510624408722,
0.20433589816093445,
0.4613943099975586,
0.4226243495941162,
-0.20445044338703156,
-0.33067309856414795,
0.47003841400146484,
-0.5363515019416809,
0.142581969499588,
0.06132851913571358,
-0.18363136053085327,
1.0510289669036865,
-0.3634722828865051,
0.1282191425561905,
0.3975786566734314,
-0.45520058274269104,
0.06591688096523285,
0.3538968563079834,
-0.05327778309583664,
-0.21029719710350037,
-0.17333725094795227,
-0.009185340255498886,
0.3420538008213043,
-0.6056036949157715,
0.14751650393009186,
0.7911213636398315,
0.6065205931663513,
-0.5100876092910767,
-0.24904035031795502,
0.08920900523662567,
0.6448997259140015,
0.3429860472679138,
-0.13206344842910767,
0.05595390126109123,
-0.13691113889217377,
0.6500345468521118,
0.6744102835655212,
-0.41121524572372437,
-0.20455314218997955,
0.16941042244434357,
0.9326727390289307,
0.2983129918575287,
0.13070206344127655,
-0.1485360562801361,
0.23730769753456116,
0.28807222843170166,
-0.1332881599664688,
0.26332294940948486,
0.004188136197626591,
-0.36073222756385803,
-0.692895770072937,
-0.4257493019104004,
-0.4370349645614624,
0.7129713892936707,
-0.13497276604175568,
0.10773829370737076,
-0.08377990126609802,
-0.6763312220573425,
0.025068972259759903,
-0.26415595412254333,
-0.09420093148946762,
-0.5006240010261536,
-0.011983276344835758,
0.16583478450775146,
0.8179295063018799,
0.3855862617492676,
-0.29504743218421936,
0.19333291053771973,
-0.08694899082183838,
-0.1228199303150177,
0.25373345613479614,
-0.9795308113098145,
0.03626123070716858,
-0.232491597533226,
-0.27826985716819763,
0.24119782447814941,
0.9889318943023682,
0.09320387989282608,
-0.1528615653514862,
0.2654123902320862,
-0.2865713834762573,
0.5642526149749756,
-0.477735698223114,
0.0003893555549439043,
-0.14209914207458496,
0.33947616815567017,
0.7057482600212097,
0.6831859946250916,
0.2187611162662506,
-0.6899635195732117,
0.3137955963611603,
0.029465731233358383,
-0.18489915132522583,
0.22097472846508026,
0.1153857484459877,
0.8406802415847778,
0.05729232728481293,
-0.8642924427986145,
-0.6328724026679993,
-0.2207314372062683,
-0.46092140674591064,
-0.10025211423635483,
-0.41064223647117615,
1.0794687271118164,
0.0879228487610817,
-0.4696449637413025,
1.4793013334274292,
0.046576015651226044,
1.0479545593261719,
0.021794116124510765,
-0.2043725699186325,
0.4147984981536865,
-0.21739907562732697,
-0.16278386116027832,
-0.2169712334871292,
0.7779508829116821,
0.32855549454689026,
-0.18878725171089172,
-0.018601182848215103,
0.7015327215194702,
-0.36387303471565247,
-0.12738072872161865,
-0.010022441856563091,
0.1480148881673813,
0.20275922119617462,
-0.3079949617385864,
0.2532230317592621,
-0.38790398836135864,
-0.4878063499927521,
0.7487492561340332,
-0.3507751524448395,
-0.30240398645401,
0.49150899052619934,
-0.40507346391677856,
1.1238477230072021,
-0.10434141755104065,
0.08993145823478699,
0.690186619758606,
-0.376475989818573,
0.023383190855383873,
-0.3507997393608093,
0.6646007895469666,
-0.30920007824897766,
-0.7809900045394897,
-0.40015462040901184,
0.3496303856372833,
-0.03384352847933769,
0.2041114717721939,
0.17748567461967468,
-0.15668918192386627,
0.12550891935825348,
-0.26357975602149963,
-0.137069433927536,
0.4268031716346741,
-0.21497400104999542,
-0.07867404818534851,
0.06462161988019943,
0.2242659032344818,
0.16321417689323425,
0.09387103468179703,
0.6812994480133057,
-0.05106751248240471,
-0.5521019101142883,
0.44609808921813965,
-0.16478365659713745,
0.1295325756072998,
-0.10335174202919006,
0.06601399183273315,
0.051713764667510986,
0.0827287957072258,
0.34420186281204224,
0.2195730209350586,
0.1585356444120407,
-0.48733434081077576,
-0.9786948561668396,
0.04243652522563934,
-0.23904788494110107,
0.2802599370479584,
0.8459519743919373,
0.6992594599723816,
0.05578884482383728,
-0.012120824307203293,
0.18742378056049347,
-0.34753721952438354,
-0.8088586926460266,
0.7428650856018066,
-0.4090137183666229,
-0.6667258739471436,
-0.5249184966087341,
0.14383168518543243,
0.4819202423095703,
0.5732460618019104,
-0.6999019384384155,
-0.22823698818683624,
-0.5572565793991089,
-0.39104950428009033,
-0.48423850536346436,
-0.030929259955883026,
-0.3373582363128662,
-0.8554065227508545,
0.5956750512123108,
0.03030809387564659,
0.04140908643603325,
0.4791424572467804,
0.5322732329368591,
0.21912458539009094,
0.210523784160614,
0.1724405586719513,
-0.2535414397716522,
-0.32961323857307434,
0.451743483543396,
-0.18765120208263397,
-0.555223822593689,
-0.40803489089012146,
0.23191531002521515,
0.0050118593499064445,
-0.09641452133655548,
-5.430336952209473,
0.01108360942453146,
-0.10905856639146805,
-0.5551384687423706,
-0.046816322952508926,
0.3081742823123932,
0.9984591007232666,
-0.14877258241176605,
0.2522881329059601,
-0.18222232162952423,
0.13000456988811493,
0.4856221079826355,
0.2404942363500595,
0.37283000349998474,
0.3528487980365753,
-0.16555938124656677,
-0.26825064420700073,
-0.42044714093208313,
0.06930077821016312,
0.6714379191398621,
0.013992296531796455,
-0.047494325786828995,
0.3495023846626282,
0.4399767518043518,
-0.21881715953350067,
-0.16940456628799438,
-0.06113438308238983,
-0.10951276868581772,
0.11860252916812897,
0.29573726654052734,
0.49765196442604065,
-0.1933482140302658,
-0.36382463574409485,
0.18758775293827057,
0.06931635737419128,
0.096544548869133,
1.138384461402893,
0.21876902878284454,
0.47127172350883484,
-0.20833393931388855,
0.4227909743785858,
0.41049396991729736,
0.18555721640586853,
-0.3021795153617859,
0.3700093626976013,
-0.009557623416185379,
-0.19327260553836823,
-0.07333172112703323,
-0.30873942375183105,
0.3583499491214752,
-0.17535246908664703,
-0.10702426731586456,
0.2438378781080246,
0.23277294635772705,
0.5775624513626099,
-0.2505410313606262,
0.8036147952079773,
-0.22662289440631866,
-0.362223744392395,
-0.1275556981563568,
0.07309672236442566,
-0.4348120391368866,
-0.18462398648262024,
-1.312308430671692,
-0.2430386245250702,
-0.1450597047805786,
-0.7482661008834839,
-0.697980523109436,
0.5914255976676941,
0.2071845680475235,
-0.056645240634679794,
0.1701754629611969,
-0.10944361239671707,
-0.6149440407752991,
0.6508790850639343,
-0.7530616521835327,
0.394086092710495,
-0.21694763004779816,
-0.2337692528963089,
0.08033981919288635,
-0.486730694770813,
-0.49269410967826843,
-0.7293687462806702,
0.2663465142250061,
0.43484026193618774,
-0.0027006864547729492,
-0.009372579865157604,
0.11333286017179489,
-0.1947879046201706,
-0.17390242218971252,
1.186730980873108,
-0.3892323672771454,
-0.24608664214611053,
0.37841662764549255,
0.2955143451690674,
-0.19944454729557037,
0.6431620717048645,
0.2645445764064789,
0.8275409936904907,
-0.028625931590795517,
0.18936046957969666,
-0.12336496263742447,
-0.4516180753707886,
-0.901962399482727,
-0.056834083050489426,
0.007758828811347485,
-0.9934242963790894,
-0.2047193944454193,
1.0230916738510132,
-0.32575124502182007,
-0.8853054046630859,
0.0631759762763977,
-0.4728630781173706,
0.011837037280201912,
-0.056946463882923126,
0.07087864726781845,
-0.3956083059310913,
-0.07822933793067932,
0.11403828114271164,
-0.3974516987800598,
0.04971303418278694,
0.5876665115356445,
-0.3566456735134125,
0.493484228849411,
0.3390556871891022,
-0.5993891954421997,
-0.29155439138412476,
0.568645179271698,
0.11532295495271683,
-0.6346738934516907,
0.7900938987731934,
0.2661469280719757,
-0.056232698261737823,
0.8654344081878662,
0.2952626347541809,
-0.35782015323638916,
-0.3878766596317291,
0.18859195709228516,
-0.03694875165820122,
-0.8109711408615112,
0.38218557834625244,
-0.8889064192771912,
0.00932683702558279,
-0.11909276992082596,
1.3749690055847168,
-0.4610607326030731,
-0.5556148886680603,
-0.25610271096229553,
-0.6181843280792236,
0.4592028260231018,
-0.4032166302204132,
-0.24899178743362427,
-0.42394423484802246,
0.033411186188459396,
0.14178314805030823,
0.02619984745979309,
-0.14145131409168243,
0.31877896189689636,
-0.19143731892108917,
-0.6389408111572266,
0.058825310319662094,
0.42877233028411865,
-0.4589482545852661,
-0.14858132600784302,
-0.03275518864393234,
-0.5514413714408875,
-0.5525442957878113,
0.3429740369319916,
-0.2664658725261688,
0.6837958693504333,
-0.06463266909122467,
-0.32503822445869446,
-0.6337605714797974,
-0.5739721655845642,
0.05514262616634369,
0.030407456681132317,
0.12120754271745682,
0.7033416628837585,
-0.6136194467544556,
0.21657083928585052,
0.06575057655572891,
-0.5054470896720886,
-0.2087414264678955,
0.4720459580421448,
0.6114080548286438,
0.11584766954183578,
0.24927517771720886,
-0.08055189251899719,
-0.3284589946269989,
-0.7837300896644592,
0.023229941725730896,
-0.14761601388454437,
0.02799045667052269,
-0.5012663006782532,
-0.3164166212081909,
-0.5133557319641113,
0.1553165167570114,
0.18328936398029327,
0.09556235373020172,
-0.2581448554992676,
0.2205606997013092,
0.33720824122428894,
-0.5048912763595581,
-0.2263329029083252,
0.227410227060318,
-0.5559335350990295,
-0.014750229194760323,
-0.011874738149344921,
-0.6193295121192932,
0.4017696678638458,
-0.13846543431282043,
-0.2994438707828522,
0.3639509677886963,
0.41047415137290955,
-0.16006314754486084,
-0.25042474269866943,
0.248427152633667,
-0.205066978931427,
0.09284146130084991,
-0.12074996531009674,
0.3250887989997864,
0.08476147055625916,
-0.06699516624212265,
0.16917426884174347,
-0.48105254769325256,
-0.276946097612381,
0.2770668566226959,
-0.13169775903224945,
0.593538761138916,
0.016098584979772568,
-0.017769355326890945,
-0.2694050073623657,
0.20852257311344147,
0.3837333023548126,
0.20887714624404907,
-0.5343994498252869,
-0.7709892988204956,
0.18164463341236115,
0.06401964277029037,
0.29542070627212524,
0.6216343641281128,
1.1168732643127441,
-0.12229560315608978,
-0.006210754159837961,
-0.46062541007995605,
0.7097823619842529,
0.015664223581552505,
-0.19459280371665955,
-0.7263643741607666,
0.6674558520317078,
0.685290515422821,
0.09933587163686752,
-0.519656777381897,
0.3594779372215271,
0.2842852473258972,
0.452133446931839,
0.0011194839607924223,
-0.5719537138938904,
-0.13862021267414093,
0.5519421100616455,
0.13700366020202637,
-0.49315544962882996,
-0.31573331356048584,
0.19848529994487762,
0.4016764461994171,
0.3538432717323303,
-0.4360464811325073,
0.1150997132062912,
0.5704025030136108,
-0.27424901723861694,
-0.05735442787408829,
-0.3697657883167267,
0.10176394134759903,
0.129267618060112,
-0.109273262321949,
0.09236926585435867,
0.1750369817018509,
0.39108172059059143,
0.04620649665594101,
0.1990572065114975,
0.09431882202625275,
0.03322676941752434,
0.6524855494499207,
-0.8464668989181519,
0.2689635455608368,
-0.1940706968307495,
0.6019737124443054,
-0.1422191709280014,
-0.2905100882053375,
-0.36002445220947266,
-0.7461141347885132,
0.5789843201637268,
-0.6197066307067871,
0.6995261907577515,
-0.2035071700811386,
-0.5654304623603821,
0.3083863854408264,
1.0959553718566895,
-0.5895352959632874,
0.010913967154920101,
-0.22783488035202026,
0.513558030128479,
0.5817448496818542,
-1.0451836585998535,
0.4489805996417999,
0.3302667737007141,
-0.20712557435035706,
-0.6345773339271545,
0.11630019545555115,
-0.29896458983421326,
-0.7808199524879456,
-0.2750602066516876,
0.821097731590271,
0.30881214141845703,
-0.3204260766506195,
0.19898398220539093,
0.6304013133049011,
-0.30763450264930725,
0.6241503357887268,
0.23038214445114136,
0.00807941984385252,
-0.3824458718299866,
0.4034157693386078,
-0.5370510220527649,
-0.5802575349807739,
0.8092414140701294,
0.3449594974517822,
-0.16509763896465302,
0.1271199733018875,
0.34942254424095154,
0.8293784260749817,
-0.14985018968582153,
0.09741859138011932,
0.2958434522151947,
-0.056124646216630936,
-0.8652581572532654,
0.10249500721693039,
-0.15395811200141907,
-0.5548863410949707,
0.5802697539329529,
0.7883126139640808,
0.21581320464611053,
-0.13057780265808105,
0.2398025244474411,
-0.1812523901462555,
0.1948258876800537,
0.4966994822025299,
1.0392751693725586,
-0.4539261758327484,
-0.2072405070066452,
0.7159008979797363,
-0.3544304668903351,
0.43651407957077026,
0.318766325712204,
0.1883598417043686,
-0.5354638695716858,
0.7312154769897461,
-0.15013103187084198,
-0.47366371750831604,
0.08172199875116348,
-0.4702710509300232,
0.6742888689041138,
0.9843608736991882,
0.21408513188362122,
-0.06953740119934082,
-0.1015385240316391,
0.6894155740737915,
-0.038064803928136826,
0.34783777594566345,
0.03931713104248047,
-0.4239717125892639,
0.9967667460441589,
-0.5632176399230957,
0.33708053827285767,
-0.19239309430122375,
-0.42546790838241577,
0.4567471742630005,
-0.17912396788597107,
-0.2615305185317993,
-0.07443060725927353,
0.02934630773961544,
-0.42059728503227234,
0.0919981598854065,
-0.7483080625534058,
0.006740078795701265,
-0.11267535388469696,
-0.5025953054428101,
0.6297785043716431,
0.06684363633394241,
-0.06682230532169342,
-0.35612863302230835,
-0.4271923899650574,
0.160617396235466,
-0.29571855068206787,
-0.21232819557189941,
0.058000482618808746,
-0.17204323410987854,
0.8398493528366089,
0.060876645147800446,
-0.013746420852839947,
-0.5229724645614624,
0.4497739374637604,
0.30203184485435486,
0.014303949661552906,
-1.0191078186035156,
0.7518709897994995,
-0.18472853302955627,
-0.07247839123010635,
-0.4243048131465912,
0.1799425333738327,
0.5421887636184692,
-0.11825931072235107,
-0.025690488517284393,
-0.10116330534219742,
-0.6455889344215393,
0.18498125672340393,
0.07883385568857193,
-0.12625651061534882,
0.6879981160163879,
-0.3133571445941925,
-0.1332763284444809,
0.1120678037405014,
0.487337201833725,
0.0760619193315506,
0.10213033854961395,
0.32924818992614746,
0.10559596121311188,
0.24129228293895721,
-0.6583966612815857,
0.010832932777702808,
-0.45749959349632263,
0.2966174781322479,
-0.19266973435878754,
0.5481806397438049,
-0.18712247908115387,
-0.15189944207668304,
-0.6687937378883362,
0.2037111222743988,
0.07688966393470764,
-0.5766744017601013,
0.1961187869310379,
-0.0034936429001390934,
-0.3087841272354126,
0.19673994183540344,
-0.6147928833961487,
-0.14116057753562927,
-0.49835872650146484,
-0.6914271116256714,
-0.5758408904075623,
-0.17053893208503723,
0.12746074795722961,
-0.827357292175293,
0.1983480304479599,
0.057636480778455734,
-0.14726363122463226,
0.5300813317298889,
-0.22573721408843994,
-0.7011242508888245,
-0.5024351477622986,
0.3974943459033966
] |
203620
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889%20in%20literature
|
1889 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1889.
Events
January – H. G. Wells begins to teach science at Henley House School, north London, where his pupils include A. A. Milne, whose father runs the school.
February 12 – Henrik Ibsen's symbolic drama The Lady from the Sea (1888) receives simultaneous first performances in Oslo (in Norwegian) and Weimar (in German).
March 14 – August Strindberg's naturalistic drama Miss Julie (Fröken Julie), 1888, is first performed, by the Scandinavian Experimental Theater at the University of Copenhagen. His wife Siri von Essen plays the title rôle.
April 24 – The Garrick Theatre in London, financed by playwright W. S. Gilbert, opens with a performance of Pinero's The Profligate.
May 30 – The English publisher Henry Vizetelly is prosecuted for obscenity for the second time in London; he is again fined and imprisoned for his English translations of Émile Zola's works.
June – Algernon Methuen begins publishing books in England, which is the origin of Methuen Publishing.
August 30 – Arthur Conan Doyle and Oscar Wilde are entertained together at dinner at the Langham Hotel, London, by the American Joseph Marshall Stoddart of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, who commissions from them respectively the stories The Sign of the Four and The Picture of Dorian Gray, which appear next year in the magazine.
September 3 – Jerome K. Jerome's comic fictional English travelogue set on the River Thames, Three Men in a Boat (To Say Nothing of the Dog), is published in Bristol.
November – Leo Tolstoy's novella The Kreutzer Sonata circulates in clandestine copies. In December the Russian authorities confirm that commercial publication will not be permitted.
September 14 – The Volkstheater, Vienna opens with a performance of Der Fleck auf der Ehr (The Stain on Honour) by its Dramaturg, Ludwig Anzengruber, who dies on December 10 from blood poisoning.
November – Marcel Proust begins a year's service in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans.
December 12 – Robert Browning's book Asolando; Fancies and facts is published on the same day he dies at Ca' Rezzonico in Venice. He is buried in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.
unknown dates
The first literary novel in the Maltese language, Anton Manwel Caruana's Ineż Farruġ, is published.
The first of four volumes of Theodore Roosevelt's The Winning of the West is published in the United States.
New books
Fiction
Gabriele D'Annunzio – Il piacere (The Pleasure)
Herman Bang – Tine (Tina)
Wilkie Collins
Blind Love (unfinished)
The Legacy of Cain
Elizabeth Burgoyne Corbett – New Amazonia
Marie Corelli – Ardath
Arthur Conan Doyle
Micah Clarke
The Mystery of Cloomber
George Gissing – The Nether World
H. Rider Haggard – Cleopatra
Margaret Harkness(as John Law) – In Darkest London
Jerome K. Jerome – Three Men in a Boat
George A. Moore – Mike Fletcher
William Morris – The Roots of the Mountains: Wherein is Told Somewhat of the Lives of the Men of Burgdale, Their Friends, Their Neighbors, Their Foemen, and Their Fellows in Arms
Armando Palacio Valdés – Sister San Sulpicio (La hermana San Sulpicio)
Bolesław Prus – The Doll (Lalka; serialization concludes)
Molly Elliot Seawell – Hale-Weston
Robert Louis Stevenson – The Master of Ballantrae
Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne – The Wrong Box
Hermann Sudermann – The Cats' Bridge (Der Katzensteg)
Leo Tolstoy – The Kreutzer Sonata (Крейцерова соната, Kreitzerova Sonata)
Mark Twain – A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court
Giovanni Verga – Mastro-don Gesualdo
Julius Vogel – Anno Domini 2000, or, Woman's Destiny
Bertha von Suttner – Die Waffen nieder! (Lay Down Your Arms!)
Edgar Wallace – The Dark Eyes of London
Oscar Wilde – "The Portrait of Mr. W. H." (short story in Blackwood's Magazine)
Children and young people
Lewis Carroll – Sylvie and Bruno
Andrew Lang – The Blue Fairy Book
Jules Verne – The Purchase of the North Pole (Sans dessus dessous)
Drama
Anton Chekhov – A Marriage Proposal («Предложение»)
Rasmus Effersøe – Gunnar Havreki
Sydney Grundy – A Pair of Spectacles (adapted from Labiche and Delacour's Les Petits Oiseaux)
Gerhart Hauptmann – Before Sunrise (Vor Sonnenaufgang)
'Bjarne P. Holmsen' (Arno Holz and Johannes Schlaf) – Papa Hamlet
Maurice Maeterlinck – Princess Maleine (La Princesse Maleine)
Helena Patursson – Veðurføst (Lenten Weather)
Hermann Sudermann – Honour (Die Ehre)
Leo Tolstoy – The Fruits of Enlightenment («Плоды просвещения»)
A. C. Torr (Fred Leslie) and Herbert F. Clark – Ruy Blas and the Blasé Roué (burlesque)
Poetry
Herman Gorter – Mei (May)
Verner von Heidenstam – Vallfart och vandringsår (Pilgrimage: the Wandering Years)
William Butler Yeats – The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (including "Down by the Salley Gardens")
Non-fiction
Henri Bergson – Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience)
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky – The Voice of the Silence
Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk – Positive Theory of Capital
Charles Booth – Life and Labour of the People in London (begins publication)
Edward Carpenter – Civilization: its Cause and Cure
William Temple Hornaday – The Extermination of the American Bison
T. H. Huxley – Agnosticism
Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers – The Key of Solomon the King (Clavicula Solomonis)
Friedrich Nietzsche – Götzen-Dämmerung, oder, Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophiert (Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer)
Papus – Le Tarot des Bohémiens
William Mackintire Salter – Ethical Religion
Oscar Wilde – The Decay of Lying
Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition (completed in 24 main volumes)
Births
March 1 – Kanoko Okamoto (岡本かの子, Ohnuki Kano), Japanese novelist and poet (died 1939)
April 7 – Gabriela Mistral, Chilean poet, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1957)
April 18 – Horace Alexander, English current-affairs writer and ornithologist (died 1989)
May 12 – Ouyang Yuqian (欧阳予倩), Chinese dramatist (died 1962)
June 23 – Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet (died 1966)
July 5 – Jean Cocteau, French writer (died 1963)
July 17 – Erle Stanley Gardner, American author (died 1970)
August 5 – Conrad Aiken, American novelist and poet (died 1973)
August 12 – Zerna Sharp, American writer and educator (Dick and Jane) (died 1981)
August 22 – Peter Frederick Anson, English writer on religion and maritime matters (died 1975)
September 1 – Leonora Eyles, English feminist writer and novelist (died 1960)
September 15 – Claude McKay, Jamaican American writer (died 1948)
September 23 – Walter Lippmann, American writer (died 1974)
September 25
G. D. H. Cole, English political theorist, economist and historian (died 1959)
C. K. Scott-Moncrieff, Scottish writer and translator (died 1930)
September 26 – Martin Heidegger, German philosopher (died 1976)
October 18 – Fannie Hurst, American novelist (died 1968)
November 12 – DeWitt Wallace, American magazine publisher (Reader's Digest) (died 1981)
November 14 – Taha Hussein, Egyptian writer and intellectual (died 1973)
December 7 – Gabriel Marcel, French philosopher, critic and playwright (died 1973)
Deaths
January 3 – James Halliwell-Phillipps, English bibliophile (born 1820)
January 17 – Juan Montalvo, Ecuadorian writer (born 1832)
March 26 – Elizabeth Ayton Godwin, English hymn writer and religious poet (born 1817)
April 23 – Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly, French novelist (born 1808)
June 8 – Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (born 1844)
June 15 – Mihai Eminescu, Romanian poet (born 1850)
August 5 – Fanny Lewald, German novelist (born 1811)
August 19 – Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French Symbolist writer (born 1838)
September 4 – Warren Felt Evans, American author of the New Thought movement (born 1817)
September 10 – Amy Levy, English feminist poet and novelist (suicide, born 1861)
September 23 – Wilkie Collins, English novelist (born 1824)
October 25 – Émile Augier, French dramatist (born 1820)
November 18 – William Allingham, Irish poet (born 1824)
December 10 – Ludwig Anzengruber, Austrian poet (born 1839)
December 12 – Robert Browning, English poet (born 1812)
December 17 – Thomas Purnell, Welsh-born English drama critic and essayist (born 1834
December 23 – Constance Naden, English poet and philosopher (born 1858)
Awards
Gaisford Prize – Harold Trevor Baker
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.012768516317009926,
0.29223570227622986,
-0.6151676177978516,
-0.06596492975950241,
-0.6843545436859131,
0.03201114013791084,
0.7155057191848755,
0.6410242319107056,
-0.672899067401886,
-0.8711246252059937,
0.07676921784877777,
-0.10116663575172424,
0.08631729334592819,
0.2561397850513458,
0.002731664339080453,
-0.14836633205413818,
0.1133606806397438,
-0.09813665598630905,
0.17481942474842072,
-0.6444532871246338,
-0.5245905518531799,
0.04037415608763695,
0.5934942364692688,
-0.46309471130371094,
0.4521263539791107,
-0.8897955417633057,
0.38502344489097595,
-0.17281414568424225,
0.3745090067386627,
-0.0665840432047844,
-0.151224747300148,
0.1837644726037979,
0.38308969140052795,
0.25870028138160706,
-0.8057278990745544,
-0.25947609543800354,
-0.2002895623445511,
-0.3568383455276489,
0.2225152552127838,
-0.5286483764648438,
-0.26000550389289856,
0.2172771543264389,
0.62017422914505,
0.45653268694877625,
0.1020544245839119,
-0.18093512952327728,
-2.215956926345825,
-0.11801334470510483,
-0.8076450824737549,
0.36428210139274597,
-0.1436639130115509,
0.542392373085022,
1.2144532203674316,
0.31137844920158386,
-0.3438948392868042,
0.6738300919532776,
-0.5931199789047241,
-0.029683243483304977,
-0.09414315223693848,
-0.34084486961364746,
0.4508318305015564,
0.3556196391582489,
0.14579959213733673,
0.03783978149294853,
0.6214946508407593,
0.13025528192520142,
-0.5097889304161072,
-0.09339895099401474,
-0.040931448340415955,
-0.5446299314498901,
0.1700061559677124,
-0.2870181202888489,
0.3618297576904297,
0.11939474195241928,
0.163359135389328,
-0.1966421902179718,
0.12837252020835876,
0.08079482614994049,
-0.4521220624446869,
-0.15317754447460175,
-0.6025137305259705,
0.26104021072387695,
0.9582470059394836,
0.4302061200141907,
0.33345186710357666,
-0.08694244176149368,
-0.3377889394760132,
-0.03807166591286659,
0.09733674675226212,
-0.2023375928401947,
-0.03997538238763809,
0.012553771957755089,
0.33927834033966064,
0.14780400693416595,
0.4804173409938812,
0.34908273816108704,
-0.1560368835926056,
0.30526599287986755,
-0.6210534572601318,
-0.13793663680553436,
-0.00724255945533514,
0.5717435479164124,
0.5973750352859497,
-0.06797360628843307,
-0.5481500625610352,
-0.14904257655143738,
0.27671560645103455,
-0.15938948094844818,
0.686582624912262,
-0.742240846157074,
-0.36819472908973694,
0.4101812541484833,
-0.40189749002456665,
-0.06655924767255783,
0.34500786662101746,
0.3221394419670105,
0.40675467252731323,
-0.18201254308223724,
-0.49499690532684326,
0.34128132462501526,
-0.5524044036865234,
0.0761350616812706,
0.017743928357958794,
0.4916903078556061,
-0.9266647696495056,
0.6008397936820984,
0.45516684651374817,
0.5958960056304932,
0.10464411228895187,
0.4082251489162445,
0.41501694917678833,
1.234561800956726,
-0.17437981069087982,
-0.2947254776954651,
0.18961715698242188,
-0.281394898891449,
0.1920519918203354,
0.5560541152954102,
0.0741376280784607,
0.2794409394264221,
-0.2656117081642151,
0.07323300838470459,
-1.759082555770874,
-0.28481847047805786,
0.11375769972801208,
-0.6603288054466248,
0.35655641555786133,
-0.466875284910202,
-0.03740575909614563,
-0.4270738363265991,
0.5096105933189392,
-0.4012928307056427,
-0.35023033618927,
0.45386967062950134,
0.05624061077833176,
0.04228685796260834,
0.30420351028442383,
0.2529953122138977,
0.6883531212806702,
0.12925171852111816,
-0.471471905708313,
0.17404621839523315,
0.0031179776415228844,
-0.054932884871959686,
-0.42329806089401245,
-0.45234933495521545,
0.24926860630512238,
0.009425555355846882,
0.17427340149879456,
0.028536474332213402,
-0.3769265115261078,
0.0817108005285263,
0.35029396414756775,
-0.24985677003860474,
-0.046738795936107635,
-0.22975029051303864,
0.4151417315006256,
0.37320712208747864,
0.011397076770663261,
0.08970198035240173,
-0.7572106719017029,
0.35216090083122253,
-0.014202074147760868,
-0.3646019697189331,
1.0181303024291992,
0.1534811109304428,
0.5114675164222717,
0.3414683938026428,
-0.020096391439437866,
-0.5185853838920593,
-0.2233581393957138,
-0.31742116808891296,
-0.00905965082347393,
-0.4919273555278778,
1.2897462844848633,
-0.3367842733860016,
-0.218806654214859,
0.6349638104438782,
-0.26745104789733887,
0.12147917598485947,
0.4140320122241974,
0.04408363625407219,
0.3558160662651062,
-0.017359534278512,
-0.28700578212738037,
0.830263078212738,
0.08040124177932739,
0.2360229343175888,
0.1478760838508606,
0.4669290781021118,
0.6815240979194641,
-0.189269557595253,
-0.024371618404984474,
0.2893497049808502,
-0.46062707901000977,
0.04812983423471451,
-0.22582000494003296,
0.5789080858230591,
0.16168580949306488,
0.029787568375468254,
0.7915045022964478,
-0.37023308873176575,
0.30576208233833313,
0.5634393095970154,
0.3025120198726654,
0.4324682056903839,
0.1216878592967987,
0.20441100001335144,
-0.15732917189598083,
-0.8600152134895325,
0.16128775477409363,
0.4568636417388916,
0.05208873376250267,
-0.552854061126709,
0.09777474403381348,
0.1900387555360794,
-0.04966697096824646,
-0.14140015840530396,
0.121043860912323,
-0.22614702582359314,
0.5815629363059998,
-0.21124966442584991,
-0.1344621777534485,
0.41242706775665283,
0.09615669399499893,
0.4209044873714447,
-0.29889240860939026,
-0.06466442346572876,
-0.46442732214927673,
-0.5304400324821472,
0.6394907236099243,
0.4860512912273407,
-0.08316978067159653,
-0.19495755434036255,
-0.7603119611740112,
-0.07841873168945312,
-0.49533796310424805,
-0.7233549356460571,
0.8443434834480286,
0.29590725898742676,
-0.1399729996919632,
-0.04269089177250862,
0.2619400918483734,
0.27121254801750183,
-0.045310378074645996,
-0.11993604153394699,
0.06517534703016281,
-0.99090576171875,
0.35599973797798157,
0.06685888022184372,
0.2083495855331421,
0.33192458748817444,
-0.33830198645591736,
-0.9346908926963806,
0.17408409714698792,
0.0505196712911129,
0.24090351164340973,
-0.07136818021535873,
-0.44620564579963684,
-0.3592517375946045,
-0.5449607372283936,
0.9671264290809631,
0.41396281123161316,
-0.5437288880348206,
-0.023588038980960846,
-0.18815293908119202,
0.3119206428527832,
-0.12812207639217377,
0.07426434010267258,
-0.18320423364639282,
-0.3179335594177246,
0.14326781034469604,
-0.549954891204834,
-0.42513707280158997,
-0.03143640607595444,
0.3463972210884094,
-0.38807615637779236,
0.4571557343006134,
0.06212333217263222,
-0.43178021907806396,
-0.3545902371406555,
0.24060967564582825,
-0.23389151692390442,
0.22926893830299377,
0.09547188133001328,
0.53754723072052,
-0.3511960208415985,
0.1769477277994156,
-5.355888366699219,
-0.005763803143054247,
-0.3877579867839813,
-0.36408287286758423,
-0.4083018898963928,
0.35349589586257935,
0.4848777651786804,
-0.05088477581739426,
-0.4779077470302582,
-0.35393226146698,
-0.2642533481121063,
-0.34010767936706543,
-0.03720491752028465,
0.9758232831954956,
0.16400973498821259,
0.2733284533023834,
0.1761530488729477,
-0.255214661359787,
-0.5043424367904663,
0.19364632666110992,
0.17171074450016022,
0.09847090393304825,
-0.03334325924515724,
0.32975175976753235,
1.1688013076782227,
0.16047175228595734,
0.09816034138202667,
0.15229006111621857,
0.08412241190671921,
0.296413391828537,
0.27306559681892395,
0.1267038881778717,
0.3556174039840698,
-0.03923439607024193,
0.2739624083042145,
0.13008573651313782,
0.8700019717216492,
0.5582384467124939,
0.6721855401992798,
0.11587319523096085,
-0.5486953258514404,
0.6042237877845764,
-0.5040348768234253,
0.2144281268119812,
0.24087008833885193,
0.0737987607717514,
-0.28860798478126526,
-0.07387276738882065,
-0.604864776134491,
0.6882579326629639,
0.13776911795139313,
-0.33191177248954773,
0.10427077114582062,
0.5117664933204651,
0.44895997643470764,
-0.057798612862825394,
-0.35608285665512085,
-0.4414205849170685,
-0.4656950831413269,
-0.06876344978809357,
0.14732252061367035,
-0.07950230687856674,
0.5971409678459167,
-0.5329397916793823,
-0.4386315643787384,
-0.29782265424728394,
-0.8513708114624023,
0.40581214427948,
0.20944170653820038,
0.08627796173095703,
0.12932883203029633,
0.8228515386581421,
-0.272367388010025,
-0.7829110026359558,
-0.1976141780614853,
0.09154096245765686,
-0.2984420955181122,
0.10166528820991516,
-0.08544186502695084,
0.06614159047603607,
-0.015710869804024696,
-0.2555466592311859,
-0.15683619678020477,
0.6794427633285522,
0.2513199746608734,
-0.3013312518596649,
-0.1371440440416336,
-0.5162971019744873,
-1.245007038116455,
-0.6162285804748535,
0.7424947619438171,
-0.2095498889684677,
-0.012538598850369453,
-0.06736429780721664,
0.5034261345863342,
0.3273107707500458,
0.703614354133606,
0.1711224615573883,
0.48753347992897034,
-0.32091623544692993,
0.07019702345132828,
-0.13637316226959229,
0.23026634752750397,
-0.17025725543498993,
-0.10225655138492584,
-0.2872307598590851,
-0.5917313098907471,
0.7436251044273376,
0.8720653653144836,
-0.8721784949302673,
0.13523444533348083,
-0.3332640528678894,
-1.156830906867981,
-0.13644538819789886,
0.7687839865684509,
0.015564456582069397,
0.2854604721069336,
-0.04918327182531357,
-0.0012831721687689424,
0.2540740966796875,
-0.12814202904701233,
0.4189288914203644,
-0.16041764616966248,
-0.43870487809181213,
-0.1588096022605896,
-0.24634283781051636,
0.07357874512672424,
-0.11671419441699982,
-0.5527763962745667,
-0.07886523753404617,
0.3513351380825043,
0.4028192460536957,
-0.23282918334007263,
-0.6365612149238586,
-0.048178333789110184,
-0.11787129938602448,
-0.40404051542282104,
-0.020818177610635757,
0.3520068824291229,
-0.6367978453636169,
-0.01531972736120224,
-0.16822488605976105,
-0.041779402643442154,
-0.18247784674167633,
0.9754602909088135,
0.04010229557752609,
-0.31116148829460144,
-0.7116848230361938,
-0.42463478446006775,
0.2549840211868286,
-0.27092206478118896,
0.042932987213134766,
0.2443995624780655,
0.22541548311710358,
-0.12278056889772415,
0.0614197701215744,
-0.08228833973407745,
0.5686241984367371,
-0.8184750080108643,
-0.3976532816886902,
-0.06620683521032333,
-0.5362309217453003,
-0.9504281282424927,
0.360591322183609,
0.19241903722286224,
-0.6375104188919067,
-0.389199823141098,
-0.13204029202461243,
-0.2857838273048401,
0.453607976436615,
0.586518406867981,
-0.46777039766311646,
-0.4986129105091095,
-0.07562993466854095,
0.35848912596702576,
-0.5473999381065369,
-0.009055024944245815,
0.22433456778526306,
-0.04242141544818878,
-0.25776779651641846,
0.29898354411125183,
-0.7486341595649719,
-0.18413716554641724,
0.4753849506378174,
0.6398434638977051,
-0.07475285232067108,
0.06594401597976685,
-0.18477599322795868,
-0.6510696411132812,
0.19109022617340088,
-0.512162446975708,
0.3254503607749939,
0.7967750430107117,
-0.15866787731647491,
-0.8159797787666321,
-0.3435311019420624,
0.16284659504890442,
0.035335756838321686,
-0.3090022802352905,
-0.27746886014938354,
0.4166750907897949,
0.2429027110338211,
-0.08896395564079285,
-0.3526546061038971,
-0.057702746242284775,
-1.06950843334198,
0.3682318925857544,
-0.6367858648300171,
-0.6966721415519714,
0.4555671811103821,
0.30019232630729675,
-0.334831565618515,
-0.1979745626449585,
0.4548453092575073,
0.1701163798570633,
0.07301175594329834,
-0.049257002770900726,
0.31343787908554077,
-0.6934230923652649,
-0.2056109756231308,
0.8929678797721863,
0.06391648948192596,
-1.1188757419586182,
-0.2115996927022934,
-0.4029174745082855,
0.32798367738723755,
0.19843846559524536,
-0.4931553900241852,
0.4253503978252411,
-0.4257425367832184,
-0.03576419875025749,
0.15534736216068268,
0.20863495767116547,
0.17315363883972168,
-0.25427699089050293,
-0.24121718108654022,
-0.08981900662183762,
-0.21355050802230835,
0.07269053161144257,
0.14921829104423523,
0.23134958744049072,
0.7565099596977234,
-0.06477507203817368,
-0.1785198450088501,
0.06559847295284271,
0.5260127186775208,
0.07842225581407547,
-0.38786205649375916,
-0.8695573210716248,
0.2686447501182556,
0.5276371240615845,
-0.34280455112457275,
-0.6640853881835938,
-0.5587426424026489,
0.40596532821655273,
-0.2668570578098297,
-0.7648369073867798,
0.4222657382488251,
-0.07141368836164474,
0.5959967374801636,
-0.17391078174114227,
0.23646172881126404,
-0.21111036837100983,
0.3173682987689972,
0.6819612383842468,
0.22882159054279327,
0.14762026071548462,
0.3775939345359802,
0.40957269072532654,
-0.09670145809650421,
-0.6190840005874634,
-0.4315897822380066,
-0.4203987419605255,
0.18365375697612762,
0.45072999596595764,
-0.17209398746490479,
-0.5150240659713745,
-0.5745246410369873,
-0.23592182993888855,
-0.20376266539096832,
-0.20431403815746307,
-0.08672871440649033,
0.1495639979839325,
-0.3439803719520569,
-0.513458788394928,
-0.5691060423851013,
-0.22567212581634521,
-0.20010150969028473,
-0.2664467990398407,
-0.15031255781650543,
0.1755014955997467,
-0.2865242063999176,
-0.14922676980495453,
-0.052222754806280136,
0.1496179699897766,
0.3324519693851471,
-0.2863939106464386,
-0.013680984266102314,
0.09703156352043152,
-0.19372700154781342,
-0.2929782569408417,
0.4074016511440277,
0.2718146741390228,
-0.606346845626831,
1.012076735496521,
-0.07035040855407715,
-0.3259209096431732,
-0.28613048791885376,
-0.20834630727767944,
0.2519260048866272,
0.3356257975101471,
0.20976653695106506,
-0.03407943993806839,
0.614479660987854,
-0.575921893119812,
0.07859087735414505,
-0.22154265642166138,
-0.28343692421913147,
0.7868174910545349,
0.005614964757114649,
-0.08996494114398956,
0.5850213170051575,
0.7135747671127319,
-0.03603293374180794,
-0.39332205057144165,
0.33376944065093994,
-0.33648502826690674,
0.23624379932880402,
0.28854987025260925,
-0.2833704352378845,
0.212535098195076,
0.24109408259391785,
0.13157472014427185,
0.9394578337669373,
-0.12162031978368759,
-0.42504653334617615,
0.15367744863033295,
-0.5374357104301453,
-0.08192583918571472,
0.2992393672466278,
0.7898815870285034,
-0.048481572419404984,
0.4420228600502014,
0.16550149023532867,
0.4510856866836548,
-0.3124344050884247,
-0.002991648856550455,
0.33652934432029724,
0.21199515461921692,
0.11797434091567993,
0.3811929225921631,
0.7859874367713928,
0.4831351339817047,
-0.46432048082351685,
0.24376125633716583,
-0.47974374890327454,
0.008407052606344223,
-0.1289500594139099,
0.11573980748653412,
-0.9731729626655579,
0.12725956737995148,
0.2157173454761505,
0.3025849759578705,
-0.334482878446579,
0.40593627095222473,
0.46772482991218567,
0.13197824358940125,
0.3810334801673889,
-0.0035918743815273046,
0.016177048906683922,
0.27551913261413574,
-0.33864542841911316,
-0.003274882910773158,
-0.11809432506561279,
-0.12552891671657562,
0.875043511390686,
0.9202761650085449,
-0.12458903342485428,
0.30061084032058716,
-0.20486107468605042,
-0.14313486218452454,
0.3093247711658478,
-0.21755684912204742,
-0.1143282800912857,
0.15530593693256378,
-0.4340835213661194,
0.01688964106142521,
0.5146470665931702,
0.022931721061468124,
-0.7567240595817566,
-0.3597694933414459,
-0.02302105538547039,
0.4613003432750702,
-0.016657670959830284,
-0.8282884359359741,
0.11717111617326736,
-0.5395668745040894,
1.5496946573257446,
-0.11112911999225616,
-0.2767418324947357,
-0.5463558435440063,
-0.40245217084884644,
-0.003489407245069742,
-0.02690817601978779,
-0.22540749609470367,
0.5113053321838379,
-0.5264208316802979,
-0.011191444471478462,
-0.3928334712982178,
0.7400639057159424,
0.279893696308136,
0.2919737994670868,
-0.1733420193195343,
0.817085325717926,
-0.3217322528362274,
0.045856598764657974,
0.07706180214881897,
-0.11967719346284866,
-0.20919927954673767,
0.2641412913799286,
-0.2586197257041931,
0.1659657061100006,
0.3171670138835907,
-0.0011260244064033031,
-0.47007912397384644,
0.21823950111865997,
0.1680818796157837,
0.46211880445480347,
0.26277032494544983,
0.15627330541610718,
-0.31349045038223267,
-0.21613942086696625,
-0.7401080131530762,
0.1585484743118286,
-0.38206180930137634,
1.1657148599624634,
0.7441518306732178,
0.488084614276886,
0.09066736698150635,
-0.34622374176979065,
-0.11201338469982147,
-0.30335479974746704,
0.3007337152957916,
0.08865705132484436,
-2.2279562950134277,
0.16522254049777985,
-0.08616446703672409,
-0.183352530002594,
-0.46015921235084534,
0.2881959080696106,
-0.09869683533906937,
-0.11286662518978119,
-0.08549657464027405,
-0.001485407934524119,
0.5443852543830872,
0.1340445578098297,
0.1541716456413269,
-1.3094226121902466,
0.4075861871242523,
0.01622116193175316
] |
203621
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranleigh
|
Cranleigh
|
Cranleigh is a village and civil parish, about southeast of Guildford in Surrey, England. It lies on a minor road east of the A281, which links Guildford with Horsham. It is in the north-west corner of the Weald, a large remnant forest, the main local remnant being Winterfold Forest directly north-west on the northern Greensand Ridge.
Etymology
Until the mid-1860s, the place was usually spelt Cranley. The Post Office persuaded the vestry to use "-leigh" to avoid misdirections to nearby Crawley in West Sussex. The older spelling is publicly visible in the Cranley Hotel. The name is recorded in the Pipe Rolls as Cranlea in 1166 and Cranelega in 1167. A little later in the Feet of Fines of 1198 the name is written as Cranele. Etymologists consider all these versions to be the fusion of the Old English words "Cran", meaning "crane", and "Lēoh" that together mean 'a woodland clearing visited by cranes'. The name is popularly believed to come from imputed large crane-breeding grounds at the Anglo-French named Vachery Pond, often locally known as Vachery. The figure of a crane adorns the old drinking water fountain of 1874 in 'Fountain Square' in the middle of the village. A pair of cranes adorn the crest of the 21st century granted coat of arms of Cranleigh Parish Council.
History
Early history
Partly on the Greensand Ridge, where it rises to at Winterfold Hill, but mainly on the clay and sandstone Lower Weald, Cranleigh has little of prehistoric or Roman interest, whereas just across the east border Wykehurst and Rapley Farms have Roman buildings and Roman Tile Kilns — in the parish of Ewhurst. A spur of the Roman road between London and Chichester runs north west to Guildford past nearby Farley Heath in Farley Green, a temple site. Cranleigh was not mentioned in the Domesday Book, at that time being part of the manor of Shere.
The Anglican parish church of St Nicolas dates the first building on its site from around 1170, and the building was in its present form by the mid-14th century. It was extensively restored in 1847. The church has a gargoyle, on a pillar inside the church, which is said to have inspired Lewis Carroll, who lived in Guildford, to create the Cheshire Cat. With the growth of the village, a "daughter" church, St Andrew's, opened at the west end of the village in 1900 but it closed some sixty years later. The parish is in the Diocese of Guildford.
The 16th century Boy & Donkey pub, on Knowle Road outside the village, was taken over in the mid-19th century by Hodgsons of Kingston, later Courage, and remained in business until the early 1990s. It was sold to Morland of Abingdon who later closed it. The building was converted into a private home.
Oliver Cromwell visited Knowle House in 1657, his soldiers being billeted in houses in the village.
Post Industrial Revolution
Growth came due to improvements in transport; in 1813 the Wey and Arun Canal was authorised. Three years later it opened, passing a few miles to the west of the village. This route linked London (via the Thames and the Wey) with Littlehampton (via the Arun). However, the canal traffic was completely eclipsed by the Horsham to Guildford railway which opened in 1865, and the canal fell into disuse. A turnpike road was also built between Guildford and Horsham, assent for the project being given in 1818. The opening is commemorated by an obelisk at the junction of the roads to Horsham and to Ewhurst. The Prince Regent used the route when travelling between Windsor and Brighton, the distances to which are given on the plaque on the obelisk.
Three people played a major part in the development of the village during the 19th century: Reverend John Henry Sapte, Dr Albert Napper and Stephen Rowland. Sapte arrived in Cranleigh in 1846 as the rector. He played a major role in setting up the National School in 1847 and Cranleigh School in 1865. He was appointed Archdeacon of Surrey and remained in the village until his death in 1906.
Together with Napper, Sapte set up the first cottage hospital in the country in 1859. It has survived many attempts to close it, through fundraising by the local community. However it lost its beds for in-patients in May 2006.
Stephen Rowland was a resident who had a major role in the development of the infrastructure of the village. He formed the Cranleigh Gas Company in 1876, and arranged for a mains water supply in 1886. In 1894 he laid out an estate between the Horsham and Ewhurst Roads, building New Park Road, Avenue Road, Mead Road, Mount Road and Bridge Road. He also set up a grocery store. His name is commemorated in that of Rowland Road.
The cricket field has been used for that purpose since 1843. Cranleigh Lawn Tennis Tournament was held there in August from 1922 until 1998, when it moved to the grounds of Cranleigh School.
David Mann's department store opened in 1887. The store closed in October, 2021 and the business went into liquidation.
A distinctive row of maple trees which lines the High Street between the cricket field and the Rowland Road junction was planted in 1890, and not by Canadian servicemen in World War I as is widely believed.
Cranleigh's Village Hall opened in 1933.
The Regal Cinema opened on 30 October 1936. It survived for over sixty years, finally closing on 14 March 2002. The site is now occupied by a block of flats.
During World War II (1939-1945)
Winterfold House near Cranleigh was requisitioned by the British Government and used by SOE Special Operations Executive, as a training school designated STS 4 and later STS 7 as the location of the Student Assessment Board. Its primary use during the war was to whittle out those not suited to undercover work and begin initial training for those that progressed. Amongst the many recruits that attended Winterfold included Muriel Byck, Andrée Borrel, Denise Bloch, Noor Inyat Khan (Nora Baker) – a descendant of Indian Muslim royalty and Violette Szabo GC. A film Carve Her Name with Pride was made in 1958 about Szabo's wartime life in the SOE. In November 2011, a Memorial to the SOE was unveiled at Winterfold House, Surrey, initiated by British military historian, writer and author Paul McCue and others. The unveiling was attended by Tania Szabó, the daughter of Violette Szabo, together with representatives from the USA, Dutch and French embassies and the Canadian High Commission.
During the later part of World War II, on 27 August 1944, the infants school was hit by a V-1 flying bomb and demolished, as was the stained glass east window of the nearby St. Nicolas Church. This occurred early on a Sunday morning, and the school was empty. The only casualty was the Rector, who was in his garden not far away and was injured. Another flying bomb hit the gasholder on the Common, destroying both the structure and a nearby cottage, whose occupant was killed.
Post-war
Cranleigh railway station was closed by Dr Beeching in 1965 after almost exactly a hundred years of operation.
In 1975 the 1900-built church of St Andrew was demolished.
Geography
Cranleigh village is southeast of the county town of Surrey, Guildford, and ESE of Godalming, which is the administrative centre of the borough of Waverley. In the centre of the civil parish are the greatest number of buildings, fanning out in many side roads and on the high street. Cranleigh Waters also known as the Cranleigh Water, drains the village, before flowing to Shalford where it joins the River Wey, specifically in the small, formerly marsh-like locality of Peasmarsh, which still has water meadows lining the bank itself. Winterfold Forest, a remaining higher part of the forest that occupies the northeast is on the Greensand Ridge, which can be explored using in places roads or by the long distance path, the Greensand Way.
Elevations, Soil and Geology
Elevations range from a maximum of 240 m AOD (mean high water level) at the car park on Reynolds Hill in Winterfold Heath (a woodland in the north) to 41 m on the watercourse and the disused Wey and Arun Canal as they leave both the parish in the northwest extreme at the end of East Whipley Lane. The village centre lies at generally 50–70 m above AOD.
Soil consists in small areas of "naturally wet loamy soil"; the north and south of the village centre and all surrounding areas are "slowly permeable seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils".
Then deep seas, Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand deposits form the deep soil, more evident where erosion has taken place on steeper hillslopes in the civil parish. The Gault Clay contains phosphate-rich nodules in discrete bands and has a rich marine fauna with abundant ammonites, bivalves and gastropods. The Upper Greensand comprises a variety of sediments with fine silts at the base, giving way upwards into sandstones. Just before the paleogene which included the mass-extinction event of the non-avian dinosaurs, sea levels dropped, exposing Sussex and Kent; marine Upnor Beds were deposited in Surrey. In the paleogene, Southern England slightly rose and the seas retreated and reddish and mottled clays of the Reading Beds were deposited by a large river sand delta system including across much of the Weald (which covers much of Sussex and Kent as well). Later, a rise in sea level around 50 million years ago caused widespread deposition, until 2 million years ago, of the London Clay across the county. The London Clay is a bluish-grey marine clay with isolated pockets of fossils especially where chalkier. The youngest part of the London Clay is known as the Claygate Beds and sand and soft sandstone of the Bagshot Formation, though in many areas such as this generally eroded, followed in most cases by a variable thickness of organic humus.
Economy, twinning etc.
Despite losing the rail link, Cranleigh has prospered both as a satellite of Guildford, and as a service and light engineering centre in its own right. Furthermore, it is a retail centre for the surrounding smaller villages. The resident population of the area decreased by 2.0% in the ten years to 2001. In January 2007, Cranleigh Parish Council received a grant of arms. Cranleigh is twinned with Vallendar, Germany, and with Semur-en-Auxois in Burgundy, eastern France. Cranley Hotel is in a large Victorian house which is a listed building. Nurseries for plant for sale and food provide a significant source of local employment.
Cranleigh's High Street has seen a rise in large corporate shops in recent years, such as Co-op, Peacocks, Superdrug, and WH Smith. There are three supermarkets and two national banks, and various other shops.
Education
Cranleigh School, an independent boarding school, is in the village. It opened in 1865 and was originally known as "The Surrey County School".
State schools include Glebelands School (a secondary school), Cranleigh C of E Primary School and Park Mead Primary School. There is also St Cuthbert Mayne Catholic Primary School. Cranleigh C of E Primary School opened in September 2008 as an amalgamation of Cranleigh Infants School and St. Nicolas Junior School.
In 1847 the National School opened in the present Arts Centre, replacing earlier dame schools. During the twentieth century, separate infant and secondary schools were formed and moved to their own premises (leaving the C of E Junior School which moved to new buildings in 1964).
Recreation and entertainment
The Cranleigh Arts Centre runs a full programme of feature film screenings, live music, theatre productions, adult and children's activities, exhibitions and workshops. Regular community arts projects and work with local schools are undertaken to reach and develop new audiences. The Centre is a registered charity and is run by a team of volunteers.
The village has a relatively large public library.
A gym and leisure centre (which incorporates an indoor swimming pool) is centrally just off the High Street.
Snoxhall Fields incorporates a few fields very near to the centre of Cranleigh, accessed by car via Knowle Lane. Across the road lies the Bruce McKenzie Memorial Field where Cranleigh Parkrun is organised on a weekly basis. Running through Snoxhall Fields is the path of the disused railway line which is now commonly used for cycling and walking.
The football club, Cranleigh F.C. currently play in the Surrey Elite West Division and previously at times in the Combined Counties League.
The Sports and Social Club splits into bowls and pétanque clubs.
Every year the Cranleigh & South Eastern Agricultural Society host the Cranleigh Show, a traditional agricultural show.
Localities
Rowly
Rowly is a neighbourhood NNW of the edge of the contiguous suburban part of Cranleigh that architecturally contains three Grade II listed buildings.
Three surrounding farms have listed farmhouses, and one of these has a listed granary.
Rowly is separated from Cranleigh by Manfield Park and Hollyhocks House.
Baynards
Baynards to the south is separated by a green buffer including the lake, Vachery Pond. It consists of fewer than 20 buildings. Reached by Knowle Lane, a rural road leading off of the high street, which is dotted with houses, the settlement lies east of that lane along another lane, Baynards Road. No other neighbourhoods or localities of importance exist in the civil parish as a whole.
Religion
There is a Roman Catholic church, Jesus Christ Redeemer of Mankind (in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Arundel & Brighton), and churches of the Methodist and Baptist denominations, as well as the Anglican church of St Nicolas mentioned above.
Transport
Rail
Cranleigh railway station was opened in 1865 as "Cranley" as part of the Cranleigh Line, its name was changed in 1867 to "Cranleigh" at the request of the Postmaster General as badly addressed letters to "Cranley" were often mistaken for "Crawley" and vice versa. Cranleigh was the busiest station on the line with regular commuter traffic to and from London via Guildford. Cranleigh had a substantial goods yard equipped with a large loading gantry. Inward freight consisted mainly of coal which was required, in particular, by the local gasworks, whilst goods outward were mainly timber.
A victim of the Beeching Axe, the line closed in 1965 and Cranleigh station was demolished shortly afterwards, replaced by the "Stocklund Square" housing and shopping development. In 2004 part of this development was itself demolished and a Sainsbury's supermarket was constructed on the site. Today the trackbed is in part used by the Downs Link, and the station's old platform levels are still visible at the rear of the shops.
Two studies have been carried out to review the possibility of reviving train services. The first, in the 1990s, was to determine whether re-opening a portion of the line for passenger traffic from Bramley to Guildford would be economically viable. Although the study was inconclusive, Waverley Borough Council protected the line from further development in its Local Plan. In 2009, the Association of Train Operating Companies applied for funding for a new line to Cranleigh.
Road
Cranleigh centres around the junction of two B roads to the east of the A281 Guildford to Horsham road.
The village is on a number of bus routes, serving among others Guildford, Horsham, Godalming and Ewhurst. The main operator is Stagecoach.
Tillingbourne Bus Company was based in the village prior to its collapse in 2001.
Canal
The Wey and Arun Canal is gradually being restored.
Landmarks
Stocklund Square
A square near the centre of the village on the High Street, which is the main road running through Cranleigh. It was constructed following the closing of the railway line in 1965, and the removal of the railway station.
A new Sainsbury's supermarket was built in late 2004. Other shops in the square are Oxfam, Carphone Warehouse and Costa Coffee. The square used to have greenery and a fountain, but this was replaced with a more open layout catering for attractions and events such as a town-style public Easter Service and a French Market.
Fountain Square
In 2006, the pedestrian area surrounding the large stone drinking fountain (1874) at the centre of the village was re-modelled, and given the name 'Fountain Square'. New granite paving, brick planters and trees were introduced in a design which created a haven from traffic and a place for small community events. As part of this a bus shelter sometime nicknamed the Threepenny Bit Shelter was remodelled at Snoxhall behind the leisure centre. Within a few weeks it was vandalised and pulled to the ground. The bulk of funding was from Surrey County Council (SCC) and the South East England Development Agency (SEEDA), to designs by SCC.
Winterfold House
Winterfold House, north-east of the village along Barhatch Lane, was built in 1886 for Richard Webster QC, afterwards Viscount Alverstone. He became Lord Chief Justice in 1900 and died in 1915. A bench in the woodland above the house is known as 'Lord Justice Seat'.
The house was then bought by Charles Armytage-Moore, founder partner in the stockbrokers Buckmaster & Moore. He reconstructed the main facade in Queen Anne style, and enhanced the gardens with rare rhododendrons, camellias, azaleas and magnolias. One particular red-flowered species (Rhododendron barbatum Wallich ex G. Don 1834) won an Award of Merit when exhibited by Winterfold House in 1934. During World War II Winterfold was requisitioned by the Government and used by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) as a training school designated STS 4. Amongst the many recruits that attended Winterfold were Violette Szabo GC.
Armytage-Moore died in 1960. The house was sold to HRH Prince Carol of Romania. It achieved notoriety by being searched for evidence after the Great Train Robbery of 1963, but nothing was found. The house and estate of was sold in 18 lots at auction in 1978.
In popular culture
Cranleigh appears in the book The Meaning of Liff by Douglas Adams and John Lloyd, in which experiences which do not have words yet are given words which currently only exist as names of places. "Cranleigh" is defined as: "A mood of irrational irritation with everyone and everything."
"Cranleigh Hall", the home of "Lord Cranleigh", was the principal location for the Doctor Who serial, Black Orchid.
Demography and housing
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).
Notable residents
Sky News presenter Anna Botting was born and raised in Cranleigh.
The artist Joseph Longhurst moved to Cranleigh in 1918, and lived there until his death in 1922. He was one of a group of artists who lived in the village in the early 1920s, including W. Heath Robinson and Lawson Wood.
Mathematician G. H. Hardy was born and raised in Cranleigh.
Frederick Savage, schoolmaster who founded Seaford College
Jim Slater, accountant turned businessman, founder of Slater Walker, lived in the village
Former drummer in The Beatles Ringo Starr and his actress wife Barbara Bach lived on the outskirts of the village.
Frank Swinnerton the writer lived in the large cottage Old Tokefield on The Commons in Cranleigh for more than fifty years.
Desmond Tutu, when serving as a curate in England in 1963, lived in the village for a month. He wrote in the parish magazine about how friendly the locals had been towards himself and his family.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Cranleigh: A History of Wealden Settlement by Christopher Budgen
Around Cranleigh: The Archive Photographs Series by Michael Miller
Cranleigh Through Time by Michael Miller
External links
Cranleigh Parish Council
British History Online: Cranleigh (H.E. Malden's History and Topography of Surrey in 1911 with substantial medieval history for the Victoria County Histories books project)
Villages in Surrey
Borough of Waverley
Civil parishes in Surrey
|
[
-0.234444260597229,
0.4723239839076996,
0.02231263928115368,
-0.7355830669403076,
0.21735768020153046,
0.6375496983528137,
0.6966080665588379,
-0.13014642894268036,
-0.2620636224746704,
0.08782051503658295,
-0.11782993376255035,
0.14706915616989136,
0.14826136827468872,
0.43745025992393494,
-0.9716179966926575,
-0.12033425271511078,
-0.03465621918439865,
0.5927660465240479,
0.7460546493530273,
-1.1525862216949463,
0.2277149260044098,
-0.4776836931705475,
-0.49832770228385925,
0.22668969631195068,
0.0165504552423954,
-0.06581525504589081,
0.21699148416519165,
-0.02400803565979004,
0.2591131627559662,
-0.07778549939393997,
0.0910329669713974,
1.0778324604034424,
0.07005618512630463,
-0.596165657043457,
0.5227444767951965,
-0.19012628495693207,
0.34715893864631653,
-0.5083847641944885,
-0.17819787561893463,
-0.1401984542608261,
-0.3506096601486206,
0.19813379645347595,
-0.38540545105934143,
0.26609328389167786,
-0.24252066016197205,
-0.6214305758476257,
-0.9585086703300476,
-0.09454573690891266,
-0.5055120587348938,
-0.1799926459789276,
-0.5250442624092102,
0.4909062385559082,
-0.01737138070166111,
-0.2864081561565399,
0.8584972620010376,
0.6133593320846558,
-0.10730127990245819,
-0.2591839134693146,
1.2594561576843262,
0.6088881492614746,
0.19276581704616547,
-0.24456211924552917,
0.0715513601899147,
-0.07608148455619812,
0.015479815192520618,
0.3399716317653656,
-0.25189146399497986,
0.3791950047016144,
-0.4679056704044342,
-0.36753708124160767,
-0.4361337423324585,
-0.4285533130168915,
0.2002532035112381,
0.22265583276748657,
-0.3264332115650177,
0.5788023471832275,
-0.4226604402065277,
0.17027506232261658,
0.594433605670929,
0.18614450097084045,
0.23803098499774933,
-0.40052855014801025,
0.4456269443035126,
0.5899114012718201,
0.6797394752502441,
0.3582967221736908,
-0.6519755125045776,
0.10977333784103394,
-0.5687653422355652,
0.7850744128227234,
-0.6492024064064026,
0.4798666536808014,
-0.4748125672340393,
0.13879233598709106,
0.16700997948646545,
-0.4494781196117401,
-0.06575589627027512,
-0.036907974630594254,
0.21211597323417664,
0.6768272519111633,
-0.6078541278839111,
0.6812006831169128,
0.6895433068275452,
-0.22686202824115753,
-0.18182353675365448,
-0.20168808102607727,
-0.7887687087059021,
-0.7012521028518677,
0.08366134762763977,
0.005840464029461145,
-0.5089985132217407,
0.31232336163520813,
-0.11667758971452713,
0.09674293547868729,
-0.530768632888794,
0.6007319092750549,
0.5712032914161682,
-0.6434518098831177,
-0.06556862592697144,
0.11653993278741837,
-0.36542099714279175,
0.8820105195045471,
0.08745270222425461,
-0.1728600710630417,
-0.33591580390930176,
-0.002186160534620285,
0.4849105477333069,
0.2245490401983261,
-0.14873425662517548,
0.6164453029632568,
-0.016132695600390434,
0.7972058057785034,
-0.17721296846866608,
0.17898039519786835,
0.008537721820175648,
-0.5761806964874268,
-0.2770841121673584,
0.29907289147377014,
1.01028573513031,
0.6247826218605042,
-0.5610231757164001,
0.22536148130893707,
0.09105214476585388,
-0.16213156282901764,
0.35021287202835083,
0.3111143410205841,
-0.43956127762794495,
-1.0132473707199097,
-0.5493835210800171,
-0.34467408061027527,
0.11819397658109665,
0.30601564049720764,
0.27491918206214905,
-0.8542363047599792,
-0.447216272354126,
0.009093948639929295,
0.4486619532108307,
0.06109671667218208,
-0.31021639704704285,
0.011208637617528439,
-0.12661157548427582,
-0.06248771771788597,
0.8806707859039307,
-0.661811888217926,
0.29762259125709534,
-0.06503808498382568,
0.47608616948127747,
-0.4329490065574646,
0.39903008937835693,
0.5626360774040222,
-1.0074613094329834,
-0.15290288627147675,
1.0466634035110474,
-0.5614736676216125,
0.19793203473091125,
-0.7423110008239746,
1.211798071861267,
0.3831215798854828,
0.43795841932296753,
-0.16386647522449493,
-0.570430338382721,
0.30430683493614197,
0.3863658308982849,
0.15697814524173737,
-0.3717605173587799,
0.3711030185222626,
-0.14128388464450836,
-0.0003755206416826695,
-0.13797923922538757,
0.18176019191741943,
-0.00810463260859251,
-0.4308072030544281,
0.49101632833480835,
0.07340331375598907,
0.7948288321495056,
0.24037054181098938,
-0.26678627729415894,
0.2052682340145111,
-0.46984007954597473,
0.4827153980731964,
-0.2379264384508133,
0.03191308677196503,
-0.007416405249387026,
-0.270146906375885,
-0.6949403882026672,
-0.30278095602989197,
0.3350874185562134,
0.2899612784385681,
-0.25706130266189575,
0.5149692893028259,
-0.46233296394348145,
-1.042067050933838,
-0.1683783382177353,
0.5433505773544312,
0.23750713467597961,
-0.5956728458404541,
-0.3421799838542938,
0.4866543710231781,
0.603877067565918,
-1.2733696699142456,
0.30896273255348206,
0.25005316734313965,
0.18060901761054993,
0.3987824022769928,
-0.003270748071372509,
1.1841284036636353,
0.254165917634964,
0.20394964516162872,
-0.30682966113090515,
-0.7593054175376892,
0.16986429691314697,
0.6695969700813293,
0.623760461807251,
-0.42368289828300476,
-0.08768608421087265,
-0.4791768193244934,
-0.36438876390457153,
-0.647186279296875,
-0.09317649155855179,
-0.4772805869579315,
-0.4214315414428711,
-0.249464213848114,
-0.5284701585769653,
-0.16695667803287506,
0.4645216166973114,
0.4790720045566559,
0.14422142505645752,
0.2028564214706421,
-0.32752329111099243,
-0.28344693779945374,
-0.21667684614658356,
0.42512521147727966,
1.0464143753051758,
0.17475995421409607,
0.04844767600297928,
-0.5165833234786987,
0.2425539642572403,
0.8289920687675476,
0.4092766344547272,
0.3941487669944763,
-0.41334155201911926,
0.27763479948043823,
0.07372564822435379,
0.3639194071292877,
-0.24474121630191803,
-0.7006024718284607,
0.33270663022994995,
-0.9306701421737671,
0.5377940535545349,
0.0534517876803875,
0.41540277004241943,
-0.695408284664154,
0.12474389374256134,
-0.06313338875770569,
0.038822319358587265,
-0.11279558390378952,
0.4379054009914398,
-0.15326710045337677,
-0.2915942966938019,
0.07420498132705688,
0.21420925855636597,
0.7828344702720642,
0.031040117144584656,
0.04914287105202675,
0.15463873744010925,
-0.26342231035232544,
0.19348548352718353,
-0.05573044344782829,
0.03114978037774563,
-0.5525450706481934,
-0.398289293050766,
0.7602337598800659,
-0.24802419543266296,
0.8537243604660034,
-0.7286624908447266,
-0.09891583770513535,
-0.3917405605316162,
-0.5339640378952026,
0.3015099763870239,
-0.07954587042331696,
-0.5466136932373047,
0.69033282995224,
-0.5396490693092346,
0.2565965950489044,
-0.166116863489151,
0.18102222681045532,
-0.285550594329834,
-0.25450995564460754,
-4.811486721038818,
0.4033252000808716,
-0.16213424503803253,
-0.17952461540699005,
0.6318408846855164,
0.09676884859800339,
0.1510208249092102,
-0.7549147009849548,
-0.544971227645874,
0.6154589056968689,
0.005565293598920107,
-0.10626009106636047,
-0.44217240810394287,
0.4007887840270996,
1.3081053495407104,
0.4134649634361267,
0.49061962962150574,
-0.15174029767513275,
0.533244252204895,
-0.3008826673030853,
-0.6115872859954834,
0.2564823031425476,
-0.21772775053977966,
0.4454301595687866,
-0.5682346820831299,
0.5111587047576904,
0.33424925804138184,
-0.5738600492477417,
-1.4367585182189941,
-0.7047660946846008,
0.3974333107471466,
-0.17170210182666779,
0.018822064623236656,
0.5858333110809326,
-0.7146615982055664,
0.43627867102622986,
0.17056354880332947,
0.3990897536277771,
0.23320960998535156,
-0.3424590528011322,
0.2338719666004181,
0.8321789503097534,
-0.29418325424194336,
-0.30222031474113464,
0.9232214689254761,
-0.3762192130088806,
-1.1804170608520508,
0.30990442633628845,
-0.310721755027771,
1.0056986808776855,
0.30742254853248596,
0.0457124188542366,
0.5704554915428162,
0.4164373278617859,
0.026563124731183052,
-0.16853013634681702,
1.1132614612579346,
-0.5219026803970337,
-0.38442280888557434,
0.7357773184776306,
0.7884288430213928,
-0.3783259391784668,
-0.3425769507884979,
-0.2519890367984772,
-0.3064897358417511,
-0.4524502754211426,
0.11940444260835648,
0.1572582870721817,
0.2550465762615204,
0.3972330093383789,
-0.37050285935401917,
-0.42887356877326965,
0.19413362443447113,
-0.9990648627281189,
-0.2285696417093277,
-0.3364184498786926,
-0.20444591343402863,
0.02961115539073944,
-0.34019240736961365,
0.46525925397872925,
0.4989543557167053,
-0.153825044631958,
0.44089561700820923,
0.14599205553531647,
0.12843194603919983,
-1.0644985437393188,
-1.0238077640533447,
0.1473630964756012,
-0.33564478158950806,
-1.2202844619750977,
0.1424311101436615,
-0.44374462962150574,
0.29590240120887756,
0.30073752999305725,
-0.27898460626602173,
0.550597608089447,
0.040015313774347305,
0.05997530743479729,
-0.2483428567647934,
-0.014068389311432838,
-0.46947938203811646,
-0.5653676390647888,
-0.08732867240905762,
-0.5617538690567017,
-0.5644018054008484,
-0.3101019561290741,
-0.11172868311405182,
0.39037567377090454,
0.4870595335960388,
-0.2538173794746399,
0.8954999446868896,
-0.016971005126833916,
-0.7059968113899231,
-0.300852507352829,
0.27720358967781067,
-0.2709091603755951,
-0.8243348598480225,
0.6892141699790955,
-0.5706771612167358,
0.40703728795051575,
0.08127984404563904,
-0.028177930042147636,
-0.5076873898506165,
-0.06359022110700607,
-0.3629824221134186,
0.017483199015259743,
1.1839979887008667,
0.4148551821708679,
-0.763943076133728,
0.3884164094924927,
-0.3250459134578705,
0.08158235996961594,
-0.07276967912912369,
-0.22318774461746216,
-0.4882556200027466,
0.05508887395262718,
-1.0411629676818848,
-0.4214223325252533,
0.08160031586885452,
0.5594630837440491,
1.3087459802627563,
0.057082802057266235,
-0.01841510459780693,
0.4432350993156433,
0.5554502606391907,
0.22571277618408203,
0.2161855846643448,
0.6342723369598389,
-0.8727149963378906,
0.4106960892677307,
-0.40960240364074707,
0.25790658593177795,
-0.4845585525035858,
-0.7672825455665588,
0.14645925164222717,
-0.32510900497436523,
0.18070077896118164,
0.03269815072417259,
-0.20093826949596405,
-0.08599153906106949,
-0.49421700835227966,
0.2712330222129822,
-0.7779653668403625,
0.43793800473213196,
0.26724907755851746,
-0.22644402086734772,
-0.37232187390327454,
0.1535090208053589,
-0.443170428276062,
0.2980233430862427,
0.16459645330905914,
-0.5143002271652222,
-0.3803040683269501,
-0.1308908462524414,
0.21031221747398376,
-0.09624461829662323,
0.3637349307537079,
0.17889755964279175,
-0.6430115103721619,
0.10873465240001678,
-0.2364891916513443,
0.07940907031297684,
-0.26792341470718384,
-0.283169150352478,
0.4252440929412842,
-0.6997445821762085,
-0.47590720653533936,
-0.5189113020896912,
0.05775488540530205,
-0.8437625169754028,
0.14596912264823914,
-0.023694287985563278,
0.4913522005081177,
0.8236775994300842,
0.21319949626922607,
-0.6278771758079529,
0.5789982676506042,
-0.33455851674079895,
-0.05109415203332901,
-0.34710127115249634,
0.278520792722702,
0.09682343155145645,
-0.3440147340297699,
0.6340024471282959,
1.1595126390457153,
-1.3219270706176758,
0.33208319544792175,
0.5080232620239258,
-0.7585111260414124,
1.0063753128051758,
-0.35579290986061096,
-1.1816920042037964,
0.0874759629368782,
0.4309563934803009,
-0.30950257182121277,
-0.5162128210067749,
-0.0008244846831075847,
0.1693395972251892,
-0.5377308130264282,
0.14711229503154755,
-0.05214673653244972,
-0.323895663022995,
-0.44719067215919495,
-0.4487249553203583,
-1.462923288345337,
0.5906119346618652,
-0.01916627213358879,
-0.47368714213371277,
0.9496079087257385,
0.20213288068771362,
-0.33814990520477295,
0.09337852895259857,
0.4987763464450836,
0.57718825340271,
0.1366317868232727,
-0.6141179800033569,
-0.435962975025177,
-0.19507107138633728,
0.5845708847045898,
0.6568205952644348,
0.7621089816093445,
1.2516366243362427,
0.4090772867202759,
-0.67775958776474,
-0.33114445209503174,
-0.01334343757480383,
0.7134279608726501,
-0.0027428320609033108,
-0.9295619130134583,
0.7406511902809143,
0.29270312190055847,
-0.44479116797447205,
-0.1051083356142044,
0.23776015639305115,
0.4753413796424866,
0.3526351749897003,
-0.33591973781585693,
0.27949270606040955,
0.10292660444974899,
0.4926227927207947,
0.14598076045513153,
-0.04153456538915634,
-0.4270438253879547,
0.2591797113418579,
0.41598808765411377,
-0.19524438679218292,
0.19039799273014069,
0.09772432595491409,
0.5829579830169678,
-0.7432326078414917,
-0.4651012122631073,
-0.3797980546951294,
-0.5993762612342834,
0.0062241810373961926,
-0.3064808249473572,
-0.08388648182153702,
-0.15161657333374023,
-0.8525733947753906,
0.5462839603424072,
-0.3483658730983734,
-0.5079880356788635,
-0.2280939370393753,
0.7408804893493652,
-0.45488283038139343,
-0.369486004114151,
-0.14829806983470917,
-0.33480727672576904,
-0.003644824493676424,
-0.29867398738861084,
0.20516015589237213,
-0.724741518497467,
-0.02057025581598282,
-0.07880640774965286,
0.436094731092453,
-0.004602655302733183,
-0.14562010765075684,
0.28993815183639526,
0.11162230372428894,
0.03310191258788109,
-0.2686876058578491,
-0.8426252007484436,
0.7271967530250549,
-0.29460540413856506,
-0.3095182776451111,
0.2030126005411148,
0.2692244350910187,
-0.4125860333442688,
-0.4008546471595764,
0.1895429939031601,
0.8181621432304382,
-0.13878792524337769,
-0.0007222758722491562,
0.5400693416595459,
1.0659496784210205,
-0.18868625164031982,
-0.17419478297233582,
0.08597636222839355,
-1.0172351598739624,
0.14771635830402374,
0.31223607063293457,
-0.055322423577308655,
0.2407764345407486,
0.7282687425613403,
0.7952843904495239,
-0.6528394818305969,
1.0804121494293213,
-0.40269312262535095,
-0.44949769973754883,
0.23318451642990112,
0.13697770237922668,
0.1513919085264206,
-0.6002708077430725,
-0.1857449859380722,
0.5450999736785889,
-0.43285083770751953,
-0.5954942107200623,
-0.367022305727005,
-0.04377743601799011,
-0.13587121665477753,
-0.14713211357593536,
0.38265660405158997,
0.0746077448129654,
-0.04066721722483635,
0.140956312417984,
-0.1537729948759079,
-0.0018388705793768167,
0.8435166478157043,
-0.2784394919872284,
0.3594556152820587,
-0.044093817472457886,
0.15958434343338013,
0.22494365274906158,
0.30981114506721497,
-0.3037302494049072,
0.3252302408218384,
0.34701859951019287,
0.20306044816970825,
-0.12411488592624664,
-1.4952646493911743,
0.2219417840242386,
-0.20893166959285736,
-0.025644034147262573,
0.20205038785934448,
0.3140617609024048,
0.06823092699050903,
-0.7542883157730103,
0.2620667517185211,
-0.008793973363935947,
-0.44899508357048035,
0.8096579909324646,
0.16776208579540253,
0.019954707473516464,
0.2429666668176651,
0.05209549888968468,
-0.42164504528045654,
0.08640813082456589,
-0.25366297364234924,
0.3773389458656311,
0.16002106666564941,
-0.36065661907196045,
0.14656171202659607,
-0.2005017101764679,
-0.18512384593486786,
-0.5077926516532898,
0.8309913277626038,
-0.7387240529060364,
-0.42530402541160583,
0.3457455039024353,
-0.3862147629261017,
-0.27571049332618713,
0.03878263756632805,
0.10626067966222763,
-0.03815107420086861,
0.1829240620136261,
-1.05130136013031,
0.5641776919364929,
0.1087857186794281,
0.9810939431190491,
0.8736788630485535,
0.0331672728061676,
0.13537581264972687,
0.09982971847057343,
-0.7314702868461609,
0.3426715135574341,
-0.27109259366989136,
0.11145581305027008,
-0.8322232365608215,
0.08923137933015823,
-0.4756939709186554,
0.6544771194458008,
0.5145909786224365,
0.35920968651771545,
0.029666202142834663,
0.6668838262557983,
-0.30138635635375977,
0.6043235063552856,
0.15073920786380768,
0.012906959280371666,
0.26762616634368896,
-0.17043107748031616,
0.19640180468559265,
0.05877145007252693,
0.3726768493652344,
0.10545531660318375,
0.5426424145698547,
0.1045885905623436,
0.3359580636024475,
-0.5175507068634033,
-0.5648059844970703,
0.32085147500038147,
0.054402973502874374,
0.13371635973453522,
-0.16549013555049896,
0.5810360908508301,
-0.09265371412038803,
-0.03842948004603386,
0.17064811289310455,
1.2122129201889038,
0.7308328151702881,
-0.0427875742316246,
-0.26526615023612976,
-0.1890408992767334,
0.581652820110321,
-0.08314398676156998,
-0.5767490267753601,
-0.14138579368591309,
-0.5303953886032104,
-0.6258734464645386,
-0.3724713921546936,
0.10066314786672592,
0.21839173138141632,
-0.47204241156578064,
0.24370451271533966,
-0.3781038224697113,
0.03836546093225479,
-0.7149750590324402,
-0.41976484656333923,
-0.3771224617958069,
-0.39626094698905945,
-0.5747621655464172
] |
203622
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%20line
|
Euler line
|
In geometry, the Euler line, named after Leonhard Euler (), is a line determined from any triangle that is not equilateral. It is a central line of the triangle, and it
passes through several important points determined from the triangle, including the orthocenter, the circumcenter, the centroid, the Exeter point and the center of the nine-point circle of the triangle.
The concept of a triangle's Euler line extends to the Euler line of other shapes, such as the quadrilateral and the tetrahedron.
Triangle centers on the Euler line
Individual centers
Euler showed in 1765 that in any triangle, the orthocenter, circumcenter and centroid are collinear. This property is also true for another triangle center, the nine-point center, although it had not been defined in Euler's time. In equilateral triangles, these four points coincide, but in any other triangle they are all distinct from each other, and the Euler line is determined by any two of them.
Other notable points that lie on the Euler line include the de Longchamps point, the Schiffler point, the Exeter point, and the Gossard perspector. However, the incenter generally does not lie on the Euler line; it is on the Euler line only for isosceles triangles, for which the Euler line coincides with the symmetry axis of the triangle and contains all triangle centers.
The tangential triangle of a reference triangle is tangent to the latter's circumcircle at the reference triangle's vertices. The circumcenter of the tangential triangle lies on the Euler line of the reference triangle. The center of similitude of the orthic and tangential triangles is also on the Euler line.
A vector proof
Let be a triangle. A proof of the fact that the circumcenter , the centroid and the orthocenter are collinear relies on free vectors. We start by stating the prerequisites. First, satisfies the relation
This follows from the fact that the absolute barycentric coordinates of are . Further, the problem of Sylvester reads as
Now, using the vector addition, we deduce that
By adding these three relations, term by term, we obtain that
In conclusion, , and so the three points , and (in this order) are collinear.
In Dörrie's book, the Euler line and the problem of Sylvester are put together into a single proof. However, most of the proofs of the problem of Sylvester rely on the fundamental properties of free vectors, independently of the Euler line.
Distances between centers
On the Euler line the centroid G is between the circumcenter O and the orthocenter H and is twice as far from the orthocenter as it is from the circumcenter:
The segment GH is a diameter of the orthocentroidal circle.
The center N of the nine-point circle lies along the Euler line midway between the orthocenter and the circumcenter:
Thus the Euler line could be repositioned on a number line with the circumcenter O at the location 0, the centroid G at 2t, the nine-point center at 3t, and the orthocenter H at 6t for some scale factor t.
Furthermore, the squared distance between the centroid and the circumcenter along the Euler line is less than the squared circumradius R2 by an amount equal to one-ninth the sum of the squares of the side lengths a, b, and c:
In addition,
Representation
Equation
Let A, B, C denote the vertex angles of the reference triangle, and let x : y : z be a variable point in trilinear coordinates; then an equation for the Euler line is
An equation for the Euler line in barycentric coordinates is
Parametric representation
Another way to represent the Euler line is in terms of a parameter t. Starting with the circumcenter (with trilinear coordinates ) and the orthocenter (with trilinears every point on the Euler line, except the orthocenter, is given by the trilinear coordinates
formed as a linear combination of the trilinears of these two points, for some t.
For example:
The circumcenter has trilinears corresponding to the parameter value
The centroid has trilinears corresponding to the parameter value
The nine-point center has trilinears corresponding to the parameter value
The de Longchamps point has trilinears corresponding to the parameter value
Slope
In a Cartesian coordinate system, denote the slopes of the sides of a triangle as and and denote the slope of its Euler line as . Then these slopes are related according to
Thus the slope of the Euler line (if finite) is expressible in terms of the slopes of the sides as
Moreover, the Euler line is parallel to an acute triangle's side BC if and only if
Relation to inscribed equilateral triangles
The locus of the centroids of equilateral triangles inscribed in a given triangle is formed by two lines perpendicular to the given triangle's Euler line.
In special triangles
Right triangle
In a right triangle, the Euler line coincides with the median to the hypotenuse—that is, it goes through both the right-angled vertex and the midpoint of the side opposite that vertex. This is because the right triangle's orthocenter, the intersection of its altitudes, falls on the right-angled vertex while its circumcenter, the intersection of its perpendicular bisectors of sides, falls on the midpoint of the hypotenuse.
Isosceles triangle
The Euler line of an isosceles triangle coincides with the axis of symmetry. In an isosceles triangle the incenter falls on the Euler line.
Automedian triangle
The Euler line of an automedian triangle (one whose medians are in the same proportions, though in the opposite order, as the sides) is perpendicular to one of the medians.
Systems of triangles with concurrent Euler lines
Consider a triangle ABC with Fermat–Torricelli points F1 and F2. The Euler lines of the 10 triangles with vertices chosen from A, B, C, F1 and F2 are concurrent at the centroid of triangle ABC.
The Euler lines of the four triangles formed by an orthocentric system (a set of four points such that each is the orthocenter of the triangle with vertices at the other three points) are concurrent at the nine-point center common to all of the triangles.
Generalizations
Quadrilateral
In a convex quadrilateral, the quasiorthocenter H, the "area centroid" G, and the quasicircumcenter O are collinear in this order on the Euler line, and HG = 2GO.
Tetrahedron
A tetrahedron is a three-dimensional object bounded by four triangular faces. Seven lines associated with a tetrahedron are concurrent at its centroid; its six midplanes intersect at its Monge point; and there is a circumsphere passing through all of the vertices, whose center is the circumcenter. These points define the "Euler line" of a tetrahedron analogous to that of a triangle. The centroid is the midpoint between its Monge point and circumcenter along this line. The center of the twelve-point sphere also lies on the Euler line.
Simplicial polytope
A simplicial polytope is a polytope whose facets are all simplices. For example, every polygon is a simplicial polytope. The Euler line associated to such a polytope is the line determined by its centroid and circumcenter of mass. This definition of an Euler line generalizes the ones above.
Suppose that is a polygon. The Euler line is sensitive to the symmetries of in the following ways:
1. If has a line of reflection symmetry , then is either or a point on .
2. If has a center of rotational symmetry , then .
3. If all but one of the sides of have equal length, then is orthogonal to the last side.
Related constructions
A triangle's Kiepert parabola is the unique parabola that is tangent to the sides (two of them extended) of the triangle and has the Euler line as its directrix.
References
External links
An interactive applet showing several triangle centers that lies on the Euler line.
"Euler Line" and "Non-Euclidean Triangle Continuum" at the Wolfram Demonstrations Project
Nine-point conic and Euler line generalization, A further Euler line generalization, and The quasi-Euler line of a quadrilateral and a hexagon at Dynamic Geometry Sketches
Bogomolny, Alexander, "Altitudes and the Euler Line" and "Euler Line and 9-Point Circle", Cut-the-Knot
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Straight lines defined for a triangle
|
[
-0.31726935505867004,
-0.5488294959068298,
0.09617318958044052,
-0.10610201954841614,
-0.24185827374458313,
0.6757291555404663,
-0.11718248575925827,
-0.15757596492767334,
-0.22631053626537323,
-1.0689657926559448,
-0.7471172213554382,
-0.3342147767543793,
-0.6860836744308472,
0.12056072801351547,
0.3006473481655121,
0.710125744342804,
0.5452168583869934,
0.523912787437439,
-0.6733230352401733,
-0.950239896774292,
0.2874639928340912,
-0.12672193348407745,
0.039404164999723434,
-0.46611568331718445,
0.5713639259338379,
-0.2558249831199646,
-0.1809016764163971,
-0.12029732763767242,
0.6920986771583557,
0.6370545029640198,
0.17063525319099426,
0.42104920744895935,
-0.23745040595531464,
-0.4876820743083954,
0.4711158573627472,
-0.5110985040664673,
-0.14333781599998474,
0.015318214893341064,
-0.15768477320671082,
0.006657729856669903,
0.4473012685775757,
-0.03109699860215187,
0.5000991821289062,
0.17265482246875763,
0.012593250721693039,
-0.48417580127716064,
-1.4864155054092407,
0.275624543428421,
0.17150144279003143,
-0.0899081900715828,
0.06205695495009422,
-0.3052639663219452,
-0.04780340567231178,
1.2465251684188843,
-0.3857441246509552,
0.4929490387439728,
-0.5513220429420471,
-0.17291873693466187,
0.15714892745018005,
-0.1795976758003235,
0.09754855185747147,
0.4838820695877075,
0.34638792276382446,
0.5883452296257019,
-0.015904320403933525,
1.063983678817749,
-0.37561145424842834,
0.16073496639728546,
-0.5786909461021423,
-0.45432281494140625,
0.032955702394247055,
-0.19483552873134613,
-0.5689269304275513,
0.42492738366127014,
-0.29826653003692627,
-0.12674443423748016,
0.013439619913697243,
0.049131423234939575,
0.4554751515388489,
0.5982434153556824,
0.15308943390846252,
0.35233333706855774,
-0.0002819178334902972,
-0.10758364200592041,
-0.06904952228069305,
0.5253008604049683,
-0.8839905261993408,
0.16111400723457336,
-0.5418872237205505,
0.42819643020629883,
0.6463980078697205,
-0.5032494068145752,
-0.13529245555400848,
-0.2566966414451599,
0.025341209024190903,
0.21910975873470306,
0.33783864974975586,
-0.6952345371246338,
0.1383688747882843,
0.0014556029345840216,
-0.25076478719711304,
-0.10207067430019379,
0.020387886092066765,
-0.6395429968833923,
-0.041730333119630814,
-0.6858707666397095,
0.10911289602518082,
-0.4360133409500122,
0.3589114844799042,
-0.003316770540550351,
-0.9014682769775391,
0.2422276884317398,
0.47311729192733765,
-0.12131860107183456,
-0.01643090322613716,
0.06991125643253326,
0.46580612659454346,
0.038960475474596024,
0.3950493633747101,
0.25635385513305664,
-0.35292625427246094,
0.2981857359409332,
0.1839200258255005,
0.9888939261436462,
-0.10352625697851181,
0.08660233020782471,
0.23046500980854034,
0.7913325428962708,
-1.6032943725585938,
-0.1907602697610855,
0.2999378442764282,
0.69901442527771,
0.4355480968952179,
0.48340925574302673,
0.04779052734375,
-0.46009573340415955,
0.1967305988073349,
-0.4060226082801819,
-0.05956023931503296,
0.11278147995471954,
-0.9516725540161133,
-0.2851715087890625,
-0.32707709074020386,
-0.09617704153060913,
-0.10933612287044525,
-0.16507922112941742,
0.1615247130393982,
-0.7513535618782043,
0.3100169599056244,
-0.10981440544128418,
0.2792316973209381,
0.28765302896499634,
-0.22840100526809692,
-0.07421627640724182,
-0.6313468813896179,
0.012077197432518005,
0.6528422832489014,
0.5804846286773682,
-0.9507410526275635,
-0.34707188606262207,
0.33664003014564514,
-0.03336597979068756,
0.2551496624946594,
-0.17590153217315674,
0.7183820605278015,
-0.07467778027057648,
0.6263524889945984,
-0.2204166203737259,
-0.076375812292099,
0.5734027624130249,
0.16006384789943695,
-0.7221086621284485,
0.24065086245536804,
-0.40246498584747314,
-0.43090951442718506,
0.08578440546989441,
0.25867366790771484,
-0.027259720489382744,
0.37915167212486267,
-0.4540289342403412,
-1.1057997941970825,
0.6204153299331665,
0.6903029680252075,
-0.5357083082199097,
0.08658764511346817,
0.38394200801849365,
0.4021298587322235,
0.19466927647590637,
-0.19221645593643188,
-0.061985138803720474,
-0.2913997769355774,
-0.29819291830062866,
-0.0660899356007576,
-0.6589458584785461,
1.225299596786499,
-0.1364552527666092,
-0.9858231544494629,
-0.023018158972263336,
-1.0308815240859985,
0.6792636513710022,
-0.866186797618866,
-0.20263777673244476,
0.8149421215057373,
0.46515092253685,
-0.09108879417181015,
0.3777235746383667,
-0.5241684317588806,
0.4492645561695099,
0.18000754714012146,
0.7585427761077881,
0.5383327603340149,
-0.3507431149482727,
0.4011777341365814,
0.056590523570775986,
-0.05302651599049568,
0.36581915616989136,
-0.24902448058128357,
-0.3991418480873108,
-0.19665373861789703,
-0.0025190571323037148,
0.6544283032417297,
0.05366609990596771,
0.058896392583847046,
0.26196783781051636,
-0.04085546359419823,
0.638282835483551,
0.2731318473815918,
0.8638797402381897,
0.011370770633220673,
-0.28582653403282166,
-0.5043351054191589,
-0.07769519835710526,
0.3188442587852478,
-0.4089919924736023,
0.2521994411945343,
-0.14914776384830475,
0.4049511253833771,
-0.886722207069397,
0.3373585045337677,
-0.7929198145866394,
0.18652601540088654,
0.12581157684326172,
-0.2400381714105606,
-0.37995755672454834,
0.10901405662298203,
-0.15536552667617798,
-0.12616202235221863,
0.08804795891046524,
0.02375621534883976,
-0.2198861539363861,
-0.9677661657333374,
0.2265743464231491,
0.042692627757787704,
-0.2331433892250061,
-0.39305031299591064,
-0.002767917001619935,
0.34495049715042114,
-0.07118085026741028,
0.691690981388092,
0.47914546728134155,
0.3782288432121277,
-0.10569392889738083,
0.06319395452737808,
-0.2734130918979645,
-0.4726685583591461,
-0.20020011067390442,
-0.9072805643081665,
0.2557731866836548,
1.0747257471084595,
0.5055564641952515,
0.5396895408630371,
-0.4517279863357544,
-0.5540556311607361,
0.03766607120633125,
-0.9114804863929749,
-0.4257345497608185,
-0.4724551737308502,
-0.23154136538505554,
-0.780098021030426,
-0.4786217212677002,
0.4440162777900696,
0.3775554597377777,
0.2939138412475586,
-0.08862528204917908,
-0.28912872076034546,
0.11044352501630783,
0.17861387133598328,
-0.5524479746818542,
0.2240070104598999,
0.08514615148305893,
0.20062585175037384,
0.8404780030250549,
-0.35097843408584595,
-0.40637850761413574,
0.7797533869743347,
0.4980628192424774,
-0.007619359530508518,
-0.453479528427124,
0.003871798049658537,
-0.4532339572906494,
-0.36964303255081177,
-0.3151114284992218,
0.31357333064079285,
-0.27963536977767944,
0.28682100772857666,
0.08795957267284393,
-0.00645996630191803,
0.4292600452899933,
-5.194075584411621,
-0.0001434544537914917,
-0.28476715087890625,
0.312417209148407,
-0.5522539019584656,
0.4718729853630066,
0.6010657548904419,
-0.09754575043916702,
-0.2297365516424179,
-0.4480799734592438,
0.01876370795071125,
-0.5972102284431458,
-0.4958430230617523,
0.600461483001709,
0.26594892144203186,
0.3586634397506714,
-0.0907522663474083,
0.018343927338719368,
0.49031975865364075,
0.8580124974250793,
-0.5322702527046204,
-0.5931060314178467,
0.01988603174686432,
-0.20551590621471405,
0.4709305763244629,
-0.4245707392692566,
-0.13324521481990814,
0.20571136474609375,
-0.37508904933929443,
-0.21090494096279144,
0.12500694394111633,
-0.3100009858608246,
-0.06040778383612633,
-0.31430113315582275,
-0.39767828583717346,
-0.4395773410797119,
0.4092119634151459,
-0.3250180184841156,
0.056581445038318634,
-0.09393081068992615,
-0.19584983587265015,
0.866432785987854,
-0.16626212000846863,
0.09130235016345978,
0.024204107001423836,
-0.49977242946624756,
-0.0019364330219104886,
0.01606939174234867,
-0.08236157894134521,
0.7431637644767761,
0.2956552803516388,
0.3544413149356842,
0.10181868076324463,
-0.49799710512161255,
0.2683822214603424,
0.31461301445961,
0.09148643910884857,
-0.34197700023651123,
-0.8025302886962891,
0.5694600343704224,
1.0258241891860962,
-0.8288291096687317,
0.400508850812912,
-0.3867250978946686,
-0.4054284989833832,
-0.20682407915592194,
-1.1664232015609741,
-0.4194023907184601,
0.14576952159404755,
0.021174151450395584,
-0.20024242997169495,
0.160630002617836,
0.28949445486068726,
-0.5115901827812195,
-0.013599328696727753,
-0.33897218108177185,
0.02385011315345764,
-0.16314008831977844,
0.22225339710712433,
-0.10543326288461685,
-0.22857514023780823,
0.025579649955034256,
-0.3169810175895691,
0.9062057137489319,
-0.5156164169311523,
-0.1987185925245285,
-0.27854812145233154,
0.04774214327335358,
-0.3494524657726288,
-0.035028859972953796,
0.6087363362312317,
-0.4419632852077484,
0.6791000366210938,
0.3305966854095459,
-0.10294276475906372,
-0.21359598636627197,
0.06856472790241241,
0.013982671312987804,
0.663284957408905,
-0.0029722696635872126,
0.0632283166050911,
0.2235907018184662,
0.5461929440498352,
0.6023715734481812,
0.38064926862716675,
0.066887266933918,
-0.6435427069664001,
0.46366381645202637,
0.10857108235359192,
0.22718651592731476,
0.09026516228914261,
-0.4548457860946655,
-0.0629640743136406,
-0.29783347249031067,
0.17005901038646698,
0.2633443772792816,
-0.2171204686164856,
0.14981955289840698,
0.4745416045188904,
-0.24138303101062775,
-0.3129873275756836,
0.2026134580373764,
-0.031652241945266724,
-0.07119086384773254,
-0.19355005025863647,
-0.04289326071739197,
-0.4893946349620819,
0.5912366509437561,
-0.4622415006160736,
0.39468297362327576,
-0.2852307856082916,
0.9128473401069641,
0.2174011617898941,
-0.18578213453292847,
0.36091241240501404,
-0.223733052611351,
-0.40124067664146423,
-0.23620416224002838,
0.7077358961105347,
0.17627686262130737,
0.5226255059242249,
0.1863393932580948,
-0.21952597796916962,
-0.18590012192726135,
0.9808359146118164,
-0.16035912930965424,
-0.3006671071052551,
-0.3309394121170044,
-0.5332698225975037,
0.9848920702934265,
0.10123418271541595,
-0.6366732716560364,
1.0677191019058228,
-0.20364618301391602,
0.005967697594314814,
-0.08687348663806915,
-0.4808206260204315,
0.22216454148292542,
-0.3921387791633606,
-0.8047115802764893,
0.7295651435852051,
0.21475040912628174,
-0.3704700171947479,
-0.16022132337093353,
0.104676753282547,
-0.2640633285045624,
-0.06684568524360657,
-0.35995200276374817,
-0.32751575112342834,
-0.07143513113260269,
0.34714487195014954,
-0.045664332807064056,
0.09116111695766449,
-0.5479517579078674,
-0.2860575318336487,
0.2667442262172699,
-0.11085416376590729,
0.30076202750205994,
0.16441714763641357,
-0.6134307980537415,
-0.13316889107227325,
-0.41463416814804077,
0.02878132276237011,
0.45145487785339355,
0.8961231708526611,
-0.11046680808067322,
0.08531231433153152,
-0.03031420148909092,
-0.7599303126335144,
0.07330763339996338,
0.43393224477767944,
0.1785823106765747,
-0.8831660151481628,
0.07915312796831131,
-0.379163920879364,
-0.018941139802336693,
0.5134188532829285,
0.31657320261001587,
0.09121234714984894,
-0.4886310398578644,
-0.4798215329647064,
0.17862680554389954,
-0.4835115671157837,
0.8780768513679504,
0.37677255272865295,
-0.56241774559021,
-0.025994744151830673,
0.03637665510177612,
-0.5100446343421936,
0.24819976091384888,
-0.41617926955223083,
-1.0292662382125854,
-0.7017959356307983,
-0.25572308897972107,
-0.6007440686225891,
0.8374870419502258,
0.423848032951355,
-0.6622425317764282,
-0.42162737250328064,
-0.3169412612915039,
0.35172075033187866,
-0.42775291204452515,
-0.3455132246017456,
-0.21010614931583405,
0.2597278952598572,
0.33106979727745056,
0.24331878125667572,
-0.43882110714912415,
0.7955065965652466,
-0.06331704556941986,
-0.23779626190662384,
0.29504555463790894,
0.14235830307006836,
0.28166794776916504,
-0.08496595174074173,
-0.775240421295166,
-0.4760564863681793,
0.10547547042369843,
-0.5709834098815918,
0.15629087388515472,
0.4868055582046509,
-0.04217095300555229,
0.025924568995833397,
-0.8647119998931885,
0.5143738389015198,
0.5028674006462097,
0.5100173950195312,
-0.9002863764762878,
0.07786522805690765,
0.49537762999534607,
0.17987273633480072,
-0.14409543573856354,
-0.0028958055190742016,
-0.8001334071159363,
0.3317543864250183,
0.6275674104690552,
0.04340730234980583,
0.32373958826065063,
0.2247915118932724,
0.15685217082500458,
-0.1869591623544693,
-0.513607382774353,
-0.5777406096458435,
0.1561683863401413,
0.33025407791137695,
0.24912233650684357,
-0.183993399143219,
0.31235748529434204,
0.06683717668056488,
-0.15603947639465332,
0.0744008794426918,
-0.28942781686782837,
0.9352903366088867,
0.5347078442573547,
0.4035039246082306,
0.5074213147163391,
-0.3603754937648773,
0.4218871593475342,
-0.42654895782470703,
-0.31492191553115845,
-1.2056034803390503,
-0.3590213358402252,
0.22940179705619812,
-0.47408124804496765,
0.21260645985603333,
0.3359741270542145,
0.5051540732383728,
0.7847891449928284,
0.19158315658569336,
0.019086094573140144,
-0.2257818877696991,
0.006014445796608925,
-0.23691533505916595,
-0.006110910791903734,
-0.42340531945228577,
0.9169918298721313,
0.5512081384658813,
0.6981862187385559,
0.27139759063720703,
-0.4501941204071045,
-0.9669145941734314,
0.13939498364925385,
-0.02266518399119377,
-0.10233675688505173,
-0.28538045287132263,
0.5865741968154907,
0.645470142364502,
0.06887177377939224,
0.34609007835388184,
0.1447448581457138,
0.4373105764389038,
-0.0389164499938488,
-0.561298131942749,
0.3734532296657562,
-0.5329461097717285,
-0.25335416197776794,
0.902275025844574,
-0.13928401470184326,
0.16584496200084686,
0.2680776119232178,
-0.23026394844055176,
0.05636465921998024,
-0.02065763995051384,
-0.1698220819234848,
-1.19313383102417,
-0.314863920211792,
-0.23417039215564728,
0.38065582513809204,
-0.42437097430229187,
0.5796185731887817,
0.8502153754234314,
0.24603481590747833,
-1.0705993175506592,
0.6251376271247864,
0.13986797630786896,
-0.17123398184776306,
-0.19784730672836304,
-1.0526914596557617,
0.33018356561660767,
0.1561751663684845,
0.8247025609016418,
1.0004684925079346,
-0.0221905168145895,
0.27271175384521484,
-0.06113019958138466,
0.2667410671710968,
0.006577793974429369,
-0.2884840965270996,
-0.12570978701114655,
0.21409229934215546,
0.520667552947998,
-0.3763410747051239,
0.09420318156480789,
-0.2893351912498474,
-0.44126269221305847,
0.4681437015533447,
0.38554853200912476,
0.033738553524017334,
0.11194178462028503,
0.1937262862920761,
-0.6376433968544006,
0.035047028213739395,
-0.03080492652952671,
-0.032840948551893234,
-0.7202211022377014,
0.48993954062461853,
0.2648448348045349,
-0.5116525888442993,
-0.13621261715888977,
-0.5274378657341003,
-0.21616418659687042,
0.34680110216140747,
0.07241150736808777,
0.5497680902481079,
0.37479540705680847,
-0.08226822316646576,
-0.11707060039043427,
0.3971860706806183,
-0.13288630545139313,
-0.3898228704929352,
0.06603453308343887,
0.10126893222332001,
0.060946397483348846,
-0.41217634081840515,
-0.6082151532173157,
-0.23069560527801514,
-0.017176009714603424,
-0.4042389988899231,
-0.45126017928123474,
0.10528258979320526,
0.2717067003250122,
-0.39509469270706177,
0.49340134859085083,
-0.0227524284273386,
0.02688370645046234,
0.26632246375083923,
-0.6138270497322083,
1.3533215522766113,
0.5134245157241821,
-0.8778837323188782,
0.11664684861898422,
0.2176685631275177,
0.41313183307647705,
-0.273510217666626,
-0.6792178153991699,
0.18341773748397827,
-0.11591529846191406,
0.4753066301345825,
-0.7228726744651794,
0.2975568175315857,
0.2584693729877472,
0.010871576145291328,
0.3259657621383667,
0.33622896671295166,
0.17496061325073242,
0.042370136827230453,
0.6865091919898987,
-0.03584856912493706,
-0.36418241262435913,
-0.008932760916650295,
-0.011968477629125118,
-0.18384383618831635,
-1.037213921546936,
-0.0566462017595768,
0.11194682121276855,
0.0999508872628212,
0.25625887513160706,
0.06408222019672394,
0.5038613080978394,
0.4787665605545044,
0.5704335570335388,
-0.10066677629947662,
-1.229835033416748,
0.1618378460407257,
-0.06438913941383362,
-0.4315568208694458,
0.7200916409492493,
0.4895898699760437,
-0.1120617613196373,
-0.9769471287727356,
-0.5398878455162048,
0.24152621626853943,
-1.3069628477096558,
0.6667904853820801,
0.07214158773422241,
0.6725680232048035,
-0.05538385361433029,
-0.4145221412181854,
-0.5203307867050171,
0.6576611399650574,
0.7493779063224792,
0.03314679116010666,
0.18800659477710724,
-0.064540795981884,
-0.018531810492277145,
-0.5060637593269348,
0.20959161221981049,
-0.3182075321674347,
0.20217227935791016,
0.7458295822143555
] |
203623
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885%20in%20literature
|
1885 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1885.
—Opening lines of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Events
January 1 – The Dictionary of National Biography begins publication in London under the editorship of Leslie Stephen.
February 18 – Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published in the United States for the first time, in New York by the author's own publishing house, Charles L. Webster, illustrated by E. W. Kemble, the first impression having been delayed for replacement of an unauthorized obscene alteration to one of the illustrative plates. Its first-person narrative in colloquial language is initially controversial but ultimately influential in the development of realism in American literature.
March 7 – José Echegaray's play La vida alegre y muerte triste opens in Spain.
March 19 – Bolesław Prus's first major naturalistic novel, The Outpost (Placówka), begins serialization in the Polish illustrated weekly, Wędrowiec.
May – Henri Beauclair and Gabriel Vicaire, using the pseudonym Adoré Floupette, publish Les Déliquescences d'Adoré Floupette, a parodic collection of poems satirising French symbolism and the Decadent movement.
May 16 – Sakuradoki Zeni no Yononaka ("The Season of Cherry Blossoms; The World of Money"), an adaptation by Genzo Katsu after Bunkai Udagawa of The Merchant of Venice set in the Edo period, is performed by the Nakamura Sojuro Kabuki company at the Ebisu-za Theater in Osaka, the first of Shakespeare's plays to be staged with actors in Japan.
May 19 – The Revised Version Old Testament is published.
June 1 – More than two million people join Victor Hugo's funeral procession in Paris from the Arc de Triomphe to the Panthéon, where he is the first author to be buried, following his death on May 22 in the city from pneumonia aged 83.
June 29 – Thomas Hardy moves to a house he designed for himself and built by his brother at Max Gate on the outskirts of Dorchester, Dorset.
unknown dates
Arthur Napier is appointed first Merton Professor of English Language and Literature in the University of Oxford.
John Ormsby's English translation of Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote is published. For many years it is regarded as the most accurate translation of the novel.
The first translation of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace into English begins publication. It has been done by Clara Bell from a French version.
The first translation of Amy Catherine Walton (Mrs. O. F. Walton)'s Christian novel Christie's Old Organ into Japanese, made by Tajima Kashi, is published, one of the earliest examples of children's literature in Japan.
Daniel Owen's long novel Hunangofiant Rhys Lewis, Gweinidog Bethel is published as the first written in Welsh.
New books
Fiction
Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) – La regenta, vol. 2
Richard Francis Burton – The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night: A Plain and Literal Translation of the Arabian Nights Entertainments
Hall Caine
She's All the World to Me
The Shadow of a Crime
Mrs. W. K. Clifford – Mrs. Keith's Crime
Antonio Fogazzaro – Daniele Cortis
Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. – A Mortal Antipathy
William Dean Howells – The Rise of Silas Lapham
Richard Jefferies – After London
Jerome K. Jerome – On the Stage — and Off
Eliza Lynn Linton – The Autobiography of Christopher Kirkland
Guy de Maupassant – Bel-Ami
George Meredith – Diana of the Crossways
Friedrich Nietzsche – Thus Spoke Zarathustra (publication concluded)
Daniel Owen – Hunangofiant Rhys Lewis, Gweinidog Bethel
Walter Pater – Marius the Epicurean
Tsubouchi Shōyō (坪内 逍遥) – Tōsei Shosei Katagi (Portraits of Contemporary Students)
Elizabeth Stannard (as John Strange Winter) – Booties' Baby: a story of the Scarlet Lancers
Jules Vallés – Jacques Vingtras
Jules Verne – Mathias Sandorf
Émile Zola – Germinal
Children and young people
Lewis Carroll – A Tangled Tale
H. Rider Haggard – King Solomon's Mines
Robert Louis Stevenson
A Child's Garden of Verses (originally Penny Whistles)
Prince Otto
Mark Twain – Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (U.S. publication)
Drama
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson – Geografi og Kærlighed
Arthur Wing Pinero – The Magistrate
Poetry
See 1885 in poetry
Non-fiction
J. W. Cross (ed.) – George Eliot's Life, as related in her letters and journals
Anténor Firmin – De l'Égalité des Races Humaines (On the Equality of Human Races)
Tsubouchi Shōyō ((坪内 逍遥) – Shōsetsu Shinzui (The Essence of the Novel)
Births
January 16 – Zhou Zuoren (周作人), Chinese vernacular writer (died 1967)
February 7 – Sinclair Lewis, American novelist (died 1951)
February 21 – Sacha Guitry, French dramatist and screenwriter (died 1957)
February 24 – Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Polish painter, playwright and novelist (died 1939)
March 6 – Ring Lardner, American writer (died 1933)
March 25 – Mateiu Caragiale, Romanian novelist and poet (died 1936)
March 27 – Constantin Gane, Romanian biographer and historical novelist (died 1962)
April 17 – Karen Blixen, Danish author (died 1962)
May 2 – Hedda Hopper, American columnist (died 1966)
May 8 – Thomas B. Costain, Canadian author and journalist (died 1965)
May 9 – Al. T. Stamatiad, Romanian poet (died 1955)
July 10 – Mary O'Hara, American author and screenwriter (died 1980)
July 18 – Marino Moretti, Italian poet and author (died 1979)
August 15 – Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (died 1968)
September 7 – Elinor Wylie (Elinor Morton Hoyt), American poet and novelist (died 1928)
September 11 – D. H. Lawrence, English fiction writer and poet (died 1930)
October 3 – Sophie Treadwell, American dramatist and journalist (died 1970)
October 11 – François Mauriac, French novelist (died 1970)
October 30 – Ezra Pound, American poet (died 1972)
November 9 (October 28 O.S.) – Velimir Khlebnikov, Russian Futurist poet and writer (died 1922)
December 8 – Kenneth Roberts, American novelist (died 1957)
Deaths
January 10 – Amable Tastu, French women of letters and poet (born 1795)
February 14 – Jules Vallés, French writer (born 1832)
March 17 – Susan Warner (pseudonym Elizabeth Weatherell), American religious and children's writer (born 1819)
April 8 – Susanna Moodie, English-born Canadian author (born 1803)
April 18 – Marc Monnier, French author and translator (born 1827)
April 30 – Jens Peter Jacobsen, Danish novelist (born 1847)
May 13 – Juliana Horatia Ewing, English children's writer (born 1841)
May 15 – Hugh Conway, English novelist (born 1847)
May 22 – Victor Hugo, French poet and novelist (born 1802)
June 18 – Louis Segond, Swiss theologian (born 1810)
July 13 – Augusto Vera, Italian philosopher (born 1813)
July 15 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish Galician poet and writer (born 1837)
August 11 – Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton, English man of letters, poet and politician (born 1809)
September 18 – John Campbell Shairp, Scottish critic (born 1819)
November 29 – Anne Gilchrist, English-born American critic and biographer (emphysema, born 1828)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
0.024051841348409653,
0.22437842190265656,
-0.5889502763748169,
-0.28908565640449524,
-0.6597484946250916,
-0.08564230799674988,
0.675570547580719,
0.4789772629737854,
-0.7559369206428528,
-0.6418862342834473,
-0.01797579415142536,
-0.06196117401123047,
0.03886261582374573,
0.28745120763778687,
0.14024962484836578,
-0.04530695453286171,
0.14974002540111542,
-0.014823856763541698,
0.3410571813583374,
-0.4640904664993286,
-0.4008564054965973,
0.13703042268753052,
0.5913913249969482,
-0.14320127665996552,
0.27232035994529724,
-0.7893478274345398,
0.3481472432613373,
-0.47800198197364807,
0.38550621271133423,
-0.23372359573841095,
-0.16617177426815033,
0.168012797832489,
0.3666422367095947,
0.2673683166503906,
-0.8328744769096375,
-0.5581374168395996,
-0.30874940752983093,
-0.38623133301734924,
0.1436791867017746,
-0.48463326692581177,
-0.4868946969509125,
0.09564907103776932,
0.589587926864624,
0.4101731777191162,
-0.04798712208867073,
-0.4635414183139801,
-2.0082573890686035,
0.018758991733193398,
-0.840798020362854,
0.5276052355766296,
-0.21859495341777802,
0.523398220539093,
1.1218786239624023,
0.25946691632270813,
-0.39639002084732056,
0.6392635703086853,
-0.40562358498573303,
0.011454706080257893,
0.018658407032489777,
-0.6022486090660095,
0.39089709520339966,
0.3588569462299347,
0.16406714916229248,
0.14676594734191895,
0.6590045690536499,
0.13605763018131256,
-0.44871675968170166,
-0.001487364643253386,
-0.05049622058868408,
-0.5101372599601746,
0.020719222724437714,
-0.219053253531456,
0.3698163628578186,
-0.04856716841459274,
0.3789260685443878,
-0.13663733005523682,
0.1750379055738449,
-0.012436551973223686,
-0.4190881848335266,
-0.07858362048864365,
-0.46269291639328003,
0.3599526584148407,
0.8434879779815674,
0.4023934304714203,
0.23857000470161438,
-0.07891504466533661,
-0.45411011576652527,
-0.02654203772544861,
0.1808146834373474,
-0.45166444778442383,
0.01936519891023636,
0.0403602197766304,
0.4619051516056061,
0.23874345421791077,
0.2537454664707184,
0.2947481572628021,
-0.220816969871521,
0.219970703125,
-0.5742309093475342,
-0.13469018042087555,
0.022158654406666756,
0.5117698907852173,
0.5731122493743896,
-0.02356204017996788,
-0.6544631123542786,
0.06501627713441849,
0.18477484583854675,
0.0016054394654929638,
0.6708783507347107,
-0.664265513420105,
-0.38147249817848206,
0.4136312007904053,
-0.4962901771068573,
-0.16380281746387482,
0.15300790965557098,
-0.007594588678330183,
0.39174163341522217,
-0.20328955352306366,
-0.682895839214325,
0.17283710837364197,
-0.5696312785148621,
0.14072732627391815,
0.1508978009223938,
0.6872036457061768,
-0.852556586265564,
0.3676251471042633,
0.43179601430892944,
0.5369963049888611,
0.07440534979104996,
0.43860140442848206,
0.5241755843162537,
1.140990972518921,
-0.12105836719274521,
-0.19489797949790955,
0.04553571715950966,
-0.20321625471115112,
0.10477474331855774,
0.7032341957092285,
0.08661987632513046,
0.23190252482891083,
-0.4678785502910614,
0.08765885978937149,
-1.6783006191253662,
-0.0631948783993721,
0.11683185398578644,
-0.6388076543807983,
0.10817376524209976,
-0.23552419245243073,
-0.23889197409152985,
-0.5469720959663391,
0.48569032549858093,
-0.5393525958061218,
-0.36277997493743896,
0.466927707195282,
-0.00016276177484542131,
0.3926653265953064,
0.22896260023117065,
0.1472940295934677,
0.7993050813674927,
0.051934901624917984,
-0.2853979170322418,
0.1633840650320053,
0.009158899076282978,
0.034457214176654816,
-0.10176728665828705,
-0.47195932269096375,
0.10773294419050217,
-0.08021330833435059,
0.3220169246196747,
0.059296250343322754,
-0.30382049083709717,
0.08015472441911697,
0.45865097641944885,
-0.4766673743724823,
-0.25857722759246826,
-0.3134230077266693,
0.13300782442092896,
0.36748871207237244,
0.09198754280805588,
0.2032591998577118,
-0.7151480913162231,
0.2945746183395386,
-0.11287836730480194,
-0.6224485039710999,
0.7294355034828186,
0.2271871268749237,
0.5506705641746521,
0.2346172332763672,
-0.17137619853019714,
-0.5223134160041809,
-0.31792911887168884,
-0.3157292306423187,
-0.1744786500930786,
-0.3348308503627777,
1.4186290502548218,
-0.27251720428466797,
-0.30152344703674316,
0.8441330790519714,
-0.17094339430332184,
0.0483715645968914,
0.45745590329170227,
-0.011986720375716686,
0.29090505838394165,
-0.04373026639223099,
-0.2664816975593567,
1.0156362056732178,
0.20221251249313354,
0.20121252536773682,
0.2600442171096802,
0.5132547616958618,
0.6053153276443481,
-0.1800646036863327,
0.15052849054336548,
0.11506979912519455,
-0.31484803557395935,
0.11919331550598145,
-0.44064146280288696,
0.39127883315086365,
0.18245689570903778,
0.15145888924598694,
0.7007765173912048,
-0.16518937051296234,
0.5242543816566467,
0.6166284084320068,
0.09693038463592529,
0.30988362431526184,
0.25671765208244324,
0.18179890513420105,
-0.13300767540931702,
-0.7077348232269287,
0.023061515763401985,
0.39623695611953735,
0.02440388686954975,
-0.5479729771614075,
0.17135214805603027,
-0.05904119089245796,
0.040844500064849854,
0.005861002020537853,
0.14641056954860687,
-0.19298188388347626,
0.7033379077911377,
-0.3261811137199402,
-0.08356189727783203,
0.5057865977287292,
0.12153847515583038,
0.57449871301651,
-0.25850817561149597,
-0.08727013319730759,
-0.368745893239975,
-0.5190489888191223,
0.7594237327575684,
0.6170101165771484,
0.0008052043267525733,
-0.056378886103630066,
-0.5729308128356934,
-0.015682343393564224,
-0.38180026412010193,
-0.7048042416572571,
0.8302850723266602,
0.422946035861969,
-0.15914812684059143,
-0.00794996414333582,
0.1264754682779312,
0.21750588715076447,
0.06418361514806747,
-0.07005582004785538,
-0.05094929412007332,
-1.0965369939804077,
0.5414052605628967,
0.16551785171031952,
0.23348550498485565,
0.20766036212444305,
-0.45423877239227295,
-0.7910302877426147,
0.35103079676628113,
0.1193714439868927,
0.23321577906608582,
-0.1501038819551468,
-0.5293848514556885,
-0.4218994975090027,
-0.6516004204750061,
0.7440454959869385,
0.5751808285713196,
-0.568751871585846,
0.1229216605424881,
-0.22575445473194122,
0.1842138171195984,
0.12429078668355942,
0.1768270879983902,
-0.5212612152099609,
-0.31867483258247375,
0.054650790989398956,
-0.4778294563293457,
-0.23014141619205475,
-0.020628564059734344,
0.5199949145317078,
-0.3684590756893158,
0.5163610577583313,
0.17841586470603943,
-0.642266035079956,
-0.2683974802494049,
0.23076152801513672,
-0.16027969121932983,
0.2509591579437256,
0.20454947650432587,
0.6378064155578613,
-0.17521004378795624,
0.08258106559515,
-5.500799655914307,
-0.19608822464942932,
-0.40332871675491333,
-0.4069608449935913,
-0.4613186717033386,
0.3293909430503845,
0.3724673390388489,
-0.19182108342647552,
-0.5204856395721436,
-0.42067572474479675,
-0.3854755163192749,
-0.25596797466278076,
-0.15422552824020386,
1.0721564292907715,
0.16574187576770782,
0.42410069704055786,
0.4574503004550934,
-0.08563367277383804,
-0.4806307256221771,
0.4284825325012207,
0.10161034017801285,
0.34429609775543213,
-0.12414982169866562,
0.32048994302749634,
0.9928246736526489,
0.31116029620170593,
0.10748535394668579,
0.17484216392040253,
0.16591860353946686,
0.3199737071990967,
0.18750783801078796,
-0.06851854920387268,
0.31909307837486267,
-0.23318186402320862,
0.07462537288665771,
0.17401231825351715,
0.8197908997535706,
0.5540328025817871,
0.7223395109176636,
0.2574259340763092,
-0.7375386357307434,
0.6708504557609558,
-0.2927584946155548,
0.4151899218559265,
0.08259246498346329,
0.034184928983449936,
-0.3635645806789398,
-0.1958409696817398,
-0.40734419226646423,
0.7433969974517822,
0.1085083857178688,
-0.28856971859931946,
0.4479391276836395,
0.5892686247825623,
0.5861141681671143,
-0.003325320780277252,
-0.48607322573661804,
-0.3314102292060852,
-0.38009142875671387,
-0.048450496047735214,
0.07000423967838287,
-0.12372040748596191,
0.48855212330818176,
-0.6737563014030457,
-0.42557594180107117,
-0.24862024188041687,
-0.6062160730361938,
0.37053588032722473,
0.18960002064704895,
0.0319279283285141,
0.06478665769100189,
0.6962388753890991,
-0.27512598037719727,
-0.7456582188606262,
-0.19013620913028717,
0.0995999351143837,
-0.3707815110683441,
0.16866831481456757,
-0.02926938608288765,
0.23513279855251312,
-0.32330289483070374,
-0.2442127913236618,
-0.26534441113471985,
0.5136619210243225,
-0.09013762325048447,
-0.3871500790119171,
0.06458666175603867,
-0.5895107984542847,
-1.0596168041229248,
-0.7084720730781555,
0.5162691473960876,
-0.06803220510482788,
-0.11534074693918228,
0.017937028780579567,
0.33234667778015137,
0.41049107909202576,
0.6896459460258484,
0.1931338757276535,
0.3953218162059784,
-0.2552438974380493,
0.13308238983154297,
-0.13140733540058136,
0.06687438488006592,
-0.24096888303756714,
-0.27024781703948975,
-0.3424655795097351,
-0.5780742168426514,
0.688341498374939,
0.6030068397521973,
-0.9256589412689209,
0.10825793445110321,
-0.26309934258461,
-1.1172771453857422,
-0.0733812004327774,
0.8926164507865906,
0.026026280596852303,
0.4330730736255646,
0.0027042680885642767,
-0.02775133214890957,
0.08001333475112915,
0.05658521503210068,
0.4989389181137085,
-0.23527546226978302,
-0.38230857253074646,
-0.2881027162075043,
-0.31304049491882324,
0.062351539731025696,
-0.5677341818809509,
-0.4925628900527954,
-0.29869332909584045,
0.13891731202602386,
0.44522759318351746,
-0.21007058024406433,
-0.35958003997802734,
-0.04902945086359978,
-0.2413361519575119,
-0.12226372957229614,
0.0009073011460714042,
0.08866848796606064,
-0.6339005827903748,
-0.13109341263771057,
-0.18947231769561768,
-0.11936970055103302,
-0.06477488577365875,
0.77166348695755,
0.09560888260602951,
-0.3258303999900818,
-0.5197259783744812,
-0.3597087860107422,
0.3341416120529175,
-0.28590524196624756,
0.16093967854976654,
0.3342956602573395,
0.275470495223999,
-0.10378482192754745,
-0.02536330744624138,
-0.14667744934558868,
0.42077547311782837,
-0.5282874703407288,
-0.26485320925712585,
-0.08342454582452774,
-0.4611707031726837,
-0.8771691918373108,
0.4038521349430084,
0.18006674945354462,
-0.5937174558639526,
-0.24411818385124207,
-0.18969258666038513,
-0.15187224745750427,
0.3935416042804718,
0.13959921896457672,
-0.21616220474243164,
-0.48159435391426086,
-0.07798697054386139,
0.4267493188381195,
-0.32149791717529297,
0.07382269948720932,
-0.005465993192046881,
-0.11115392297506332,
-0.19962504506111145,
0.21312494575977325,
-0.5065782070159912,
-0.21134035289287567,
0.5588813424110413,
0.6287860870361328,
-0.07226145267486572,
-0.18419304490089417,
-0.16685305535793304,
-0.5110004544258118,
0.13176873326301575,
-0.4097558259963989,
0.299032598733902,
0.8392639756202698,
-0.30879440903663635,
-0.926948070526123,
-0.19679482281208038,
0.10469760000705719,
-0.09626523405313492,
-0.25435373187065125,
-0.3225867450237274,
0.5180944204330444,
-0.018858518451452255,
0.021883156150579453,
-0.34155696630477905,
-0.12170414626598358,
-0.8817863464355469,
0.4553118050098419,
-0.6863121390342712,
-0.7959169149398804,
0.5456532835960388,
0.42812812328338623,
-0.3987540602684021,
0.009086143225431442,
0.4153832197189331,
0.07794765383005142,
0.08269578963518143,
-0.056737009435892105,
0.36187344789505005,
-0.6567121148109436,
-0.09569802135229111,
0.7020572423934937,
-0.058787502348423004,
-1.0331668853759766,
-0.25799983739852905,
-0.42531096935272217,
0.2758275270462036,
0.0795631930232048,
-0.453182578086853,
0.5476080775260925,
-0.17392456531524658,
-0.12824761867523193,
-0.06615659594535828,
0.24328580498695374,
0.15919892489910126,
-0.27658557891845703,
-0.07999058067798615,
-0.13292758166790009,
-0.08676594495773315,
-0.11728497594594955,
0.12681421637535095,
0.25948452949523926,
0.7972696423530579,
-0.12322859466075897,
-0.12582038342952728,
0.05070541426539421,
0.5687816739082336,
0.19919976592063904,
-0.34321415424346924,
-0.7611750960350037,
0.3553456664085388,
0.3968427777290344,
-0.187005877494812,
-0.6831972002983093,
-0.5542342662811279,
0.4861466884613037,
-0.29499584436416626,
-0.5586351752281189,
0.3446522653102875,
0.0012349848402664065,
0.539054274559021,
-0.009864028543233871,
0.21420761942863464,
-0.17349587380886078,
0.30255335569381714,
0.5913755297660828,
0.11557665467262268,
0.0975426435470581,
0.2869504392147064,
0.5197175741195679,
-0.010091935284435749,
-0.592725396156311,
-0.338269978761673,
-0.3869248628616333,
0.3284347355365753,
0.3977174460887909,
-0.20377105474472046,
-0.64150470495224,
-0.684219241142273,
-0.3480823338031769,
-0.22320705652236938,
-0.21908627450466156,
-0.22225765883922577,
0.03611767664551735,
-0.27468398213386536,
-0.46846073865890503,
-0.40628358721733093,
-0.23412272334098816,
-0.10274555534124374,
-0.2539181113243103,
-0.19042867422103882,
0.05283019319176674,
-0.3013576865196228,
-0.14575067162513733,
-0.21062171459197998,
0.2302352786064148,
0.33942946791648865,
-0.34066131711006165,
0.14521300792694092,
-0.03409804776310921,
-0.15764537453651428,
-0.2487611025571823,
0.4778097867965698,
0.26348283886909485,
-0.5720111727714539,
0.958867609500885,
0.03645360469818115,
-0.2546060383319855,
-0.2327946275472641,
-0.12676425278186798,
0.32468047738075256,
0.4758373200893402,
0.2969382703304291,
-0.0321783572435379,
0.5071044564247131,
-0.5804331302642822,
0.038072772324085236,
-0.19526059925556183,
-0.36270415782928467,
0.800640344619751,
-0.04781083017587662,
-0.009824365377426147,
0.48064661026000977,
0.509093701839447,
-0.04953161999583244,
-0.600104808807373,
0.30142346024513245,
-0.33978158235549927,
0.13434477150440216,
0.21061763167381287,
-0.04298502579331398,
0.31525930762290955,
0.46820199489593506,
0.15935499966144562,
0.8740065097808838,
-0.22256608307361603,
-0.560602068901062,
0.19673629105091095,
-0.5880049467086792,
0.11984734237194061,
0.3330795466899872,
0.5980271100997925,
-0.12272071838378906,
0.45222920179367065,
0.13415557146072388,
0.3417622148990631,
-0.29621466994285583,
0.11404836922883987,
0.2982994019985199,
0.1089782565832138,
0.26036950945854187,
0.360262393951416,
0.6291891932487488,
0.6737619638442993,
-0.41746070981025696,
0.178364560008049,
-0.4746614098548889,
-0.0327305868268013,
-0.015098742209374905,
0.21451988816261292,
-0.8277009725570679,
0.19524657726287842,
0.42038071155548096,
0.35014739632606506,
-0.2478206753730774,
0.30601683259010315,
0.44250401854515076,
0.24317653477191925,
0.37354928255081177,
-0.09590978175401688,
-0.12068019807338715,
0.3179776072502136,
-0.330977201461792,
-0.0748557448387146,
-0.2209336906671524,
-0.19403252005577087,
0.8745340704917908,
0.6607118844985962,
-0.0390823669731617,
0.21622097492218018,
0.04009535163640976,
-0.03175174072384834,
0.2751227617263794,
-0.31534504890441895,
0.10690484941005707,
0.15431158244609833,
-0.5559344291687012,
-0.04022183269262314,
0.6124409437179565,
0.01362556405365467,
-0.7189462780952454,
-0.3625178039073944,
-0.1083722785115242,
0.19503037631511688,
0.13096798956394196,
-0.7464314699172974,
0.20435874164104462,
-0.48969587683677673,
1.5862303972244263,
0.07717366516590118,
-0.4559839367866516,
-0.45846378803253174,
-0.23645246028900146,
-0.161440908908844,
0.09035765379667282,
-0.2567930817604065,
0.7243596315383911,
-0.5371202230453491,
-0.12888666987419128,
-0.4666965901851654,
0.7349280714988708,
0.23628808557987213,
0.30570968985557556,
-0.1991109848022461,
0.8421459794044495,
-0.3522053062915802,
0.010885297320783138,
0.05649538338184357,
-0.16343213617801666,
-0.2619127631187439,
0.31034791469573975,
-0.30960941314697266,
0.25062325596809387,
0.2540293037891388,
-0.017584577202796936,
-0.3927386701107025,
0.2580700218677521,
0.10129453241825104,
0.5694500207901001,
0.13405565917491913,
-0.00813292246311903,
-0.3743138313293457,
-0.48481184244155884,
-0.5946331024169922,
0.21833695471286774,
-0.3006848096847534,
1.191137433052063,
0.6127098202705383,
0.5466422438621521,
0.17825640738010406,
-0.2688896059989929,
-0.003918592818081379,
-0.19460366666316986,
0.3645212948322296,
0.023084012791514397,
-2.0446975231170654,
0.08863966912031174,
-0.3759620189666748,
-0.26735541224479675,
-0.5230305790901184,
0.2288888692855835,
-0.0805048942565918,
0.10392691195011139,
-0.12110190093517303,
-0.18947583436965942,
0.30080896615982056,
-0.0045011830516159534,
0.11362610757350922,
-1.0272305011749268,
0.42409393191337585,
-0.06156518682837486
] |
203624
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffiti%20%28Palm%20OS%29
|
Graffiti (Palm OS)
|
Graffiti is an essentially single-stroke shorthand handwriting recognition system used in PDAs based on the Palm OS. Graffiti was originally written by Palm, Inc. as the recognition system for GEOS-based devices such as HP's OmniGo 100 and 120 or the Magic Cap-line and was available as an alternate recognition system for the Apple Newton MessagePad, when NewtonOS 1.0 could not recognize handwriting very well. Graffiti also runs on the Windows Mobile platform, where it is called "Block Recognizer", and on the Symbian UIQ platform as the default recognizer and was available for Casio's Zoomer PDA.
The software is based primarily on a neography of upper-case characters that can be drawn blindly with a stylus on a touch-sensitive panel. Since the user typically cannot see the character as it is being drawn, complexities have been removed from four of the most difficult letters. "A" "F", "K" and "T" all are drawn without any need to match up a cross-stroke.
Some letters can be drawn with strokes other than the "official" ones. Two examples of these alternative strokes are the letters "V" (drawn the same only from right to left) and "X" (drawn the same as the letter "K" except reversed from right to left). These alternative strokes are frequently recognized with greater reliability.
History
Graffiti was developed by Jeff Hawkins, who had previously created "PalmPrint" (the character recognition system used by the Casio Zoomer) to recognize natural handwriting. By using a simpler alphabet, computers could easily recognize handwriting. Hawkins believed that people would take the time to learn Graffiti just as people learn to touch-type. Hawkins recalled his insight: "And then it came to me in a flash. Touch-typing is a skill you learn."
Hawkins also envisioned a single area for writing letters on top of each other.
Hawkins called this system "PowerPalmPrint" or P3. Other engineers at Palm revised and expanded the alphabet that Hawkins had created. Joe Sipher and Ron Marianetti created more characters and punctuation and also designed a prototype of Graffiti that ran on a PC with a tablet peripheral.
Non-Palm OS versions
Graffiti was also implemented on the Apple Newton. In 2008, an unauthorized version of Graffiti was introduced for iOS (iPhone and iPad) devices. An Android version was released in 2010 by ACCESS Co., Ltd. of Japan, which acquired the rights to Graffiti when it acquired PalmSource, Inc. in 2005.
Lawsuit
The original Graffiti system was the subject of a lawsuit from Xerox, claiming it violated Xerox's patent relating to its Unistrokes technology (, granted in 1997). The Unistrokes technology was invented at the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) by David Goldberg in 1993.
Palm later appealed the original court ruling both on the claim it violated Xerox's patent and as to the validity of the patent in the first place. An appeals court ruled in favor of Xerox with regard to the original ruling, that Palm had violated Xerox's patent, but sent the case back down to the lower court to decide whether the patent was valid to begin with. In 2004, a judge ruled in favor of Palm on the patent review, saying Xerox's patent was not valid on the basis that "prior art references anticipate and render obvious the claim." Xerox appealed the ruling. Xerox also obtained a US$22.5 million payment from Palm for retrospective licensing fees. Palm and Xerox agreed to not sue each other for seven years over certain patents, without publicly specifying which patents.
See also
Moon type — a writing system for the blind, using embossed symbols mostly derived from the Roman alphabet (but simplified)
Nyctograph
References
External links
Graffiti for Android app
computing input devices
input methods for handheld devices
Palm OS
personal digital assistant software
pointing-device text input
user interface techniques
|
[
0.10920381546020508,
0.4609413743019104,
-0.017703277990221977,
-0.042022958397865295,
0.021641651168465614,
0.0399070680141449,
-0.02439422905445099,
0.36580654978752136,
-0.11657743155956268,
-0.4311794936656952,
-0.018353883177042007,
0.3928746283054352,
-0.43913811445236206,
-0.513520359992981,
0.09848663210868835,
-0.10435895621776581,
0.15148404240608215,
0.5829831957817078,
-0.24182234704494476,
0.03288228437304497,
-0.22297360002994537,
-0.3443315029144287,
0.05498358607292175,
-0.9013014435768127,
-0.3109005093574524,
0.010645758360624313,
0.3050929009914398,
0.07641635835170746,
-0.8743471503257751,
0.17538538575172424,
0.1357150673866272,
0.6774565577507019,
0.26735150814056396,
-0.5196453332901001,
-0.5759639739990234,
-0.4249214828014374,
-0.4553734362125397,
-0.3781033158302307,
0.12784408032894135,
-0.4597625434398651,
0.18882887065410614,
-0.4456479847431183,
0.017726723104715347,
0.04085691273212433,
0.17091239988803864,
-0.2717585861682892,
-1.9943113327026367,
0.0153437415137887,
-0.6294887661933899,
0.23644930124282837,
-0.5593540072441101,
0.8057305216789246,
-0.08670036494731903,
0.43419817090034485,
0.2993142604827881,
0.2652745842933655,
-0.5571256875991821,
-0.7837096452713013,
0.45698076486587524,
-0.13379327952861786,
0.6283809542655945,
0.01782955788075924,
-0.6769641041755676,
0.463001012802124,
-0.06486742198467255,
0.16813643276691437,
-0.022208644077181816,
0.7423052787780762,
-0.3147054612636566,
-0.619384765625,
0.35584399104118347,
-0.29553624987602234,
-0.06286147981882095,
-0.4471391439437866,
-0.3139357566833496,
0.09043089300394058,
0.12385329604148865,
0.13089214265346527,
-0.30910390615463257,
0.30781152844429016,
0.2811029851436615,
0.5664424896240234,
0.947517991065979,
0.1119917631149292,
0.4678076505661011,
-0.14698278903961182,
-0.12394481152296066,
0.2498815506696701,
-0.1216917335987091,
-0.10423612594604492,
0.020780937746167183,
-0.16306184232234955,
0.3973137438297272,
0.60688316822052,
0.6097431182861328,
0.10026600956916809,
-0.4968211352825165,
0.5718960165977478,
0.01578422635793686,
0.021219052374362946,
-0.08917459100484848,
0.33529579639434814,
0.3783784508705139,
0.09333134442567825,
-0.28122183680534363,
-0.01956310123205185,
-0.3836250901222229,
0.0547339990735054,
0.3709504008293152,
-0.20040927827358246,
-0.14393280446529388,
0.049487899988889694,
0.06650068610906601,
0.01667185127735138,
-0.18849709630012512,
-0.026364974677562714,
0.022135766223073006,
0.1586311310529709,
-0.08443091064691544,
-0.07794657349586487,
-0.1711624562740326,
0.9680679440498352,
0.28673574328422546,
0.3646036386489868,
0.11696156114339828,
0.28494206070899963,
0.4677881598472595,
0.7433739304542542,
-0.17481081187725067,
0.4079265892505646,
0.18533456325531006,
1.2798734903335571,
0.4957868754863739,
0.1986800730228424,
0.20707304775714874,
-0.3352537751197815,
0.39178842306137085,
0.08159598708152771,
0.49046602845191956,
-0.26091623306274414,
-0.6409255862236023,
-0.5339152812957764,
-0.4918287396430969,
0.07556363195180893,
0.2113901525735855,
0.18948262929916382,
0.03217692673206329,
-0.15812371671199799,
-0.32945501804351807,
-0.15645550191402435,
0.015712829306721687,
-0.29184529185295105,
0.012543706223368645,
0.1495240479707718,
0.024242013692855835,
0.8385418057441711,
0.3836407959461212,
-0.5735684633255005,
0.038489289581775665,
-0.05838903784751892,
0.051836613565683365,
0.36674410104751587,
-0.8135401010513306,
0.12472278624773026,
0.17104503512382507,
-0.11524806916713715,
-0.22240692377090454,
0.2782939672470093,
0.5518113374710083,
-0.1812579482793808,
0.03005174919962883,
-0.06560912728309631,
0.263004332780838,
-0.45397189259529114,
0.20975127816200256,
0.0632098838686943,
0.8709761500358582,
0.4885559678077698,
0.8057287335395813,
0.6309179663658142,
-0.5650185346603394,
0.12234123051166534,
0.13001716136932373,
0.17783136665821075,
0.269432932138443,
-0.18408076465129852,
0.3934163451194763,
0.15531368553638458,
-0.45995092391967773,
-0.5095175504684448,
-1.2422069311141968,
-0.2993125021457672,
0.2646131217479706,
-0.13950861990451813,
0.9911302328109741,
-0.16062632203102112,
-0.9878873229026794,
0.8513638973236084,
0.6149623990058899,
0.6507014036178589,
-0.30573606491088867,
0.394871324300766,
0.38997724652290344,
-0.049868710339069366,
-0.20651176571846008,
0.28121399879455566,
0.20746295154094696,
-0.039088405668735504,
-0.47636133432388306,
0.19226954877376556,
0.13375817239284515,
-0.6642241477966309,
-0.013287225738167763,
-0.19730587303638458,
0.30306971073150635,
0.3564699590206146,
-0.31556910276412964,
-0.5273717045783997,
-0.4190042018890381,
-0.2633315920829773,
0.5246275663375854,
-0.47703349590301514,
-0.09674949944019318,
0.457887202501297,
-0.7946268916130066,
0.7700174450874329,
0.05238815024495125,
-0.26457494497299194,
1.058998942375183,
-0.7045893669128418,
0.14980719983577728,
0.26341548562049866,
0.09406358748674393,
-1.0015854835510254,
-0.2799934148788452,
-0.043276384472846985,
0.5123764276504517,
0.13341449201107025,
0.35435155034065247,
0.7448553442955017,
0.1829296201467514,
0.45920389890670776,
-0.5190377831459045,
-0.300179660320282,
-0.09346779435873032,
0.09298400580883026,
-0.3822956681251526,
-0.1277817338705063,
-0.28291091322898865,
0.09323576092720032,
0.45002540946006775,
0.7264134883880615,
-0.4545292556285858,
-0.9731947779655457,
0.00015202823851723224,
0.6456793546676636,
-0.17588792741298676,
-0.48427432775497437,
-0.2793923616409302,
-0.17137391865253448,
-0.48498502373695374,
0.4865991473197937,
-0.114080511033535,
0.612983226776123,
0.031958919018507004,
-0.7388715744018555,
-0.10965466499328613,
-0.13267719745635986,
0.2464400827884674,
0.5709971785545349,
-0.08669847995042801,
0.20769521594047546,
-0.6389831304550171,
-0.329947829246521,
-0.4025523364543915,
-0.03490955010056496,
-0.4110303819179535,
-0.03632626682519913,
-0.3698766231536865,
-0.43069371581077576,
-0.2745785117149353,
0.9142327904701233,
0.6311112642288208,
-0.8057264089584351,
-0.016252564266324043,
-0.10296265035867691,
0.26728448271751404,
-0.09077729284763336,
-0.5790619850158691,
-0.5048035979270935,
-0.42958465218544006,
0.20555944740772247,
0.1862877905368805,
0.6409621238708496,
0.25128987431526184,
0.1052095890045166,
0.42555874586105347,
0.3134128451347351,
0.12014763057231903,
-0.11697059869766235,
-0.0563613623380661,
-0.12184092402458191,
-0.4299272298812866,
-0.4275490343570709,
0.14757274091243744,
0.1585717797279358,
-0.8074377179145813,
-0.0401933416724205,
-5.735036849975586,
0.35985085368156433,
-0.4414915144443512,
0.03197241201996803,
-0.4517836570739746,
0.007552812807261944,
0.5082003474235535,
-0.2615725100040436,
0.23801469802856445,
-0.4204588234424591,
0.12462496757507324,
0.5123991966247559,
0.22762338817119598,
0.10197407007217407,
0.012437638826668262,
0.029491031542420387,
0.6123775243759155,
-0.3824579417705536,
0.193592369556427,
0.04687059298157692,
-0.0308278426527977,
0.24346214532852173,
-0.01966041512787342,
0.27848002314567566,
0.24331480264663696,
0.8869385719299316,
-0.5154213309288025,
0.18374712765216827,
-0.0046327910386025906,
0.20224212110042572,
0.3020531237125397,
-0.12491591274738312,
-0.40673500299453735,
0.24847333133220673,
-0.4527168869972229,
0.19205458462238312,
0.9270928502082825,
-0.27515333890914917,
0.09244454652070999,
-0.2652556002140045,
0.1682663857936859,
0.23428016901016235,
-0.012875165790319443,
-0.528682291507721,
0.23441082239151,
-0.012360641732811928,
-0.19601283967494965,
-0.19861534237861633,
0.15054306387901306,
0.6360237002372742,
-0.2974946200847626,
-0.359348863363266,
-0.08690352737903595,
0.563406765460968,
0.19325293600559235,
-0.6613776087760925,
0.17115047574043274,
-0.2618991434574127,
-0.33287790417671204,
0.1645253449678421,
0.3540770709514618,
-1.070846438407898,
-0.28407835960388184,
-0.9911962747573853,
-0.21060103178024292,
0.12814775109291077,
-0.15175281465053558,
-0.6429640650749207,
0.6543201208114624,
0.13504861295223236,
-0.345122367143631,
0.5170173048973083,
-0.08041637390851974,
-0.8827013969421387,
0.14370094239711761,
-0.30371609330177307,
-0.08276274800300598,
-0.32437077164649963,
-0.5456792712211609,
-0.44687771797180176,
0.010242377407848835,
-0.6627020239830017,
-0.5416445136070251,
-0.1327745020389557,
0.0010064782109111547,
-0.2827243506908417,
-0.1821604073047638,
0.21089352667331696,
-0.1440991312265396,
0.23717324435710907,
1.708567500114441,
-0.28643926978111267,
0.12458835542201996,
0.325941801071167,
0.5563748478889465,
0.6469704508781433,
0.6421310305595398,
-0.23229531943798065,
0.11996624618768692,
-0.046481311321258545,
0.6613413095474243,
-0.1392272561788559,
-0.25367471575737,
-0.7445671558380127,
-0.42297717928886414,
-0.004985786508768797,
-0.7656614184379578,
0.10656481981277466,
0.3465729355812073,
-0.17594213783740997,
-0.5392189025878906,
-0.27619442343711853,
-0.5647662281990051,
-0.0904981791973114,
0.30525240302085876,
0.06729982793331146,
0.04556330665946007,
0.3037305474281311,
0.6223037838935852,
-0.3885685205459595,
0.21243000030517578,
0.5069900751113892,
-0.3517867624759674,
-0.07044243067502975,
-0.5260999202728271,
-0.32493698596954346,
0.3551606833934784,
0.5849533081054688,
0.21886761486530304,
-0.15867279469966888,
-0.017157187685370445,
0.23278290033340454,
-0.12308517098426819,
0.38975822925567627,
-0.023032544180750847,
-0.2578543722629547,
-0.23847222328186035,
0.06763320416212082,
0.12211792916059494,
-0.6388579607009888,
0.13445396721363068,
-0.6142534017562866,
0.2264125943183899,
0.024527793750166893,
0.6960504055023193,
-0.10411739349365234,
-0.31418466567993164,
-0.6930825710296631,
-0.22204649448394775,
0.8189652562141418,
0.02226087637245655,
-0.5367572903633118,
-0.06422625482082367,
0.015111769549548626,
-0.0602465458214283,
-0.15510408580303192,
-0.20936574041843414,
0.18115782737731934,
0.13670231401920319,
0.07924726605415344,
0.4517842233181,
0.4102875292301178,
-0.7367597222328186,
0.13876858353614807,
-0.05895126983523369,
-0.6388893723487854,
0.1399533599615097,
-0.38876381516456604,
-0.671850323677063,
0.6033880114555359,
-0.21172469854354858,
-0.3042709529399872,
-0.17409345507621765,
-0.5003914833068848,
0.46841737627983093,
-0.5641080737113953,
-0.09912807494401932,
0.47352954745292664,
0.026939842849969864,
-0.18073616921901703,
-0.04131464660167694,
-0.24119028449058533,
-0.1174505352973938,
0.17473502457141876,
0.499544233083725,
-0.5680882334709167,
-0.29412487149238586,
-0.030671311542391777,
-0.40337395668029785,
-0.26074913144111633,
-0.2602468430995941,
0.41511431336402893,
0.6172507405281067,
-0.1848299652338028,
-0.4861428439617157,
-0.43819481134414673,
-0.05189347267150879,
0.8769491910934448,
-0.010202029719948769,
-0.6321942210197449,
-0.02523561380803585,
0.4851159155368805,
-0.631625771522522,
0.5095693469047546,
-0.3747585415840149,
-0.35229554772377014,
0.4401835501194,
-0.2537730932235718,
-0.6086141467094421,
-0.10500790923833847,
0.24689246714115143,
-0.5833739638328552,
-0.24081192910671234,
-0.01657118834555149,
-0.031137345358729362,
-0.046805016696453094,
0.26002711057662964,
-0.2547060251235962,
-0.18435287475585938,
0.003808236913755536,
-0.06285922974348068,
-0.048006072640419006,
-0.4609421193599701,
0.14792485535144806,
-0.4001549780368805,
0.3920430541038513,
0.40242817997932434,
-0.4474830627441406,
0.2604062557220459,
0.11517582833766937,
0.5043657422065735,
-0.32023730874061584,
0.31062161922454834,
0.18277432024478912,
-0.0695275291800499,
-0.020518429577350616,
-0.1883876919746399,
-0.13315734267234802,
0.014843120239675045,
0.09351907670497894,
0.35095933079719543,
0.6323017477989197,
-0.3839700520038605,
-0.749355673789978,
-0.23164184391498566,
0.12415742874145508,
-0.0724455788731575,
-0.6083939075469971,
-1.044681429862976,
0.7261313796043396,
0.5805636644363403,
-0.38000187277793884,
-0.5635526776313782,
-0.30143359303474426,
0.8566832542419434,
-0.19264917075634003,
-0.15516358613967896,
-0.5932353734970093,
-0.2432558834552765,
0.3843314051628113,
0.3846879303455353,
0.019154813140630722,
-0.1156720370054245,
0.09364891797304153,
0.1706160604953766,
0.20996598899364471,
0.448567271232605,
-0.2539786100387573,
0.509965181350708,
-0.4071166515350342,
0.061786748468875885,
-0.07816466689109802,
0.47850388288497925,
0.712087094783783,
0.02426658198237419,
-0.3797817826271057,
-0.15271390974521637,
-0.055548105388879776,
0.12291046977043152,
0.3306809067726135,
0.06052993983030319,
-0.12855841219425201,
0.061081789433956146,
-0.22444678843021393,
0.09706394374370575,
-0.23749011754989624,
0.2200871706008911,
-0.12514542043209076,
0.23562338948249817,
-0.12897729873657227,
-0.3096492886543274,
0.7948290109634399,
-0.1615872085094452,
0.17701373994350433,
0.00038517601205967367,
0.16266870498657227,
-0.04581969231367111,
0.10929363965988159,
-0.11133518815040588,
-0.45181891322135925,
0.000474774424219504,
1.1712981462478638,
0.5296121835708618,
-0.469708114862442,
0.48743245005607605,
0.07904141396284103,
0.22399026155471802,
-0.11395103484392166,
-0.12912540137767792,
-0.0570734478533268,
-0.2427036166191101,
-0.48866501450538635,
0.22144171595573425,
0.45372822880744934,
-0.09568531066179276,
0.3594444692134857,
0.20624183118343353,
-0.24408139288425446,
0.24865637719631195,
-0.058432210236787796,
0.04751700535416603,
-0.10109560191631317,
0.6639592051506042,
-0.14987550675868988,
-0.23198656737804413,
0.5724932551383972,
-0.3211177587509155,
-0.540591299533844,
0.47606417536735535,
0.07635529339313507,
0.9431201815605164,
-0.15979008376598358,
-0.3370659053325653,
-0.1879734843969345,
0.02556239627301693,
-0.28344327211380005,
0.13112811744213104,
-0.03697134181857109,
-0.19772788882255554,
0.2779049873352051,
0.5552997589111328,
0.30047696828842163,
-0.1764642596244812,
-0.2277720719575882,
-0.005767126102000475,
0.03612394258379936,
0.006363526452332735,
-0.04076554253697395,
0.29326680302619934,
0.29876279830932617,
0.1446269303560257,
-0.061893828213214874,
-0.38649460673332214,
0.4478907883167267,
0.24616090953350067,
-0.9137895703315735,
0.044716689735651016,
0.4359329640865326,
0.05901790037751198,
-0.04207909107208252,
0.02025523968040943,
0.5836148262023926,
0.342024028301239,
-0.2828235328197479,
-0.7541929483413696,
-0.09057363122701645,
0.7700682878494263,
0.1426379531621933,
0.23577255010604858,
0.11621423810720444,
0.16735811531543732,
0.22156277298927307,
-0.021619927138090134,
0.9594360589981079,
0.08831406384706497,
-0.20240792632102966,
0.7225445508956909,
0.2851630449295044,
-0.2696753144264221,
0.0640217661857605,
-0.32836487889289856,
-0.1216740757226944,
-0.46361061930656433,
-0.34404125809669495,
0.39799630641937256,
-0.031119655817747116,
-0.251233845949173,
0.41698893904685974,
0.0017135131638497114,
-0.5012232065200806,
-0.14169476926326752,
-0.4300803244113922,
0.16264796257019043,
0.05819890648126602,
-0.1494579017162323,
0.1308659464120865,
-0.6181856393814087,
1.3059641122817993,
-0.14958767592906952,
-0.33976423740386963,
0.10853873938322067,
0.0006895909318700433,
0.4467160999774933,
0.1886972188949585,
-0.7082728147506714,
0.22868360579013824,
-0.45854759216308594,
0.008773678913712502,
-0.5169485211372375,
0.6073326468467712,
0.5540507435798645,
0.6545456051826477,
0.05621498078107834,
-0.1473495364189148,
-0.3956649601459503,
0.43049219250679016,
0.4851118326187134,
-0.505699098110199,
-0.030590470880270004,
0.006620153319090605,
-0.07779320329427719,
0.014533381909132004,
0.39838436245918274,
-0.0836440920829773,
-0.03711756691336632,
0.13728368282318115,
0.3344576060771942,
0.12432906776666641,
0.12924005091190338,
0.1812775880098343,
0.02191520668566227,
0.20745517313480377,
-0.49685776233673096,
0.58817458152771,
-0.7500463128089905,
-0.057944152504205704,
-0.10154089331626892,
0.46429964900016785,
0.2388802021741867,
-0.6014822125434875,
0.15875256061553955,
-0.23870660364627838,
0.11033985018730164,
0.12714464962482452,
-1.376813292503357,
-0.35688191652297974,
-0.5341261625289917,
-0.007542728446424007,
-0.33150002360343933,
-0.10788410156965256,
0.2779100835323334,
0.10984744131565094,
-0.043272435665130615,
-0.18399578332901,
0.29715093970298767,
0.3711702227592468,
-0.03931068629026413,
-0.732677698135376,
-0.4571913778781891,
0.40509819984436035
] |
203625
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884%20in%20literature
|
1884 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1884.
Events
January – Arthur Conan Doyle's anonymous story "J. Habakuk Jephson's Statement" appears in the Cornhill Magazine. It concerns the disappearance of the crew of the Mary Celeste in 1872.
January 11 – Britain's poet laureate Alfred Tennyson is created 1st Baron Tennyson of Aldworth in the County of Sussex and of Freshwater, Isle of Wight, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Thus he becomes known as Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
January 14 – Giovanni Verga's play Cavalleria rusticana, taken from his short story, is first performed, by Cesare Rossi's company at the Teatro Carignano in Turin, starring Eleonora Duse.
February 1 – A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, part 1 (covering A–Ant) appears in England, edited by James A. H. Murray, the first fascicle of what will become The Oxford English Dictionary.
February 12 – Henry James visits the home of Alphonse Daudet and meets Goncourt, Émile Zola, François Coppée and others. In a discussion with Daudet, James describes the average Frenchman as "infinitely sharper in his observation than the average Englishman or American."
February 18 – The English Jesuit poet Gerard Manley Hopkins becomes Professor of Greek and Latin at University College Dublin in Ireland, where he will remain until his death in 1889 and write his innovative sonnets and other poems.
May 29 – Oscar Wilde marries Constance Mary Lloyd (1858–1898), a Protestant Dubliner, at St James's Church, Paddington, London.
June 25 – Hallam Tennyson, son of the poet laureate, marries Audrey Boyle, a granddaughter of Sir Lorenzo Moore and great-granddaughter of Edmund Boyle, 7th Earl of Cork.
September 27 – August Strindberg's short stories Getting Married (Giftas) are published in Sweden. A week later, the author is prosecuted for blasphemy, but will be acquitted on November 17.
December 10 – The first London publication of Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn occurs.
Uncertain dates
Lie Kim Hok's collection of children's stories Sobat Anak-anak is published in Buitenzorg, the first work of popular literature in the Dutch East Indies. His Malay language syair (poem) Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari is also first published.
The first translation of Shakespeare's plays in Japan is made, an adaptation of Julius Caesar by Tsubouchi Shōyō as a Bunraku puppet play, entitled The Strange Case of Caesar: the renowned sharpness of the blade of liberty.
New books
Fiction
Edwin Abbott Abbott – Flatland
Henry Brooks Adams – Esther
Juhani Aho – Rautatie
Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) – La regenta, vol. 1
Aluísio de Azevedo – Casa de Pensão
Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly – What Never Dies
R. D. Blackmore – Tommy Upmore
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Ishmael. A Novel
Bankim Chandra Chatterji – Devi Chaudhurani
Wilkie Collins – I Say No
Alphonse Daudet – Sapho
Amy Dillwyn – Jill
J.-K. Huysmans
À rebours
Controcorrente
Helen Hunt Jackson – Ramona
Vernon Lee – Miss Brown
George A. Moore – A Mummer's Wife
Mrs. Oliphant
The Ladies Lindores
The Wizard's Son
Mark Twain – Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Rachilde – Monsieur Vénus
Jules Verne
The Archipelago on Fire (L'Archipel en feu)
The Vanished Diamond (L'Étoile du sud)
Mary Augusta Ward – Miss Bretherton
Drama
Henrik Ibsen – The Wild Duck (Vildanden)
Alfred Tennyson – Becket
Giovanni Verga – Cavalleria rusticana
Friedrich Theodor Vischer – Nicht Ia: Schwäbisches Lustspiel in drei Aufzügen
Poetry
Lie Kim Hok – Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari
Rabindranath Tagore – Bhanusimha Thakurer Padabali
William Watson – Epigrams of Art, Life and Nature
Non-fiction
Friedrich Engels – The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats)
The Herefordshire Pomona
Henry James – A Little Tour in France
Sophia Jex-Blake – The Care of Infants: A Manual for Mothers and Nurses
Vernon Lee
The Countess of Albany
Euphorion: Being Studies of the Antique and the Mediæval in the Renaissance
George Fletcher Moore – Diary of Ten Years Eventful Life of an Early Settler in Western Australia
Elizabeth Robins Pennell – Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (Eminent Women series)
Arnold Toynbee – Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England]
Births
January 2 – Oscar Micheaux, African American author and filmmaker (died 1951)
January 18 – Arthur Ransome, English author of children's and other books (died 1967)
March 13 – Sir Hugh Walpole, New Zealand-born novelist (died 1941)
April 1 – J. C. Squire, English writer and critic (died 1958)
April 3 – Nicos Nicolaides, Greek Cypriot writer (died 1956)
June 5 – Ivy Compton-Burnett, English novelist (died 1969)
June 29 – Francis Brett Young, English novelist and poet (died 1954)
August 8 – Sara Teasdale, American poet (died 1933)
August 10 – Panait Istrati, Romanian novelist, short story writer and political essayist (died 1935)
August 24 – Earl Derr Biggers, American writer (died 1933)
September 20 – Maxwell Perkins, American literary editor (died 1947)
December 17 – Alison Uttley, English writer of children's books (died 1976)
unknown date – Mourning Dove (Christal Quintasket or Hum-isha-ma), Native American writer (died 1936)
Deaths
January 3 – William Billington, English poet and publican (born 1825)
January 7 – John Harris, English poet (born 1820)
January 11 – Hermann Ulrici, German philosopher (born 1806)
February 2 – Abraham Hayward, English man of letters (born 1801)
February 11 – Thomas Chenery, Barbadian-born English scholar and editor (born 1826)
March 10 – William Blanchard Jerrold, English journalist (born 1826)
March 13 – Richard Henry Horne, English poet, critic and journalist, and public official in Australia (born 1802)
March 24 – François Mignet, French historian (born 1796)
April 6 – Emanuel Geibel, German poet (born 1815)
April 7 – Maria Doolaeghe, Flemish novelist (born 1803)
April 11 – Charles Reade, English novelist (born 1814)
May 27 – Caroline Dexter, English-born Australian feminist writer (born 1819)
May 28 – Joseph d'Haussonville, French historian (born 1809)
June 10 – Johann Gustav Droysen, German historian (born 1808)
June 27 – Andreas Munch, Norwegian poet (born 1811)
July 23 – Anna Mary Howitt, English writer, painter and feminist (born 1822)
September 18 – Boleslav Markevich, Russian novelist, essayist and critic (born 1922)
October 16 – Paul Lacroix, French novelist and journalist (born 1806)
October 19 – Karl Hillebrand, German literary historian and philosopher (born 1829)
November 3 – František Doucha, Czech translator (born 1810)
November 6 – William Wells Brown, African-American writer (born 1814)
Awards
Gaisford Prize – Harry Hammond House (Corpus Christi) for iambics
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.052898865193128586,
0.2651035189628601,
-0.6512417793273926,
-0.31868645548820496,
-0.8311134576797485,
-0.03573990613222122,
0.742732584476471,
0.45051446557044983,
-0.7522029280662537,
-0.6545519828796387,
0.008573736064136028,
0.001701982575468719,
-0.04238763079047203,
0.19155359268188477,
0.1348709911108017,
-0.10953225940465927,
0.2511219382286072,
-0.1254122257232666,
0.2993534803390503,
-0.45904943346977234,
-0.30511754751205444,
0.18011029064655304,
0.623799741268158,
-0.2393876612186432,
0.2695346772670746,
-0.9103415012359619,
0.44037893414497375,
-0.3417683243751526,
0.3690303862094879,
-0.26656123995780945,
-0.17081914842128754,
0.16288283467292786,
0.36124733090400696,
0.3122296929359436,
-0.7141315937042236,
-0.4494988024234772,
-0.25626543164253235,
-0.4226212203502655,
0.23238971829414368,
-0.39492160081863403,
-0.5074707269668579,
0.058057207614183426,
0.5110267996788025,
0.38003090023994446,
0.07189269363880157,
-0.529259204864502,
-1.9351357221603394,
0.060103919357061386,
-0.8976791501045227,
0.5237419009208679,
-0.3560827970504761,
0.5514861941337585,
1.1704939603805542,
0.29922953248023987,
-0.4516604244709015,
0.7613720893859863,
-0.4352656900882721,
-0.055928412824869156,
-0.05831284075975418,
-0.5089364647865295,
0.43757352232933044,
0.3354213237762451,
0.28750360012054443,
0.16723795235157013,
0.551243782043457,
0.08337173610925674,
-0.5448853969573975,
-0.004942126572132111,
-0.03712693601846695,
-0.5943903923034668,
0.01688527688384056,
-0.221170574426651,
0.21725736558437347,
-0.06075586751103401,
0.4434129297733307,
-0.24455979466438293,
0.2045636773109436,
-0.09043459594249725,
-0.48714780807495117,
-0.0615260936319828,
-0.626785397529602,
0.44388630986213684,
0.7821729183197021,
0.32844653725624084,
0.3465310037136078,
-0.007778416853398085,
-0.4070199131965637,
-0.022184837609529495,
0.16830237209796906,
-0.43656569719314575,
0.07231532037258148,
-0.09259748458862305,
0.5264493227005005,
0.27149641513824463,
0.30710551142692566,
0.4175601303577423,
-0.22403480112552643,
0.23600657284259796,
-0.5844798684120178,
-0.07247545570135117,
0.04741581901907921,
0.6057296991348267,
0.6585160493850708,
0.008427364751696587,
-0.727121889591217,
0.1197630763053894,
0.20861861109733582,
-0.14298848807811737,
0.7650668621063232,
-0.7502535581588745,
-0.29219597578048706,
0.3403126895427704,
-0.5322375893592834,
-0.29057785868644714,
0.17861460149288177,
0.17035387456417084,
0.45722705125808716,
-0.17390324175357819,
-0.6917616724967957,
0.3497416079044342,
-0.5396709442138672,
0.10507477819919586,
0.1358194202184677,
0.6102222800254822,
-0.919418215751648,
0.269894540309906,
0.46704116463661194,
0.5188141465187073,
0.10474825650453568,
0.5242796540260315,
0.5148178935050964,
1.1411497592926025,
-0.05486396327614784,
-0.23146170377731323,
0.08680173754692078,
-0.15109099447727203,
0.013549691997468472,
0.7741826176643372,
-0.04350615292787552,
0.13588868081569672,
-0.5429439544677734,
0.03919263929128647,
-1.729498028755188,
-0.17716023325920105,
0.06389092653989792,
-0.6425905227661133,
0.07950503379106522,
-0.2565143406391144,
-0.16122812032699585,
-0.4805765748023987,
0.4421929717063904,
-0.6363521218299866,
-0.2708311378955841,
0.556000292301178,
0.06294159591197968,
0.40030035376548767,
0.17776146531105042,
0.22349627315998077,
0.8057363033294678,
0.011464269831776619,
-0.14909547567367554,
0.021345550194382668,
-0.05728403478860855,
-0.02082943730056286,
-0.22984609007835388,
-0.3717641532421112,
0.13366445899009705,
0.03476492315530777,
0.446941077709198,
-0.12430228292942047,
-0.2141851782798767,
-0.08872374892234802,
0.4676537811756134,
-0.48773741722106934,
-0.2298954576253891,
-0.337226927280426,
0.2510816752910614,
0.31307244300842285,
0.14593076705932617,
0.19213838875293732,
-0.7283821702003479,
0.1481066197156906,
-0.15298371016979218,
-0.4949716627597809,
0.9017466306686401,
0.28266265988349915,
0.45930561423301697,
0.15803863108158112,
-0.23792025446891785,
-0.4786825180053711,
-0.38077470660209656,
-0.32321515679359436,
-0.06601528823375702,
-0.3261564075946808,
1.418612003326416,
-0.24164094030857086,
-0.5101290941238403,
0.834389328956604,
-0.14612656831741333,
0.06843215227127075,
0.34502050280570984,
0.04206431284546852,
0.36492401361465454,
-0.09690731018781662,
-0.2740457057952881,
1.1061967611312866,
0.18013915419578552,
0.2519424557685852,
0.1404094099998474,
0.4792693555355072,
0.6702799201011658,
-0.18450301885604858,
0.0716715008020401,
0.08622890710830688,
-0.2404175102710724,
0.0937911793589592,
-0.5222185254096985,
0.4140540659427643,
0.2252584993839264,
0.14721189439296722,
0.7271872758865356,
-0.16074109077453613,
0.4497751295566559,
0.6069815158843994,
0.1505437195301056,
0.4199075698852539,
0.3575184941291809,
0.24152830243110657,
-0.11310753971338272,
-0.8521849513053894,
0.09861104190349579,
0.2659369707107544,
0.15397341549396515,
-0.6478055715560913,
-0.013066845946013927,
0.06983263790607452,
0.03637433052062988,
0.010515536181628704,
0.12315306067466736,
-0.19429664313793182,
0.7320232391357422,
-0.12212375551462173,
-0.07338187098503113,
0.44489866495132446,
0.17450755834579468,
0.6711553335189819,
-0.11290359497070312,
-0.24000725150108337,
-0.4308404326438904,
-0.4621632695198059,
0.7793378233909607,
0.749464213848114,
0.07798392325639725,
-0.08571606874465942,
-0.5744961500167847,
0.08867460489273071,
-0.4682226777076721,
-0.6494859457015991,
0.8404465317726135,
0.46776995062828064,
-0.13032197952270508,
0.03730422258377075,
0.14281414449214935,
0.20885106921195984,
-0.03951764851808548,
-0.027620544657111168,
-0.1141473799943924,
-1.0896297693252563,
0.43759140372276306,
0.0792582556605339,
0.2127506285905838,
0.1445693075656891,
-0.4636647701263428,
-0.7590230107307434,
0.3989804685115814,
0.179279163479805,
0.3067700266838074,
-0.2648794651031494,
-0.6746955513954163,
-0.3633168041706085,
-0.6713996529579163,
0.7752954363822937,
0.5995043516159058,
-0.5273122191429138,
0.06941104680299759,
-0.19935546815395355,
0.3243018090724945,
0.16423800587654114,
0.28750738501548767,
-0.4067588746547699,
-0.23472443222999573,
0.051732975989580154,
-0.4781525433063507,
-0.14580024778842926,
0.026757463812828064,
0.4613076150417328,
-0.35189974308013916,
0.4717941880226135,
0.23855134844779968,
-0.5956860184669495,
-0.3287237286567688,
0.3073194921016693,
-0.31419461965560913,
0.21637003123760223,
0.19148537516593933,
0.5889991521835327,
-0.26629650592803955,
0.2752847373485565,
-5.355710506439209,
-0.25534215569496155,
-0.4540711045265198,
-0.6013227105140686,
-0.43506142497062683,
0.4149332046508789,
0.34644395112991333,
-0.2546459436416626,
-0.48627597093582153,
-0.3613380193710327,
-0.23423419892787933,
-0.34667444229125977,
-0.040132101625204086,
1.0994141101837158,
0.1273966282606125,
0.40997985005378723,
0.5046067237854004,
-0.08890149742364883,
-0.5440962910652161,
0.35924339294433594,
0.2454877346754074,
0.3604097366333008,
-0.19832491874694824,
0.23956958949565887,
0.9601375460624695,
0.3164392113685608,
0.21711546182632446,
0.1330578327178955,
0.14439915120601654,
0.3437148928642273,
0.2332228571176529,
-0.013642596080899239,
0.37864449620246887,
-0.2718564569950104,
-0.025010406970977783,
0.07751351594924927,
0.8168348073959351,
0.5689016580581665,
0.7865715622901917,
0.255123496055603,
-0.7025967240333557,
0.6790769100189209,
-0.2509521543979645,
0.31029486656188965,
0.13101497292518616,
-0.015135266818106174,
-0.4677470922470093,
-0.24615424871444702,
-0.2936111092567444,
0.7680121064186096,
0.11153953522443771,
-0.304295152425766,
0.41040971875190735,
0.5624979734420776,
0.6068033576011658,
0.009146947413682938,
-0.384814590215683,
-0.36745744943618774,
-0.45502516627311707,
-0.0882389172911644,
0.11107537150382996,
-0.09942414611577988,
0.4236728847026825,
-0.6470715999603271,
-0.499988317489624,
-0.22723685204982758,
-0.5553955435752869,
0.3436782956123352,
0.1958361268043518,
0.14386942982673645,
0.016810238361358643,
0.6940121054649353,
-0.39101681113243103,
-0.8037741780281067,
-0.2607548236846924,
0.16897177696228027,
-0.33663710951805115,
0.13050460815429688,
-0.007489633280783892,
0.08906550705432892,
-0.26522624492645264,
-0.3794550895690918,
-0.2770003378391266,
0.46384817361831665,
0.021715030074119568,
-0.410718709230423,
0.06688517332077026,
-0.5747503042221069,
-1.127642035484314,
-0.8351346254348755,
0.4940860867500305,
-0.1551603376865387,
-0.05532246455550194,
-0.006945603061467409,
0.34801003336906433,
0.46897026896476746,
0.658381462097168,
0.2045363038778305,
0.43894317746162415,
-0.3718007504940033,
0.24881401658058167,
-0.1963272988796234,
-0.008474120870232582,
-0.35719233751296997,
-0.3886986970901489,
-0.1739526093006134,
-0.551511287689209,
0.6174712777137756,
0.6795141100883484,
-0.8467172384262085,
0.04041576012969017,
-0.2542184591293335,
-1.109872817993164,
-0.12060510367155075,
0.8791501522064209,
-0.07150744646787643,
0.35258468985557556,
0.03700723499059677,
-0.07663960754871368,
0.18023040890693665,
0.14070340991020203,
0.39801207184791565,
-0.2168407142162323,
-0.397838294506073,
-0.3605435788631439,
-0.16655640304088593,
0.13249190151691437,
-0.5288620591163635,
-0.5403714776039124,
-0.33996427059173584,
0.22611172497272491,
0.35537445545196533,
-0.33599188923835754,
-0.4265555441379547,
-0.06203285977244377,
-0.31183773279190063,
-0.23771464824676514,
0.15543721616268158,
0.1918439418077469,
-0.645927906036377,
-0.1177004724740982,
-0.23538750410079956,
-0.15778782963752747,
-0.12132308632135391,
0.6012390851974487,
0.10603167116641998,
-0.4066826403141022,
-0.3774441182613373,
-0.4433439373970032,
0.29377901554107666,
-0.34459054470062256,
0.044464971870183945,
0.36452460289001465,
0.26210713386535645,
-0.06890089064836502,
-0.03668105602264404,
-0.15962791442871094,
0.5941730737686157,
-0.38795357942581177,
-0.42155808210372925,
-0.1310802549123764,
-0.3589338958263397,
-1.0113911628723145,
0.44619688391685486,
0.09925223886966705,
-0.4795893728733063,
-0.18065613508224487,
-0.2333977222442627,
-0.12948168814182281,
0.4813021719455719,
0.21952775120735168,
-0.24479222297668457,
-0.4351739287376404,
-0.09965624660253525,
0.49747541546821594,
-0.3105877935886383,
0.04532667249441147,
-0.059107933193445206,
-0.11267752200365067,
-0.075055330991745,
0.23005042970180511,
-0.493760347366333,
-0.17944304645061493,
0.6355725526809692,
0.6243839263916016,
-0.09277240931987762,
-0.07228858768939972,
-0.22622640430927277,
-0.5917239785194397,
0.1143275797367096,
-0.44101884961128235,
0.32510194182395935,
0.8499452471733093,
-0.3064625561237335,
-0.9857025146484375,
-0.23639288544654846,
0.12031613290309906,
-0.09790928661823273,
-0.2779184579849243,
-0.4060510993003845,
0.5753805637359619,
-0.03877516835927963,
0.017140904441475868,
-0.36166346073150635,
-0.05179591476917267,
-0.9247817993164062,
0.3657301664352417,
-0.6242244839668274,
-0.7469334602355957,
0.7165842652320862,
0.451209157705307,
-0.4011354446411133,
-0.04155416041612625,
0.3842557966709137,
0.006123166531324387,
0.12731599807739258,
-0.06322433799505234,
0.34404006600379944,
-0.6032740473747253,
-0.051284655928611755,
0.629101574420929,
-0.052395258098840714,
-1.0313423871994019,
-0.2608175575733185,
-0.34762313961982727,
0.26763916015625,
0.0776810348033905,
-0.5207146406173706,
0.6817550659179688,
-0.2896326184272766,
-0.17858870327472687,
-0.07734113931655884,
0.2622867822647095,
0.15642398595809937,
-0.3170480728149414,
-0.1395169347524643,
-0.18442155420780182,
-0.1240186095237732,
-0.13098178803920746,
0.17099164426326752,
0.305979460477829,
0.761969268321991,
-0.186859592795372,
-0.046528760343790054,
0.09127730131149292,
0.38329076766967773,
0.18532207608222961,
-0.30283379554748535,
-0.6896277070045471,
0.2506949007511139,
0.2691839635372162,
-0.20737306773662567,
-0.6551499962806702,
-0.5276708602905273,
0.5732534527778625,
-0.23155717551708221,
-0.5023487210273743,
0.42510730028152466,
0.0016126898117363453,
0.47619208693504333,
0.00008054768841248006,
0.2905593514442444,
-0.2701408565044403,
0.3564964234828949,
0.6123914122581482,
0.08080027997493744,
0.21826185286045074,
0.2657682001590729,
0.6163503527641296,
0.12181985378265381,
-0.6640358567237854,
-0.4651939570903778,
-0.5008690357208252,
0.35141006112098694,
0.2712031304836273,
-0.20432353019714355,
-0.5688683986663818,
-0.6640158295631409,
-0.2688612639904022,
-0.15078237652778625,
-0.30220523476600647,
-0.1230040118098259,
0.09169894456863403,
-0.278399795293808,
-0.3160192668437958,
-0.4113333523273468,
-0.2238597422838211,
-0.19345581531524658,
-0.34150949120521545,
-0.15881335735321045,
0.06357686221599579,
-0.3213190734386444,
-0.2200975865125656,
-0.1738089770078659,
0.198155015707016,
0.2413473278284073,
-0.4231533706188202,
0.1058206781744957,
-0.1179894208908081,
-0.2056730091571808,
-0.2953317165374756,
0.36906445026397705,
0.2581076920032501,
-0.644956648349762,
1.0393402576446533,
-0.10376238077878952,
-0.27252253890037537,
-0.16750669479370117,
-0.24132154881954193,
0.3850176930427551,
0.41616418957710266,
0.2919503152370453,
0.026086973026394844,
0.5182721018791199,
-0.6182475686073303,
0.05955735221505165,
-0.2355160266160965,
-0.44061797857284546,
0.8250041604042053,
-0.042825985699892044,
-0.08274468779563904,
0.5122500061988831,
0.4681030213832855,
0.016251185908913612,
-0.6409144401550293,
0.38719090819358826,
-0.34999555349349976,
0.08507156372070312,
0.20392005145549774,
-0.11731617897748947,
0.2769305408000946,
0.39266255497932434,
0.18270045518875122,
0.8963122367858887,
-0.21598203480243683,
-0.5197252035140991,
0.18472935259342194,
-0.6684108972549438,
-0.006588689982891083,
0.3862241208553314,
0.6314972639083862,
-0.07495918869972229,
0.4032166004180908,
0.21830806136131287,
0.36757463216781616,
-0.25817903876304626,
0.004883734975010157,
0.3874339163303375,
0.13019847869873047,
0.20553700625896454,
0.46204784512519836,
0.7592980861663818,
0.7688411474227905,
-0.36786338686943054,
0.22498761117458344,
-0.3733094334602356,
-0.1530807763338089,
-0.08069895207881927,
0.14935418963432312,
-0.8100677728652954,
0.3327351212501526,
0.5196089148521423,
0.43608132004737854,
-0.3205738961696625,
0.5011205077171326,
0.38180944323539734,
0.10577403753995895,
0.4275457262992859,
-0.05323578044772148,
-0.076471708714962,
0.3547409176826477,
-0.20451684296131134,
-0.1242213100194931,
-0.31774967908859253,
-0.17873257398605347,
0.8876816034317017,
0.6207278370857239,
-0.02385733462870121,
0.2122262418270111,
0.03578751161694527,
-0.07775960862636566,
0.3852187991142273,
-0.3595714271068573,
0.054242558777332306,
0.0378180667757988,
-0.5466484427452087,
0.07938438653945923,
0.5267695784568787,
0.01718113385140896,
-0.8180296421051025,
-0.2983083426952362,
-0.155826598405838,
0.0313907228410244,
0.15600955486297607,
-0.8757761120796204,
0.15791696310043335,
-0.45739224553108215,
1.5868239402770996,
0.02168898470699787,
-0.30149203538894653,
-0.3205375075340271,
-0.2816947400569916,
-0.10218361765146255,
0.10692816972732544,
-0.38255563378334045,
0.6807949542999268,
-0.4370357096195221,
0.005285667721182108,
-0.5925630927085876,
0.6394389271736145,
0.2306355983018875,
0.41913920640945435,
-0.2064436972141266,
0.7560009956359863,
-0.2568276822566986,
0.06659912317991257,
0.055694665759801865,
-0.2857397794723511,
-0.2500965893268585,
0.3527926504611969,
-0.24292854964733124,
0.3214064836502075,
0.25354206562042236,
-0.0011560115963220596,
-0.4167972505092621,
0.31798186898231506,
0.11612644046545029,
0.6135923862457275,
0.26886093616485596,
-0.05094430223107338,
-0.3279189169406891,
-0.4831371605396271,
-0.6149058938026428,
0.1350841224193573,
-0.19909103214740753,
1.1513844728469849,
0.7658855319023132,
0.48436439037323,
0.19514165818691254,
-0.28877517580986023,
0.06405054777860641,
-0.1797635555267334,
0.4216257631778717,
0.051153577864170074,
-2.3330516815185547,
0.06720125675201416,
-0.22953005135059357,
-0.212927907705307,
-0.41223418712615967,
0.3029627799987793,
-0.054515477269887924,
0.03079059161245823,
-0.15926523506641388,
-0.2235768586397171,
0.38866978883743286,
0.10360027104616165,
0.16754762828350067,
-1.0453214645385742,
0.3754398822784424,
-0.061430588364601135
] |
203627
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883%20in%20literature
|
1883 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1883.
Events
January 13 – Henrik Ibsen's play An Enemy of the People (En folkefiende, 1882) gains its first performance at the Christiania Theatre.
February – Carlo Collodi's children's story The Adventures of Pinocchio appears first in Italy complete in book form as Le avventure di Pinocchio.
May 23 – Robert Louis Stevenson's children's pirate adventure novel Treasure Island first appears in book form from Cassell in London.
June – Footlights, the University of Cambridge drama club in England, gives its first performance.
June 4 – Mihai Eminescu reads his nationalist poem Doina to an enthusiastic crowd at Junimea in Iași. It is sometimes described as his last work before a mental breakdown later this year. Eminescu's host Ion Creangă recalls it being composed on the spot, but some researchers date it back to 1870.
June 30–October 20 – Robert Louis Stevenson's novel The Black Arrow: A Tale of Tunstall Forest is serialized in the British magazine Young Folks as by "Captain George North". Stevenson completes writing it at the end of the summer in France.
July – The first issue of Fiamuri Arbërit, an Albanian literary and political magazine, is published from Cosenza. Managed by Girolamo de Rada, it promotes Ottomanism against Philhellenism.
August – Ivan Turgenev dictates his last story, "An end", to Pauline Viardot (who writes it in French) on his deathbed at Bougival in France.
August 29 – Dunfermline Carnegie Library, the first Carnegie library, opens in Andrew Carnegie's home town, Dunfermline, Scotland.
October 3–9 – Turgenev's body is returned by train from Paris to Saint Petersburg with crowds turning out to honor him.
December 27–28 – The Modern Language Association of America holds its first meeting.
Uncertain dates
Mark Twain's memoirs Life on the Mississippi are published simultaneously in Boston (Massachusetts) and London, as the first major book submitted to a publisher in typescript.
Kisari Mohan Ganguli begins publication of the first English-language translation of the Mahabharata.
The Deutsches Theater company is formed in Berlin.
New books
Fiction
Emilia Pardo Bazán – La tribuna
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Phantom Fortune
Rhoda Broughton – Belinda
Hugh Conway – Called Back
Wilkie Collins – Heart and Science
Anne Elliot – Dr. Edith Romney
Ludwig Ganghofer – The Hunter of Fall
Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam – Contes cruels
John Hay – The Bread-Winners (anonymous serialization in The Century Magazine)
Alexander Kielland – Poison (Gift)
Jonas Lie – Familien paa Gilje (The Gilje family)
John Macnie (as Ismar Thiusen) – The Diothas; or, A Far Look Ahead
Mary E. Mann – The Parish of Hilby
Guy de Maupassant – Une Vie
George A. Moore – A Modern Lover
Friedrich Nietzsche – Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Also sprach Zarathustra, publication begins)
Sir Thomas Wemyss Reid – Gladys Fane
Charlotte Riddell – A Struggle for Fame
Annie S. Swan – Aldersyde
Giovanni Verga – Novelle rusticane (Rustic short stories, about Sicily)
Jules Verne – Kéraban the Inflexible (Kéraban-le-têtu)
Children and young people
Carlo Collodi – The Adventures of Pinocchio (Le avventure di Pinocchio)
George MacDonald – The Princess and Curdie
Howard Pyle – The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood
Robert Louis Stevenson – Treasure Island (book publication)
Drama
Frances Hodgson Burnett and William Gillette – Esmeralda
François Coppée – Severo Torelli
Imre Madách – The Tragedy of Man (Az ember tragédiája, first performed)
Edward Rose – Vice Versa
George Robert Sims – In the Ranks
August Strindberg – Lycko-Pers resa (Lucky Peter's Travels or Lucky Pehr)
Oscar Wilde – Vera; or, The Nihilists (first performed)
William Young – The Rajah; or Wyncot's Ward
Poetry
Non-fiction
Mathilde Blind – George Eliot
Hall Caine – Cobwebs of Criticism
Thomas Hill Green (died 1882) – Prolegomena to Ethics
J.-K. Huysmans – L'Art moderne
Agnes Catherine Maitland (as A. C. M., Examiner...) – The Rudiments of Cookery: a Manual for Use in Schools and Homes
William Robinson – The English Flower Garden
J. R. Seeley – The Expansion of England
Alfred Percy Sinnett – Esoteric Buddhism
John Addington Symonds – A Problem in Greek Ethics: an inquiry into the phenomenon of sexual inversion, addressed especially to medical psychologists and jurists
Mark Twain – Life on the Mississippi
Births
January 1 – Alberto Gerchunoff, Argentine writer (died 1949)
January 6 – Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-born poet and novelist writing in Arabic and English (died 1931)
January 10 – Aleksei Tolstoy, Russian writer (died 1945)
January 20 – Forrest Wilson, American journalist and author (died 1942)
January 21 – Olav Aukrust, Norwegian poet and teacher (died 1929)
February 8 – Joseph Schumpeter, Austrian/American political economist (died 1950)
February 15 – Sax Rohmer (Arthur Henry Ward), English novelist (died 1959)
February 20 – Naoya Shiga, Japanese novelist (died 1971)
March 9 – Umberto Saba, Italian poet and novelist (died 1957)
March 17 – Urmuz, Romanian short prose writer (died 1923)
March 27 (March 15 O.S.) – Marie Under, Estonian poet (died 1980)
April 30 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech novelist (died 1923)
June 3 – Franz Kafka, Czech novelist writing in German (died 1924)
June 4 – Joseph Jefferson Farjeon, English crime writer (died 1955)
September 14 – Rose Combe, French writer and railway worker (died 1932)
December 13 – Belle da Costa Greene, American librarian (died 1950)
December 23 – Yoshishige Abe, Japanese philosopher and politician (died 1966)
December 30 – Marie Gevers, Belgian novelist writing in French (died 1975)
unknown date – May Edginton, English popular novelist (died 1957)
Deaths
January 21 – Anna Eliza Bray, English novelist and travel writer (born 1790)
March 14 – Karl Marx, German philosopher (born 1818)
April 24 – Jules Sandeau, French novelist (born 1811)
May 15 – Mary Elizabeth Mohl ("Clarkey"), English-born literary salonnière (born 1793)
May 23 – Cyprian Norwid, Polish poet, dramatist and artist (born 1821)
June 20 – Gustave Aimard, French novelist (born 1818)
July 16 – Edward Backhouse Eastwick, Anglo-Indian orientalist and translator (born 1814)
August 31 – Levin Schücking, German novelist (born 1814)
September 2 – Léon Halévy, French historian and dramatist (born 1802)
September 3 – Ivan Turgenev, Russian novelist (born 1818)
September 10 – Hendrik Conscience, Flemish novelist (born 1812)
September 25 – George Ayliffe Poole, English writer and cleric (born 1809)
November 26 – Sojourner Truth, African American abolitionist, women's rights activist, and author (born 1797)
December 13 – Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (born 1812)
References
1883 books
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.059323400259017944,
0.28705498576164246,
-0.6391076445579529,
-0.25221285223960876,
-0.8100026845932007,
-0.2098262906074524,
0.6753128170967102,
0.4516492784023285,
-0.7304277420043945,
-0.6482798457145691,
-0.09266958385705948,
0.05729997530579567,
-0.09705399721860886,
0.11756610125303268,
0.16584058105945587,
-0.08720364421606064,
0.2661221921443939,
-0.06191391497850418,
0.11697649955749512,
-0.5252503752708435,
-0.33505433797836304,
0.05329541862010956,
0.6702921986579895,
-0.29895535111427307,
0.33776506781578064,
-0.9261461496353149,
0.43406516313552856,
-0.20401571691036224,
0.39669767022132874,
-0.21000492572784424,
0.004745946731418371,
0.20241369307041168,
0.379347026348114,
0.27993789315223694,
-0.7731446027755737,
-0.3906777799129486,
-0.18003201484680176,
-0.48612844944000244,
0.23621045053005219,
-0.4520024061203003,
-0.3852231502532959,
0.18386071920394897,
0.35422471165657043,
0.45843011140823364,
0.041531313210725784,
-0.4582887291908264,
-2.029594898223877,
0.015112998895347118,
-0.8609484434127808,
0.4728955328464508,
-0.30998146533966064,
0.5355408191680908,
1.1049634218215942,
0.38512590527534485,
-0.4379222095012665,
0.7685019969940186,
-0.5043603777885437,
-0.029912620782852173,
-0.014461641199886799,
-0.35595422983169556,
0.4212007224559784,
0.3765367567539215,
0.2132187932729721,
0.05990861356258392,
0.5202690958976746,
0.09926019608974457,
-0.6332218050956726,
0.013287723064422607,
-0.028088588267564774,
-0.5274531841278076,
0.08986548334360123,
-0.24413670599460602,
0.2552109956741333,
-0.033164024353027344,
0.49576452374458313,
-0.13186880946159363,
0.15448543429374695,
-0.09170753508806229,
-0.5204610228538513,
0.005276676267385483,
-0.7607957720756531,
0.4130074977874756,
0.7736454606056213,
0.29213008284568787,
0.2998630404472351,
0.06420350074768066,
-0.4084502160549164,
0.021148446947336197,
0.1866658627986908,
-0.311855286359787,
0.16025866568088531,
-0.1339104026556015,
0.48224055767059326,
0.2240779995918274,
0.5112438201904297,
0.4390917420387268,
-0.13686418533325195,
0.1934201419353485,
-0.6102721095085144,
-0.10259297490119934,
0.14593003690242767,
0.7893216013908386,
0.5978506803512573,
-0.148906871676445,
-0.7180278301239014,
0.023124203085899353,
0.15899907052516937,
-0.17352727055549622,
0.8298904299736023,
-0.773693323135376,
-0.3743070363998413,
0.29592129588127136,
-0.4104440212249756,
-0.18176819384098053,
0.2726288437843323,
0.20648416876792908,
0.4152225852012634,
-0.09688139706850052,
-0.5741575956344604,
0.32714536786079407,
-0.5945459008216858,
0.11070043593645096,
0.10922207683324814,
0.5784631967544556,
-0.9064880013465881,
0.3669537305831909,
0.32418251037597656,
0.484036922454834,
0.1634618490934372,
0.5032102465629578,
0.4349292516708374,
0.9873999357223511,
-0.014740385115146637,
-0.2954446077346802,
0.053937703371047974,
-0.1873619258403778,
0.09572118520736694,
0.7161905169487,
-0.08055175095796585,
0.21844740211963654,
-0.48745986819267273,
0.04066195711493492,
-1.6469923257827759,
-0.11293566226959229,
0.08120641112327576,
-0.6333276629447937,
0.13612860441207886,
-0.3523998260498047,
-0.15995192527770996,
-0.40610837936401367,
0.37962326407432556,
-0.49456068873405457,
-0.28843942284584045,
0.4445185959339142,
0.02009619027376175,
0.4889649748802185,
0.21315403282642365,
0.2848762571811676,
0.7283266186714172,
-0.026278909295797348,
-0.25193628668785095,
0.03563108295202255,
-0.0672357827425003,
-0.010829390026628971,
-0.19775265455245972,
-0.4517940580844879,
0.1222284659743309,
0.2240580916404724,
0.3576779067516327,
-0.22873468697071075,
-0.2180715948343277,
-0.07736968994140625,
0.4578653872013092,
-0.5845813155174255,
-0.2429378777742386,
-0.14050033688545227,
0.2056581974029541,
0.3644849956035614,
0.09175382554531097,
0.11926093697547913,
-0.8187451958656311,
0.21086373925209045,
-0.04207063093781471,
-0.5336762070655823,
0.9291087985038757,
0.23315273225307465,
0.5300179123878479,
0.1890261173248291,
-0.36580631136894226,
-0.424955815076828,
-0.37466320395469666,
-0.33965107798576355,
0.08494121581315994,
-0.4389885365962982,
1.4932377338409424,
-0.20581522583961487,
-0.3487132787704468,
0.8460195660591125,
-0.18452273309230804,
0.07962948828935623,
0.28960031270980835,
0.07049692422151566,
0.30729594826698303,
-0.15804430842399597,
-0.26631176471710205,
1.0995038747787476,
0.17662173509597778,
0.18655408918857574,
0.02148258313536644,
0.5289122462272644,
0.7084327340126038,
-0.14663182199001312,
0.27272987365722656,
0.1619059145450592,
-0.34101933240890503,
-0.026149222627282143,
-0.5433477759361267,
0.48236387968063354,
0.06807723641395569,
0.2554752826690674,
0.7109817266464233,
-0.10730389505624771,
0.3197645843029022,
0.652275025844574,
0.16939309239387512,
0.49128884077072144,
0.3044153153896332,
0.27620843052864075,
-0.09185483306646347,
-0.7061992287635803,
0.013007952831685543,
0.2774897813796997,
0.24048955738544464,
-0.6357825398445129,
0.0934622511267662,
0.033939313143491745,
0.016657844185829163,
-0.14216706156730652,
0.0790708065032959,
-0.17631636559963226,
0.6512032151222229,
-0.11329644173383713,
-0.11046026647090912,
0.5072363018989563,
0.05960554629564285,
0.6226701140403748,
-0.22049066424369812,
-0.1745312660932541,
-0.38428422808647156,
-0.4230210483074188,
0.7684422135353088,
0.627701997756958,
0.005970252212136984,
-0.06365260481834412,
-0.5333924293518066,
-0.05095367133617401,
-0.35655346512794495,
-0.6094387173652649,
0.6649525761604309,
0.4914739429950714,
-0.14973784983158112,
0.09263519197702408,
0.10904137045145035,
0.2258284091949463,
-0.10477951169013977,
-0.07142038643360138,
0.012334431521594524,
-1.190145492553711,
0.44612208008766174,
-0.023924028500914574,
0.26091352105140686,
0.06097722426056862,
-0.3440617322921753,
-0.7806919813156128,
0.42434051632881165,
0.1488211303949356,
0.29275786876678467,
-0.2205614149570465,
-0.6069175004959106,
-0.391488254070282,
-0.7072802782058716,
0.955909013748169,
0.562144935131073,
-0.43422600626945496,
-0.022049617022275925,
-0.2478967159986496,
0.32197609543800354,
0.029992101714015007,
0.36325159668922424,
-0.40452179312705994,
-0.22469668090343475,
0.022756395861506462,
-0.3860310912132263,
-0.26919224858283997,
-0.023923762142658234,
0.499174565076828,
-0.3377346694469452,
0.43465670943260193,
0.16189704835414886,
-0.5789223313331604,
-0.39562758803367615,
0.3224642872810364,
-0.29784613847732544,
0.23276665806770325,
0.2483440637588501,
0.5489410161972046,
-0.2791725993156433,
0.22725923359394073,
-5.347856521606445,
-0.21472935378551483,
-0.4372861683368683,
-0.5116313099861145,
-0.40843674540519714,
0.3349948227405548,
0.31667715311050415,
-0.38883376121520996,
-0.4246382713317871,
-0.299331933259964,
-0.21734750270843506,
-0.368181049823761,
-0.12051914632320404,
0.9905925393104553,
0.13677963614463806,
0.26625359058380127,
0.39045053720474243,
-0.09322404116392136,
-0.5052518844604492,
0.26633113622665405,
0.31173834204673767,
0.3384428024291992,
-0.05928228422999382,
0.24260009825229645,
1.0094914436340332,
0.26959750056266785,
0.2987402677536011,
0.12758246064186096,
0.14573603868484497,
0.3634021580219269,
0.3049376904964447,
0.08099360018968582,
0.43692469596862793,
-0.2198079526424408,
-0.026624241843819618,
0.03203246369957924,
0.8754398822784424,
0.7587583661079407,
0.8027245998382568,
0.3353655934333801,
-0.6301445364952087,
0.6365633010864258,
-0.28083232045173645,
0.23716171085834503,
0.14536795020103455,
-0.04337933287024498,
-0.5049752593040466,
-0.11247788369655609,
-0.3110211193561554,
0.8597232103347778,
0.25005754828453064,
-0.339569091796875,
0.3545640707015991,
0.47082462906837463,
0.5260882377624512,
-0.02956121601164341,
-0.4121011197566986,
-0.35885798931121826,
-0.5159403085708618,
-0.1436503380537033,
0.10981052368879318,
-0.1422380805015564,
0.5192170739173889,
-0.6471660137176514,
-0.5287920236587524,
-0.21079978346824646,
-0.641102135181427,
0.41157636046409607,
0.26704487204551697,
0.14310906827449799,
-0.024006027728319168,
0.7739790081977844,
-0.27304086089134216,
-0.8024492263793945,
-0.21208453178405762,
0.21035835146903992,
-0.3353857696056366,
0.09540660679340363,
0.02282588556408882,
0.04211684688925743,
-0.21715179085731506,
-0.4040686786174774,
-0.24703116714954376,
0.5602220296859741,
0.10002919286489487,
-0.3646722137928009,
-0.0035611882340162992,
-0.5225526094436646,
-1.1108503341674805,
-0.8951957821846008,
0.5754315853118896,
-0.2601725459098816,
-0.05934298411011696,
0.13161471486091614,
0.3729894161224365,
0.3787238597869873,
0.578064501285553,
0.18685755133628845,
0.5057550072669983,
-0.3640642762184143,
0.20736771821975708,
-0.19017338752746582,
0.10541881620883942,
-0.1478102207183838,
-0.32438796758651733,
-0.3381721079349518,
-0.6241363286972046,
0.6781162619590759,
0.6242409348487854,
-0.9822468757629395,
0.04117792472243309,
-0.23505523800849915,
-1.1778907775878906,
-0.07715166360139847,
0.7526284456253052,
-0.1264580488204956,
0.34338125586509705,
0.014453543350100517,
-0.0740145891904831,
0.21130181849002838,
0.1188250482082367,
0.4054678678512573,
-0.16899818181991577,
-0.38489773869514465,
-0.3521607220172882,
-0.17228609323501587,
0.22149068117141724,
-0.45867347717285156,
-0.3973373472690582,
-0.4351455271244049,
0.12413797527551651,
0.27685752511024475,
-0.21353045105934143,
-0.41396453976631165,
-0.057575374841690063,
-0.3212653696537018,
-0.2984156012535095,
0.13183648884296417,
0.14982888102531433,
-0.7758561968803406,
-0.026380807161331177,
-0.19259220361709595,
-0.2685587406158447,
-0.0640956237912178,
0.6888893246650696,
0.049341220408678055,
-0.39103609323501587,
-0.4046456515789032,
-0.5497820377349854,
0.20180711150169373,
-0.3126896023750305,
-0.0034852109383791685,
0.32166752219200134,
0.2773439288139343,
-0.11681440472602844,
-0.04255186393857002,
-0.21920202672481537,
0.6692957878112793,
-0.4374658465385437,
-0.4958949089050293,
-0.1861601173877716,
-0.4303523600101471,
-0.945001482963562,
0.4593678414821625,
0.10495904088020325,
-0.3934387266635895,
-0.19910381734371185,
-0.08532834053039551,
-0.18846093118190765,
0.5153348445892334,
0.3072863817214966,
-0.22896143794059753,
-0.5623463988304138,
-0.21029429137706757,
0.4386656880378723,
-0.2656915485858917,
0.06606998294591904,
-0.13955572247505188,
-0.031950343400239944,
-0.02219504676759243,
0.2833292484283447,
-0.5757521390914917,
-0.10169155895709991,
0.6051129102706909,
0.6175346970558167,
-0.11607763916254044,
-0.0715528205037117,
-0.24664917588233948,
-0.4811308681964874,
0.06290936470031738,
-0.21742743253707886,
0.29689815640449524,
0.7520358562469482,
-0.3163473308086395,
-0.8725242614746094,
-0.3458210527896881,
0.1963338553905487,
-0.06200945004820824,
-0.22628189623355865,
-0.3805563747882843,
0.6378805041313171,
-0.08904708176851273,
-0.03537018224596977,
-0.3087974488735199,
-0.1622239649295807,
-0.9525316953659058,
0.27713459730148315,
-0.5988970398902893,
-0.8126913905143738,
0.6542730927467346,
0.41488346457481384,
-0.4274630844593048,
0.08884703367948532,
0.36565789580345154,
-0.03668699413537979,
0.05232897773385048,
-0.02396661415696144,
0.4047432541847229,
-0.5847915410995483,
-0.017427312210202217,
0.43898510932922363,
-0.028171086683869362,
-1.033880591392517,
-0.23452293872833252,
-0.36015281081199646,
0.25207993388175964,
0.16407109797000885,
-0.46832945942878723,
0.5995995402336121,
-0.4185750186443329,
-0.16581431031227112,
0.01502857357263565,
0.1625659018754959,
0.1460706889629364,
-0.2321288287639618,
-0.2187691479921341,
0.10565046221017838,
-0.11610710620880127,
-0.05635819956660271,
0.23858994245529175,
0.29394370317459106,
0.7849270105361938,
-0.1050599068403244,
-0.023250216618180275,
0.03566954284906387,
0.5331776738166809,
0.12405040115118027,
-0.484402060508728,
-0.7098680734634399,
0.23080211877822876,
0.3495667278766632,
-0.181930273771286,
-0.6446077227592468,
-0.5555549263954163,
0.541681706905365,
-0.2929908335208893,
-0.5702497363090515,
0.4740784764289856,
-0.022028986364603043,
0.43214529752731323,
-0.04715400189161301,
0.46831539273262024,
-0.23008078336715698,
0.314474880695343,
0.6935688853263855,
0.1891700029373169,
0.17575578391551971,
0.3510347902774811,
0.665800929069519,
0.22744353115558624,
-0.7409640550613403,
-0.5651730298995972,
-0.35875800251960754,
0.383267343044281,
0.28567075729370117,
-0.2531079947948456,
-0.5799823999404907,
-0.7018141150474548,
-0.1988574117422104,
-0.1584325134754181,
-0.32713088393211365,
-0.16307751834392548,
0.03425424546003342,
-0.30040162801742554,
-0.40062659978866577,
-0.430867999792099,
-0.27701884508132935,
-0.1767190843820572,
-0.3947913646697998,
-0.05097733438014984,
0.044278305023908615,
-0.20084545016288757,
-0.19257323443889618,
-0.20477519929409027,
0.192966029047966,
0.31473591923713684,
-0.3306157886981964,
0.1062815710902214,
-0.175301194190979,
-0.09622865170240402,
-0.3136993944644928,
0.3534073531627655,
0.24913521111011505,
-0.6873979568481445,
1.1888304948806763,
-0.05332314223051071,
-0.24450917541980743,
-0.24355323612689972,
-0.1922663301229477,
0.2700901925563812,
0.42182841897010803,
0.3661210238933563,
-0.039443489164114,
0.6115840077400208,
-0.6512730717658997,
-0.045751020312309265,
-0.14313282072544098,
-0.4878929853439331,
0.8612480163574219,
-0.05164061486721039,
0.03602975979447365,
0.6510305404663086,
0.4911730885505676,
0.07984482496976852,
-0.6833845376968384,
0.449226051568985,
-0.21932443976402283,
0.1325593739748001,
0.22435587644577026,
-0.1064796969294548,
0.28086090087890625,
0.4257259666919708,
0.08034215122461319,
0.866680920124054,
-0.19861243665218353,
-0.5380395650863647,
0.20035520195960999,
-0.651289701461792,
-0.06314004212617874,
0.3959525525569916,
0.5832316279411316,
-0.08382494002580643,
0.2988886535167694,
0.1450853794813156,
0.32607945799827576,
-0.25433027744293213,
-0.027249887585639954,
0.29834720492362976,
0.3051815629005432,
0.2507946789264679,
0.5945970416069031,
0.8024449348449707,
0.874603807926178,
-0.35657957196235657,
-0.0013815667480230331,
-0.25631198287010193,
-0.08746454119682312,
-0.020819002762436867,
0.0809033140540123,
-0.8892267346382141,
0.33870017528533936,
0.43832865357398987,
0.36771291494369507,
-0.37273305654525757,
0.5493209958076477,
0.30584681034088135,
0.05167205259203911,
0.42336681485176086,
-0.10405907779932022,
-0.07056449353694916,
0.23868970572948456,
-0.2529245913028717,
-0.1282995343208313,
-0.33211782574653625,
-0.24790862202644348,
0.7527766227722168,
0.6339269280433655,
0.022612731903791428,
0.2626896798610687,
0.025030281394720078,
-0.005440751556307077,
0.3976917862892151,
-0.30557122826576233,
0.07787669450044632,
-0.012592162005603313,
-0.5650597810745239,
0.09231104701757431,
0.5716531872749329,
-0.02704066038131714,
-0.832738995552063,
-0.2710348963737488,
-0.09121562540531158,
0.0689593032002449,
0.14123131334781647,
-0.8531408309936523,
0.17535725235939026,
-0.5379587411880493,
1.5930397510528564,
-0.12010766565799713,
-0.3953830599784851,
-0.4263443648815155,
-0.24892282485961914,
-0.04576920345425606,
0.006485451012849808,
-0.40009164810180664,
0.7135035991668701,
-0.399705171585083,
0.054817721247673035,
-0.6210927963256836,
0.6304976940155029,
0.24525296688079834,
0.41219383478164673,
-0.23373454809188843,
0.7450704574584961,
-0.24151138961315155,
0.04036971554160118,
-0.0591408871114254,
-0.323478102684021,
-0.30065640807151794,
0.451332688331604,
-0.1679437905550003,
0.3213682770729065,
0.27440762519836426,
0.08586294949054718,
-0.41166916489601135,
0.23276768624782562,
0.12554579973220825,
0.6168342232704163,
0.20246104896068573,
0.12534081935882568,
-0.30662330985069275,
-0.39971306920051575,
-0.6507947444915771,
0.10576440393924713,
-0.18236728012561798,
1.1862773895263672,
0.6265437602996826,
0.3092261850833893,
0.2280501425266266,
-0.21335530281066895,
0.013237024657428265,
-0.21632081270217896,
0.3371729552745819,
0.03529444709420204,
-2.315105676651001,
-0.050553418695926666,
-0.11468987166881561,
-0.17768749594688416,
-0.49865007400512695,
0.25476786494255066,
-0.07338559627532959,
0.009120778180658817,
-0.12458205968141556,
-0.3079996109008789,
0.38301366567611694,
-0.060991302132606506,
0.11749345809221268,
-1.1070011854171753,
0.5267667174339294,
-0.06710176914930344
] |
203628
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1882%20in%20literature
|
1882 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1882.
Events
January 2 – Oscar Wilde arrives in the United States for an extended lecture tour sponsored by Richard D'Oyly Carte. He poses for iconic photographs in Napoleon Sarony's Manhattan studio.
April 9 – English poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti dies aged 53 of Bright's disease at Birchington-on-Sea in the care of his brother, the critic William Michael Rossetti.
April 29 – May 6 (O. S.: April 17–24) – The Romanian poet Mihai Eminescu reads out his Luceafărul at two successive meetings of Junimea club in Iași. The poem, on which he had been working since 1873, is his last major work before his mental health collapses, requiring hospital care in Oberdöbling; it will be published in April 1883.
May 8 – World première of David Belasco's La Belle Russe in New York City
May 20 – World première of Henrik Ibsen's controversial play Ghosts (Gengangere; 1881) in Norwegian in Chicago.
June 2 – English language première of Ibsen's play A Doll's House (1879) as The Child Wife in Milwaukee.
October
Almqvist & Wiksell is established in Uppsala (Sweden) by purchase of an earlier printing company.
Rudyard Kipling returns to the British Raj and joins the staff of the Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore.
December – Karl May (as Captain Ramon Diaz de la Escosura) begins to publish Das Waldröschen in installments.
unknown date – In Delhi, the first original novel in Hindi is published: Pariksha guru (Parīkṣāguru, "Experience is the Only Teacher") by Srinivas Das (Śrīnivāsdās).
New books
Fiction
F. Anstey – Vice Versa
Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly – The Story Without a Name
Walter Besant – The Revolt of Man
Rolf Boldrewood – Robbery Under Arms (serialization in The Sydney Mail begins, July)
Félicien Champsaur – Dinah Samuel
Bankim Chatterjee – Anandmath
Wilkie Collins – After Dark (short stories)
Gabriele D'Annunzio – Terra vergine (short stories)
Etonensis (George Augustus Sala and James Campbell Reddie) – The Mysteries of Verbena House, or, Miss Bellasis Birched for Thieving
Theodor Fontane – L'Adultera (The Adulteress)
Ludovic Halévy – The Abbot Constantine
Richard Jefferies – Bevis
Alexander Kielland – Skipper Worse
George Bernard Shaw – Cashel Byron's Profession
Robert Louis Stevenson – New Arabian Nights
Frank R. Stockton – "The Lady, or the Tiger?" (short story in The Century Magazine, November)
Torfhildur Þorsteinsdóttir (Hólm) – Brynjólfur Sveinsson biskup
Anthony Trollope – The Fixed Period
Gleb Uspensky – The Power of the Land («Власть земли», in Otechestvennye Zapiski, 1–2, and book publication)
Jules Verne
Godfrey Morgan: A Californian Mystery (L'École des Robinsons)
The Green Ray (Le Rayon vert)
Children and young people
R. D. Blackmore – Christowell
Mrs. W. K. Clifford – Anyhow Stories, Moral and Otherwise
Ouida – Bimbi: Stories for Children
Mark Twain – The Prince and the Pauper
Drama
David Belasco - La Belle Russe
Manilal Dwivedi – Kanta
José Echegaray – Conflicto entre dos deberes (Conflict of Duties)
Victor Hugo – Torquemada
Henrik Ibsen – An Enemy of the People (En folkefiende)
Victorien Sardou – Fédora
R. L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley – Deacon Brodie
Jules Verne – Journey Through the Impossible (Voyage à travers l'impossible)
Poetry
Gabriele D'Annunzio – Canto novo
George Robert Sims – The Dagonet Ballads
Non-fiction
Henri-Frédéric Amiel (died 1881) – Journal intime
Hall Caine – Recollections of Rossetti
Ignatius L. Donnelly – Atlantis: The Antediluvian World
William Morris – Hopes and Fears for Art
Friedrich Nietzsche – The Gay Science (Die fröhliche Wissenschaft)
Theodore Roosevelt – The Naval War of 1812
Janez Trdina – Bajke in povesti o Gorjancih (Folktales and stories of the Gorjanci Hills)
Births
January 10 – Olive Higgins Prouty, American novelist (died 1974)
January 18 – A. A. Milne, English fiction writer, particularly for children (died 1956)
January 25 – Virginia Woolf, English novelist (died 1941)
February 1 – Cicely Fox Smith, English poet and nautical writer (died 1954)
February 2 – James Joyce, Irish novelist and poet (died 1941)
February 14 – George Jean Nathan, American literary critic (died 1958)
March 5 – Henry S. Whitehead, American author (died 1932)
April 18 – Monteiro Lobato, Brazilian fiction writer, particularly for children (died 1948)
May 20 – Sigrid Undset, Norwegian author (died 1949)
May 28 – Avery Hopwood, American playwright (died 1928)
May 30 – Ivan Sokolov-Mikitov, Russian novelist (died 1975)
September 12 – Ion Agârbiceanu, Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian writer (died 1963)
October 28 – Richard Barham Middleton, English poet and fiction writer (died 1911)
November 2 – Leo Perutz, Austrian-born novelist and mathematician (died 1957)
November 24 – E. R. Eddison, English fantasy author (died 1945)
December 13 – André Billy, French author (died 1971)
Deaths
January 3 – William Harrison Ainsworth, English historical novelist (born 1805)
January 6 – Richard Henry Dana, Jr., American novelist and politician (born 1815)
March 20 – Charlotte Chanter, English botanical writer and novelist (born 1828)
March 24 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, American poet (born 1807)
April 10 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English poet and painter (Bright's disease, born 1828)
April 27 – Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet, essayist and philosopher (born 1803)
June 14 – Thomas Cautley Newby, English publisher (born c.1797)
June 30 – Charles J. Guiteau, American writer and lawyer, assassin of United States President James A. Garfield (born 1841)
August 1 – Henry Kendall, Australian poet (born 1839)
October 13 – Arthur de Gobineau, French novelist (born 1816)
December 6 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist (born 1815)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.03262268006801605,
0.2924036681652069,
-0.6589815020561218,
-0.16686329245567322,
-0.7116777896881104,
-0.21966545283794403,
0.7174414396286011,
0.5335304141044617,
-0.6897260546684265,
-0.7137223482131958,
-0.14035041630268097,
0.02813788689672947,
-0.06092311441898346,
0.17694808542728424,
0.07322949916124344,
0.018809499219059944,
0.25091874599456787,
0.012833238579332829,
0.09405063092708588,
-0.579424262046814,
-0.40277427434921265,
0.022367773577570915,
0.5816646218299866,
-0.36485782265663147,
0.30306488275527954,
-0.9124194383621216,
0.36092886328697205,
-0.22321823239326477,
0.4213598072528839,
-0.22908832132816315,
-0.03248467296361923,
0.2994064390659332,
0.34652945399284363,
0.23965437710285187,
-0.7063116431236267,
-0.3699955344200134,
-0.18471015989780426,
-0.3782990276813507,
0.20152579247951508,
-0.3840421438217163,
-0.2898218631744385,
0.09789203852415085,
0.2825096845626831,
0.4511462152004242,
0.03925236687064171,
-0.3933242857456207,
-1.9362804889678955,
-0.08069182932376862,
-0.936159610748291,
0.4087783694267273,
-0.17334552109241486,
0.6807546615600586,
1.0008834600448608,
0.4174235165119171,
-0.4887828826904297,
0.8063583970069885,
-0.39604246616363525,
0.017569666728377342,
0.022249430418014526,
-0.29443445801734924,
0.4245966970920563,
0.3765369653701782,
0.15732072293758392,
0.09747308492660522,
0.5721743702888489,
0.1541079431772232,
-0.47765612602233887,
-0.030787670984864235,
-0.057966332882642746,
-0.5402600169181824,
0.07580874115228653,
-0.31800442934036255,
0.30310720205307007,
-0.02057180367410183,
0.47806331515312195,
-0.04506586492061615,
0.14123934507369995,
-0.16210684180259705,
-0.5268758535385132,
-0.0248099472373724,
-0.7288028001785278,
0.3393692374229431,
0.7629578113555908,
0.31274357438087463,
0.32496383786201477,
0.033196549862623215,
-0.36526787281036377,
-0.06495978683233261,
0.17544275522232056,
-0.27899429202079773,
0.13615109026432037,
-0.065481036901474,
0.4654577970504761,
0.09245731681585312,
0.47898080945014954,
0.47637614607810974,
-0.13980954885482788,
0.20168538391590118,
-0.5329425930976868,
-0.0883268266916275,
0.166898712515831,
0.8479878306388855,
0.5794492959976196,
-0.15559613704681396,
-0.7044596076011658,
-0.06963200867176056,
0.19271811842918396,
-0.11733273416757584,
0.8551333546638489,
-0.9101129174232483,
-0.21908892691135406,
0.28019794821739197,
-0.4010178744792938,
-0.07985324412584305,
0.269170880317688,
0.2551698386669159,
0.42114755511283875,
-0.13905230164527893,
-0.6824859976768494,
0.2979264259338379,
-0.5924341678619385,
0.1735442727804184,
0.07314025610685349,
0.5929654240608215,
-0.8485461473464966,
0.42077821493148804,
0.3026870787143707,
0.3978113830089569,
0.1876174956560135,
0.5507038831710815,
0.49780693650245667,
0.9156608581542969,
0.018299872055649757,
-0.2665409743785858,
0.06437132507562637,
-0.16694538295269012,
0.10410643368959427,
0.7501180171966553,
-0.09906285256147385,
0.29589077830314636,
-0.5218566060066223,
0.10777544975280762,
-1.7451057434082031,
-0.11099931597709656,
0.11375414580106735,
-0.5556207299232483,
0.2268749326467514,
-0.347248375415802,
-0.11378397792577744,
-0.3007124960422516,
0.382838636636734,
-0.4679606556892395,
-0.27592235803604126,
0.44588136672973633,
0.09702204912900925,
0.5042999386787415,
0.26692870259284973,
0.3373844027519226,
0.7208495736122131,
-0.07594326883554459,
-0.3380363881587982,
0.08224482834339142,
0.005026907194405794,
0.029539285227656364,
-0.20536735653877258,
-0.4186510443687439,
0.23894916474819183,
0.2130773961544037,
0.2938196361064911,
-0.17433054745197296,
-0.2631133794784546,
-0.14559659361839294,
0.40272513031959534,
-0.5912861824035645,
-0.3682689070701599,
-0.23023852705955505,
0.2841589152812958,
0.36689355969429016,
0.1522534340620041,
0.1370103806257248,
-0.8371013402938843,
0.2946094572544098,
-0.06870619207620621,
-0.5928370952606201,
0.9614766240119934,
0.20723192393779755,
0.6284951567649841,
0.20886388421058655,
-0.32802316546440125,
-0.40547990798950195,
-0.28728047013282776,
-0.31456422805786133,
0.07402939349412918,
-0.3076668679714203,
1.4062092304229736,
-0.09515157341957092,
-0.4004629850387573,
0.8568487763404846,
-0.17280928790569305,
0.07160801440477371,
0.3490642309188843,
0.09913831949234009,
0.22158600389957428,
-0.009757475927472115,
-0.3019416332244873,
1.232888102531433,
0.1024211123585701,
0.18629561364650726,
0.11893277615308762,
0.5287450551986694,
0.6657740473747253,
-0.2502562999725342,
0.2071884572505951,
0.14784735441207886,
-0.3912045955657959,
-0.028200188651680946,
-0.38677823543548584,
0.3324115574359894,
0.15537190437316895,
0.23931224644184113,
0.6380115151405334,
-0.24480025470256805,
0.354177862405777,
0.5011246800422668,
0.21449032425880432,
0.5047757029533386,
0.28893980383872986,
0.381803035736084,
-0.19491678476333618,
-0.7497637271881104,
-0.05337989330291748,
0.34412890672683716,
0.24327509105205536,
-0.5937597155570984,
0.04218816012144089,
0.041678495705127716,
0.004751795902848244,
-0.22128698229789734,
-0.0054839677177369595,
-0.089503712952137,
0.5821834206581116,
-0.050819121301174164,
-0.033061958849430084,
0.3922325372695923,
0.10616984963417053,
0.5768654346466064,
-0.2906607389450073,
-0.2366134375333786,
-0.2558639943599701,
-0.41387939453125,
0.7336172461509705,
0.6015920639038086,
-0.09279555082321167,
-0.0838828757405281,
-0.5530021786689758,
-0.004053087905049324,
-0.39816227555274963,
-0.5867685079574585,
0.5729293823242188,
0.47133514285087585,
-0.1847435086965561,
-0.040782392024993896,
0.11504729837179184,
0.1626354455947876,
-0.13407078385353088,
-0.2524494230747223,
0.00905196089297533,
-1.1745997667312622,
0.3336322009563446,
-0.022750981152057648,
0.2474733591079712,
0.017819924280047417,
-0.15375562012195587,
-1.0568912029266357,
0.3501114249229431,
0.16871361434459686,
0.2948802709579468,
-0.14238885045051575,
-0.64801025390625,
-0.36650416254997253,
-0.5612805485725403,
0.8563416600227356,
0.6073586940765381,
-0.37897488474845886,
0.052959904074668884,
-0.3267587721347809,
0.40275490283966064,
-0.11770156025886536,
0.3321758806705475,
-0.33229175209999084,
-0.20349064469337463,
-0.014786096289753914,
-0.5013407468795776,
-0.22923657298088074,
-0.025889795273542404,
0.42910274863243103,
-0.2785472273826599,
0.32744765281677246,
0.022627051919698715,
-0.5842271447181702,
-0.48430120944976807,
0.1823403388261795,
-0.538151741027832,
0.3580566346645355,
0.30918270349502563,
0.5126652717590332,
-0.24993041157722473,
0.1982770413160324,
-5.403288841247559,
-0.18916472792625427,
-0.4975718557834625,
-0.48691779375076294,
-0.3450399935245514,
0.3493092656135559,
0.4123425781726837,
-0.3270241320133209,
-0.46286022663116455,
-0.2977339029312134,
-0.11068166047334671,
-0.3165634870529175,
-0.07360860705375671,
1.0957568883895874,
0.12703922390937805,
0.2772950232028961,
0.3122972249984741,
-0.028154466301202774,
-0.3855944275856018,
0.16512800753116608,
0.2856357991695404,
0.30313652753829956,
-0.08912523090839386,
0.23358717560768127,
1.023995041847229,
0.33281227946281433,
0.25870147347450256,
0.15230180323123932,
0.18721367418766022,
0.4846220016479492,
0.1906728446483612,
0.04313770681619644,
0.28160497546195984,
-0.1588415652513504,
-0.005690042860805988,
-0.03686085715889931,
0.8772532343864441,
0.7716315388679504,
0.8096452355384827,
0.32384294271469116,
-0.6846686601638794,
0.6406740546226501,
-0.37775689363479614,
0.32604748010635376,
0.05311739817261696,
-0.002719641663134098,
-0.43651390075683594,
-0.16034404933452606,
-0.3012286126613617,
0.7919769883155823,
0.17759042978286743,
-0.24674485623836517,
0.36070960760116577,
0.35149186849594116,
0.5276947021484375,
0.005526120774447918,
-0.30724993348121643,
-0.44010722637176514,
-0.4383394122123718,
-0.08546136319637299,
0.0962364673614502,
-0.12303773313760757,
0.5451740026473999,
-0.695064902305603,
-0.46145156025886536,
-0.1807524561882019,
-0.6600449681282043,
0.3264709413051605,
0.23919326066970825,
0.13019640743732452,
-0.013775541447103024,
0.7884339094161987,
-0.2955305576324463,
-0.7569879293441772,
-0.2623979151248932,
0.1796361356973648,
-0.3609333634376526,
0.17570295929908752,
0.029132835566997528,
0.014398769475519657,
-0.3155846893787384,
-0.33735159039497375,
-0.12124498933553696,
0.660787045955658,
0.1569703370332718,
-0.3706258237361908,
-0.05492625758051872,
-0.49691691994667053,
-1.0335584878921509,
-0.8138419389724731,
0.4910045266151428,
-0.2188032865524292,
0.007239773869514465,
0.16422265768051147,
0.4383809566497803,
0.4805856943130493,
0.4587300419807434,
0.051337894052267075,
0.45369815826416016,
-0.41775280237197876,
0.1579512506723404,
-0.251316636800766,
0.20168955624103546,
-0.05886681005358696,
-0.28793010115623474,
-0.29267770051956177,
-0.5781317949295044,
0.6375060677528381,
0.5608556866645813,
-0.987162709236145,
0.018360598012804985,
-0.2304619997739792,
-1.0733063220977783,
-0.010110891424119473,
0.73552006483078,
-0.07816585898399353,
0.3721390664577484,
0.05058331415057182,
-0.059528931975364685,
0.18771810829639435,
0.028659138828516006,
0.3896971344947815,
-0.1552940011024475,
-0.4583262801170349,
-0.22910502552986145,
-0.2779538035392761,
0.09401656687259674,
-0.40498363971710205,
-0.36409085988998413,
-0.4010058641433716,
0.1959424465894699,
0.388073593378067,
-0.10935533791780472,
-0.43827396631240845,
0.05405132472515106,
-0.2960403859615326,
-0.33287709951400757,
0.053515564650297165,
0.14352814853191376,
-0.7645393013954163,
-0.02812904492020607,
-0.23063716292381287,
-0.24221694469451904,
-0.1395365595817566,
0.7059019804000854,
-0.052226513624191284,
-0.39961332082748413,
-0.4594932198524475,
-0.5629509091377258,
0.16424459218978882,
-0.20374542474746704,
-0.03424614295363426,
0.23042210936546326,
0.254141628742218,
-0.09334029257297516,
-0.10389135777950287,
-0.21741819381713867,
0.6574403047561646,
-0.5220040082931519,
-0.43407145142555237,
-0.23646770417690277,
-0.39260855317115784,
-1.0339841842651367,
0.5184577703475952,
0.19602105021476746,
-0.5054267048835754,
-0.2633479833602905,
-0.10440417379140854,
-0.14471979439258575,
0.5759731531143188,
0.34863072633743286,
-0.357563316822052,
-0.42928725481033325,
-0.09096632897853851,
0.39062806963920593,
-0.3003230094909668,
0.12702299654483795,
-0.02169112116098404,
-0.03935793414711952,
-0.07119077444076538,
0.264614075422287,
-0.5475878715515137,
-0.20129361748695374,
0.5908254981040955,
0.5532310605049133,
-0.11723406612873077,
0.05695626884698868,
-0.19751690328121185,
-0.5710744857788086,
0.1401512175798416,
-0.22275058925151825,
0.3073127865791321,
0.6579079627990723,
-0.3337278962135315,
-0.8773081302642822,
-0.26800498366355896,
0.2143474817276001,
0.012802422046661377,
-0.18202883005142212,
-0.34117183089256287,
0.6498619914054871,
0.002447438659146428,
-0.12399666011333466,
-0.3318094313144684,
-0.1774233877658844,
-1.0479495525360107,
0.24568906426429749,
-0.47148218750953674,
-0.8166971802711487,
0.6952739953994751,
0.29341256618499756,
-0.3457077443599701,
0.18195761740207672,
0.44056060910224915,
0.04317473992705345,
-0.07302435487508774,
0.06832467019557953,
0.4150649607181549,
-0.46716442704200745,
-0.07853640615940094,
0.48952215909957886,
0.11894223839044571,
-1.112614393234253,
-0.2584085464477539,
-0.30188068747520447,
0.22320058941841125,
0.29362332820892334,
-0.5138888359069824,
0.511830747127533,
-0.3797569274902344,
-0.12774527072906494,
0.05665164813399315,
0.10864967852830887,
0.11609761416912079,
-0.3238648772239685,
-0.31020626425743103,
0.11664243042469025,
-0.1064261943101883,
0.1464093178510666,
0.16410177946090698,
0.371051549911499,
0.7296605110168457,
-0.05532576143741608,
-0.05445779860019684,
0.03880546614527702,
0.5240401029586792,
0.13581858575344086,
-0.6042842864990234,
-0.7062134146690369,
0.2403271496295929,
0.3684593737125397,
-0.30973300337791443,
-0.7913014888763428,
-0.49507981538772583,
0.639117956161499,
-0.2845361530780792,
-0.5880479216575623,
0.48810285329818726,
-0.0021664053201675415,
0.5062044858932495,
-0.05433895066380501,
0.2825881540775299,
-0.2780679166316986,
0.23853826522827148,
0.5121840238571167,
0.11785846948623657,
0.025466348975896835,
0.39975646138191223,
0.645186185836792,
0.12357377260923386,
-0.6838030219078064,
-0.42698371410369873,
-0.3753388226032257,
0.2988424003124237,
0.3634190559387207,
-0.33975163102149963,
-0.3829329013824463,
-0.6133550405502319,
-0.21675337851047516,
-0.09511370211839676,
-0.15176162123680115,
-0.11233508586883545,
0.13428601622581482,
-0.23857678472995758,
-0.43162909150123596,
-0.4950803220272064,
-0.20061330497264862,
-0.06613551080226898,
-0.22023452818393707,
0.03711419925093651,
-0.02852955460548401,
-0.27114102244377136,
-0.11600912362337112,
-0.2844362258911133,
0.16413676738739014,
0.28717607259750366,
-0.2251962274312973,
0.046479884535074234,
-0.10172919183969498,
-0.21820950508117676,
-0.36396658420562744,
0.43105849623680115,
0.16315092146396637,
-0.7171109318733215,
1.1000968217849731,
0.033421602100133896,
-0.19627268612384796,
-0.26012757420539856,
-0.15633411705493927,
0.26497772336006165,
0.4816243648529053,
0.28562116622924805,
0.016190994530916214,
0.6750504970550537,
-0.5783412456512451,
-0.08654957264661789,
-0.1614706814289093,
-0.48117539286613464,
0.8576335906982422,
-0.049176231026649475,
-0.004236034117639065,
0.522878110408783,
0.502514660358429,
0.012217693962156773,
-0.5066092610359192,
0.4207857847213745,
-0.18963219225406647,
0.08451798558235168,
0.15539811551570892,
-0.14240403473377228,
0.2516755759716034,
0.3248996138572693,
0.003335963236168027,
0.7122452259063721,
-0.05771888419985771,
-0.46321505308151245,
0.23817403614521027,
-0.6071703433990479,
-0.053954850882291794,
0.40128660202026367,
0.6329067349433899,
-0.15608374774456024,
0.4009842574596405,
0.11666744947433472,
0.26004713773727417,
-0.26983776688575745,
-0.011901198886334896,
0.22631052136421204,
0.2670666575431824,
0.056807439774274826,
0.5368619561195374,
0.7373235821723938,
0.6907530426979065,
-0.41036948561668396,
0.11673209071159363,
-0.31099557876586914,
-0.04512140527367592,
-0.08231866359710693,
0.009470297023653984,
-0.9706538319587708,
0.3286072313785553,
0.41075003147125244,
0.37758520245552063,
-0.26600855588912964,
0.5698354840278625,
0.28007274866104126,
0.21560440957546234,
0.3862328827381134,
-0.08016352355480194,
-0.0674266442656517,
0.11702992767095566,
-0.24200955033302307,
-0.12178506702184677,
-0.2231883704662323,
-0.19843678176403046,
0.7353677153587341,
0.6561775803565979,
-0.030242271721363068,
0.25368791818618774,
-0.018121859058737755,
-0.012580440379679203,
0.3257436156272888,
-0.30240097641944885,
0.0037852758541703224,
0.11252951622009277,
-0.48861148953437805,
0.09412131458520889,
0.45009055733680725,
-0.01291609089821577,
-0.7453629970550537,
-0.196303129196167,
0.04380682855844498,
0.17563068866729736,
0.10478302836418152,
-0.8897667527198792,
0.23320885002613068,
-0.6670514345169067,
1.6022865772247314,
-0.14365758001804352,
-0.44242987036705017,
-0.33887723088264465,
-0.22693829238414764,
-0.15792246162891388,
-0.01967608369886875,
-0.4171442985534668,
0.6658744215965271,
-0.4475765526294708,
0.11819694191217422,
-0.6229225993156433,
0.5834939479827881,
0.25738659501075745,
0.36120840907096863,
-0.22804249823093414,
0.6709156632423401,
-0.1918194591999054,
0.03014891967177391,
-0.025555124506354332,
-0.35287442803382874,
-0.20548400282859802,
0.3663252294063568,
-0.05757082998752594,
0.2502298951148987,
0.2926071584224701,
0.07360281050205231,
-0.41009560227394104,
0.1503216177225113,
0.1464940756559372,
0.46775367856025696,
0.14591063559055328,
0.18104657530784607,
-0.24324840307235718,
-0.34784358739852905,
-0.6378354430198669,
0.08309859782457352,
-0.16541831195354462,
1.1761932373046875,
0.5996056199073792,
0.3681800663471222,
0.25323423743247986,
-0.2639589309692383,
-0.026857662945985794,
-0.2372645139694214,
0.2401207536458969,
0.14392216503620148,
-2.520740032196045,
-0.0858575701713562,
-0.1748293936252594,
-0.21384240686893463,
-0.4215485453605652,
0.24135315418243408,
-0.01383714284747839,
0.04167324677109718,
-0.15054523944854736,
-0.1551615297794342,
0.38840970396995544,
-0.06784237176179886,
0.06124567240476608,
-1.1290479898452759,
0.6325549483299255,
-0.04867706075310707
] |
203629
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1881%20in%20literature
|
1881 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1881.
Events
February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert in France.
March – Ambrose Bierce contributes to the weekly satirical San Francisco magazine The Wasp (becoming editor by July) and resumes his column "Prattle" and the series of cynical definitions which he first calls The Devil's Dictionary.
April – William Poel's production of Shakespeare's Hamlet at St. George's Hall, London, reverts to the first quarto text and avoids elaborate scene changes.
April 23 – Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera Patience, a satire on Oscar Wilde and aestheticism, opens with George Grossmith in the lead at the Opera Comique in London.
July 7 – Carlo Collodi's The Adventures of Pinocchio (), a children's story about a wooden puppet in Tuscany, begins to be serialized in the first issue of Giornale per i bambini, a supplement to the Roman Sunday newspaper .
July 29 – The Law on the Freedom of the Press is passed in France.
August 17 – The Pushkin Prize is established by the Russian Academy of Sciences.
October 1 – Robert Louis Stevenson's children's pirate adventure novel Treasure Island begins serialization in the British magazine Young Folks as Treasure Island; or, The mutiny of the Hispaniola by "Captain George North".
The first of the three-volume History of Woman Suffrage, is published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States.
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy's historical drama Tsar Boris (, published 1870) receives its première, posthumously, at Anna Brenko's Pushkin Theater in Moscow.
The literary review and movement La Jeune Belgique is founded by the poet Max Waller (Léopold Warlomont).
New books
Fiction
William Harrison Ainsworth – Stanley Brereton
Emilia Pardo Bazán – (A Honeymoon Trip)
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Asphodel
Robert Buchanan – God and the Man
Bankim Chatterjee –
Wilkie Collins – The Black Robe
Machado de Assis – The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas ()
Antonio Fogazzaro – Malombra
Anatole France – Sylvestre Bonnard
Thomas Hardy – A Laodicean
Henry Honor (anonymously) – The Great Romance
Joris-Karl Huysmans –
Robert G. Ingersoll – The Great Infidels
Henry James – The Portrait of a Lady
Nikolai Leskov – The Tale of Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea ()
Margaret Oliphant – Harry Joscelyn
"Jack Saul" – The Sins of the Cities of the Plain
Joseph Henry Shorthouse – John Inglesant
Giovanni Verga – I Malavoglia (translated as The House by the Medlar-Tree)
Jules Verne – Eight Hundred Leagues on the Amazon ()
Children and young people
Joel Chandler Harris – Uncle Remus
Talbot Baines Reed – The Fifth Form at St. Dominic's
Bram Stoker – Under the Sunset
Mrs. Humphry Ward – Milly and Olly
Drama
Henrik Ibsen
Ghosts () (published)
Catiline (first performed (published 1850))
William Young – Pendragon
Poetry
Roden Noël – A Little Child's Monument
Non-fiction
Florence Caddy – , or, The Background of Life
Jefferson Davis – The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government
Warren Felt Evans – The Divine Law of Cure
Walter Gregor – Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of Scotland
Alice Diehl (as Aston Leigh) – The Story of Philosophy
Hermann Schultz – (The Lesson of Christ's Divinity)
Alfred Percy Sinnett – The Occult World
John Francon Williams – The Geography of the Oceans
Births
January 9
Lascelles Abercrombie, English poet and literary critic (died 1938)
Giovanni Papini, Italian writer (died 1956)
January 18 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher (died 1975)
January 28 – Ruby M. Ayres, English romance novelist (died 1955)
February 10 – Boris Zaytsev, Russian novelist and dramatist (died 1972)
February 13 – Eleanor Farjeon, English children's writer and poet (died 1965)
March 4 – Thomas Sigismund Stribling, American novelist (died 1965)
March 14 – Eugeniu Ștefănescu-Est, Romanian poet, novelist and cartoonist (died 1980)
March 17 – Kristian Elster, Norwegian novelist, literary historian and biographer (died 1947)
March 25 – Mary Webb, English novelist (died 1927)
April 14 – Husain Salaahuddin, Maldivian writer (died 1948)
May 13 – Lima Barreto, Brazilian novelist and journalist (died 1922)
July 22 – Margery Williams, English-born American children's writer (died 1944)
August 1 – Rose Macaulay, English novelist, biographer and travel writer (died 1958)
August 2 – Ethel M. Dell, English romantic fiction writer (died 1939)
August 10 – Witter Bynner, American poet and scholar (died 1968)
August 24 – Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen, Romanian social scientist, historian and poet (died 1958)
October 5 – Barbu Lăzăreanu, Romanian literary historian, poet, and communist journalist (died 1957)
October 15 – P. G. Wodehouse, English-born American humorous novelist (died 1975)
October 30 – Elizabeth Madox Roberts, American novelist and poet (died 1941)
Deaths
January 12 – George Robert Aberigh-Mackay, Anglo-Indian author (tetanus, born 1848)
January 28 – Fyodor Dostoevsky, Russian novelist (born 1821)
January 30 – Anna Maria Hall, Irish novelist (born 1800)
March 23 – George Métivier, Guernsey poet writing in Guernésiais (born 1790)
April 19 – Benjamin Disraeli, English novelist and politician (born 1804)
April 24 – James T. Fields, American publisher (born 1817)
July 1 – Hermann Lotze, German philosopher (born 1817)
July 12 – Caroline Leakey, English poet and novelist (born 1827)
October 13 – Mary Emma Ebsworth, English dramatist (born 1794)
November 1 – Jacques Perk, Dutch poet (born 1859)
December 13 – August Šenoa, Croatian novelist and critic (born 1804)
unknown date – Liu Xizai (), Chinese scholar and literary critic (born 1813)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.026776934042572975,
0.11617771536111832,
-0.7319983243942261,
-0.23705212771892548,
-0.6986497044563293,
-0.204745352268219,
0.8005454540252686,
0.5897613167762756,
-0.7010136246681213,
-0.8486188054084778,
-0.04965842515230179,
0.05810033529996872,
-0.020867057144641876,
0.132493793964386,
0.0426519513130188,
-0.12263065576553345,
0.3761085569858551,
0.015414617024362087,
0.2607079744338989,
-0.46344220638275146,
-0.3919893801212311,
0.10946120321750641,
0.5450456738471985,
-0.329544335603714,
0.19664691388607025,
-0.9963566660881042,
0.36682263016700745,
-0.27459415793418884,
0.7020950317382812,
-0.1347823441028595,
-0.14080668985843658,
0.3411391079425812,
0.34002721309661865,
0.18164478242397308,
-0.7854121327400208,
-0.39139193296432495,
-0.16712360084056854,
-0.36354586482048035,
0.19525717198848724,
-0.3708758056163788,
-0.34232109785079956,
0.08050381392240524,
0.3887201249599457,
0.4465646743774414,
0.035064902156591415,
-0.5192113518714905,
-1.8347363471984863,
-0.06748348474502563,
-0.9573597311973572,
0.5658989548683167,
-0.14240266382694244,
0.589725911617279,
0.8705386519432068,
0.510939359664917,
-0.3968069553375244,
0.7334887385368347,
-0.5194147229194641,
0.07026136666536331,
-0.024132676422595978,
-0.19349439442157745,
0.35785841941833496,
0.38377657532691956,
0.0739186629652977,
0.13641268014907837,
0.5758844017982483,
0.09560023993253708,
-0.46681302785873413,
0.017651228234171867,
-0.06771013885736465,
-0.6009712815284729,
-0.05695486441254616,
-0.2779596149921417,
0.2522611618041992,
-0.1566571593284607,
0.5694102644920349,
-0.08123888820409775,
-0.01803555339574814,
-0.18213321268558502,
-0.6740863919258118,
-0.0798792913556099,
-0.6555996537208557,
0.42507749795913696,
0.7597711086273193,
0.3498828113079071,
0.19662626087665558,
-0.022746820002794266,
-0.2710590064525604,
-0.055501945316791534,
0.1434437781572342,
-0.33798015117645264,
0.1253795474767685,
0.03473450243473053,
0.6105837225914001,
0.031546059995889664,
0.387540340423584,
0.5639400482177734,
-0.3471311926841736,
0.2748783826828003,
-0.44626930356025696,
-0.26845094561576843,
0.06986989080905914,
0.7224844694137573,
0.5310804843902588,
-0.28322163224220276,
-0.8520071506500244,
-0.1777307540178299,
0.11847028136253357,
-0.17955689132213593,
0.7958638668060303,
-0.8081128001213074,
-0.2038816660642624,
0.42811501026153564,
-0.3490414023399353,
-0.06711327284574509,
0.26372063159942627,
0.3222994804382324,
0.38270142674446106,
-0.22478701174259186,
-0.711245059967041,
0.27195391058921814,
-0.5010961294174194,
0.12583497166633606,
0.18084444105625153,
0.6117324829101562,
-0.7545350790023804,
0.43262040615081787,
0.4049731492996216,
0.4282824993133545,
0.2922253906726837,
0.5524848699569702,
0.505038857460022,
1.045232892036438,
-0.06525596231222153,
-0.2580967843532562,
0.14239446818828583,
-0.05718761682510376,
0.01968519762158394,
0.7649866342544556,
-0.16437824070453644,
0.17911876738071442,
-0.5220072865486145,
0.2514972686767578,
-1.6516830921173096,
0.009181423112750053,
0.2429531216621399,
-0.5091982483863831,
0.33891037106513977,
-0.37377429008483887,
-0.12581774592399597,
-0.5178356170654297,
0.46008187532424927,
-0.605197548866272,
-0.0785510241985321,
0.45460861921310425,
0.10232705622911453,
0.48361584544181824,
0.294100821018219,
0.3663461208343506,
0.6124637126922607,
-0.030802041292190552,
-0.31326761841773987,
0.021148277446627617,
0.15704865753650665,
-0.04900131747126579,
-0.19505441188812256,
-0.42896220088005066,
0.0794743150472641,
0.24325019121170044,
0.3672282099723816,
-0.03593027591705322,
-0.20973633229732513,
-0.24783441424369812,
0.32979631423950195,
-0.4795307219028473,
-0.3085693120956421,
-0.34066280722618103,
0.3726274371147156,
0.4400583505630493,
0.1062956303358078,
0.11361096054315567,
-0.7971370220184326,
0.2559962868690491,
0.0026928172446787357,
-0.4962421953678131,
0.8897437453269958,
0.25996026396751404,
0.6190768480300903,
0.3974963426589966,
-0.23888187110424042,
-0.4364542067050934,
-0.2740168869495392,
-0.16651006042957306,
0.09104697406291962,
-0.26644471287727356,
1.368262767791748,
-0.09549154341220856,
-0.3737190067768097,
0.7926611304283142,
-0.15717487037181854,
0.03311207890510559,
0.46298179030418396,
-0.0182203222066164,
0.20935676991939545,
-0.12522506713867188,
-0.283858060836792,
1.2305607795715332,
0.12717688083648682,
0.12483510375022888,
0.13280490040779114,
0.3737325072288513,
0.61668461561203,
-0.2503748834133148,
0.16812492907047272,
0.20679037272930145,
-0.41600650548934937,
0.02829143963754177,
-0.37070146203041077,
0.4372371435165405,
0.35035035014152527,
-0.014647449366748333,
0.6650689840316772,
-0.2983889579772949,
0.38445812463760376,
0.39346635341644287,
0.262553334236145,
0.36419108510017395,
0.21556071937084198,
0.23580235242843628,
-0.0948745533823967,
-0.594508707523346,
-0.13304896652698517,
0.2035239338874817,
0.29468607902526855,
-0.3148312270641327,
0.00601204764097929,
0.00449540326371789,
-0.011917594820261002,
-0.1340603232383728,
0.026849394664168358,
-0.1492614597082138,
0.607974648475647,
-0.06440726667642593,
-0.17440684139728546,
0.45482203364372253,
0.09315654635429382,
0.5918726325035095,
-0.25819653272628784,
-0.23245468735694885,
-0.35629603266716003,
-0.46569928526878357,
0.750435471534729,
0.6083130836486816,
-0.11688578873872757,
-0.03652143478393555,
-0.7385814785957336,
0.01210631150752306,
-0.2885935306549072,
-0.502398669719696,
0.7963938117027283,
0.47722747921943665,
-0.17493581771850586,
-0.11572184413671494,
0.21299751102924347,
0.34273919463157654,
-0.15574605762958527,
-0.3123181164264679,
-0.07888685911893845,
-1.094618558883667,
0.39798611402511597,
-0.01893823780119419,
0.4448702931404114,
-0.022194165736436844,
-0.23162542283535004,
-0.9445667862892151,
0.5036076903343201,
0.04249218478798866,
0.3024333119392395,
-0.0595741905272007,
-0.6068955659866333,
-0.37530800700187683,
-0.4354155361652374,
0.8463425636291504,
0.7241733074188232,
-0.4068719148635864,
0.1823926866054535,
-0.2962414622306824,
0.3821887671947479,
0.051073502749204636,
0.3566421866416931,
-0.4053356647491455,
-0.1281953752040863,
-0.04015984386205673,
-0.5181170701980591,
-0.4036024212837219,
-0.07451559603214264,
0.503923773765564,
-0.321378618478775,
0.2730864882469177,
0.13934484124183655,
-0.562185525894165,
-0.4408573806285858,
0.15498249232769012,
-0.23293109238147736,
0.39336085319519043,
0.23815180361270905,
0.6833516955375671,
-0.22695331275463104,
0.10777528584003448,
-5.36576509475708,
-0.21920233964920044,
-0.38379451632499695,
-0.3299795091152191,
-0.304289311170578,
0.2662060558795929,
0.3575126826763153,
-0.3124021291732788,
-0.4597184956073761,
-0.33092421293258667,
-0.15357758104801178,
-0.32863089442253113,
-0.06816154718399048,
1.1025813817977905,
0.06918507069349289,
0.24376647174358368,
0.40356841683387756,
0.015485280193388462,
-0.37615904211997986,
0.2922813892364502,
0.27663907408714294,
0.24782313406467438,
-0.0400158055126667,
0.13408370316028595,
0.8872668743133545,
0.40699532628059387,
0.20034468173980713,
0.13911259174346924,
0.20645713806152344,
0.30487263202667236,
0.19264726340770721,
-0.041577890515327454,
0.30737581849098206,
-0.1952778697013855,
0.09353815764188766,
0.07142709195613861,
0.9105392694473267,
0.8548197746276855,
0.880807638168335,
0.2818204462528229,
-0.5893876552581787,
0.687821090221405,
-0.33147773146629333,
0.31086698174476624,
0.06713057309389114,
0.10228313505649567,
-0.3520203232765198,
-0.04604627192020416,
-0.1977473348379135,
0.8166908025741577,
0.14167693257331848,
-0.3252856433391571,
0.28245094418525696,
0.27508142590522766,
0.5138087272644043,
0.1078939437866211,
-0.46029898524284363,
-0.24282647669315338,
-0.4027121961116791,
-0.018680449575185776,
0.024363217875361443,
-0.0883617252111435,
0.5360886454582214,
-0.7681834697723389,
-0.308462530374527,
-0.17311425507068634,
-0.6854209303855896,
0.3635317087173462,
0.27208274602890015,
0.10309355705976486,
0.13110217452049255,
0.5987122058868408,
-0.2461307793855667,
-0.772723913192749,
-0.20812472701072693,
0.09271964430809021,
-0.43802934885025024,
-0.0033341222442686558,
-0.07586955279111862,
0.08045016974210739,
-0.28662946820259094,
-0.36642569303512573,
-0.11072767525911331,
0.4912426769733429,
0.23796513676643372,
-0.28394389152526855,
-0.02083779312670231,
-0.473448246717453,
-1.075502872467041,
-0.866976797580719,
0.5247870683670044,
-0.16243799030780792,
-0.1061445027589798,
0.2366344928741455,
0.3813629746437073,
0.506565272808075,
0.5028952360153198,
0.12365173548460007,
0.4001561403274536,
-0.4591466784477234,
0.060179464519023895,
-0.35144054889678955,
0.31980377435684204,
-0.11317110061645508,
-0.4359293282032013,
-0.1499074101448059,
-0.660902202129364,
0.6138160228729248,
0.6700194478034973,
-1.0002316236495972,
0.09217519313097,
-0.3250674903392792,
-1.0755648612976074,
0.0000034562990549602546,
0.6643819808959961,
0.013799796812236309,
0.18456819653511047,
0.07924486696720123,
-0.039685264229774475,
0.1887371689081192,
0.15153999626636505,
0.41837236285209656,
-0.23884934186935425,
-0.6275399327278137,
-0.254123717546463,
-0.17471818625926971,
0.010007369332015514,
-0.5761387944221497,
-0.3607688844203949,
-0.4480479657649994,
0.08725669980049133,
0.3451930582523346,
-0.1809302419424057,
-0.3456810414791107,
0.18578267097473145,
-0.1257636398077011,
-0.41329023241996765,
0.1408265084028244,
0.23096400499343872,
-0.7772406339645386,
-0.1109204888343811,
-0.2764441668987274,
-0.13133060932159424,
-0.03492970019578934,
0.7155840396881104,
0.036246158182621,
-0.2384275645017624,
-0.6187365651130676,
-0.5236588716506958,
0.26826348900794983,
-0.16113954782485962,
0.09249334782361984,
0.13416491448879242,
0.19675908982753754,
-0.19453725218772888,
-0.016939407214522362,
-0.1378476321697235,
0.5143150091171265,
-0.5518674850463867,
-0.38876497745513916,
-0.2511424720287323,
-0.4907603859901428,
-1.0536479949951172,
0.5471438765525818,
0.2552708685398102,
-0.45063647627830505,
-0.1444169282913208,
-0.052869897335767746,
-0.1338643878698349,
0.4619424343109131,
0.22210121154785156,
-0.33217552304267883,
-0.43598559498786926,
-0.0010193829657509923,
0.3153471052646637,
-0.3594858944416046,
0.20076744258403778,
-0.07490263879299164,
-0.20132066309452057,
-0.00010587553697405383,
0.2330966293811798,
-0.44770848751068115,
-0.24403715133666992,
0.537757396697998,
0.48228880763053894,
-0.2727833092212677,
0.028336768969893456,
-0.028219236060976982,
-0.49679136276245117,
0.20027819275856018,
-0.3104844093322754,
0.4090847074985504,
0.803920328617096,
-0.3042483329772949,
-0.9270825982093811,
-0.2136373519897461,
0.05641110986471176,
0.066257044672966,
-0.24675917625427246,
-0.1673557609319687,
0.6663200855255127,
-0.21047040820121765,
-0.16448909044265747,
-0.3661595284938812,
-0.24334749579429626,
-1.0236843824386597,
0.2633914351463318,
-0.5729896426200867,
-0.646756112575531,
0.6271511316299438,
0.25545796751976013,
-0.4394993185997009,
0.07397451251745224,
0.5115380883216858,
0.07503552734851837,
-0.11928270757198334,
0.056930024176836014,
0.3746033012866974,
-0.6146761178970337,
-0.13819532096385956,
0.5193096995353699,
0.005459560547024012,
-1.0704821348190308,
-0.31184807419776917,
-0.31749629974365234,
0.2415056824684143,
0.2631072402000427,
-0.4513840675354004,
0.38840529322624207,
-0.3697150945663452,
-0.05775376409292221,
-0.03253741189837456,
0.07883213460445404,
0.19866152107715607,
-0.4126991331577301,
-0.22990430891513824,
0.23496823012828827,
-0.26755771040916443,
-0.03691089153289795,
0.2012261152267456,
0.3030294179916382,
0.6575700044631958,
-0.08382856845855713,
-0.23586055636405945,
-0.12896381318569183,
0.47914713621139526,
0.23774008452892303,
-0.5149151682853699,
-0.5926325917243958,
0.2521037757396698,
0.35732829570770264,
-0.3127951920032501,
-0.7395333051681519,
-0.4915931820869446,
0.6475874781608582,
-0.40853554010391235,
-0.5206027030944824,
0.5000162124633789,
0.035043586045503616,
0.49428460001945496,
0.04213872179389,
0.3386233448982239,
-0.2791302800178528,
0.295257031917572,
0.49686023592948914,
0.011315892450511456,
0.09039848297834396,
0.45650359988212585,
0.5657492876052856,
0.12446895241737366,
-0.6308306455612183,
-0.5574304461479187,
-0.5229616165161133,
0.26204949617385864,
0.39452314376831055,
-0.4471401274204254,
-0.48968932032585144,
-0.6963737607002258,
-0.20048712193965912,
-0.10909081995487213,
-0.3088873326778412,
-0.12471830099821091,
0.0669894739985466,
-0.1724948287010193,
-0.5670031905174255,
-0.5191530585289001,
-0.1623610258102417,
-0.18672402203083038,
-0.34419336915016174,
0.03533961623907089,
-0.10546604543924332,
-0.32767975330352783,
-0.20437802374362946,
-0.2944778501987457,
0.2097502201795578,
0.31777429580688477,
-0.3415600657463074,
0.014643587172031403,
-0.13449092209339142,
-0.0788024291396141,
-0.3337351679801941,
0.2899303436279297,
0.273408442735672,
-0.5989305973052979,
0.9843785762786865,
0.09886214882135391,
-0.2620030343532562,
-0.2609808146953583,
-0.09964323043823242,
0.2513946294784546,
0.3774523437023163,
0.23737598955631256,
-0.01780063845217228,
0.6121318340301514,
-0.6925678849220276,
-0.014876271598041058,
-0.2229861468076706,
-0.4566686451435089,
0.8671145439147949,
-0.05977930128574371,
0.23066020011901855,
0.3855814039707184,
0.39519059658050537,
0.06896546483039856,
-0.5983720421791077,
0.4406128525733948,
-0.1619795262813568,
-0.04148370772600174,
0.23707300424575806,
-0.18437612056732178,
0.2828347980976105,
0.35826870799064636,
0.03109436109662056,
0.6672539114952087,
-0.18605150282382965,
-0.46996214985847473,
0.2478594183921814,
-0.5670428276062012,
-0.04916190356016159,
0.37805795669555664,
0.6254308819770813,
-0.23370109498500824,
0.3461800515651703,
0.08182242512702942,
0.3944404721260071,
-0.2580588161945343,
-0.0035874389577656984,
0.21823881566524506,
0.3171502947807312,
0.0850914940237999,
0.4980004131793976,
0.6090379357337952,
0.7884678244590759,
-0.36432185769081116,
0.11774135380983353,
-0.3362668752670288,
-0.07030224055051804,
-0.11435388028621674,
0.02393309958279133,
-0.9762076139450073,
0.4221267104148865,
0.43759727478027344,
0.5091379880905151,
-0.26509231328964233,
0.449820339679718,
0.40716272592544556,
0.06502880901098251,
0.5822988748550415,
-0.1647944152355194,
-0.008990020491182804,
0.268880695104599,
-0.23777243494987488,
-0.07102020829916,
-0.22839485108852386,
-0.25850170850753784,
0.9175398945808411,
0.6206306219100952,
-0.05979473888874054,
0.26027876138687134,
0.04065912961959839,
0.07413079589605331,
0.30806055665016174,
-0.3698601722717285,
0.05249816179275513,
0.177412211894989,
-0.6240193247795105,
0.1653619259595871,
0.4853479266166687,
-0.013857579790055752,
-0.8052651882171631,
-0.37900084257125854,
-0.006597286090254784,
0.22322390973567963,
0.08937694132328033,
-1.003875970840454,
0.2404095083475113,
-0.47707149386405945,
1.639305591583252,
-0.13071458041667938,
-0.47721177339553833,
-0.3356163501739502,
-0.3366797864437103,
-0.24044083058834076,
0.041685666888952255,
-0.4154752790927887,
0.5875259637832642,
-0.4434017539024353,
0.1470407396554947,
-0.6838119626045227,
0.6106839776039124,
0.3936206102371216,
0.4154455065727234,
-0.11655604094266891,
0.7818024158477783,
-0.2224000245332718,
0.06280727684497833,
0.0871945470571518,
-0.28961580991744995,
-0.25163087248802185,
0.5175607800483704,
-0.1202857494354248,
0.09017061442136765,
0.3064369559288025,
0.11859368532896042,
-0.4573841989040375,
0.23720745742321014,
0.1923394799232483,
0.5716731548309326,
0.012765596620738506,
0.2063537836074829,
-0.3943067491054535,
-0.4093979597091675,
-0.6468877196311951,
0.14015130698680878,
-0.3574894666671753,
1.3509324789047241,
0.6625097990036011,
0.37384045124053955,
0.09226685762405396,
-0.29922014474868774,
0.036763034760951996,
-0.1886117309331894,
0.2940635681152344,
0.16444705426692963,
-2.4918322563171387,
-0.18984311819076538,
-0.19863653182983398,
-0.19107630848884583,
-0.4098278284072876,
0.3102438747882843,
-0.03786205127835274,
0.021656019613146782,
-0.04722776636481285,
-0.33458802103996277,
0.2934548556804657,
0.059718742966651917,
0.18253570795059204,
-1.0406347513198853,
0.5429186224937439,
-0.06320840120315552
] |
203630
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1880%20in%20literature
|
1880 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1880.
Events
April – Publication in France of Les Soirées de Médan, a collection of six Naturalist short stories set during the Franco-Prussian War by six authors who frequent Émile Zola's home, including Guy de Maupassant's first, Boule de Suif, which launches his career.
April 20 (O. S.: April 8) – At the Romanian Academy, Titu Maiorescu announces a reformed Romanian alphabet, adopted by a commission also comprising George Bariț and Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu. The rationalized spelling reflects ideas endorsed by Maiorescu since the 1860s, replacing the deep orthography favored by "Latinists".
May – In the United States, the publishing business of Henry Oscar Houghton and George H. Mifflin is reconstructed as Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
June 6 – Statue of Alexander Pushkin (d. 1837), sculpted by Alexander Opekushin, is unveiled in Strastnaya Square, Moscow.
October – Henry James's novel The Portrait of a Lady begins serial publication in Macmillan's Magazine (U.K.) and The Atlantic Monthly (U.S.)
December 15 – First performance of a play by Henrik Ibsen in English, The Pillars of Society (under the title Quicksands) at the Gaiety Theatre, London.
New books
Fiction
Henry Adams (anonymously) – Democracy: An American Novel
Rhoda Broughton – Second Thoughts
Wilkie Collins – Jezebel's Daughter
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield – Endymion
Fyodor Dostoevsky – The Brothers Karamazov (Братья Карамазовы, Brat'ya Karamazovy)
Amelia Edwards – Lord Brackenbury
Evelyn Everett-Green – Tom Tempest's Victory
Theodor Fontane
Grete Minde
Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg
George Gissing – Workers in the Dawn
Walter T. Gray (Metta Victoria Fuller Victor) – A Bad Boy's Diary
Percy Greg – Across the Zodiac
Anna Katharine Green – A Strange Disappearance
Thomas Hardy – The Trumpet-Major
Henry Kendall – Songs from the Mountains
Alexander Kielland – Garman og Worse
Pierre Loti – Le Mariage de Loti (as Rarahu)
Ouida – Moths
Louisa Parr – Adam and Eve
Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin – The Golovlyov Family (Господа Головлёвы, Gospoda Golovlyovy)
Anthony Trollope – Ayala's Angel
Mark Twain – A Tramp Abroad
Giovanni Verga – Vita dei campi (The Life of the Fields, short stories, including "Cavalleria rusticana" – "Rustic chivalry")
Lew Wallace – Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ
Émile Zola – Nana
Children and young people
Carlo Collodi – The Adventures of Pinocchio (Le avventure di Pinocchio)
Evelyn Everett-Green – Tom Tempest's Victory
Johanna Spyri – Heidi
Jules Verne – The Steam House (La Maison à vapeur)
Drama
Oscar Wilde – Vera; or, The Nihilists (privately printed)
Adolphe L'Arronge – The Lonei Household
Poetry
Anne Evans (died 1870) – Poems and Music (with a memorial preface by Anne Isabella Thackeray)
Non-fiction
Henry Charlton Bastian – The Brain as an Organ of Mind
James Legge – The Religions of China
Algernon Charles Swinburne – A Study of Shakespeare
Charles Warren – The Temple or the Tomb. Giving further evidence in favour of the authenticity of the present site of the Holy Sepulchre
Births
February 21 – Waldemar Bonsels, German writer (died 1952)
February 27 – Angelina Weld Grimké, African-American playwright and poet (died 1958)
March 13 – Frank Thiess, German writer (died 1977)
March 21 – E. H. Young, English novelist (died 1949)
March 30 – Seán O'Casey, Irish dramatist (died 1964)
June 10 – Margit Kaffka, Hungarian novelist, short story writer and poet (died 1918)
June 17 – Carl Van Vechten, American writer (died 1964)
July 4 – Anne Beffort, Luxembourg literary writer and biographer (died 1966)
July 10 – Greye La Spina, American writer (died 1969)
August 5 – Ruth Sawyer, American children's writer and novelist (died 1970)
September 12 – H. L. Mencken, American journalist and English language scholar (died 1956)
October 18 – Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Russian-born Zionist leader, novelist and poet (died 1940)
November 1 – Grantland Rice, American sports writer (died 1954)
November 6 – Robert Musil, Austrian novelist (died 1942)
November 25 – Elsie J. Oxenham (Elsie Jeanette Dunkerley), English story writer for girls (died 1960)
November 29 – N. D. Cocea, Romanian novelist, critic and journalist (died 1949)
Deaths
February 12 – Karl Eduard von Holtei, German poet and dramatist (born 1798)
February 17 – James Lenox, American bibliophile (born 1800)
April 9 – Louis Edmond Duranty, French novelist and critic (born 1833)
April 16 – Edward Vaughan Hyde Kenealy, Irish writer and barrister (born 1819)
April 18 – Costache Aristia, Wallachian translator, poet, dramatist and actor (born 1800)
May 5 – Andrei Mocioni, Hungarian-Romanian journalist and literary patron (born 1812)
May 6 – Ivan Surikov, Russian poet (born 1841)
May 8 – Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (born 1821)
May 30 – James Planché, English dramatist (born 1796)
June 7 – Karl Christian Planck, German philosopher (born 1819)
July 7 – Lydia Maria Child, American writer and abolitionist (born 1802)
July 12 – Tom Taylor, English dramatist and journalist (born 1817)
September 23 – Geraldine Jewsbury, English novelist and woman of letters (born 1812)
December 22 – George Eliot (Mary Anne Cross), English novelist (born 1819)
Awards
Commander, First Class of the Order of St. Olav – Andreas Munch
Newdigate Prize – Rennell Rodd, "Raleigh"
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
[
-0.08980686962604523,
-0.03822733834385872,
-0.592663049697876,
0.029882224276661873,
-0.6819208860397339,
-0.07930344343185425,
0.6225287914276123,
0.595996618270874,
-0.6467201709747314,
-0.9500812888145447,
0.04484596848487854,
-0.0016184109263122082,
0.11133528500795364,
0.2625903785228729,
0.1274978518486023,
-0.17027075588703156,
0.2197757512331009,
-0.007495295722037554,
0.18632358312606812,
-0.5513458251953125,
-0.4458048939704895,
0.1104602962732315,
0.6556323170661926,
-0.3987625539302826,
0.0342654325067997,
-1.1820130348205566,
0.34449052810668945,
-0.23395836353302002,
0.6458443403244019,
-0.0037848572246730328,
-0.1026044487953186,
0.3981599807739258,
0.27050185203552246,
0.2977667450904846,
-0.6688221096992493,
-0.26080021262168884,
-0.03857109323143959,
-0.4449394643306732,
0.4003318250179291,
-0.4646271765232086,
-0.3637625575065613,
0.14530262351036072,
0.22724759578704834,
0.5554519295692444,
0.0818609744310379,
-0.5644147396087646,
-2.0923283100128174,
-0.13960953056812286,
-0.7643654346466064,
0.4527452886104584,
-0.2747713029384613,
0.7793591618537903,
1.185389757156372,
0.2798576354980469,
-0.5532870888710022,
0.8869469165802002,
-0.5806891918182373,
0.0871400535106659,
0.06302724033594131,
-0.20155946910381317,
0.4902644753456116,
0.248514324426651,
0.23062792420387268,
0.09840746968984604,
0.47939249873161316,
-0.042740851640701294,
-0.5100134015083313,
-0.028321580961346626,
0.05699567124247551,
-0.5062399506568909,
-0.10424451529979706,
-0.4202662706375122,
0.43819156289100647,
-0.10336770862340927,
0.5075870156288147,
-0.08937714993953705,
0.2657482922077179,
-0.17029136419296265,
-0.42334869503974915,
-0.20938287675380707,
-0.8145144581794739,
0.32798823714256287,
0.827589750289917,
0.39978736639022827,
0.40744295716285706,
-0.011615753173828125,
-0.26234695315361023,
-0.12698648869991302,
0.25009220838546753,
-0.2810813784599304,
0.003059178125113249,
-0.09404303133487701,
0.5452936291694641,
0.15116101503372192,
0.33470624685287476,
0.43163323402404785,
-0.1532663106918335,
0.09631964564323425,
-0.5913351774215698,
-0.24865536391735077,
0.1298501193523407,
0.6500549912452698,
0.6023892164230347,
-0.2468424141407013,
-0.7112661004066467,
-0.2406388372182846,
0.08255738765001297,
-0.23757363855838776,
0.8698301315307617,
-1.0034480094909668,
-0.37917184829711914,
0.48322489857673645,
-0.43582335114479065,
-0.12160641700029373,
0.29644328355789185,
0.4453786313533783,
0.4418083727359772,
-0.3093712031841278,
-0.5953952670097351,
0.3644365668296814,
-0.6475725769996643,
0.12121087312698364,
0.2457691729068756,
0.553592324256897,
-0.7515605688095093,
0.3209627568721771,
0.5702078342437744,
0.2899010479450226,
0.19746096432209015,
0.43027788400650024,
0.5550146698951721,
1.13182532787323,
-0.10814431309700012,
-0.4297674596309662,
0.1260375678539276,
-0.03366795927286148,
0.1302526593208313,
0.7714946269989014,
-0.08902306854724884,
0.26579195261001587,
-0.21606533229351044,
0.10127058625221252,
-1.6554596424102783,
-0.13769687712192535,
0.2536282539367676,
-0.5176125168800354,
0.2664397656917572,
-0.3807143568992615,
-0.23120301961898804,
-0.5130173563957214,
0.5792720913887024,
-0.5553333163261414,
-0.13277964293956757,
0.5675991177558899,
0.23740580677986145,
0.31857505440711975,
0.14972081780433655,
0.08617192506790161,
0.6649708151817322,
0.132342129945755,
-0.2072514444589615,
-0.14122912287712097,
0.012683062814176083,
-0.1736663579940796,
-0.3683779239654541,
-0.4463581442832947,
0.002328264992684126,
0.2744772434234619,
0.12275179475545883,
0.019745828583836555,
-0.20785434544086456,
0.0009763342677615583,
0.39691099524497986,
-0.5783784985542297,
-0.11841605603694916,
-0.13786599040031433,
0.37505900859832764,
0.4062241017818451,
0.21508313715457916,
0.0872536301612854,
-0.7920182347297668,
0.14314165711402893,
-0.0626116693019867,
-0.41970592737197876,
0.8687275052070618,
0.2520879805088043,
0.6535638570785522,
0.43473386764526367,
-0.12252037972211838,
-0.48467904329299927,
-0.30585458874702454,
-0.3291480839252472,
-0.05260195955634117,
-0.2722409665584564,
1.3459436893463135,
-0.13779769837856293,
-0.22839640080928802,
0.5432707071304321,
-0.23059087991714478,
0.006700399797409773,
0.3613796532154083,
-0.07629916071891785,
0.1864374876022339,
-0.18573176860809326,
-0.49600279331207275,
1.0767463445663452,
-0.02030760981142521,
-0.01042407751083374,
0.07932497560977936,
0.3983015716075897,
0.74318927526474,
-0.23598258197307587,
-0.028500042855739594,
0.14820675551891327,
-0.2961871922016144,
0.10784034430980682,
-0.34822940826416016,
0.4093153476715088,
0.1846241056919098,
-0.06322576850652695,
0.5590004324913025,
-0.19299420714378357,
0.44131937623023987,
0.4236403703689575,
0.2138899564743042,
0.2355763018131256,
0.3349124491214752,
0.3188391923904419,
-0.050854939967393875,
-0.94707852602005,
0.00815852265805006,
0.15891613066196442,
0.20879216492176056,
-0.4136364758014679,
0.07869521528482437,
0.022302817553281784,
-0.0044268276542425156,
-0.008397280238568783,
0.11588159203529358,
-0.35148948431015015,
0.4740067422389984,
-0.092941515147686,
-0.20408283174037933,
0.5512718558311462,
0.09167080372571945,
0.5498161315917969,
-0.11966831982135773,
-0.12414740771055222,
-0.4308052062988281,
-0.414212703704834,
0.7816802859306335,
0.8106933832168579,
-0.1145983636379242,
-0.28512638807296753,
-0.822884202003479,
-0.029985440894961357,
-0.17713160812854767,
-0.5194628834724426,
0.7885245680809021,
0.37217390537261963,
-0.04315139353275299,
-0.12352384626865387,
0.21234595775604248,
0.3500601053237915,
-0.05535168573260307,
-0.39934346079826355,
-0.014385601505637169,
-1.1909151077270508,
0.18230995535850525,
-0.10555092990398407,
0.1661902666091919,
0.16852258145809174,
-0.18801255524158478,
-0.9728015065193176,
0.5914533138275146,
-0.08226188272237778,
0.3731878101825714,
0.16976821422576904,
-0.5853242874145508,
-0.33894237875938416,
-0.3791569471359253,
0.9860067963600159,
0.8319724798202515,
-0.4422212243080139,
-0.09926044940948486,
-0.18435293436050415,
0.390556663274765,
0.20074164867401123,
0.4433506429195404,
-0.3875837028026581,
-0.25314560532569885,
-0.01781054586172104,
-0.5650486946105957,
-0.2607964873313904,
-0.11487699300050735,
0.49783432483673096,
-0.3756675720214844,
0.4283459782600403,
0.12407725304365158,
-0.3478686809539795,
-0.47404244542121887,
0.25992780923843384,
-0.30285415053367615,
0.17516383528709412,
-0.001440912950783968,
0.6280990242958069,
-0.3481810390949249,
0.1958942860364914,
-5.264596939086914,
-0.04279540851712227,
-0.4288651943206787,
-0.48121145367622375,
-0.4648710787296295,
0.23908238112926483,
0.3500305116176605,
-0.156105637550354,
-0.6258485317230225,
-0.2504194974899292,
0.05276094749569893,
-0.36820167303085327,
-0.12880653142929077,
1.011804461479187,
-0.04411502182483673,
0.21766681969165802,
0.45816972851753235,
-0.03884689137339592,
-0.48274075984954834,
0.20149728655815125,
0.15758217871189117,
0.2602934241294861,
-0.009266485460102558,
0.2938693165779114,
1.0512803792953491,
0.27757635712623596,
0.3041321933269501,
0.13500811159610748,
-0.005838393233716488,
0.2911969721317291,
0.1462169885635376,
0.11679774522781372,
0.4296392798423767,
-0.058228760957717896,
0.1258358657360077,
0.12539544701576233,
0.8011347651481628,
0.7438278198242188,
0.75810307264328,
0.38104403018951416,
-0.5506691932678223,
0.7092419862747192,
-0.39108002185821533,
0.1211848184466362,
-0.0038725680205971003,
0.26653969287872314,
-0.39357173442840576,
-0.1269657462835312,
-0.09754769504070282,
0.7183571457862854,
0.2141711413860321,
-0.30205968022346497,
0.3668866455554962,
0.32211413979530334,
0.5692576766014099,
0.07696641236543655,
-0.3564392626285553,
-0.2789517343044281,
-0.28253427147865295,
-0.3065319061279297,
0.028463590890169144,
-0.002131021348759532,
0.5803234577178955,
-0.6221290826797485,
-0.29365280270576477,
-0.19696347415447235,
-0.7197055220603943,
0.3572567105293274,
0.25352391600608826,
0.07836245000362396,
0.13310815393924713,
0.6811723709106445,
-0.19327080249786377,
-0.7241207361221313,
-0.3469020426273346,
0.08419715613126755,
-0.4321078956127167,
0.03609403222799301,
-0.11507637798786163,
0.05124431103467941,
-0.31158483028411865,
-0.23646381497383118,
-0.21983347833156586,
0.5113464593887329,
0.21705901622772217,
-0.37174057960510254,
0.010184156708419323,
-0.5163461565971375,
-1.0989667177200317,
-0.6578723788261414,
0.3593440353870392,
-0.25221508741378784,
-0.042397160083055496,
0.07016094774007797,
0.3594503104686737,
0.4311229884624481,
0.5162014365196228,
0.2891877591609955,
0.38602542877197266,
-0.5128934383392334,
0.13243412971496582,
-0.3559618890285492,
0.22360408306121826,
-0.17451195418834686,
-0.4564101994037628,
0.05272194370627403,
-0.553478479385376,
0.6232420802116394,
0.7445712089538574,
-0.8220476508140564,
0.05402625724673271,
-0.465250164270401,
-0.9768596291542053,
-0.10694015771150589,
0.7150741219520569,
-0.07613518089056015,
0.0669553130865097,
-0.029652507975697517,
0.034594494849443436,
0.2129237949848175,
0.015288370661437511,
0.45260196924209595,
-0.470853716135025,
-0.4915705621242523,
-0.23719727993011475,
-0.10570929944515228,
0.10202497243881226,
-0.45168715715408325,
-0.42562463879585266,
-0.25012269616127014,
0.13939867913722992,
0.3431384265422821,
-0.21624258160591125,
-0.46709126234054565,
0.25148993730545044,
-0.13493645191192627,
-0.24177280068397522,
0.30799683928489685,
0.24437381327152252,
-0.6238532066345215,
-0.13328927755355835,
-0.25984251499176025,
-0.1864902675151825,
-0.1754588931798935,
0.8151268362998962,
0.1260252147912979,
-0.17809544503688812,
-0.6635317206382751,
-0.6453633904457092,
0.36214345693588257,
-0.21391470730304718,
0.1383267492055893,
0.10259433090686798,
0.12243811786174774,
-0.25038403272628784,
-0.12920935451984406,
-0.09980468451976776,
0.40087923407554626,
-0.5214845538139343,
-0.30440038442611694,
-0.24174675345420837,
-0.3925033211708069,
-1.0619642734527588,
0.5093777775764465,
0.28461554646492004,
-0.377693772315979,
-0.06506358087062836,
-0.17808328568935394,
-0.25465941429138184,
0.6051644086837769,
0.1866016983985901,
-0.28711825609207153,
-0.576073169708252,
-0.026874607428908348,
0.3297375440597534,
-0.4282800853252411,
0.18079759180545807,
0.1162499412894249,
-0.03782579302787781,
0.02934623695909977,
0.2413601577281952,
-0.45165351033210754,
-0.3035363256931305,
0.5620566606521606,
0.3751419186592102,
-0.3727780282497406,
0.03547675162553787,
0.04160212352871895,
-0.6750242114067078,
0.24240581691265106,
-0.2939508259296417,
0.530448317527771,
0.7529845833778381,
-0.28638535737991333,
-0.995177686214447,
-0.13334687054157257,
0.014419734477996826,
0.04497632756829262,
-0.4570247232913971,
-0.3199160099029541,
0.7806114554405212,
0.04174421355128288,
-0.11958775669336319,
-0.23163776099681854,
0.05582260712981224,
-1.0521234273910522,
0.3018330931663513,
-0.5142998099327087,
-0.6441739797592163,
0.7096568942070007,
0.1958044022321701,
-0.362609326839447,
-0.03926585614681244,
0.42740753293037415,
0.11364071816205978,
-0.03281480818986893,
0.06705960631370544,
0.299617737531662,
-0.5767662525177002,
-0.2373179942369461,
0.5427876710891724,
-0.016028139740228653,
-1.1453347206115723,
-0.3292030096054077,
-0.3977851867675781,
0.24661767482757568,
0.2021217793226242,
-0.6143452525138855,
0.4842086136341095,
-0.35221460461616516,
0.015516222454607487,
-0.11400173604488373,
0.32128632068634033,
0.2598991096019745,
-0.3203553259372711,
-0.17822779715061188,
0.08055482059717178,
-0.20448054373264313,
-0.05006013065576553,
0.21625688672065735,
0.1950211524963379,
0.707892656326294,
-0.18451309204101562,
-0.10314129292964935,
-0.20954538881778717,
0.35607659816741943,
0.3060796558856964,
-0.4328552484512329,
-0.5722189545631409,
0.21159133315086365,
0.5315224528312683,
-0.44047513604164124,
-0.8113733530044556,
-0.42141157388687134,
0.5918156504631042,
-0.4554614722728729,
-0.4671202301979065,
0.4340885877609253,
0.1527099460363388,
0.6046979427337646,
-0.11972949653863907,
0.3253355920314789,
-0.41779908537864685,
0.3802065849304199,
0.6359692811965942,
0.14261235296726227,
0.23754964768886566,
0.33709225058555603,
0.508361279964447,
0.09323782473802567,
-0.5289129018783569,
-0.33528468012809753,
-0.5580431818962097,
0.1984647810459137,
0.44665810465812683,
-0.4869133234024048,
-0.648563027381897,
-0.7689865231513977,
-0.3132539391517639,
-0.36173662543296814,
-0.13504542410373688,
-0.06062295660376549,
0.12223244458436966,
-0.2715294063091278,
-0.4662710726261139,
-0.50538170337677,
-0.3620489537715912,
-0.26730090379714966,
-0.3481929898262024,
-0.12066130340099335,
0.007360995281487703,
-0.4643029272556305,
-0.17649707198143005,
-0.04007820039987564,
0.2983032464981079,
0.287673681974411,
-0.37981775403022766,
-0.011022682301700115,
-0.2201015055179596,
-0.1456235945224762,
-0.14582116901874542,
0.5414043664932251,
0.24801771342754364,
-0.44951558113098145,
1.0924419164657593,
-0.02280966192483902,
-0.3265363276004791,
-0.24912697076797485,
-0.1400706171989441,
0.24735049903392792,
0.3598640561103821,
0.284576416015625,
0.11569704860448837,
0.7077320218086243,
-0.7214058637619019,
0.06995104253292084,
-0.3584866225719452,
-0.28908270597457886,
0.9696823954582214,
-0.12456709146499634,
0.0027544887270778418,
0.646653413772583,
0.504034161567688,
0.07119350135326385,
-0.6785181164741516,
0.3539913296699524,
-0.25481441617012024,
0.12009372562170029,
0.4081130921840668,
0.08523248136043549,
0.30841293931007385,
0.468342661857605,
0.05204214155673981,
0.8287546634674072,
-0.015338062308728695,
-0.5295573472976685,
0.14942596852779388,
-0.5039390921592712,
-0.08833309262990952,
0.317579060792923,
0.6298494338989258,
-0.28560057282447815,
0.39708033204078674,
0.2530438005924225,
0.4049263000488281,
-0.08415399491786957,
0.13731825351715088,
0.21186518669128418,
0.36543941497802734,
-0.05377323180437088,
0.5370548963546753,
0.6926303505897522,
0.7132886648178101,
-0.3432842493057251,
0.28002819418907166,
-0.2777751684188843,
-0.1019461452960968,
-0.2628481388092041,
-0.012918755412101746,
-0.9451315402984619,
0.396018922328949,
0.2942861318588257,
0.3883640766143799,
-0.44107335805892944,
0.5414071679115295,
0.23084180057048798,
-0.11876218020915985,
0.5441613793373108,
-0.23724713921546936,
-0.07089448720216751,
0.3209850788116455,
-0.21974477171897888,
0.03892384096980095,
-0.2928158640861511,
-0.17320586740970612,
0.9069504141807556,
0.674780011177063,
-0.26871198415756226,
0.42284151911735535,
0.11225073784589767,
0.030409935861825943,
0.2940770089626312,
-0.23070843517780304,
0.09908119589090347,
0.12854936718940735,
-0.4860547184944153,
0.1514664590358734,
0.4746939539909363,
0.040821727365255356,
-0.9011218547821045,
-0.38996919989585876,
-0.11078891158103943,
0.0415748730301857,
0.12687523663043976,
-1.0312870740890503,
0.0974782258272171,
-0.5818740129470825,
1.512974500656128,
-0.1401672512292862,
-0.24781322479248047,
-0.3693726360797882,
-0.53108149766922,
-0.3673098385334015,
0.20917409658432007,
-0.44865477085113525,
0.5430567264556885,
-0.45671361684799194,
0.016380738466978073,
-0.6340380311012268,
0.7645320892333984,
0.37844517827033997,
0.364822655916214,
-0.15923616290092468,
0.8094403147697449,
-0.12762507796287537,
0.0431494303047657,
-0.06489509344100952,
-0.2962634265422821,
-0.2154942750930786,
0.27190056443214417,
-0.17658871412277222,
0.146553635597229,
0.34485796093940735,
0.12422797828912735,
-0.44972047209739685,
0.25242379307746887,
0.11067624390125275,
0.7113155722618103,
0.1622398942708969,
0.0651443600654602,
-0.43321600556373596,
-0.25799649953842163,
-0.6156941056251526,
0.03808731585741043,
-0.2530859112739563,
1.3600854873657227,
0.7055705785751343,
0.5013836622238159,
0.18433977663516998,
-0.27964338660240173,
0.08935118466615677,
-0.28832584619522095,
0.3746601641178131,
0.23999275267124176,
-2.5957939624786377,
-0.24226918816566467,
-0.11250190436840057,
-0.19904875755310059,
-0.4230010211467743,
0.3259391486644745,
-0.1462317556142807,
-0.010598513297736645,
-0.056715115904808044,
-0.28992119431495667,
0.3700985312461853,
0.15748338401317596,
0.1329781711101532,
-0.9621465802192688,
0.5042822360992432,
-0.09193199127912521
] |
203633
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporter%20bridge
|
Transporter bridge
|
A transporter bridge, also known as a ferry bridge or aerial transfer bridge, is a type of movable bridge that carries a segment of roadway across a river. The gondola is slung from a tall span by wires or a metal frame. The design has been used to cross navigable rivers or other bodies of water, where there is a requirement for ship traffic to be able to pass. This has been a rare type of bridge, with fewer than two dozen built. There are just twelve that continue to be used today, including one converted into a lift bridge and one designed as, but not yet operating as, a transporter bridge.
History
The concept of the transporter bridge was invented in 1873 by Charles Smith (1844-1882), the manager of an engine works in Hartlepool, England. He called it a "bridge ferry" and unsuccessfully presented his ideas to councils in Hartlepool, Middlesbrough, and Glasgow.
The first transporter bridge, Vizcaya Bridge was built between Las Arenas and Portugalete, Spain, in 1893. The design from Alberto Palacio inspired others to attempt similar structures. The idea came about in locations where it was seen as impractical to build long approach ramps that would be required to reach a high span, and in places where ferries are not easily able to cross. Because transporter bridges can carry only a limited load, the idea was little used after the rise of the automobile.
The first such bridge built in France, the 1898 Rouen bridge crossing the Seine, was destroyed by the French Army to slow down German troops in World War II. Transporter bridges were popular in France, where five were erected and another partially completed.
The United Kingdom has four transporter bridges, though Warrington Transporter Bridge is disused and the modern Royal Victoria Dock Bridge, though designed with the potential to be used as a transporter bridge, has so far only been used as a high-level footbridge. The Newport Transporter Bridge was built in 1906 across the River Usk in Newport. Because the river banks are very low at the crossing point (a few miles south of the city centre) a traditional bridge would need a very long approach ramp and a ferry could not be used at low tide. The Newport bridge was a Ferdinand Arnodin design. The Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge opened in 1911 crossing the River Tees. It was featured in the 2002 series of the popular British TV show Auf Wiedersehen, Pet; the programme's plot had the bridge being dismantled and re-erected in Arizona, USA. The Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge, demolished in the early 1960s, was the first of its type in Britain, and the largest ever built.
In the United States, two such bridges were built. The first was the Aerial Bridge built in Duluth, Minnesota in 1905, although the city had originally planned to build a vertical lift bridge at the site. The transporter design was used for about 25 years before the structure was reconfigured to lift a central span in 1930.
The second American transporter bridge was different from other designs and partially resembled gondola lifts used in mountainous regions. The Sky Ride was part of the 1933–34 Chicago World's Fair ("Century of Progress"), it was taken down after standing for just two years. However, it was the longest bridge of this type ever built at the time.
Two historic transporter bridges survive in Germany. A unique example is the bridge at Rendsburg, from 1913 which is two bridges in one: A railroad link crosses high above on the top span, and the suspended ferry carries traffic on the valley floor. The bridge at Osten is four years older and was the first transporter bridge in Germany.
List of transporter bridges
Existing bridges
Historic bridges
See also
Movable bridges for a list of other movable bridge types
References
External links
The Friends of Newport Transporter Bridge
BBC Article on the Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge
Warrington Transporter Bridge
BBC article on the Bridges of the River Tees
Structurae: Transporter bridges
The World of Transporter bridges
Rochefort Transporter Bridge official website
Flying Bridges: A Short History of Transporter Bridges
Transporter Bridges on historic postcards
Transporter Bridges on Skyscraperpage.com
1873 introductions
British inventions
Spanish inventions
Bridges by structural type
|
[
0.35758012533187866,
0.12828147411346436,
0.46650227904319763,
0.18498332798480988,
0.04126347228884697,
0.45938578248023987,
-0.4139452874660492,
-0.03383553773164749,
-0.41030821204185486,
-0.8208394050598145,
-0.2415304183959961,
0.4074610471725464,
-0.5339494943618774,
0.09004677832126617,
-0.34001800417900085,
0.40861812233924866,
0.0774288922548294,
0.21895399689674377,
-0.03697722405195236,
-0.5378430485725403,
-0.28612926602363586,
0.2209414839744568,
0.35779276490211487,
-0.25025707483291626,
-0.17101465165615082,
-0.12841829657554626,
0.35844686627388,
0.6835578680038452,
-0.17247532308101654,
0.16363196074962616,
0.8832845687866211,
0.39203140139579773,
0.1492476761341095,
-0.022044992074370384,
-0.15275287628173828,
-0.5069897174835205,
0.1540883630514145,
-0.676002562046051,
-0.15905514359474182,
-0.5586861371994019,
-0.34046146273612976,
0.20671333372592926,
0.030342616140842438,
0.7855391502380371,
0.3849312365055084,
-0.1339925080537796,
-1.1431251764297485,
0.13942694664001465,
-0.894650399684906,
0.09633402526378632,
-0.7769243121147156,
0.3630775809288025,
-0.1307859867811203,
0.9261064529418945,
0.43400105834007263,
0.17533916234970093,
-0.19460515677928925,
-0.05574023351073265,
0.24373549222946167,
-0.4263465702533722,
0.38873904943466187,
0.3754049241542816,
0.23273691534996033,
0.3316308259963989,
0.6209139823913574,
-0.3906268775463104,
0.06185483559966087,
0.17678411304950714,
-0.22177740931510925,
-0.5264137387275696,
-0.02723492681980133,
-0.24571549892425537,
0.027102578431367874,
0.05730469524860382,
0.17385073006153107,
-0.23454301059246063,
0.07348200678825378,
-0.3234804570674896,
0.05559688061475754,
-0.07911991328001022,
0.08087629079818726,
1.1606003046035767,
0.2232046276330948,
0.3182500898838043,
0.439185231924057,
0.40158724784851074,
-0.9669443368911743,
0.5206292271614075,
-0.4929102063179016,
0.2769061028957367,
-0.060624197125434875,
0.04899858310818672,
0.06731146574020386,
-0.003910147584974766,
0.03717483952641487,
-0.14848573505878448,
0.286393940448761,
0.138137549161911,
0.6845611929893494,
0.2972545623779297,
0.1188022792339325,
-0.44001755118370056,
0.6861905455589294,
-0.3548460006713867,
0.026929466053843498,
-0.21227405965328217,
-0.6612116098403931,
-0.003689544042572379,
-0.06654051691293716,
-0.2222781628370285,
-0.231224924325943,
-0.0021285535767674446,
-0.2573266625404358,
-0.1846388280391693,
0.49744197726249695,
0.18699008226394653,
-0.013790284283459187,
-0.04261957108974457,
-0.12624585628509521,
-0.1386331468820572,
0.10888755321502686,
-0.01889040321111679,
-0.0041577755473554134,
-0.2040107697248459,
-0.16928033530712128,
0.09993758797645569,
0.3168174922466278,
0.6551443338394165,
-0.8579233884811401,
0.0019389018416404724,
0.5933613777160645,
1.0470930337905884,
-0.6029236316680908,
0.05225691571831703,
-0.49763843417167664,
0.09614496678113937,
0.15838022530078888,
0.28019049763679504,
0.5778489708900452,
-0.41095978021621704,
-1.4986189603805542,
-0.3784503638744354,
0.05126471817493439,
-0.6082080602645874,
0.40668195486068726,
0.5378327369689941,
0.25801441073417664,
-0.6753972768783569,
-0.2845313549041748,
-0.12640483677387238,
0.2792203426361084,
0.19316454231739044,
-0.4298073649406433,
0.3542099595069885,
-0.4085305333137512,
0.2498781681060791,
1.0722148418426514,
-0.6472073197364807,
-0.45065733790397644,
0.09309606999158859,
0.053774282336235046,
0.0009064080659300089,
-0.34793949127197266,
0.07226713001728058,
-0.015536236576735973,
-0.2769036889076233,
-0.11203882843255997,
0.28702956438064575,
0.5924094319343567,
0.23341214656829834,
0.24854643642902374,
0.22232568264007568,
-0.05031181126832962,
-0.5193828344345093,
0.02540895715355873,
0.0933765098452568,
0.38430362939834595,
0.06923633813858032,
0.5977706909179688,
0.04921509698033333,
-0.3888474404811859,
0.515543520450592,
0.7622339725494385,
0.3575134873390198,
-0.44389429688453674,
-0.11915703117847443,
0.45766401290893555,
-0.3627386689186096,
-0.16392876207828522,
-0.41660112142562866,
-0.20261937379837036,
-0.819054365158081,
-0.30897870659828186,
-0.611939013004303,
1.0292470455169678,
-0.08630207926034927,
-0.6493771076202393,
0.8049361109733582,
-0.30002009868621826,
0.6274331212043762,
-0.020933279767632484,
0.41069623827934265,
0.20957224071025848,
-0.769176185131073,
-0.5399647355079651,
0.9364196062088013,
0.6099512577056885,
0.17183363437652588,
-0.5555135011672974,
0.03153318166732788,
0.698357105255127,
-0.565424919128418,
0.1723862588405609,
-0.5793220400810242,
0.258559912443161,
-0.185942143201828,
-0.19872765243053436,
0.40861836075782776,
-0.4060826003551483,
0.460157573223114,
1.3195044994354248,
0.24209700524806976,
-0.4497537314891815,
0.6355887651443481,
-0.5179920196533203,
0.28937339782714844,
-0.21324187517166138,
0.3970395028591156,
0.49114298820495605,
-0.13357214629650116,
-0.04891056567430496,
0.12070688605308533,
0.14268049597740173,
-0.1837524026632309,
-0.38870546221733093,
-0.4801241159439087,
0.07181967794895172,
-0.07849247008562088,
0.13617359101772308,
0.27635419368743896,
-0.25129854679107666,
0.45627447962760925,
-0.7612882256507874,
-0.10282386839389801,
0.34344232082366943,
-0.3022744059562683,
0.14068503677845,
-0.15137319266796112,
0.1311808079481125,
-0.07685989886522293,
0.33328843116760254,
0.3431922495365143,
0.5289629697799683,
-0.27922847867012024,
0.33619415760040283,
-0.3161236643791199,
-0.3187703490257263,
0.3721020817756653,
0.11785642057657242,
-0.2576415538787842,
-0.5282520055770874,
-0.21355664730072021,
0.030797168612480164,
-0.03666839003562927,
-0.5207276344299316,
-0.06652552634477615,
-0.4238431751728058,
-0.3858075737953186,
-0.006604617927223444,
0.33988168835639954,
0.5549120306968689,
0.02103189192712307,
-0.4371226131916046,
-0.43404993414878845,
-0.3483036160469055,
0.1729566752910614,
0.5239654183387756,
0.1750650852918625,
-0.6906575560569763,
-0.652330756187439,
0.27008724212646484,
0.42304527759552,
0.43793976306915283,
-0.7777081727981567,
0.09419779479503632,
-0.4024675488471985,
0.07065684348344803,
0.24282847344875336,
-0.16541339457035065,
-0.8856899738311768,
-0.20108768343925476,
0.17754030227661133,
0.24731960892677307,
0.46695274114608765,
0.4341981112957001,
0.578152060508728,
-0.05950541794300079,
0.1650281846523285,
0.9449894428253174,
-0.2334657460451126,
-0.3273944854736328,
0.2450888454914093,
-0.35195019841194153,
-0.16789840161800385,
-0.0685950517654419,
0.2602313160896301,
-0.23237024247646332,
-0.0057430327869951725,
-5.48728084564209,
0.21963553130626678,
-0.3119629919528961,
-0.09617824107408524,
0.6269263029098511,
0.07466431707143784,
0.34281209111213684,
-0.3930535912513733,
0.18862271308898926,
-0.06726772338151932,
-0.016369624063372612,
0.2891100347042084,
0.33663344383239746,
0.02333332598209381,
0.36962464451789856,
0.10126971453428268,
0.738541305065155,
0.16774679720401764,
0.5971802473068237,
0.04027934744954109,
-0.14496584236621857,
-0.25165316462516785,
0.08427779376506805,
0.5190663933753967,
-0.1321619600057602,
-0.3911493420600891,
-0.5820038914680481,
0.004905494395643473,
-0.4340458810329437,
0.10003922134637833,
0.2483678162097931,
-0.12893258035182953,
0.1597634255886078,
-0.6234474778175354,
0.09365303069353104,
0.03782434016466141,
0.6431167125701904,
0.7051432728767395,
0.14317482709884644,
-0.25439783930778503,
-0.5930868983268738,
0.6179828643798828,
0.34372374415397644,
-0.4629126787185669,
-0.040695466101169586,
-0.862388551235199,
-0.1683046519756317,
-0.4020340144634247,
-0.015478558838367462,
1.0755903720855713,
0.060130774974823,
0.38382190465927124,
1.4848763942718506,
0.03813186660408974,
0.3159116506576538,
-0.3424205780029297,
0.15430031716823578,
-0.4366587698459625,
-0.24438922107219696,
0.2911974787712097,
0.2481440156698227,
-0.014754191972315311,
-0.5630614757537842,
-0.10206718742847443,
-0.5495820045471191,
-0.10358656942844391,
-0.39141613245010376,
-0.18832899630069733,
0.8175176382064819,
-0.13495482504367828,
-0.4035804271697998,
0.7764726877212524,
0.024594658985733986,
-0.6042952537536621,
0.38717466592788696,
-0.764680027961731,
-0.12726229429244995,
-0.126174658536911,
0.11680860817432404,
-0.2366645485162735,
-0.19984354078769684,
-0.1151362881064415,
-0.5256984829902649,
-0.07266463339328766,
0.6214659810066223,
-0.24340622127056122,
0.12218298017978668,
0.028892258182168007,
-0.3079783320426941,
-0.4363225996494293,
0.5612591505050659,
-0.1226148009300232,
0.3519555926322937,
0.18636076152324677,
0.20297108590602875,
0.07077325135469437,
-0.3206450939178467,
0.3285175859928131,
0.569603681564331,
-0.5045593976974487,
0.6977728605270386,
0.04887416958808899,
-0.020999282598495483,
-0.11556240171194077,
0.3282461166381836,
-0.3001609444618225,
-0.22964690625667572,
0.46159470081329346,
0.4607796370983124,
0.43620216846466064,
-0.03194073587656021,
0.3749486804008484,
-0.06766097247600555,
-0.664742648601532,
-0.12812544405460358,
0.5023670792579651,
-0.7375081181526184,
0.3273608386516571,
0.17324566841125488,
-0.17235994338989258,
0.2955165505409241,
0.3332061767578125,
0.2173539400100708,
-0.4897654950618744,
0.15972869098186493,
-0.24791114032268524,
-0.2930191457271576,
0.5493507385253906,
0.21649818122386932,
-0.4025745093822479,
0.7893906831741333,
0.6890649795532227,
0.11547095328569412,
-0.22344906628131866,
-0.5260930061340332,
-0.7930462956428528,
-0.27909260988235474,
0.15487046539783478,
-0.13399836421012878,
-0.5766187906265259,
-0.5644277334213257,
-0.7545108199119568,
-0.6971720457077026,
-0.45349735021591187,
0.9482537508010864,
0.6058748960494995,
-0.6246002316474915,
0.733880877494812,
-0.22798794507980347,
0.3428935110569,
-0.7101442217826843,
-0.7244195342063904,
-0.4314626455307007,
-0.36441534757614136,
0.37458541989326477,
-0.6966099143028259,
0.28085923194885254,
-0.0024974001571536064,
0.8753286004066467,
-0.9230678677558899,
0.6710270047187805,
0.1265941560268402,
-0.4571441113948822,
-0.06450381129980087,
-0.6416375637054443,
0.9797066450119019,
-0.3660145103931427,
-0.48579391837120056,
-0.3840954303741455,
0.41809242963790894,
-0.373592734336853,
-0.45043516159057617,
-0.6799569129943848,
-0.22628112137317657,
0.20985330641269684,
0.7102272510528564,
-0.4460507929325104,
0.018223000690340996,
0.09161794185638428,
-0.5759568214416504,
-0.15501870214939117,
0.04521848261356354,
0.007660798262804747,
0.42713385820388794,
-0.026580490171909332,
-0.5526390075683594,
-0.13957375288009644,
0.5201806426048279,
-0.41392409801483154,
-0.3786983788013458,
0.47870340943336487,
-0.06919993460178375,
0.25625649094581604,
0.24053534865379333,
-0.17278634011745453,
-0.19651269912719727,
-0.16700412333011627,
-0.2873433530330658,
-0.20399683713912964,
-0.31068384647369385,
0.06725305318832397,
0.5896366238594055,
-0.5545567274093628,
0.6013591885566711,
0.08897632360458374,
-0.4559119939804077,
0.12620607018470764,
0.01868574135005474,
-0.4897686839103699,
0.41522035002708435,
-0.14282095432281494,
-0.46888798475265503,
0.0033804643899202347,
0.518986701965332,
-0.8412569165229797,
0.054288774728775024,
0.30197206139564514,
-0.2674501836299896,
-0.013617794960737228,
-0.3380051255226135,
-0.2337987720966339,
-0.4455283284187317,
-0.505103588104248,
-0.3331368863582611,
-0.5218213796615601,
0.7472702264785767,
-0.13859093189239502,
-0.8081216812133789,
0.474293053150177,
0.2165915071964264,
-0.315768837928772,
-0.7619329690933228,
0.1430213898420334,
-0.015239852480590343,
0.23121723532676697,
-0.028837423771619797,
-0.40838953852653503,
-0.6250283718109131,
-0.05927744135260582,
-0.014697674661874771,
0.17217789590358734,
1.1443811655044556,
0.08950812369585037,
-0.7248194217681885,
-0.09415445476770401,
0.2814933657646179,
0.4732862114906311,
-0.955295979976654,
-0.3394303619861603,
-0.4725651144981384,
0.5012237429618835,
-0.26808232069015503,
-0.9781345725059509,
0.2790580987930298,
0.34243810176849365,
-0.06326468288898468,
-0.532244086265564,
-0.27976539731025696,
0.299475759267807,
0.6062489151954651,
0.006599461659789085,
-0.3531067371368408,
-0.5757964849472046,
0.08013560622930527,
0.0777646154165268,
-0.46024006605148315,
-0.1055544838309288,
0.32115891575813293,
0.1606338769197464,
-0.09167958050966263,
0.15919044613838196,
-0.15479692816734314,
0.635003924369812,
-0.0830812081694603,
0.37449756264686584,
-0.17482399940490723,
0.4627203643321991,
-0.636476457118988,
0.5700833797454834,
0.18543726205825806,
-0.5541314482688904,
0.11892203986644745,
-0.10281206667423248,
-0.23227672278881073,
-0.04258815199136734,
0.06898915022611618,
0.06571877747774124,
0.33427944779396057,
-0.745171844959259,
-0.1882515400648117,
-0.11487256735563278,
0.19430436193943024,
-0.6656844019889832,
0.9201122522354126,
-0.08224258571863174,
0.22881673276424408,
-0.04027476906776428,
0.6854289174079895,
-0.08407825231552124,
0.1666361689567566,
-0.9880865812301636,
0.37224605679512024,
0.022389594465494156,
-1.3027770519256592,
0.4118192493915558,
-0.30532965064048767,
-0.07821958512067795,
-0.3397490680217743,
0.5635000467300415,
0.3313950300216675,
0.413155198097229,
-0.23673970997333527,
0.06890165060758591,
1.3247090578079224,
0.04893653094768524,
-0.1477494239807129,
0.3950004279613495,
-0.15102675557136536,
0.1333387941122055,
0.337329238653183,
0.04569275304675102,
0.3409820795059204,
0.12137346714735031,
0.22991518676280975,
-0.20531567931175232,
0.8607592582702637,
-0.08914034813642502,
-0.8255343437194824,
-0.24377919733524323,
0.8437565565109253,
0.7787646055221558,
0.08925165235996246,
-0.14708556234836578,
0.4352562725543976,
0.2445346713066101,
-0.595401406288147,
0.29682740569114685,
-0.20496529340744019,
-0.1501513570547104,
0.5453119277954102,
-0.39700180292129517,
0.16777418553829193,
-0.2774341106414795,
0.1342061311006546,
-0.11216697096824646,
0.3896246552467346,
0.17841015756130219,
0.2431066781282425,
-0.43695059418678284,
0.2877905070781708,
0.5752853751182556,
0.3513682782649994,
0.5290156602859497,
-0.00522528076544404,
-0.3325802683830261,
0.028328465297818184,
0.29463231563568115,
-0.3297865390777588,
0.18837952613830566,
-0.0002911067567765713,
0.30950868129730225,
0.9722623229026794,
-0.08599098026752472,
-0.6713927984237671,
0.04778606817126274,
-0.7690085172653198,
0.5693662762641907,
-1.0935554504394531,
-0.13684867322444916,
0.533961296081543,
0.14935675263404846,
0.5206603407859802,
-0.8033521771430969,
0.407256543636322,
-0.13133220374584198,
0.32241567969322205,
0.1715204119682312,
0.4223553538322449,
0.09477593749761581,
0.04599612206220627,
-0.09970073401927948,
0.16514462232589722,
-0.09154722094535828,
-0.6129695773124695,
-0.8499807715415955,
-0.2808666527271271,
-0.147548109292984,
0.2787618041038513,
0.09716721624135971,
0.09568926692008972,
-0.11000407487154007,
-0.5478712916374207,
-0.27909791469573975,
0.191617950797081,
-0.696916937828064,
-0.18575692176818848,
-0.16496343910694122,
0.8305116295814514,
-0.22361625730991364,
0.1585160493850708,
-0.26385214924812317,
0.3781045079231262,
0.015392880886793137,
-0.10658040642738342,
-0.28787797689437866,
0.19528549909591675,
-0.33894675970077515,
0.4804421365261078,
0.08683416247367859,
0.684495210647583,
0.7384051084518433,
-0.42320001125335693,
0.022921614348888397,
-0.16329795122146606,
0.06834300607442856,
0.4155631363391876,
0.3907056748867035,
-0.5449774861335754,
0.16009938716888428,
-0.27550697326660156,
0.3841519057750702,
-0.08072529733181,
0.1459438055753708,
0.10742434114217758,
-0.072195865213871,
0.03950365260243416,
-0.1305743157863617,
0.1107894629240036,
-0.3646371364593506,
0.42841508984565735,
-0.2352772057056427,
0.561172366142273,
-0.8140809535980225,
0.12777766585350037,
-0.10405249893665314,
0.16811169683933258,
0.011477950029075146,
0.012220627628266811,
0.6950103044509888,
-0.053453270345926285,
0.3908891975879669,
-0.05604349449276924,
0.05935835838317871,
-0.38265448808670044,
-0.8141666650772095,
-0.788607656955719,
0.13088087737560272,
0.2247651070356369,
-0.8526842594146729,
0.17690055072307587,
0.20147038996219635,
-0.528006374835968,
0.29935789108276367,
-0.08498969674110413,
0.2591779828071594,
0.28665170073509216,
0.07691081613302231,
-0.743864119052887,
-0.5278938412666321,
-0.007303846068680286
] |
203635
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usk
|
Usk
|
Usk () is a town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, northeast of Newport. It is located on the River Usk, which is spanned by an arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. Usk Castle, above the town, overlooks the ancient crossing point. It developed as a small market town, with some industry including the making of Japanware, and with a notable prison built in 1841/2. In recent years Usk has become known for its history of success in Britain in Bloom competitions, winning the Large Village award in 2005. The resident population of the town in 2001 was 2,318, increasing to 2,834 at the 2011 census.
Etymology
William Camden recorded that the town's English name derives from Caer-usk (the Caer or Castrum on the River Usk). The name of the river itself may mean "abounding in fish" or simply "water".
The origin of the Welsh name () is less certain. The local Brythonic name adopted into Latin as Burrium or Burrio was recorded as Brunebegy and Burenbegie in the 15th century. The modern name is likely an example of the linguistic metathesis common in Welsh Topography. Folk etymology has suggested the name derives from Bryn Buga (Buga's Hill) or Bryn Bugeilio (Shepherding Hill).
History
Roman times
The Roman legionary fortress of Burrium was founded on the River Usk by the military commander Aulus Didius Gallus, around AD 55. He moved his XX Valeria Victrix legion into the area from its earlier base at Glevum (Gloucester). It was the earliest legionary fortress in Wales and although the site was constricted by hills, subject to flooding, and not on a navigable river, it did offer good communications inland up the river. The fortress at Usk was surrounded by ramparts and covered a large area. However, by around AD 75 its disadvantages had become apparent and the Romans relocated their permanent military base further south to Caerleon, leaving only a small auxiliary fort and civilian settlement at Usk.
The Roman remains are buried on the southern side of Usk. The extent of the Roman forts may be traced on the ground by means of plaques set into the pavement. Many of the Roman finds from Usk are now housed in the National Roman Legion Museum in Caerleon.
Norman times
After the fortress was abandoned, it continued to be occupied as a civilian settlement, with evidence of iron working. The Normans also realised Usk's geographical and military importance within the region, and the powerful de Clare family built Usk Castle as part of their plans for controlling the area's resources and people. The castle, now hidden from view by surrounding trees planted in the early 20th century, is one of the few castles still privately owned and occupied.
Between 1154 and 1170, Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke established a planned town, surrounded by an earthen rampart. The town was laid out in rectangular building plots, centred on the market square. Markets were originally held in Twyn Square, twyn being a Welsh word for "hillock".
The de Clare lords and their successors established a hospital for lepers on the north side of the town bridge. Its charitable function probably died out in the 14th century, along with the disease. A plaque marks the site. The bridge itself was originally a wooden structure, first recorded in 1383, when it was reported to be in need of repair.
Charters
A Benedictine priory was founded around 1170, and part of the building is retained in the church of St. Mary. It was reduced in size after Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536. The tomb of the last Prioress may be seen beside the path through the churchyard. The town was incorporated by charters granted by Edmund Mortimer, Edward II, Edward IV, and succeeding monarchs. Its location meant that it was inevitably frequently caught up in the border disputes between the English and the Welsh in this section of the Welsh Marches.
The Welsh Revolt
Usk was the birthplace of Adam of Usk. His chronicle records the 'Welsh Revolt' in 1403, when Owain Glyndŵr burned Usk to the ground while gaining control of much of South Wales from the English under King Henry IV and his son, later to become King Henry V. The important Battle of Pwll Melyn in 1405 occurred immediately north of Usk Castle, when English forces routed their Welsh opponents, causing much loss of life, including that of Owain's brother Tudur. After their defeat, three hundred Welsh prisoners were executed in front of the castle. In 2005 the 600th anniversary of the battle of Pwll Melyn was commemorated by a son-et-lumiere show at the castle.
The town appears as "Uck" and "Branbuga" on the Cambriae Typus map of 1573.
The 16th and 17th centuries
The Great House of the town, later subdivided into smaller units, was built on Old Market Street in the mid-16th century for the Williams family. Its original entrance was at the rear of the present building, and faced onto gardens and meadows. Though much altered, the building retains many original features including chimney stacks and decorative plaster ceilings.
The town market was moved from Twyn Square in 1598 to a location closer to the river, at New Market Street. A new Town Hall was built on the street at the same time; this was later partially rebuilt at several times during the 19th century, and is now used by the Royal British Legion.
In 1621 the wealthy Midlands wool merchant Roger Edwards, the owner of Allt-y-Bela in Llangwm, founded Usk Grammar School.
The 18th and 19th centuries
The first stone bridge at Usk, replacing one of wood, was built to the designs of Welsh architect William Edwards. Unlike the bridge downstream at Caerleon, it withstood the great floods of 1795. The bridge was strengthened and widened in 1836, but two of its arches were destroyed by floods in 1877 and later replaced.
From the late 18th century, Usk became well known for the high quality of its japanware, a process of decorating metals by applying a lacquer to tinplate. The process, known as Pontypool japan, was first developed in the west by Thomas Allgood of nearby Pontypool and was taken on in Usk in 1763 by his grandsons Thomas and Edward Allgood. Products from Usk included tin trays, jardinières, and coal boxes. However output declined with changing fashions in the 19th century, and the last Usk japanware was produced in 1860 on the site of what is now Bunning's builders' merchants.
Usk was a thriving market town in the first part of the 19th century, when many of its existing buildings were constructed, and into the Victorian era, although its population fell in the second half of the century as a result of agricultural depression.
Amenities
The town has a number of pubs, restaurants and antique shops. The narrow main street, Bridge Street (the A472), has a collection of old houses, restaurants, pubs, shops and businesses. Some premises date back to the 15th century.
The road passes Twyn Square, a large town square. The clock tower in the square was erected to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887. Opposite is an art gallery, Gallery in the Square. The twice-monthly Usk Farmers' Market is held in the town's Memorial Hall.
"Usk Island" is a park at the edge of the river ('island' is a literal translation of the Welsh 'ynys' meaning a river meadow). The park is mostly laid to grass, with surrounding woodland. It also has a substantial adventure playground. Usk Tennis Club was Tennis Wales "Club of the Year" for 2006.
The BBC reported in May 2014 that Wales' rarest tree, Ley's Whitebeam (Sorbus leyana), would be planted in Usk to honour the man who rediscovered them, Peter Charlesworth.
Priory Church of St Mary, Usk and the Priory Gatehouse
The parish church of St Mary originated as part of the Benedictine priory founded by Richard de Clare in the 12th century. The northern aisle of the convent church was added in the 13th century for the use of the town's residents, and after the Dissolution of the nunnery in 1536 the nave was also incorporated as part of the parish church. The original 12th century crossing remains, as does an original font. Most of the structure derives from the 14th century, although the two porches and the notably fine rood screen date from the 15th century and were probably built for William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, who was constable of the castle. The church was partly rebuilt and extended by the architect T. H. Wyatt, and further restored and extended in 1899–1900.
The priory's poor finances were improved in 1404 by a Papal indulgence obtained by Adam of Usk, who was buried beside the priory altar; there is a brass monument to him in the church, with an inscription in the form of a cywydd (a Welsh poetic metre from ). Usk later became a centre for pilgrims. The gatehouse of the original convent survives beside the main entrance to the churchyard. However, most of the priory buildings, such as the cloister and chapter house, were destroyed and their stones later used in town buildings.
Sessions House
In April 2011, following a 12-year restoration costing £200,000, the court room at the Sessions House was re-opened with Usk Town Council now using it as its base. As well as the court room, the council has also reopened the library, which contains thousands of books, some dating back to the 1600s.
The building containing two separate courts, was designed by T. H. Wyatt and built in 1877. High-profile cases heard there included the prosecution of Viscountess Rhondda, a prominent suffragette who subsequently was released after a hunger strike. Another notable trial was that of the Spanish sailor Josef Garcia, convicted of murdering William and Elizabeth Watkins and their three youngest children (Charlotte, 8 years, Alice, 5 years and Frederick, 4 years) in 1878 at Llangibby.
Court one was gutted by fire in 1944 and was never rebuilt. But the remaining court two has been described as ".. unique, the only truly authentic Victorian court room left in Britain." When court one burnt down the remaining court was not large enough to act as a Crown Court. Newport Crown Court took over as Gwent's Crown Court when it opened in 1974.
The restoration fund included over £100,000 raised by local people, with a £90,000 National Lottery grant and £5,000 from Monmouthshire County Council which paid for repairs to the roof and stone walls. The dock, the Judge's chair and the benches for witnesses, jury, clerks and reporters have also been restored, varnished and re-upholstered with horsehair. Paintings of session judges on the walls have also been restored and framed, while the walls have been repainted in their original red colour.
The docks of both court rooms were originally linked by a tunnel to Usk Prison next door. After the opening of Newport Crown Court the Sessions House was a Magistrates' Court until 1995. In 1998 Usk Town Council bought it from Monmouthshire council for £90,000 and restoration began. The Sessions House is now also licensed for weddings.
Prison
Her Majesty's Prison Usk is situated close to the centre of the town. It was built in 1842–44 to a Victorian 'rotunda' design, similar to that of Pentonville in London. The architect was T. H. Wyatt. It became the County Gaol for Monmouthshire in 1870, and operated until 1922. After being closed for more than a decade, it was reopened in 1939, adapted for use as a borstal to hold youth offenders. In 1990 it was adapted again for use as a Category C establishment for vulnerable prisoners, including sex offenders.
The sister establishment of HM Prison Usk is HM Prison Prescoed, which is located three miles to the south-west of the town, towards Pontypool.
Usk Rural Life Museum
The Rural Life Museum is housed in a former malt barn, possibly of mediaeval origin, on New Market Street. Run by volunteers, it focuses on life in the area as it was between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. It is open to visitors between April and October.
Usk Natural Burial Meadow
Usk Natural Burial Meadow is a site in Usk Castle Chase that offers full interments, and the burial or scattering of cremation ashes. The site is located from the town centre along Monmouth Road and was established in 2005. It was awarded Cemetery of the Year in 2008 by the Institute of Cemetery and Crematorium Management (ICCM).
Climate
Usk in Bloom
Local residents formed the Usk in Bloom committee in 1981. The voluntary committee aims to improve the local environment by the imaginative planting of trees, shrubs, bulbs and floral displays; and to foster partnerships with other organisations and residents for work on environmental issues in the town. The town has won the "Wales in Bloom" competition for 35 times in a row between 1982 and 2016; won the "large village" category of "Britain in Bloom" four times; and twice represented the United Kingdom in European competitions.
Usk Brass Band
Usk has a brass band, which has represented the town at the National Finals of Great Britain regularly since registering as a competing band in 2014.
Administration
The town is administered by Monmouthshire County Council and a town council. The Usk electoral ward, coterminous with the community, is represented by one county councillor.
Notable people
The town was the birthplace of the priest and chronicler Adam of Usk, around 1352. In 1679 Usk was the site of the martyrdom of Jesuit father David Lewis, who was hanged for his alleged part in the fictitious Popish Plot conspiracy of Titus Oates. In 1823 Llanbadoc, just across the river from Usk, was the birthplace of Alfred Russel Wallace, notable proponent of the theory of evolution.
Neighbouring areas
The South Wales Gliding Club is located near Gwernesney, about three miles east of the town. About three miles (5 km) west of Usk is the site of the munitions production facility of BAE Systems at Glascoed.
Gallery
Twinning
Usk was twinned with the German town Graben-Neudorf in Baden-Württemberg in 1980. Over the past few years there have been numerous visits between the two towns, with the Usk Youth Brass Band making its most recent visit in autumn 2006. In 2006 the colour scheme of Usk in Bloom was based on those within the crests of both Usk and Graben-Neudorf.
Freedom of the Town
The following people have received the Freedom of the Town of Usk.
Jean Williams: May 2017
See also
Usk (hundred)
Usk (GWR) railway station, including a description of Usk Tunnel
References
External links
Usk Town Council
Circular walks from Usk
Towns in Monmouthshire
55 establishments
River Usk
Monmouthshire electoral wards
|
[
0.21152696013450623,
0.3772880434989929,
0.7338046431541443,
-0.7643465399742126,
0.28028950095176697,
0.7294945120811462,
0.5994297862052917,
-0.18087723851203918,
-0.1634765863418579,
-0.1665591597557068,
-0.40903425216674805,
0.26824018359184265,
-0.06492891907691956,
0.16275471448898315,
-0.4459710121154785,
0.42214134335517883,
-0.009324060752987862,
0.5888364315032959,
0.04429306834936142,
-0.9204718470573425,
0.1946732997894287,
-0.40791574120521545,
0.2211799919605255,
-0.08291197568178177,
-0.3426032066345215,
-0.03535911440849304,
-0.0772681012749672,
-0.48623979091644287,
0.08335328847169876,
0.27551981806755066,
-0.18138159811496735,
0.09511317312717438,
-0.21323317289352417,
-0.5561417937278748,
0.2948608994483948,
-0.1629394143819809,
0.1839536428451538,
-0.17091216146945953,
0.24053269624710083,
-0.14804358780384064,
0.11044572293758392,
0.2474004179239273,
0.055919744074344635,
-0.07111319899559021,
-0.251567006111145,
-0.6363434195518494,
-1.3306453227996826,
-0.33938682079315186,
-0.4014994502067566,
-0.06604713201522827,
-0.7550373077392578,
0.28739649057388306,
0.3374413251876831,
-0.23198804259300232,
0.47259941697120667,
0.23028364777565002,
-0.5808278322219849,
0.011050572618842125,
0.7729663848876953,
0.22944539785385132,
-0.2127675712108612,
0.3951619863510132,
0.14266952872276306,
0.13522757589817047,
0.07402142137289047,
-0.2758409082889557,
0.31153714656829834,
0.21908581256866455,
-0.24752368032932281,
-0.22602151334285736,
0.006031102500855923,
-0.036903347820043564,
-0.16191749274730682,
-0.2750731110572815,
-0.04734240844845772,
0.10600769519805908,
-0.07949473708868027,
0.26043251156806946,
0.07897806167602539,
0.7064339518547058,
0.4766269624233246,
-0.42494773864746094,
0.6033070683479309,
0.027584493160247803,
0.39285972714424133,
0.24004121124744415,
-0.6444627642631531,
0.4089107811450958,
-0.2961876690387726,
0.6820619702339172,
-0.3545818030834198,
0.15940530598163605,
-0.18982477486133575,
-0.7503178715705872,
0.09401284158229828,
-0.024935398250818253,
0.08010447025299072,
0.33205074071884155,
0.37876272201538086,
0.3400665819644928,
-0.4127650558948517,
0.5025424361228943,
0.4720539152622223,
-0.4054308235645294,
-0.5994299054145813,
0.20411019027233124,
-0.32870450615882874,
-0.29238632321357727,
0.3419142961502075,
-0.6328404545783997,
-0.09093435108661652,
0.30889561772346497,
-0.21193142235279083,
-0.013906619511544704,
0.059364203363657,
0.3043026626110077,
0.20676995813846588,
-0.2517314553260803,
-0.11276568472385406,
0.04110770300030708,
-0.8547055125236511,
1.7216317653656006,
0.14418861269950867,
0.13266639411449432,
0.41927558183670044,
0.2813429534435272,
0.41005775332450867,
0.06239574775099754,
-0.1412803828716278,
-0.23412199318408966,
0.6992804408073425,
0.5663878917694092,
0.07558003813028336,
0.4723769426345825,
0.24043135344982147,
0.052567530423402786,
0.2120591104030609,
0.47080478072166443,
0.6684620976448059,
0.8860573768615723,
-0.10306063294410706,
0.05769271031022072,
-0.9974182844161987,
0.38186806440353394,
0.14687910676002502,
0.3534693717956543,
-0.1352056860923767,
-0.6433773040771484,
-0.3774767816066742,
-0.1550392508506775,
0.23583358526229858,
0.1669768989086151,
-0.090704046189785,
0.47475466132164,
-0.3846627175807953,
-0.40276002883911133,
0.15133221447467804,
-0.038270656019449234,
-0.05502735823392868,
-0.4094052016735077,
-0.3282933831214905,
-0.06089835241436958,
0.5028765201568604,
0.24182435870170593,
0.3145233392715454,
0.24211327731609344,
-0.44730880856513977,
-0.41795068979263306,
0.3691389858722687,
-0.05333837494254112,
-0.06651671230792999,
0.01840582862496376,
0.7173960208892822,
-0.10341273248195648,
0.15104098618030548,
-0.6786640882492065,
0.6533927917480469,
0.6461858749389648,
0.61739182472229,
-0.09470190852880478,
-0.6134829521179199,
-0.13887859880924225,
0.05604355409741402,
-0.1495531052350998,
-0.08186180144548416,
-0.060396380722522736,
0.29497137665748596,
-0.1331467479467392,
-0.35651928186416626,
-0.11253957450389862,
-0.166111558675766,
-0.3898656368255615,
0.3705568015575409,
-0.30000197887420654,
1.0074368715286255,
0.2651981711387634,
-0.4644952416419983,
0.8344390392303467,
0.1308664232492447,
0.26589691638946533,
-0.14564353227615356,
-0.2811906933784485,
0.7046408653259277,
-0.318376749753952,
-0.3817341923713684,
0.9408178925514221,
0.6167927384376526,
0.2173716425895691,
0.13852693140506744,
0.059591688215732574,
-0.2581727206707001,
-0.16873779892921448,
-0.6029971837997437,
0.14205887913703918,
-0.14304141700267792,
-0.7043980956077576,
0.0718296617269516,
-0.04113202914595604,
0.6662096381187439,
-0.5938851237297058,
0.6537225246429443,
-0.2210976779460907,
0.569446325302124,
-0.269679456949234,
-0.3681030869483948,
0.5868951678276062,
0.5730125904083252,
0.20241457223892212,
-0.23813055455684662,
-0.7988104820251465,
-0.02483893372118473,
-0.011540829204022884,
-0.26307040452957153,
-0.40567296743392944,
0.2507808208465576,
0.29590854048728943,
-0.2902017831802368,
-0.06985393911600113,
0.15988501906394958,
-0.6791832447052002,
-0.2539426386356354,
-0.10527701675891876,
-0.06393749266862869,
0.15112614631652832,
0.8016955852508545,
0.9523969888687134,
0.3124682605266571,
0.359203577041626,
-0.3293367326259613,
-0.3366779386997223,
-0.5315519571304321,
0.3060908317565918,
0.3490655720233917,
-0.14038023352622986,
0.3425748944282532,
-0.18009598553180695,
-0.03261598199605942,
-0.10743909329175949,
0.16690286993980408,
0.4616177976131439,
-0.5435328483581543,
0.18393555283546448,
-0.6658387780189514,
0.6844515800476074,
0.2865319550037384,
-0.34113970398902893,
-0.20696516335010529,
-0.8923165202140808,
0.4828309416770935,
0.026615099981427193,
0.4038048982620239,
-0.5575104355812073,
0.5136979222297668,
-1.0109752416610718,
0.21841970086097717,
0.43753179907798767,
0.028956327587366104,
-0.1801484376192093,
-0.08386698365211487,
-0.2181573361158371,
0.3296144902706146,
0.3722498118877411,
-0.08460283279418945,
0.21868985891342163,
0.39049825072288513,
-0.18034504354000092,
-0.0013188313459977508,
-0.5490795969963074,
-0.20476697385311127,
-0.6067516803741455,
-0.45560091733932495,
0.25357213616371155,
0.1855115443468094,
0.7187244296073914,
-0.448928564786911,
-0.052848123013973236,
0.0457269623875618,
0.3359062075614929,
-0.05192030221223831,
-0.12716220319271088,
-0.706713855266571,
0.4996252655982971,
-0.49861663579940796,
0.18082919716835022,
0.5205800533294678,
-0.06839671730995178,
-0.00679148780182004,
-0.47993114590644836,
-5.7971601486206055,
0.253996878862381,
-0.3495718836784363,
-0.25110700726509094,
0.5668522715568542,
-0.38727104663848877,
0.18522445857524872,
-1.0247914791107178,
-0.212312713265419,
-0.1203930675983429,
0.1522607058286667,
0.5472971796989441,
-0.20032750070095062,
0.4378180205821991,
0.7496438026428223,
0.4238080680370331,
0.2423766851425171,
0.19919392466545105,
0.4280729591846466,
-0.019980303943157196,
0.09754865616559982,
0.04570968449115753,
-0.06565795838832855,
0.18558642268180847,
0.35592302680015564,
0.2998531758785248,
-0.18314853310585022,
-0.5056108236312866,
-0.7742797136306763,
-0.3550426959991455,
-0.12427091598510742,
0.1697896122932434,
0.13280294835567474,
0.39835605025291443,
-0.041919268667697906,
-0.26778772473335266,
0.24727335572242737,
-0.011842271313071251,
0.46449413895606995,
-0.8104175329208374,
-0.09826795756816864,
0.3092039227485657,
-0.1766081303358078,
-1.0486606359481812,
0.2445673793554306,
-0.24998149275779724,
-0.5242804288864136,
-0.3823382556438446,
0.12099621444940567,
0.3108118772506714,
0.3958189785480499,
-0.26336124539375305,
0.8933300971984863,
-0.011153225786983967,
0.23070624470710754,
-0.30111634731292725,
0.1777118444442749,
0.09014617651700974,
0.5882835984230042,
0.590202271938324,
0.16913056373596191,
-0.3743838965892792,
-0.5428131818771362,
-0.4064294695854187,
-0.400698184967041,
-0.28760668635368347,
0.16552653908729553,
0.20157259702682495,
0.5862456560134888,
-0.17302830517292023,
-0.2725785970687866,
-0.25052952766418457,
0.15175127983093262,
-0.8665334582328796,
-0.3426036834716797,
-0.3766760528087616,
-0.6538161635398865,
-0.022748494520783424,
-0.4280012845993042,
0.22133059799671173,
-0.030672458931803703,
-0.04335588589310646,
0.47572803497314453,
0.08245443552732468,
0.05065299943089485,
-0.5730838179588318,
-0.24910934269428253,
0.14842720329761505,
-0.046444084495306015,
-0.708274245262146,
0.29831916093826294,
-0.40969860553741455,
0.41300252079963684,
-0.002318623708561063,
0.44688162207603455,
0.1402340829372406,
0.20735926926136017,
0.5721158981323242,
-0.11274876445531845,
-0.17576125264167786,
0.2959448993206024,
0.22797389328479767,
0.09355121850967407,
-0.16487503051757812,
-0.25557610392570496,
-0.13276539742946625,
-0.11406467854976654,
0.35846373438835144,
0.7371619343757629,
-0.1809813529253006,
0.1675066351890564,
0.02086285687983036,
-0.44819679856300354,
0.03808384761214256,
0.07522182166576385,
-0.38329020142555237,
-0.5130143761634827,
0.23615878820419312,
-0.09613992273807526,
0.5001049041748047,
-0.1541736125946045,
0.2127877175807953,
-0.13254988193511963,
0.3336654603481293,
-0.05488922446966171,
-0.31262797117233276,
0.4844837784767151,
0.6706851720809937,
-0.39696431159973145,
0.4348132610321045,
0.1606585681438446,
0.3639880120754242,
0.45858946442604065,
-0.32033368945121765,
0.13022150099277496,
0.014704207889735699,
-0.29360517859458923,
-0.09712673723697662,
0.2117089480161667,
0.5429626107215881,
-0.07888900488615036,
0.07361888140439987,
-0.05370354652404785,
0.46541979908943176,
-0.20288321375846863,
0.1398196965456009,
0.1495489627122879,
0.24950362741947174,
-0.6597074270248413,
0.3621821701526642,
-0.20791327953338623,
0.12662532925605774,
0.15249218046665192,
-0.08820994943380356,
0.35618746280670166,
-0.14186395704746246,
-0.27352580428123474,
0.15258005261421204,
0.24265778064727783,
0.030599160119891167,
-0.06411787122488022,
0.09044238924980164,
-1.0477830171585083,
-0.10916570574045181,
0.5923530459403992,
-0.3808557093143463,
-0.20169560611248016,
-0.12916521728038788,
-0.06875307857990265,
0.2097742259502411,
0.34261012077331543,
-0.40157371759414673,
-0.7489131689071655,
-0.28386226296424866,
0.003980874549597502,
-0.49095016717910767,
-0.04397326707839966,
0.4118008315563202,
-0.2365192174911499,
0.0787685289978981,
0.2561018466949463,
0.7453553080558777,
0.022221287712454796,
-0.028347887098789215,
0.12673833966255188,
-0.8824120759963989,
-0.23732782900333405,
-0.5942883491516113,
0.5623888373374939,
-0.3895261287689209,
0.053180333226919174,
-0.5191498398780823,
0.268362432718277,
0.7312910556793213,
-0.038830459117889404,
-0.5615127682685852,
0.26149463653564453,
0.9017218947410583,
-0.10099752992391586,
0.03869478031992912,
-0.014132094569504261,
0.28602153062820435,
-0.8224838376045227,
0.3832586109638214,
0.07618224620819092,
-0.5834485292434692,
0.43170878291130066,
0.29010656476020813,
-0.13602271676063538,
0.039635270833969116,
-0.3253007233142853,
-0.48067209124565125,
0.08733531832695007,
0.6424752473831177,
-0.1560927927494049,
0.021894454956054688,
0.27670326828956604,
0.2143871933221817,
-0.07865622639656067,
-0.5696123242378235,
0.07266300171613693,
-0.5229301452636719,
-0.34494176506996155,
0.049163736402988434,
-0.25182288885116577,
0.3841036558151245,
0.21511942148208618,
-0.5113927125930786,
0.1908472776412964,
-0.2046632021665573,
0.13322319090366364,
0.34573879837989807,
0.544386088848114,
0.5070751309394836,
0.13626191020011902,
-0.18123750388622284,
0.03208352252840996,
-0.2733903229236603,
0.6068789958953857,
-0.3987387418746948,
-0.03389360010623932,
0.9533931016921997,
0.030243830755352974,
-0.3347720801830292,
-0.3527193069458008,
-0.006864781025797129,
0.4707159996032715,
-0.5857759118080139,
-0.8604355454444885,
0.317825585603714,
0.596243679523468,
-0.44817742705345154,
-0.2621935307979584,
0.16379520297050476,
0.7259212136268616,
0.3226616680622101,
-0.26661208271980286,
0.44909676909446716,
0.265968918800354,
0.03949671611189842,
0.24044841527938843,
-0.2796669006347656,
-0.5300338864326477,
0.6322454214096069,
-0.01978404074907303,
-0.28958016633987427,
-0.6175709366798401,
-0.5504795908927917,
-0.11664260178804398,
-0.6249805688858032,
-0.8563489317893982,
0.3155362606048584,
-0.26204976439476013,
0.5279240608215332,
0.2581506669521332,
-0.0855247974395752,
0.06482905149459839,
-0.4314044117927551,
-0.39656534790992737,
0.20656947791576385,
-0.053122442215681076,
-0.14262504875659943,
-0.11970467120409012,
-0.29182952642440796,
-0.5656856894493103,
-0.4281288981437683,
-0.004445274360477924,
0.09127061814069748,
-0.39611390233039856,
0.43007972836494446,
-0.40827611088752747,
-0.03700464591383934,
-0.33193472027778625,
-0.14647650718688965,
-0.4002715051174164,
-0.1452988237142563,
0.0931849330663681,
0.207883819937706,
-0.3807455897331238,
-0.36184927821159363,
-0.5663508176803589,
0.3335185945034027,
-0.1856316328048706,
-0.2648642659187317,
0.26528412103652954,
-0.093023881316185,
-0.5221440196037292,
-0.04057495668530464,
0.12254341691732407,
-0.3640941381454468,
-0.19137831032276154,
-0.26927104592323303,
0.36828869581222534,
0.13063964247703552,
-0.34217339754104614,
-0.015828637406229973,
0.3890644907951355,
-1.2806103229522705,
-0.2964518368244171,
0.29967331886291504,
0.08400863409042358,
0.1627265214920044,
0.3128224313259125,
0.3446056842803955,
-0.38304173946380615,
0.7607254981994629,
-0.04574954882264137,
-0.2701638638973236,
-0.3146677613258362,
0.24805408716201782,
0.2085261195898056,
-0.043214719742536545,
-0.33033931255340576,
0.512872040271759,
0.097142294049263,
-0.5476909279823303,
-0.24135181307792664,
0.01953743025660515,
-0.14791229367256165,
0.22471356391906738,
-0.17698878049850464,
0.6734899878501892,
0.2486589550971985,
-0.03436392918229103,
0.1637214571237564,
0.004139408934861422,
0.7177383899688721,
-0.2534395754337311,
0.028949089348316193,
-0.029647517949342728,
0.37312573194503784,
-0.017586663365364075,
-0.3244170546531677,
-0.22428928315639496,
-0.10966953635215759,
0.2996985912322998,
0.16887454688549042,
-0.41351476311683655,
-0.6781861186027527,
-0.09377232939004898,
0.391682505607605,
-0.15975961089134216,
0.6692094206809998,
-0.07578891515731812,
0.010692481882870197,
-0.5323957204818726,
0.1836283951997757,
-0.24758121371269226,
0.004832841921597719,
0.7516624927520752,
-0.25958696007728577,
0.08641497790813446,
-0.09497161954641342,
-0.16062015295028687,
-0.24810625612735748,
0.5045484900474548,
-0.15061946213245392,
0.5787861347198486,
-0.114092618227005,
0.15682166814804077,
-0.23407317698001862,
-0.07652191072702408,
0.3807748854160309,
-0.0707734003663063,
0.7858881950378418,
-0.05637972801923752,
-0.10574661195278168,
-0.06317263841629028,
-0.9624415636062622,
-0.15518631041049957,
-0.3236009180545807,
-0.12770408391952515,
-0.06864311546087265,
-0.18767131865024567,
-0.25004154443740845,
0.08840871602296829,
0.33021897077560425,
0.4934628903865814,
0.3129865825176239,
0.5209193825721741,
-0.14008073508739471,
0.23164865374565125,
-0.46072787046432495,
0.41487881541252136,
-0.09812790155410767,
0.05773734673857689,
-0.530819296836853,
-0.038401249796152115,
-0.21352259814739227,
0.44867783784866333,
0.8950974345207214,
0.48745569586753845,
0.14547909796237946,
0.510223925113678,
-0.5519255995750427,
0.1912214607000351,
0.851806104183197,
-0.1582668572664261,
0.043632689863443375,
-0.3332430124282837,
0.20826369524002075,
-0.3187330365180969,
0.29455626010894775,
-0.044476479291915894,
0.36249810457229614,
-0.26535069942474365,
0.3122192621231079,
0.31149324774742126,
-0.43085816502571106,
-0.11000639945268631,
0.08884848654270172,
-0.05133878439664841,
-0.49779370427131653,
0.5540362000465393,
-0.5255464911460876,
0.04448418691754341,
0.08674242347478867,
0.9292071461677551,
0.3822561502456665,
-0.645494818687439,
-0.403344064950943,
-0.5338754653930664,
0.07964082062244415,
-0.19562119245529175,
-1.0737656354904175,
-0.001140774111263454,
-0.5192319750785828,
-0.8660755157470703,
-0.5779953002929688,
0.19948802888393402,
-0.013653040863573551,
-0.8283517360687256,
-0.15724138915538788,
-0.11780137568712234,
0.13929927349090576,
-0.030846793204545975,
0.23325443267822266,
-0.27890145778656006,
0.5820235013961792,
0.05782882124185562
] |
203636
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Usk
|
River Usk
|
The River Usk (; ) rises on the northern slopes of the Black Mountain (y Mynydd Du), Wales, in the westernmost part of the Brecon Beacons National Park. Initially forming the boundary between Carmarthenshire and Powys, it flows north into Usk Reservoir, then east by Sennybridge to Brecon before turning southeast to flow by Talybont-on-Usk, Crickhowell and Abergavenny after which it takes a more southerly course.
Beyond the eponymous town of Usk it passes the Roman legionary fortress of Caerleon to flow through the heart of the city of Newport and into the Severn estuary at Uskmouth beyond Newport at Newport Wetlands. The river is about long.
The Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal follows the Usk for most of the length of the canal.
Etymology
The name of the river derives from a Common Brittonic word meaning "abounding in fish" (or possibly "water"), this root also appears in other British river names such as Exe, Axe, Esk and other variants. The name is cognate with pysg (plural of pysgod), the Welsh word for fish, borrowed from Latin piscis.
The name of the river appears as "Wÿsk" on the Cambriae Typus map of 1573.
Ecology
The whole river has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest. It contains estuary with mudflats and salt marsh, lagoons, bog and marsh, varied grassland and woodland habitats along its course. Its flora and fauna are diverse and include Atlantic salmon, European otters, twait shad, shad, lamprey, European perch, brown trout, chub, common dace and common roach as well as kingfishers, grey herons and other wildfowl and bird life. Dippers can be seen upriver along with red kites in the river's valley upstream from around the town of Usk.
The Usk has long been a noted salmon and trout fishing river. Salmon of over may still be caught. In 1999 the river had the highest estimated salmon egg deposition of any river south of Cumbria and the Scottish rivers, and exceeded its spawning target. The river has recently been rated as the best fly fishing water in Wales for salmon and inside the UK Top Ten.
The normal tidal limit of the river is just below the bridge at Newbridge-on-Usk, some five miles north of Newport.
Bridge crossings
There are multiple bridge crossings of the river, variously for vehicles, pedestrians and rail traffic. A number are of historic interest, notably a series of largely eighteenth and nineteenth century listed structures between Abercamlais and Newport.
The highest crossing is that of Pont ar Wysg (translates from Welsh as bridge on the Usk) which carries the moorland road west from Trecastle to Twynllanan. There are a further couple of minor road crossings below the Usk Reservoir dam around Cwmwysg. then Pont Newydd (translates as new bridge) immediately south of Trecastle. In the vicinity of Sennybridge are Pont Pantysgallog, Pont Ynysyrwyddfa, Pont Senni (after which the village is named) and Pont Llwyncyntefin. Pont y Commin is of interest insofar as a former railway bridge carried the Neath and Brecon Railway at a high level diagonally over the road bridge itself. Three historic bridges span the river in quick succession; a pedestrian suspension bridge at Abercamlais and stone arch bridges at Abercamlais and Penpont (both grade II* listed) with Aberbrân bridge another downstream.
The Grade I listed Usk Bridge in Brecon dates back to 1563 but it was significantly altered in the 1950s to accommodate increased road traffic. It is supplemented by a modern concrete span bridge carrying the A40 Brecon bypass dual carriageway over the river to the east of the town. Another miles downstream is Lock Bridge which carries the B4558 over the river and immediately downstream again is the substantial Brynich Aqueduct bringing the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal over the river at Llanfrynach. There was another pair of bridges at Llansantffraed but since the dismantling of the railway bridge only the road bridge linking to Talybont-on-Usk remains. A couple of private footbridges span the next section of the river before its waters pass beneath the historic (grade I listed) Llangynidr Bridge.
Tower Bridge is a grade II* listed structure providing private vehicular access into Glanusk Park, the river then remaining unbridged downstream until the historic (grade I listed) Crickhowell Bridge. At Glangrwyney is a bailey bridge installed after the earlier stone bridge was washed away. Though there was once a ferry crossing of the river near Llanwenarth, the next bridge is that at Abergavenny connecting the town with Llanfoist. This grade II* listed structure was accompanied on its upstream side by a railway bridge from the 1860s until the railway's closure in the late 1950s. Abergavenny is bypassed to the south by the A465 dual carriageway which crosses the river west of the Hardwicke roundabout. The bridge which carries the A4042 road over the river at Llanellen was built by John Upton in 1821.
A private footbridge spans the river at Llanover and the mainline railway crosses it at The Bryn, a small village otherwise known as Llangattock Nigh Usk. The B4598 road is carried over the river by another Upton legacy, the Grade II* listed Pant-y-Goitre Bridge near Llanvihangel Gobion and again by the 'Chain Bridge' near Kemeys Commander (the name of this iron arch structure is a hangover from the previous bridge which was supported by chains). The river is crossed by two bridges at Usk, the former railway crossing and downstream, the Usk Bridge which carries the A472 road, and the Usk Valley Walk. Yet another Grade II* listed structure, it was built by William Edwards in the late 1740s. A long unbridged section follows until, just upstream from the normal tidal limit on the Usk, it is crossed by the Grade II* listed New Bridge at Newbridge-on-Usk, probably also a legacy of Edwards from 1779.
The Twenty Ten Bridge is a recently constructed private bridge upstream of Caerleon giving access to one of the golf courses associated with Celtic Manor. In Caerleon itself the B4236 road crosses by means of Caerleon Bridge dating from 1806, one of 12 structures which cross the river within the city boundaries of Newport. These include two rail crossings, upstream and downstream of the M4 motorway crossing which comprises two independent structures carrying the east and westbound carriageways over the river together with two further structures carrying the A4042 slip roads which form a part of junction 25a of the motorway. Newport Bridge, often known as Town Bridge, carries the B4591 immediately downstream of the second railway crossing, the two bridges trapping Newport Castle between them. The innovative Newport City footbridge was opened in 2006 to carry both pedestrians and cyclists over the river as part of an urban regeneration project. Just downstream George Street Bridge carries the B4237 road across and downstream again is City Bridge carrying the A48 dual carriageway across. Newport Transporter Bridge is the furthest downstream of the many crossings of the Usk. Completed in 1906, it is one of fewer than 10 such structures remaining in use across the world and at just short of is the longest of these.
Former mills
There are a number of former watermills along the banks of the river, the majority of which were engaged in milling corn for flour production. The uppermost mill on the Usk was that at Cwm-wysg, a corn mill of mediaeval origin at Ordnance Survey grid reference SN 849285. Watergate Mill at Brecon (SO 435285) was another cornmill making use of water from the Usk, though post-mediaeval in date. A couple of miles downstream was Millbrook Mill at Llanhamlach (SO 084268). This drew water via a 42m long leat from an 85m long weir spanning the width of the river. Buckland Old Mill, upstream of Llangynidr (at SO 134201) is thought to have been another post-mediaeval cornmill.
Three further mills sit close to the banks of the Usk between here and Crickhowell though all draw their water from tributaries rather than the main river. Aberhoyw Mill takes water from the Nant Cleisfer, Knight's Cornmill at Tretower takes water via a 440m long leat from the Rhiangoll and Usk Vale Mill at Glangrwyney draws it water from the Grwyne Fawr. The first two are post-mediaeval corn-mills, the latter a nineteenth century paper mill which later converted to become a ‘sawdust mill’. Forge Mill north of Bettws Newydd at SO 355974 was still in use at the end of the nineteenth century, using a 200m long weir stretching between islands on the river to draw its water. Gorrats Mill at Trostrey sits on the Usk's left bank at SO 359040. The possible 16th century Prioress Mill (SO 367022) at Rhadyr just north of the town of Usk was another which whilst close to the Usk drew its water from a tributary, in this case the Berthin Brook.
In addition to these there is an enigmatic leat beside the uppermost section of the river's course which is presumed to have drawn water off it at SN 816263 and transferred it via a contouring route across the moors for over 2 km. Its northern end is lost within 20th century forestry south of Usk Reservoir. Archaeologists have postulated it as being of either mediaeval or even Roman origin but do not know its purpose.
In history and legend
The River Usk has played an important role in the history of Wales and features in some local folk-tales.
Historically, the tidal reaches of the Usk have been used as a major shipping port for much of the last millennium, mostly because of its wide and deep mouth, and good navigable access from the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel and thence access to home waters and further overseas.
Evidence of the Usk's long-standing use in transport and trade came in the form of the remains of the Newport Ship that were discovered in 2002. This ship, dated to around 1465, was most likely a trading vessel and may have sailed around Europe or even beyond in its lifetime. Its presence in the Usk has confirmed what an important trading route the Usk must have been to the many towns and villages along its course.
The Usk has also played a role in many local legends. The Medieval Latin text De Ortu Waluuanii recounts a humorous tale in which an incognito Gawain pushes his uncle King Arthur into the Usk, and is then forced to explain to his wife Gwendoloena (Guinevere) why he is so wet.
Geoffrey of Monmouth writes of Caerleon in the mid 12th century:
"It is not until the 13th century French prose romances that Camelot began to supersede Caerleon, and even then, many descriptive details applied to Camelot derive from Geoffrey's earlier grand depiction of the Welsh town."
The Usk valley contains many sites of prehistorical archaeological significance and the valley has long been a trade route, settlement area and an avenue into Wales for successive invaders such as the Romans and Normans.
See also
List of rivers of Wales
Usk Valley Walk
List of bridges in Wales
References
External links
The Usk Valley Walk - photos
A trophy salmon from the Usk in October 1917
Canoe Wales website information on canoe touring the Usk
Usk
Usk
Usk
Usk
Usk
Usk
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Brecknock
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Monmouthshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Newport
Usk
|
[
-0.34827473759651184,
0.3482460081577301,
0.8955584764480591,
-0.6401482224464417,
0.22004397213459015,
0.9999879002571106,
0.9455603361129761,
0.19974182546138763,
-0.12108823657035828,
-0.2063974142074585,
-0.08704361319541931,
0.8579680919647217,
0.05814148858189583,
0.49448004364967346,
-0.34694305062294006,
0.1609765887260437,
0.2085060179233551,
0.529911994934082,
0.6902893781661987,
-0.7278764247894287,
0.16515684127807617,
-0.4659314751625061,
0.3145299553871155,
-0.02494414895772934,
0.40244773030281067,
-0.00442855479195714,
0.1455116719007492,
-0.08646196126937866,
0.15460079908370972,
0.21906402707099915,
0.2405349165201187,
0.6658143997192383,
0.25565847754478455,
-0.7275760769844055,
0.27991676330566406,
0.12050247937440872,
0.01941203884780407,
-0.0549788661301136,
-0.39752069115638733,
-0.29722046852111816,
0.1492225080728531,
0.062178000807762146,
-0.3615369200706482,
0.24111948907375336,
0.2708704173564911,
0.184108167886734,
-1.0401325225830078,
-0.22465749084949493,
-0.7782202959060669,
0.07993313670158386,
-0.5470514297485352,
1.0694893598556519,
0.19502218067646027,
-0.316719114780426,
0.294733464717865,
0.5065284967422485,
-0.8186495304107666,
0.19796079397201538,
0.6255660057067871,
0.1895071566104889,
0.11318973451852798,
0.3556686043739319,
-0.0801294595003128,
0.6212234497070312,
-0.46590909361839294,
0.27942681312561035,
0.40129202604293823,
0.6145607233047485,
-0.7990776896476746,
-0.10419196635484695,
0.0014063292182981968,
0.12942546606063843,
-0.1330690234899521,
0.2904004454612732,
-0.6392133235931396,
0.13675370812416077,
-0.28524503111839294,
0.4109678566455841,
-0.10327237844467163,
0.11217610538005829,
0.8710513114929199,
0.23557762801647186,
0.8774445056915283,
0.6084278225898743,
0.23822346329689026,
0.32465752959251404,
-0.407542884349823,
0.34702807664871216,
-0.6269412040710449,
0.2553427815437317,
-0.04312918707728386,
-0.4134667217731476,
-0.5699061155319214,
-0.4384480118751526,
0.31955236196517944,
0.06132293492555618,
-0.04712395370006561,
0.4052782654762268,
-0.0640651062130928,
0.24097229540348053,
0.009138342924416065,
0.5339955687522888,
0.6779516339302063,
-0.09652206301689148,
-0.3918657600879669,
0.12527532875537872,
-0.6448088884353638,
-0.36756035685539246,
0.20700491964817047,
-0.2645372152328491,
-0.4835180342197418,
0.35485824942588806,
0.0013414761051535606,
0.1908467411994934,
0.2621925473213196,
0.5471649169921875,
-0.19715584814548492,
-0.6219545006752014,
-0.018256234005093575,
-0.06460141390562057,
0.19589366018772125,
0.8932436108589172,
-0.02070806175470352,
0.29387691617012024,
0.5532428026199341,
0.12978315353393555,
0.51531982421875,
-0.23585161566734314,
-0.309129923582077,
-0.0965271070599556,
0.6659475564956665,
1.067950963973999,
0.49225878715515137,
-0.2860880196094513,
-0.30974775552749634,
-0.2168060839176178,
0.7129891514778137,
0.23968850076198578,
0.4159550964832306,
1.4073044061660767,
-0.5109802484512329,
-0.06166888400912285,
-0.389434278011322,
-0.30088236927986145,
0.5203487277030945,
0.49575337767601013,
-0.21768975257873535,
-1.2802951335906982,
-0.06873387098312378,
-0.22549790143966675,
0.4988783597946167,
0.08591921627521515,
-0.2296575903892517,
0.15961265563964844,
-0.23565728962421417,
0.20578640699386597,
0.45498353242874146,
-0.29958173632621765,
0.14985086023807526,
-0.21928754448890686,
-0.136554554104805,
0.15290720760822296,
0.8098858594894409,
0.09679963439702988,
-0.21621689200401306,
-0.03672093152999878,
0.22005735337734222,
-1.096468448638916,
-0.34646308422088623,
0.3759287893772125,
0.19675755500793457,
-0.07369133830070496,
0.8238308429718018,
-0.5697591304779053,
-0.2239346206188202,
-0.8694671392440796,
0.9463999271392822,
0.9072039127349854,
0.3151259124279022,
-0.31259605288505554,
-0.8618636131286621,
0.7401398420333862,
-0.1495680809020996,
-0.31207388639450073,
-0.07607399672269821,
0.10309204459190369,
0.4298200309276581,
0.2867185175418854,
-0.4672587215900421,
-0.058449823409318924,
0.08630587160587311,
-0.5805786848068237,
-0.10278956592082977,
-0.318272203207016,
0.9760781526565552,
0.09133011847734451,
-0.18280278146266937,
0.360173761844635,
-0.035352904349565506,
0.8423638939857483,
-0.1848330944776535,
-0.5209483504295349,
0.5887863636016846,
-0.8257011771202087,
-1.1984277963638306,
-0.03328000754117966,
0.30819740891456604,
-0.5059291124343872,
0.5714384913444519,
-0.1420450657606125,
-0.6505907773971558,
-0.062187135219573975,
-0.3539528548717499,
-0.49192437529563904,
0.38525110483169556,
-0.35147589445114136,
0.4132853150367737,
-0.13187731802463531,
0.6845177412033081,
-0.02687334269285202,
0.8823720216751099,
-0.04635456204414368,
0.5847778916358948,
-0.35752740502357483,
-0.2637752592563629,
0.11975045502185822,
0.1495044231414795,
-0.16174373030662537,
-0.08288691192865372,
-1.1337834596633911,
-0.12687931954860687,
0.13062621653079987,
-0.41727209091186523,
-0.33853691816329956,
-0.06986701488494873,
-0.5075371861457825,
-0.0648738294839859,
-0.18644852936267853,
0.14620544016361237,
-0.5510947704315186,
-0.20617592334747314,
0.04509967565536499,
-0.5378183126449585,
0.31701576709747314,
0.05222601071000099,
0.28389278054237366,
0.49935758113861084,
0.15426579117774963,
-0.5050121545791626,
0.050939690321683884,
-0.052349600940942764,
0.21350809931755066,
0.3348495364189148,
0.03625734895467758,
0.013273034244775772,
-0.04247761890292168,
0.04576750844717026,
-0.11014457792043686,
0.3276318907737732,
0.49649617075920105,
-0.31213605403900146,
0.12262383103370667,
-0.40970471501350403,
0.26771560311317444,
0.25410762429237366,
-0.30552226305007935,
-0.24754318594932556,
-0.6834596395492554,
0.22913521528244019,
-0.1879507303237915,
0.19792062044143677,
-0.008450647816061974,
0.7008578777313232,
0.05450204014778137,
0.3110441267490387,
0.22025442123413086,
0.5808600187301636,
-0.2779749929904938,
-0.5813679099082947,
-0.3848269581794739,
0.2821979224681854,
1.2501230239868164,
-0.2172839641571045,
-0.08870600908994675,
0.42504462599754333,
0.2013634890317917,
0.007593810558319092,
0.07929842174053192,
0.05133986845612526,
0.011224302463233471,
-0.07333661615848541,
-0.10842616856098175,
-0.17042168974876404,
0.12334270775318146,
-0.40172091126441956,
-0.15230096876621246,
0.40721243619918823,
0.11444832384586334,
0.15886422991752625,
-0.2642548084259033,
-0.7142871022224426,
0.6623956561088562,
-0.5411815643310547,
0.16394701600074768,
0.6346055865287781,
-0.5277241468429565,
-0.37883663177490234,
0.03646869212388992,
-5.1890034675598145,
0.3344730734825134,
-0.4548356235027313,
-0.24300816655158997,
0.44631117582321167,
-0.698744535446167,
0.07069125026464462,
-0.2942551374435425,
-0.433846116065979,
-0.3079656958580017,
-0.3210110068321228,
0.28268614411354065,
-0.5896306037902832,
0.4073883593082428,
0.633018970489502,
-0.05443478748202324,
-0.046144306659698486,
0.47125717997550964,
0.19986994564533234,
-0.14556631445884705,
-0.24523019790649414,
-0.1428149789571762,
-0.266432523727417,
0.2605472803115845,
0.048988375812768936,
0.2969566881656647,
-0.15335747599601746,
-0.6756352782249451,
-1.1468920707702637,
-0.40670081973075867,
0.13018199801445007,
-0.3736281394958496,
0.2998655438423157,
0.12371779978275299,
-0.4138917028903961,
-0.41618433594703674,
0.4941672086715698,
0.05988341197371483,
0.7670254707336426,
-0.8218057751655579,
-0.5997737050056458,
0.2160540521144867,
0.13676027953624725,
-0.710174560546875,
0.36574557423591614,
-0.497794508934021,
-0.5830977559089661,
-0.26162099838256836,
0.18205469846725464,
0.5291228294372559,
-0.3267216384410858,
0.05432003363966942,
0.1998133361339569,
-0.4644985496997833,
0.1951153427362442,
-0.043848469853401184,
-0.36134833097457886,
-0.00772567605599761,
0.6893282532691956,
0.2790839374065399,
0.3514347970485687,
-0.2233518809080124,
-0.43204307556152344,
-0.09556350857019424,
0.2243567258119583,
-0.6806659698486328,
-0.5482629537582397,
0.01733602024614811,
0.6885671615600586,
-0.020999938249588013,
0.009086942300200462,
0.11139436066150665,
-0.6465502977371216,
-0.5439114570617676,
-0.42937085032463074,
-0.2814715802669525,
-0.42132455110549927,
0.3483216166496277,
0.36099889874458313,
0.3658791780471802,
-0.5290060639381409,
-0.03292551264166832,
0.5027734041213989,
0.22952900826931,
-0.12169064581394196,
-0.35401493310928345,
-0.03388148546218872,
0.1645134687423706,
-0.022660287097096443,
-0.7379965782165527,
-0.030218899250030518,
-0.8058416247367859,
0.34261253476142883,
0.5066596865653992,
0.24247801303863525,
0.4396460950374603,
-0.32820025086402893,
0.43704041838645935,
0.1327817291021347,
-0.34013962745666504,
0.538020670413971,
-0.47082701325416565,
0.6098024845123291,
-0.23633360862731934,
0.4051721394062042,
-0.10962189733982086,
-0.6095051169395447,
0.44543132185935974,
0.702525794506073,
-0.019154921174049377,
-0.10928911715745926,
-0.23465275764465332,
-0.045181192457675934,
-0.3695988357067108,
-0.4843304455280304,
-0.14866241812705994,
-0.21513642370700836,
0.32841792702674866,
0.37677687406539917,
0.5131130218505859,
-0.07027608156204224,
0.6904298067092896,
-0.4082399308681488,
0.2142179012298584,
0.20936281979084015,
-0.41540396213531494,
0.42596131563186646,
0.934528648853302,
-0.8370422124862671,
0.24807822704315186,
-0.10584203898906708,
-0.26111623644828796,
0.392252117395401,
-0.33868059515953064,
0.643855631351471,
-0.36519044637680054,
-0.47537368535995483,
-0.4010581970214844,
0.7691271305084229,
0.33178436756134033,
0.17168028652668,
0.4169394373893738,
0.24722754955291748,
0.0730976089835167,
0.2180684208869934,
0.6450779438018799,
-0.31735044717788696,
0.14678025245666504,
-0.780817985534668,
0.5571933388710022,
-0.06487791985273361,
0.23033736646175385,
-0.7171022295951843,
-0.5844218730926514,
-0.003334833774715662,
-0.5500513315200806,
-0.37887972593307495,
0.6327277421951294,
0.10062208026647568,
-0.026037344709038734,
-0.22089529037475586,
0.1800004243850708,
-0.8001600503921509,
0.0642574205994606,
0.30434101819992065,
-0.42609521746635437,
-0.040977843105793,
-0.42350077629089355,
0.14510628581047058,
0.7348862290382385,
0.40846139192581177,
0.14379310607910156,
-0.5368000864982605,
-0.31103041768074036,
-0.17841918766498566,
0.09891732037067413,
-0.20329411327838898,
0.734718382358551,
0.0060580032877624035,
0.3019177317619324,
-0.3707751929759979,
0.3397054374217987,
0.0903814285993576,
-0.012960171326994896,
0.12609899044036865,
-0.6372585296630859,
-0.4228687584400177,
-0.11755059659481049,
-0.11895888298749924,
-0.34010782837867737,
0.44551798701286316,
-0.27183040976524353,
0.27889174222946167,
0.5833364129066467,
-0.46969670057296753,
-0.45938000082969666,
0.32234013080596924,
1.1981772184371948,
0.09737622737884521,
-0.4096069931983948,
0.042765796184539795,
0.760043740272522,
-0.5845724940299988,
0.30569612979888916,
-0.11941695958375931,
-1.0130155086517334,
-0.03543303906917572,
0.38800621032714844,
-0.6492336988449097,
0.30048105120658875,
-0.08621210604906082,
-1.1641415357589722,
-0.2535856068134308,
0.7223480939865112,
-0.6739935874938965,
0.278870165348053,
0.2375200092792511,
-0.18822965025901794,
-0.10401282459497452,
-0.6735801100730896,
-0.14368338882923126,
-0.48609843850135803,
-0.5496990084648132,
-0.03862324729561806,
-0.1551521271467209,
0.20760467648506165,
0.2413201779127121,
-0.03222603350877762,
0.524592936038971,
-1.0156822204589844,
-0.22951935231685638,
0.29771605134010315,
0.32592153549194336,
0.435619056224823,
0.46603766083717346,
0.3376854360103607,
0.1036486029624939,
-0.5587841272354126,
0.5278158187866211,
0.202652707695961,
0.14876651763916016,
1.3994220495224,
0.38996076583862305,
-0.7649334073066711,
-0.04862493276596069,
0.7811412811279297,
-0.34100255370140076,
-1.01426362991333,
-0.5183814764022827,
-0.22977149486541748,
0.859254777431488,
-0.2475655972957611,
-0.7416224479675293,
-0.7761039137840271,
1.1230204105377197,
0.10876895487308502,
-0.058432791382074356,
-0.0132168959826231,
-0.09662262350320816,
0.2828962802886963,
0.12865573167800903,
-0.48536449670791626,
-0.39790791273117065,
0.30317020416259766,
0.5917240381240845,
-0.45471593737602234,
-0.4185903072357178,
-0.6160456538200378,
0.025492727756500244,
-0.758097231388092,
0.10532012581825256,
-0.23625440895557404,
-0.690717339515686,
-0.18459787964820862,
0.12221936881542206,
0.0033711481373757124,
-0.08574871718883514,
-0.8980628848075867,
0.4880436658859253,
0.07796034961938858,
-0.7910913228988647,
-0.03401276841759682,
0.041321706026792526,
-0.1633242815732956,
-0.060903944075107574,
0.28675687313079834,
0.45779120922088623,
-0.3903263509273529,
-0.02362717315554619,
-0.2918500304222107,
-0.0007687283796258271,
0.13041791319847107,
-0.21349959075450897,
0.06475532799959183,
-0.034220121800899506,
-0.46643775701522827,
0.05511154979467392,
0.6653876304626465,
-0.24604961276054382,
0.08048462867736816,
-1.0480602979660034,
0.4640079140663147,
-0.24764381349086761,
-0.6186739802360535,
0.08997789025306702,
0.5115741491317749,
-0.22377854585647583,
-0.19184531271457672,
0.10485200583934784,
-0.17165318131446838,
-0.06264907121658325,
0.5873648524284363,
0.11002758145332336,
0.7360227108001709,
-0.13183200359344482,
-0.020718881860375404,
-0.01935938000679016,
-0.7554230690002441,
0.6688671708106995,
0.2328091710805893,
0.38137540221214294,
-0.19413578510284424,
0.4006187617778778,
0.5148248672485352,
-0.6735170483589172,
1.289555549621582,
-0.801914632320404,
-0.5299052000045776,
-0.397737979888916,
0.5542911291122437,
-0.0785590261220932,
-0.06883009523153305,
-0.6122931241989136,
-0.15793609619140625,
-0.3281420171260834,
-0.63642418384552,
0.21237531304359436,
-0.36243394017219543,
-0.6023465991020203,
0.405577152967453,
0.2459675520658493,
0.7104832530021667,
0.12966081500053406,
-0.1468406766653061,
0.20500698685646057,
-0.20629356801509857,
0.20340760052204132,
0.1792151927947998,
-0.051559027284383774,
-0.12408044934272766,
0.7195224165916443,
-0.05465904623270035,
0.26757246255874634,
-0.3907780647277832,
0.9304574728012085,
0.6531404256820679,
0.334661066532135,
-0.22410744428634644,
-0.9651151895523071,
0.1774682104587555,
0.3737211227416992,
0.5001347064971924,
0.06730320304632187,
-0.299870103597641,
-0.4659726917743683,
-0.4197389781475067,
0.04806428775191307,
-1.0122214555740356,
-0.022023163735866547,
0.15913476049900055,
0.4614270031452179,
0.40034201741218567,
-0.4413782060146332,
0.0951714813709259,
0.4143833816051483,
0.3460731506347656,
-0.25418326258659363,
0.24404455721378326,
-0.1389797329902649,
-0.41572806239128113,
-0.17272675037384033,
0.7251143455505371,
0.544822096824646,
-0.4466729164123535,
0.3572612404823303,
0.12860724329948425,
-0.12968400120735168,
-0.41165098547935486,
-0.5559942722320557,
-0.12394294142723083,
-0.07520850747823715,
-0.29989275336265564,
-0.3765433728694916,
-0.33380362391471863,
-0.6374650597572327,
-0.33188992738723755,
-0.09966251999139786,
1.1561167240142822,
0.2966300845146179,
0.4963449537754059,
0.24168971180915833,
0.4586905539035797,
-0.2913205325603485,
0.7557047605514526,
-0.1269780844449997,
0.7798492312431335,
-0.8450517654418945,
-0.25760331749916077,
0.09614589810371399,
0.6669566035270691,
0.4955822229385376,
0.041826676577329636,
-0.017102748155593872,
0.9049798846244812,
-0.307000994682312,
0.004930765368044376,
1.1364490985870361,
-0.17847687005996704,
0.41772860288619995,
-1.0447567701339722,
-0.09314218163490295,
-0.189541295170784,
-0.1712496280670166,
0.4137510359287262,
0.09497850388288498,
-0.03811141476035118,
0.2584838271141052,
-0.27018240094184875,
-0.5527458786964417,
0.03466864302754402,
-0.4076632261276245,
0.5250559449195862,
-0.4331132471561432,
0.6900002956390381,
-0.5123644471168518,
-0.5024606585502625,
0.47108808159828186,
0.9460418224334717,
-0.0821906253695488,
-0.37401801347732544,
-0.5152231454849243,
-0.5778582692146301,
0.27014103531837463,
-0.32155656814575195,
0.19900277256965637,
-0.4693807363510132,
-0.4241980314254761,
-0.8936536908149719,
-0.942672073841095,
0.2732279598712921,
0.43158474564552307,
-0.7035092711448669,
-0.3548601269721985,
0.3356885015964508,
-0.4388866424560547,
-0.3168794512748718,
0.06285013258457184,
-1.0949279069900513,
-0.07754385471343994,
-0.04467190057039261
] |
203637
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Management%20Body%20of%20Knowledge
|
Project Management Body of Knowledge
|
The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is a set of standard terminology and guidelines (a body of knowledge) for project management. The body of knowledge evolves over time and is presented in A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (the Guide to the PMBOK or the Guide), a book whose seventh edition was released in 2021. The Guide is a document resulting from work overseen by the Project Management Institute (PMI), which offers the CAPM and PMP certifications.
Much of the PMBOK Guide is unique to project management such as critical path method and work breakdown structure (WBS). The PMBOK Guide also overlaps with general management regarding planning, organising, staffing, executing and controlling the operations of an organisation. Other management disciplines which overlap with the PMBOK Guide include financial forecasting, organisational behaviour, management science, budgeting and other planning methods.
History
Earlier versions of the PMBOK Guide were recognized as standards by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) which assigns standards in the United States (ANSI/PMI 99-001-2008) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE 1490-2011).
The evolution of the PMBOK Guide is reflected in editions of the Guide. The Guide was first published by the Project Management Institute (PMI) in 1996. That document was to some extent based on earlier work that began with a white paper published in 1983 called the "Ethics, Standards, and Accreditation Committee Final Report" with a different title and significantly reorganized. The second edition was published in 2000, to add new material reflecting the growth of practices.
In 2004, the PMBOK Guide — Third Edition was published with major changes from the previous editions, and changing the criteria for inclusion from "generally accepted" practice to "generally recognized as good practice". The Fourth edition was published in 2008. The Fifth Edition was released in 2013.
In September 2017 the English-language version of The PMBOK Guide — The Sixth Edition was released.
This edition adds topics to the existing framework and getting started with agile practices, albeit in a subtle way.
Its most recent version is the seventh edition, published in 2021. This one presents major structural changes and considers agile practices more comprehensively.
Purpose
The PMBOK Guide is intended to be a "subset of the project management body of knowledge that is generally recognized as a good practice. 'Generally recognized' means the knowledge and practices described are applicable to most projects most of the time and there is a consensus about their value and usefulness. 'Good practice' means there is a general agreement that the application of the knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques can enhance the chance of success over many projects." This means that sometimes the "latest" project management trends, often promoted by consultants, may not be part of the latest version of The PMBOK Guide.
However, the 6th Edition of the PMBOK Guide now includes an "Agile Practice Guide"
Contents
The PMBOK Guide is process-based, meaning it describes work as being accomplished by processes. This approach is consistent with other management standards such as ISO 9000 and the Software Engineering Institute's CMMI. Processes overlap and interact throughout a project or its various phases.
Inputs (documents, plans, designs, etc.)
Tools and Techniques (mechanisms applied to inputs)
Outputs (documents, plans, designs, etc.)
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge — Sixth Edition provides guidelines for managing individual projects and defines project management related concepts. It also describes the project management life cycle and its related processes, as well as the project life cycle. and for the first time it includes an "Agile Practice Guide".
The PMBOK as described in the Guide recognizes 49 processes that fall into five basic process groups and ten knowledge areas that are typical of most projects, most of the time.
Process groups
The five process groups are:
Initiating: processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.
Planning: Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives, and define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Executing: Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project management plan to satisfy the project specifications
Monitoring and Controlling: Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the corresponding changes.
Closing: Those processes performed to finalize all activities across all Process Groups to formally close the project or phase.
Knowledge areas
The ten knowledge areas, each of which contains some or all of the project management processes, are:
Project Integration Management : the processes and activities needed to identify, define, combine, unify, and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the project management process groups.
Project Scope management : the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
Project Schedule Management : the processes required to manage the timely completion of the project. Until the 6th edition of the PMBOK Guide this was called "Project Time Management"
Project Cost Management : the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, financing, funding, managing, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the approved budget.
Project Quality Management : the processes and activities of the performing organization that determine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken.
Project Resource Management : the processes that organize, manage, and lead the project team. Until the 6th edition of the PMBOK Guide this was called "Project Human Resource Management"
Project Communications Management : the processes that are required to ensure timely and appropriate planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, control, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information.
Project Risk Management : the processes of conducting risk management planning, identification, analysis, response planning, and controlling risk on a project.
Project Procurement Management : the processes necessary to purchase or acquire products, services, or results needed from outside the project team. Processes in this area include Procurement Planning, Solicitation Planning, Solicitation, Source Selection, Contract Administration, and Contract Closeout.
Project Stakeholder Engagement : the processes required to identify all people or organizations impacted by the project, analyzing stakeholder expectations and impact on the project, and developing appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in project decisions and execution.
Each of the ten knowledge areas contains the processes that need to be accomplished within its discipline in order to achieve effective project management. Each of these processes also falls into one of the five process groups, creating a matrix structure such that every process can be related to one knowledge area and one process group.
Extensions
While the PMBOK Guide is meant to offer a general guide to manage most projects most of the time, there are currently three official extensions:
Software Extension to the PMBOK Guide
Construction Extension to the PMBOK Guide
Government Extension to the PMBOK Guide
Criticism and alternatives
The PMBOK is a widely accepted standard in project management, however there are alternatives to the PMBOK standard, and PMBOK does have its critics. One thrust of critique has come from the critical chain developers and followers (e.g. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Lawrence P. Leach), as opposed to critical path method adherents. The PMBOK Guide section on Project Time Management does indicate Critical Chain as an alternative method to Critical Path.
A second strand of criticism originates in Lean Construction. This approach emphasises the lack of two way communication in the PMBOK model and offers an alternative which emphasises a language/action perspective and continual improvement in the planning process.
See also
ISO 10006 for Quality Management on Projects
ISO 21500 for Project Management
ISO 31000 for Risk Management
Pmhub
PMP
PRINCE2
References
External links
PMBOK webpage by the Project Management Institute
PMBOK Summarized - A remarkbly concise guide to the PMBOK (PDF)
US DoD extension to PMBOK Guide (PDF)
1987 documents
1996 non-fiction books
2013 non-fiction books
2017 non-fiction books
Project management
Bodies of knowledge
|
[
0.36185920238494873,
0.43873098492622375,
-0.08623826503753662,
0.18570686876773834,
0.23878437280654907,
-0.16307207942008972,
-0.04355425760149956,
-0.09005112946033478,
-0.7030718326568604,
-0.3389984965324402,
-0.6471847891807556,
0.5343103408813477,
0.6161314845085144,
0.07214290648698807,
0.3084939420223236,
0.33606311678886414,
0.566068172454834,
0.06187082827091217,
0.1594446450471878,
-0.16015303134918213,
-0.6541900038719177,
-0.16389501094818115,
0.3645893931388855,
0.007649960462003946,
-0.20877310633659363,
0.3504928648471832,
0.31842008233070374,
0.485637366771698,
-0.15431344509124756,
-0.4215105175971985,
0.10405267030000687,
-0.046648893505334854,
0.3172975182533264,
-0.153777077794075,
0.17125891149044037,
-0.05788275599479675,
-0.04051871970295906,
0.1533292531967163,
-0.4281989634037018,
-0.8252843022346497,
-0.0024003549478948116,
0.0656229630112648,
-0.23218987882137299,
0.2940121591091156,
-0.4434584677219391,
-0.8952980041503906,
-0.9541942477226257,
-0.20254206657409668,
-0.6493436098098755,
0.17232969403266907,
-0.7391654253005981,
0.6968427896499634,
0.059569817036390305,
-0.2622319161891937,
-0.08478175103664398,
0.7983832359313965,
0.19147010147571564,
-0.35052040219306946,
-0.24762624502182007,
-0.24587967991828918,
0.182097390294075,
-0.05856885015964508,
-0.07627438753843307,
0.48061320185661316,
0.4405541718006134,
-0.03171413764357567,
-0.10906982421875,
0.09050408005714417,
-0.5659704804420471,
-0.06892742216587067,
-0.7284931540489197,
-0.021073725074529648,
-0.11271020770072937,
0.28092628717422485,
-0.9867883920669556,
-0.39079543948173523,
0.31307297945022583,
-0.17539557814598083,
-0.2523939311504364,
-0.07560919970273972,
-0.2635638415813446,
0.9821645617485046,
0.25944045186042786,
-0.2123982310295105,
0.7216305136680603,
0.41210171580314636,
-0.08718365430831909,
0.10906030237674713,
-0.10623089224100113,
0.8028240203857422,
0.4237409830093384,
-0.2856026887893677,
0.6621367335319519,
0.26153799891471863,
0.5002409815788269,
-0.06890066713094711,
-0.08644313365221024,
0.22592605650424957,
-0.12111440300941467,
0.5685585737228394,
0.1793542504310608,
0.16981957852840424,
-0.09015803784132004,
0.05279378965497017,
-0.163539856672287,
-0.19386805593967438,
-0.11604873836040497,
-0.5862946510314941,
-0.5107865929603577,
-0.057279523462057114,
-0.30750104784965515,
0.05768395960330963,
-0.5038537979125977,
-0.09758482128381729,
-0.021724794059991837,
0.5209788680076599,
0.3152611255645752,
-0.2309480607509613,
-0.4806976914405823,
0.1285763382911682,
-0.4225233793258667,
0.7175207734107971,
0.00847661029547453,
-0.32110464572906494,
-0.03561947122216225,
0.30652377009391785,
0.7475267052650452,
0.422279953956604,
-0.3497221767902374,
-0.15940974652767181,
0.24057559669017792,
0.7221511602401733,
0.019198957830667496,
-0.2551293969154358,
-0.7547935843467712,
0.047575391829013824,
0.4831485152244568,
0.31927236914634705,
0.1365196257829666,
-0.07377131283283234,
-0.8955072164535522,
-0.7766556739807129,
-0.14491820335388184,
-0.25757431983947754,
0.33278071880340576,
0.1733083873987198,
0.3227197229862213,
-0.7561120390892029,
-0.4231099486351013,
0.08075856417417526,
0.24108268320560455,
0.086090587079525,
-0.518045961856842,
-0.0831277146935463,
-0.129576176404953,
0.686879575252533,
0.5178593993186951,
-0.39193639159202576,
-0.23257936537265778,
-0.05500467121601105,
0.22448083758354187,
-0.004067071247845888,
-0.7718234658241272,
0.08289934694766998,
-0.0010203967103734612,
-0.39566177129745483,
0.34400156140327454,
0.030973920598626137,
0.8330594897270203,
-0.07566813379526138,
0.017008336260914803,
-0.3622615933418274,
-0.04025772213935852,
-0.3345467448234558,
0.36652642488479614,
0.06378339231014252,
0.3946040868759155,
0.48905402421951294,
0.592034101486206,
-0.2610003650188446,
-0.5277664661407471,
0.26349177956581116,
0.11677835136651993,
-0.42579713463783264,
0.27803266048431396,
-0.17412671446800232,
0.8588801622390747,
-0.11944283545017242,
-0.3228378891944885,
0.33662208914756775,
-0.8655592799186707,
-0.5505466461181641,
0.7680885791778564,
-0.6688902974128723,
1.3413320779800415,
-0.16101033985614777,
-0.35484930872917175,
0.8766869306564331,
-0.3781191110610962,
0.12187264859676361,
0.17062382400035858,
0.027183644473552704,
-0.11782274395227432,
-0.382240355014801,
-0.8677641153335571,
0.1442088633775711,
0.37862715125083923,
0.09373628348112106,
-0.7317723035812378,
-0.058147285133600235,
0.09288442134857178,
-0.4197905659675598,
0.10897485166788101,
-0.8472490906715393,
0.17474563419818878,
-0.3467327058315277,
-0.4164973199367523,
0.8223899006843567,
-0.02839054726064205,
-0.25254300236701965,
1.5094047784805298,
-0.3046906590461731,
0.25082066655158997,
0.7950698733329773,
-0.5035584568977356,
-0.1474440097808838,
0.05577144771814346,
0.12011120468378067,
0.6851415038108826,
-0.3494395911693573,
0.24006494879722595,
-0.1244279071688652,
0.1925637423992157,
-0.2763107120990753,
-0.4448133111000061,
-0.16133582592010498,
-0.4259779453277588,
-0.1884181648492813,
0.1978137344121933,
-0.16370883584022522,
-0.09954719245433807,
0.07164283841848373,
-0.7733982801437378,
0.23751115798950195,
0.6366050839424133,
0.1261945366859436,
-0.5848343372344971,
0.08276721835136414,
-0.507218062877655,
0.4803493320941925,
0.13474269211292267,
0.5313314199447632,
0.5997058153152466,
-0.6531226634979248,
-0.6397551894187927,
0.0010749666253104806,
-0.14632423222064972,
-0.18904593586921692,
-0.0794425830245018,
0.08783011883497238,
-0.25172871351242065,
0.27639898657798767,
-0.003214699449017644,
0.514131486415863,
0.355070024728775,
-0.18825113773345947,
-0.1239614188671112,
-0.5862634778022766,
0.0513031966984272,
0.6129165291786194,
0.2337149828672409,
-0.2285417914390564,
-0.3527650833129883,
-0.2797921299934387,
0.2573157250881195,
-0.9292604923248291,
0.5077663064002991,
0.043586913496255875,
-0.3742454946041107,
-0.6205734610557556,
0.08271922171115875,
0.262544184923172,
0.3784850835800171,
-0.679538369178772,
0.25919678807258606,
0.010329924523830414,
-0.23113282024860382,
0.11107178032398224,
0.03345585986971855,
-0.29908955097198486,
-0.20808318257331848,
0.1374308168888092,
-0.13919037580490112,
0.05559345334768295,
0.5843105316162109,
0.34408608078956604,
-0.2435726374387741,
0.01835344359278679,
0.3580118715763092,
-0.02083076909184456,
-0.41017410159111023,
0.2322581708431244,
0.18397566676139832,
-0.425986111164093,
0.12391059845685959,
-0.10674440860748291,
0.2059696912765503,
-0.013481787405908108,
-5.576790809631348,
-0.5996134281158447,
-0.4289853572845459,
-0.4484553635120392,
-0.01481553353369236,
0.18923403322696686,
0.6139093637466431,
-0.23614118993282318,
0.32874956727027893,
-0.29609063267707825,
-0.25657516717910767,
0.11832061409950256,
0.22290076315402985,
0.6734660863876343,
0.43736961483955383,
0.7535904049873352,
0.7113637328147888,
-0.13686847686767578,
0.44972342252731323,
0.3344496190547943,
0.14527571201324463,
-0.219853475689888,
-0.36431509256362915,
0.20664076507091522,
0.0965757742524147,
0.23703539371490479,
-0.9132648706436157,
0.9207789301872253,
-0.6714668869972229,
0.16524873673915863,
0.2239728718996048,
-0.6130743026733398,
-0.5748398303985596,
-0.621084988117218,
-0.054547250270843506,
-0.04031183943152428,
0.6116332411766052,
0.6186019778251648,
0.2499316781759262,
-0.4083498418331146,
-0.14437086880207062,
-0.10273207724094391,
-0.0412079356610775,
-0.25833436846733093,
0.23457376658916473,
-0.029340699315071106,
-0.09120200574398041,
-0.4067140221595764,
-0.3858736753463745,
0.5049936175346375,
-0.25320714712142944,
0.13718067109584808,
0.7924518585205078,
-0.23573343455791473,
-0.06258402019739151,
-0.4470556676387787,
0.9910553693771362,
0.22778639197349548,
-0.5994561910629272,
0.2614773213863373,
0.7111029624938965,
-0.5804328918457031,
-0.058791764080524445,
-0.9927480220794678,
-0.49623382091522217,
-0.02648904360830784,
-0.5860903859138489,
-0.8303759694099426,
-0.189497172832489,
0.13603945076465607,
-0.08045545965433121,
0.6477392911911011,
-0.29083722829818726,
-0.5676453709602356,
0.05829158425331116,
-0.638272762298584,
0.49067258834838867,
0.19377268850803375,
0.22327987849712372,
-0.055836472660303116,
-0.26500624418258667,
-0.5911187529563904,
-0.40899717807769775,
-0.060736171901226044,
-0.1993194818496704,
-0.14534372091293335,
0.14453382790088654,
0.1976526528596878,
-0.3678275942802429,
-0.018958112224936485,
0.2963622510433197,
-0.061048198491334915,
0.5263447165489197,
0.46979254484176636,
0.6075841784477234,
0.20711229741573334,
0.5377122163772583,
0.38184645771980286,
0.306210458278656,
-0.8050865530967712,
0.03308119997382164,
-0.3574095368385315,
-0.4891881048679352,
-0.5549294352531433,
-0.3492216169834137,
-0.184770405292511,
-0.6306262612342834,
0.09248968213796616,
0.7584431767463684,
-0.20682334899902344,
0.0858791396021843,
0.2986268997192383,
-0.25793516635894775,
-0.10813255608081818,
0.24021945893764496,
0.30684274435043335,
-0.8035319447517395,
0.6156477928161621,
0.12330775707960129,
-0.14407363533973694,
-0.23796047270298004,
0.27027440071105957,
0.6085811853408813,
0.1084182858467102,
-0.43049606680870056,
-0.4606751501560211,
0.09938448667526245,
0.29101309180259705,
-0.21381528675556183,
-0.0225125253200531,
0.5286498665809631,
0.674547016620636,
0.3335740268230438,
-0.14495791494846344,
0.10025499761104584,
-0.5133359432220459,
0.06479072570800781,
0.14714449644088745,
0.07276816666126251,
-0.43471866846084595,
0.17442859709262848,
0.3323291540145874,
0.4078887701034546,
-0.11234241724014282,
1.0664947032928467,
0.07566153258085251,
-0.37495726346969604,
0.5467560291290283,
-0.3039833605289459,
0.4741298258304596,
-0.2658558189868927,
-0.24673371016979218,
-0.09226487576961517,
-0.46901270747184753,
0.1551765650510788,
-0.23130744695663452,
-0.166619673371315,
-0.1582433134317398,
0.415894478559494,
-0.4818960428237915,
0.28967544436454773,
0.02475334331393242,
-0.8687179088592529,
-0.14737151563167572,
0.04020106792449951,
0.18517501652240753,
-0.5220305919647217,
-0.010026386938989162,
-0.22806422412395477,
0.5885666012763977,
0.3034956753253937,
-0.18261240422725677,
-0.9169492125511169,
-0.8888614773750305,
0.06354009360074997,
0.16504491865634918,
0.19868244230747223,
0.18823865056037903,
-0.20377206802368164,
0.11295531690120697,
0.015894027426838875,
-0.8139105439186096,
-0.03576970100402832,
0.13987968862056732,
0.09606417268514633,
0.1427440494298935,
-0.14657743275165558,
0.26144149899482727,
-0.4641040563583374,
-0.14308640360832214,
0.03768133372068405,
-0.12667085230350494,
0.8341183662414551,
0.07181845605373383,
-0.05925903841853142,
-0.2626184821128845,
0.6523805260658264,
0.11862451583147049,
-0.22155915200710297,
-0.6792864799499512,
0.2680874168872833,
0.595658540725708,
-0.42899179458618164,
0.7704964280128479,
0.4497150778770447,
-0.6520301699638367,
0.038930971175432205,
-0.1047661080956459,
-0.7378882169723511,
-0.1290828287601471,
-0.5539501905441284,
-0.044212013483047485,
-0.41760849952697754,
0.12605926394462585,
-0.8202672004699707,
-0.7476562857627869,
0.40940356254577637,
-0.44746848940849304,
-0.36892569065093994,
0.18157140910625458,
0.48373085260391235,
0.3313094973564148,
-0.3477763533592224,
-0.12225186079740524,
-0.6275737285614014,
0.3347490131855011,
0.44528523087501526,
-0.37080714106559753,
0.26849156618118286,
-0.42853981256484985,
-0.2936605215072632,
-0.2666468322277069,
0.1028350219130516,
-0.4417147934436798,
0.17048273980617523,
-0.2813803255558014,
-0.7604764699935913,
0.6166864633560181,
0.19035203754901886,
0.421273410320282,
-0.6438568830490112,
0.9743657112121582,
0.20575101673603058,
-0.9154890179634094,
-0.024440418928861618,
0.10640233010053635,
0.44116899371147156,
-0.5108726620674133,
-0.826433002948761,
-0.0739516168832779,
0.6519863605499268,
-0.63812255859375,
-0.4343031942844391,
-0.018244365230202675,
0.9059116840362549,
0.11415345966815948,
-0.4093742072582245,
-0.8162535429000854,
0.17265018820762634,
0.02603675238788128,
0.23067568242549896,
-0.28688424825668335,
-0.5982553958892822,
-0.08596217632293701,
0.5681171417236328,
0.35241296887397766,
-0.36389389634132385,
-0.37873855233192444,
0.22909733653068542,
-0.6235756874084473,
-0.03851117938756943,
-0.27650198340415955,
0.2649451196193695,
0.4195803999900818,
0.5599863529205322,
-0.18084479868412018,
0.3231564164161682,
-0.37531065940856934,
0.3371086120605469,
-0.06352672725915909,
-0.11656889319419861,
0.23317468166351318,
0.4298592507839203,
-0.08193284273147583,
0.589679479598999,
-0.6178680062294006,
0.44153526425361633,
0.16086705029010773,
-0.7078166604042053,
-0.107552170753479,
-0.6967849135398865,
-0.19036869704723358,
-0.9256768226623535,
1.0031312704086304,
-0.6214451789855957,
0.28793415427207947,
0.2989961802959442,
-0.12086591124534607,
-0.10782178491353989,
0.6454804539680481,
0.01744106039404869,
0.8479985594749451,
0.22953401505947113,
-0.5714106559753418,
0.5658300518989563,
0.4815961420536041,
-0.11225669831037521,
-0.2297670543193817,
0.06411285698413849,
-0.36322107911109924,
-0.03775564208626747,
0.041858527809381485,
0.30923208594322205,
0.4811936020851135,
-0.5690714120864868,
-0.6546348333358765,
0.12019234895706177,
-0.4345981180667877,
0.8706923723220825,
0.3053899109363556,
-0.011354860849678516,
-0.052779145538806915,
0.7545343041419983,
-0.02282954938709736,
-0.18133145570755005,
0.419784814119339,
-0.1918831318616867,
-0.44823288917541504,
0.4782900810241699,
0.4458126425743103,
0.6114585995674133,
0.2799678444862366,
-0.09684678167104721,
0.5971482992172241,
-0.2751797139644623,
0.045838404446840286,
0.21245251595973969,
-0.13421465456485748,
-0.1855858415365219,
0.5926347970962524,
0.4523262679576874,
0.5472589731216431,
0.08536640554666519,
0.3293886184692383,
-0.1999291330575943,
0.28771066665649414,
0.531686544418335,
0.32894355058670044,
-0.3625795841217041,
0.5192508101463318,
-0.028121910989284515,
-0.027910826727747917,
0.7407507300376892,
-0.34932422637939453,
0.1646256446838379,
-0.44975900650024414,
0.1213485598564148,
0.11570461094379425,
0.3111625015735626,
0.13686221837997437,
-0.06906753778457642,
0.5059295296669006,
0.14491522312164307,
-0.02872537635266781,
-0.1990814059972763,
-0.11623656004667282,
0.46123579144477844,
-0.41532018780708313,
0.36290180683135986,
0.672330915927887,
0.22242775559425354,
0.7599900364875793,
-0.407679945230484,
0.50667804479599,
-0.08681558817625046,
-0.649200439453125,
0.2769649922847748,
0.044254500418901443,
0.6197496056556702,
0.3016663193702698,
0.35515186190605164,
-0.0063170637004077435,
0.06735221296548843,
-0.42192527651786804,
-0.009639586322009563,
0.22186778485774994,
-0.2616734206676483,
0.6274304389953613,
0.11530773341655731,
-0.06396398693323135,
-0.19842980802059174,
-0.2891300916671753,
-0.14852596819400787,
0.29972249269485474,
-0.3228842318058014,
0.27991554141044617,
-0.3853302299976349,
0.5984066724777222,
0.23818539083003998,
0.14403806626796722,
-0.5639634728431702,
-0.030642488971352577,
-0.1295125037431717,
0.5748738646507263,
-0.3953515291213989,
0.30483174324035645,
-0.5015977025032043,
0.3395456075668335,
-0.5036447644233704,
0.07105067372322083,
0.5424593687057495,
0.23314152657985687,
-0.04866671562194824,
0.38089311122894287,
-0.12132097035646439,
0.7276535630226135,
0.22026734054088593,
-0.36003321409225464,
0.3357420563697815,
-0.17589448392391205,
-0.1508033722639084,
-0.25880295038223267,
0.3093431890010834,
0.16312894225120544,
0.03409086912870407,
-0.08691664040088654,
0.3186337649822235,
0.04750742390751839,
-0.3513244688510895,
-0.10113117843866348,
-0.38133418560028076,
-0.1911068707704544,
-0.3918558359146118,
0.5529081225395203,
-0.5447068810462952,
0.7398896217346191,
0.17043279111385345,
0.8050735592842102,
0.4508572220802307,
-0.48947858810424805,
0.19356104731559753,
-0.3371100425720215,
-0.2967371344566345,
0.09023503214120865,
-1.2188704013824463,
0.2845735549926758,
0.07321640849113464,
-0.35328519344329834,
-0.7814724445343018,
0.45184677839279175,
0.6455631256103516,
-0.6419632434844971,
0.35931646823883057,
-0.9444869756698608,
-0.32463476061820984,
0.22372318804264069,
0.27739956974983215,
-0.7516242861747742,
-0.27903997898101807,
0.23658177256584167
] |
203644
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaysone%20Phomvihane
|
Kaysone Phomvihane
|
Kaysone Phomvihane (; 13 December 1920 – 21 November 1992) was the first leader of the Communist Lao People's Revolutionary Party from 1955 until his death in 1992. After the Communists seized power in the wake of the Laotian Civil War, he was the de facto leader of Laos from 1975 until his death. He served as the first Prime Minister of the Lao People's Democratic Republic from 1975 to 1991 and then as the second President from 1991 to 1992.
Biography
Kaysone was born Nguyễn Cai Song (although he also used the name Nguyễn Trí Mưu for a short period in the 1930s) in Na Seng village, Khanthabouli district, French Indochina (now Kaysone Phomvihane District, Savannakhet Province, Laos). His father, Nguyễn Trí Loan, was Vietnamese and his mother, Nang Dok, was Lao. He had two sisters: Nang Souvanthong, living in Thailand, and Nang Kongmany, who lived in the USA.
Kaysone attended law school at University of Indochina in Hanoi, with Nouhak Phoumsavan. He dropped out of law school to fight the French colonialists who were in Vietnam. Later, he joined the Pathet Lao movement, which was also fighting the French colonialists.
He became an active revolutionary while studying in the Indochinese capital of Hanoi (now the capital of Vietnam) during the 1940s. The Lao People's Liberation Army (LPLA) was established by Kaysone Phomvihane on January 20, 1949. He was minister of defence of Resistance Government (of the Neo Lao Issara) from 1950. In 1955 he was instrumental in setting up the LPRP at Sam Neua in northern Laos, and subsequently served as the Pathet Lao leader. For several years, he mostly stayed in the background, with "Red Prince" Souphanouvong serving as the Pathet Lao's figurehead. In the years which followed, he led communist forces against the Kingdom of Laos and U.S. forces.
Kaysone came out of the shadows in December 1975, shortly after the Pathet Lao took Vientiane, and seized control of the country. At a National Conference of People's Representatives that opened on December 1, Kaysone declared the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. The following day, on a motion by presiding officer Kaysone, the National Conference accepted King Sisavang Vatthana's abdication, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Kaysone nominated Souphanouvong as first president, and Kaysone was named prime minister. He held that post until becoming president in 1991, a post he held until his death in 1992. He married Thongvinh Phomvihane.
Under Kaysone's watch, the process of demarcating the border between Laos and Vietnam started in 1977 and finished in 2007. According to Western journalists, the Lao/Viet borderline is "very close" to the 1945 border between Laos and Tonkin and Annam, respectively.
According to Vatthana Pholsena, assistant professor of Southeast Asian Studies at the National University of Singapore and author of the book "Post-war Laos", Kaysone Phomvihane was the top policy maker in LPDR, and a strongman. He created Sekong Province to honour the southern minority for their support in the war effort.
Kaysone died in Laos's capital, Vientiane. After Kaysone's death, the government of Laos built a museum in Kaysone's honour in Vientiane, partially funded by Vietnam.
In 2012, his cremated ashes were transferred from their original resting place to the newly built National Cemetery.
Family
His younger son, Sanyahak Phomvihane, was elected to the LPRP Central Committee at the 8th LPRP Congress and became a Major General at the age of 40 in 2008. However, he suffered an early death, at the age of 45, on 19 July 2013. His elder son, Xaysomphone Phomvihane (born 10 October 1954) served as President of the Lao Front for National Construction and currently serves as President of the National Assembly. His other son, Santiphap Phomvihane, currently serves as Governor of Savannakhet Province.
Foreign honours
: Knight of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn
: Grand Cross of the Order of José Martí
: Gold Star Order
: Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna
: Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 1st Class
: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
: Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
:
Order of Lenin
Order of Friendship of Peoples
See also
Kaysone Phomvihane Museum
References
|-
|-
|-
|-
1920 births
1992 deaths
Heads of the Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 1st Central Committee of the Lao People's Party
Members of the 2nd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 5th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 2nd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 5th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 2nd Secretariat of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Secretariat of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Secretariat of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Lao People's Revolutionary Party politicians
Communist rulers
People of the Vietnam War
Presidents of Laos
Prime Ministers of Laos
Laotian people of Vietnamese descent
Laotian politicians of Vietnamese descent
People from Savannakhet province
Revolutionaries
|
[
-0.05472796782851219,
0.7027208805084229,
-0.6171010732650757,
-0.5510565638542175,
-0.3149529993534088,
0.41055384278297424,
-0.054306261241436005,
-0.03911040723323822,
-0.6726040244102478,
0.12584947049617767,
-0.3218834698200226,
0.43348777294158936,
-0.740958571434021,
0.1472315639257431,
-0.6821326613426208,
-0.10402371734380722,
0.496565580368042,
-0.29857808351516724,
-0.10356023907661438,
-0.2335975468158722,
-0.4635705053806305,
0.004184735473245382,
0.06006360054016113,
0.2517295777797699,
-0.21152643859386444,
0.2823614180088043,
0.21087941527366638,
0.10685630142688751,
0.7351892590522766,
-0.004771547392010689,
-0.18422971665859222,
0.025112807750701904,
0.719539999961853,
-0.16738055646419525,
-0.6773424744606018,
0.5143720507621765,
0.33822375535964966,
0.6888774633407593,
-0.0857096016407013,
0.4185384213924408,
-0.5235729813575745,
0.25891315937042236,
-0.09057486057281494,
0.15802137553691864,
0.29708540439605713,
-1.1274558305740356,
-1.048754096031189,
0.4205428659915924,
-0.6243613362312317,
-0.168725848197937,
-0.04110521823167801,
0.3998454213142395,
0.6737575531005859,
0.18677161633968353,
0.4553392827510834,
0.060628704726696014,
-0.943669319152832,
-0.23422272503376007,
-0.8010959029197693,
0.20195510983467102,
0.05173255130648613,
0.20424820482730865,
0.17056426405906677,
-0.3385658860206604,
0.14845576882362366,
0.27193528413772583,
-0.022295350208878517,
0.03079088404774666,
-0.06557264178991318,
-0.125088170170784,
0.12627778947353363,
0.9113430380821228,
0.1699131578207016,
0.015673544257879257,
0.48057103157043457,
-0.7106260061264038,
0.026752876117825508,
0.07152144610881805,
0.19072332978248596,
-0.012925037182867527,
0.09737803786993027,
-0.08989520370960236,
0.8855701088905334,
0.8344523906707764,
-0.1587105691432953,
0.13855654001235962,
-0.4124312996864319,
0.4186175465583801,
-0.24181197583675385,
0.17673243582248688,
-0.5116796493530273,
-0.6200819611549377,
0.5295787453651428,
-0.3651115596294403,
-1.1622169017791748,
0.40400177240371704,
0.23676975071430206,
1.0829710960388184,
0.11298614740371704,
-0.19143421947956085,
0.4500793516635895,
-0.04811789095401764,
0.08450339734554291,
-0.8315858840942383,
-0.7427390813827515,
0.09982447326183319,
-0.2684941291809082,
-0.27351200580596924,
-0.46949756145477295,
-0.4810364842414856,
-1.0561890602111816,
0.3485044836997986,
0.034815385937690735,
0.4268803894519806,
0.49436062574386597,
0.6927211880683899,
-0.2118161916732788,
-0.4671466648578644,
0.14530301094055176,
-0.6689103245735168,
-0.1379006952047348,
0.6802346706390381,
0.10417099297046661,
0.5936882495880127,
-0.18341228365898132,
0.36061787605285645,
-0.020010529085993767,
0.7748555541038513,
-0.1768054962158203,
0.4941335618495941,
0.34458664059638977,
0.7538651823997498,
-0.8073316812515259,
-0.09988479316234589,
-0.09394665062427521,
-0.31194043159484863,
1.1865534782409668,
0.2934265732765198,
0.14174902439117432,
0.5418615341186523,
-0.5051848292350769,
0.07682769745588303,
-0.2196202278137207,
0.268642395734787,
0.18694420158863068,
0.10275515168905258,
-0.15820932388305664,
0.03539179265499115,
-0.5681008100509644,
-0.21807795763015747,
0.27893728017807007,
-0.8439478278160095,
0.06539171189069748,
-0.12219871580600739,
-0.4411459267139435,
0.9025482535362244,
0.8323613405227661,
0.24912142753601074,
-0.06524684280157089,
0.2850185036659241,
0.32594338059425354,
0.005373720079660416,
0.122438944876194,
0.12166331708431244,
0.20994026958942413,
-0.0672222450375557,
-0.3823627233505249,
0.15397849678993225,
-0.02074786089360714,
0.15793439745903015,
-0.2689862847328186,
0.06175391376018524,
-0.46637630462646484,
-0.3153564929962158,
-0.19661635160446167,
0.07032553106546402,
0.1983678787946701,
0.15740913152694702,
-0.12319266051054001,
-0.16232968866825104,
-0.5365579128265381,
-0.09179367870092392,
-0.1893327832221985,
0.10360472649335861,
0.8459717631340027,
-0.102034792304039,
0.4118889272212982,
-0.29981082677841187,
0.7124161720275879,
-0.07367511838674545,
-0.7112165093421936,
-0.2917099595069885,
0.3250628113746643,
-0.2668219804763794,
0.6798853874206543,
0.23986876010894775,
0.41387835144996643,
0.8332263231277466,
0.17106778919696808,
0.5209022760391235,
0.36820754408836365,
0.06233464181423187,
0.2075604498386383,
-0.6908839344978333,
-0.3970857262611389,
0.9212538003921509,
0.5585055351257324,
0.7378252148628235,
0.4693533778190613,
0.521476149559021,
0.646952211856842,
-0.5453504920005798,
-0.5366386771202087,
0.3448965847492218,
0.3598758280277252,
-0.7805063724517822,
-0.6371240019798279,
0.2983275055885315,
0.2530439496040344,
0.1997062861919403,
0.25616326928138733,
-0.3846537470817566,
-0.42022499442100525,
0.6647332310676575,
0.3974629342556,
0.9999801516532898,
-0.18396835029125214,
-0.7855679392814636,
-0.024674084037542343,
0.04101138561964035,
0.3078133761882782,
-0.4832940995693207,
0.2769845128059387,
-0.2353375107049942,
0.37543347477912903,
-0.0429145023226738,
-0.16205942630767822,
-0.5551595687866211,
0.42499274015426636,
-0.8220402002334595,
0.7270063757896423,
-0.042821452021598816,
-0.0957297533750534,
0.06879064440727234,
-0.38369908928871155,
0.3402853310108185,
-0.6830058097839355,
-0.32473036646842957,
-0.27494901418685913,
0.11496897786855698,
-0.28853362798690796,
0.3935694396495819,
0.7872284054756165,
-0.40933758020401,
-0.20070621371269226,
-0.26292678713798523,
-0.43341588973999023,
-0.23401951789855957,
0.16750873625278473,
-0.10672919452190399,
0.4330340623855591,
-0.713967502117157,
0.4252176582813263,
0.5458188652992249,
0.08791413903236389,
-0.26034098863601685,
-0.0674322172999382,
-0.26290765404701233,
-0.0223128292709589,
0.5400356650352478,
0.152829110622406,
-0.5799118876457214,
-0.3278748393058777,
0.17526870965957642,
-0.5369778871536255,
-0.3341085910797119,
-0.8089439868927002,
0.5871529579162598,
-0.8726422786712646,
-1.2355318069458008,
0.8516805171966553,
0.6978393793106079,
-0.14303354918956757,
-0.3282855451107025,
-0.3091185688972473,
0.6024622917175293,
-0.3832601010799408,
-0.05161118879914284,
-0.10800759494304657,
0.28210219740867615,
-0.002536795800551772,
0.24812616407871246,
0.09590798616409302,
-0.5354281663894653,
0.06742918491363525,
0.030928008258342743,
-0.69111567735672,
-0.10654699802398682,
0.4571044445037842,
0.15639671683311462,
0.2999809682369232,
0.19666340947151184,
-0.325395792722702,
0.19022901356220245,
0.5854376554489136,
-0.14618773758411407,
0.36717334389686584,
0.16890202462673187,
-5.397459983825684,
0.40941306948661804,
0.573641300201416,
-0.33149856328964233,
0.04407956823706627,
0.15758152306079865,
0.2566273808479309,
-0.2649959623813629,
0.6048350930213928,
-0.4690123200416565,
-0.1827109456062317,
-0.2718990743160248,
0.20737388730049133,
0.4302078187465668,
0.061231084167957306,
0.5435637831687927,
0.318169504404068,
-0.5506901144981384,
0.8175674676895142,
0.41859468817710876,
0.3211703598499298,
-0.4038422107696533,
-0.19733364880084991,
0.41947871446609497,
0.08133617043495178,
0.3339442312717438,
0.024196725338697433,
0.1339782327413559,
-0.97531658411026,
-0.36831313371658325,
-0.235909104347229,
0.0756894052028656,
0.119734987616539,
0.09186489880084991,
-0.4131815433502197,
-0.6813812255859375,
0.37715762853622437,
0.12806107103824615,
-0.3424578309059143,
-0.5037814974784851,
0.35745224356651306,
-0.5754237771034241,
-0.42741572856903076,
-0.2705865800380707,
0.27751919627189636,
0.06726802885532379,
-0.3416442573070526,
-0.4977193772792816,
-0.3302841782569885,
0.4205484092235565,
0.03346164524555206,
-0.5647286176681519,
0.3087678551673889,
-0.18466556072235107,
0.30639585852622986,
0.2615948021411896,
-0.298433393239975,
-0.04766959324479103,
-0.7941904067993164,
0.2503467798233032,
0.5548424124717712,
-0.19413608312606812,
-0.16952137649059296,
-0.6194243431091309,
-0.03514467179775238,
-0.20328140258789062,
0.21418268978595734,
-0.25398075580596924,
0.15861879289150238,
0.2723991274833679,
-0.15982362627983093,
0.6345782279968262,
-0.21271014213562012,
-0.8155224323272705,
-0.007968488149344921,
-0.1194295734167099,
-0.1768256276845932,
0.055398717522621155,
-0.20667989552021027,
-0.16117064654827118,
-0.23438744246959686,
-0.3453506827354431,
0.3445001244544983,
0.8608201742172241,
0.7724584341049194,
0.6040297150611877,
-0.1458132416009903,
0.5856174230575562,
-0.2254924774169922,
0.7505106329917908,
0.22792591154575348,
-0.8995939493179321,
-0.05591795593500137,
0.9140953421592712,
0.46612516045570374,
0.07798818498849869,
0.24971777200698853,
0.25543928146362305,
0.8240019679069519,
-0.17974312603473663,
-0.1101798489689827,
-0.2922447621822357,
0.24507316946983337,
-0.18484537303447723,
-0.2424951046705246,
-0.3572571575641632,
0.026405828073620796,
-0.07322201877832413,
0.20593805611133575,
0.35237473249435425,
0.3732539117336273,
-0.14307208359241486,
0.05615120008587837,
-0.09231842309236526,
0.4946534335613251,
-0.5013409852981567,
0.22700665891170502,
0.05228373408317566,
0.06199411302804947,
0.25879615545272827,
-0.4997565448284149,
0.5086900591850281,
0.08237728476524353,
0.45525479316711426,
0.041341762989759445,
-0.5706526637077332,
-0.1648837774991989,
0.051701899617910385,
-0.11787591129541397,
-0.1671430617570877,
0.2792803943157196,
0.16349178552627563,
0.40956172347068787,
-0.17445188760757446,
0.4361146092414856,
-0.39387452602386475,
-0.25702574849128723,
-0.7629008889198303,
-0.020793136209249496,
0.2716745138168335,
-0.49806302785873413,
-0.10793757438659668,
-0.32761096954345703,
0.10911358892917633,
0.0567515529692173,
0.05594779923558235,
0.034556981176137924,
-0.20363079011440277,
-0.08363200724124908,
0.6446642279624939,
0.24443677067756653,
-0.5057221055030823,
0.9801714420318604,
-0.38141822814941406,
-0.1793791502714157,
-0.009457146748900414,
0.03819273039698601,
-0.4262266159057617,
-0.16974866390228271,
0.07474735379219055,
0.27630993723869324,
-0.7099000811576843,
-0.9382539987564087,
-0.5067735314369202,
0.12749241292476654,
0.47517305612564087,
0.12826691567897797,
0.12092014402151108,
-0.6143320798873901,
0.5082900524139404,
0.049561984837055206,
-0.729300320148468,
-0.3128238916397095,
0.05177326872944832,
0.22843097150325775,
-0.5059516429901123,
-0.05436123535037041,
0.15743014216423035,
-0.5255815982818604,
-0.09433035552501678,
-0.8553789258003235,
-0.07653285562992096,
-0.2556503415107727,
0.060318317264318466,
0.7889295816421509,
0.06014012545347214,
-0.38618165254592896,
-0.6665207743644714,
-0.30558985471725464,
-0.1462903618812561,
0.21613606810569763,
0.22118325531482697,
0.0855959802865982,
0.07944894582033157,
0.13598483800888062,
-0.8215083479881287,
-0.6171778440475464,
0.5402204990386963,
-0.17192552983760834,
-0.003256248077377677,
-0.09414059668779373,
0.11123387515544891,
0.28810691833496094,
-0.34031200408935547,
0.166059210896492,
-0.6784090399742126,
0.42939484119415283,
0.15990474820137024,
0.425741970539093,
-0.17415529489517212,
-0.256500244140625,
-0.6387492418289185,
0.10205978155136108,
0.3860380947589874,
-0.42305272817611694,
0.22407621145248413,
0.20062194764614105,
-0.37235668301582336,
-0.06808634102344513,
-0.8106531500816345,
-0.4339764714241028,
-0.008844125084578991,
-0.6522682309150696,
0.17031721770763397,
-0.02674843929708004,
0.6285866498947144,
0.5778467059135437,
0.021454600617289543,
0.8668792843818665,
-0.11963740736246109,
-0.8344730138778687,
-0.014751554466784,
0.2916799783706665,
-0.1430085450410843,
-0.4000270664691925,
-0.13611559569835663,
0.5623871684074402,
0.5852083563804626,
-0.12887221574783325,
-0.07082818448543549,
-0.5153335332870483,
1.118077039718628,
-0.03515121340751648,
-0.5892609357833862,
-0.23523607850074768,
0.16501860320568085,
0.41677770018577576,
0.003375633619725704,
-0.14589035511016846,
-0.5552306175231934,
0.4890199303627014,
0.4688389301300049,
-0.8792243599891663,
-0.9796969294548035,
0.13812126219272614,
-0.21079060435295105,
-0.825097918510437,
-0.19965550303459167,
0.46553152799606323,
-0.3368290066719055,
-0.2236158549785614,
-0.04925626516342163,
-0.029184911400079727,
-0.24661153554916382,
0.38997939229011536,
0.37271395325660706,
-0.053290411829948425,
-0.3425345718860626,
0.10437558591365814,
-0.5485504865646362,
-0.05810091644525528,
-0.882325291633606,
-0.5622797608375549,
0.5786020159721375,
0.16120325028896332,
-0.20453369617462158,
0.25127580761909485,
-0.1302410513162613,
-0.2222670018672943,
-0.1350918859243393,
-0.4863206744194031,
-0.4507679343223572,
0.3821975886821747,
0.4170688986778259,
0.24195939302444458,
-1.5388221740722656,
0.010726314038038254,
-0.5381191968917847,
-0.357547789812088,
-0.10762839764356613,
-0.7429960370063782,
0.2492435872554779,
-0.20729655027389526,
0.29676225781440735,
-0.16282504796981812,
0.9479055404663086,
0.1897543966770172,
0.8456276655197144,
-0.19565273821353912,
-0.18758036196231842,
-0.25975215435028076,
-0.12086882442235947,
0.49086084961891174,
0.05511288717389107,
-0.4910510182380676,
-0.22419001162052155,
0.004535040818154812,
-1.0383954048156738,
-0.1912723183631897,
0.8550076484680176,
0.5621276497840881,
0.18843232095241547,
0.2220001220703125,
-0.0574885755777359,
-0.7913146615028381,
0.20514164865016937,
0.4758487343788147,
-1.0447379350662231,
-0.6477359533309937,
-0.5954378843307495,
0.4001602530479431,
-0.3405212461948395,
0.3907521069049835,
0.37145236134529114,
0.46232691407203674,
0.7226507663726807,
-0.24639517068862915,
0.4710475504398346,
0.026264145970344543,
-0.222621351480484,
-0.11828956753015518,
0.3186202645301819,
-0.11262772977352142,
0.17541413009166718,
-0.2899380922317505,
-0.17376190423965454,
0.0765124037861824,
-0.8545437455177307,
0.038294121623039246,
0.032483890652656555,
0.5080177783966064,
0.9448412656784058,
0.19952116906642914,
-0.54559725522995,
0.46195733547210693,
0.07162842899560928,
0.01583639346063137,
0.4549690783023834,
0.048597294837236404,
0.10383132845163345,
0.14343930780887604,
0.31006306409835815,
0.013660464435815811,
-0.20710764825344086,
0.3231724500656128,
0.07395019382238388,
-0.12885266542434692,
0.08482350409030914,
0.6111629009246826,
0.2069307118654251,
-0.013485271483659744,
-0.47453773021698,
0.3750933110713959,
0.23911884427070618,
0.5024521946907043,
0.3428986668586731,
-0.16802239418029785,
-0.6604200005531311,
0.2742024064064026,
-0.15768975019454956,
-0.05122874304652214,
-0.17989492416381836,
-0.6939826011657715,
0.13939586281776428,
-0.9626815319061279,
-0.23129545152187347,
0.5113564729690552,
0.025576839223504066,
-0.37984514236450195,
-0.8943178057670593,
-0.0924011617898941,
0.2541753351688385,
-0.09446730464696884,
-0.17997987568378448,
0.480755478143692,
0.22680231928825378,
0.35366666316986084,
0.18367944657802582,
0.12248541414737701,
0.4610349237918854,
0.4167806804180145,
-0.39628463983535767,
-0.24530921876430511,
0.35386744141578674,
0.3327680230140686,
0.6900354623794556,
-0.1047610491514206,
0.8410214185714722,
0.7353932857513428,
-0.10325981676578522,
-0.1552070677280426,
0.4108063578605652,
-0.24030542373657227,
0.26502659916877747,
0.9003697633743286,
0.1732300966978073,
-0.8189290165901184,
0.1474512815475464,
-0.9642030000686646,
0.8339769840240479,
-0.14362049102783203,
0.9172028303146362,
-0.200712651014328,
0.7683328986167908,
-0.15641982853412628,
0.278669148683548,
0.5619943737983704,
-0.47893571853637695,
-0.3605618476867676,
-0.2210666984319687,
-0.4178362488746643,
-0.32218003273010254,
0.05568971857428551,
0.14632916450500488,
-0.3079191744327545,
-0.6771520972251892,
-0.07077673077583313,
0.20021773874759674,
-0.21934542059898376,
-0.05396784469485283,
-0.01008051261305809,
-0.4042084515094757,
-0.20879565179347992,
-0.4628293216228485,
-0.4561675190925598,
-0.3293977677822113,
0.7914832830429077,
0.28748804330825806,
-0.056133467704057693,
-0.6774394512176514,
-0.1632847934961319,
0.0797930657863617,
0.5512495636940002,
0.18607977032661438,
0.4681507349014282,
0.04880585893988609,
-0.31393182277679443,
-0.21479515731334686,
-0.4257410764694214,
0.5087031126022339,
-0.006751056760549545,
-0.34997373819351196,
0.2003074288368225,
-0.7951428890228271,
0.16719695925712585,
-0.026881149038672447,
0.2686666250228882,
-0.03362295776605606,
0.3505845367908478,
0.13810642063617706
] |
203646
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical%20path%20method
|
Critical path method
|
The critical path method (CPM), or critical path analysis (CPA), is an algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. It is commonly used in conjunction with the program evaluation and review technique (PERT). A critical path is determined by identifying the longest stretch of dependent activities and measuring the time required to complete them from start to finish.
History
The critical path method (CPM) is a project modeling technique developed in the late 1950s by Morgan R. Walker of DuPont and James E. Kelley Jr. of Remington Rand. Kelley and Walker related their memories of the development of CPM in 1989. Kelley attributed the term "critical path" to the developers of the PERT which was developed at about the same time by Booz Allen Hamilton and the U.S. Navy. The precursors of what came to be known as Critical Path were developed and put into practice by DuPont between 1940 and 1943 and contributed to the success of the Manhattan Project.
Critical Path Analysis is commonly used with all forms of projects, including construction, aerospace and defense, software development, research projects, product development, engineering, and plant maintenance, among others. Any project with interdependent activities can apply this method of mathematical analysis. CPM was used the first time in 1966 for the major skyscraper development of constructing the former World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City. Although the original CPM program and approach is no longer used, the term is generally applied to any approach used to analyze a project network logic diagram.
Basic techniques
Components
The essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes the following:
A list of all activities required to complete the project (typically categorized within a work breakdown structure),
The time (duration) that each activity will take to complete,
The dependencies between the activities and,
Logical end points such as milestones or deliverable items.
Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities to logical end points or to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. This process determines which activities are "critical" (i.e., on the longest path) and which have "total float" (i.e., can be delayed without making the project longer). In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project network activities which add up to the longest overall duration, regardless if that longest duration has float or not. This determines the shortest time possible to complete the project. There can be 'total float' (unused time) within the critical path. For example, if a project is testing a solar panel and task 'B' requires 'sunrise', there could be a scheduling constraint on the testing activity so that it would not start until the scheduled time for sunrise. This might insert dead time (total float) into the schedule on the activities on that path prior to the sunrise due to needing to wait for this event. This path, with the constraint-generated total float would actually make the path longer, with total float being part of the shortest possible duration for the overall project. In other words, individual tasks on the critical path prior to the constraint might be able to be delayed without elongating the critical path; this is the 'total float' of that task. However, the time added to the project duration by the constraint is actually critical path drag, the amount by which the project's duration is extended by each critical path activity and constraint.
A project can have several, parallel, near critical paths; and some or all of the tasks could have 'free float' and/or 'total float'. An additional parallel path through the network with the total durations shorter than the critical path is called a sub-critical or non-critical path. Activities on sub-critical paths have no drag, as they are not extending the project's duration.
CPM analysis tools allow a user to select a logical end point in a project and quickly identify its longest series of dependent activities (its longest path). These tools can display the critical path (and near critical path activities if desired) as a cascading waterfall that flows from the project's start (or current status date) to the selected logical end point.
Visualizing critical path schedule
Although the activity-on-arrow diagram (PERT Chart) is still used in a few places, it has generally been superseded by the activity-on-node diagram, where each activity is shown as a box or node and the arrows represent the logical relationships going from predecessor to successor as shown here in the "Activity-on-node diagram".
In this diagram, Activities A, B, C, D, and E comprise the critical or longest path, while Activities F, G, and H are off the critical path with floats of 15 days, 5 days, and 20 days respectively. Whereas activities that are off the critical path have float and are therefore not delaying completion of the project, those on the critical path will usually have critical path drag, i.e., they delay project completion. The drag of a critical path activity can be computed using the following formula:
If a critical path activity has nothing in parallel, its drag is equal to its duration. Thus A and E have drags of 10 days and 20 days respectively.
If a critical path activity has another activity in parallel, its drag is equal to whichever is less: its duration or the total float of the parallel activity with the least total float. Thus since B and C are both parallel to F (float of 15) and H (float of 20), B has a duration of 20 and drag of 15 (equal to F's float), while C has a duration of only 5 days and thus drag of only 5. Activity D, with a duration of 10 days, is parallel to G (float of 5) and H (float of 20) and therefore its drag is equal to 5, the float of G.
These results, including the drag computations, allow managers to prioritize activities for the effective management of project, and to shorten the planned critical path of a project by pruning critical path activities, by "fast tracking" (i.e., performing more activities in parallel), and/or by "crashing the critical path" (i.e., shortening the durations of critical path activities by adding resources).
Critical path drag analysis has also been used to optimize schedules in processes outside of strict project-oriented contexts, such as to increase manufacturing throughput by using the technique and metrics to identify and alleviate delaying factors and thus reduce assembly lead time.
Crash duration
'Crash duration' is a term referring to the shortest possible time for which an activity can be scheduled. It can be achieved by shifting more resources towards the completion of that activity, resulting in decreased time spent and often a reduced quality of work, as the premium is set on speed.
Crash duration is typically modeled as a linear relationship between cost and activity duration; however, in many cases a convex function or a step function is more applicable.
Expansion
Originally, the critical path method considered only logical dependencies between terminal elements. Since then, it has been expanded to allow for the inclusion of resources related to each activity, through processes called activity-based resource assignments and resource optimization techniques such as Resource Leveling and Resource smoothing. A resource-leveled schedule may include delays due to resource bottlenecks (i.e., unavailability of a resource at the required time), and may cause a previously shorter path to become the longest or most "resource critical" path while a resource-smoothed schedule avoids impacting the critical path by using only free and total float. A related concept is called the critical chain, which attempts to protect activity and project durations from unforeseen delays due to resource constraints.
Since project schedules change on a regular basis, CPM allows continuous monitoring of the schedule, which allows the project manager to track the critical activities, and alerts the project manager to the possibility that non-critical activities may be delayed beyond their total float, thus creating a new critical path and delaying project completion. In addition, the method can easily incorporate the concepts of stochastic predictions, using the PERT and event chain methodology.
Currently, there are several software solutions available in industry that use the CPM method of scheduling; see list of project management software. The method currently used by most project management software is based on a manual calculation approach developed by Fondahl of Stanford University.
Flexibility
A schedule generated using the critical path techniques often is not realized precisely, as estimations are used to calculate times: if one mistake is made, the results of the analysis may change. This could cause an upset in the implementation of a project if the estimates are blindly believed, and if changes are not addressed promptly. However, the structure of critical path analysis is such that the variance from the original schedule caused by any change can be measured, and its impact either ameliorated or adjusted for. Indeed, an important element of project postmortem analysis is the 'as built critical path' (ABCP), which analyzes the specific causes and impacts of changes between the planned schedule and eventual schedule as actually implemented.
In popular culture
In Odds On, the first novel by Michael Crichton, robbers use a critical path computer program to help plan a heist
The Nome Trilogy (part 2 "Diggers") by Terry Pratchett mentions "the doctrine of the critical path" and says that it means that "There's always something that you should have done first".
See also
Gantt chart
Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
Program evaluation and review technique
Critical chain project management
Liebig's law of the minimum
List of project management software
List of project management topics
Main path analysis
Project management
Project planning
Work breakdown structure
References
Further reading
External links
Business terms
Network theory
Project management techniques
Scheduling algorithms
Schedule (project management)
|
[
-0.22626924514770508,
-0.07492242008447647,
-0.3059663474559784,
0.5611088275909424,
0.3837721347808838,
0.2361503541469574,
-0.2853860855102539,
-0.0018660090863704681,
-0.47843846678733826,
-0.4736676812171936,
-0.20189598202705383,
0.5749318599700928,
-0.5202825665473938,
-0.26101627945899963,
0.15049056708812714,
-0.005289253778755665,
0.4147903621196747,
-0.4943993091583252,
-0.17547526955604553,
-0.5634520053863525,
-0.40015068650245667,
0.19268178939819336,
0.3077945411205292,
-0.10945625603199005,
-0.1703433245420456,
0.27577030658721924,
0.03522500768303871,
0.03384019806981087,
-0.16206775605678558,
-0.11804896593093872,
-0.06922218948602676,
0.13248734176158905,
0.5969139337539673,
-0.37182265520095825,
0.18649384379386902,
-0.07576169818639755,
-0.12892919778823853,
0.2240080088376999,
-0.5877169370651245,
-0.5426574945449829,
0.15127627551555634,
0.08607149124145508,
-0.1654011309146881,
-0.023266440257430077,
-0.14017675817012787,
-0.3089431822299957,
-1.2669960260391235,
-0.23310865461826324,
-0.33141231536865234,
-0.3697570562362671,
-0.5957795977592468,
0.6658164262771606,
0.24880991876125336,
0.420877069234848,
-0.32889556884765625,
0.42658731341362,
0.20208409428596497,
-0.45531314611434937,
0.24577264487743378,
-0.19270892441272736,
-0.3038482666015625,
-0.14608599245548248,
-0.07563595473766327,
0.6495500206947327,
0.3349575400352478,
0.2674306035041809,
-0.13092926144599915,
0.04892576485872269,
-0.33316943049430847,
-0.32956480979919434,
-0.5006822347640991,
-0.27742311358451843,
-0.09453712403774261,
0.7416422963142395,
-0.7447157502174377,
-0.39846092462539673,
0.39131808280944824,
0.012102168053388596,
-0.6163676381111145,
-0.03762296214699745,
-0.2291058748960495,
0.6325363516807556,
0.16355934739112854,
0.09796217828989029,
0.5685699582099915,
0.13006934523582458,
0.18949367105960846,
0.6202728152275085,
-0.17208446562290192,
0.6225355267524719,
0.13169197738170624,
-0.43501016497612,
0.37879544496536255,
0.0929303765296936,
0.26602107286453247,
0.08995053172111511,
-0.019389837980270386,
0.086716428399086,
0.31782266497612,
0.6078810095787048,
-0.16558963060379028,
0.007917335256934166,
0.14502140879631042,
-0.026533331722021103,
0.2995426654815674,
-0.37972110509872437,
-0.1391330361366272,
-0.5653111934661865,
-0.5759668946266174,
0.12027531117200851,
-0.6831541061401367,
0.5925589799880981,
-0.383468896150589,
-0.1345502734184265,
-0.3611675202846527,
0.3076932430267334,
0.19034259021282196,
-0.16676196455955505,
-0.26436522603034973,
-0.0572858490049839,
0.2213364690542221,
1.0544220209121704,
0.1755291372537613,
0.261084645986557,
-0.15046045184135437,
0.23656028509140015,
0.901269257068634,
0.5824275612831116,
-0.4569679796695709,
-0.22546729445457458,
0.13241955637931824,
0.5239489674568176,
0.1382143795490265,
-0.1597304791212082,
-0.5524502396583557,
-0.13090364634990692,
0.22749926149845123,
0.418805330991745,
-0.05791497975587845,
0.1283704787492752,
-0.5182914733886719,
-0.9059236645698547,
0.43358397483825684,
-0.23543153703212738,
0.611932098865509,
0.38475674390792847,
0.5052357316017151,
-0.8882578611373901,
-0.06816322356462479,
0.1440856009721756,
-0.0368073396384716,
0.45328837633132935,
-0.7624322772026062,
-0.29787102341651917,
-0.652813196182251,
0.3400205373764038,
0.4248482584953308,
-0.1911744922399521,
-0.5400207042694092,
0.1350880116224289,
0.03939152881503105,
-0.030403712764382362,
-0.5509342551231384,
-0.24797797203063965,
0.08597614616155624,
-0.5013763904571533,
0.7162755131721497,
0.07018601149320602,
0.5833247303962708,
0.15518566966056824,
-0.3655467629432678,
-0.008186502382159233,
0.01973050832748413,
-0.41090381145477295,
0.04244408756494522,
0.1844669133424759,
0.6021892428398132,
0.13411197066307068,
0.7943304777145386,
-0.26096874475479126,
-0.3458487093448639,
0.24749261140823364,
0.26918676495552063,
-0.9088902473449707,
0.014621246606111526,
-0.2974652051925659,
0.7720559239387512,
-0.4056623876094818,
0.16930171847343445,
0.18528999388217926,
-0.9833838939666748,
-0.1387006938457489,
0.0020715808495879173,
-0.8998882174491882,
1.4750295877456665,
0.054954249411821365,
0.0011209446238353848,
0.7137946486473083,
-0.23985281586647034,
0.4854293167591095,
0.22371670603752136,
-0.21140293776988983,
0.3182195723056793,
-0.3752477467060089,
-1.2158241271972656,
0.15544919669628143,
0.25663483142852783,
0.13374671339988708,
-0.7722344398498535,
0.32108837366104126,
-0.27666282653808594,
0.07675264775753021,
0.30264437198638916,
-0.03196725994348526,
0.18501730263233185,
0.00853794813156128,
-0.4116012156009674,
0.44900721311569214,
0.12295971065759659,
-0.3279533386230469,
0.9088342785835266,
-0.46799981594085693,
-0.07519657164812088,
0.953179657459259,
-0.11912188678979874,
0.6298803687095642,
0.7528340220451355,
0.3749591112136841,
0.8978754281997681,
-0.5400536060333252,
0.3099920153617859,
0.11408522725105286,
-0.012258199043571949,
-0.3943553864955902,
-0.025267653167247772,
0.24515298008918762,
-0.03296275809407234,
-0.6587674021720886,
-0.052460573613643646,
-0.2743624448776245,
0.01898927241563797,
0.13015297055244446,
-0.14816033840179443,
0.16771364212036133,
0.23891699314117432,
-0.30456534028053284,
-0.5129409432411194,
-0.03276604786515236,
-0.2867668867111206,
0.3775664269924164,
-0.2148265242576599,
0.5678879022598267,
0.5810225009918213,
-0.5270980000495911,
-0.5163246989250183,
-0.17475400865077972,
-0.03675619885325432,
-0.126007542014122,
-0.012334100902080536,
0.16404883563518524,
-0.231171116232872,
0.32876843214035034,
-0.018218325451016426,
-0.13016797602176666,
0.3174673020839691,
-0.4108409881591797,
-0.01086974237114191,
-0.04430582746863365,
0.17317518591880798,
0.6096118688583374,
-0.22653941810131073,
-0.3844875991344452,
-0.23758774995803833,
-0.10294657200574875,
-0.4405789077281952,
-1.2172671556472778,
0.5204421281814575,
0.5849623680114746,
-0.7803709506988525,
-0.7044200301170349,
-0.2302352786064148,
0.48861968517303467,
-0.06197880953550339,
-0.4079930782318115,
0.0007180557586252689,
0.21330001950263977,
-0.5291603803634644,
-0.03266473859548569,
-0.0794413834810257,
0.14241862297058105,
-0.27821096777915955,
0.14077609777450562,
-0.5942804217338562,
0.2863147258758545,
0.7413895130157471,
0.19000685214996338,
-0.2122502326965332,
0.037988241761922836,
0.0925583764910698,
-0.22177812457084656,
-0.23132911324501038,
-0.21442806720733643,
0.07243872433900833,
0.00843439344316721,
-0.20425690710544586,
-0.16374781727790833,
-0.0005348200211301446,
0.3710689842700958,
-5.732937335968018,
-0.6146975159645081,
-0.33356502652168274,
0.051981352269649506,
-0.18233560025691986,
0.47165220975875854,
0.39011532068252563,
-0.18337245285511017,
0.00808065664023161,
0.18261262774467468,
-0.06572579592466354,
0.03680994361639023,
-0.1629927009344101,
0.6091257929801941,
0.3507654368877411,
0.3822031617164612,
0.10070726275444031,
0.05455445498228073,
0.3203871548175812,
-0.13095270097255707,
0.2369818240404129,
-0.5355042219161987,
-0.1595148742198944,
0.4273909330368042,
-0.20878180861473083,
-0.1218821331858635,
-0.6733596920967102,
0.5325443148612976,
-0.34519481658935547,
-0.13414855301380157,
0.319460928440094,
-0.8198114037513733,
-0.18224312365055084,
-0.14603805541992188,
-0.2208184450864792,
-0.1546248197555542,
0.6568838357925415,
0.5093451142311096,
-0.056716252118349075,
-0.2189042568206787,
-0.09533596783876419,
0.3305080831050873,
0.0185332503169775,
-0.29522615671157837,
0.19574160873889923,
0.5479626655578613,
0.02699769102036953,
-0.2725715935230255,
-0.07475963234901428,
0.4878806173801422,
-0.20265622437000275,
0.1850530356168747,
0.5686636567115784,
0.02253062091767788,
0.2453537881374359,
-0.44970378279685974,
0.5380097031593323,
-0.332966685295105,
-0.39219528436660767,
0.5176802277565002,
0.5214541554450989,
-0.5826373100280762,
0.14920243620872498,
-0.5699779391288757,
-0.5028661489486694,
0.09658049792051315,
-0.423016220331192,
-0.45788630843162537,
-0.03284776210784912,
0.20403482019901276,
-0.26008522510528564,
0.15538156032562256,
0.023030150681734085,
-0.7191668748855591,
-0.2200685739517212,
-0.22674430906772614,
0.4953649640083313,
0.17723427712917328,
0.1273500770330429,
-0.258265882730484,
-0.06657760590314865,
-0.4203678369522095,
-0.044053077697753906,
-0.21759529411792755,
0.6671063899993896,
0.3958613872528076,
-0.13473843038082123,
0.0076314895413815975,
-0.5610280632972717,
0.2992900609970093,
0.39379119873046875,
-0.04691753908991814,
0.5385891199111938,
0.30307772755622864,
0.8441984057426453,
0.7805387377738953,
0.6867207884788513,
0.2766481041908264,
0.535236120223999,
-0.14018334448337555,
-0.0061301495879888535,
0.13979096710681915,
-0.10683450102806091,
-0.15875773131847382,
-0.06360016018152237,
0.3060412108898163,
-0.7336502075195312,
0.2184755802154541,
0.6125327944755554,
0.02269446663558483,
-0.2399880290031433,
0.2954055666923523,
0.05984167009592056,
-0.09143278747797012,
-0.17265914380550385,
0.5701295137405396,
-0.8942192196846008,
0.14743176102638245,
0.5535380840301514,
0.07023002952337265,
-0.5365853309631348,
0.2993946671485901,
-0.057609155774116516,
0.4626343548297882,
-0.26010844111442566,
-0.9274629950523376,
0.18266929686069489,
0.40906763076782227,
0.2476769983768463,
0.2588835656642914,
0.5019028186798096,
0.7353362441062927,
-0.15839852392673492,
-0.24838396906852722,
0.1263500303030014,
-0.8592674136161804,
0.19363009929656982,
0.563831090927124,
-0.05152514576911926,
-0.19713035225868225,
0.09972754865884781,
-0.018267452716827393,
0.23247577250003815,
-0.2045266330242157,
0.5973049402236938,
0.2820191979408264,
-0.2624558210372925,
-0.1864948719739914,
-0.20941615104675293,
0.1629747748374939,
-0.17591995000839233,
-0.3084810674190521,
0.3089020848274231,
0.0360286682844162,
0.11330721527338028,
0.17916499078273773,
-0.3058989942073822,
-0.1784513294696808,
0.26764875650405884,
-0.06432190537452698,
0.4782479405403137,
-0.27495142817497253,
-1.0058364868164062,
-0.576326310634613,
-0.42859968543052673,
0.4554220139980316,
-0.7324613928794861,
-0.3553892970085144,
-0.20254093408584595,
0.302324116230011,
0.11862015724182129,
-0.395168274641037,
-0.4662429988384247,
-0.7228871583938599,
0.27230578660964966,
0.05581572651863098,
0.3782166838645935,
0.14780321717262268,
-0.1437125951051712,
-0.27059757709503174,
-0.07950335741043091,
-0.6897600293159485,
0.03821125626564026,
0.37811681628227234,
0.3817647397518158,
-0.653616726398468,
0.1412789225578308,
0.4395465552806854,
-0.7555510401725769,
-0.47416701912879944,
0.10933521389961243,
-0.13340561091899872,
0.24258892238140106,
-0.008917744271457195,
0.1474447250366211,
-0.6698088645935059,
0.6046788096427917,
0.25750914216041565,
-0.3136792778968811,
-0.6570644974708557,
-0.23144333064556122,
0.5671687722206116,
-0.14360411465168,
0.5307267904281616,
0.6038522124290466,
-0.5290950536727905,
-0.18946890532970428,
-0.1322297751903534,
-0.22917206585407257,
0.008749120868742466,
-0.5750696659088135,
-0.09449603408575058,
-0.48302415013313293,
-0.0768144428730011,
-0.31565356254577637,
-0.06504617631435394,
0.6430073976516724,
-0.18957145512104034,
-0.31011924147605896,
0.0030689549166709185,
0.23881347477436066,
0.21771882474422455,
-0.5269857048988342,
-0.06696665287017822,
-0.4202645719051361,
0.5274110436439514,
0.435133159160614,
-0.7435333132743835,
-0.11699514091014862,
-0.13617199659347534,
-0.5363764762878418,
-0.5498061776161194,
0.0028957435861229897,
-0.45609745383262634,
0.03696685656905174,
-0.7929514050483704,
-0.5284591913223267,
0.25912848114967346,
-0.05655042454600334,
-0.18646955490112305,
-0.5063455700874329,
1.1394963264465332,
0.27481645345687866,
-0.27379682660102844,
0.33671140670776367,
0.5802043080329895,
0.26031777262687683,
-0.6957805156707764,
-0.6818742156028748,
0.16993288695812225,
0.3439047932624817,
-0.11097253859043121,
-0.0161291491240263,
-0.10094090551137924,
0.542065441608429,
-0.16470025479793549,
-0.6421705484390259,
-0.8612234592437744,
-0.026362508535385132,
0.48873937129974365,
-0.09958180785179138,
-0.6384495496749878,
-0.4124337136745453,
-0.3964995741844177,
0.48697134852409363,
0.5763601660728455,
0.002219892106950283,
-0.36458614468574524,
-0.20104913413524628,
-0.9141653180122375,
0.4317929744720459,
-0.40761905908584595,
0.1729476898908615,
0.4607981741428375,
0.5695923566818237,
-0.1484111100435257,
0.31712815165519714,
0.17958283424377441,
0.38836032152175903,
0.007282271981239319,
-0.30108392238616943,
0.07158750295639038,
-0.05512704700231552,
-0.40204498171806335,
0.4033641219139099,
-0.5279425978660583,
0.4610651731491089,
-0.0231536366045475,
-0.46272873878479004,
0.09578846395015717,
-0.8447830080986023,
0.2870904505252838,
-0.32991471886634827,
0.7379686832427979,
-0.4903813898563385,
-0.07794812321662903,
-0.03442193195223808,
0.15711821615695953,
-0.42754679918289185,
-0.09743614494800568,
-0.2824837863445282,
0.4458954334259033,
0.2958083152770996,
-0.7063092589378357,
0.29588472843170166,
0.3372346758842468,
-0.0030185231007635593,
-0.43014228343963623,
-0.16861116886138916,
0.02250193990767002,
0.5010969042778015,
0.17677226662635803,
0.3243740499019623,
0.6532377600669861,
-0.3327586352825165,
-0.11558510363101959,
-0.07761979103088379,
-0.24600011110305786,
0.7327637076377869,
0.1783919781446457,
0.06774124503135681,
0.565431535243988,
0.7308988571166992,
-0.41940316557884216,
-0.2382110208272934,
0.13132673501968384,
-0.45558032393455505,
0.19573897123336792,
-0.037977077066898346,
0.5408937931060791,
0.574564516544342,
0.13406945765018463,
-0.04149956256151199,
0.5878646969795227,
0.08440294861793518,
-0.1615372747182846,
-0.08677360415458679,
-0.6172186732292175,
-0.01885072886943817,
0.12311989814043045,
1.05034339427948,
0.5042152404785156,
0.3123084008693695,
0.5267274379730225,
-0.12285458296537399,
0.10055522620677948,
0.9001657366752625,
0.3943176865577698,
-0.7841845750808716,
0.4175015091896057,
-0.036105986684560776,
-0.07053572684526443,
0.4975545406341553,
-0.34548068046569824,
0.2640532851219177,
-0.35670095682144165,
0.1599530130624771,
0.2802887558937073,
0.5582160353660583,
0.20093680918216705,
0.4632702171802521,
0.3254140019416809,
-0.38057050108909607,
-0.36072972416877747,
-0.1410374641418457,
-0.42163628339767456,
0.2518773078918457,
-0.42931509017944336,
0.012243134900927544,
0.48906636238098145,
0.14516021311283112,
0.5570595860481262,
-0.20380046963691711,
0.7011118531227112,
-0.16629277169704437,
-0.7291221022605896,
0.08901657164096832,
0.36923879384994507,
0.24128687381744385,
-0.29828929901123047,
0.4058187007904053,
-0.3017762005329132,
0.4173106551170349,
-0.5010542273521423,
-0.12601111829280853,
0.050892774015665054,
-0.08391692489385605,
0.09866135567426682,
0.26236969232559204,
-0.1271403282880783,
-0.2262815535068512,
-0.2209780067205429,
0.18408861756324768,
0.24185612797737122,
0.28182652592658997,
0.49135270714759827,
-0.31236162781715393,
0.9040597081184387,
0.22458672523498535,
0.2976101338863373,
-0.14020927250385284,
-0.20088821649551392,
0.035137686878442764,
0.3926112651824951,
-0.07726150006055832,
-0.046598341315984726,
-0.31354379653930664,
0.17805607616901398,
-0.6057695150375366,
0.26150307059288025,
0.5986114740371704,
0.015140213072299957,
-0.41933321952819824,
0.4268038272857666,
0.33576613664627075,
0.5102555155754089,
0.41267600655555725,
-0.520363986492157,
0.26774296164512634,
-0.5682503581047058,
-0.24201327562332153,
0.244599387049675,
0.8767004609107971,
-0.057090893387794495,
-0.466451495885849,
-0.23287060856819153,
0.6431089639663696,
0.02519589103758335,
-0.08294498920440674,
0.10117629170417786,
-0.18304869532585144,
0.0278767179697752,
-0.5935683846473694,
0.5551571846008301,
-0.204928457736969,
0.10120107978582382,
0.08610457926988602,
0.4595983028411865,
0.49672335386276245,
-0.6476048231124878,
-0.17513257265090942,
-0.2180841863155365,
-0.07540566474199295,
0.09519638866186142,
-0.7468442320823669,
0.46162745356559753,
0.10493094474077225,
-0.2610718905925751,
-0.7856572866439819,
0.46896445751190186,
0.6197799444198608,
-0.7472241520881653,
-0.326023131608963,
-0.09390582144260406,
-0.3170652389526367,
0.4096974730491638,
0.02942514605820179,
-0.6255932450294495,
-0.5493791103363037,
-0.13175375759601593
] |
203647
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20ministers%20of%20Portugal
|
List of prime ministers of Portugal
|
The prime minister of the Portuguese Republic () is the head of the Government of Portugal. They coordinate the actions of all ministers, represent the Government as a whole, report their actions and is accountable to the Assembly of the Republic, and keep the president of the Republic informed.
There is no limit to the number of mandates as prime minister. They are appointed by the president of the Republic, after the legislative elections and after an audience with every leader of a party represented at the Assembly. It is usual for the leader of the party which receives a plurality of votes in the elections to be named prime minister.
The official residence of the prime minister is a mansion next to São Bento Palace, which, in confusion, is also often called "São Bento Palace", although many prime ministers did not live in the palace during their full mandate.
History
The origins of present office of prime minister of Portugal fall back to the beginning of the Portuguese monarchy in the 12th century. Typically, a senior official of the king of Portugal prevailed over the others, ensuring the coordination of the administration of the kingdom as a kind of prime minister. Throughout history, the prominent position fell successively on the Mayor of the Palace (Portuguese Mordomo-Mor), on the Chancellor (Chancellor-Mor), on the King's Private Secretary (Escrivão da Puridade) and on the Secretary of State (Secretário de Estado).
In 1736, three offices of secretary of state were created, with the Secretary of State of the Internal Affairs of the Kingdom (Secretário de Estado dos Negócios Interiores do Reino) occupying a prominent position over the others.
Since the 1820 Liberal Revolution of Porto, liberalism and parliamentarism were installed in the country. In the first liberal period, there were three to six secretaries of state with equal position in the hierarchy, but with the Secretary the Internal Affairs of the Kingdom (usually known by Minister of the Kingdom) continuing to occupy a prominent position. Occasionally there was a Minister Assistant to the Dispatch (Ministro Assistante ao Despacho), a coordinator of all secretaries of state, and with a post similar to that of a prime minister. After a brief absolutistic restoration, the second liberalism started. With the beginning of the Constitutional Monarchy, the office of President of the Council of Ministers (President do Conselho de Ministros) was created. The presidents of the council were clearly the heads of government of the kingdom, holding the executive power that absolute monarchs had, but were restricted by the controlling power of the National Congress.
With the advent of the Republic in the 5 October 1910 revolution, the head of government was renamed President of the Ministry (Presidente do Ministério). During this period the heads of government were under the strong power of the parliament and often fell due to parliamentary turmoils and social instability.
With the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, and eventually, after the formation of the Estado Novo quasi-fascist dictatorial regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, the prime minister was again named President of the Council of Ministers, and was nominally the most important figure in the country. First Salazar and then Marcello Caetano occupied this post for almost 42 years.
With the Carnation Revolution came the prime minister, which replaced the president of the council.
Prime ministers
The official numbering of the prime ministers starts with the first president of the Council of Ministers of the constitutional monarchy. A second column is added after the establishment of the Republic, numbering the prime ministers from there to the present day. Another column is added for the numbering inside the three regimes: First Republic, the Second Republic and Third Republic, with a fourth column in the Second Republic to mark the numbering of prime ministers since the 1926 revolution that established the National Dictatorship and since the replacement of the National Dictatorship with the Salazarist Estado Novo. In the Third Republic, a fourth column is also used to distinguish the prime ministers of the provisional governments that existed during the period immediately following the Carnation Revolution of 1974 from the prime ministers that assumed office after the entry into force of Portugal's current democratic Constitution adopted 1976.
At the right hand side, a column indicates the official numbering of the Constitutional Governments. The numbering of the Constitutional Governments is not the same as the numbering of prime ministers since the Constitution because, whenever elections for a new parliament take place, a new constitutional government is installed, even if the prime minister remains the same; however, there is also a change of constitutional government when the prime minister is replaced, even if in mid-parliament. So, because some prime ministers managed to remain in office after fresh elections (thus serving as prime ministers under more than one parliament), there are more constitutional governments than there are prime ministers.
The colors indicate the political affiliation of each prime minister.
Constitutional Monarchy – Second Liberalism (1834–1910)
First Republic (1910–1926)
Second Republic (1926–1974)
Third Republic (1974–present)
Timeline
Prime ministers of Portugal (1834–1910)
Prime ministers of Portugal (1910–1926)
Prime ministers of Portugal (1926–present)
See also
List of prime ministers of Portugal by time in office
List of presidents of Portugal
Politics of Portugal
Notes
Minority government
References
External links
WORLD STATESMEN.org (Portugal)
Prime Ministers since 1910
Portuguese General Elections since 1820
Portugal, List of Prime Ministers of
Prime Ministers
Prime Ministers
Articles which contain graphical timelines
|
[
-0.09656713902950287,
0.29297083616256714,
0.0861850157380104,
0.04455438628792763,
-0.10830037295818329,
0.02424044907093048,
-0.2390693724155426,
0.6505227088928223,
-0.5534165501594543,
-0.02790227346122265,
-0.07640010863542557,
0.5295325517654419,
0.16633979976177216,
0.0734030157327652,
-0.2938735783100128,
0.29452699422836304,
0.024333134293556213,
1.0042243003845215,
0.18646956980228424,
-0.7326386570930481,
-0.2641238868236542,
0.5769386291503906,
0.017393365502357483,
-0.393303245306015,
0.24043187499046326,
0.23069137334823608,
0.5027258396148682,
-0.029715780168771744,
-0.5535953640937805,
0.12712495028972626,
-0.40939944982528687,
-0.015688495710492134,
-0.2557096779346466,
0.22987063229084015,
-0.1062956154346466,
-0.7578507661819458,
0.7698414921760559,
-0.7257874011993408,
0.11794678121805191,
-0.2623467743396759,
-0.2981812655925751,
-0.5518366694450378,
0.5451825261116028,
0.2545727789402008,
0.014782839454710484,
-0.4484992027282715,
-0.6982348561286926,
0.1433165818452835,
-0.4249669015407562,
0.4118749499320984,
-0.41423287987709045,
0.45084527134895325,
0.6308614611625671,
0.2587873637676239,
-0.10183700919151306,
-0.2351253479719162,
-0.7622737884521484,
-0.1290234923362732,
-0.20447120070457458,
-0.017771074548363686,
0.094288669526577,
0.5878309011459351,
0.038433123379945755,
-0.11114004999399185,
1.1246682405471802,
0.02758193016052246,
0.30549129843711853,
0.34403476119041443,
-0.563001275062561,
-0.0945722684264183,
-0.34329649806022644,
0.18881817162036896,
0.17389532923698425,
-0.4998975098133087,
-0.06050249934196472,
-0.20899055898189545,
-0.18116839230060577,
0.6810737252235413,
0.10519341379404068,
-0.494058758020401,
-0.2668074667453766,
-0.42439407110214233,
0.7985668182373047,
0.06946994364261627,
-0.3503059446811676,
0.3031594157218933,
0.15630817413330078,
-0.45410671830177307,
-0.42353853583335876,
0.8671616315841675,
-0.3919451832771301,
-0.08030914515256882,
0.45229455828666687,
-0.08999204635620117,
-0.4145207703113556,
-0.3682689964771271,
0.19660091400146484,
-0.05054332688450813,
-0.15917028486728668,
0.06726717203855515,
0.3500242531299591,
0.38535723090171814,
-0.03263535723090172,
-0.5120143294334412,
-0.759474515914917,
-0.2687668800354004,
-0.8842687606811523,
-0.20771904289722443,
-0.35466790199279785,
0.2983633875846863,
-0.6231206655502319,
0.2090308666229248,
0.07023869454860687,
0.580272376537323,
-0.3842126131057739,
0.08556224405765533,
0.20765413343906403,
-0.5665513277053833,
-0.15677429735660553,
-0.20706592500209808,
0.42541345953941345,
0.5095639824867249,
0.2928461730480194,
-0.3904789388179779,
0.23150691390037537,
0.21652844548225403,
0.7793317437171936,
-0.4460635185241699,
0.38632476329803467,
0.2625412344932556,
0.9969966411590576,
0.47279807925224304,
-0.30448856949806213,
0.029697420075535774,
-0.12739033997058868,
-0.7004261016845703,
0.22175726294517517,
0.2711593508720398,
0.48947224020957947,
0.8224554657936096,
-0.5358323454856873,
0.13022971153259277,
-0.01359583344310522,
0.007892588153481483,
0.4757353663444519,
-0.5933106541633606,
-0.013492964208126068,
-0.422652930021286,
-0.3516257107257843,
0.45355963706970215,
0.08346354216337204,
-0.46180301904678345,
-0.1013164147734642,
-0.016418924555182457,
-0.3994961977005005,
-0.10735983401536942,
0.8111275434494019,
-0.9355553984642029,
0.3854979872703552,
0.4567294120788574,
0.5349128842353821,
-0.07327333837747574,
0.37819328904151917,
0.14975924789905548,
-0.056371357291936874,
0.3186245262622833,
0.3677813410758972,
0.39385274052619934,
0.17772239446640015,
0.21454785764217377,
-0.6360233426094055,
0.1893898993730545,
0.10191051661968231,
-0.5267422795295715,
-0.5205466747283936,
0.18933261930942535,
0.8094773888587952,
-0.1714865118265152,
0.5586744546890259,
0.24183301627635956,
-0.44639357924461365,
-0.22680558264255524,
0.09926734864711761,
0.22689680755138397,
0.33005616068840027,
-0.05340128764510155,
0.21720527112483978,
0.5546671748161316,
0.7906315922737122,
-0.33641180396080017,
-0.48342275619506836,
-0.37730759382247925,
0.27782270312309265,
-0.3930853009223938,
0.6409216523170471,
-0.41364607214927673,
-0.31816279888153076,
0.3083041310310364,
-0.08109976351261139,
0.3127422034740448,
-0.3923727869987488,
-0.28305408358573914,
0.18793770670890808,
0.2721112370491028,
-0.06563614308834076,
0.36792755126953125,
0.14879634976387024,
0.11388275027275085,
0.9331674575805664,
0.41854479908943176,
0.08270709216594696,
0.06191112473607063,
-0.2031872272491455,
-0.24749882519245148,
0.33698296546936035,
-0.3437557518482208,
-0.3572297990322113,
-0.13226892054080963,
-0.22997257113456726,
0.3160330355167389,
0.804148256778717,
-0.049728911370038986,
-0.24669088423252106,
0.7415390610694885,
-0.2640305757522583,
0.34340956807136536,
-0.24364736676216125,
-0.16160690784454346,
-0.029486004263162613,
0.16681930422782898,
0.29958611726760864,
-0.21781067550182343,
0.32639697194099426,
-0.03555527329444885,
-0.5048331618309021,
0.10956809669733047,
-0.6378793120384216,
-0.2328990399837494,
-0.06527652591466904,
-0.372506320476532,
0.14752919971942902,
0.315366268157959,
-0.23840531706809998,
0.5047541856765747,
0.05738740414381027,
0.3290410041809082,
-0.9090234637260437,
0.12731494009494781,
-0.6295693516731262,
-0.11174310743808746,
0.1316181719303131,
-0.04556826502084732,
0.293266236782074,
0.016787704080343246,
0.15100263059139252,
-0.6411508917808533,
0.46605896949768066,
0.15192407369613647,
0.01075381226837635,
0.353182315826416,
-0.2728953957557678,
-0.24216540157794952,
0.444532573223114,
0.9888558387756348,
-0.15068624913692474,
0.23397068679332733,
-0.03890760615468025,
-0.3869472146034241,
-0.052603594958782196,
0.45699581503868103,
-0.15609753131866455,
-0.2886672616004944,
-0.24230071902275085,
-0.1796056628227234,
0.39282602071762085,
-0.3271549642086029,
-0.3995074927806854,
0.5693183541297913,
-0.5972793698310852,
-0.8627309203147888,
0.32409271597862244,
0.5261638760566711,
-0.19763538241386414,
-0.21940624713897705,
-0.4864961802959442,
-0.2670021951198578,
0.5176026225090027,
-0.5103972554206848,
0.043586160987615585,
0.2968977093696594,
-0.6120118498802185,
-0.2775738537311554,
-0.18588118255138397,
-0.6683728098869324,
-0.47709405422210693,
0.10365989059209824,
0.1188565269112587,
-0.002351977862417698,
0.2687585949897766,
-0.47589579224586487,
-0.4349856972694397,
-0.11915768682956696,
-0.016771256923675537,
-0.093589186668396,
0.3792169988155365,
-0.25330790877342224,
-0.07984978705644608,
0.37284669280052185,
-5.542032241821289,
0.14352712035179138,
-0.034723855555057526,
-0.11202531307935715,
0.49225252866744995,
0.027926186099648476,
0.29056477546691895,
-0.14811329543590546,
0.36895808577537537,
-0.7324797511100769,
0.22138133645057678,
0.10411100089550018,
0.23789460957050323,
0.9209313988685608,
0.08863484859466553,
0.6936401724815369,
0.5189079642295837,
0.12765173614025116,
0.34830746054649353,
0.007034671492874622,
0.13424336910247803,
0.10544553399085999,
0.29629144072532654,
0.14161071181297302,
0.7890073657035828,
0.928331732749939,
-0.6406611204147339,
-0.1185818687081337,
-0.40472710132598877,
-0.12177102267742157,
0.008876752108335495,
0.21010710299015045,
-0.047865889966487885,
-0.45240288972854614,
0.03713260591030121,
-0.3454996645450592,
0.19628456234931946,
0.4850713610649109,
-0.04384654387831688,
-0.621920645236969,
-0.0556546114385128,
0.5931461453437805,
-0.4127776324748993,
0.39142143726348877,
-0.3954039514064789,
-0.1014777272939682,
-0.24325025081634521,
0.1910342425107956,
-0.6023061871528625,
0.46623197197914124,
-0.7436979413032532,
-0.41912147402763367,
0.37916192412376404,
-0.5107954144477844,
0.3409799635410309,
0.1648765653371811,
0.028528504073619843,
0.09432141482830048,
-0.49700066447257996,
0.5827156901359558,
0.41301631927490234,
-0.2994328439235687,
-0.06970719248056412,
-0.5382956862449646,
0.07922433316707611,
-0.2703666687011719,
-0.99144047498703,
0.27405500411987305,
0.6298133730888367,
0.2655501663684845,
-0.33149126172065735,
-0.1365727335214615,
-0.5676360130310059,
-0.8879950642585754,
0.31030547618865967,
-0.7595258951187134,
-0.1140584796667099,
0.2013789266347885,
0.441719651222229,
-0.3477116525173187,
-0.4556565582752228,
0.31455156207084656,
-0.5045913457870483,
0.22845251858234406,
-0.06945870071649551,
-0.2733094096183777,
-0.19306354224681854,
-0.1497964859008789,
-0.24298971891403198,
-0.04367128387093544,
0.3053966760635376,
-1.1884411573410034,
0.24560488760471344,
0.14922747015953064,
0.17285390198230743,
0.3847281336784363,
0.1867395043373108,
0.14239807426929474,
0.1670496165752411,
-0.7977392673492432,
0.12319973856210709,
0.3021979033946991,
0.04140932485461235,
-0.348937064409256,
0.22990819811820984,
-0.04370179772377014,
-0.11445620656013489,
0.6539337038993835,
-0.013400989584624767,
-0.1773427277803421,
-0.14178794622421265,
-0.43854859471321106,
-0.5930757522583008,
-1.0367188453674316,
0.09528375416994095,
-0.33994755148887634,
-0.45596373081207275,
0.43820977210998535,
0.24625669419765472,
0.10513271391391754,
0.2770274579524994,
-0.20225889980793,
-0.26339560747146606,
-0.009399979375302792,
-0.7388264536857605,
0.053241975605487823,
-0.20892758667469025,
-0.41568127274513245,
0.29908013343811035,
-0.012166260741651058,
0.5243067145347595,
0.40731751918792725,
0.3059917688369751,
-0.0018002970609813929,
0.9035930037498474,
-0.5206037759780884,
-0.3599056303501129,
-0.6179144382476807,
0.19637715816497803,
-0.7263222336769104,
-0.6253109574317932,
0.005186078138649464,
-0.08130459487438202,
-0.3239526152610779,
0.1913035362958908,
0.06090579181909561,
-0.41014060378074646,
-0.07309556007385254,
-0.31744584441185,
1.0580209493637085,
0.5353418588638306,
0.08881992846727371,
0.6661030054092407,
-0.47412553429603577,
0.14480361342430115,
-0.06158106401562691,
-0.30983325839042664,
0.03909800946712494,
-0.5852391719818115,
-0.24307683110237122,
0.12685413658618927,
-0.7182033658027649,
-1.0909757614135742,
0.32098543643951416,
1.0745588541030884,
-0.4939177334308624,
-0.7142207622528076,
0.10994080454111099,
-0.14968334138393402,
1.1435809135437012,
0.1499396115541458,
-0.41100233793258667,
-0.7406046986579895,
-0.2992425858974457,
0.16822902858257294,
-0.7277088761329651,
0.636634349822998,
1.3160871267318726,
0.2124745398759842,
0.2674556374549866,
-0.16431725025177002,
0.44993868470191956,
0.062438011169433594,
0.029912814497947693,
0.20523905754089355,
0.0457012802362442,
0.2424698919057846,
-0.3121223449707031,
0.22633063793182373,
-0.6400957107543945,
0.42333805561065674,
0.3992052674293518,
0.28413480520248413,
-0.273277223110199,
-1.0463166236877441,
-0.670636773109436,
-0.34524664282798767,
0.46895700693130493,
-0.2539272904396057,
-0.34228986501693726,
0.23803265392780304,
0.692465603351593,
-0.06181644648313522,
-0.1447465717792511,
-0.1588658094406128,
-0.009263907559216022,
0.6171733140945435,
0.14930599927902222,
0.04727032035589218,
0.4627704322338104,
-0.6745739579200745,
-0.9377779364585876,
-0.38904356956481934,
0.5603548884391785,
-0.12830513715744019,
-0.5599289536476135,
0.30640050768852234,
-0.8065482378005981,
-0.4522470533847809,
-0.675067663192749,
-0.1991809457540512,
0.08283096551895142,
-0.3925972282886505,
0.26963844895362854,
0.060667719691991806,
-0.03768696263432503,
0.5554614067077637,
-0.4390926659107208,
0.6423949003219604,
-0.5883181691169739,
0.08107921481132507,
0.22550135850906372,
0.281080424785614,
-0.2573666572570801,
-0.7066220045089722,
0.06945295631885529,
0.3221939504146576,
-0.1363067924976349,
0.3181073069572449,
0.15439365804195404,
0.18890659511089325,
0.6151350736618042,
0.6527701020240784,
-0.6983416080474854,
0.3190707862377167,
0.4363221228122711,
0.2698524296283722,
-0.4556688964366913,
0.139058455824852,
0.43964964151382446,
0.49343737959861755,
-0.3378739655017853,
-0.4233025908470154,
-0.5396187901496887,
0.8133469223976135,
-0.4694405794143677,
-0.40906283259391785,
0.23572151362895966,
0.05957775563001633,
0.012196430936455727,
-0.017697986215353012,
-0.07879887521266937,
-0.26477113366127014,
0.39407411217689514,
0.5162380933761597,
-0.24929878115653992,
-0.19342243671417236,
0.13563579320907593,
0.4462384283542633,
-0.3658581078052521,
-0.6099606156349182,
-0.596222996711731,
-0.5855318903923035,
0.05719791725277901,
0.04492586478590965,
-0.25174862146377563,
-0.12120205163955688,
-0.03418635204434395,
0.1663699746131897,
0.1373109668493271,
-1.1164934635162354,
0.3434887230396271,
-0.1779794991016388,
-0.06744317710399628,
0.8289237022399902,
-0.8754583597183228,
-0.5410442352294922,
0.3794572055339813,
-0.2638140022754669,
0.02420087158679962,
-0.2242468297481537,
-0.46526214480400085,
0.009071260690689087,
0.3791074752807617,
-0.08614134043455124,
0.5186697244644165,
-0.20296725630760193,
0.2770441174507141,
0.6057365536689758,
-0.06338362395763397,
-0.3622278571128845,
0.9885861277580261,
0.341752827167511,
-0.038993313908576965,
-0.040440499782562256,
0.2786305546760559,
-0.24744056165218353,
-0.8050661087036133,
-0.4106811583042145,
-0.015597507357597351,
0.3450326919555664,
0.1709413379430771,
0.4551486670970917,
0.581177830696106,
-0.5153793096542358,
0.10053332149982452,
0.13579736649990082,
-0.31526464223861694,
-0.15576167404651642,
0.689643383026123,
0.1166720762848854,
-0.5715780854225159,
0.0257128719240427,
-0.02819155529141426,
0.03280062600970268,
0.44065165519714355,
-0.3768584132194519,
0.1113407239317894,
0.6245197653770447,
-0.31714436411857605,
0.6777435541152954,
1.0141010284423828,
-0.7778875827789307,
0.22866421937942505,
-1.1243882179260254,
-0.3977249562740326,
0.17704251408576965,
-0.1316060572862625,
0.3901294767856598,
0.5000278353691101,
0.5767955183982849,
0.5595023036003113,
-0.5675643086433411,
-0.06592004746198654,
0.19956481456756592,
0.012968788854777813,
-0.13389252126216888,
0.10798200964927673,
0.2801963686943054,
0.12191759794950485,
0.37968719005584717,
-0.15238358080387115,
0.1603059321641922,
-0.22850973904132843,
-0.039436277002096176,
-0.055692158639431,
0.408040851354599,
0.4412805438041687,
0.22419412434101105,
-0.1241222694516182,
-0.21230009198188782,
-0.3397076725959778,
0.2333916276693344,
0.5238409638404846,
0.24041233956813812,
0.530445396900177,
0.29475533962249756,
0.13651083409786224,
0.14664798974990845,
-0.10685059428215027,
0.08193516731262207,
0.38460129499435425,
-0.5686331987380981,
-0.013259186409413815,
-0.3373929560184479,
0.2130197286605835,
0.4084928035736084,
0.21708640456199646,
0.0710378959774971,
-0.3424639105796814,
-0.5838524103164673,
0.439718633890152,
-0.12502025067806244,
-0.6582695245742798,
-0.18343502283096313,
0.5247164368629456,
0.0030490432400256395,
0.05222848057746887,
0.3567237854003906,
0.30055418610572815,
0.03167111054062843,
-0.17039206624031067,
-0.0029428263660520315,
0.029611559584736824,
-0.11403461545705795,
-0.012675725854933262,
-0.22026671469211578,
0.7760611772537231,
0.5184121131896973,
-0.0771828144788742,
-0.2937783896923065,
0.5076573491096497,
0.1716199815273285,
0.24086284637451172,
0.1356092393398285,
-0.2945937514305115,
-0.31467869877815247,
0.015583394095301628,
-0.19640418887138367,
0.12092090398073196,
-0.1413913369178772,
-0.18149434030056,
0.1428653746843338,
0.6861850023269653,
-0.520513653755188,
0.12917889654636383,
0.35974982380867004,
-0.6215987801551819,
0.2673887312412262,
-0.6163373589515686,
-0.3260001242160797,
-0.7157561779022217,
0.29380035400390625,
0.9632776379585266,
-0.15474829077720642,
-0.6701259613037109,
0.6474800109863281,
0.11655906587839127,
-1.0263859033584595,
0.2821945548057556,
-1.0056483745574951,
-0.08156555145978928,
0.0688847154378891,
-0.25957322120666504,
-0.4146561622619629,
-0.052862249314785004,
0.6965571641921997,
0.37941837310791016,
0.19276337325572968,
-0.670154333114624,
-0.5379065871238708,
0.4599266052246094,
0.6540727019309998,
0.5067410469055176,
-0.09611710160970688,
-0.5852059125900269,
-0.20725037157535553,
-0.005296003073453903,
-0.7442388534545898,
0.08223643898963928,
0.6732416749000549,
-0.4417378306388855,
0.676051914691925,
-0.31459513306617737,
0.37621989846229553,
-0.6804597973823547,
0.804405689239502,
-0.6032705307006836,
0.42260727286338806,
0.2591685652732849
] |
203648
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souphanouvong
|
Souphanouvong
|
Prince Souphanouvong (13 July 1909 – 9 January 1995; ), nicknamed the Red Prince, was along with his half-brother Prince Souvanna Phouma and Prince Boun Oum of Champasak, one of the "Three Princes" who represented respectively the communist (pro-Vietnam), neutralist and royalist political factions in Laos. He was the figurehead President of Laos from December 1975 to August 1991.
Souphanouvong was one of the sons of Prince Bounkhong, the last viceroy of Luang Prabang. Unlike his half-brothers, Souvanna Phouma and Phetsarath Ratanavongsa, whose mothers were of royal birth, his mother was a commoner, Mom Kham Ouane.
Personal life
Souphanouvong was born in Palace Sisouvanna, Xieng Dong, Luang-Prabang.
Educated in France and Vietnam, he eventually became a supporter of Ho Chi Minh and joined the Indochinese communist movement. In August 1950, Souphanouvong convened the first congress of the Lao Freedom Front (Neo Lao Issara), more generally known as the Pathet Lao, which served as the vehicle for the communist challenge to French rule. He was the chairman of the Neo Lao Issara (since 1956, Neo Lao Hak Xat) and Resistance Government.
Souphanouvong died on 9 January 1995 in Vientiane.
Political activities
He participated in the coalition governments with royalists in 1957, 1962 and 1973.
He was elected President of National Assembly from 1958 to 1959 following the success in the 1958 elections.
Nicknamed "The Red Prince", he became part of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Upon its successful seizure of power in 1975, he became the first President of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, a position he held until 1991. After 1986, Phoumi Vongvichit acted in his stead as president, though Souphanouvong still retained the presidential title. Kaysone Phomvihane succeeded him as president in 1991. He was the President of the Supreme People's Assembly from 1975 to 1988.
In 1991, he became an Adviser of Party's Central Committee. Souphanouvong died aged 86 a few years later, and was buried in a stupa next to the Pha That Luang.
Souphanouvong spoke eight languages, including Greek and Latin. He worked in the ports of Le Havre before studying for an engineering degree from the École nationale des ponts et chaussées.
His son, Khamsay Souphanouvong, escaped the country and applied for political asylum in New Zealand in 2000.
In 2012, Souphanouvong's remains were moved to the newly constructed National Cemetery in Vientiane.
Honours and Awards
:
Order of the October Revolution
Order of Friendship of Peoples
Medal "For Strengthening Military Cooperation"
: Grand Cross of the Order of Stara Planina
:
Order of Playa Girón
Order of José Martí
: Grand Cross of the Order of Sukhbaatar
: Order of Ho Chi Minh
: Order of Klement Gottwald
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Souphanouvong, "Red Prince" of Laos, dies aged 86
New York Times' obituary
Independent's obituary
|-
|-
1909 births
1995 deaths
Lao People's Revolutionary Party politicians
Communist rulers
Laotian royalty
People from Luang Prabang
Presidents of the National Assembly (Laos)
People of the Vietnam War
Presidents of Laos
Members of the 1st Central Committee of the Lao People's Party
Members of the 2nd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 2nd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples
Recipients of the Order of Ho Chi Minh
|
[
-0.19044528901576996,
0.4748392105102539,
-0.2584879398345947,
-0.18965665996074677,
-0.433110773563385,
0.253623366355896,
0.4610253572463989,
0.06061903014779091,
-0.7882382869720459,
0.1600632518529892,
-0.5015894174575806,
0.13057655096054077,
-0.5916555523872375,
0.17505615949630737,
-0.026253843680024147,
0.4547916352748871,
1.0402698516845703,
0.3748398721218109,
0.15884442627429962,
-0.36437150835990906,
-0.12013868987560272,
-0.2190374732017517,
-0.003664590185508132,
-0.23168858885765076,
0.45756086707115173,
-0.03724818676710129,
-0.052013278007507324,
0.13481147587299347,
0.667866051197052,
0.13559463620185852,
0.10823263227939606,
0.44512858986854553,
0.6462526321411133,
-0.28916090726852417,
-0.3841535151004791,
0.025148244574666023,
0.3420392870903015,
-0.16137060523033142,
-0.24084648489952087,
-0.10708750784397125,
-0.1925557553768158,
-0.17448535561561584,
-0.09401606023311615,
-0.08729036897420883,
-0.0755947083234787,
-1.0522090196609497,
-0.9563042521476746,
0.4629541337490082,
-0.35001716017723083,
0.1737910509109497,
-0.26370343565940857,
0.139872208237648,
-0.1329331398010254,
0.18384985625743866,
0.39204832911491394,
0.2570253908634186,
-1.1620445251464844,
0.09413369745016098,
-0.6632063388824463,
-0.4460754096508026,
0.07905318588018417,
0.18436528742313385,
-0.06597811728715897,
0.08270423114299774,
-0.32054418325424194,
0.16601845622062683,
-0.13172262907028198,
0.05474064126610756,
-0.25980669260025024,
-0.1814214438199997,
0.4528694450855255,
0.7870379090309143,
0.47177016735076904,
0.6794445514678955,
0.1155116930603981,
-0.24715068936347961,
-0.4545231759548187,
-0.22973020374774933,
0.3488887548446655,
-0.02953353337943554,
0.2766426205635071,
-0.23170843720436096,
0.524133026599884,
0.5338602066040039,
0.05549529194831848,
0.24545355141162872,
0.331839382648468,
0.4813808798789978,
0.06453242152929306,
-0.1685732901096344,
-0.3755851089954376,
0.14917369186878204,
0.5425419211387634,
-0.3849770724773407,
-0.6919786334037781,
-0.24123263359069824,
0.13008899986743927,
0.24421317875385284,
-0.059922557324171066,
0.23267610371112823,
0.07612686604261398,
-0.281314879655838,
0.27915236353874207,
-0.12063673883676529,
-1.5223544836044312,
-0.3305048942565918,
-0.41441571712493896,
0.06706611067056656,
-0.6539421677589417,
-0.45103028416633606,
-0.977237343788147,
0.16704310476779938,
-0.009179983288049698,
0.09222047030925751,
0.06407377123832703,
0.6810987591743469,
0.02873697690665722,
-0.28555935621261597,
0.26313844323158264,
-0.4378352463245392,
0.37413835525512695,
0.28740087151527405,
-0.21411240100860596,
0.9097437858581543,
0.09343796968460083,
-0.3432631194591522,
0.06743096560239792,
0.015264596790075302,
-0.3604733645915985,
0.3089304566383362,
0.44217434525489807,
0.7380256056785583,
-0.6297243237495422,
0.026880893856287003,
-0.1493694931268692,
-0.6457751393318176,
0.5846878886222839,
0.41682806611061096,
-0.09607657790184021,
-0.07164476811885834,
-0.9579038023948669,
0.3059661090373993,
-0.5599035024642944,
0.19664686918258667,
-0.05416763201355934,
0.02860097773373127,
-0.3057015538215637,
0.1657947450876236,
-0.18449370563030243,
-0.5894689559936523,
-0.09423886239528656,
-0.7431413531303406,
0.16531677544116974,
-0.16965001821517944,
-0.4919351041316986,
0.6966965198516846,
0.10125091671943665,
-0.010180924087762833,
0.27076050639152527,
0.19979208707809448,
0.30055516958236694,
0.19524049758911133,
-0.08469047397375107,
0.0775681585073471,
0.46801313757896423,
0.13800546526908875,
-0.6281694769859314,
0.6911158561706543,
-1.0396207571029663,
-0.08970513194799423,
-0.3447413444519043,
0.35058701038360596,
-0.23618094623088837,
0.07457184046506882,
0.35135605931282043,
0.582305908203125,
0.001731340424157679,
0.013306074775755405,
-0.27509236335754395,
-0.2572992146015167,
-0.6227913498878479,
0.30830618739128113,
-0.14456519484519958,
0.042977917939424515,
0.7722939252853394,
0.29845166206359863,
0.5768118500709534,
-0.25273948907852173,
0.6762688755989075,
-0.2292788028717041,
-0.8237309455871582,
-0.5107461810112,
0.3525267243385315,
-0.33229732513427734,
0.5134640336036682,
0.5360742211341858,
0.56573486328125,
0.3145448565483093,
0.15815973281860352,
0.8035927414894104,
0.37887218594551086,
-0.44024229049682617,
0.7839360237121582,
-0.2781420052051544,
-0.7005393505096436,
0.4134332835674286,
-0.16592320799827576,
0.45919620990753174,
0.697669506072998,
1.004799485206604,
0.5557259321212769,
-0.18628954887390137,
-0.31181925535202026,
0.344839483499527,
0.24093596637248993,
-0.6509087085723877,
-0.49424174427986145,
0.028560196980834007,
-0.4404450058937073,
0.12474744766950607,
0.1348704695701599,
-0.0874934121966362,
-0.41626086831092834,
0.7113869190216064,
-0.06171334162354469,
1.052039623260498,
0.11892532557249069,
-0.7169142961502075,
-0.026344776153564453,
-0.15668843686580658,
-0.22139188647270203,
-0.46185770630836487,
0.33632901310920715,
-0.3185170888900757,
-0.15087935328483582,
0.13630172610282898,
0.2819269001483917,
-0.03717081993818283,
0.22219808399677277,
-0.8326341509819031,
0.49825379252433777,
-0.3450879454612732,
0.04765207692980766,
0.06528790295124054,
-0.06708990037441254,
0.5583620667457581,
-0.7482981085777283,
0.26794740557670593,
-0.30412110686302185,
-0.3589358329772949,
0.2564508318901062,
0.37932804226875305,
0.5632495284080505,
-0.31960782408714294,
0.3074881434440613,
-0.15714848041534424,
0.008827030658721924,
0.6426991820335388,
-0.09533730149269104,
-0.08531714230775833,
-0.05528617277741432,
-0.07689154148101807,
0.3188888728618622,
0.14536692202091217,
0.148869127035141,
-0.1794017106294632,
0.08936992287635803,
-0.07523874938488007,
0.6415004730224609,
0.4980146884918213,
-0.14601118862628937,
-0.4975462257862091,
-0.6897904276847839,
-0.2767859995365143,
-0.5249851942062378,
-0.6658617258071899,
-0.3086589276790619,
0.6990998983383179,
-0.5838487148284912,
-1.103521466255188,
0.7053515315055847,
0.8385500311851501,
-0.15225811302661896,
-0.3546695411205292,
-0.18403570353984833,
-0.20303067564964294,
-0.5196764469146729,
-0.17138180136680603,
0.02912498265504837,
0.15438306331634521,
-0.11056013405323029,
0.093063123524189,
-0.09644477814435959,
-0.39449888467788696,
-0.4933601915836334,
-0.1341671645641327,
-0.5919569134712219,
-0.1626812070608139,
0.6615891456604004,
-0.0992831364274025,
-0.33104899525642395,
0.1928565800189972,
0.09918364882469177,
0.1801837831735611,
0.9601672887802124,
0.011063018813729286,
0.2701917886734009,
0.33140596747398376,
-5.551538467407227,
0.10802808403968811,
0.5893561840057373,
0.1592411994934082,
0.2893376350402832,
0.21973098814487457,
0.19415800273418427,
-0.45708993077278137,
0.5215334296226501,
-0.49018624424934387,
-0.21849684417247772,
-0.2508414387702942,
0.1330261081457138,
0.19505144655704498,
0.21859110891819,
0.39335066080093384,
-0.10248817503452301,
-0.47415006160736084,
0.5092172026634216,
0.5488889217376709,
0.0046607390977442265,
-0.09627696871757507,
-0.25355514883995056,
0.48597657680511475,
0.17012351751327515,
0.32938870787620544,
-0.16669414937496185,
-0.439053475856781,
-1.3154807090759277,
-0.6450024843215942,
-0.544161319732666,
0.48519542813301086,
0.5837751626968384,
-0.07925724983215332,
-0.21226398646831512,
-0.684971272945404,
0.29819923639297485,
0.07436485588550568,
-0.42023155093193054,
0.047669973224401474,
0.19684270024299622,
-0.6646329760551453,
-0.4925076365470886,
-0.21732747554779053,
0.0016429316019639373,
-0.15041661262512207,
-0.6852066516876221,
-0.24369733035564423,
-0.2757895886898041,
0.3542907238006592,
0.0409327857196331,
0.1211824044585228,
0.5693702101707458,
-0.015220414847135544,
-0.08801189810037613,
0.6269500255584717,
-0.278389573097229,
0.47895926237106323,
-0.5934712290763855,
0.4960154891014099,
0.3935990035533905,
-0.12638570368289948,
-0.41104182600975037,
0.616815447807312,
0.02340858057141304,
-0.5749121308326721,
0.35609161853790283,
-0.157192662358284,
0.041692737489938736,
0.4346866309642792,
-0.4047071635723114,
0.6783424019813538,
-0.14781610667705536,
-0.9463739991188049,
0.31491807103157043,
-0.14393842220306396,
-0.23634114861488342,
0.37960129976272583,
0.36053019762039185,
0.07312330603599548,
-0.11186890304088593,
-0.03269162401556969,
0.4125286638736725,
0.8331924676895142,
-0.06699300557374954,
-0.3907625377178192,
-0.07040132582187653,
0.6698350310325623,
0.4958139955997467,
1.144431233406067,
0.21945887804031372,
-0.836046040058136,
-0.005368884652853012,
0.18588022887706757,
0.025949034839868546,
0.1292540729045868,
0.2177199423313141,
0.2380528599023819,
0.40443238615989685,
0.13715648651123047,
0.28423309326171875,
-0.2838950753211975,
-0.03341459855437279,
-0.3046250641345978,
-0.1401422917842865,
-0.4280107915401459,
0.09336356818675995,
-0.0031452816911041737,
0.012491386383771896,
0.2443932741880417,
0.19030873477458954,
0.39498600363731384,
0.20305000245571136,
-0.10466916114091873,
0.7488431930541992,
-0.4929429292678833,
0.23547425866127014,
0.012160305865108967,
0.29063284397125244,
-0.04402167350053787,
-0.2738419473171234,
0.8828366994857788,
-0.22102664411067963,
0.3355709910392761,
0.5038949251174927,
-0.08102333545684814,
-0.28431883454322815,
0.030864015221595764,
0.005188818089663982,
-0.08832643926143646,
0.13178755342960358,
-0.4229247272014618,
0.27052855491638184,
-0.5765048861503601,
0.27769917249679565,
-1.0462504625320435,
-0.348172664642334,
-1.0254863500595093,
-0.031817104667425156,
-0.22906839847564697,
-0.08507122099399567,
-0.17734575271606445,
-0.5715375542640686,
0.5638169646263123,
-0.17019924521446228,
0.02726116217672825,
0.17422924935817719,
-0.10915658622980118,
0.1707627773284912,
0.440765380859375,
-0.10440574586391449,
-0.04035026952624321,
0.9920455813407898,
-0.32524374127388,
-0.6276648044586182,
-0.10787636786699295,
0.01257334090769291,
0.09906665980815887,
0.17726381123065948,
0.2855904996395111,
-0.11138775944709778,
-0.4677659273147583,
-1.242387294769287,
-0.39718565344810486,
-0.1347234547138214,
0.029837829992175102,
0.5232333540916443,
-0.26585081219673157,
-0.2219543159008026,
0.6620382070541382,
0.19937114417552948,
-0.521297037601471,
-0.27696287631988525,
0.39198437333106995,
0.33164510130882263,
-0.5885791778564453,
0.07197108119726181,
-0.07539279758930206,
-0.03290180116891861,
-0.13776254653930664,
-0.3352777063846588,
0.18555057048797607,
-0.16658224165439606,
0.3962826430797577,
0.9470618963241577,
0.48438555002212524,
-0.2933659553527832,
-0.6995643377304077,
-0.42192643880844116,
0.32305437326431274,
0.12273207306861877,
0.12773428857326508,
-0.3143428862094879,
0.28886303305625916,
-0.6316885352134705,
-0.533928394317627,
-0.9863618612289429,
0.6075339913368225,
0.3904096186161041,
0.3099985122680664,
-0.011298470199108124,
0.651898980140686,
0.6495358347892761,
-0.15559282898902893,
0.17377883195877075,
-0.5658532381057739,
0.6810673475265503,
0.19133511185646057,
0.3274916410446167,
0.11264710128307343,
-0.056948933750391006,
-0.8734946846961975,
-0.13242687284946442,
0.5768494009971619,
-0.40364909172058105,
0.42343148589134216,
0.12938137352466583,
-0.4528793692588806,
0.026126114651560783,
-0.9486190676689148,
-0.3237552344799042,
-0.3850329518318176,
-0.5117855072021484,
-0.1964661031961441,
-0.44536325335502625,
0.38396307826042175,
0.6030656695365906,
-0.7330508828163147,
0.6972578167915344,
-0.1330270618200302,
-0.4899275302886963,
0.36498120427131653,
0.41746509075164795,
0.48174214363098145,
-0.5623276829719543,
0.0467924028635025,
0.8179056644439697,
0.20515955984592438,
-0.08313717693090439,
-0.1507156491279602,
0.07900545746088028,
1.2278801202774048,
-0.2804727554321289,
-0.6779578328132629,
-0.05121881142258644,
-0.08813603967428207,
0.09059732407331467,
-0.48565712571144104,
0.1230897307395935,
-0.18441516160964966,
0.1662987321615219,
-0.02041155844926834,
-0.460086464881897,
-0.7958632111549377,
0.6195381283760071,
-0.959155261516571,
-0.42193230986595154,
0.117345429956913,
0.49118295311927795,
0.23316654562950134,
-0.6725239157676697,
0.06320775300264359,
0.22232846915721893,
-0.2688763439655304,
0.5661550164222717,
0.17804723978042603,
-0.04087177664041519,
0.3413032591342926,
-0.002923150546848774,
-0.41472867131233215,
-0.32270801067352295,
-0.7465009093284607,
-0.24168755114078522,
0.23747898638248444,
-0.10564607381820679,
0.05445566773414612,
-0.25851571559906006,
-0.30235058069229126,
0.023478414863348007,
-0.12805908918380737,
-0.7393350005149841,
-0.5424860715866089,
0.1487782746553421,
0.21652069687843323,
0.20479744672775269,
-0.8266391754150391,
0.06113597750663757,
-0.06170596554875374,
-0.45019418001174927,
0.2686983644962311,
-0.5236853957176208,
0.0655384510755539,
-0.004191292449831963,
0.14460286498069763,
0.1857956200838089,
0.4323236048221588,
0.07860446721315384,
0.8147203326225281,
-0.24922478199005127,
0.03347533568739891,
-0.2435913383960724,
-0.08869100362062454,
0.37814539670944214,
0.085198774933815,
-0.02803771011531353,
0.015015842393040657,
0.2989543080329895,
-0.7556796073913574,
-0.09693419933319092,
0.5817849040031433,
0.3721485733985901,
0.4352971017360687,
-0.2411774843931198,
-0.4279920160770416,
-0.5568704009056091,
0.47543060779571533,
0.3708430528640747,
-0.7464016675949097,
-0.3517290949821472,
0.002693795133382082,
0.4333213269710541,
-0.24645084142684937,
-0.32666176557540894,
0.4328814148902893,
-0.24075275659561157,
0.6936559081077576,
-0.3882496953010559,
-0.11217469722032547,
0.9759898781776428,
0.05751614645123482,
-0.29590585827827454,
0.6047845482826233,
-0.512844443321228,
0.5190438032150269,
-0.3980671763420105,
-0.2598956525325775,
0.21539418399333954,
-0.5775522589683533,
0.48633232712745667,
0.5140070915222168,
0.5324962139129639,
0.6233821511268616,
-0.11434526741504669,
-0.2202315479516983,
0.32413631677627563,
0.6120734214782715,
-0.034325867891311646,
-0.12847638130187988,
0.09287054091691971,
0.29338550567626953,
0.2237808257341385,
0.6715022325515747,
-0.21818432211875916,
-0.07059179991483688,
0.4079337418079376,
0.3705292344093323,
-0.5711333751678467,
-0.43678298592567444,
0.20437540113925934,
-0.1209392100572586,
-0.0360247902572155,
-0.16176941990852356,
-0.6817106008529663,
0.42609038949012756,
0.4347744584083557,
0.29028233885765076,
0.050592098385095596,
-0.5900685787200928,
-0.013102533295750618,
-0.12724418938159943,
0.02797834388911724,
-0.2808964252471924,
-0.32363247871398926,
-0.3270793855190277,
-0.41230374574661255,
0.07774267345666885,
0.5329849123954773,
-0.24064932763576508,
-0.4122581481933594,
-0.11132746189832687,
-0.3510496914386749,
-0.01774819940328598,
-0.010090715251863003,
-0.23422881960868835,
0.07297802716493607,
0.7488962411880493,
0.2631576657295227,
0.06972984224557877,
-0.059069253504276276,
0.21141567826271057,
0.32775938510894775,
-0.24593713879585266,
-0.3584105670452118,
0.18287301063537598,
0.5253675580024719,
0.43027380108833313,
-0.27567940950393677,
0.7223792672157288,
0.3765850365161896,
-0.3750527799129486,
0.07542741298675537,
0.09006646275520325,
-0.0840836763381958,
-0.18618269264698029,
0.26074841618537903,
0.26062309741973877,
-0.2631445527076721,
-0.46832284331321716,
-1.049741268157959,
0.5482136607170105,
-0.34333810210227966,
0.11182672530412674,
-0.16993264853954315,
0.47533556818962097,
-0.28945472836494446,
-0.3083883821964264,
0.30895891785621643,
-0.6104156970977783,
0.011978093534708023,
-0.6496323347091675,
-0.15286149084568024,
-0.33083298802375793,
0.32821953296661377,
0.38442695140838623,
-0.19111204147338867,
-0.6494794487953186,
-0.0455440990626812,
0.5762841701507568,
-0.15265987813472748,
0.298955500125885,
-0.35748085379600525,
-0.04805167391896248,
-0.48111045360565186,
-0.7845950126647949,
-0.5708140730857849,
-0.1127561628818512,
0.6821398138999939,
0.6419886946678162,
-0.4063565135002136,
-0.003845907747745514,
0.015459473244845867,
0.1576901078224182,
0.5190580487251282,
0.3351665735244751,
0.15355969965457916,
0.24447202682495117,
0.0626772940158844,
-0.10531188547611237,
-0.3441663384437561,
0.13070428371429443,
0.30128663778305054,
0.2010609358549118,
0.3620133101940155,
-0.6319571137428284,
0.23973585665225983,
-0.008631531149148941,
0.02402407117187977,
0.2882520854473114,
0.49956247210502625,
0.1693842113018036
] |
203650
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20horses
|
List of fictional horses
|
This is a list of horses and ponies in fictional subjects, excluding hybrid fantasy creatures such as centaurs and unicorns but including pegasi; their cousins, donkeys and zebras; and cross-breed mules and zebroids.
Horses in literature
Abelard, Halt's trained small horse/pony in the Ranger's Apprentice series by John Flanagan
Acorn, Davy's horse in the Chaos Walking series by Patrick Ness
Albino, from "Thunderhead, Son of Flicka"
Alfonso (or, in Swedish, Lilla Gubben), in the Pippi Longstocking series by Astrid Lindgren
Angharrad, Todd's horse in the Chaos Walking trilogy by Patrick Ness
Appalachian, from "Thunderhead, Son of Flick"
Arondel, Bevis's horse in the Middle English romance Bevis of Hampton
Artax, Atreyu's horse in Michael Ende's The Neverending Story
Arod, Legolas's horse in "The Lord of the Rings"
Athansor, ridden by Peter Lake in Mark Helprin's A Winter's Tale
Azarax, from The Byerley Turk by Jeremy James
Azul, the Blue Horse, from The Alchemical Horseman, by Jeremy James
Banner, from My Friend Flicka
Barnum and Skip, the Wilders' driving team of Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House books and The First Four Years
Bela, originally owned by Tam al'Thor, and later by Egwene al'Vere, in The Wheel of Time series
Bess and Beauty, two work horses from Farmer Boy by Laura Ingalls Wilder
Binky, ridden by Death in Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels
Black Beauty, from Black Beauty by Anna Sewell
Black Boy and Rapide, Jill Crewe's ponies from the series by Ruby Ferguson (in later editions, "Black Boy" became "Best Boy")
Black Gold, from Black Gold by Marguerite Henry
The Black (Stallion), from a series of 21 books by Walter Farley beginning with The Black Stallion (1941)
Blackjack, from Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians series
Blaze, from a series of children's books by Clarence William Anderson, beginning with Billy and Blaze (1936)
Bless, Goldmund's childhood horse in Narcissus and Goldmund by Hermann Hesse
Blessing, Celeste's first horse in The Secret Horse by Gina Bertaina
Boxer, Mollie, and Clover, from Animal Farm by George Orwell
Bree Hee Hinny Brinny Hoohy Hah ("Bree"), from The Horse and His Boy by C. S. Lewis
Bright Country, Prince Eadric's horse from The Tales of the Frog Princess series by E.D. Baker
Bronze, the Steel General's horse in Roger Zelazny's Creatures of Light and Darkness
Cadoc, from Christopher Paolini's Eragon
Capilet, Sir Andrew's Ague Cheek's horse in William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Act 3, Scene 4
Castor, one of the team of Shire horses owned by farmer Dawson in The Dark Is Rising Sequence by Susan Cooper
Chretienne, a horse from The Malloreon by David Eddings
Cigarette, from My Friend Flicka
Cloud, the pony owned by Veralidaine Sarrasri, and other ponies, in The Immortals quartet by Tamora Pierce
'Companions', which are human spirits reincarnated in the form of white horses in Mercedes Lackey's Valdemar series
Condor, the mount of Green Rider Karigan G'ladheon in Kristen Britain's Green Rider series
Dagobaz, Ash's horse from The Far Pavilions by M. M. Kaye
Dilu, the mount of Chinese warlord Liu Bei in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, attributed to Luo Guanzhong
Faran, Sparhawk's horse in David Eddings' series The Elenium and The Tamuli
Ferd, Carli's telepathic horse in Bertil Mårtensson's This is Reality (Swedish: Detta är verkligheten)
Figure, Justin Morgan's stallion and foundation sire of the Morgan horse breed, Justin Morgan Had a Horse by Marguerite Henry
Flame, from The Black Stallion series
Flicka, from My Friend Flicka by Mary O'Hara
Florian, from Felix Salten's novel Florian: The Emperor’s Stallion
Fru-Fru, from Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy
Fury, from the original story of Norman Krasna, 1936, made into a movie the same year
Gabilan, from John Steinbeck's novel The Red Pony
Glory, from Gene Markey's short story and made into a movie, 1956
Ginger, from Black Beauty by Anna Sewell
Glue-Boy, Cuthbert Allgood's horse from the Dark Tower series by Stephen King
The "great horses" owned by Angus Morton in The Chrysalids, the result of an officially sanctioned breeding program; technically, mutants
Greatheart, Beauty's horse from Robin McKinley's novel Beauty
Guido, a Pegasus from Rick Riordan's "Percy Jackson"
Gulliver, narrator of Horseplay by Lee Siegel
Gunpowder, Ichabod Crane's horse from The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving
Gypsy, from Gypsy from Nowhere by Sharon Wagner
Hatatitla, Old Shatterhand's horse in Karl May's Winnetou
Hell Bitch, from Lonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry
Highboy, from My Friend Flicka
The Houyhnhnms, a race of intelligent and cultured horses in Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift
Hwin, from The Horse and His Boy by C. S. Lewis
Iltschi, Winnetou's horse
Captain Jinks' horse, of the Horse Marines, fed on corn and beans in the nursery rhyme
Jim, cab-horse from Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz by L. Frank Baum
Jean Kirstein from Attack on titan by Hajime Isayama
Joey, from War Horse by Michael Morpurgo
Kate and Bill, the Wilders' work horses in Laura Ingalls Wilder's The First Four Years
Kholstomer, from the story of the same name by Leo Tolstoy
Lark, from The Berserker's Horse by Lisa Maxwell
Lukas, in the Emil i Lönneberga series by Astrid Lindgren
Merrylegs, from Black Beauty by Anna Sewell
Miramis, with golden mane and hooves, from Astrid Lindgren's book Mio, My Son
Misty of Chincoteague, a real pony made famous by Marguerite Henry's children's book of the same name
Monarch, from Jodie's Journey by Colin Thiele
Moonlight, the horse owned by Alanna of Trebond in the Song of the Lioness quartet by Tamora Pierce
Morgenstern, Julian's horse from the Chronicles of Amber by Roger Zelazny
Nana, the racehorse named for the eponymous heroine of Zola's novel Nana, and fictional winner of the Grand Prix de Paris
Napoleon, from The Black Stallion
Nara, a Hunnuli or magical horse, from The Dark Horse series by Mary H. Herbert
Oberon, the "ghost pony" Sarah Elgin finds the remains of in an old stone house, in Lynn Hall's The Mystery of Pony Hollow
Peachblossom, the horse owned by Keladry in the Protector of the Small quartet by Tamora Pierce
Persephone from House of Night by P. C. Cast and Kristin Cast
The Phantom, Misty's dam, Misty of Chincoteague by Marguerite Henry
The Pie, from National Velvet by Enid Bagnold
Pied Piper, sire of Misty, in Misty of Chincoteague by Marguerite Henry
Pildarlick, one of Panhandle Smith's first horses in Zane Grey's short story "Valley of Wild Horses"
Pilgrim from The Horse Whisperer by Nicholas Evans and the film based on it
Pips, Matrim Cauthon's horse in Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time
Pollux, one of the team of Shire horses owned by farmer Dawson in The Dark Is Rising Sequence by Susan Cooper
Porkpie, a Pegasus from Rick Riordan's "Percy Jackson"
Prairie horses, from The Horseclans
Prince and Lady, Almanzo Wilder's Morgan horse driving team of Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House books
Pylon, Susan's horse from the Dark Tower series by Stephen King
Rakhsh, Rostam's horse in Shahnameh
Red Hare, the mount of Lü Bu and Guan Yu in the Chinese epic Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Rih, Kara Ben Nemsi's horse in Karl May's tales of the Orient
Rival, wild stallion hero of Saddle a Thunderbolt by Jo Sykes
Roach, the name that Geralt of Rivia, from The Witcher series by Polish writer Andrzej Sapkowski, gives to all his horses
Rocinante, from Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes; also the name of fictional horses in several other books and movies
Rocket, Flicka's dam, from My Friend Flicka
Rusher, Roland's horse from the Dark Tower series by Stephen King
Sam and David, the Ingalls family work horses of Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie
Sea Star from Sea Star: Orphan of Chincoteague
Scipio, from Rick Riordan's Heroes of Olympus series
Secret, from Gina Bertaina's The Secret Horse
Shadowfax, the horse ridden by Gandalf the White in J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings
Sham from King of the Wind by Marguerite Henry
Silver Blaze, from the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle
Sir Chess, the Knight Destrier, in Linda Medley's Castle Waiting
Smiler, Theon Greyjoy's warhorse from A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin
Smoky, from Smoky the Cow Horse, written and illustrated by Will James
Snowfire, from Christopher Paolini's Eragon
Stardust, from Ashleigh's Hope by Joanna Campbell
Starlight from Farmer Boy by Laura Ingalls Wilder
Stayer and Stepper, Perrin's horses in The Wheel of Time series
Stormy, from Stormy, Misty's Foal by Marguerite Henry
Stranger, Sandor Clegane's warhorse from A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin
Sunchaser from The Unicorns Of Balinor by Mary Stanton
Sunfire, from Ravenheart and Sorrowheart by Kendra Ann Thomas
Sunka Wakan, from The Great Spirit Horse by Linda Little Wolf
Sunstorm, from Ashleigh's Hope by Joanna Campbell
Talat, Aerin's horse in The Hero and the Crown by Robin McKinley
Tencendur, Charlemagne's warhorse in The Song of Roland
Thowra, a creamy-silver stallion, the main character in Silver Brumby, by Elyne Mitchell
Thunderhead, son of Flicka in the book by Mary O'Hara
Topthorn, from War Horse by Michael Morpurgo
Tornac, from Christopher Paolini's Eragon
Trojan Horse (a structure), from Virgil's Aeneid; Homer's The Odyssey; Franco Brusati's Ulysses; Hugh Gray's The Treatment of Helen of Troy; Margaret George's Helen of Troy; and Adele Geres' Troy
Trotsky, Mrs. Piggle-Wiggle's horse in the books by Betty MacDonald
Tsornin (Sungold), Harry Crewe's horse in The Blue Sword by Robin McKinley
Tug, Will's trained small horse/pony in the Ranger's Apprentice series by John Flanagan
Veillantif (also called Brigliadoro), Roland's horse in the chansons de geste
Watch Eyes, pony of Paul and Maureen Beebe, characters in Misty of Chincoteague by Marguerite Henry
Whinney and her offspring, Racer and Grey, from the Earth's Children books
Whirlwind from Shadow Horse by Alison Hart
Wings, sire of Stormy, in Stormy, Misty's Foal by Marguerite Henry
Horses in mythology and folklore
Dora, a war horse of Đurađ Senković
Dyaus Pita, the Sky Father, who appears as a horse
Embarr, Niamh and Lugh's horse
Epona, Gaulish horse goddess
Grey of Macha, or Macha's Grey, CúChulainn's chariot horse; known as the king of all horses
Gringolet, Sir Gawain's horse
Hengroen, King Arthur's horse
The horse of Sinterklaas: in the Netherlands "Amerigo" or "Ozosnel", in Flanders "Slechtweervandaag" ("Bad weather today")
Jabučilo, horse of Momčilo
Kelpie, a mythical Celtic water horse
Liath Macha and Dub Sainglend, Cúchulainn's horses
Llamrei, King Arthur's mare
Morvarc'h, the horse of Gradlon in Breton legend
The Nuckelavee, an Orcadian horse with no skin which sometimes appears to have a man astride its body
Ros Beiaard, a horse from Belgian folklore, still celebrated annually in many cities across the country.
Šarac, horse of Prince Marko
Silili, a Babylonian king of horses
Tikbalang, the demon horse in Philippine folklore
Tulpar, the winged or swift horse in Turkic mythology
Uchchaihshravas, Indra's horse in Hindu mythology
White horse of Kent
Widow-Maker / Lightning, mythical cowboy Pecos Bill's horse
Ždralin, horse of Miloš Obilić
Zelenko, horse of Damjan Jugović
Horses in Greek mythology
Arion, an immortal, extremely swift horse
Balius and Xanthos, Achilles' horses
Hippocampus, a sea horse that pulled Poseidon's chariot
The Mares of Diomedes, which fed on human flesh
Pegasus, flying horse of Greek mythology
Phaethon, one of the two immortal steeds of the dawn-goddess Eos
Rhaebus, the horse of Mezentius in Roman myths
Sterope, horse of the sun-god Helios
The Trojan Horse
Equuleus, Hippe transformed into a foal (now a constellation)
Horses in Norse mythology
Árvakr and Alsviðr pulled Sól's chariot
Falhófnir, a horse in Norse mythology
Glad, a horse in Norse mythology
Glær, a horse listed in both the Grímnismál and Gylfaginning
Gulltoppr, the horse of Heimdallr in Norse myths
Hofvarpnir, horse of the goddess Gná in Norse myths
Hrimfaxi, Nótt's horse in Norse myths
Skinfaxi, Dagur's horse in Norse myths
Sleipnir, Odin's eight-legged horse in Norse myths
Svadilfari, the giant stallion that fathered Sleipnir
Horses in film
Aldebaran, Antares, Rigel and Altair from Ben-Hur (one of four from the chariot race)
April Love, from April Love (1957)
Artax, Atreyu's Horse from The NeverEnding Story
Bad Horse, from Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog
Beau, from True Grit with John Wayne
Beric, Lancelot's horse, from Knights of the Round Table with Robert Taylor
Big John, from For Richer or Poorer
The Black Stallion, from The Black Stallion and The Black Stallion Returns, based on Walter Farley's books; played by the Arabian stallion Cass Ole
The Young Black Stallion from The Young Black Stallion film based on Walter Farley's book.
Blue Boy, race horse from Laurel and Hardy's 1929 comedy short, Wrong Again
Bucephalus, from The Adventures of Baron Munchausen and Alexander
Checkers, from Moondance Alexander
Cisco, John Dunbar's buckskin gelding from Dances with Wolves
Cochise, the Appaloosa stallion ridden by John Wayne in the movie El Dorado
Conquistador, the General's horse stolen and rescued by Pablito from The Littlest Outlaw
Copper, one of the horses ridden by Eddie Dean in his films
Denny, the buckskin gelding of The Man From Snowy River (also appeared in the sequel, The Man from Snowy River II)
Diablo, the black and white pinto from the Cisco Kid movies
Dollar, the horse of John Wayne's character (John Bernard "J.B." Books) in The Shootist, 1976
Don, talking horse from Hot to Trot
Dover, race horse from My Fair Lady (does not appear on screen)
Flash, from Flash
Flicka, from Flicka (based on the book My Friend Flicka)
Ginger, from Black Beauty
Goliath, from Ladyhawke
Gulliver, from The Horse Whisperer book and film of the same name
Gunpowder, Constable Ichabod Crane's horse in the film The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
Gypsy, Meggie MacWade's horse, which undertakes a 500-mile journey over treacherous terrain to be reunited with her in Gypsy Colt
Hidalgo, paint stallion from the movie of the same name (disputed)
The Horse of a Different Color, from The Wizard of Oz
Joey, from the movie War Horse
Little Blackie, from the John Wayne film True Grit
Lucky Number Slevin, from the movie of the same name
Khartoum, the ill-fated horse from The Godfather
Maximus, horse featured in the animated film Tangled
Napoleon, Snoe's gray cart horse and The Black's stable mate in the film The Black Stallion
Nurah and Thebes, the horses of Pharaoh Ramses from Cecil B. DeMille's 1956 The Ten Commandments
Oliver Hardy, at the end of Flying Deuces; after he died in a plane crash, he was reincarnated as a horse
Pepper, from Two Bits and Pepper (1995)
Phillip, Edmund's horse from The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
Pie, Velvet Brown's horse from National Velvet
Pilgrim, troubled, injured horse from The Horse Whisperer book and movie
Shadowfax from Lord of the Rings: the Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
Sonny, Joe's horse in My Outlaw Brother
Spirit, buckskin stallion from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron
Sprout, from The Parent Trap
Sylvester, from Sylvester (1985)
Taff/Bo, the main horse character in Disney's Ride a Wild Pony
Tír na nÓg from Into the West
Tolo, gelding from The Long Shot
Trigger, Roy Rogers' horse.
Two Bits, from Two Bits and Pepper (1995)
Horses in television
Alípio, from puppet series Cocoricó
Amigo, Cordell Walker's horse in the TV series Walker, Texas Ranger
Argo, from Xena: Warrior Princess
Bandit, buckskin from Caitlin's Way
The Black Stallion in Adventures of the Black Stallion
Buck, the buckskin horse of Ben Cartwright on the TV series Bonanza
Buck, the buckskin horse ridden by Trampas in the TV series The Virginian
Champion the Wonder Horse, the eponymous hero of a 1950s television series
Chestnut, from the TV series 2 Broke Girls
Chico, also his real name, Queen of Swords horse
Chub, Chubb, or Chubby, the horse of Hoss Cartwright on the Bonanza television series
Cochise, Little Joe's horse on the Bonanza television series
Cocoa, Nick Barkley's horse on The Big Valley TV series (Cocoa was retired at the end of the Hunter's Moon episode in Season Four)
Domino, the pinto ridden by Bill Longley, played by Rory Calhoun in The Texan TV series
Fury, the eponymous black stallion of the 1950s TV series
Hercules, Steptoe and Sons horse
Joe D., the horse ridden by the Virginian in the TV series The Virginian
Katy, the paint mare belonging to The Kid from The Young Riders
Li'l Sebastian, the little horse beloved by Pawnee, Indiana in the sitcom Parks and Recreation
Mister Ed, eponymous horse of the CBS series, 1961–1966.
Meindert het Paard, a horse who is a character in the Dutch TV children's puppet series De Fabeltjeskrant.
Pie-O-My, Ralph Cifaretto's horse from Episodes 44 and 48 of Season 4 of The Sopranos
Phantom, Zorro's white horse in the Disney series Zorro
Pokey, the pony from The Gumby Show
Polka-Dotted Horse, Ludicrous Lion's horse from H.R. Pufnstuf
Ringo, the black horse with the white star ridden by Josh Randall in all but the first few episodes of the TV series Wanted Dead or Alive
Saddle Club horses from The Saddle Club
Scout, Tonto's horse
Silver, the Lone Ranger's horse
Sophie, Colonel Potter's horse on M*A*S*H
Spartan, Amy Fleming's horse from Heartland
Sport, the chestnut gelding of Adam Cartwright on the television series Bonanza
Superstar, the real name of the black horse who played James West's horse in the TV series The Wild Wild West
Tornado, Zorro's black horse
Victor, the Lone Ranger's nephew's horse
Wildfire, from ABC Family's Wildfire
Horses in animation
Achilles, horse of Captain Phoebus in Disney's The Hunchback of Notre Dame
Altivo, Cortez's warhorse from DreamWorks' The Road to El Dorado
Angus, horse of Merida in Disney's Brave
BoJack Horseman, the titular alcoholic celebrity horse in BoJack Horseman
Bucephalus, demon-horse of Alexander the Great from Reign: The Conqueror
Buck, the sheriff's horse from Home on the Range
Bullseye, Woody's horse in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3
Captain, the authoritative farm horse in Disney's 101 Dalmatians
Chet, from The Littlest Pet Shop
Cyril Proudbottom, Toad's helpful but clumsy horse friend in Disney's The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad
De Royal, Double Eight, Chestnut, Mikagehomare, Miyako, and Rosanna from Silver Spoon
Deablo the Horse, from Johnny Bravo.
Donny the White Horse, Bubbles' friend in the reboot of The Powerpuff Girls.
Frou-Frou, from Aristocats
Fun Saiki, from Mobile Fighter G Gundam
Gallopin' Gals
Horace Horsecollar from the Walt Disney cartoons
Horse, Dudley Do-Right's horse in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show
Ico, from Ico, el Caballito valiente
James Baxter, from Adventure Time
Khan, the Fa family's horse from Disney's Mulan
Lightning, from Dinozaurs: The Series
Majesty, from Barbie & Her Sisters in A Pony Tale
Major, from Cinderella (1950 film).
Maximus, the horse who pursued Flynn Rider in Disney's Tangled
Mr. Horse from Ren and Stimpy
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic
Noble Heart Horse, a Care Bears Cousin from the television series and films
Opal, in Ribon no Kishi
Pharfignewton, Pinky's girlfriend on Animaniacs and Pinky and the Brain
Phillipe, Belle and her father's horse from Disney's Beauty and the Beast
Pony Puff Princess, Dee Dee's idol in Dexter's Laboratory
Ponycorn, from Bomberman B-Daman Bakugaiden
Ponygon and his parents, Kardio from Zatch Bell!
Princess, Lisa's horse in The Simpsons
Quick Draw McGraw, of Hanna-Barbera's cartoon series
Rain, the paint mare from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron
Sabure, in Tari Tari
Samson, Prince Phillip's horse from Disney's Sleeping Beauty
Spirit from She-Ra
Spirit, the stallion from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron
Starlight and Skydancer, from Rainbow Brite
Tempest, Princess Sissi's horse from the show of the same name
Thowra, the Silver Brumby in The Silver Brumby cartoon series
Yato, from Legend of Basara
Horses in comics
Alsan, from Red River
Arabesque, Blutch's horse in Les Tuniques Bleues, whom he has trained to fall down during battle so he can act as if he is wounded and thus survive the battles.
Basashi, from K -Memory of Red- and K -Days of Blue-
Billy Boy, in Bamse by Rune Andréasson
Blue Horse and Brown Horse, two programmers from the web comic horse++
Comet, Supergirl's pet horse
Godasse, horse of the French soldier Godaille in the comics series Godaille et Godasse by Jacques Sandron.
Het Gouden Paard, a horse whose skin is gold. Appears in the Suske en Wiske story Het Gouden Paard.
Hero, the fastest horse in the world; owned by The Phantom.
Hirnu the pony, the protagonist of Hirnu, a Finnish comic strip by Joonas.
Hortense, Scrooge McDuck's horse in The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck by Don Rosa
Jolly Jumper, Lucky Luke's horse and friend in Lucky Luke.
Little Thunder, the personal pony of Yakari
Lucy, pet horse and special friend to Danae in Wiley Miller's Non Sequitur
Nightmare, from Casper the Friendly Ghost.
Rik Drie ("Rik Three"). A horse of Nero in the story "Het Geheim van Bakkendoen" ("The Secret of Bakkendoen"). It turns invisible due to a serum. Nero named him "Rik Three", because "he is even greater than Rik One and Rik Two" (Cyclist champions Rik Van Steenbergen and Rik Van Looy were popularly nicknamed "Rik One" and "Rik Two", because they were active around the same time.)
Rin Sohma in the form of a horse, from Fruits Basket.
Het Rijmende Paard ("The Rhyming Horse"). He is the horse of Saint Martin of Tours on Antoon van Dyck's famous painting. In the Suske en Wiske album "Het Rijmende Paard" he is brought alive and escapes, causing the protagonists to start a search for him.
Ruby. The horse of cowboy Jerry Spring.
Slow Dancer, fictional Appaloosa of Johnny Joestar from Steel Ball Run
Steve, the carthorse in Roland Davies' comic strip Come On, Steve.
Spark Plug. He is the horse of Barney Google.
Thunder. He is the horse of Red Ryder.
Troy. The family's horse in The Timbertoes.
Horses in song
Badger, a possibly unrideable horse in the song "The Scene We All Ain't Saw" by Chris LeDoux
Becky, the mule from Carl Perkins' Movie Magg.
Bottle of Smoke, the eponymous horse in the song by The Pogues
The Brute, a horse ridden for the first time in the song "The Continental Suit"
Chestnut Mare, the eponymous horse in the song by The Byrds
Feitlebaum, the racehorse who always comes up from behind to finish first (even in a car race) in songs by Doodles Weaver (performed with Spike Jones and his City Slickers)
Galway Bay, the 'coal-black mare with a white starred chest' in the song "The Galway Farmer" by Steve Knightly of Show of Hands
Henry the Horse, the waltzing horse from The Beatles' "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite" (based on a real horse called Zanthus, from Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal)
The Horse With No Name, the horse in the eponymous song by America
Lisette, crazed horse in the song "Run Lisette" by Glass Hammer
Mac, from Mason Proffit's "Two Hangmen"
Molly O'Brian and Tenbrooks, who raced in the song "The Ballad of Molly and Tenbrooks" written by Bill Monroe
The Old Gray Mare, the horse in the eponymous song
Old Red, a bucking bronc who'd never been ridden in the eponymous song by Chris LeDoux
Paul Revere, the horse from the song of the same name, Paul Revere, by the Beastie Boys
Een paard in de gang, a horse which somehow ended up in neighbour Jansen's hallway. From the eponymous song by comedian André van Duin.
Pinto the wonder horse from the song by Tom T. Hall.
Seven Horses in the Sky, seven horses who appeared in the sky, according to the 1969 eponymous hit song by The Pebbles.
Sorrow, the name of the carnie's horse in the Nick Cave & The Bad Seeds song "The Carnie"
Stewball, from the eponymous song by Peter, Paul and Mary
The Strawberry Roan, an unrideable horse in the eponymous song performed by Marty Robbins, Chris LeDoux, and others
The Tennessee Stud, the horse in the eponymous song written by Jimmy Driftwood and later covered by Johnny Cash.
Trigger, the horse who pulled the fastest milkcart in the West in Benny Hill's Ernie (The Fastest Milkman in the West).
Wildfire, the horse in the eponymous song by Michael Martin Murphey
The Yellow Stud, an unrideable horse in the eponymous song performed by Chris LeDoux
Horses in video games
Aaron, a merhorse/seahorse monster in Undertale
Agro, the horse of Wander, and Phaedra, the 4th Colossus in Shadow of the Colossus
Arvak, a skeletal horse with blue flames in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, obtained after completing the "Soul Cairn Horse Quest"
"The Boss's Horse", an Andalusian horse who appears in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, in Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots (as a painting), and in Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker as the temporary steed of Big Boss
Butt Stallion in Borderlands 2, a pure diamond horse owned by Handsome Jack
Despair, horse of Death in Darksiders II
Epona, Link's horse in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask and The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess. She also appears The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild as a special horse obtained via the amiibo Rune.
Frost, a breeding stallion in V: Skyrim, obtained after completing the quest "Promises to Keep"
Geryon, demon horse in Devil May Cry 3
Hudson Horstachio, Viva Pinata
Invincible, undead steed of Arthas, the Lich King in World of Warcraft.
Ixion, one of Yuna's summons from Final Fantasy X
Kage (Shadow), Nobu (Trust) and Sora (Sky), each a starter horse from Ghost of Tsushima
Mary Lou, Hank Hoffman Jr.'s horse in Dragon Quest IV, who pulls the party's wagon; in the original NES release, she is named Primrose
Matsukaze, from the video game series Samurai Warriors
Old Gary, the rotten old horse from Peasant's Quest
Red Hare, from the video game series Dynasty Warriors
Ruin, horse of War in Darksiders
Shadowmere, a black horse with red eyes in The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and V: Skyrim, obtained after joining the Dark Brotherhood
Smith, Iolo's horse in the Ultima series, who talks and can give clues
Horses in toys
Several Beanie Babies
Breyer horses
Grand Champions
Horseland
My Little Pony
Papo
Schleich
See also
List of unicorns
Winged horse
Winged unicorn
List of fictional horse trainers
References
Horses
Horses, fictional
Lists of horses
|
[
0.2939200699329376,
0.01837148889899254,
-1.0194063186645508,
0.43924766778945923,
-0.39116236567497253,
0.6554756164550781,
0.3046846091747284,
0.19130109250545502,
-0.47639694809913635,
0.04946356266736984,
-0.37967735528945923,
0.37287506461143494,
0.050647638738155365,
0.49195030331611633,
-0.10137730091810226,
0.2604181170463562,
-0.21992367506027222,
0.7946996688842773,
0.06020455062389374,
-0.4694376289844513,
-0.18175894021987915,
-0.4459139406681061,
0.055867355316877365,
-0.3923531472682953,
0.1494728922843933,
0.07015412300825119,
0.4623567759990692,
0.2973959743976593,
-0.1520327776670456,
-0.05232924222946167,
-0.22932732105255127,
1.0326743125915527,
-0.11992590129375458,
0.6771160960197449,
-0.25836116075515747,
-0.5456700325012207,
-0.07581880688667297,
-0.39201804995536804,
0.1267751157283783,
-0.7954891324043274,
0.44841673970222473,
-0.10686568915843964,
0.27937978506088257,
0.7346514463424683,
-0.2326970249414444,
-0.40180352330207825,
-1.4372628927230835,
0.04210406914353371,
-0.2885638475418091,
0.1095588207244873,
-0.23241709172725677,
0.04562997817993164,
0.050335805863142014,
0.6830989122390747,
0.2508545517921448,
0.31691819429397583,
-0.5233195424079895,
-0.2062208652496338,
-0.09561546891927719,
-0.022821297869086266,
0.3621346056461334,
0.5363315343856812,
-0.11985449492931366,
0.16760648787021637,
0.13909012079238892,
0.23046875,
0.2934802770614624,
0.3017779290676117,
-0.31060591340065,
-0.061778996139764786,
0.022901149466633797,
-0.18184493482112885,
0.3582729697227478,
0.3441771864891052,
0.002424175851047039,
0.03644780442118645,
-0.24579906463623047,
0.1726372092962265,
0.2417045533657074,
-0.13356800377368927,
0.31079256534576416,
0.0626968964934349,
0.524883508682251,
-0.3155977427959442,
0.01550477184355259,
0.12379901111125946,
0.06065499782562256,
-0.48919257521629333,
-0.22838430106639862,
0.5886908769607544,
0.28218865394592285,
0.254741907119751,
0.27059775590896606,
0.40021058917045593,
-0.21218280494213104,
-0.1708771288394928,
0.004108997527509928,
-0.6154694557189941,
-0.037572622299194336,
-0.19140338897705078,
-0.6318376660346985,
0.36017829179763794,
-0.30449286103248596,
-0.30781835317611694,
-0.6415614485740662,
-0.12048670649528503,
0.06254661828279495,
-0.20925073325634003,
0.22413714230060577,
0.18435309827327728,
-0.39371418952941895,
0.2391180545091629,
0.22514663636684418,
0.3880186378955841,
-0.539426326751709,
-0.2883620262145996,
0.09911894053220749,
0.0737614706158638,
-0.43358176946640015,
0.20776626467704773,
0.5361322164535522,
0.4711475074291229,
-0.27024227380752563,
0.0718608871102333,
0.058765869587659836,
0.5060908794403076,
0.4438312351703644,
0.060925934463739395,
0.16662798821926117,
0.29089805483818054,
0.12399610877037048,
0.889938235282898,
-0.3662576675415039,
0.005782253108918667,
-0.025334440171718597,
-0.4251352846622467,
0.20374079048633575,
0.16743823885917664,
0.15751966834068298,
0.6760585904121399,
-0.9108047485351562,
-0.6161263585090637,
-0.5647861957550049,
0.13984708487987518,
0.1502109169960022,
-0.5101652145385742,
0.0975240170955658,
-0.30043086409568787,
-0.22792485356330872,
-0.12744447588920593,
-0.4016086757183075,
0.05304711312055588,
-0.10400214791297913,
0.0979698970913887,
-0.07289457321166992,
-0.2312198281288147,
0.00631690863519907,
-0.317284494638443,
0.34178662300109863,
-0.2630060315132141,
0.25768715143203735,
0.1293676495552063,
-0.12587003409862518,
-0.05593942478299141,
-0.2293996810913086,
-0.13763393461704254,
0.23780356347560883,
0.4526526927947998,
-1.1162768602371216,
-0.28105250000953674,
-0.4572141766548157,
-0.14006300270557404,
0.10050494223833084,
0.1339564025402069,
-0.0445675253868103,
0.3986455202102661,
0.121663898229599,
0.08476591110229492,
0.6612179279327393,
0.4432719647884369,
-0.67361980676651,
0.4081876277923584,
0.12595006823539734,
-0.7799624800682068,
0.6772670149803162,
0.05566338449716568,
0.2574555277824402,
0.19274306297302246,
0.07006669789552689,
-0.5792006850242615,
-0.5197063088417053,
-0.124085932970047,
0.31094324588775635,
-0.19137419760227203,
1.1085494756698608,
-0.008425688371062279,
-0.3166675865650177,
0.2689400017261505,
0.08450167626142502,
0.11760661005973816,
-0.019335497170686722,
-0.6349483132362366,
0.33541834354400635,
0.3428722321987152,
-0.44372695684432983,
0.5488951206207275,
0.10415315628051758,
0.07985587418079376,
0.19861310720443726,
0.12116822600364685,
0.5019006729125977,
0.1829380989074707,
0.47895392775535583,
-0.3657345771789551,
0.12215614318847656,
0.19947153329849243,
-0.3918176591396332,
0.3856627941131592,
-0.2800590395927429,
-0.6515309810638428,
0.9319809079170227,
-0.12250688672065735,
-0.10026908665895462,
0.04018232598900795,
-0.46908214688301086,
0.6304409503936768,
-0.0479603111743927,
-0.5244737267494202,
0.29441434144973755,
-0.9250062108039856,
0.26625701785087585,
0.08983571082353592,
-0.0009070326923392713,
-0.55179363489151,
-0.598301351070404,
-0.32402127981185913,
0.5432383418083191,
-0.28252366185188293,
0.5040991902351379,
-0.1179090365767479,
0.1981792449951172,
0.7878676056861877,
-0.5741634368896484,
0.5093632340431213,
0.04335620999336243,
-0.21662071347236633,
-0.2564143240451813,
0.3540288805961609,
-0.8107348680496216,
-0.8176396489143372,
0.3051583766937256,
0.04324255511164665,
0.21066410839557648,
0.22283853590488434,
0.3994993567466736,
-0.4513074457645416,
-0.05219460278749466,
0.01185212004929781,
0.3195323646068573,
0.31264933943748474,
-0.1574259251356125,
0.3330833315849304,
0.11754944920539856,
-0.15593574941158295,
0.27085959911346436,
-0.3373012840747833,
-0.3655416667461395,
-0.8341494798660278,
0.4972824156284332,
0.4274284839630127,
0.8120940923690796,
0.3625076711177826,
-0.6214324235916138,
-0.514430820941925,
0.2784837782382965,
-0.36756134033203125,
-0.051994625478982925,
0.07994373887777328,
-0.21122543513774872,
-0.42602136731147766,
-0.6138036847114563,
0.2835889756679535,
0.4671666622161865,
-0.24486124515533447,
-0.16014906764030457,
-0.4633858799934387,
0.21895471215248108,
-0.4501290023326874,
0.23167917132377625,
0.1277875453233719,
-0.058062780648469925,
0.6768633127212524,
-0.2144005298614502,
-0.025062646716833115,
-0.03243311122059822,
0.20566979050636292,
0.1864904761314392,
0.887567400932312,
-0.040998876094818115,
-0.23189736902713776,
-0.6144818067550659,
0.32529962062835693,
0.17261195182800293,
-0.15436777472496033,
0.3937533497810364,
0.018205391243100166,
-0.12692396342754364,
0.06047660857439041,
-5.895074367523193,
0.10587675124406815,
-0.5773729681968689,
-0.2046937197446823,
-0.1935531497001648,
0.21149560809135437,
0.520935595035553,
0.2395598292350769,
-0.18678854405879974,
0.224076509475708,
0.2674245834350586,
0.05754047632217407,
-0.12995252013206482,
0.25958094000816345,
0.510235071182251,
0.3835681676864624,
0.25436756014823914,
-0.04026066139340401,
-0.07648463547229767,
0.5294615626335144,
0.04230184108018875,
0.37517449259757996,
-0.1484137326478958,
0.5578790903091431,
-0.0849219486117363,
0.508211612701416,
-0.6067920327186584,
-0.37297630310058594,
-0.1964193731546402,
0.279681533575058,
0.15546096861362457,
0.10034605860710144,
0.1532944291830063,
-0.3135012686252594,
0.009868206456303596,
-0.32059845328330994,
0.3293067216873169,
-0.014764838851988316,
0.3678838908672333,
-0.15990066528320312,
-0.37741124629974365,
0.1032460480928421,
0.17193908989429474,
0.0686696246266365,
-0.025764519348740578,
0.029484789818525314,
-0.3648165762424469,
0.545376181602478,
-0.1225724071264267,
0.8378064036369324,
-0.2367183417081833,
0.5893734097480774,
0.2780214548110962,
0.6376311779022217,
0.3890452980995178,
-0.0070356703363358974,
0.26809340715408325,
0.41776150465011597,
-0.5630149841308594,
0.14423853158950806,
0.062177155166864395,
-0.6552361845970154,
-0.2165166735649109,
-0.33515602350234985,
-0.11108148097991943,
-0.6131311058998108,
-0.7069411873817444,
-0.3822334110736847,
-0.0002728455001488328,
0.17189936339855194,
-0.06289570033550262,
-0.06317340582609177,
-0.24381519854068756,
-0.6586674451828003,
0.8272771239280701,
-0.2544367015361786,
-0.28033992648124695,
0.16077640652656555,
0.20987196266651154,
-0.11234413087368011,
-0.6559410095214844,
-0.49845388531684875,
-0.3057957887649536,
-0.20518670976161957,
-0.10266149044036865,
-0.7440005540847778,
-0.40831515192985535,
-0.5641890168190002,
-0.2644406855106354,
-0.6392772197723389,
1.1324888467788696,
-0.15139280259609222,
0.39953845739364624,
0.2556583881378174,
0.46829259395599365,
0.18933020532131195,
0.7936130166053772,
0.3074793219566345,
0.2978498041629791,
0.19998572766780853,
0.41605857014656067,
-0.29275602102279663,
0.20657682418823242,
-0.366870254278183,
-0.42568761110305786,
-0.5476905703544617,
0.1907580941915512,
0.1927850991487503,
1.2581532001495361,
-0.9451091885566711,
0.11948149651288986,
-0.7689676880836487,
-0.3734804689884186,
-0.86217200756073,
0.25106149911880493,
0.6746938228607178,
0.5668742656707764,
0.8340896368026733,
0.8465262651443481,
0.4547177255153656,
0.5845635533332825,
0.016037818044424057,
-0.7035215497016907,
-0.5384442806243896,
0.2578621804714203,
0.13606251776218414,
0.41572314500808716,
-0.4075613021850586,
0.0171605683863163,
-0.33374670147895813,
-0.10416985303163528,
0.01969432272017002,
-0.5236542820930481,
0.27824538946151733,
0.1578681766986847,
0.11510059982538223,
-0.2511037290096283,
0.15437981486320496,
-0.0462663434445858,
-0.42538219690322876,
0.05691102147102356,
-0.3314833641052246,
-0.29806122183799744,
0.3870407044887543,
0.016486627981066704,
0.22582735121250153,
0.07356612384319305,
-0.11325258761644363,
0.14755910634994507,
0.6478658318519592,
0.3222324550151825,
-0.3256581425666809,
0.22804109752178192,
0.05574809014797211,
-0.33499568700790405,
-0.03657962381839752,
-0.0761629194021225,
0.5641881823539734,
-0.46252280473709106,
-0.5407170057296753,
0.05132488161325455,
-0.2094115912914276,
-0.9485635757446289,
-0.13223160803318024,
0.20244058966636658,
-0.250474750995636,
0.13643595576286316,
-0.8716702461242676,
-0.10324892401695251,
0.8950760960578918,
0.1725717931985855,
-0.08440578728914261,
-0.21018832921981812,
-0.06145724281668663,
-0.06989555060863495,
0.02018062211573124,
0.008574927225708961,
0.2693271040916443,
-0.05819081887602806,
0.06324470788240433,
-0.0342174656689167,
0.2590712606906891,
0.2362406700849533,
0.1642833799123764,
0.1395883858203888,
-0.036883678287267685,
0.46539604663848877,
0.3658140301704407,
-0.1379614621400833,
0.2802168130874634,
-0.16726839542388916,
0.5505664944648743,
0.2932015657424927,
-0.16752611100673676,
-0.9292207360267639,
0.5254089832305908,
-0.17983435094356537,
-0.2455083429813385,
0.23710516095161438,
-0.10489930212497711,
0.1293758600950241,
-0.14983969926834106,
-0.4087710678577423,
-0.3683626055717468,
0.20035016536712646,
-0.1969194859266281,
0.13389721512794495,
-0.1252656728029251,
-0.3306366503238678,
0.3451405465602875,
-0.06699404865503311,
-0.7671946287155151,
0.1349971741437912,
0.31852808594703674,
-0.34738966822624207,
-0.02193434163928032,
0.06891024857759476,
-0.616138219833374,
-0.5706275701522827,
0.15527960658073425,
-0.024165797978639603,
-0.02143021859228611,
-0.35347089171409607,
-0.41448384523391724,
0.1668715476989746,
0.014175092801451683,
-0.07812157273292542,
-0.7844544053077698,
0.4409184753894806,
-0.07434985041618347,
-0.7940989136695862,
0.1819174587726593,
0.05648370459675789,
0.21612633764743805,
-0.4338361620903015,
0.19533108174800873,
0.1412205994129181,
0.11943832784891129,
0.5214924812316895,
0.33969205617904663,
0.6208606362342834,
0.4501270055770874,
-0.29143086075782776,
-0.23402835428714752,
-0.13944171369075775,
0.6695506572723389,
-0.3950333297252655,
-0.8977053165435791,
-0.27916479110717773,
-0.3553234040737152,
0.41428065299987793,
-0.4532216787338257,
-0.675062894821167,
-0.32235801219940186,
0.4450022280216217,
-0.03504178673028946,
0.18038426339626312,
0.28404501080513,
-0.1296825408935547,
0.5447842478752136,
0.24194252490997314,
0.44134873151779175,
-0.46261101961135864,
0.2775552272796631,
0.10936794430017471,
0.06344034522771835,
-0.24047380685806274,
-0.1343362182378769,
0.4306846261024475,
0.3168236315250397,
0.20111896097660065,
0.2763359546661377,
0.6865235567092896,
0.5690798759460449,
0.23175597190856934,
-0.11083921045064926,
-0.4101945757865906,
-0.5092734694480896,
-0.11046499758958817,
-0.22643828392028809,
-0.4917741119861603,
-0.0742264986038208,
0.02313879132270813,
-0.13962674140930176,
0.05327529087662697,
0.15656563639640808,
-0.11867818236351013,
-0.6762857437133789,
-0.08622941374778748,
0.06352520734071732,
0.09670468419790268,
-0.20057781040668488,
-0.13830813765525818,
-0.06150062754750252,
0.3524337708950043,
0.002419251948595047,
0.5716292858123779,
0.25127077102661133,
0.01170277688652277,
0.2599285840988159,
-0.7351042628288269,
1.0066475868225098,
0.4791621267795563,
-0.9048942923545837,
0.382668673992157,
0.3302668333053589,
0.45246192812919617,
-0.2513873875141144,
-0.15331894159317017,
-0.03054797276854515,
0.3269437253475189,
-0.3019295930862427,
0.06513793021440506,
0.3210894763469696,
0.5116866230964661,
-0.32602620124816895,
0.1264141947031021,
-0.497850239276886,
0.6163969039916992,
0.5706920623779297,
0.7991809844970703,
0.09083166718482971,
0.44170451164245605,
-0.09578941017389297,
-0.6518392562866211,
0.5007377862930298,
-0.623439371585846,
-0.15270687639713287,
0.855242133140564,
0.1468423753976822,
0.16053441166877747,
-0.1377888321876526,
-0.43994662165641785,
0.2576947510242462,
-0.2609040141105652,
-0.5283295512199402,
0.12229026108980179,
-0.2938927412033081,
-0.0707826316356659,
0.686886191368103,
0.30192941427230835,
-0.2514204978942871,
-0.16559720039367676,
-0.3156481385231018,
-0.32473230361938477,
0.24119232594966888,
-0.38419467210769653,
-0.12201839685440063,
-0.3670090138912201,
-0.14405637979507446,
0.10085266083478928,
-0.0698515996336937,
0.5675210952758789,
-0.3790418207645416,
0.05397382378578186,
-0.14943711459636688,
-0.20340535044670105,
0.10961296409368515,
-0.2615165412425995,
-0.47749942541122437,
-0.20955850183963776,
-0.017526770010590553,
-0.02743362821638584,
-0.01263340748846531,
0.348588764667511,
0.6640263795852661,
-0.11527234315872192,
0.10376762598752975,
-0.5020264387130737,
-0.09953146427869797,
-0.02574848383665085,
0.1802024245262146,
-0.22626957297325134,
-0.11425776779651642,
-0.2055632323026657,
0.39901891350746155,
0.4444827139377594,
-0.13963249325752258,
-0.16098229587078094,
-0.2636335790157318,
-0.6126633882522583,
-0.24327905476093292,
0.014845108613371849,
-0.23313111066818237,
0.5057939887046814,
-0.5001952648162842,
-0.18600566685199738,
-0.328951358795166,
-0.40405789017677307,
-0.07047108560800552,
0.03427453711628914,
-0.2061697542667389,
0.48976725339889526,
0.41258978843688965,
-0.28950726985931396,
-0.7306674122810364,
-0.3209313154220581,
0.6846924424171448,
-0.368742436170578,
-0.18335972726345062,
0.3195537328720093,
0.06495790928602219,
0.22647076845169067,
0.11294195055961609,
-0.6547344326972961,
-0.17165276408195496,
-0.10921666771173477,
0.04435425251722336,
-0.5354014039039612,
0.31430619955062866,
-0.15056277811527252,
-0.8986076712608337,
0.5113276243209839,
-0.23763997852802277,
0.07541755586862564,
-0.27282923460006714,
0.32901322841644287,
-0.1698787361383438,
-0.34829196333885193,
-0.11758044362068176,
-0.2625148594379425,
-0.27180054783821106,
-0.21068008244037628,
0.6782025694847107,
-0.4151279330253601,
-0.08827157318592072,
0.2515108287334442,
0.11509791761636734,
-0.7890743613243103,
0.7668848037719727,
-0.18953785300254822,
0.19095246493816376,
-0.7556520700454712,
-0.05036874860525131,
-0.08194442093372345,
-0.21486476063728333,
0.9191368222236633,
0.5078855156898499,
0.05341614782810211,
-0.1689653992652893,
0.19922345876693726,
-0.1062767282128334,
0.17992594838142395,
0.5485738515853882,
-0.5473125576972961,
0.20893768966197968,
-0.1585763543844223,
-0.11711393296718597,
-0.7870113253593445,
0.15319707989692688,
0.3746720254421234,
0.15368671715259552,
0.08908360451459885,
-0.3051906228065491,
0.13659672439098358,
-0.06818512082099915,
0.5262693166732788,
-0.5614542961120605,
0.2780497968196869,
0.19965553283691406
] |
203651
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20People%27s%20Revolutionary%20Party
|
Lao People's Revolutionary Party
|
The Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) is the founding and sole ruling party of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. The party's monopoly on state power is guaranteed by Article 3 of the Laotian constitution, and it maintains a unitary state with centralised control over the economy and military.
The LPRP was established on 22 March 1955 by former members of the Indochinese Communist Party. It led the insurgency against the Royal Lao Government and supported North Vietnamese forces in their war against the United States. The insurgency culminated with the LPRP seizing power in Laos in 1975. During its first years in power, the party strengthened party-state control over society and tried to establish a planned economy based on the Soviet model. In the 1980s, influenced by market reforms in China and Vietnam, the LPRP initiated economic reforms that privatised state companies and legalised private property.
Democratic centralism, a concept conceived by Russian Marxist Vladimir Lenin, is the organisational form of the LPRP. The highest institution of the party is the National Congress, which elects the Central Committee. In between party congresses, the Central Committee is the highest decision-making organ regarding party affairs. After a party congress, the Central Committee elects the Politburo and Secretariat, as well as the General Secretary, the highest party officer. In between sessions of the Central Committee, the Politburo is the highest decision-making body. , the 11th Politburo comprises 13 members. The current party leader is Thongloun Sisoulith, who holds the titles of General Secretary of the Central Committee, Chairman of the Defence and Public Security Commission, and Prime Minister of Laos, who is the head of government.
The LPRP is committed to communism and participates in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties, an annual international forum of communist parties. According to the party statute, the party adheres to Marxism–Leninism and Kaysone Phomvihane Thought. Upon taking power in 1975, the party sought to immediately abolish the capitalist mode of production and establish a socialist society. By the 1990s, the direction of the party had changed, and the party leadership believed that Laos was too underdeveloped to build socialism. The party thus adopted state capitalism as a tool for working towards a socialist society.
History
Origins and the National Democratic Revolution (1945–1975)
The forerunner of the LPRP was the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), which was established by the Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh in February 1930 on orders from the Communist International (Comintern). The ICP was tasked "to wipe out feudal remnants, to distribute land to the tillers, to overthrow imperialism and to make Indochina completely independent." Dominated by the Vietnamese, the ICP was originally named the "Vietnamese Communist Party", which was changed due to the Comintern's displeasure with the organisation's tone of Vietnamese nationalism and the Comintern's belief that the workers of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos had more in common than had differences. Despite its claims to be an Indochinese party, the ICP remained a completely Vietnamese-dominated one until after its formal dissolution on 11 November 1945, on which date the Indochinese National Democratic Revolution was proclaimed. Throughout its previous existence, the ICP had had no Cambodian or Laotian members. In 1946, a concerted drive was begun by the underground ICP to recruit Laotian communist cadres. Half-Vietnamese Kaysone Phomvihan, the LPRP General Secretary from 1955 until he died in 1992, was recruited sometime in 1946–47 while a student at the University of Hanoi. However, the lack of Lao representation among the underground ICP would remain a problem; and by February 1951 only 81 of the 2,091 members were Lao.
In February 1951, the underground ICP convened its 2nd National Congress and changed its name to the Workers' Party of Vietnam (WPV). According to political scientist Joseph J. Zasloff, "Eliminating the 'Indochinese' label of the Communist party seemed designed to appeal to nationalist sentiments in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. To demonstrate close links among the three peoples, the Vietnamese organisers of this congress invited several Cambodian and Lao leaders to attend." In the immediate aftermath of the 2nd National Congress, a Viet-Lao-Khmer alliance was announced which declared a shared commitment to fighting against French colonialism and American imperialism in the region. By 1952, the WPV established the Committee for the Organization of the Party, which was composed of five members: Kaysone Phomvihan (as Secretary), Nouhak Phoumsavan, Sisavath Keobounphan, Boun Phommahaxai, and Khamsen. In 1953, The WPV initiated a purification of the Lao membership that expelled all but seventeen full members and an unknown number of candidate members. In the following two years, several communist cells were established throughout Laos; and on 22 March 1955, the founding congress met and established the Lao People's Party (LPP). However, not everything went according to plan, and the LPP was nearly annihilated by 1959, by severe government repression. The North Vietnamese reacted by increasing their support to the LPP and its military, the Pathet Lao; and by the early 1960s the party controlled nearly half the country. Despite being the leading force behind the insurgency from 1955 to 1975, the party kept its existence secret, preferring to direct their activities through fronts. Few Laotians knew about the party's existence or the name of its leaders during this period. This did not preclude organisational activities. In February 1972, the 2nd National Congress was convened and changed the party's name to the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP).
On 21 February 1973, after years of warfare, a peace agreement was brokered with the Royal Lao Government. A Provisional Government of National Unity (PGNU) was established; it was composed of communist sympathisers and led by royalist Souvanna Phouma. Similar to the unravelling of South Vietnam from 1974 to 1975, the Royal Lao Government faced several rebellions. From December 1974 to January 1975 royal troops in the Houei Sai district of Houa Khong Province, and in Khammouane Province, began an uprising against the government. Reacting to unfolding events, the party, through the Pathet Lao, seized control of the roads leading to Vientiane, effectively cutting off supplies to the capital. During April and May, a city-wide anti-government protest took place in Vientiane, which led to the resignation of five cabinet members. In a last-ditch attempt to save the monarchy, the government announced new elections for 1976. On 26 November, LPRP representatives managed to get the monarchy officially to "voluntarily" renunciate its royal wealth and abdicate. The party thus convened a National Congress of People's Representatives for 1–2 December 1975. The congress dissolved the Kingdom of Laos, established the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and announced the end of the 30-year-old National Democratic Revolution.
Ruling party of Laos (1975–present)
The collapse of the royal government and the ensuing communist takeover produced an exodus, and by 1980 ten percent of the population had left the country. In its first years of power, the party retained its secretive ways. For instance, Kaysone Phomvihan, the LPRP General Secretary, was unknown to most people at the time. The leading public voices of the communist movement before 1975, such as Lao Patriotic Front chairman Souphanouvong, were swept aside after the communist seizure of power. The new government swiftly closed down independent news organisations. Such organisations that were not dissolved were forced to seek membership in the Lao Front for National Construction (LFNC), a mass organisation controlled by the LPRP. To spread the new government's word, the LPRP and the LFNC organised meetings around the country to educate the people about the party line and spread Marxist–Leninist doctrine. The end goal of this process was the creation of the new socialist man.
In 1978, the LPRP continued its socialist transformation by collectivising agriculture. According to journalist and historian Martin Stuart-Fox, the LPRP believed that "productivity of agriculture could only be raised through economies of scale (by analogy with an industrial model), and this could only be achieved by collective ownership of the means of production. Cooperatives, they argued, could maximise the use of modern inputs into agriculture." The twin-goal of the collectivisation process was (1) abolishing private ownership in the countryside and (2) strengthening political control in areas formerly controlled by the Royal Lao Government. Collectivisation proved hard to implement, and several areas actively resisted the policy. Consequently, the LPRP Central Committee gave up on collectivisation in 1981. It argued that "Efforts to mobilise farmers to join agricultural cooperatives or set up new ones during the current production season should be immediately and strictly suspended while the people are engaging in production in order rapidly and effectively to increase production." Instead of emphasising collectivisation, the LPRP began focusing on employing modern agricultural equipment to improve economic efficiency. By 1988, Kaysone Phomvihan conceded that collectivisation had been a failure: "Our previous cooperative policy was in the old style practised by other socialist countries. After some investigations into the actual situation in Laos, we decided to change direction and start from the family." Two years later, in 1990, virtually all agricultural cooperatives had ceased to exist.
In 1986, at the 8th National Congress, the LPRP began dismantling its system of economic planning, which was inspired by the Soviet model. Kaysone Phomvihan, in his Political Report of the 3rd Central Committee, noted that "Our main shortcomings lie in subjectivism and haste, in our inclination to abolish the non-socialist economic sectors promptly... We are bent on egalitarianism. Consequently, we did not encourage good workers with high labour productivity. There was no relationship between responsibility, rights, obligations, and interests." Under the banner term socialist economic accounting the LPRP began severing state enterprises from the state budget, forcing them to survive in the free market. In 1988, in light of the crisis taking place in the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union, further reforms were introduced. A code of laws friendly to foreign investment was adopted, and joint ventures were encouraged. The most important, unspoken reason for these changes was a drastic decline in foreign assistance on which Laos totally depended, of which 70 per cent originated from the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. In 1988, total foreign aid from the Eastern Bloc stood at US$52 million; by 1989 it was US$1 million, and none was received in 1990.
The collapse of communism in Europe greatly impacted Laos. Some students began criticising the LPRP's monopoly on state power and began calling for a multi-party system. They were supported by the Social Democrat Club, a group of forty Lao intellectuals. Inspired by events, LPRP official Thongsouk Saisangkhi, the Vice-Minister for Science and Technology, submitted an open resignation letter and accused the LPRP of establishing a "communist monarchy" and a "dynasty of the Politburo", a reference to the growing influence of the children of the leaders. The LPRP did not budge, and Thongsouk Saisangkhi together with Vice-Minister of Economics and Planning Latsami Khamphoui and Ministry of Justice official Pheng Sakchittaphong were imprisoned in October 1990, and sentenced to fourteen years in prison in November 1992. Later that same year a new constitution was adopted, which stated that Laos was a people's democratic dictatorship under the leadership of the LPRP. Instead of appeasing the critics, Khamtai Siphandon, a Politburo member at the time, stated unequivocally that "The Party is also the sole Party whom the people trust. All slanders and attempts designed to undermine the leadership role of the Party are regarded as contradictory to historical reality and the national interest."
The governance of the party and state has stabilised since the 1980s. Management consultant Clay Wescott notes that the party "has shown itself to be remarkably resilient. Transitions of power have tended to be smooth, the new generation of leaders has proven more open to reform, and the Politburo now has some ethnic diversity." After serving fourteen years as LPRP General Secretary, Khamtai Siphandon left office in 2006, and was succeeded by Choummaly Sayasone who served ten years in office. In 2016, Sayasone was succeeded by Bounnhang Vorachith, who served until 2021 and was succeeded by the current LPRP General Secretary, Thongloun Sisoulith.
Governance
Democratic centralism
The party's centralised and hierarchical organisational structure is based on democratic centralism, which was conceived by Vladimir Lenin. This structure entails that lower party organs obey the decisions of the higher ones, such as the LPRP Central Committee. It also entails a ban on internal party factions. In the end, every decision-making organ has to be guided by the principle of collective leadership, a process that emphasises collegial decision-making, in contrast to one-person dominance. LPRP General Secretary Kaysone Phomvihane, in a speech to the 5th National Congress in 1991, stated "that our Party's democracy is a centralised one. Therefore, we must strictly implement the principle according to which the minority must yield to the majority; the lower leading organisation execute the upper leading organisation's orders. The whole Party follows the Central Committee."
Favoritism
Nepotism, meaning favouritism that is granted to relatives, and patronage, the support a powerful individual bestows on another, is a mainstay of LPRP politics. It's estimated that 25 per cent of the 10th Central Committee members are connected through birth or marriage to one of the founding revolutionary families. The most prominent example is Xaysomphone Phomvihane, the eldest son of Kaysone Phomvihane, who was elected to the 10th and 11th politburos. Kaysone Phomvihane's wife, Thongvin Phomvihane, served as General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Youth Union from 1988 to 1993. Khampheng Saysompheng, the son-in-law of former LPRP General Secretary Khamtai Siphandon, was elected to the 9th Central Committee, was appointed Minister of Labour and Social Welfare in 2015, and was elected to the 10th Central Committee in 2016. In 2015, Viengthong Siphandone, the wife of Khampheng Saysompheng and daughter of Khamtai Siphandon, was appointed chairwoman of the State Audit Organisation, and in 2016 was elected to the 10th Central Committee. Viengthong Siphandone's brother Sonexay Siphandone was transferred from his governorship of Champasak Province and appointed Minister of the Office of Government in 2015, elected to the 10th Politburo in 2016, and reelected to the 11th in 2021.
This tendency continued under the stewardship of LPRP General Secretary Choummaly Sayasone, whose brother-in-law Khammeung Phongthady was elected to the 9th Central Committee and was reassigned from his governorship of Vientiane province to be cabinet chief of the Office of the Presidency. Khammeung's reassignment opened the door for Choummaly Sayasone to appoint his eldest son, Vidong Sayasone, to become Secretary of the Vientiane LPRP Provincial Committee. In addition to his secretaryship, Vidong Sayasone was later elected to the 9th Central Committee. Choummaly Sayasone's two other sons, Phoxay Sayasone and Phokham Sayasone, were also appointed to leading party offices, with Phoxay Sayasone elected as a substitute member of the 10th Central Committee. The current LPRP General Secretary Thongloun Sisoulith married the adopted daughter of former acting president Phoumi Vongvichit.
Writing in Politics and Reform in Laos, Stuart-Fox remarks that "senior Party members [after the revolution] soon began to dispense patronage in the traditional Lao way, rewarding extended family members and loyal retainers with favours and jobs, for which they were often poorly qualified, to build a political support base... Ironically, this process of political-economic elite formation was powerfully assisted by the introduction of the economic reforms of the 1980s". In this sense, Lao political culture has changed little with the communist seizure of power. This inherent tendency in the LPRP could explain the rent-seeking behaviour of some of its members and its limited organisational capacity. The LPRP differs in this way from its counterparts in China and Vietnam. Stuart-Fox contends that Laos's lack of a state bureaucratic tradition throughout its history has forced Laotians to rely on their extended families and friends. Lao specialists Keith Barney and Simon Creak disagree with Stuart-Fox's assertion and argue "[that] the relatively institutionalised character of Lao authoritarianism, which has placed the top leadership positions less as powers in themselves, and more under the broad discipline of the LPRP. To express this another way, the LPRP provides a disciplining mechanism for the patron-client relations that continue to function throughout society, which in turn depends on party connections."
Monopoly on state power
The LPRP has a legal monopoly on state power. In turn the state maintains a centralised and unitary form of state power based on democratic centralism. Having the status as "the most ethnically diverse" country of Southeast Asia, the Laotian unitary state system is legitimised by socialist integrationism. This school of thought "[regards] social classes as the key component of social thought and practice, and [regards] the promotion of distributive justice as the appropriate public priority." In other words, differences in class, income, and status are more important than ethnic differences. In the words of Stuart-Fox, the party controls this unitary state through "the government, the bureaucracy, mass organisations and the military. In all four it is virtually de rigueur for leading figures to be Party members. In fact, they would not be in those positions unless they were members of the Party. Party cells operate in all institutions, and there is active recruitment of promising younger personnel into the Party, membership of which is by invitation only." Economist Bounlonh J.Soukamneuth concurs with Stuart-Fox's assessment and writes that the "Party monopolises political ambition and regulates public life. Party operatives penetrate all institutions of government and many areas of society. All organisations of the party-state (from the government bureaucracy, the mass organisation, to the military) implement party directives and administer its monopoly on power."
The party has established cells in every state institution. The intention is to ensure "the party's all-around absolute and direct leadership over all links, from the mapping out of lines and policies, to the organisation of execution and control." The fruit of this labour is, according to former LPRP General Secretary Khamtai Siphandon, that "the party leadership commands historical events." This means that state institutions, such as the Lao Government, implements party directives. Each government ministry appoints a vice minister responsible for implementing party directives.
The preamble of the Lao constitution states that "the correct leadership of the former Indochinese Communist Party and the present Lao People's Revolutionary Party" explains the party's role in society. Still, unlike the statutory roles of the Communist Party of China and the Communist Party of Vietnam, the Laotian constitution does not firmly establish the LPRP's leadership over state and society. Rather, Article 3 of the constitution states that "The rights of the multi-ethnic people to be masters of the country are exercised and ensured through the functioning of the political system with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party as its leading nucleus." According to legal scholar Bui Ngoc Son, Article 3 "is not merely expressive of the Marxist orthodoxy of party vanguard but also responsive to the local concern of integration of ethnic diversity. This is an ambiguous constitutional commitment as a response to ethnic plurality." Further the constitution states in Article 10 that the party is subject to the law: "[the Party] must function within the bounds of the Constitution and the laws."
The Lao People's Armed Forces (LPAF), the military, is tasked by the constitution to defend the gains of the revolution and the achievements of LPRP rule. The constitution says little about civil-military relations and political control over it. The LPRP's own statute clearly states that its political leadership over the military (and other security forces) emanates from the LPRP Central Committee's Defence and Public Security Commission (DPSC) and that the DPSC maintains direct, united, and full control of the LPAF.
Election process
Elections to the unicameral National Assembly are held every five years. The assembly is defined by the constitution as "the representative of the rights, powers and interests of the multi-ethnic people." The body is elected by universal suffrage and secret ballot. The election laws state that to stand for election a candidate must be approved by the Lao Front for National Construction, which decides if the candidate passes criteria outlined in the law. Some of the criteria are quite general, such as a candidate having to "be patriotic, be devoted to the people's democracy, be loyal to the New Economic Mechanism of the Party, be true to the nation, always serve the interests of the people, and have a strong, clear and absolute attitude towards friends and enemies". Other criteria such as a candidate's having to "have a sufficient level of knowledge of the Party's policies and strategic programs, and off State laws and regulations, and have the capacity to undertake propaganda and motivate people to be aware of and to participate in the implementation of Party policies and State laws" makes it easier for LPRP members to be approved as candidates.
Most candidates, therefore, end up being members of the LPRP. There are usually more candidates than seats; at the 2016 election, 210 candidates were competing for the 149 seats in the 7th National Assembly. While elected representatives have used the National Assembly to question the government on a wide range of policies, such as corruption, the assembly has never punished the government in any sense. Stuart-Fox opines that it is unlikely that [LPRP members] will jeopardise their chances for promotion within the party by questioning their own leaders too closely." Anthropologist Holly High disagrees, and notes that "While in the past the role of the NA [National Assembly] was often dismissed as a mere symbolic nod towards representational politics and a rubber stamp for party directives, perceptions have changed in recent years with the NA now thought of as a key avenue for popular recourse." She notes that National Assembly chairwoman Pany Yathotou has sought to simplify the process whereby constituents can contact and inform their elected representatives. In the same spirit the National Assembly has established a hotline by which any Lao citizen can contact their representative via free-call, letter, or e-mail. At the mid-year plenary session of the National Assembly in 2012, representatives received 280 calls over 17 days. The majority of complaints were about the handling of land issues and compensation.
Vanguardism
The LPRP is a Marxist–Leninist party deeply influenced by the Vietnamese and Soviet communists' examples. The party sees itself as "the sole faithful representative of the interests of the working classes, the working people of all Lao nationalities and the entire Lao people." Like the Communist Party of Vietnam, the LPRP nurtures the idea that socialism can only succeed if a disciplined and genuinely revolutionary party is in place. Thus, the party considers itself the directing force of the socialist revolution and socialist construction, and sees as its responsibility to propagate Marxist values. That is, it considers itself to be a vanguard party. Thus, the LPRP contends that there is no reason, ideologically, for other parties to exist. In light of this, Kayasone Phomvihane once told The New York Times that "The Laotian people have faith in and agree with the People's Revolutionary Party's leadership since the party belongs to the people, originates from the people and serves the people. Our Laotian party does not yet see any need for establishing other political parties."
LPRP study material states that earlier revolutionary heroes against French oppression—such as Ong Keo, Kommadam, Chao-Fa Patchai, and Pho Kadout—"were defeated because there was no Party to lead the struggle." Party cadres are therefore told that they are the "vanguard of the revolution" since they've acquired knowledge of the contradictions in Lao society and, during the Laotian Civil War, understood that the only way to establish a free Laos was through armed struggle. A good cadre is therefore defined by the LPRP as someone "who is loyal to the nation and willing to serve the people, obeys his leaders without question, keeps good discipline, respects the system, improves himself through study... [and] be resolute, brave, and undiscouraged in the face of difficulties."
Organisation
Central organisation
The National Congress is the party's highest body, and convenes every five years. According to the party statute, the Central Committee convenes the national congress. The party statute gives the Congress the following responsibilities:
Hearing the Political Report of the outgoing Central Committee
Examining the Political Report of the outgoing Central Committee
Adopting a Five-Year Plan of Socio-Economic Development
Electing a Central Committee
Discussing and enacting party policies
Revising the party statute
In between LPRP convocations of the National Congress, the Central Committee is the highest decision-making institution. The Central Committee elects the membership of several bodies to carry out its work. The 1st Plenary Session of a newly elected Central Committee elects the party's General Secretary, Defence and Public Security Commission (DPSC), the Secretariat, the Politburo, and the Inspection Commission. The Politburo exercises the functions and powers of the Central Committee when the latter is not in session. The DPSC is the highest decision-making institution regarding military and security affairs within the party, and controls the operations of the Lao People's Armed Forces. The LPRP General Secretary is by right of office the DPSC chairman. Meanwhile, the Secretariat is the top implementation body and is headed by the LPRP General Secretary as the 1st-ranking member and the Inspection Commission chairman as the 2nd-ranking member, with the 3rd-ranking member serving as the Standing Member. LPRP secretaries normally head or work in Central Committee commissions, the Pasaxon and Alun Mai publications, and so on. The Inspection Commission resolves disciplinary issues involving party members. Subjects for investigation range from graft to anti-party and counter-revolutionary activities, and generally encompass all party rules violations.
Lower-level organisation
The Lao People's Revolutionary Youth Union (LPRYU) is the LPRP's youth league. It was established in 1983, and is modelled organisationally on the LPRP; it has its own General Secretary, Politburo, Secretariat, and Central Committee. It convenes a national congress, its highest decision-making body, every five years; and it publishes its own newspaper, the Num Lao.
Ideology
Marxism–Leninism and Kaysone Phomvihane Thought (2016 onwards) are the party's guiding ideas. Kaysone Phomvihane said as much in 1970: "The resounding victories of the Indochinese peoples in the past quarter-century cannot be separated from the introduction of Marxism–Leninism into Indochina [and that it] provides guidance for its action
and points out practical ways to advance the revolution in Laos." Party pamphlets further note that it was Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that discovered the universal principles of communism.
In December 1975, at the 3rd Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, the party made clear its intention to skip the capitalist phase in its advance towards socialism. However, the same plenary session considered the socialist transformation of agriculture (collectivisation) as unlikely considering the country's level of development. It went on to say that the LPRP had no intention of abolishing capitalist property relations. The reigning belief was that the country's low level of political and cultural maturity, the LPRP's weak organisational capacity, and the state sector's immaturity made it impossible to skip capitalism and immediately initiate socialist construction. The party thus decided on a long-term strategy of transitioning towards socialism: (1) it sought to eliminate traces of both imperialism, colonialism, and feudalism, while building a people's democratic regime by extending administrative power from the centre to the grassroots; and (2) normalising people's lives by reestablishing capitalist relations alongside establishing new socialist relations of production.
In October 1975, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee further clarified party ideology. Kaysone Phomvihane believed that Laos was facing a dialetical struggle against American imperialism and its local puppets. This he identified as part of a "two-line struggle" between socialism and capitalism. At the 5th Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, Kaysone Phomvihane stated that "the struggle against imperialism, struggle between them and us, class struggle, and struggle to build a new regime were related to 'who is winning over whom' between socialism and capitalism". This ideological change to the "two-line struggle" needed to be followed by speeding up socialist construction. In February 1977, the 4th Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee decided that nationalisation and collectivisation were the means to accomplish this. Kaysone Phomvihane quipped "that abolishing feudalistic ownership and exploitation, confiscating the assets of a reactionary feudalist and comprador capitalists... [and] constructing socialist relations of production in the state economy based on two forms of primary ownership: ownership by all the people and collective ownership."
In 1979, at the 7th Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, the party line changed yet again, and now emphasised introducing market relations into the economy. The decision was grounded in the idea that the transition to socialism was a long historical process, and that Laos was still in the early stages of socialism. The party confirmed that the state and collective enterprises would play a major role in the economy, but that state capitalism, private ownership, and individual economic activity would continue and be utilised by the state for socialist construction. According to economist Norihiko Yamada:
...socialism lost its substantial meaning and was no longer considered a realistic national goal. While socialism remained the LPRP's eventual goal, as it does today, the party acknowledged that the transition period would be longer than expected. Even though the party did not abandon socialism, it was unsure how long the transition would be and when socialist construction would be complete. In other words, socialism became ideal. In its place, post-war reconstruction and establishing the necessary foundations for state-building became the realistic goal of the state.
The implications of the 1979 changes did not dawn on the party leadership before the mid-1980s. In the beginning, the market reforms were promoted under the umbrella of the Socialist Economic Management Mechanism, and by 1984 the New Economic Management Mechanism. Both these terms stressed the importance of state management of the economy. The LPRP still deemed "that the state economy, collective economy and state capitalism were based on the principle of a planned economy, whereas the private and individual sectors were based on the principle of commodity-money relations." At the 8th Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, Kaysone Phomvihane told the plenum that the two-line struggle between socialism and capitalism had entered a new and complex stage. At the 3rd National Congress Kaysone Phomvihane further clarified his statement, claiming that the two-line struggle was between those who supported and those who opposed economic reforms. In reaction to opposition from party officials, especially those centred around Nouhak Phoumsavanh, Kaysone Phomvihane introduced the term New Thinking into ideological discourse at the 4th National Congress. The term was defined in opposition to what Kayasone Phomvihane termed "old thinking":
"Sometimes in the past, they [leaders] did not have the courage to speak frankly about the facts, difficulties and shortcomings of their work with the people, but they were trying to speak about only achievements and victories. That is not a scientific way of thinking, and it is wrong... Speaking in accordance with facts is new thinking... Trusting the people, speaking frankly, and talking with people according to facts is the new way of thinking and the new work style. The other way around, not trusting the people, distorting the facts, not revealing the difficulties and shortcomings, are the outdated way of thinking and the old way. Old thinking is subjective and impatient.... One example of old thinking is to see only negative aspects of a non-socialist economic sector but not to see any of its advantages in economic development and the improvement of people's lives. Therefore, we think that changing the ownership of the means of production is the key to developing a production force, which will automatically lead to the improvement of people's lives."
While economic reforms increased economic growth and raised the standard of living, the reforms also produced what the LPRP termed "negative phenomena" such as corruption, fraud, economic disparity, and income inequality. LPRP Chairman Khamtai Siphandon therefore initiated a campaign to strengthen socialist values, and told a party gathering that "to control the grassroots and people is a serious struggle of 'who will win over whom?' between our enemies and us." Shortly afterwards, Secretariat member Chueang Sombounkhan published in Alun Mai an article that clarified the party's position on socialism: "to prepare for the transition phase it is necessary to reserve a certain period of time, which means 'transition for transition' or 'indirect transition', for reaching socialism. Generally, such a transition path is the longest, a complex and difficult route." In the words of Yamada:
"[the LPRP] claimed that Laos was in transition for transition, or in an ultra-long transition and that the negative aspects of economic growth were caused by this process. The party used this argument to legitimate their line as well as to trivialise the problems. However, even if such a theory could legitimate the long transition to socialism and its concomitant problems, it did not necessarily resolve the gap between socialism and the market economy. In other words, the party did not have a theoretical measure to deal with the problems, except for socialism. Therefore, the party trivialised problems arising from economic development as an ideological struggle."
In 2006, at the 8th National Congress the LPRP sought yet again to clarify its Marxist–Leninist position. It decided that as long as the party's policies were "(i) developing economic power; (ii) strengthening the state and ensuring political stability; and (iii) improving living standards and creating benefits for the people" it was socialist. The Political Report of the 7th Central Committee to the 8th National Congress further stated that "to achieve the long-term goal defined by the party, we must consider industrialisation and modernisation as the priority in development because the socialist transformation has the same target and goal as industrialisation and modernisation." Thus, the party tried to clarify why it was both logical and legitimate to use markets to construct socialism. It claimed that successful nation-state building was a prerequisite for creating socialist conditions. However, by the 9th National Congress, LPRP General Secretary Choummaly Sayasone stressed the importance of strengthening ideological work and understanding:
"[We must] continue to adhere firmly to Marxism–Leninism and socialist ideals, pay attention to research and grasp some [of the] basic principles of Marxism–Leninism, then apply them creatively and appropriately to the real situation of our state by adjusting the [party] line to the requirement of national development. In order to provide direction for the party's actual leadership and to solve problems appropriately, we always learn lessons from practice and stick to the renovation line by opposing dogmatism, primordialism, subjectivism, radicalism and thought not grasping the real situation and principle of renovation."
By 2016, the party had modernised its ideological framework. The 10th National Congress amended the party statute, and Kaysone Phomvihane Thought was added. By adopting Kaysone Phomvihane Thought, the party sought to legitimise party rule and its economic policies further. Its adoption was a breach of party tradition, for the LPRP had never named a theory after an individual before; unlike the Communist Party of China, which has adopted Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese characteristics for a New Era; the Communist Party of Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh Thought; the Workers' Party of Korea's Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism; and Fidelism in Cuba. While the party failed to expound on the term's meaning at the 10th National Congress, the term itself had been used occasionally earlier. To celebrate Kaysone Phomvihane's 85th anniversary in 2006, the LPRP organised the seminar "Kaysone Phomvihane Thought in the Construction and Development of the People's Democratic Regime along the Road of Socialism". The seminar extolled him "as the key thinker and theorist of the party, the initiator of the 1979 reforms, and as an heir to Marx and Vladimir Lenin who creatively applied Marxism-Leninism to Laos." Kaysone Phomvihane Thought was in turn defined as a fundamental theory for the renovation of the party and as a guide for the party and the country.
International outreach
The LPRP maintains party-to-party relations with communist and non-communist parties, alike. It is a regular attendee of the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties, an international forum of communist parties. It also maintains close party-to-party relations with the Communist Party of China (CPC), the Communist Party of Cuba, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV), the Workers' Party of Korea, and the Cambodian People's Party.
The CPV and the CPC usually compete for influence in Laos, but the LPRP remains closest to the CPV. While the CPC often gives aid to Laos and the LPRP, the relationship lacks the rituals that characterise the LPRP–CPV relationship. To exemplify, during a routine visit to Laos in December 2015, the Vietnamese Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs Phạm Bình Minh awarded the Order of Independence (Class 2 and 3), Order of Labour (Class 3), and Order of Friendship to his Laotian counterparts for their "outstanding performance" in enhancing ties between Laos and Vietnam. The priority given to ties with the CPV is seen in other areas as well. For instance, upon his election as LPRP General Secretary, Bounnhang Vorachith reached out to his Vietnamese counterpart first and to the CPC at a later date.
See also
Cambodian People's Party, ruling party since 1979
Communist Party of China, ruling party since 1949
Communist Party of Cuba, ruling party since 1965
Communist Party of Vietnam, ruling party since 1945
Workers' Party of Korea, ruling party (of North Korea) since 1946
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Books
Dissertation
Journal articles
Reports
Political parties established in 1955
Ruling communist parties
Parties of one-party systems
Communism in Laos
Political parties in Laos
1955 establishments in Laos
Nationalist parties in Laos
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties
|
[
0.5135945677757263,
0.4484819769859314,
-0.19464389979839325,
-0.4374438226222992,
-0.22176571190357208,
0.1907075196504593,
-0.8572430610656738,
0.3377179801464081,
-1.1277990341186523,
0.2491607517004013,
-0.3697725236415863,
0.1751859337091446,
-0.808935821056366,
-0.18738681077957153,
-0.2518034279346466,
0.6413917541503906,
0.7967500686645508,
0.4374713599681854,
0.2774071991443634,
-0.1906813383102417,
-0.25134968757629395,
0.3521018624305725,
0.5534681081771851,
0.2771338224411011,
-0.572790265083313,
0.15160924196243286,
0.6518420577049255,
0.5031435489654541,
0.13154242932796478,
0.07367169857025146,
-0.6278464794158936,
0.2968708574771881,
0.6795329451560974,
-0.08849608153104782,
0.014483006671071053,
-0.1960640549659729,
0.23638524115085602,
0.5213744044303894,
-0.325835645198822,
0.04685819894075394,
-0.14032010734081268,
-0.22846195101737976,
-0.23600372672080994,
0.3945658802986145,
0.48975905776023865,
-0.9458253383636475,
-0.9325511455535889,
0.4134116470813751,
-0.5116984248161316,
-0.16339536011219025,
-0.20273534953594208,
0.2759673297405243,
0.11910515278577805,
0.4987142086029053,
0.7747350931167603,
0.22205466032028198,
-1.1369810104370117,
-0.292655885219574,
-0.6948873996734619,
0.18604573607444763,
-0.35070890188217163,
0.2776540219783783,
-0.18862290680408478,
-0.28520917892456055,
0.4442882835865021,
0.41260451078414917,
0.07862603664398193,
0.07522393763065338,
-0.6816573739051819,
-0.33961352705955505,
0.002619734965264797,
0.08382358402013779,
-0.2252172827720642,
-0.15379437804222107,
-0.22305187582969666,
-0.8860863447189331,
-0.047281283885240555,
0.14235536754131317,
-0.22856897115707397,
0.041192494332790375,
0.3059588372707367,
0.22105102241039276,
0.6770070791244507,
0.6942753791809082,
0.037001367658376694,
0.4069909453392029,
-0.005824851803481579,
-0.04631867632269859,
0.31752532720565796,
0.2700503468513489,
-0.28952425718307495,
-0.14942768216133118,
0.5415375828742981,
-0.046667858958244324,
-0.6726849675178528,
-0.39656856656074524,
0.11842028796672821,
0.7887257933616638,
0.03733809292316437,
0.21552027761936188,
0.4562362730503082,
0.2868737280368805,
0.3994804918766022,
-0.36159414052963257,
-0.7526440620422363,
-0.2922534942626953,
-0.3310019373893738,
-0.19498135149478912,
-0.8726458549499512,
-0.3526129424571991,
-1.2881724834442139,
0.5093080997467041,
-0.11270441859960556,
0.14889438450336456,
0.25444936752319336,
0.42155760526657104,
-0.1527436226606369,
-0.934398889541626,
0.37653523683547974,
-0.43033909797668457,
-0.018258823081851006,
0.9156697988510132,
-0.2153431475162506,
1.117992877960205,
0.5182240605354309,
0.7120410203933716,
0.5135172605514526,
0.8310571312904358,
-0.2604362964630127,
0.6061451435089111,
0.44010478258132935,
0.5300803184509277,
-0.46273016929626465,
0.3786100447177887,
0.1052553579211235,
-0.29456132650375366,
1.2727171182632446,
0.4209919273853302,
0.898483395576477,
0.16004489362239838,
-1.3457822799682617,
-0.5429943799972534,
-0.3695860803127289,
-0.06421297043561935,
-0.017242897301912308,
-0.012463091872632504,
-0.30817869305610657,
-0.4214361906051636,
-0.5949915051460266,
-0.6852293014526367,
0.33517560362815857,
-1.0111371278762817,
-0.11508054286241531,
-0.025226514786481857,
-0.3206581175327301,
0.36239272356033325,
1.4818154573440552,
-0.09745341539382935,
0.39115265011787415,
0.6673362255096436,
0.512370228767395,
-0.021932022646069527,
-0.02363932505249977,
-0.045854441821575165,
0.41635823249816895,
-0.08461631834506989,
-0.032355498522520065,
0.4216950237751007,
0.2189638763666153,
0.3622974455356598,
-0.7267816662788391,
0.254110187292099,
0.028462355956435204,
-0.393209308385849,
0.20509620010852814,
-0.5418585538864136,
0.049690116196870804,
0.3573153018951416,
0.07206233590841293,
0.2824041247367859,
-0.6869299411773682,
0.7562415599822998,
0.13808594644069672,
-0.16670668125152588,
0.32493406534194946,
0.20576266944408417,
0.035035163164138794,
0.012142010033130646,
0.2784094214439392,
0.0033447504974901676,
-0.37307485938072205,
-0.009822978638112545,
0.20922702550888062,
-0.42497819662094116,
0.49545592069625854,
-0.20823070406913757,
0.07099885493516922,
0.8800356984138489,
0.367824524641037,
0.7944355607032776,
0.2838037312030792,
-0.11955517530441284,
-0.06134724244475365,
-0.17368914186954498,
-1.6581430435180664,
0.19793319702148438,
-0.053835369646549225,
0.7215578556060791,
0.17908723652362823,
0.4016401767730713,
0.4804873764514923,
-0.38950690627098083,
-0.23592343926429749,
0.5236174464225769,
0.1701689511537552,
-0.7381383180618286,
-0.7757794260978699,
-0.05872366577386856,
0.07995816320180893,
0.2578924298286438,
0.8102677464485168,
-0.6075614094734192,
-0.2921008765697479,
0.903803288936615,
-0.17109760642051697,
0.8974999785423279,
-0.16109345853328705,
-0.09483231604099274,
-0.04058617353439331,
0.2668294906616211,
0.6716797947883606,
-0.3890534043312073,
0.10966462641954422,
-0.194269597530365,
0.1487501561641693,
-0.20105649530887604,
-0.6174295544624329,
-0.5777333974838257,
0.31808167695999146,
-0.3159593939781189,
0.50439453125,
-0.2493128925561905,
-0.42263519763946533,
-0.14479263126850128,
-0.7609959244728088,
0.20986191928386688,
-1.1493456363677979,
0.11723613739013672,
-0.08621177077293396,
0.12024224549531937,
0.015058653429150581,
-0.10794755816459656,
0.5368085503578186,
-0.3966936469078064,
-0.09323780983686447,
-0.06182151660323143,
-0.3540385663509369,
-0.11167561262845993,
-0.01632065512239933,
-0.41765686869621277,
-0.06165049225091934,
-0.3307822346687317,
0.44230473041534424,
0.3143172264099121,
-0.19550156593322754,
-0.6166511178016663,
-0.24975961446762085,
-0.14639440178871155,
-0.10165408253669739,
1.0968639850616455,
0.42227113246917725,
0.028648367151618004,
-0.6302038431167603,
-0.16142845153808594,
-0.1409701555967331,
-0.5404212474822998,
-0.5484268069267273,
0.6098466515541077,
-1.176461100578308,
-0.9566208124160767,
0.40690290927886963,
0.47405683994293213,
0.406358003616333,
-0.7083189487457275,
-0.508571445941925,
0.40031030774116516,
-0.16783972084522247,
0.362470805644989,
-0.33333510160446167,
0.15966077148914337,
0.16135174036026,
-0.6501976847648621,
0.000006829281119280495,
-0.49806320667266846,
0.5528900623321533,
0.2295210063457489,
0.22067531943321228,
0.124834343791008,
0.4060957729816437,
-0.2842297852039337,
0.21218514442443848,
0.30087971687316895,
-0.41272759437561035,
-0.5194256901741028,
0.5569907426834106,
-0.13878653943538666,
0.10280188918113708,
0.140285924077034,
-5.081347942352295,
-0.051800210028886795,
0.04273146763443947,
-0.0715714544057846,
0.03634318709373474,
-0.3602805435657501,
0.3740660548210144,
-0.554368257522583,
0.19770359992980957,
-0.5203702449798584,
-0.7131466269493103,
-0.22937895357608795,
0.3469369113445282,
0.19713544845581055,
0.3643516004085541,
0.623690664768219,
0.2801019251346588,
-0.15450239181518555,
1.1155424118041992,
-0.2475527673959732,
0.2771167755126953,
-0.4450289309024811,
-0.319979727268219,
0.6499387621879578,
0.569782018661499,
0.5687252879142761,
0.09861836582422256,
-0.43390876054763794,
-0.7682861089706421,
-0.41272005438804626,
-0.4028814435005188,
0.3600093424320221,
0.5554538369178772,
-0.4588703513145447,
0.141062393784523,
-0.837685227394104,
0.7827908396720886,
0.15815076231956482,
-0.22053447365760803,
-0.6057687997817993,
-0.132535919547081,
-0.33302250504493713,
-0.39816224575042725,
-0.40554893016815186,
-0.005554758943617344,
-0.107939213514328,
-0.06718093901872635,
-0.3769782781600952,
-0.8881005644798279,
0.35676583647727966,
0.11012778431177139,
-0.35959115624427795,
0.5528631210327148,
0.062327321618795395,
0.18344604969024658,
0.336440771818161,
0.1067541167140007,
-0.3431297540664673,
-0.5571038126945496,
0.21211272478103638,
0.48933637142181396,
-0.06149240583181381,
0.08589906245470047,
-0.4847446382045746,
-0.19837377965450287,
0.07018649578094482,
0.013494465500116348,
-0.3855663537979126,
0.6740753650665283,
0.7786086797714233,
-0.6523842215538025,
-0.020816083997488022,
-0.3716766834259033,
-0.7259006500244141,
-0.14141209423542023,
-0.5059120059013367,
-0.45592084527015686,
-0.21575167775154114,
0.3602101802825928,
-0.10736563056707382,
-0.2834673821926117,
-0.12093621492385864,
0.3523853123188019,
0.5839865207672119,
0.23859433829784393,
0.05619452893733978,
-0.2218957096338272,
0.5320934653282166,
-0.40731945633888245,
0.706503689289093,
0.4258396625518799,
-0.6565446853637695,
0.7020545601844788,
0.7034882307052612,
0.3586929440498352,
0.48103824257850647,
0.6915363669395447,
-0.2572939097881317,
0.5958223342895508,
-0.5738450884819031,
0.25472989678382874,
-0.10101072490215302,
-0.25573354959487915,
-0.07200983166694641,
-0.3190785050392151,
-0.47357651591300964,
-0.002637111349031329,
0.19793161749839783,
0.40020665526390076,
-0.20942987501621246,
0.4385397434234619,
-0.3283006548881531,
0.23409505188465118,
-0.28528302907943726,
0.7711328268051147,
-0.15094313025474548,
-0.3578069508075714,
0.24214455485343933,
-0.03808816522359848,
0.22362710535526276,
-0.11014183610677719,
0.5236595869064331,
-0.04930476099252701,
0.35493695735931396,
-0.05038914456963539,
-0.0032366858795285225,
0.01578189805150032,
0.18085572123527527,
0.334617018699646,
0.07958871126174927,
0.383829802274704,
-0.3761278986930847,
0.4446922242641449,
-0.2622310519218445,
0.21763138473033905,
-0.21940432488918304,
-0.21872328221797943,
-0.10279694199562073,
-0.0859924852848053,
0.01402654405683279,
-0.14667364954948425,
-0.05564184486865997,
-0.0221902783960104,
0.18815337121486664,
0.6992663145065308,
0.11649385839700699,
0.099416583776474,
0.39867034554481506,
0.011957839131355286,
0.4471055567264557,
0.24239882826805115,
-0.4661976993083954,
0.7574878931045532,
-0.4967556595802307,
-0.07481429725885391,
-0.23546400666236877,
-0.0758453980088234,
0.22143766283988953,
0.2722468078136444,
-0.5866657495498657,
0.317737340927124,
-1.0487494468688965,
-0.5780688524246216,
0.1885911524295807,
0.175360769033432,
-0.09527859836816788,
0.050596896559000015,
-0.09675341844558716,
-0.739113986492157,
0.40116220712661743,
0.4201045334339142,
0.1247294545173645,
-0.2646770477294922,
-0.13098959624767303,
0.3197822570800781,
-0.9748964905738831,
0.050661444664001465,
0.36148443818092346,
-0.3664751350879669,
-0.2486027479171753,
-0.90731281042099,
-0.0901542529463768,
-0.11721619963645935,
0.3409850597381592,
0.44033750891685486,
-0.35990196466445923,
0.14383524656295776,
-0.6928433775901794,
-0.23693659901618958,
0.004117188509553671,
0.3475995361804962,
0.6173415184020996,
0.41700154542922974,
-0.13422435522079468,
-0.13773636519908905,
-0.7578043937683105,
-0.6700106859207153,
0.7065061926841736,
-0.38417378067970276,
-0.3115469217300415,
0.30723825097084045,
0.6493710279464722,
0.3592691719532013,
-0.13188116252422333,
0.1676786243915558,
-0.42968326807022095,
0.9886816740036011,
-0.28923937678337097,
-0.0669739842414856,
0.03778208792209625,
-0.1342426836490631,
-0.5538549423217773,
-0.2736174464225769,
0.2550013065338135,
-0.8885194063186646,
-0.11262071877717972,
0.712579607963562,
-0.3099731504917145,
0.0600290410220623,
-0.24436913430690765,
-0.37836694717407227,
-0.10422730445861816,
-0.7462508082389832,
-0.06420727074146271,
-0.1504167914390564,
1.3721972703933716,
0.4485335946083069,
-0.5656886696815491,
0.3075103759765625,
-0.4290855824947357,
-0.6063768863677979,
-0.46917924284935,
0.47355347871780396,
-0.4164024591445923,
-0.7042578458786011,
0.0006950951647013426,
-0.1072123646736145,
0.23781165480613708,
-0.10155998915433884,
0.44401755928993225,
-0.7501731514930725,
1.117305874824524,
-0.09023946523666382,
-1.2381867170333862,
-0.31453022360801697,
0.4950292408466339,
0.805051863193512,
-0.1645619124174118,
-0.6997294425964355,
0.006701807025820017,
0.4609275460243225,
0.03739556670188904,
-0.7342290282249451,
-0.7267771363258362,
0.03923996910452843,
-0.35546356439590454,
-0.9100847244262695,
-0.06348058581352234,
0.020877929404377937,
-0.4235159158706665,
-0.32260337471961975,
-0.20456545054912567,
-0.8636558055877686,
-0.4624006748199463,
0.416390061378479,
0.05312527343630791,
-0.12523020803928375,
-0.5665939450263977,
0.09069795161485672,
-0.30294209718704224,
-0.3078362047672272,
-0.587106466293335,
-0.048391517251729965,
0.14104655385017395,
0.6992447972297668,
0.19046224653720856,
0.17088907957077026,
-0.14671051502227783,
0.07000698894262314,
0.1806710660457611,
-0.4224601686000824,
0.12629030644893646,
0.2767372131347656,
0.19494087994098663,
0.7067167162895203,
-1.3665168285369873,
-0.013837828300893307,
-0.012346102856099606,
-0.7912665009498596,
-0.552372395992279,
-0.6298389434814453,
0.021428296342492104,
-0.20203611254692078,
0.36683377623558044,
0.20245015621185303,
0.921172559261322,
0.35858941078186035,
0.0828525722026825,
-0.15995649993419647,
-0.029937544837594032,
-0.42214304208755493,
0.15673328936100006,
0.26629868149757385,
0.0841711238026619,
-0.22831566631793976,
-0.32920992374420166,
0.1949259489774704,
-0.9463428854942322,
0.01141076534986496,
0.7918117046356201,
0.6130068898200989,
-0.20754607021808624,
0.03864872083067894,
0.20024235546588898,
-0.4279986321926117,
0.5308104157447815,
0.7823914885520935,
-1.1424930095672607,
-0.07113024592399597,
0.2797046899795532,
0.4155043661594391,
-0.5293052792549133,
0.18433550000190735,
0.3794148564338684,
0.14342567324638367,
0.2843833863735199,
-0.8779634833335876,
0.17626547813415527,
1.0162761211395264,
-0.1308295726776123,
0.2179873138666153,
0.29636090993881226,
-0.32563889026641846,
0.3679223656654358,
-0.8540998101234436,
-0.46116286516189575,
-0.26703202724456787,
-0.9494382739067078,
-0.4146563708782196,
0.40180879831314087,
0.7505027055740356,
0.6989384293556213,
-0.08284535259008408,
-0.4189169108867645,
0.7557541728019714,
0.09523148834705353,
0.07133995741605759,
0.4105696678161621,
0.19939939677715302,
0.17658266425132751,
0.42315325140953064,
-0.03158199414610863,
-0.46575844287872314,
-0.1565815508365631,
0.27970853447914124,
-0.3252282440662384,
-0.22006118297576904,
-0.058687593787908554,
0.873423159122467,
0.21694034337997437,
-0.26186415553092957,
0.0737546756863594,
-0.07820583879947662,
0.4386194050312042,
0.08612653613090515,
0.15228793025016785,
0.3406293988227844,
-0.10981487482786179,
0.08002609759569168,
0.298439085483551,
0.4565027058124542,
-0.0010025398805737495,
-0.07112638652324677,
0.34214478731155396,
-0.8641747236251831,
-0.3283177614212036,
0.4847508370876312,
0.11209723353385925,
-0.1655956655740738,
-0.5998674035072327,
-0.11753109097480774,
0.03954967111349106,
-0.22700485587120056,
-0.2599637806415558,
0.4037318825721741,
0.2735752463340759,
-0.13723383843898773,
0.364126056432724,
0.3820328414440155,
0.5611749291419983,
-0.09114108234643936,
-0.5775436162948608,
-0.24444255232810974,
-0.09157715737819672,
0.6240541934967041,
0.27861645817756653,
-0.09475795924663544,
0.594355583190918,
0.6366389989852905,
-0.05591464787721634,
-0.11599555611610413,
0.7218764424324036,
0.3899167776107788,
0.7817333936691284,
0.7415249347686768,
-0.06694720685482025,
-0.644909679889679,
-0.03031230717897415,
-0.8093913197517395,
0.884510338306427,
0.13264775276184082,
0.9349471926689148,
0.05324845016002655,
1.3862918615341187,
-0.21159549057483673,
0.009362286888062954,
0.643477201461792,
-1.069391131401062,
-0.25533491373062134,
-0.5564236044883728,
-0.41023746132850647,
-0.9071133136749268,
0.3780718445777893,
0.41620832681655884,
0.025450732558965683,
-1.0939838886260986,
-0.017590370029211044,
-0.15682609379291534,
-0.6164501309394836,
-0.20783182978630066,
-0.009915294125676155,
-0.1713971644639969,
-0.16271351277828217,
-0.20360764861106873,
-0.8468294739723206,
-0.15598489344120026,
0.2069673091173172,
0.46988749504089355,
-0.4730317294597626,
-0.7926473021507263,
-0.3409591317176819,
0.13474807143211365,
0.4285227060317993,
0.04182155802845955,
0.6132256984710693,
-0.3619391620159149,
0.04101989045739174,
0.48888254165649414,
-0.8296412825584412,
0.423257052898407,
0.3532387912273407,
-0.2752578854560852,
0.32505953311920166,
-0.27666252851486206,
-0.21614550054073334,
0.0646115243434906,
0.3150041699409485,
0.2154151052236557,
0.1587955206632614,
0.23106825351715088
] |
203652
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz%20Fraenkel-Conrat
|
Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat
|
Heinz Ludwig Fraenkel-Conrat (July 29, 1910 – April 10, 1999) was a biochemist, famous for his research on viruses.
Early life
Fraenkel-Conrat was born in Breslau/Germany.
He was the son of Lili Conrat and Professor Ludwig Fraenkel, director of the Women's Clinic of the University of Breslau, Germany. His father, Ludwig Fraenkel, was a prominent gynecologist and medical researcher who published regarding endocrine function, social gynecology, and sexology during the first decades of the 20th century, and was one of the legion of scientists summarily dismissed from their positions by the Nazis.
Academic career
He received an MD from the University of Breslau in 1933. Due to the rise of Nazism in Germany he left for Scotland in 1933 and finished his PhD at the University of Edinburgh (1936). After completing his doctorate, he emigrated to the United States, becoming a naturalized citizen in 1941. In the 1940s Fraenkel-Conrat visited his sister and brother-in-law, biochemist Karl Slotta, a pioneer in the study of progesterone, estriol, and medical use of venom, who was then director of the Chemical Institute of the Instituto Butantan in São Paulo, Brazil, from 1935 to 1948. Frankel-Conrat remained for one year of biochemical research at the Instituto Butantan. He worked at a number of institutes before joining the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley in 1952 where he remained until his death.
His most noted research was on the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and the holmes ribgrass virus (HRV). He discovered that the genetic control of viral reproduction was RNA and that it is carried in the nucleic core of each virus. In 1955 he and biophysicist Robley Williams showed that a functional virus could be created out of purified RNA and a protein coat. In 1960 he announced the complete sequencing of the 158 amino acids in the virus.
Death
He died of lung failure on April 10, 1999 at the Kaiser Hospital in Oakland, at the age of eighty-eight.
References
American virologists
1910 births
1999 deaths
American biochemists
German emigrants to the United States
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
|
[
-0.15384814143180847,
0.5218569040298462,
-1.2823638916015625,
-0.16858935356140137,
-0.3695615231990814,
0.1616068035364151,
1.0695505142211914,
0.0973544493317604,
-0.2406829297542572,
-0.3415601849555969,
-0.08832977712154388,
0.11704602837562561,
-0.4855487048625946,
0.734563946723938,
0.3479587137699127,
-0.20945896208286285,
-0.049921371042728424,
-0.08973462134599686,
-0.43387335538864136,
-0.05503448471426964,
-0.3003052771091461,
-0.4209943115711212,
-0.2233349084854126,
0.28334641456604004,
-0.7386995553970337,
-0.3203665018081665,
0.18756064772605896,
-0.3009487986564636,
1.1389607191085815,
-0.10718221217393875,
0.47992220520973206,
0.8665952086448669,
0.12240538001060486,
-0.2031831443309784,
-0.30581894516944885,
0.5102054476737976,
-0.200012668967247,
-0.05842481553554535,
0.2598857283592224,
0.2488880455493927,
-0.0047574290074408054,
0.023011036217212677,
-0.21497514843940735,
0.0956002026796341,
0.0988132655620575,
-0.9580177068710327,
-1.352856159210205,
0.6487554311752319,
-0.952282190322876,
-0.158927321434021,
0.39945080876350403,
0.1737821251153946,
0.7632588744163513,
0.3272836208343506,
-0.02945587784051895,
0.471815288066864,
-0.8673936724662781,
0.05138301104307175,
0.572512686252594,
-0.2980620563030243,
0.06331437826156616,
-0.5190207958221436,
0.26465412974357605,
0.03412497416138649,
0.333412766456604,
0.34764620661735535,
0.31372159719467163,
0.6815645694732666,
-0.2151753306388855,
-0.7267516255378723,
-0.5521335005760193,
-0.17757610976696014,
0.7026091814041138,
-0.20448094606399536,
0.5682515501976013,
-0.9823271632194519,
0.18902325630187988,
-0.38435015082359314,
-0.10788627713918686,
-0.3613292872905731,
-0.11043796688318253,
0.10463286936283112,
0.12036170065402985,
-0.12845927476882935,
0.43063345551490784,
0.05602925643324852,
-0.6658208966255188,
0.06330772489309311,
-0.7094174027442932,
0.10694580525159836,
-0.39061737060546875,
0.18049852550029755,
0.7957602739334106,
0.013477280735969543,
0.0439327247440815,
0.4373398423194885,
-0.5042797923088074,
0.6854807734489441,
0.026802558451890945,
0.14793746173381805,
-0.09032192081212997,
0.10133478790521622,
0.5052829384803772,
-0.2772817611694336,
-0.6865289807319641,
0.1879790872335434,
0.2253618836402893,
-0.46035096049308777,
-0.24695703387260437,
-0.549624502658844,
-0.6913771629333496,
-0.42977288365364075,
-0.6907421946525574,
0.1954929530620575,
-0.5935264229774475,
0.617653489112854,
0.32350435853004456,
-1.028267741203308,
-0.35618194937705994,
-0.4714301526546478,
-0.6244237422943115,
1.0138076543807983,
-0.4886613190174103,
0.214923694729805,
-0.6975073218345642,
0.07319826632738113,
0.1021013930439949,
0.3875661790370941,
0.17460587620735168,
0.6422083973884583,
0.06573093682527542,
1.3917083740234375,
-0.2944084405899048,
-0.25178200006484985,
0.20154260098934174,
-0.40106135606765747,
0.03666654974222183,
0.5295258164405823,
-0.2768513560295105,
0.15218083560466766,
-0.7777432203292847,
-0.784533679485321,
-0.5694955587387085,
0.458102285861969,
0.7220870852470398,
0.12480798363685608,
-0.3029472529888153,
-0.04457133263349533,
0.13444465398788452,
-0.3822244703769684,
-0.2746146023273468,
-0.6945497393608093,
0.14371803402900696,
-0.048417411744594574,
-0.05278439074754715,
1.348753809928894,
0.31210827827453613,
0.08172787725925446,
0.6167197823524475,
0.4402978718280792,
0.8457651734352112,
-0.26444166898727417,
-0.488140344619751,
0.009597830474376678,
0.22821877896785736,
-0.018553346395492554,
0.0782570168375969,
0.31376492977142334,
-0.05452291667461395,
0.5964676141738892,
-0.912517786026001,
-0.49816420674324036,
0.07870303094387054,
-0.7831723093986511,
0.3999878764152527,
0.6156325936317444,
0.6241903305053711,
-0.09167403727769852,
-0.038908474147319794,
-0.11940062791109085,
-0.39044782519340515,
-0.5747890472412109,
-0.07399854063987732,
0.04241820424795151,
0.7538588047027588,
-0.05690265819430351,
0.3051067292690277,
-0.09676409512758255,
0.0902540534734726,
0.08368180692195892,
-0.6284903287887573,
0.009204061701893806,
0.5545642971992493,
-0.06072688847780228,
1.5063199996948242,
0.3423663377761841,
-0.5210903882980347,
1.313362717628479,
0.2843034863471985,
0.1249157041311264,
-0.7007986307144165,
-0.29166775941848755,
0.23344382643699646,
-0.1982281655073166,
-0.5599150657653809,
1.1127015352249146,
0.8172190189361572,
-0.8353393077850342,
-0.004744918551295996,
0.8770516514778137,
0.6745699644088745,
0.10900447517633438,
-0.017240043729543686,
-0.11902433633804321,
-0.03645653650164604,
-0.06905421614646912,
-0.6634155511856079,
0.21641948819160461,
0.21249431371688843,
-0.7078384757041931,
0.14161762595176697,
-0.0530102401971817,
0.1203262135386467,
1.282474160194397,
0.4831676483154297,
0.9427301287651062,
-0.18152011930942535,
0.06935833394527435,
0.29817643761634827,
-0.7115268111228943,
0.6796126961708069,
-0.09308522939682007,
0.7051019668579102,
-0.2814289927482605,
-0.4396727979183197,
0.09926270693540573,
-0.1249099150300026,
-0.0775444284081459,
-0.11379973590373993,
-0.1360047608613968,
0.5532153248786926,
0.7143839001655579,
-0.923915684223175,
-0.08784984797239304,
-0.20007288455963135,
-0.16036811470985413,
0.1317448616027832,
-0.3158431947231293,
-0.603320837020874,
0.38876602053642273,
0.37508726119995117,
0.8017159700393677,
0.2767139673233032,
-0.8046373724937439,
0.18331500887870789,
0.43171176314353943,
0.4671285152435303,
0.20863328874111176,
0.72669917345047,
0.12458458542823792,
0.06375803798437119,
0.015441741794347763,
0.240600124001503,
0.09836678206920624,
-0.0737662985920906,
-0.8447988033294678,
0.016085509210824966,
-0.6337044835090637,
-0.140430748462677,
-0.5392144918441772,
0.9694378972053528,
-0.28152018785476685,
-0.42983725666999817,
-0.227240189909935,
0.1888233870267868,
-0.9477232098579407,
-0.8702541589736938,
1.0822666883468628,
-0.519504725933075,
-0.03627963736653328,
0.296903133392334,
0.649222731590271,
0.020445900037884712,
0.08589474111795425,
-0.04539699852466583,
0.09112156927585602,
-0.05274621397256851,
-0.2026771754026413,
0.06506381183862686,
0.2995210886001587,
-0.4611111879348755,
0.7766329050064087,
-0.5552117228507996,
-0.07708267122507095,
-0.7957754731178284,
0.7456609010696411,
-0.23787350952625275,
-0.3087862432003021,
0.5335426330566406,
0.0516015961766243,
-0.40480101108551025,
0.5997884273529053,
-0.4030703604221344,
-0.04924144968390465,
-0.008147969841957092,
0.5798614025115967,
0.16695651412010193,
0.29471760988235474,
-4.895817756652832,
0.4952886402606964,
-0.05713573470711708,
-0.2264668345451355,
-0.08281757682561874,
0.5062341690063477,
0.9790344834327698,
-0.3949161469936371,
0.24964046478271484,
-0.2703355848789215,
0.31659308075904846,
-0.003193311393260956,
-0.12848031520843506,
0.8323092460632324,
0.4523271918296814,
0.30817943811416626,
0.08735319972038269,
-0.5231480598449707,
0.5053223371505737,
0.4255269169807434,
0.13005967438220978,
0.43119925260543823,
-0.40265175700187683,
0.22337479889392853,
-0.5727592706680298,
0.6323089599609375,
-0.49162521958351135,
0.8019754886627197,
-0.8285931944847107,
-0.02104562520980835,
0.324259489774704,
-0.5788728594779968,
-0.19178327918052673,
-0.26576435565948486,
-0.6280766725540161,
0.09668396413326263,
0.5964316129684448,
0.24867017567157745,
0.016833359375596046,
-0.0068341828882694244,
-0.08169756829738617,
0.0409938246011734,
-0.29870742559432983,
0.055925339460372925,
0.19181320071220398,
0.14513128995895386,
-0.7008902430534363,
0.2772023379802704,
-0.03438718989491463,
0.6885765194892883,
0.11867299675941467,
0.08487239480018616,
0.293906569480896,
0.4957194924354553,
-0.014881322160363197,
-0.18387387692928314,
0.43055593967437744,
0.08900346606969833,
-0.6487776637077332,
0.26262521743774414,
-0.09261973947286606,
-0.40889737010002136,
0.4211527109146118,
-0.7407216429710388,
0.7084677815437317,
-0.20843791961669922,
0.434563010931015,
-0.7127611637115479,
0.12379546463489532,
-0.2578539252281189,
-0.040192339569330215,
0.9680067300796509,
-0.1763709932565689,
-0.953485906124115,
-0.3456355631351471,
-0.6231628060340881,
-0.5110867619514465,
-0.5453270673751831,
-0.5127745866775513,
-0.09745772182941437,
-0.08902993053197861,
-0.4727068841457367,
-1.1767641305923462,
0.5045822262763977,
0.8011991381645203,
0.1568141132593155,
0.21758082509040833,
0.38859036564826965,
-0.8655763268470764,
-0.07325714081525803,
-0.6225767731666565,
-0.2747694253921509,
0.18658241629600525,
0.5479759573936462,
-0.06707040965557098,
0.2722060978412628,
-0.7026810646057129,
0.6408144235610962,
0.5656111836433411,
0.04077358543872833,
-0.2389805018901825,
-0.9966486692428589,
-0.36495712399482727,
-0.8848719596862793,
-0.11642149090766907,
-0.4973652958869934,
0.2251441329717636,
0.2082822322845459,
0.22233830392360687,
0.4327464699745178,
-0.39599403738975525,
0.4763714075088501,
-0.257317453622818,
-0.3393273949623108,
0.7029749751091003,
-0.181535005569458,
0.06609291583299637,
0.26950889825820923,
0.6611335277557373,
0.31899264454841614,
0.29622551798820496,
0.30425673723220825,
0.2845015227794647,
-0.052490949630737305,
0.5106223225593567,
-0.3810514211654663,
0.14375019073486328,
-0.4452310800552368,
-0.5383845567703247,
-0.3817550539970398,
-0.6366769075393677,
0.7454695701599121,
0.17065191268920898,
0.40542131662368774,
0.423235148191452,
-0.4179604947566986,
-1.034840703010559,
-0.27490609884262085,
-0.21096350252628326,
-0.059235744178295135,
0.2997593879699707,
-0.14662306010723114,
-0.3441564738750458,
0.4662749469280243,
-0.27077874541282654,
0.20821049809455872,
-0.21591144800186157,
0.24623848497867584,
-0.43883004784584045,
0.6644322276115417,
-0.09131992608308792,
-0.1361032873392105,
0.011159845627844334,
-0.08833569288253784,
-0.7752475738525391,
0.2552851736545563,
0.4866534471511841,
0.25539660453796387,
-0.14993230998516083,
-0.19531966745853424,
0.3817034959793091,
0.12917383015155792,
-0.8241147994995117,
0.05893952026963234,
0.2485908567905426,
0.08021540194749832,
-0.02681548148393631,
-0.867938756942749,
-0.6070191264152527,
0.8770721554756165,
-0.9856152534484863,
-0.27970048785209656,
-0.5128523707389832,
0.1046067550778389,
0.1580713987350464,
0.47572171688079834,
0.03910786658525467,
0.04728947952389717,
0.028233656659722328,
0.37198010087013245,
0.28323009610176086,
0.24335363507270813,
-0.5797024369239807,
0.9605877995491028,
0.5045987367630005,
0.3140660524368286,
-0.591647744178772,
-0.2972012758255005,
-0.656059741973877,
0.2241702526807785,
-0.0808439627289772,
0.37477418780326843,
0.31631144881248474,
0.029749618843197823,
-0.2802541255950928,
-0.6041951775550842,
-0.8659273386001587,
0.1440412700176239,
-0.05456037074327469,
-0.642442524433136,
-0.03072907030582428,
0.2784090042114258,
-0.045974619686603546,
0.3449963927268982,
0.1644255369901657,
-0.8384327292442322,
-0.36906880140304565,
0.5114953517913818,
0.26792019605636597,
1.1415929794311523,
-0.22516654431819916,
-0.8669925332069397,
0.17137537896633148,
0.9259418249130249,
-0.22806693613529205,
0.3113900125026703,
0.24322669208049774,
-0.15458746254444122,
-0.3678642213344574,
-0.20959633588790894,
-0.6772052645683289,
0.045015498995780945,
-0.2476445883512497,
-0.537253201007843,
-0.6398622989654541,
0.3779396414756775,
0.5129790306091309,
0.0520956888794899,
1.0587139129638672,
0.21190348267555237,
-0.41737616062164307,
-0.35688072443008423,
0.3264673054218292,
0.3206593096256256,
-0.7648445963859558,
-0.5284937620162964,
0.4678754210472107,
0.36230868101119995,
-0.021247820928692818,
-0.1456996351480484,
0.47485843300819397,
0.4669523239135742,
-0.25365912914276123,
-0.44229522347450256,
0.012105083093047142,
-0.039476122707128525,
0.6030428409576416,
-0.33211827278137207,
-0.19734247028827667,
-0.1244301125407219,
-0.25231561064720154,
-0.1278890073299408,
-0.8961504101753235,
-0.0760977640748024,
1.2561520338058472,
0.06728898733854294,
-0.1796766072511673,
-0.4224582016468048,
0.16177430748939514,
-0.6752886176109314,
-0.2133415788412094,
0.5833551287651062,
0.08164916932582855,
0.14395681023597717,
-0.4069848656654358,
0.027320563793182373,
-0.31466397643089294,
0.1224704459309578,
0.31531327962875366,
-0.09535356611013412,
-0.12230324000120163,
-0.9103320240974426,
-0.17176751792430878,
0.6159408688545227,
-0.9957799911499023,
0.5157755613327026,
0.4692547917366028,
-0.2650698125362396,
-0.45518234372138977,
-0.19736845791339874,
-0.63108229637146,
-0.10872401297092438,
0.45161086320877075,
-0.14543527364730835,
-0.48760828375816345,
-0.6588352918624878,
0.020312104374170303,
-0.17880217730998993,
0.2411525696516037,
0.24622145295143127,
-0.6775248646736145,
-0.154215008020401,
-0.5902354121208191,
-0.14926978945732117,
0.12017789483070374,
0.17020322382450104,
-0.5003266334533691,
0.6923751831054688,
-0.21066942811012268,
-0.3507232964038849,
-1.1424208879470825,
0.7013667225837708,
0.6344361305236816,
-0.22513243556022644,
0.0632086843252182,
0.0846720039844513,
0.1478588730096817,
0.09178435057401657,
-0.5462580323219299,
0.4355106055736542,
-0.053503651171922684,
-0.005491216201335192,
-0.2601372301578522,
0.18205399811267853,
-0.7634554505348206,
0.4272640645503998,
0.5994409918785095,
-0.801837682723999,
-0.24569810926914215,
-0.1874271184206009,
0.46995171904563904,
-0.1629583090543747,
0.2592681050300598,
-0.6499898433685303,
-0.2515582740306854,
1.2824885845184326,
0.07672427594661713,
-0.28089892864227295,
-0.4039732813835144,
0.48705360293388367,
0.3770470917224884,
-0.2652280330657959,
-0.5639347434043884,
0.22962260246276855,
-0.23539432883262634,
-0.1671813428401947,
0.4908181130886078,
-0.23624011874198914,
0.1337321400642395,
0.3122943937778473,
0.23436661064624786,
1.0224047899246216,
-0.4484870731830597,
0.3243187963962555,
-0.08212420344352722,
-0.0518125481903553,
-0.3409075140953064,
0.3953954875469208,
0.38259145617485046,
-0.342843621969223,
0.6194377541542053,
0.10245981812477112,
0.1140957772731781,
0.0035205106250941753,
0.4895464777946472,
-0.16328799724578857,
0.4195224940776825,
-0.5161214470863342,
0.05444491654634476,
-0.1671883463859558,
0.1261436939239502,
-0.37610116600990295,
0.7050434350967407,
0.5609084963798523,
0.2583453953266144,
-0.19871224462985992,
-0.16656507551670074,
-0.4838479459285736,
0.008736349642276764,
0.09581831097602844,
0.5274112224578857,
-0.7901970148086548,
-0.3243074417114258,
1.0204187631607056,
0.35699716210365295,
0.0408468097448349,
0.536377489566803,
-0.21385203301906586,
-0.4603854715824127,
0.5093967914581299,
-0.6906694173812866,
-0.20188158750534058,
-0.22662270069122314,
-0.13741077482700348,
-0.04911765456199646,
-0.22086882591247559,
-0.6862452626228333,
0.2805454134941101,
0.2148670107126236,
-0.4177817404270172,
0.8334069848060608,
-0.7705402970314026,
-0.21974201500415802,
0.49788346886634827,
-0.39291471242904663,
0.16547462344169617,
-0.28485122323036194,
0.6052163243293762,
-0.01686231605708599,
-0.08882983773946762,
-0.11201371252536774,
0.33333393931388855,
-0.22668519616127014,
0.07709848880767822,
-0.545043408870697,
0.19022385776042938,
-0.5435425639152527,
0.24481241405010223,
-0.9862842559814453,
0.6332286596298218,
0.33944931626319885,
-0.20443665981292725,
-0.6654019355773926,
0.5602012276649475,
-0.4404004216194153,
0.579866349697113,
0.2713809609413147,
-0.7722920775413513,
-0.45711129903793335,
-0.19353511929512024,
0.2277926802635193,
-0.6680827140808105,
0.11688902974128723,
0.019083751365542412,
-0.19559229910373688,
0.3531178832054138,
0.5410455465316772,
0.21032646298408508,
0.10001038759946823,
0.20536284148693085,
-0.3200075924396515,
0.38254767656326294,
-0.2444467693567276,
-0.10538018494844437,
-0.5256931185722351,
-0.3064849078655243,
0.6973879337310791,
1.2240033149719238,
0.7283150553703308,
0.009845771826803684,
0.47117459774017334,
-0.376433402299881,
0.4779565930366516,
-0.05770154669880867,
-1.0713719129562378,
-0.14035840332508087,
-0.1676367074251175,
-0.771839439868927,
0.3181714117527008,
0.2883799076080322,
-0.07091831415891647,
0.174099400639534,
0.23791933059692383,
-0.6931250095367432,
0.054440129548311234,
0.4840816557407379,
-0.10127291828393936,
-0.4108004868030548,
0.5290145874023438,
0.047564271837472916
] |
203653
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20Markup%20Language
|
Geography Markup Language
|
The Geography Markup Language (GML) is the XML grammar defined by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) to express geographical features. GML serves as a modeling language for geographic systems as well as an open interchange format for geographic transactions on the Internet. Key to GML's utility is its ability to integrate all forms of geographic information, including not only conventional "vector" or discrete objects, but coverages (see also GMLJP2) and sensor data.
GML model
GML contains a rich set of primitives which are used to build application specific schemas or application languages. These primitives include:
Feature
Geometry
Coordinate reference system
Topology
Time
Dynamic feature
Coverage (including geographic images)
Unit of measure
Directions
Observations
Map presentation styling rules
The original GML model was based on the World Wide Web Consortium's Resource Description Framework (RDF). Subsequently, the OGC introduced XML schemas into GML's structure to help connect the various existing geographic databases, whose relational structure XML schemas more easily defined. The resulting XML-schema-based GML retains many features of RDF, including the idea of child elements as properties of the parent object (RDFS) and the use of remote property references.
Profile
GML profiles are logical restrictions to GML, and may be expressed by a document, an XML schema or both. These profiles are intended to simplify adoption of GML, to facilitate rapid adoption of the standard. The following profiles, as defined by the GML specification, have been published or proposed for public use:
A Point Profile for applications with point geometric data but without the need for the full GML grammar;
A GML Simple Features profile supporting vector feature requests and transactions, e.g. with a WFS;
A GML profile for GMLJP2 (GML in JPEG 2000);
A GML profile for RSS.
Note that Profiles are distinct from application schemas. Profiles are part of GML namespaces (Open GIS GML) and define restricted subsets of GML. Application schemas are XML vocabularies defined using GML and which live in an application-defined target namespace. Application schemas can be built on specific GML profiles or use the full GML schema set.
Profiles are often created in support for GML derived languages (see application schemas) created in support of particular application domains such as commercial aviation, nautical charting or resource exploitation.
The GML Specification (Since GML v3.) contains a pair of XSLT scripts (usually referred to as the "subset tool") that can be used to construct GML profiles.
GML Simple Features Profile
The GML Simple Features Profile is a more complete profile of GML than the above Point Profile and supports a wide range of vector feature objects, including the following:
A reduced geometry model allowing 0d, 1d and 2d linear geometric objects (all based on linear interpolation) and the corresponding aggregate geometries (gml:MultiPoint, gml:MultiCurve, etc.).
A simplified feature model which can only be one level deep (in the general GML model, arbitrary nesting of features and feature properties is not permitted).
All non-geometric properties must be XML Schema simple types – i.e. cannot contain nested elements.
Remote property value references (xlink:href) just like in the main GML specification.
Since the profile aims to provide a simple entry point, it does not provide support for the following:
coverages
topology
observations
value objects (for real time sensor data)
dynamic features
Nonetheless it supports a good variety of real world problems.
Subset tool
In addition, the GML specification provides a subset tool to generate GML profiles containing a user-specified list of components. The tool consists of three XSLT scripts. The scripts generate a profile that a developer may extend manually or otherwise enhance through schema restriction. Note that as restrictions of the full GML specification, application schemas that a profile can generate must themselves be valid GML application schemas.
The subset tool can generate profiles for many other reasons as well. Listing the elements and attributes to include in the resultant profile schema and running the tool results in a single profile schema file containing only the user-specified items and all of the element, attribute and type declarations on which the specified items depend. Some Profile schemas created in this manner support other specifications including IHO S-57 and GML in JPEG 2000.
Application schema
In order to expose an application's geographic data with GML, a community or organization creates an XML schema specific to the application domain of interest (the application schema). This schema describes the object types whose data the community is interested in and which community applications must expose. For example, an application for tourism may define object types including monuments, places of interest, museums, road exits, and viewpoints in its application schema. Those object types in turn reference the primitive object types defined in the GML standard.
Some other markup languages for geography use schema constructs, but GML builds on the existing XML schema model instead of creating a new schema language.
Application schemas are normally designed using ISO 19103 (Geographic information – Conceptual schema language) conformant UML, and then the GML Application created by following the rules given in Annex E of ISO 19136.
List of public GML Application Schemas
Following is a list of known, publicly accessible GML Application Schemas:
AIXM Aeronautical Information eXchange Model ( see http://aixm.aero – Commercial Aviation Related Schema)
CAAML – Canadian Avalanche Association Markup Language
CityGML – a common information model and GML application schema for virtual 3D city / regional models.
Coverages – an interoperable, encoding-neutral information model for the digital representation of spatio-temporally varying phenomena (such as sensor, image, model, and statistics data), based on the abstract model of ISO 19123
Climate Science Modelling Language (CSML)
Darwin Core GML application schema. An implementation of the Darwin Core schema in GML for sharing biodiversity occurrence data.
GeoSciML – from IUGS Commission for Geoscience Information
GPML – the GPlates Markup Language, an information model and application schema for plate-tectonics
InfraGML - a GML implementation initiated 2012, reflecting the then missing update of LandXML
INSPIRE application schemas
IWXXM – Aviation weather GML application schema
NcML/GML – NetCDF-GML
Observations and Measurements schema for observation metadata and results
OS MasterMap GML
SensorML schema for describing instruments and processing chains
SoTerML schema for describing Soil and Terrain data
TigerGML – US Census
Water Quality Data Project from Dept. of Natural Resources, New South Wales
WXXM – Weather Information Exchange Model
GML and KML
KML, made popular by Google, complements GML. Whereas GML is a language to encode geographic content for any application, by describing a spectrum of application objects and their properties (e.g. bridges, roads, buoys, vehicles etc.), KML is a language for the visualization of geographic information tailored for Google Earth. KML can be used to render GML content, and GML content can be “styled” using KML for the purposes of presentation. KML is first and foremost a 3D portrayal transport, not a data exchange transport. As a result of this significant difference in purpose, encoding GML content for portrayal using KML results in significant and unrecoverable loss of structure and identity in the resulting KML. Over 90% of GML's structures (such as, to name a few, metadata, coordinate reference systems, horizontal and vertical datums, geometric integrity of circles, ellipses, arcs, etc.) cannot be transformed to KML without loss or non-standard encoding. Similarly, due to KML's design as a portrayal transport, encoding KML content in GML will result in significant loss of KML portrayal structures such as regions, level of detail rules, viewing and animation information, as well as styling information and multiscale representation. The ability to portray placemarks at multiple levels of details distinguishes KML from GML, since portrayal is outside the scope of GML.
GML geometries
GML encodes the GML geometries, or geometric characteristics, of geographic objects as elements within GML documents according to the "vector" model. The geometries of those objects may describe, for example, roads, rivers, and bridges.
The key GML geometry object types in GML 1.0 and GML 2.0, are the following:
Point
LineString
Polygon
GML 3.0 and higher also includes structures to describe "coverage" information, the "raster" model,
such as gathered via remote sensors and images, including most satellite data.
Features
GML defines features distinct from geometry objects. A feature is an application object that represents a physical entity, e.g. a building, a river, or a person. A feature may or may not have geometric aspects. A geometry object defines a location or region instead of a physical entity, and hence is different from a feature.
In GML, a feature can have various geometry properties that describe geometric aspects or characteristics of the feature (e.g. the feature's Point or Extent properties).
GML also provides the ability for features to share a geometry property with one another by using a remote property reference on the shared geometry property. Remote properties are a general feature of GML borrowed from RDF. An xlink:href attribute on a GML geometry property means that the value of the property is the resource referenced in the link.
For example, a Building feature in a particular GML application schema might have a position given by the primitive GML geometry object type Point. However, the Building is a separate entity from the Point that defines its position. In addition, a feature may have several geometry properties (or none at all), for example an extent and a position.
Coordinates
Coordinates in GML represent the coordinates of geometry objects. Coordinates can be specified by any of the following GML elements:
<gml:coordinates>
<gml:pos>
<gml:posList>
GML has multiple ways to represent coordinates. For example, the <gml:coordinates> element can be used, as follows:
<gml:Point gml:id="p21" srsName="http://www.opengis.net/def/crs/EPSG/0/4326">
<gml:coordinates>45.67, 88.56</gml:coordinates>
</gml:Point>
Note that, when expressed as above, the individual coordinates (e.g. 88.56) are not separately accessible through the XML Document Object Model since the content of the <gml:coordinates> element is just a single string.
To make GML coordinates accessible through the XML DOM, GML 3.0 introduced the <gml:pos> and <gml:posList> elements. (Note that although GML versions 1 and 2 had the <gml:coord> element, it is treated as a defect and is not used.) Using the <gml:pos> element instead of the <gml:coordinates> element, the same point can be represented as follows:
<gml:Point gml:id="p21" srsName="http://www.opengis.net/def/crs/EPSG/0/4326">
<gml:pos srsDimension="2">45.67 88.56</gml:pos>
</gml:Point>
The coordinates of a <gml:LineString> geometry object can be represented with the <gml:coordinates> element:
<gml:LineString gml:id="p21" srsName="http://www.opengis.net/def/crs/EPSG/0/4326">
<gml:coordinates>45.67, 88.56 55.56,89.44</gml:coordinates>
</gml:LineString >
The <gml:posList> element is used to represent a list of coordinate tuples, as required for linear geometries:
<gml:LineString gml:id="p21" srsName="http://www.opengis.net/def/crs/EPSG/0/4326">
<gml:posList srsDimension="2">45.67 88.56 55.56 89.44</gml:posList>
</gml:LineString >
For GML data servers (WFS) and conversion tools that only support GML 1 or GML 2 (i.e. only the <gml:coordinates> element), there is no alternative to <gml:coordinates>. For GML 3 documents and later, however, <gml:pos> and <gml:posList> are preferable to <gml:coordinates>.
Coordinate reference system
A coordinate reference system (CRS) determines the geometry of each geometry element in a GML document.
Unlike KML or GeoRSS, GML does not default to a coordinate system when none is provided. Instead, the desired coordinate system must be specified explicitly with a CRS. The elements whose coordinates are interpreted with respect to such a CRS include the following:
An srsName attribute attached to a geometry object specifies the object's CRS, as shown in the following example:
<gml:Point gml:id="p1" srsName="#srs36">
<gml:coordinates>100,200</gml:coordinates>
</gml:Point>
The value of the srsName attribute is a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). It refers to a definition of the CRS that is used to interpret the coordinates in the geometry. The CRS definition may be in a document (i.e. a flat file) or in an online web service. Values of EPSG codes can be resolved by using the EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset registry operated by the Oil and Gas Producers Association at http://www.epsg-registry.org.
The srsName URI may also be a Uniform Resource Name (URN) for referencing a common CRS definition. The OGC has developed a URN structure and a set specific URNs to encode some common CRS. A URN resolver resolves those URNs to GML CRS definitions.
Examples
Polygons, Points, and LineString objects are encoded in GML 1.0 and 2.0 as follows:
<gml:Polygon>
<gml:outerBoundaryIs>
<gml:LinearRing>
<gml:coordinates>0,0 100,0 100,100 0,100 0,0</gml:coordinates>
</gml:LinearRing>
</gml:outerBoundaryIs>
</gml:Polygon>
<gml:Point>
<gml:coordinates>100,200</gml:coordinates>
</gml:Point>
<gml:LineString>
<gml:coordinates>100,200 150,300</gml:coordinates>
</gml:LineString>
Note that LineString objects, along with LinearRing objects, assume linear interpolation between the specified points. Also the coordinates of a Polygon have to be closed.
Features using geometries
The following GML example illustrates the distinction between features and geometry objects. The Building feature has several geometry objects, sharing one of them (the Point with identifier p21) with the SurveyMonument feature:
<abc:Building gml:id="SearsTower">
<abc:height>52</abc:height>
<abc:position xlink:type="Simple" xlink:href="#p21"/>
</abc:Building>
<abc:SurveyMonument gml:id="g234">
<abc:position>
<gml:Point gml:id="p21">
<gml:posList>100,200</gml:posList>
</gml:Point>
</abc:position>
</abc:SurveyMonument>
Note that the reference is to the shared Point and not to the SurveyMonument, since any feature object can have more than one geometry object property.
Point Profile
The GML Point Profile contains a single GML geometry, namely a object type. Any XML Schema can use the Point Profile by importing it and referencing the subject instance:
<PhotoCollection xmlns="http://www.myphotos.org" xmlns:gml="http://www.opengis.net/gml"
xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.myphotos.org
MyGoodPhotos.xsd">
<items>
<Item>
<name>Lynn Valley</name>
<description>A shot of the falls from the suspension bridge</description>
<where>North Vancouver</where>
<position>
<gml:Point srsDimension="2" srsName="http://www.opengis.net/def/crs/EPSG/0/4326">
<gml:pos>49.40 -123.26</gml:pos>
</gml:Point>
</position>
</Item>
</items>
</PhotoCollection>
Note that when using the Point Profile, the only geometry object is the '<gml:Point>' object. The rest of the geography is defined by the photo-collection schema.
History
Initial work – to OGC recommendation paper
Ron Lake started work on GML in the fall of 1998, following earlier work on XML encodings for radio broadcasting. Lake presented his early ideas to an OGC meeting in Atlanta, Georgia, in February 1999, under the title xGML. This introduced the idea of a GeoDOM, and the notion of Geographic Styling Language (GSL) based on XSL. Akifumi Nakai of NTT Data also presented at the same meeting on work partly underway at NTT Data on an XML encoding called G-XML, which was targeted at location–based services. In April 1999, Galdos created the XBed team (with CubeWerx, Oracle Corporation, MapInfo Corporation, NTT Data, Mitsubishi, and Compusult as subcontractors). Xbed was focused on the use of XML for geospatial. This led to the creation of SFXML (Simple Features XML) with input from Galdos, US Census, and NTT Data. Galdos demonstrated an early map style engine pulling data from an Oracle-based "GML" data server (precursor of the WFS) at the first OGC Web Map Test Bed in September 1999. In October 1999, Galdos Systems rewrote the SFXML draft document into a Request for Comment, and changed the name of the language to GML (Geography Markup Language). This document introduced several key ideas that became the foundation of GML, including the 1) Object-Property-Value rule, 2) Remote properties (via rdf:resource), and 3) the decision to use application schemas rather than a set of static schemas. The paper also proposed that the language be based on the Resource Description Framework (RDF) rather than on the DTDs used to that point. These issues, including the use of RDF, were hotly debated within the OGC community during 1999 and 2000, with the result that the final GML Recommendation Paper contained three GML profiles – two based on DTD, and one on RDF – with one of the DTD's using a static schema approach. This passed as a Recommendation Paper at the OGC in May 2000.
Moving to XML Schema – Version 2.
Even before the passage of the Recommendation Paper at the OGC, Galdos had started work on an XML Schema version of GML, replacing the rdf:resource scheme for remote references with the use of xlink:href, and developing specific patterns (e.g. Barbarians at the Gate) for handling extensions for complex structures like feature collections. Much of the XML Schema design work was done by Mr. Richard Martell of Galdos who served as the document editor and who was mainly responsible for the translation of the basic GML model into an XML Schema. Other important inputs in this time frame came from Simon Cox (CSIRO Australia), Paul Daisey (US Census), David Burggraf (Galdos), and Adrian Cuthbert (Laser-Scan). The US Army Corps of Engineers (particularly Jeff Harrison) were quite supportive of the development of GML. The US Army Corps of Engineers sponsored the “USL Pilot” project, which was very helpful in exploring the utility of linking and styling concepts in the GML specification, with important work being done by Monie (Ionic) and Xia Li (Galdos). The XML Schema specification draft was submitted by Galdos and was approved for public distribution in December 2000. It became a Recommendation Paper in February 2001 and an Adopted Specification in May of the same year. This version (V2.0) eliminated the “profiles” from version 1. and established the key principles, as outlined in the original Galdos submission, as the basis of GML.
GML and G-XML (Japan)
As these events were unfolding, work was continuing in parallel in Japan on G-XML under the auspices of the Japanese Database Promotion Center under the direction of Mr. Shige Kawano. G-XML and GML differed in several important respects. Targeted at LBS applications, G-XML employed many concrete geographic objects (e.g. Mover, POI), while GML provided a very limited concrete set and built more complex objects by the use of application schemas. At this point in time, G-XML was still written using a DTD, while GML had already transitioned to an XML Schema. On the one hand G-XML required the use of many fundamental constructs not at the time in the GML lexicon, including temporality, spatial references by identifiers, objects having histories, and the concept of topology-based styling. GML, on the other hand, offered a limited set of primitives (geometry, feature) and a recipe to construct user defined object (feature) types.
A set of meetings held in Tokyo in January 2001, and involving Ron Lake (Galdos), Richard Martell (Galdos), OGC Staff (Kurt Buehler, David Schell), Mr. Shige Kawano (DPC), Mr. Akifumi Nakai (NTT Data) and Dr. Shimada (Hitachi CRL) led to the signing of an MOU between DPC and OGC by which OGC would endeavour to inject the fundamental elements required to support G-XML into GML, thus enabling G-XML to be written as a GML application schema. This resulted in many new types entering GML's core object list, including observations, dynamic features, temporal objects, default styles, topology, and viewpoints. Much of the work was conducted by Galdos under contract to NTT Data. This laid the foundation for GML 3, although a significant new development occurred in this time frame, namely the intersection of the OGC and ISO/TC 211.
Towards ISO – GML 3.0 broadens the scope of GML
While a basic coding existed for most of the new objects introduced by the GML/G-XML agreement, and for some introduced by Galdos within the OGC process (notably coverages), it soon became apparent that few of these encodings were compliant with the abstract specifications developed by the ISO TC/211, specifications which were increasingly becoming the basis for all OGC specifications. GML geometry, for example, had been based on an earlier and only partly documented geometry model (Simple Features Geometry) and this was insufficient to support the more extensive and complex geometries described in TC/211. The management of GML development was also altered in this time frame with the participation of many more individuals. Significant contributions in this time frame were made by Milan Trninic (Galdos) (default styles, CRS), Ron Lake (Galdos) (Observations), Richard Martell (Galdos) (dynamic features).
On June 12, 2002, Mr. Ron Lake was recognized by the OGC for his work in creating GML by being presented the Gardels award. The citation on the award reads “In particular, this award recognizes your great achievement in creating the Geography Markup Language, (GML), and your uniquely sensitive and effective work to promote the reconciliation of national differences to promote meaningful standardization of GML on a global level.” Simon Cox (CSIRO) and Clemens Portele (Interactive Instruments) also subsequently received the Gardels award, in part for their contributions to GML.
Standards
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international voluntary consensus standards organization whose members maintain the Geography Markup Language standard. The OGC coordinates with the ISO TC 211 standards organization to maintain consistency between OGC and ISO standards work. GML was adopted as an International Standard (ISO 19136:2007) in 2007.
GML can also be included in version 2.1 of the United States National Information Exchange Model (NIEM).
ISO 19136
ISO 19136 Geographic information – Geography Markup Language, is a standard from the family ISO – of the standards for geographic information (ISO 191xx). It resulted from unification of the Open Geospatial Consortium definitions and Geography Markup Language (GML) with the ISO-191xx standards.
Earlier versions of GML were not ISO conformal (GML 1, GML 2) with GML version 3.1.1. ISO conformity means in particular that GML is now also an implementation of ISO 19107.
The Geography Markup Language (GML) is an XML encoding in compliance with ISO 19118 for the transport and storage of geographic information modelled according to the conceptual modelling framework used in the ISO 19100-series and including both the spatial and nonspatial properties of geographic features. This specification defines the XML Schema syntax, mechanisms, and conventions that:
Provide an open, vendor-neutral framework for the definition of geospatial application schemas and objects;
Allow profiles that support proper subsets of GML framework descriptive capabilities;
Support the description of geospatial application schemas for specialized domains and information communities;
Enable the creation and maintenance of linked geographic application schemas and datasets;
Support the storage and transport of application schemas and data sets;
Increase the ability of organizations to share geographic application schemas and the information they describe.
See also
CityGML
Geographic Data Files (GDF)
GeoSPARQL – GML for geospatially-linked data and the Semantic Web
GeoJSON
GML Application Schemas
ISO/TS 19103 – Conceptual Schema Language (units of measure, basic types),
ISO 19108 – Temporal schema (temporal geometry and topology objects, temporal reference systems),
ISO 19109 – Rules for application schemas (features),
ISO 19111 – Spatial referencing by coordinates (coordinate reference systems),
ISO 19123 – Coverages
SDEP
SOSI
Well-known text representation of geometry
References
External links
ISO 19136:2007 - Geographic information – Geography Markup Language (GML)
GML specifications
XML markup languages
Industry-specific XML-based standards
GIS file formats
Open Geospatial Consortium
ISO/TC 211
ISO standards
GIS vector file formats
GIS raster file formats
|
[
0.04258625581860542,
0.3594015836715698,
0.1730881780385971,
-0.0459757000207901,
-0.2949056029319763,
0.3226761817932129,
-0.4976522922515869,
0.5777156949043274,
-0.2891984283924103,
-0.6307007670402527,
-0.9355323910713196,
0.21614590287208557,
-0.35765984654426575,
-0.1935526579618454,
0.389146089553833,
0.5449758768081665,
-0.1436213254928589,
0.44479620456695557,
-0.32568350434303284,
-0.37263140082359314,
0.09130286425352097,
-0.285910964012146,
-0.21502844989299774,
-0.5728503465652466,
0.5222362875938416,
0.07458584755659103,
0.41868746280670166,
0.5608493685722351,
-0.49718794226646423,
-0.11335903406143188,
0.2523549795150757,
0.4369158148765564,
0.11099841445684433,
0.3640240728855133,
0.22241367399692535,
-0.2730556130409241,
-0.18338897824287415,
-0.20205770432949066,
-0.41068899631500244,
-0.5666198134422302,
0.38305214047431946,
-0.042280204594135284,
-0.09181143343448639,
0.29654407501220703,
-0.030605759471654892,
-0.13367034494876862,
-1.4902355670928955,
0.07382628321647644,
-0.5390107035636902,
-0.3862847685813904,
-0.9072198867797852,
0.30240291357040405,
0.1466299593448639,
0.36260226368904114,
-0.005103369243443012,
0.6179187297821045,
-0.3648854196071625,
-0.6190477609634399,
0.05117455869913101,
0.04930854216217995,
-0.053421538323163986,
0.02739080600440502,
-0.3831794559955597,
0.07576126605272293,
0.3199053108692169,
0.11722162365913391,
-0.7455204129219055,
0.28669965267181396,
-0.7043182849884033,
-0.5709978342056274,
-0.23154880106449127,
-0.1447412073612213,
-0.33600372076034546,
0.812816858291626,
-0.6595125198364258,
0.5925663709640503,
-0.11892595887184143,
0.06708483397960663,
-0.5414239764213562,
0.32814136147499084,
-0.3340015709400177,
0.5917563438415527,
0.38227546215057373,
-0.1897403448820114,
0.42239129543304443,
0.1734640747308731,
-0.37684035301208496,
0.46628445386886597,
-0.3642598092556,
0.5360600352287292,
0.4409307539463043,
-0.4918157756328583,
0.36778944730758667,
-0.13346050679683685,
0.5332513451576233,
-0.02228965237736702,
-0.43665796518325806,
0.04460207372903824,
-0.39840230345726013,
0.19927695393562317,
-0.3904869854450226,
0.3788427710533142,
0.2905997931957245,
0.23116587102413177,
-0.847497284412384,
-0.2678300142288208,
-0.6066282987594604,
-0.4159681499004364,
0.10702682286500931,
0.025205761194229126,
0.05338025093078613,
-0.009700334630906582,
0.1053558811545372,
-0.3766094446182251,
0.28356555104255676,
0.3776599168777466,
0.4668439030647278,
0.024331772699952126,
-0.06971656531095505,
0.07224499434232712,
-0.07205813378095627,
0.9531772136688232,
0.09187856316566467,
-0.1497422754764557,
0.4216131865978241,
0.08637816458940506,
0.5512917637825012,
0.24121196568012238,
-0.6851394772529602,
0.17015670239925385,
0.08652670681476593,
0.6386279463768005,
0.5916643142700195,
-0.05964744836091995,
-0.2673407196998596,
-0.024432672187685966,
0.6890512704849243,
-0.31304508447647095,
0.15949228405952454,
0.032280344516038895,
-0.4976915121078491,
-0.46633270382881165,
-0.26681023836135864,
-0.5217117071151733,
0.6045021414756775,
0.06826375424861908,
0.0197626780718565,
-0.8089410662651062,
-0.3076632022857666,
-0.029873672872781754,
0.006628301925957203,
0.05993301793932915,
-0.05027591437101364,
-0.09994570165872574,
-0.32088232040405273,
0.9978605508804321,
0.22390532493591309,
0.2764110565185547,
0.08458103984594345,
-0.27598774433135986,
0.16987203061580658,
0.18209005892276764,
-0.6948539018630981,
-0.3494064211845398,
0.29492440819740295,
-0.6972035765647888,
0.24271902441978455,
0.35710155963897705,
0.33714139461517334,
-0.33026430010795593,
-0.09844193607568741,
-0.6669436097145081,
0.04490204527974129,
0.05322663113474846,
-0.17764419317245483,
-0.09579481184482574,
0.6068223714828491,
0.29006582498550415,
0.9039902091026306,
-0.21625950932502747,
-0.6553422212600708,
0.1435183733701706,
0.49062255024909973,
-0.14016255736351013,
0.6278449892997742,
-0.21231530606746674,
0.6876665353775024,
-0.12681998312473297,
-0.1636694371700287,
-0.34230121970176697,
-0.6793555021286011,
-0.620707094669342,
0.23284997045993805,
-0.6076920032501221,
0.8318617939949036,
-0.061994701623916626,
-0.6492853760719299,
0.9266951084136963,
-0.14380137622356415,
0.7004576325416565,
-0.42462170124053955,
0.1531650871038437,
0.34317439794540405,
-0.00375331100076437,
0.132301464676857,
-0.1408916413784027,
-0.29567402601242065,
-0.01173693872988224,
-0.06214405596256256,
0.18622705340385437,
0.1998552531003952,
-0.13752157986164093,
0.5532248020172119,
-0.06962016224861145,
0.08502278476953506,
-0.41417768597602844,
-0.18525278568267822,
0.42848649621009827,
-0.08273234218358994,
-0.08868091553449631,
1.3204289674758911,
-0.3100544810295105,
-0.5181580185890198,
0.5247335433959961,
-0.7119519710540771,
0.33001402020454407,
0.30438655614852905,
1.0421909093856812,
1.0678997039794922,
-0.3903895616531372,
0.11643631011247635,
-0.11031634360551834,
0.2881821393966675,
-0.7803604602813721,
-0.28769901394844055,
-0.15070059895515442,
0.37065863609313965,
-0.2384297400712967,
0.3049619197845459,
0.06730031222105026,
0.2531757354736328,
-0.07872750610113144,
-0.4605378806591034,
-0.45131292939186096,
0.2501237392425537,
-0.1912005990743637,
-0.18415118753910065,
0.09888312220573425,
-0.3693128228187561,
0.25833502411842346,
0.21879813075065613,
0.41428154706954956,
0.10835075378417969,
-0.31723010540008545,
-0.6653855443000793,
0.06791148334741592,
-0.023118142038583755,
-0.7493711709976196,
0.31582149863243103,
0.8316027522087097,
0.21151404082775116,
0.38655033707618713,
-0.3916695713996887,
-0.02253377065062523,
-0.2809414565563202,
-1.0152703523635864,
-0.12097393721342087,
-0.28241902589797974,
-0.09814275801181793,
0.6021285653114319,
0.4052417576313019,
-0.016233570873737335,
-0.3562888205051422,
-0.09196623414754868,
-0.26164478063583374,
-0.48221054673194885,
0.5416969656944275,
-0.06954459100961685,
-0.7329685091972351,
-0.7494211792945862,
0.13695456087589264,
-0.2879498600959778,
0.6616312861442566,
0.03747454285621643,
-0.4711845815181732,
-0.5553224086761475,
0.17344123125076294,
-0.4959801137447357,
-0.0381542332470417,
-0.1683407723903656,
-0.20289573073387146,
0.8985763192176819,
-0.13184669613838196,
0.26261740922927856,
0.17839771509170532,
0.679784893989563,
0.12462327629327774,
-0.2225499153137207,
0.17708078026771545,
0.04456786811351776,
-0.7197628021240234,
0.021531760692596436,
0.2049504965543747,
-0.3408871293067932,
-0.1740173101425171,
0.18472352623939514,
-0.5138809680938721,
0.014801503159105778,
-5.55457878112793,
0.12698137760162354,
-0.2236039936542511,
-0.48495855927467346,
-0.3884273171424866,
0.02995382621884346,
0.6749629974365234,
-0.21949650347232819,
0.09780944883823395,
0.034001585096120834,
-0.1591257005929947,
-0.1017831563949585,
-0.4530746638774872,
-0.0863763839006424,
0.5463796854019165,
0.6119858026504517,
0.37810155749320984,
0.2536137104034424,
0.11463051289319992,
0.6045520901679993,
-0.10293543338775635,
-0.2652254104614258,
0.20652055740356445,
0.006069858092814684,
0.7176351547241211,
0.372830331325531,
-0.5748263001441956,
0.07418946921825409,
-0.03866812214255333,
-0.1765102744102478,
0.6161594390869141,
-0.20897726714611053,
-0.04435831680893898,
0.004241839982569218,
-0.25065529346466064,
-0.3363730311393738,
0.5801942944526672,
0.7577764987945557,
0.4962688982486725,
-0.714497447013855,
0.30117952823638916,
0.7281941175460815,
0.16878297924995422,
-0.5750751495361328,
0.2541963458061218,
-0.17171572148799896,
-0.14578238129615784,
-0.06703900545835495,
-0.6251510977745056,
0.6791302561759949,
-0.4399472177028656,
-0.06221519038081169,
-0.23974214494228363,
-0.08524871617555618,
0.039898261427879333,
-0.045746538788080215,
1.029637336730957,
-0.06949219107627869,
-0.969199001789093,
0.22154630720615387,
0.9766630530357361,
-0.8919411301612854,
-0.16533233225345612,
-1.4583896398544312,
-0.40004080533981323,
-0.04015718400478363,
-1.0528109073638916,
-0.3631454110145569,
-0.08292219042778015,
0.6445370316505432,
-0.24545462429523468,
0.01991720125079155,
-0.06860991567373276,
-0.4452393352985382,
0.23144111037254333,
-1.037493348121643,
0.07781955599784851,
-0.21413879096508026,
-0.01885048672556877,
-0.3000212013721466,
-0.271251380443573,
-0.5035383105278015,
-0.09020142257213593,
0.4762762188911438,
-0.39586663246154785,
-0.2786151170730591,
-0.38654911518096924,
-0.10998367518186569,
-0.15714558959007263,
-0.22206977009773254,
0.6489749550819397,
-0.7791193127632141,
0.25985780358314514,
0.26864883303642273,
0.325507789850235,
-0.10569038987159729,
0.9384376406669617,
-0.025561567395925522,
0.47963669896125793,
-0.7485013604164124,
0.32448700070381165,
-0.2243531197309494,
-0.22208531200885773,
-0.26699355244636536,
0.011388694867491722,
-0.023596685379743576,
-0.6084096431732178,
0.3127683699131012,
1.1424524784088135,
0.05516628548502922,
-0.019837304949760437,
0.7181233763694763,
-0.07045771181583405,
-0.24117353558540344,
-0.27254241704940796,
0.5072118043899536,
-0.43268492817878723,
-0.020428171381354332,
0.5373001098632812,
-0.24423252046108246,
-0.06103402376174927,
0.16255277395248413,
0.05625390633940697,
0.38084548711776733,
0.1952313333749771,
-0.26430168747901917,
0.25999659299850464,
0.49476656317710876,
-0.31802716851234436,
-0.18809859454631805,
0.5163464546203613,
-0.05999290570616722,
0.2649744153022766,
-0.4519865810871124,
0.044692736119031906,
0.011862157844007015,
-0.22983738780021667,
0.49692055583000183,
0.6533375978469849,
-0.648765504360199,
0.4397238790988922,
-0.09349951893091202,
0.41440409421920776,
0.0972449854016304,
0.8662542700767517,
-0.21747420728206635,
0.01802905648946762,
-0.007734998129308224,
-0.2661357820034027,
0.24215731024742126,
0.4220675230026245,
-0.030811483040452003,
0.19219940900802612,
0.10518155992031097,
0.4415833652019501,
0.13292773067951202,
-0.18606220185756683,
0.3713448643684387,
0.2833617627620697,
-0.6084147691726685,
0.316928505897522,
-0.1758061945438385,
-0.612154483795166,
0.02196923829615116,
0.26255425810813904,
-0.5063850283622742,
-0.36818817257881165,
0.0632738545536995,
-0.3958173096179962,
0.4472608268260956,
0.27434077858924866,
-0.8444055318832397,
-0.578177809715271,
-0.38277068734169006,
-0.4787706732749939,
0.023223495110869408,
0.18288841843605042,
0.2880251705646515,
0.1094633936882019,
0.7402325868606567,
-0.28960832953453064,
-0.598198413848877,
0.09060896188020706,
0.5020660758018494,
-0.0878957062959671,
0.2707216739654541,
0.015456444583833218,
0.20502281188964844,
-0.0631292387843132,
0.03618762642145157,
-0.2103300243616104,
0.19013631343841553,
0.34014979004859924,
-0.0254502110183239,
-0.3264797329902649,
-0.46708744764328003,
0.38353970646858215,
0.26253411173820496,
-0.01788529008626938,
-0.9611078500747681,
-0.1434316784143448,
0.6004481315612793,
-0.5563974976539612,
0.42557963728904724,
-0.006458291318267584,
-0.45538604259490967,
0.2743408679962158,
-0.33149853348731995,
-0.8980448246002197,
-0.14270609617233276,
-0.7100685238838196,
-0.41841787099838257,
-0.18974421918392181,
-0.16315947473049164,
-0.7652826905250549,
0.04064999148249626,
-0.07387586683034897,
-0.23562148213386536,
-0.12123145908117294,
-0.18133573234081268,
-0.05682249739766121,
0.02470928244292736,
-0.35813799500465393,
0.319831907749176,
0.08387772738933563,
0.5314213037490845,
0.2151932716369629,
-0.31544068455696106,
0.4611779451370239,
-0.5337738394737244,
0.06899315863847733,
-0.28280916810035706,
0.0019760236609727144,
0.6479735970497131,
0.13665346801280975,
-0.03636348620057106,
-0.7191281318664551,
0.3584638237953186,
0.41610515117645264,
0.1882958859205246,
0.4984983503818512,
0.8090348243713379,
0.06177039071917534,
-0.4614261984825134,
-0.10074875503778458,
0.4733143448829651,
-0.03421459347009659,
-0.6086350083351135,
-0.8670168519020081,
0.008228473365306854,
0.3455734848976135,
-0.4837622344493866,
-0.518347978591919,
-0.5692004561424255,
0.9295458793640137,
0.521007239818573,
-0.5366790890693665,
-0.033103447407484055,
-0.23141765594482422,
0.12592652440071106,
0.48445436358451843,
0.23910798132419586,
-0.12452103942632675,
0.5827723741531372,
0.562552273273468,
0.10857532918453217,
0.0915522649884224,
-0.07769347727298737,
0.18713943660259247,
-0.145364910364151,
0.0014157718978822231,
-0.7113259434700012,
0.4113198220729828,
0.5395015478134155,
0.4649643301963806,
-0.744194746017456,
0.23378261923789978,
-0.17765070497989655,
0.8314040303230286,
0.25539734959602356,
-0.46525341272354126,
0.3113057017326355,
0.6897054314613342,
-0.505397617816925,
0.5342825651168823,
-0.4566776156425476,
0.12827056646347046,
0.3812071681022644,
-0.10461711883544922,
-0.08534245193004608,
-0.6562227606773376,
0.5044177174568176,
-0.5723719596862793,
0.38224655389785767,
-0.4956810772418976,
0.08215006440877914,
0.2241775095462799,
-0.033219825476408005,
-0.029131921008229256,
-0.12799905240535736,
-0.23827007412910461,
1.3112404346466064,
0.24598658084869385,
-0.4932136833667755,
0.7111296057701111,
0.15308748185634613,
0.3089170753955841,
-0.023179158568382263,
0.14189878106117249,
-0.5133072733879089,
-0.09085572510957718,
0.04109137877821922,
0.47104570269584656,
0.5735333561897278,
-0.2974598705768585,
0.08062882721424103,
0.24388377368450165,
-0.282214492559433,
0.7723461985588074,
0.296118825674057,
-0.0031043461058288813,
-0.2057270109653473,
0.3214574158191681,
0.045979950577020645,
-0.6543499231338501,
0.2903519570827484,
-0.30925124883651733,
0.13745850324630737,
0.6069409251213074,
-0.05463249608874321,
0.11330582946538925,
-0.001442586537450552,
-0.41534316539764404,
0.04612578824162483,
-0.16214579343795776,
-0.23972687125205994,
-0.12726138532161713,
-0.07657565176486969,
-0.3858179748058319,
0.5879130363464355,
0.1381843239068985,
0.7153374552726746,
-0.5259398818016052,
-0.23302693665027618,
-0.22290904819965363,
-0.10416390001773834,
-0.24333196878433228,
0.712626576423645,
0.06679529696702957,
0.6080761551856995,
0.3647395670413971,
0.13425762951374054,
0.021373698487877846,
0.03809718042612076,
-0.5688958168029785,
-0.2635839879512787,
-0.0023624233435839415,
0.11643906682729721,
-0.3759092092514038,
0.061417125165462494,
-0.28388330340385437,
0.5697914361953735,
0.34693825244903564,
-0.006321208085864782,
-0.23928263783454895,
-0.08016642183065414,
0.3540124297142029,
-0.3462512195110321,
0.5345021486282349,
0.4154403805732727,
0.08624614030122757,
0.8753154873847961,
-0.13407815992832184,
0.7676244378089905,
-0.20105266571044922,
-0.2626075744628906,
0.10561446100473404,
0.4437887966632843,
-0.034066829830408096,
-0.14138592779636383,
-0.46006321907043457,
-0.32966744899749756,
0.26544636487960815,
-0.821205198764801,
-0.08679508417844772,
-0.37657999992370605,
-0.047478847205638885,
0.291604220867157,
-0.008309884928166866,
0.33662399649620056,
-0.24337376654148102,
-0.6317116618156433,
0.171556755900383,
-0.6001651883125305,
-0.2855491042137146,
-0.07929539680480957,
-0.4690682590007782,
0.8292521834373474,
0.2077384889125824,
-0.40472736954689026,
-0.1417975276708603,
-0.11559981852769852,
0.586966335773468,
-0.21443219482898712,
-0.011180833913385868,
0.3103789985179901,
-0.033136025071144104,
0.48283588886260986,
-0.3314474821090698,
0.09106461703777313,
0.5522306561470032,
-0.028501221910119057,
-0.23895065486431122,
0.2489006221294403,
-0.17260630428791046,
0.8991926908493042,
0.19746281206607819,
-0.13828067481517792,
0.22972245514392853,
0.01990828476846218,
-0.36152663826942444,
0.05021003633737564,
0.04894587770104408,
0.26966825127601624,
0.47276556491851807,
-0.08812489360570908,
0.5843549370765686,
0.3807322084903717,
-0.37397500872612,
0.6302998661994934,
0.23922961950302124,
-0.11454662680625916,
-0.7332680821418762,
0.4850715398788452,
-0.5086049437522888,
0.2321343719959259,
-0.7933600544929504,
0.6300317049026489,
0.3791499733924866,
-0.5259629487991333,
-0.2949216961860657,
-0.6321155428886414,
-0.2540947496891022,
0.08241605758666992,
-0.7277920246124268,
0.1273140013217926,
0.10679005831480026,
-0.20766879618167877,
-1.3691484928131104,
0.5186423659324646,
0.5904446840286255,
-0.12634581327438354,
0.03972599655389786,
-0.184380903840065,
0.08741745352745056,
0.5809077620506287,
0.4852968454360962,
-1.1767359972000122,
-0.04409012198448181,
0.561555802822113
] |
203658
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucales
|
Noctilucales
|
The Noctilucales are an order of marine dinoflagellates. They differ from most others in that the mature cell is diploid and its nucleus does not show a dinokaryotic organization. They show gametic meiosis.
Characteristics
These cells are very large, from 0.2 to 2 millimetres in diameter, and are filled with large buoyant vacuoles. Some may contain symbiotic green algae, but there are no chloroplasts. Instead, they feed on other plankton, and there is usually a special flagellum involved in ingestion.
Noctilucales reproduce mainly by fission, but sexual reproduction also occurs. Each cell produces numerous gametes, which resemble more typical athecate dinoflagellates and have the dinokaryotic nuclei. Evidence suggests that they diverged from most other dinoflagellates early on, and they are generally placed in their own class.
Taxonomy
Class Noctiluciphyceae Fensome et al. 1993 [Noctilucae Haeckel 1866; Noctilucea Haeckel 1866 stat. nov.; Cystoflagellata Haeckel 1873 stat. nov. Butschli 1887]
Order Noctilucales Haeckel 1894
Family Noctilucaceae Saville-Kent 1881
Genus Noctiluca Kofoid 1920 [Mammaria Oken 1815 (sic); Slabberia Oken 1815 (sic)]
Genus Spatulodinium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1968 ex Loeblich & Loeblich III 1969
Family Kofoidiniaceae Taylor 1976
Genus Cymbodinium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1967
Genus Pomatodinium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1966
Genus Kofoidinium Pavillard 1928
Family Leptodiscaceae Kofoid 1905
Genus Abedinium Loeblich & Loeblich III 1966 [Leptophyllus Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1964 non Hope 1842]
Genus Cachonodinium Loeblich III 1980 [Leptodinium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1969 non Klement 1960]
Genus Craspedotella Kofoid 1905
Genus Leptodiscus Hertwig 1877 [Pratjetella Lohmann 1920; Clipeodinium Pascher 1917]
Genus Petalodinium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1969
Genus Scaphodinium Margalef 1963 [Leptospathium Cachon & Cachon-Enjumet 1964]
Examples
The most common species is Noctiluca scintillans, also called N. miliaris. Blooms of this species are red-orange and can be bioluminescent when disturbed, as are various other dinoflagellates, and large blooms can sometimes be seen as flickering lights on the ocean, known as the milky seas effect.
Another example is Spatulodinium pseudonoctiluca.
References
Further reading
External links
Noctiluca scintillans — Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia, Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute
Dinoflagellate orders
Dinophyceae
|
[
0.15508683025836945,
-0.1833275705575943,
-0.14668220281600952,
0.22989699244499207,
-0.37024083733558655,
0.007518373895436525,
0.14890557527542114,
0.8573034405708313,
0.060557231307029724,
-0.09459815174341202,
0.34845852851867676,
0.4173397123813629,
-0.3781834840774536,
0.3144030272960663,
0.09359271079301834,
0.15764950215816498,
0.0883859246969223,
0.7054542303085327,
0.1740826815366745,
-0.047781530767679214,
-0.032287318259477615,
-0.7963565587997437,
0.37649235129356384,
-0.5170980095863342,
0.5905777215957642,
0.3318369686603546,
-0.47832661867141724,
0.25673767924308777,
0.3069361746311188,
-0.4293326735496521,
-0.6224192976951599,
1.0456897020339966,
0.03295615315437317,
-0.3857906758785248,
-0.2248973250389099,
0.19860319793224335,
-0.21229542791843414,
-0.7632141709327698,
-0.1787208467721939,
-0.9187368154525757,
-0.14379961788654327,
-0.3315527141094208,
-0.07424429804086685,
0.5811958909034729,
-0.6365893483161926,
0.624660313129425,
-0.9238598346710205,
0.05187211185693741,
-1.0056421756744385,
0.2125304937362671,
-0.2977537512779236,
-0.27946144342422485,
0.9209103584289551,
0.11595766246318817,
-0.15325915813446045,
0.15268342196941376,
-1.3883153200149536,
-0.027887918055057526,
-0.13830851018428802,
-0.38872721791267395,
-0.11637493968009949,
0.09795979410409927,
-0.014480038546025753,
-0.15558379888534546,
0.5367459654808044,
0.32599395513534546,
-0.11170853674411774,
0.3423811197280884,
-0.8719453811645508,
0.4007919430732727,
0.0014042286202311516,
-0.4747863709926605,
0.2741812467575073,
0.3707714378833771,
-0.40293049812316895,
-0.14384856820106506,
-0.5297739505767822,
-0.010423526167869568,
0.5606831908226013,
0.26350417733192444,
0.12161113321781158,
0.743043065071106,
0.986014187335968,
-0.052953459322452545,
0.3363059163093567,
-0.1578332781791687,
-0.802442193031311,
0.2807222902774811,
-0.6062076687812805,
0.4655911326408386,
-0.3432576060295105,
0.03634386509656906,
0.9036672115325928,
0.27578669786453247,
-0.011593310162425041,
-0.2079065442085266,
-0.19970032572746277,
-0.1950758397579193,
-0.1597396731376648,
0.7220805287361145,
-0.3150195777416229,
-0.10183427482843399,
0.23242820799350739,
-0.02089250087738037,
-0.6305913329124451,
-0.2017253190279007,
-0.6247585415840149,
-0.05134391039609909,
-0.1609468013048172,
-0.1032598540186882,
-0.51568204164505,
0.0664621964097023,
-0.07659311592578888,
0.5178089737892151,
0.1985027939081192,
0.6012477278709412,
0.3185330331325531,
-0.20668978989124298,
-0.21576744318008423,
-0.629460334777832,
0.2574458718299866,
0.2475181370973587,
0.2887866199016571,
-0.2627180218696594,
-0.5051466822624207,
0.4534577429294586,
0.14060252904891968,
0.6621607542037964,
-0.2941715717315674,
0.21897630393505096,
-0.02056572400033474,
0.9624047875404358,
0.1397760659456253,
-0.0008091343333944678,
0.21056824922561646,
-0.540621280670166,
-0.39611658453941345,
0.23037280142307281,
0.7309210300445557,
0.12183613330125809,
-0.7848148345947266,
0.3128649890422821,
-0.820859432220459,
-0.3469546139240265,
0.1996607780456543,
-0.26918306946754456,
-0.11334948986768723,
0.07772086560726166,
-0.3799874186515808,
-0.34424418210983276,
0.4398654103279114,
-0.35166212916374207,
-0.26113104820251465,
0.18159784376621246,
-0.2916261851787567,
-0.2830352783203125,
0.4231875240802765,
0.06303216516971588,
0.5088148713111877,
0.5560206770896912,
-0.5140413641929626,
-0.2862094044685364,
-0.050019439309835434,
0.43470266461372375,
0.44074058532714844,
-0.1099608838558197,
0.37133002281188965,
0.45550790429115295,
-0.03402861952781677,
1.0506807565689087,
-0.29368624091148376,
-0.6134463548660278,
0.5514436960220337,
0.08341655135154724,
-0.015335865318775177,
-0.4684348702430725,
0.18123574554920197,
-0.013677931390702724,
0.42586177587509155,
-0.27154091000556946,
-0.6714833378791809,
0.8215480446815491,
0.1652618944644928,
-0.060308441519737244,
-0.17620635032653809,
-0.4510173201560974,
0.30694976449012756,
0.029134010896086693,
0.1394733041524887,
-0.030635563656687737,
-0.45493102073669434,
0.31853827834129333,
0.08095443248748779,
0.22710813581943512,
0.5841608643531799,
0.26816168427467346,
-0.32818302512168884,
0.13248753547668457,
0.10866152495145798,
0.12318963557481766,
-0.5285375118255615,
0.5454198718070984,
-0.08018907159566879,
-0.3583069145679474,
-0.41540318727493286,
1.0477535724639893,
0.13309408724308014,
0.1367378532886505,
0.6158397793769836,
0.5278791189193726,
-0.19193831086158752,
-0.1953064501285553,
0.6200502514839172,
-0.43492162227630615,
-0.2135169953107834,
-0.6764571666717529,
-0.0005170744843780994,
0.2841653525829315,
0.11416321992874146,
-0.7466919422149658,
0.42086055874824524,
0.014459817670285702,
0.13003961741924286,
0.4135509133338928,
-0.7848196625709534,
0.5286033153533936,
0.5964519381523132,
-0.27541083097457886,
0.7561047077178955,
-0.3743046224117279,
0.5607990026473999,
0.13137726485729218,
0.24237516522407532,
-0.16191376745700836,
0.15303193032741547,
0.32100966572761536,
0.20734195411205292,
-1.185165286064148,
0.44982537627220154,
-0.834314227104187,
0.2946331799030304,
-0.2600664496421814,
-0.43590882420539856,
0.4261620044708252,
0.6523870825767517,
0.16951119899749756,
0.21491707861423492,
0.4852995276451111,
-0.44630029797554016,
-0.001764056971296668,
0.18913885951042175,
0.8516721129417419,
0.3807351291179657,
-0.5901109576225281,
0.16516157984733582,
0.34532034397125244,
0.2800474166870117,
-0.06124701723456383,
0.24583007395267487,
-0.20976833999156952,
-0.21721144020557404,
0.4813006818294525,
0.2676205635070801,
0.6384609937667847,
-0.3374318480491638,
-0.6400118470191956,
0.31884628534317017,
-0.1899448186159134,
0.8710141181945801,
-0.3415084779262543,
0.6321836709976196,
0.11101207137107849,
-0.6229884624481201,
-0.3784974217414856,
-0.5211961269378662,
-0.4803096055984497,
-0.14642418920993805,
0.16593831777572632,
-0.44022324681282043,
-0.2180270552635193,
-0.13426537811756134,
0.7469221949577332,
-0.14310713112354279,
-0.1360207051038742,
-0.2745342552661896,
-0.2862389087677002,
0.8381564617156982,
-0.5793870687484741,
0.23963145911693573,
-1.033403754234314,
-0.32120493054389954,
-0.34209880232810974,
-0.30744799971580505,
0.4905387759208679,
-0.9827173948287964,
-0.38260436058044434,
0.03530488163232803,
0.0010271226055920124,
0.1489432007074356,
-0.8741598129272461,
-0.9245917797088623,
-0.06511420011520386,
-0.06163756176829338,
0.09932907670736313,
-0.5298712849617004,
0.40346336364746094,
0.2503818869590759,
0.47080090641975403,
-5.345277786254883,
0.20035244524478912,
-0.03205665200948715,
0.4237276315689087,
0.3723370134830475,
0.19457443058490753,
0.6194884777069092,
-0.27985501289367676,
-0.40261322259902954,
-0.2117103636264801,
0.10830724984407425,
0.22364479303359985,
-0.19643592834472656,
0.41297560930252075,
0.16459384560585022,
0.14956335723400116,
-0.1836334615945816,
-0.0636199563741684,
-0.42350026965141296,
-0.0986471027135849,
-0.47549521923065186,
0.4054296612739563,
0.6013196706771851,
0.0783219113945961,
-0.07277081906795502,
-0.12418979406356812,
0.08768527209758759,
-0.13676556944847107,
0.04256695136427879,
0.10047589987516403,
-0.312805712223053,
-0.3024595379829407,
-0.43618232011795044,
0.1181906908750534,
-0.601272702217102,
0.21829713881015778,
0.7143951654434204,
-0.13063406944274902,
0.11808853596448898,
-0.4107462763786316,
-0.8753504753112793,
0.18608060479164124,
0.14873309433460236,
-0.04051896929740906,
0.5319419503211975,
0.14885199069976807,
-0.48854318261146545,
-0.14475402235984802,
-0.11006022244691849,
1.0146187543869019,
0.047705523669719696,
-0.322819322347641,
0.5832223892211914,
0.33559125661849976,
0.38289254903793335,
-0.09253266453742981,
0.477067232131958,
-0.32781341671943665,
-0.6819962859153748,
0.4848747253417969,
0.4354534149169922,
-0.27432888746261597,
-0.11669841408729553,
-0.6693083047866821,
0.23961469531059265,
0.09363649040460587,
-0.19477088749408722,
0.5437524914741516,
0.8547875881195068,
-0.12250223755836487,
-0.13870014250278473,
0.6304582953453064,
-0.5074449181556702,
-0.727733850479126,
0.09707903116941452,
-0.5473202466964722,
-0.20510894060134888,
0.22871960699558258,
-0.5641027092933655,
0.17634889483451843,
0.3543141484260559,
0.06591889262199402,
0.09600746631622314,
0.38074830174446106,
-0.23148518800735474,
-0.46774035692214966,
0.25273406505584717,
0.16610203683376312,
-0.41423141956329346,
0.09371183812618256,
-0.13860999047756195,
0.1310843676328659,
0.3304251730442047,
0.21370400488376617,
0.20971396565437317,
0.31199172139167786,
0.44049325585365295,
0.3437737226486206,
0.18666763603687286,
-0.6864139437675476,
0.9043362140655518,
-0.3776576519012451,
0.3351942300796509,
0.19666323065757751,
-0.5553848743438721,
-1.2353874444961548,
0.09441014379262924,
0.8639631867408752,
0.39222678542137146,
-0.24285507202148438,
0.4070305824279785,
0.23958423733711243,
-0.5320469737052917,
-0.2199234515428543,
0.27780309319496155,
-0.11842172592878342,
-0.6834230422973633,
0.27508479356765747,
0.5397114157676697,
0.19496923685073853,
0.45583757758140564,
0.6128195524215698,
-0.10350804775953293,
-0.2783634662628174,
-0.2873544692993164,
-0.016748705878853798,
0.2488921880722046,
-0.16618800163269043,
-0.38542869687080383,
0.017429275438189507,
-0.5149127244949341,
0.04282749071717262,
-0.29951250553131104,
-0.07532242685556412,
-0.2424239218235016,
-0.20663033425807953,
-0.5304001569747925,
0.03024686872959137,
-0.05565229803323746,
-0.056288156658411026,
0.019932366907596588,
-0.3846849501132965,
-0.6509871482849121,
0.27905160188674927,
0.7811970710754395,
0.6851438283920288,
-0.4909284710884094,
-0.5088525414466858,
-0.6193945407867432,
0.8990893959999084,
0.2696720361709595,
-0.45589300990104675,
0.34143513441085815,
-1.2047228813171387,
0.2401687055826187,
0.09337123483419418,
0.04354390874505043,
0.49487271904945374,
-0.05227181315422058,
-0.8767097592353821,
-0.43168091773986816,
0.09061134606599808,
-0.7787664532661438,
-0.0474817119538784,
-0.10132798552513123,
-0.4329806864261627,
-0.9520779848098755,
-0.6007354855537415,
-0.7869550585746765,
0.02305961772799492,
-0.4771978557109833,
-0.16616208851337433,
-0.4947252869606018,
-0.46665820479393005,
-0.011177361011505127,
-0.5199294686317444,
-0.037628475576639175,
0.49835413694381714,
0.3318595886230469,
-0.20769579708576202,
0.21611304581165314,
-0.03764839842915535,
0.2449546903371811,
-0.4013100266456604,
0.7343331575393677,
-0.7052889466285706,
-0.011699317954480648,
-0.7349465489387512,
-0.8560574650764465,
0.2431923896074295,
0.10509156435728073,
0.38647589087486267,
0.40405964851379395,
-0.13553684949874878,
-0.6961234211921692,
0.33101680874824524,
0.06297771632671356,
0.5643420815467834,
-0.5253685712814331,
-1.1392046213150024,
-0.14057032763957977,
0.1849329024553299,
-0.21373173594474792,
0.1832677274942398,
0.21304284036159515,
-0.7425855398178101,
0.06348153948783875,
-0.05003281682729721,
-0.7077344655990601,
0.021174194291234016,
0.04486553743481636,
-0.5671548247337341,
0.07523498684167862,
0.40073835849761963,
0.2493458092212677,
-0.16391272842884064,
0.1628446877002716,
0.07886511832475662,
-0.5622565746307373,
-0.3756285607814789,
0.2676598131656647,
0.3040465712547302,
0.33179208636283875,
-0.5330086350440979,
-0.37114787101745605,
-0.08318371325731277,
0.16176147758960724,
0.03387436643242836,
0.8255983591079712,
-0.5666275024414062,
0.10103145241737366,
-0.2337212711572647,
0.147695392370224,
-0.04219210520386696,
-0.3351210355758667,
0.11889879405498505,
0.07451527565717697,
0.33778971433639526,
-0.1883934885263443,
-0.2294890135526657,
0.6551808714866638,
0.9446775913238525,
0.6574628353118896,
-0.5370123982429504,
0.3804306387901306,
-0.3352925777435303,
0.14389348030090332,
0.06360206753015518,
-0.6729437112808228,
0.3911895751953125,
0.8243123292922974,
-0.23140627145767212,
-0.8915956616401672,
0.027752261608839035,
1.4511306285858154,
-0.5785602927207947,
0.38288968801498413,
-0.03684478625655174,
-0.4152114689350128,
-0.01946331188082695,
0.08169436454772949,
0.43261682987213135,
-0.4103595018386841,
0.20693327486515045,
-0.32951459288597107,
-0.18669718503952026,
-0.5529199838638306,
0.2660187780857086,
0.9272076487541199,
-0.5250583291053772,
0.0475146509706974,
-0.01516054943203926,
-0.06375434994697571,
0.38174280524253845,
0.04967004060745239,
0.38482558727264404,
0.6354266405105591,
-0.6086628437042236,
0.36421748995780945,
-0.37805241346359253,
-0.45995262265205383,
0.04671407863497734,
0.18687781691551208,
0.41998594999313354,
-0.6588507294654846,
-0.7075349688529968,
-0.5614284873008728,
0.5476389527320862,
-0.3219326436519623,
-0.12411939352750778,
-0.222243532538414,
0.010050902143120766,
0.14074459671974182,
-0.308418869972229,
0.7407079339027405,
-0.1403532475233078,
0.0958656594157219,
0.36545783281326294,
-0.4006766378879547,
0.6183167099952698,
-0.7777341604232788,
0.6352342367172241,
0.10714460909366608,
-0.6330021023750305,
-0.08453807234764099,
0.24569348990917206,
0.3450554609298706,
0.2896975576877594,
-0.21119894087314606,
0.058154188096523285,
-0.31675997376441956,
0.02141294814646244,
0.06798934191465378,
0.34062209725379944,
-0.6155405640602112,
0.34867680072784424,
0.48862722516059875,
-0.6201873421669006,
0.029324859380722046,
0.775025486946106,
0.4522794485092163,
0.027772612869739532,
-0.08512271195650101,
0.3513520359992981,
-0.48989465832710266,
-0.14702771604061127,
-1.1038148403167725,
-0.2294851690530777,
0.1914053112268448,
0.3245542347431183,
0.5434138178825378,
0.21558155119419098,
-0.7756771445274353,
0.050740718841552734,
-0.5189427733421326,
-0.2914820909500122,
-0.2015349268913269,
-0.4477092921733856,
-0.45419225096702576,
0.992965042591095,
0.9855272173881531,
0.8230545520782471,
0.172897070646286,
-0.15724964439868927,
0.002190947299823165,
0.7000846862792969,
-0.24119307100772858,
-0.018377840518951416,
0.7880392670631409,
-0.2632562518119812,
0.1532016396522522,
-0.05825292319059372,
0.48919805884361267,
-0.1924024522304535,
0.1972322165966034,
0.12964089214801788,
0.3545945882797241,
0.18345065414905548,
-0.019440434873104095,
-0.3072165548801422,
-0.5791934132575989,
0.08931048959493637,
0.038039226084947586,
0.387788861989975,
-0.27415740489959717,
-0.11612933874130249,
-0.1874246448278427,
0.010500556789338589,
-0.429988831281662,
0.15012314915657043,
0.5867834091186523,
0.03696659579873085,
-0.2301744520664215,
0.11538317054510117,
0.2248428463935852,
0.6146188974380493,
-0.4378974139690399,
0.8127092123031616,
0.058289241045713425,
0.16982358694076538,
-0.3275238871574402,
0.14558686316013336,
0.15271805226802826,
0.009328820742666721,
0.5911442041397095,
-0.12015047669410706,
-0.07782720774412155,
-0.05963607877492905,
-0.20320041477680206,
0.6916109919548035,
-0.0977015346288681,
-0.2559807598590851,
0.026853885501623154,
0.28422364592552185,
-0.5404568910598755,
-0.059027090668678284,
-0.35743385553359985,
1.1444302797317505,
0.43329596519470215,
-0.5731707215309143,
-0.14499631524085999,
0.23807215690612793,
0.12255381047725677,
-0.2478705644607544,
-0.058160699903964996,
0.45895910263061523,
-0.421747088432312,
0.6837785840034485,
-0.7634373903274536,
0.08785820752382278,
0.5191546678543091,
0.5130058526992798,
-0.4692678451538086,
0.38584843277931213,
-0.05817181617021561,
-0.18295148015022278,
0.8633130788803101,
-0.4046076536178589,
-0.10885775834321976,
0.020585013553500175,
0.07338028401136398,
-0.3267965316772461,
-0.34298157691955566,
0.9840015769004822,
-0.4962996244430542,
-0.3661380410194397,
-0.3756406307220459,
0.13422870635986328,
-0.37212616205215454,
-0.0023740746546536684,
0.2506864070892334,
-0.10482195764780045,
-0.3344287574291229,
0.03294147178530693,
-0.37824514508247375,
0.1133708581328392,
0.5358314514160156,
0.47120794653892517,
0.6197929978370667,
0.10071223229169846,
0.5939368605613708,
-0.11987447738647461,
-0.08926713466644287,
-0.389241486787796,
-0.6580148935317993,
0.3331567943096161,
-0.43024736642837524,
-0.6793563961982727,
-0.5570735335350037,
-0.07284999638795853,
0.15103720128536224,
-0.2126055806875229,
0.45676150918006897,
-0.08531011641025543,
-0.5350357890129089,
0.05446759611368179,
-0.10976243019104004,
-0.1137477457523346,
0.07782705873250961,
0.8966950178146362
] |
203664
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMS
|
WMS
|
WMS can refer to:
Technology and computing
Warehouse management system
Workflow management system
Web Map Service, a standard for Internet map servers
Windows Media Services, the streaming media server from Microsoft
Windows MultiPoint Server, a Microsoft Windows Server for Remote Desktops
WMS (hydrology software), watershed simulation software
Welfare Management System (NYC), New York, US
Workload management system, a component of gLite
Medicine
Wilderness Medical Society, US, for medical personnel working in the wilderness
Wechsler Memory Scale of memory function
Warwick Medical School, British medical school of Warwick University
Companies
WMS Industries and subsidiary WMS Gaming, US electronic gaming and amusement companies
Williams Medical Supplies, a medical supplies company, Rhymney, Wales
Schools
West Monmouth School in Pontypool, Wales
White Mountain School, in Bethlehem, New Hampshire, US
|
[
0.45712730288505554,
0.10763390362262726,
0.1862831711769104,
0.1055627316236496,
0.49881690740585327,
0.13106785714626312,
0.23113040626049042,
-0.18150244653224945,
-0.34097591042518616,
-0.45806586742401123,
-0.5385555624961853,
0.2060513198375702,
0.2295103520154953,
0.511883556842804,
0.4235590398311615,
0.3208916187286377,
0.6409058570861816,
0.31175681948661804,
-0.14957740902900696,
-0.34064531326293945,
-0.44543200731277466,
-0.2758495807647705,
0.670988142490387,
-0.16534316539764404,
-0.4451523423194885,
0.311932235956192,
0.1653144806623459,
0.16139103472232819,
-0.03202604502439499,
0.4646127223968506,
0.15628212690353394,
0.40716591477394104,
-0.11588429659605026,
-0.15470561385154724,
0.13286608457565308,
0.3711695969104767,
-0.44635045528411865,
0.2420596033334732,
-0.08054546266794205,
-0.7830198407173157,
-0.025730468332767487,
-0.36793553829193115,
-0.1818116456270218,
0.12893956899642944,
-0.33913666009902954,
-0.19203680753707886,
-1.521710753440857,
-0.019684819504618645,
-0.5824770331382751,
0.36900758743286133,
-0.36168384552001953,
0.7950236201286316,
0.2201138138771057,
0.22556057572364807,
0.08788242191076279,
0.11149556189775467,
0.08382798731327057,
-0.08121398091316223,
0.5002466440200806,
-0.43907368183135986,
0.056282658129930496,
-0.06143040955066681,
-0.5901033282279968,
0.7288661599159241,
0.049698784947395325,
-0.3164590895175934,
0.1017816886305809,
0.03340224549174309,
-0.3835475444793701,
0.002230110578238964,
0.30502375960350037,
-0.2381841093301773,
0.05582985281944275,
0.014625624753534794,
-0.05566427484154701,
0.1297639161348343,
0.03054260089993477,
-0.5069997310638428,
0.057596154510974884,
0.1573324203491211,
-0.04315236583352089,
0.2908933460712433,
0.74261873960495,
-0.02551460452377796,
0.364122599363327,
0.23912537097930908,
-0.22823230922222137,
0.3785971999168396,
-0.3096696436405182,
0.33949971199035645,
0.4565589725971222,
-0.18149541318416595,
0.6160920858383179,
-0.26819533109664917,
0.029313547536730766,
0.6011369228363037,
-0.17111487686634064,
0.10854469239711761,
0.6671261787414551,
0.05064215511083603,
-0.4003007113933563,
-0.29301199316978455,
-0.016647882759571075,
-0.021387821063399315,
-0.2098873406648636,
-0.01138217281550169,
-0.4671676754951477,
-0.5889837741851807,
-0.06404515355825424,
-0.07536539435386658,
-0.18934188783168793,
0.21154528856277466,
0.13310760259628296,
-0.17041119933128357,
-0.09272092580795288,
-0.21946962177753448,
0.35665759444236755,
-0.3034341037273407,
-0.053142886608839035,
0.2410236895084381,
0.224382683634758,
0.5829679369926453,
-0.04618893936276436,
0.5853946805000305,
0.2260131686925888,
0.18520256876945496,
0.8270295262336731,
0.333867609500885,
-0.3301149010658264,
-0.28978219628334045,
0.44676411151885986,
0.8248218894004822,
0.24350440502166748,
0.21302224695682526,
-0.05861373990774155,
0.18673859536647797,
-0.058035679161548615,
-0.2518520653247833,
-0.040847644209861755,
0.1992611289024353,
-0.8899110555648804,
-0.48980623483657837,
-0.5416155457496643,
-0.2510671019554138,
0.12947632372379303,
0.07091830670833588,
0.018254145979881287,
-0.3726790249347687,
-0.33511605858802795,
0.0012391258496791124,
0.12040270864963531,
0.4632793366909027,
-0.5449557900428772,
0.12737193703651428,
-0.10543601959943771,
0.8704357743263245,
0.3967571556568146,
-0.17451591789722443,
0.08312301337718964,
-0.20826131105422974,
-0.25101399421691895,
0.2578054368495941,
-0.5476641654968262,
0.32643988728523254,
0.09713738411664963,
0.08495748043060303,
0.057094305753707886,
-0.2048914134502411,
-0.3866032063961029,
-0.19962771236896515,
0.13083034753799438,
-0.1885627806186676,
0.17740100622177124,
-0.14196498692035675,
0.10723679512739182,
-0.35167360305786133,
0.3395434021949768,
0.4554043114185333,
0.81858229637146,
0.2685890793800354,
-0.3810577690601349,
-0.18045301735401154,
0.22226832807064056,
-0.524450421333313,
-0.07318281382322311,
0.012445919215679169,
0.5770717859268188,
0.2358608841896057,
0.04359306022524834,
-0.23448778688907623,
-0.8569369316101074,
-0.6273109316825867,
0.06800571829080582,
-0.8346102237701416,
1.0047379732131958,
-0.07604844123125076,
-0.5000495314598083,
1.002425193786621,
-0.12292714416980743,
0.15468811988830566,
0.31459295749664307,
0.25852951407432556,
-0.08220307528972626,
-0.624677300453186,
-1.0038342475891113,
-0.09437437355518341,
0.5209217071533203,
-0.4595317244529724,
-0.4059677720069885,
-0.3014932870864868,
0.18345947563648224,
-0.9292909502983093,
0.07358051091432571,
-0.2580673098564148,
0.5619604587554932,
-0.14907224476337433,
-0.6068432331085205,
0.07769381254911423,
0.14704468846321106,
-0.23768839240074158,
0.9326077103614807,
-0.4958869218826294,
0.3796514868736267,
0.2865758538246155,
-0.48479926586151123,
0.1316153109073639,
0.22188228368759155,
0.060628730803728104,
0.8009542226791382,
-0.8535742163658142,
0.14993326365947723,
-0.07626601308584213,
-0.27764075994491577,
-0.430103063583374,
0.23472903668880463,
-0.012837628833949566,
-0.09766952693462372,
-0.2161194235086441,
0.41327688097953796,
-0.256851464509964,
-0.16186153888702393,
0.14314965903759003,
-0.3332420289516449,
-0.3424699604511261,
0.6846131682395935,
-0.31337225437164307,
0.11498860269784927,
-0.1219242736697197,
-0.21788598597049713,
0.07213404774665833,
0.3242531418800354,
0.7789835333824158,
0.008290392346680164,
-0.05257922783493996,
0.15855281054973602,
0.08279828727245331,
-0.0448388010263443,
0.04146184027194977,
-0.34880051016807556,
-0.025118887424468994,
-0.20893779397010803,
0.12974396347999573,
-0.2312478870153427,
0.3998647928237915,
0.06941388547420502,
-0.9194726943969727,
-0.3583507537841797,
-0.5882200598716736,
0.5121758580207825,
0.8683238625526428,
0.5856680274009705,
-0.1901993304491043,
0.021672314032912254,
-0.104474276304245,
-0.3199370801448822,
-0.6808174848556519,
0.5078575015068054,
0.01287660002708435,
-0.42950576543807983,
-0.44665053486824036,
0.43899574875831604,
0.4676681160926819,
0.8063088655471802,
-0.20983482897281647,
0.10926247388124466,
-0.010490192100405693,
0.051222287118434906,
0.2422439157962799,
-0.2626802921295166,
-0.15764324367046356,
-0.19288501143455505,
0.16999050974845886,
0.11360935121774673,
0.15153780579566956,
0.32969149947166443,
0.4614127576351166,
-0.20394542813301086,
0.08363345265388489,
0.21173152327537537,
0.17359770834445953,
-0.6443604230880737,
0.1912638545036316,
-0.17275570333003998,
-0.07515504211187363,
0.17244425415992737,
-0.04541768133640289,
-0.12279455363750458,
-0.12898695468902588,
-5.959047794342041,
-0.23156550526618958,
-0.4611680209636688,
-0.059104375541210175,
0.3940679728984833,
-0.3205157518386841,
0.4977666437625885,
-0.08179295808076859,
0.019895611330866814,
-0.1531534194946289,
0.30679383873939514,
0.6341286301612854,
0.005589148961007595,
-0.03403306379914284,
0.4192052185535431,
0.2447943538427353,
0.39548295736312866,
0.16490863263607025,
0.026652809232473373,
-0.46607449650764465,
-0.020362840965390205,
0.09573942422866821,
0.003193457145243883,
0.31785574555397034,
-0.15038911998271942,
0.2532939910888672,
-0.6265366673469543,
0.140044704079628,
-0.18710371851921082,
-0.5641884207725525,
0.05966493487358093,
-0.5389499664306641,
-0.22776541113853455,
0.14673475921154022,
-0.0245254784822464,
-0.22068823873996735,
0.36237388849258423,
0.4872068762779236,
0.5835909247398376,
-0.5952674150466919,
0.3795059621334076,
0.01783817447721958,
-0.3262236714363098,
-0.3292543590068817,
0.09232798963785172,
-0.10987824946641922,
-0.10761086642742157,
0.499607652425766,
0.09355013817548752,
0.5979222059249878,
-0.24918866157531738,
-0.16263122856616974,
0.4404290020465851,
0.5125055909156799,
-0.1532851606607437,
-0.39078688621520996,
0.6031272411346436,
0.47009631991386414,
-0.26929542422294617,
0.3604816198348999,
0.18509995937347412,
-0.4157230257987976,
-0.10291995108127594,
-1.03840172290802,
-0.5700074434280396,
0.0011556538520380855,
-0.6991350650787354,
-0.1861518919467926,
0.26550161838531494,
0.09977202117443085,
-0.0023821848444640636,
0.2329244166612625,
0.16751030087471008,
-0.8604711294174194,
0.2032453417778015,
-0.6298187971115112,
0.03272634744644165,
-0.05228747799992561,
-0.09340498596429825,
0.14444027841091156,
-0.19709794223308563,
-0.23024378716945648,
0.0009169505210593343,
-0.4079294204711914,
-0.035845477133989334,
-0.3344042897224426,
0.06400781869888306,
-0.21094007790088654,
0.0393628366291523,
-0.2184852510690689,
0.40849605202674866,
0.08747716248035431,
0.5671087503433228,
0.531805694103241,
0.5245695114135742,
0.48111334443092346,
0.4133683443069458,
0.7206417918205261,
0.32063424587249756,
-0.5879467129707336,
0.05379307270050049,
-0.2253103256225586,
0.026725180447101593,
-0.7252612113952637,
-0.17283062636852264,
0.2292160987854004,
-0.3224794864654541,
-0.09587273001670837,
0.9412612318992615,
0.1047995463013649,
0.031263917684555054,
0.04837924242019653,
-0.2761159837245941,
0.0026072587352246046,
-0.055178895592689514,
-0.1779853105545044,
-0.6567778587341309,
0.5524551272392273,
0.33090367913246155,
-0.49989035725593567,
0.054549358785152435,
0.4289120137691498,
0.04611961543560028,
-0.3976241648197174,
0.281328022480011,
-0.3991096615791321,
0.3591192662715912,
0.04298517853021622,
-0.03218582645058632,
-0.023795193061232567,
0.49408870935440063,
0.3636440932750702,
0.33480381965637207,
0.3615031838417053,
-0.0015497092390432954,
-0.1254468560218811,
-0.4106076955795288,
0.20810143649578094,
0.3268849551677704,
-0.006799185182899237,
0.26838457584381104,
0.13451102375984192,
-0.1666877418756485,
0.22100675106048584,
0.5447615385055542,
0.5878629088401794,
-0.5007034540176392,
0.42289045453071594,
-0.16466179490089417,
0.23142190277576447,
-0.41232606768608093,
-0.15887673199176788,
-0.11042150110006332,
-0.4774617552757263,
-0.15244752168655396,
-0.05958496406674385,
-0.2635871469974518,
-0.17016419768333435,
0.28884297609329224,
-0.5128393769264221,
-0.04577551409602165,
-0.11764108389616013,
-1.2971875667572021,
-0.09551213681697845,
0.22789710760116577,
0.10127152502536774,
-0.248134046792984,
0.13729391992092133,
-0.23561179637908936,
0.14588572084903717,
0.22263877093791962,
-0.3310871422290802,
-0.8538191318511963,
-0.11784730851650238,
0.11360608041286469,
0.06846218556165695,
0.19763310253620148,
0.17663463950157166,
0.15465573966503143,
0.29678022861480713,
0.20551122725009918,
-0.19270262122154236,
0.10251183807849884,
0.053788866847753525,
0.20154573023319244,
-0.23552756011486053,
0.09377661347389221,
0.07386671751737595,
-0.11936984956264496,
-0.0453251451253891,
0.12229565531015396,
0.22726278007030487,
0.6420791745185852,
0.6547626852989197,
0.3350818455219269,
-0.20730853080749512,
0.23749768733978271,
0.3995257616043091,
-0.27927783131599426,
-0.8936892747879028,
0.1306910216808319,
0.24933621287345886,
-0.582348108291626,
0.5243878364562988,
-0.19669389724731445,
-0.5336052775382996,
-0.15280793607234955,
-0.37501057982444763,
0.019942017272114754,
-0.3390102684497833,
-0.5701060891151428,
0.3027530014514923,
0.12313247472047806,
0.42598000168800354,
-0.6407803893089294,
-0.5897862911224365,
0.6183456778526306,
-0.11385703831911087,
-0.6144933104515076,
0.005170691758394241,
0.1616775095462799,
0.025095881894230843,
-0.3423427641391754,
0.012732142582535744,
-0.4645847976207733,
0.25191935896873474,
0.1554369032382965,
-0.8796042799949646,
0.29997918009757996,
-0.11075489968061447,
-0.18860210478305817,
-0.2841780483722687,
-0.019407739862799644,
0.22096073627471924,
0.34281691908836365,
0.23145943880081177,
-0.04529086500406265,
-0.06782306730747223,
0.09410854429006577,
-0.017942430451512337,
-0.022192884236574173,
1.0029624700546265,
-0.47183293104171753,
-0.8514379858970642,
-0.24436728656291962,
-0.05588161572813988,
0.8281605243682861,
-0.25118911266326904,
-0.4888271689414978,
-0.02178511768579483,
0.6096426248550415,
-0.293795645236969,
0.22175152599811554,
0.05239647999405861,
1.0952948331832886,
-0.26895207166671753,
-0.16605909168720245,
-0.7338895201683044,
0.06766393035650253,
-0.08552409708499908,
-0.15268422663211823,
-0.0933426022529602,
-0.47897616028785706,
0.24095237255096436,
0.22590404748916626,
0.1912686675786972,
-0.4156215190887451,
-0.5356974601745605,
0.04240578040480614,
-0.5589335560798645,
0.14336034655570984,
0.6221081614494324,
-0.03616185486316681,
0.7322683930397034,
0.3973858654499054,
-0.028692100197076797,
-0.21374887228012085,
-0.6240227818489075,
0.524661123752594,
0.04865049943327904,
-0.6162857413291931,
-0.33034417033195496,
-0.18714724481105804,
-0.5906059145927429,
0.3729974925518036,
-0.3244584798812866,
0.39594948291778564,
0.0076406835578382015,
-0.3247695565223694,
-0.14060817658901215,
-0.2067166119813919,
-0.18464204668998718,
-0.5437997579574585,
0.03759045898914337,
-0.4977846145629883,
-0.30425187945365906,
0.06363502889871597,
-0.39321717619895935,
0.11975923925638199,
0.20337720215320587,
-0.9228892922401428,
0.26500052213668823,
0.2480672150850296,
-0.5995579361915588,
0.6638275980949402,
0.2559807002544403,
-0.21327289938926697,
-0.33392971754074097,
0.04108421504497528,
-0.4422266483306885,
0.24731776118278503,
-0.6849381923675537,
0.5586777925491333,
0.4283038377761841,
-0.09713143110275269,
0.22972175478935242,
-0.0772324874997139,
-0.4250926971435547,
0.4610024690628052,
0.06258199363946915,
0.3763720691204071,
0.2405947595834732,
0.7799121141433716,
-0.0907583236694336,
-0.15968213975429535,
0.8597331047058105,
-0.13675953447818756,
-0.4837883412837982,
0.5117307305335999,
0.3893536627292633,
0.5010780692100525,
0.04633383825421333,
-0.3224015533924103,
0.5858079791069031,
-0.10719266533851624,
0.04150492697954178,
-0.4728148877620697,
-0.05066926032304764,
-0.7324384450912476,
0.3953198194503784,
0.8171664476394653,
0.20513120293617249,
0.31718841195106506,
0.12876537442207336,
-0.11715853959321976,
0.5439642071723938,
0.13408289849758148,
0.26558586955070496,
0.04521426185965538,
-0.1558935046195984,
0.02002762071788311,
-0.4458007514476776,
0.25161293148994446,
0.024193912744522095,
-0.19776815176010132,
-0.3555210828781128,
0.18188969790935516,
-0.4595141112804413,
0.26495933532714844,
0.1363002061843872,
0.2101949006319046,
-0.08501704037189484,
0.4312199354171753,
-0.02191135846078396,
-0.15168318152427673,
-0.4503107964992523,
0.03006136789917946,
-0.2698265314102173,
0.049647409468889236,
-0.07959835231304169,
0.09761824458837509,
0.8078755140304565,
-0.7632865905761719,
0.7396852374076843,
-0.3087834417819977,
-0.11251633614301682,
0.15785600244998932,
0.18613052368164062,
0.3825026750564575,
-0.06661908328533173,
-0.22120079398155212,
-0.09202133119106293,
0.045234840363264084,
-0.4685622453689575,
0.27496570348739624,
-0.47045421600341797,
-0.14950186014175415,
0.1421542912721634,
0.199884831905365,
0.0524165965616703,
-0.04918834567070007,
-0.715122401714325,
-0.6070376038551331,
0.00027414507349021733,
-0.06841027736663818,
0.04207158088684082,
-0.28052517771720886,
0.7116224765777588,
0.33366289734840393,
0.5371848344802856,
-0.08353735506534576,
0.07346342504024506,
0.08316276222467422,
0.2671484351158142,
-0.8873856067657471,
0.12355530261993408,
-0.15780578553676605,
0.1580691933631897,
-0.6320431232452393,
0.504566490650177,
0.6368018984794617,
0.6716996431350708,
0.1669795960187912,
0.18855026364326477,
-0.16122592985630035,
0.0753287672996521,
0.587821900844574,
-0.1965663582086563,
0.4134322702884674,
-0.18588298559188843,
-0.2720293402671814,
-0.4511913061141968,
0.8782716989517212,
0.047567903995513916,
-0.049584805965423584,
-0.48989370465278625,
0.13585220277309418,
0.2867574095726013,
-0.3182826042175293,
0.5426018238067627,
-0.24337734282016754,
0.05583881214261055,
-0.6327295899391174,
0.5879297852516174,
-0.9530346393585205,
0.1745087057352066,
-0.4279883801937103,
0.5760883092880249,
0.33445197343826294,
-0.8347210884094238,
-0.22349682450294495,
-0.32874271273612976,
-0.08067158609628677,
0.1148846372961998,
-0.6837730407714844,
0.1696753054857254,
0.026540717110037804,
-0.6647688150405884,
-0.6588113307952881,
0.24254095554351807,
0.28345030546188354,
-0.5862332582473755,
0.13803963363170624,
-0.36313486099243164,
0.055272169411182404,
0.4707697331905365,
0.1960625797510147,
-0.2568013072013855,
-0.13383328914642334,
0.06320687383413315
] |
203665
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan%20Xang
|
Lan Xang
|
The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao ( lān sāng hôm khāo, ; "Million Elephants and White Parasols") existed as a unified kingdom from 1353 to 1707.
For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The meaning of the kingdom's name alludes to the power of the kingship and formidable war machine of the early kingdom. The kingdom is the precursor for the country of Laos and the basis for its national historic and cultural identity.
Historical overview
Origins
The geography Lan Xang would occupy had been originally settled by indigenous Austroasiatic-speaking tribes, such as Khmuic peoples and Vietic peoples which gave rise to the Bronze Age cultures in Ban Chiang (today part of Isan, Thailand) and the Đông Sơn culture as well as Iron Age peoples near Xiangkhoang Plateau on the Plain of Jars, Funan, and Chenla (near Vat Phou in Champasak Province).
The Han dynasty's chronicles of the southward expansion of the Han dynasty provide the first written accounts of Tai–Kadai speaking peoples or Ai Lao who inhabited the areas of modern Yunnan and Guangxi, China. The Tai peoples migrated south in a series of waves beginning in the 7th century and accelerated following the Mongol conquest of Yunnan (1253–1256) into the northern reaches of what would become the kingdom of Lan Xang.
The fertile northern Mekong valleys were occupied by the Dvaravati culture of the Mon people and subsequently by the Khmer, where the principal city-state in the north was known then as Muang Sua and alternately as Xieng Dong Xieng Thong "The City of Flame Trees beside the River Dong", (modern city of Luang Prabang).
With the rise of the Sukhothai Kingdom the principal city-states of Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) and south to the twin cities of Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (Vientiane), came increasingly under Tai influence. Following the death of the Sukhothai king Ram Khamhaeng, and internal disputes within the kingdom of Lan Na, both Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (Vientiane) and Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) were independent Lao-Tai mandalas until the founding of Lan Xang in 1353.
The Legends of Khun Borom
The cultural memory of the early migrations and the mixing of Tai influence with the indigenous, Mon, and Khmer peoples were preserved in the origin myths and traditions of Lan Xang. The cultural, linguistic, and political roots which highlight the commonality of these early legends can help to understand Lan Xang and its relations with neighboring kingdoms. The Nithan Khun Borum "Story of Khun Borom" was central to these origin stories and formed the introduction to the Phongsavadan or court chronicles which were read aloud during auspicious occasions and festivals. Throughout the history of Lan Xang the legitimacy of the monarchy was tied to the single dynasty of Khun Lo, the legendary king of Muang Sua and son of Khun Borom.
The Conquests of King Fa Ngum
The traditional court histories of Lan Xang begin in the Year of the Nāga 1316 (the nāga a mythical serpent of the Mekong and a protector spirit of the kingdom) with the birth of Fa Ngum. Fa Ngum's Grandfather Souvanna Khampong was king of Muang Sua and his father Chao Fa Ngiao was the crown prince. As a youth Fa Ngum was sent to the Khmer Empire to live as a son of King Jayavarman IX, where he was given princess Keo Kang Ya. In 1343 King Souvanna Khampong died, and a succession dispute for Muang Sua took place.
In 1349 Fa Ngum was granted an army known as the "Ten Thousand" to take the crown. At the time the Khmer Empire was in decline (possibly from an outbreak of the Black Death and the combined influx of Tai peoples), both Lanna and Sukhothai had been established in what had been Khmer territory, and the Siamese were growing in the area of the Chao Phraya River which would become the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The opportunity for the Khmer was to create a friendly buffer state in an area they could no longer effectively control with only a moderately sized military force.
Fa Ngum's campaign started in southern Laos, taking the towns and cities in the region around Champasak and moving northward through Thakek and Kham Muang along the middle Mekong. From his position on the middle Mekong, Fa Ngum sought assistance and supply from Vientiane in attacking Muang Sua, which they refused. However, Prince Nho of Muang Phuan (Muang Phoueune) offered assistance and vassalage to Fa Ngum for assistance in a succession dispute of his own and help in securing Muang Phuan from Đại Việt. Fa Ngum agreed and quickly moved his army to take Muang Phuan and then on to take Xam Neua and several smaller towns of Đại Việt.
The Vietnamese kingdom of Đại Việt, concerned with their rival Champa to the south sought a clearly defined border with the growing power of Fa Ngum. The result was to use the Annamite Range as both a cultural and territorial barrier between the two kingdoms. Continuing his conquests Fa Ngum turned toward the Sip Song Chau Tai along the Red and Black River valleys, which were heavily populated with Lao. Having secured a sizable force of Lao from each territory under his domain Fa Ngum moved down the Nam Ou to take Muang Sua. Despite three attacks the King of Muang Sua, who was Fa Ngum's uncle, was unable to deter the size of Fa Ngum's army and committed suicide rather than be taken alive.
In 1353 Fa Ngum was crowned, and named his Kingdom Lan Xang Hom Khao "The Land of a Million Elephants and the White Parasol", Fa Ngum continued his conquests to secure the areas around the Mekong by moving to take Sipsong Panna (modern Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture) and began moving south to the borders of Lanna along the Mekong. King Phayu of Lanna raised an army which Fa Ngum overwhelmed at Chiang Saen, forcing Lanna to cede some its territory and provide valuable gifts in exchange for mutual recognition. Having secured his immediate borders Fa Ngum returned to Muang Sua.
In 1351 Uthong, who was married to a daughter of the Khmer King Suphanburi, founded the city of Ayutthaya. However, the remains of the Khmer Empire were in direct conflict with the growing power of Ayutthaya and the two became rivals rather than allies. Throughout the 1350s Ayutthaya expanded over western Khmer territories and the Khorat Plateau. In 1352 Angkor was attacked by Ayutthaya in a failed attempt to take the capital.
Vientiane remained independent and powerful, and the growing power of Ayutthaya threatened regional stability. In 1356 Fa Ngum marched south to take Vientiane for failing to support his earlier advance on Muang Sua. In 1357 he took Vientiane and the surrounding plains, and marched south to assert Lao control over the areas seized by Ayutthaya. Fa Ngum moved across the Khorat Plateau taking the major cities along the Mun and Chi Rivers and moving as far south as Roi Et.
In Roi Et, Fa Ngum directly challenged Ayutthaya, which acknowledged Lan Xang's control over the Khorat Plateau. Uthong sent 100 elephants, gold, silver, over 1,000 pieces of ivory and betrothed his daughter Nang Keo Lot Fa to be a second wife to Fa Ngum. By 1357 Fa Ngum had established the mandala for the Kingdom of Lan Xang which extended from the borders of the Sipsong Panna with China south to Sambor below the Mekong rapids at Khong Island, and from the Vietnamese border along the Annamite Range to the western escarpment of the Khorat Plateau. It was thus one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia.
King Samsenthai and Queen Maha Devi
Fa Ngum again led Lan Xang to war in the 1360s against Sukhothai, in which Lan Xang was victorious in defense of their territory but gave the competing court factions and the war weary population a justification to depose Fa Ngum in favor of his son Oun Huean. Fa Ngum became an exile in Muang Nan, where he died between 1373 and 1390.
In 1371, Oun Huean was crowned as King Samsenthai (King of 300,000 Tai) a carefully chosen name for the Lao-Khmer prince, which showed preference for the Lao-tai population he governed over the Khmer factions at court. Samenthai consolidated the gains of his father, and fought back Lanna in Chiang Saen during the 1390s. In 1402 he received formal recognition for Lan Xang from the Ming Empire in China.
In 1416, at the age of sixty, Samsenthai died and was succeeded by his song Lan Kham Daeng. The Viet Chronicles record that during the reign of Lan Kham Daeng in 1421 the Lam Sơn Uprising took place under Lê Lợi against the Ming, and sought Lan Xang's assistance. An army of 30,000 with 100 elephant cavalry was dispatched, but instead sided with the Chinese.
The death of Lan Kham Daeng ushered in a period of uncertainty and regicide. from 1428 to 1440 seven kings ruled Lan Xang, all were killed by assassination or intrigue guided by a Queen known only by her title as Maha Devi or as Nang Keo Phimpha "The Cruel". It is possible that from 1440 to 1442 she ruled Lan Xang as the first and only female leader, before being drowned in the Mekong in 1442 as an offering to the naga. In 1440 Vientiane revolted, but despite the years of instability the capital at Muang Sua was able to suppress the rebellion. An interregnum began in 1453 and ended in 1456 with the crowning of King Chakkaphat (1456–1479).
The White Elephant War with Đại Việt
In 1448 during the disorder of the Maha Devi, Muang Phuan and some areas along the Black River were annexed by the kingdom of Đại Việt and several skirmishes took place against Lanna along the Nan River. In 1471 Emperor Lê Thánh Tông of Đại Việt invaded and destroyed the kingdom of Champa. Also in 1471, Muang Phuan revolted and several Vietnamese were killed. By 1478 preparations were being made for a full-scale invasion of Lan Xang in retribution for the rebellion in Muang Phuan and, more importantly, for supporting the Ming Empire in 1421.
Around the same time, a white elephant had been captured and brought to King Chakkaphat. The elephant was recognized as a symbol of kingship throughout Southeast Asia and Lê Thánh Tông requested the animal's hair to be brought as a gift to the Vietnamese court. The request was seen as an affront, and according to legend, a box filled with dung was sent instead. The pretext having been set, a massive Viet forces of 180,000 men marched in five columns to subdue Muang Phuan, and was met with a Lan Xang force of 200,000 infantry and 2,000 elephant cavalry in support which was led by the crown prince and three supporting generals.
The Vietnamese forces won a hard-fought victory and continued north to threaten Muang Sua. King Chakkaphat and the court fled south toward Vientiane along the Mekong. The Vietnamese took the capital of Luang Prabang, and then divided their forces to create a pincer attack. One branch continued west taking Sipsong Panna and threatening Lanna and another force headed south along the Mekong toward Vientiane. A contingent of Vietnamese troops managed to reach the upper Irrawaddy River (modern-day Myanmar). King Tilok and Lanna preemptively destroyed the northern army, and the forces around Vientiane rallied under King Chakkaphat's younger son Prince Thaen Kham. The combined forces destroyed the Vietnamese forces, which fled in the direction of Muang Phuan. Although numbering only about 4,000 men, the Vietnamese destroyed the Muang Phuan capital in one last act of vengeance before retreating.
Prince Thaen Kham then offered to restore his father Chakkphat to the throne, but he refused and abdicated in favor of his son who was crowned as Suvanna Balang (The Golden Chair) in 1479. The Vietnamese would not invade the unified Lan Xang for the next 200 years, and Lanna became a close ally to Lan Xang.
King Visoun and a Flowering of Culture
Through subsequent kings Lan Xang would repair the damage of the war with Đại Việt, which led to a blossoming of culture and trade. King Visoun (1500–1520) was a major patron of the arts and during his reign the classical literature of Lan Xang was first written. The Theravada Buddhist monks and monasteries became centers of learning and the sangha grew in both cultural and political power. The Nithan Khun Borom (Story of Khun Borom) first appeared in written form, along with several transcriptions of the Jataka Tales which recall previous lives of the Buddha. The Tripitaka was transcribed from Pali to Lao, and the Lao version of the Ramayana or Pra Lak Pra Lam was also written.
Epic poems were written along with treatises on medicine, astrology and law. Lao court music was also systematized and the classical court orchestra took shape. King Visoun also sponsored several major temples or "wats" throughout the country. He chose the Phra Bang a standing image of the Buddha in the mudra or position of "dispelling fear" to be the palladium of Lan Xang. The Phra Bang had been brought by Fa Ngum's Khmer wife Keo Kang Ya from Angkor as a gift from her father. The image is traditionally believed to have been forged in Ceylon, which was the center of the Therevada Buddhist tradition and was made of thong an alloy of gold and silver.
The Phra Bang had been kept in Vientiane until that time, in part because of the strength of the traditional animist beliefs in Muang Sua. The Phra Bang image was so revered that the capital city was renamed in its honor from Muang Sua to Luang Prabang. King Visoun, his son Photisarath, his grandson Setthathirath, and his great grandson Nokeo Koumane would provide Lan Xang with a succession of strong leaders who were able to preserve and restore the kingdom despite tremendous international challenges in the years ahead.
Lanna and war with Ayutthaya
King Photisarath (1520–1550) was one of the great kings of Lan Xang, he took Nang Yot Kham Tip from Lanna as his queen as well as lesser queens from Ayutthaya, and Longvek. Photisarath was a devout Buddhist, and declared it as the state religion Lan Xang. In 1523 he requested a copy of the Tripiṭaka from King Kaeo in Lanna, and in 1527 he abolished spirit worship throughout the kingdom. In 1532 the period of peace ended for Lan Xang when Muang Phuan rebelled and took Photisarath two years to fully suppress.
In 1533 he moved his court to Vientiane, the commercial capital of Lan Xang which was located on the floodplains of the Mekong below the capital at Luang Prabang. Vientiane was the principal city of Lan Xang, and lay at the confluence of trade routes, but that access also made it the focal point for invasion from which it was difficult to defend. The move allowed Photisarath to better administer the kingdom and to respond to the outlying provinces which bordered the Đại Việt, Ayutthaya and the growing power of Burma.
In 1539 he made a pilgrimage to Sikhottabong and he also made improvements to That Phanom to reinforce Lan Xang's southern regional power. Also in 1539 Photisarath accepted a Thai noble who was seeking asylum from King Chairacha of Ayutthaya for a failed rebellion. The incident resulted in a series of full-scale invasion of Lan Xang which was soundly defeated at Sala Kham in 1540.
Lanna had a series of internal succession disputes throughout the 1540s. The weakened kingdom was invaded first by the Burmese and then in 1545 by Ayutthaya. Both attempted invasions were repulsed although significant damage had been done in the surrounding countryside. Lan Xang dispatched reinforcements to support their allies in Lanna. In response, Chairacha set out at the head of a second army in 1547 to take Chiang Mai where he was again defeated and forced into full retreat to Ayutthaya, where he died almost immediately upon his return.
The succession disputes in Lanna continued, but the position of Lanna between the aggressive states of Burma and Ayutthaya necessitated that the kingdom be brought back to order. In recognition for his assistance against Ayutthaya, and his strong familial ties to Lanna, King Photisarath was offered the throne of Lanna for his son Prince Setthathirath, who in 1547 was crowned King in Chiang Mai. Lan Xang was at the height of their political power, with Photisarath as King of Lan Xang and Setthathirath his son as King of Lanna. In the elaborate court ceremony recorded in the Chiang Mai Chronicles, Setthathirath took possession of the Emerald Buddha as his personal palladium (which would later become the palladium of Vientiane) and was given the princesses Nang Thip and Nang Tonkham as queens.
The peace would not last long. In 1548, the Burmese invaded Ayutthaya but failed to take the capital; that same year Photisarath was approached by Burma with offers of an alliance. Photisarath neither accepted the alliance, nor did he support Ayutthaya which had unsuccessfully tried to invade Lan Xang only eight years earlier. In 1550 Photisarath returned to Luang Prabang, but was killed in an accident while riding an elephant in front of the fifteen international delegations which were seeking an audience.
King Setthathirath and the Burmese invasions
In 1548 King Setthathirath (as King of Lanna) had taken Chiang Saen as his capital. Chiang Mai still had powerful factions at court, and the threats from Burma and Ayutthaya were growing. Following the untimely death of his father, King Setthathirath left Lanna leaving his wife as regent. Arriving in Lan Xang, Setthathirath was crowned as King of Lan Xang. The departure emboldened the rival factions at court, who in 1551 crowned Chao Mekuti as king of Lanna.
In 1553 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna but was defeated. Again in 1555 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna at the command of Sen Soulintha, and managed to take Chiang Saen. For his success, Sen Soulintha was given the title Luxai (Victorious) and offered one of his daughters to King Setthathirath. In 1556 Burma, under King Bayinnaung invaded Lanna. King Mekuti of Lanna surrendered Chiang Mai without a fight, but was reinstated as a Burmese vassal under military occupation.
In 1560, King Setthathirath formally moved the capital of Lan Xang from Luang Prabang to Vientiane, which would remain the capital over the next two hundred and fifty years. The formal movement of the capital followed an expansive building program which included strengthening city defenses, the construction of a massive formal palace and the Haw Phra Kaew to house the Emerald Buddha, and major renovations to That Luang in Vientiane. In Luang Prabang, Wat Xieng Thong was constructed perhaps in compensation for the loss of status as the former capital of Lan Xang, and in Nakhon Phanom major renovations were made to That Phanom.
In 1563, a treaty was signed between Lan Xang and Ayutthaya, which was sealed by the betrothal of Princess Thepkasattri (whose mother was Queen Suriyothai of Ayutthaya). However, King King Maha Chakkraphat instead tried to exchange Princess Kaeo Fa, which was immediately rejected. In the midst of the disagreement, the Burmese invaded northern Ayutthaya with the assistance of Maha Thammaracha the royal viceroy and governor of Phitsanulok. It was only then in 1564 that King Chakkraphat sent Princess Thepkasattri to Lan Xang along with a massive dowry in an attempt to buy back the broken alliance.
While the procession was en route, Maha Thammaracha ambushed the princess and sent her to his overlords in Burma; she committed suicide shortly thereafter or en route. Facing the threat of a superior Burmese force, King Chakkraphat had lost a potential alliance with Lan Xang, the northern territories of Ayutthaya and his daughter. To prevent further incursions, King Chakkraphat became a vassal of Burma and had to deliver both himself and his son Prince Ramesuan as hostages to King Bayinnaung leaving another son Prince Mahinthrathirat as a vassal in Ayutthaya.
The Burmese then turned north to depose King Mekuti of Lanna, who had failed to support the Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya in 1563. When Chiang Mai fell to the Burmese, a number of refugees fled to Vientiane and Lan Xang. King Setthathirath, realizing that Vientiane could not be held against a prolonged siege, ordered the city to be evacuated and stripped of supplies. When the Burmese took Vientiane they were forced into the countryside for supplies, where King Setthathirath had organized guerrilla attacks and small raids to harass the Burmese troops. Facing disease, malnutrition and demoralizing guerrilla warfare, King Bayinnaung was forced to retreat in 1565 leaving Lan Xang the only remaining independent Tai kingdom.
Covert plans
In 1567, King Mahinthrathirat approached King Setthathirath with covert plans for Ayutthaya to rebel against Burma by launching a counterattack against Mahathammarachathirat in Phitsanulok. The plan would involve an overland invasion from Lan Xang with assistance from the royal navy in Ayutthaya passing up the Nan River. Mahathammarachathirat was in Burma at the time, and Maha Chakkraphat had been allowed to return to Ayutthaya as Burma was facing small rebellions in the Shan areas.
The plan was discovered and reinforcements were sent to Phitsanulok. Realizing Phitsanulok was too fortified, King Setthathirath withdrew his attack, but set up a devastating counter ambush on his retreat to Vientiane in which five pursuing Burmese generals were killed. Seizing on the weakness, King Chakkraphat ordered a second attack on Phitsanulok in which he successfully took the city, but could only briefly hold it having suffered repeated heavy losses.
King Bayinnaung sent a massive invasion in 1568 in response to the uprising. In early 1569, the city of Ayutthaya was directly under threat and Vientiane sent reinforcements. The Burmese had planned on the reinforcements however and King Setthathirath fell into a trap. After a two-day struggle the Lan Xang forces prevailed at the Pa Sak Valley near Phetchabun, at which point one of the commanding generals from Nakhon Phanom broke south toward Ayutthaya. The Burmese rallied and were able to destroy the divided forces, and King Setthathirath had to retreat toward Vientiane.
The Burmese then focused their attack on Ayutthaya and took the city. King Setthathirath upon reaching Vientiane ordered an immediate evacuation. The Burmese took several weeks to regroup and rest having taken Ayutthaya, which allowed Setthathirath to rally his forces and plan for prolonged guerrilla warfare. The Burmese arrived in Vientiane and were able to take the lightly defended city. Just as in 1565, Setthathirath began a guerrilla campaign from his base near the Nam Ngum, northeast of Vientiane. In 1570 Bayinnaung retreated, Setthathirath counterattacked and more than 30,000 were taken prisoner, along with 100 elephants, and 2,300 pieces of ivory from the retreating Burmese.
In 1571, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and Lan Na were Burmese vassals. Having twice defended Lan Xang from Burmese invasions, King Setthathirath moved south to conduct a campaign against the Khmer Empire. Defeating the Khmer would have greatly strengthened Lan Xang, giving it vital sea access, trade opportunities, and most importantly, European firearms which had been growing use since the early 1500s. The Khmer Chronicles record that armies from Lan Xang invaded in 1571 and 1572, during the second invasion King Barom Reacha I was slain in an elephant duel. The Khmer must have rallied and Lan Xang retreated, Setthathirath went missing near Attapeu. The Burmese and Lao Chronicles record only the presumption that he died in battle.
Setthathirath's general Sen Soulintha returned to Vientiane with the remnants of the Lan Xang expedition. He fell under immediate suspicion, and a civil war raged in Vientiane as a succession dispute took place. In 1573, he emerged as king regent but lacked support. Upon hearing reports of the unrest, Bayinnaung dispatched emissaries demanding the immediate surrender of Lan Xang. Sen Soulintha had the emissaries killed.
Bayinnaung invaded Vientiane in 1574, Sen Soulintha ordered the city to be evacuated but he lacked the support of the people and the army. Vientiane fell to the Burmese. Sen Soulintha was sent as a captive to Burma along with Setthathirath's heir Prince Nokeo Koumane. A Burmese vassal, Chao Tha Heua, was left to administer Vientiane, but he would rule only four years. The First Taungoo Empire (1510–99) was established but faced internal rebellions. In 1580 Sen Soulintha returned as a Burmese vassal, and in 1581 Bayinnaung died with his son King Nanda Bayin in control of the Toungoo Empire. From 1583 to 1591 a civil war took place in Lan Xang.
Lan Xang Restored
Prince Nokeo Koumane had been held in the Taungoo court for sixteen years, and by 1591 was about twenty years old. The sangha in Lan Xang sent a mission to King Nandabayin asking for Nokeo Koumane to be returned to Lan Xang as a vassal king. In 1591 he was crowned in Vientiane, gathered an army and marched to Luang Prabang where he reunited the cities, declared Lan Xang independence and cast off any allegiance to the Toungoo Empire. King Nokeo Koumane then marched toward Muang Phuan and then to the central provinces reuniting all the former territories of Lan Xang.
In 1593 King Nokeo Koumane launched an attack against Lanna and the Taungoo Prince Tharrawaddy Min. Tharrawaddy Min sought assistance from Burma, but rebellions throughout the empire prevented any support. In desperation a request was sent to the Burmese vassal in Ayutthaya King Naresuan. King Naresuan dispatched a large army and turned on Tharrawaddy Min, forcing the Burmese to accept Ayutthaya as independent and Lanna as a vassal kingdom. King Nokeo Koumane realized he was outnumbered by the combined strength of Ayutthaya and Lanna and called off the attack. In 1596, King Nokeo Koumane died suddenly and without an heir. Although he had united Lan Xang, and restored the kingdom to a point that it could repel an outside invasion, a succession dispute took place and a series of weak kings followed until 1637.
The Golden Age of Lan Xang
Under the reign of King Sourigna Vongsa (1637–1694) Lan Xang experienced a fifty seven-year period of peace and restoration. During the period the Lan Xang sangha was at the apex of power, drawing monks and nuns for religious study from throughout Southeast Asia. Literature, art, music, court dance experienced a revival. King Sourigna Vongsa revised many of the laws of Lan Xang and established judicial courts. He also concluded a series of treaties which established both trade agreements and boundaries between the surrounding kingdoms.
In 1641, Gerritt van Wuysthoff with the Dutch East India Company made formal trade contacts with Lan Xang. Van Wuysthoff left detailed European accounts of trade goods, and established Company relations with Lan Xang via Longvek and the Mekong.
In 1642, Father Giovanni Maria Leria, a Jesuit, was the first Catholic missionary to arrive in Lan Xang. After five years, he had very little success with conversions in the heavily Buddhist country and returned to Macao, via Vietnam in 1647. He left an eyewitness description of the royal palace in Vientiane during the height of power in Lan Xang.
The palace and the entire city of Vientiane were completely destroyed by the Thai during the Lao-Siamese War of 1827–28.
Succession disputes
The legal reforms which King Sourigna Vongsa put in place applied to the nobility and peasantry equally, and when the crown prince committed adultery with a palace attendant the king ordered his death. When Sourigna Vongsa died in 1694, he left two young grandsons (Prince Kingkitsarat and Prince Inthasom) and two daughters (Princess Kumar and Princess Sumangala) with claims to the throne. A succession dispute took place where the king's nephew Prince Sai Ong Hue emerged; Sourigna Vongsa's grandsons fled into exile in Sipsong Panna and Princess Sumangala to Champasak. In 1705, Prince Kingkitsarat took a small force from his uncle in Sipsong Panna and marched toward Luang Prabang. Sai Ong Hue's brother, the governor of Luang Prabang, fled and Kingkitsarat was made crowned as a rival king in Luang Prabang. In 1707 Lan Xang was divided and the kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane emerged. In 1713 the Kingdom of Champasak emerged after a rebellion against Vientiane.
The Lao kingdoms remained independent until 1779 when they then would become vassals to Siam. However, the kingdoms maintained their monarchical roots and a degree of autonomy. For instance, Vientiane also had a tributary relationship with the Vietnamese court at Huế, a relationship that, in the wake of the failed Laotian Rebellion for independence (1826–1829) of Anouvong, the last king of Vientiane, became a casus belli for the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1831–34).
Political organization
The Mekong River formed the political and economic arteries for the Kingdom of Lan Xang, so much so that the Chinese name for the river Lán Cāng 瀾滄 is synonymous with the Lao kingdom. The river provided the means for the people, commerce and armies of Lan Xang to move between regional power centers, but also formed important geographic and defensive barriers. Major rapids formed the boundaries between the areas (and subsequent kingdoms) of Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak. The Khone Falls and Si Phan Don region were not navigable and provided a natural defense for Lan Xang from invasion coming upriver.
The major cities of Lan Xang were located in Luang Prabang, Vientiane including the towns in Nong Khai, Muang Phuan, Muang Sa or Muang Champa Nakhon (Champassack), Nong Khai, Sikhottabong (which in later periods would become Thakhek, Nakhon Phanom, and Sakon Nakhon), and Xiang Hun(Jinghong) (later Muang Sing) in Sip Song Panna. These major cities were known as "muang" or "vieng" and were classified based on substantial fortifications and city walls, the Lao chronicles record five supporting cities, and ninety-seven border "muang."
Supporting cities were found along the Khorat Plateau, and were based on trade or military importance. Say Fong was a Khmer trading post which became famous as a Lao cultural center for writing and arts. Vieng Khuk was mentioned by Van Wuysthoff, and was the "port city" for Vientiane, where trade between Chinese merchants took place before being destroyed in the Lao-Siamese War in 1827. South of Vientiane on the Khorat Plateau, Nong Bua Lamphu (or Muang Dan) was a major fortified city and traditionally administered by the Lao crown princes.
Nong Bua Lamphu was where the Lao defeated Ayutthaya in 1571, and was the site of a major battle against King Anouvong in 1827 when the city was totally destroyed by Thailand for its symbolic importance. Roi Et on the southern Khorat Plateau was also heavily fortified, and had been founded by the Khmer as a major trading center between the Pao, Mun and Chi Rivers. Trade cities also existed at Loei, and Nong Han Noi on the Song Khram River.
The mueang or "city-states" formed independent polities bound to the regional power of the king in a system known as a mandala. Each city was headed by a city lord or chao mueang. The mandala formed an important interdependent system of trade and tribute, which was based more on controlling resources and local populations than it was regional territories. Both wars and the production of rice required large scale labor forces. In Southeast Asia it was common practice for an invading army to forcibly move a population to where they may be more accessible for taxation, conscription or corvee labor. War was also an important means of generating wealth via tribute, and it was not uncommon in the mandala system to pay tribute to more than one regional power at a time.
Society
Lan Xang had ethnic diversity from trade and overland ethnic migrations. The multiple hill tribe peoples were grouped into the broad cultural categories of Lao Theung (which included most indigenous groups and the Mon-Khmer) and Lao Sung. The Lao Loum were ethnically dominant and there were several closely related Tai groups which included the Tai Dam, Tai Daeng, Tai Lu, Tai Yuan, and Phuan people. Perhaps because of the complicated ethnic diversity of Lan Xang the structure of society was fairly straightforward, especially in comparison to the neighboring Thai people with the sakdi na system or the Khmer with their complex caste system and concepts of a divine kingship or devaraja.
Lao society was divided with the religious and secular authority of the royal family at the top, followed by nobles, and then the peasantry which included merchants, artisans, farmers, and general laborers. Outside the system but above all were the sangha or clergy, which provided not only social mobility but also a means for education. The hill peoples or Lao Theung were outside the social system, along with the kha or "prisoners" which were either taken in war or were working for criminal offences or debts. Siamese, Khmer and Shan formed the majority of the itinerant merchants, but there were small populations of Chinese and Vietnamese around major trading cities and in Muang Phuan.
Religion
Theravada Buddhism was the state religion of Lan Xang beginning with King Photisarath in 1527, but had been a growing part of cultural legacy since Fa Ngum. Within the villages, monasteries and towns of Lan Xang much of daily life revolved around the local temple or wat. The temples were centers of learning, and all males were expected to spend at least some part of their life in religious contemplation as a monk or novice. Kings could establish their legitimacy through supporting the sangha and caring for or constructing new temples. Lan Xang had several powerful Buddha images which served as palladiums and spiritual symbols of the kingdom which included the Phra Bang, Phra Keo (the "Emerald" Buddha), Phra Saekham, and Phra Luk (the crystal Buddha of Champasak).
Animism was also one of the earliest, enduring and most important belief systems to the Lao-Tai groups, and the traditions and practices which began in Lan Xang have remained a vital part of Lao spirituality. Among the ethnic hill tribes of the Lao Sung and Lao Theung animism was the dominant religion. The Lao Loum believed that ancient mythical serpents known as ngueak inhabited major waterways, carving out the surrounding countryside and protecting key points along rivers or other bodies of water. The earliest name for the Mekong River was Nam Nyai Ngu Luang or "Great River of the Giant Serpent."
Ngueak, and the nāga which have been "tamed" by Buddhism, were believed to bring rains, or change shape, and nāga in particular were believed to be protection spirits which inhabited the cities of Vientiane and Luang Prabang in Lan Xang. Nāga have endured as common motifs not only in myth and legend, but also on Lao temples, and silk weavings. Nāga became a potent symbol of the kingdom of Lan Xang, so much so that when Thailand was forced to cede the territories which would become Laos in 1893, the kings of Thailand ordered new state seals which showed the garuda symbol of Thailand feeding on the nāga of Lan Xang as a thinly veiled threat that the territorial loss had not been forgotten.
The natural world was also home to a number of spirits which are part of the Satsana Phi. Phi are spirits of buildings or territories, natural places, or phenomena; they are also ancestral spirits that protect people, or can also include malevolent spirits. The phi which are guardian deities of places, or towns are celebrated at festivals with communal gatherings and offerings of food. The spirits run throughout Lao folk literature.
Phi were believed to influence natural phenomena including human illness and thus the baci became an important part of Lao identity and religious health over the millennia. Spirit houses were an important folk custom which were used to ensure balance with the natural and supernatural world. Astrology was also a vital part to understanding the natural and spiritual worlds and became an important cultural means to enforce social taboos and customs.
Economy
Lan Xang was at the center of the overland trade routes in Southeast Asia. In the north and northwest the overland trade routes from Burma and Lanna passed through Lan Xang and Sipsong Panna ( Xishuangbanna ) toward Yunnan, where they would join with the Chinese Tea-Horse Road. Trade in Luang Prabang would flow down the Mekong to Vientiane where it could then be transported overland to the headwaters of the Nan and Chao Praya rivers, or overland by ox cart or elephant over the Khorat Plateau to Roi Et.
In the east the Annamite Range formed a barrier, but the areas of Muang Phuan and Xam Neua were regular points of commerce with Vietnam. Trade from Thakhek and Champasak flowed down the Mekong to the Island of Khong, where the goods would then be portaged past Si Phan Don and the Khone Falls to join with the Mekong again and on to the Khmer in the south. Lao merchants (lam) would travel to Lao Theung and Lao Sung areas to exchange cloth, iron and silver for forest products, which would be floated via streams on bamboo rafts until they met with larger rivers.
The principle Lao agricultural crops were glutinous rice and forest timber. Both were labor-intensive and were difficult to transport using the overland routes. Subsistence farming of root crops, bananas, gourds, cucumbers, yams, water buffalo, chickens, pigs and other domesticated animals was indigenous within Lan Xang. Forest products were generally easier to transport and traded at a higher value. Elephants, ivory, benzoin resin (similar to Frankincense), lac (used in lacquer production), cardamom, beeswax, rhinoceros horn, along with porcupine quills and a variety of skins were commonly traded. Of particular importance was the deer skin trade, which was in high demand in China and Japan and would reach its way to market having gone through Ayutthayan trade posts.
Lao craftsmanship in silk production, weaving, gold, and especially silver was in high demand. Villages would specialize in a particular craft or skill where they would manufacture tools, weapons, pottery, paper, jewelry, alcohol (lao-lao), elephant training or other unique trades. Iron ore was mined in Muang Phuan, tin and gems would also be mined in the north of Luang Prabang or east along the Annamite Range.
Luang Prabang was important as the religious and royal capital of Lan Xang, but Vientiane was the largest most populous city (as well as the political capital beginning in 1560) and thus was of crucial commercial importance. Vientiane was originally a Mon city named Chandapuri or "City of the Moon." The Lao would change the name to Vieng Chanthaburi Sisattanak which means "Walled City of Sandalwood and a Million Nagas," later shortening it further to simply Vieng Chan (Vientiane). Sikhottabong in Khammouan and Nakon Phanom were also regional trading powers for central Lan Xang, just as Roi Et was crucial for overland trade on the Khorat Plateau.
Decline
The Lao developed a distinct cultural, linguistic, religious, and political history during the four hundred-year period of Lan Xang. The monarchy in Laos, which was a direct continuation from the traditions of Lan Xang would continue for seven hundred and fifty years through the Khun Lo Dynasty until 1975. The decline of Lan Xang vis-à-vis their neighboring kingdoms was primarily due to geography, weak internal political structures, limited agricultural production, and the international arms trade.
Despite its relative size, Lan Xang was landlocked throughout its history. The Mekong River, formed the major means of transportation in the kingdom, is navigable only along certain stretches. Surrounding Lan Xang were populous and powerful neighboring states: Ming China, Burma, Ayutthaya, Sukhothai, Lanna, the Đại Việt and the Khmer. Politically, a feudal system of relatively independent mueang and nobles held regional autonomy.
The succession of the monarchs was never based solely on primogeniture, as both the Sena (a council which could include senior royal family members, ministers, and generals) and Sangha (senior members of the clergy) would choose a suitable successor based on both legitimacy and individual merit. The state bureaucracy as originally designed by Fa Ngum and Samsenthai was along a military structure which included some social mobility through meritocracy. Over time however social distinctions became more entrenched and the bureaucracy became based on hereditary title. The political institutions in Lan Xang created disputes and instability especially during royal successions.
Trade and the economy of Lan Xang were based on high value commodities which could be easily transported using overland trade routes. Agricultural products like rice were too heavy for transport, and were both taxed and consumed by the regional mueang. The narrow valleys and climate along the Mekong was suitable for only certain varieties of glutinous rice. The rice varieties were both low yield, and labor-intensive in comparison to the floating rice grown in Thailand. Both Ayutthaya and Thailand profited immensely from the international rice trade with the Chinese, Muslim and European traders.
The demand for Lan Xang's high value trade commodities had to pass through intermediary kingdoms to reach world markets, thus for example when Japanese demand for forest products increased it was the Siamese which benefited from the trade. Maritime trade routes became more important than the Tea Routes in northern Lan Xang, the river trade along the Mekong and Chao Praya, or the overland trade with Vietnam. Trade with Europeans for weapons began as early as 1511 in Ayutthaya, and by contrast the first European trade mission to Lan Xang was not until the 1640s. Access to advanced European weapons proved decisive during the Burmese invasions of Lan Xang and would become more important in subsequent wars with Vietnam and Thailand during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
See also
Vat Yotkeo
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Legend of the Founding of Xieng Dong-Xieng Thong at Muang Sua
History of Laos
Former countries in Southeast Asia
Former countries in Burmese history
Former countries in Cambodian history
Former countries in Chinese history
Former countries in Thai history
Former countries in Vietnamese history
14th century in Asia
15th century in Asia
16th century in Asia
17th century in Asia
States and territories established in 1353
States and territories disestablished in 1707
1353 establishments in Asia
1707 disestablishments in Asia
2nd millennium in Laos
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
|
[
-0.022437691688537598,
0.26454228162765503,
-0.1668083220720291,
0.1783217042684555,
-0.29486945271492004,
0.5838945508003235,
-0.3421630561351776,
0.5422056317329407,
-0.8210542798042297,
-0.026405582204461098,
0.04525293409824371,
-0.20226168632507324,
-0.39873379468917847,
-0.22303329408168793,
-0.5995656251907349,
0.5649091601371765,
0.6267479658126831,
0.025579024106264114,
0.17025014758110046,
-0.6109504699707031,
-0.278364360332489,
-0.3327055275440216,
-0.017394063994288445,
0.38311445713043213,
0.31346479058265686,
-0.014541905373334885,
0.07257810235023499,
0.26360252499580383,
1.266929030418396,
-0.1001090481877327,
0.022337038069963455,
0.7045794129371643,
0.2462133914232254,
0.1170382872223854,
-0.4864736497402191,
-0.032308053225278854,
0.0636289194226265,
-0.14703777432441711,
0.012140169739723206,
-0.5447472333908081,
0.10136447846889496,
0.22289980947971344,
-0.13453030586242676,
0.46278077363967896,
0.2870926558971405,
-0.8757032155990601,
-0.8929508924484253,
0.47017982602119446,
-0.5272833108901978,
0.37134435772895813,
-1.0802438259124756,
0.4719002842903137,
-0.3569853901863098,
-0.053653594106435776,
0.09263022989034653,
0.667851448059082,
-0.6562885642051697,
-0.00007756739796604961,
-0.3349221348762512,
-0.0896989032626152,
0.5649070739746094,
-0.15466775000095367,
-0.1383618712425232,
0.15708602964878082,
-0.7965700030326843,
0.08172842860221863,
0.01178103405982256,
-0.05150456354022026,
0.4496358036994934,
-0.8454691767692566,
0.4201487600803375,
0.758067786693573,
-0.07483890652656555,
0.15349635481834412,
-0.08204293251037598,
-0.26503971219062805,
-0.2957218587398529,
-0.4445580542087555,
0.24078600108623505,
-0.20193031430244446,
-0.0707603245973587,
0.16668002307415009,
0.7640830278396606,
0.266071617603302,
0.05869267135858536,
0.21100372076034546,
-0.20944181084632874,
0.23173268139362335,
-0.11005764454603195,
0.04510294273495674,
-0.3876575529575348,
-0.23356178402900696,
0.3971291184425354,
-0.2970587909221649,
-0.48179861903190613,
-0.18002139031887054,
-0.08695442974567413,
0.020302003249526024,
0.41142892837524414,
0.17051316797733307,
-0.39950889348983765,
-0.01642719842493534,
-0.06348308175802231,
-0.33193519711494446,
-1.4360076189041138,
0.03879044950008392,
-0.194055438041687,
0.3865768611431122,
-0.31386399269104004,
-0.5140590667724609,
-0.3579607307910919,
0.029502155259251595,
-0.03207091614603996,
0.44803404808044434,
0.5181427001953125,
-0.1004168838262558,
-0.03149586170911789,
-0.1665392965078354,
0.20413446426391602,
-0.05838038772344589,
-0.09952779859304428,
0.680183470249176,
-0.46194228529930115,
0.41131165623664856,
0.538632333278656,
0.03883996233344078,
0.03876415267586708,
0.17395412921905518,
-0.6285635232925415,
0.7334651947021484,
0.35100722312927246,
0.5203227400779724,
-0.38083937764167786,
-0.014676806516945362,
-0.06261371821165085,
-0.0999716967344284,
0.49048641324043274,
0.4656236171722412,
0.32596033811569214,
-0.03176426887512207,
-1.1489864587783813,
0.11630899459123611,
-0.520039439201355,
0.19135847687721252,
-0.09450701624155045,
-0.031060118228197098,
0.19509360194206238,
-0.5788950324058533,
-0.31082454323768616,
-0.5103803873062134,
0.014927626587450504,
-0.6012822985649109,
-0.03778398782014847,
0.4706012010574341,
-0.3781021535396576,
0.5931731462478638,
0.3887273967266083,
0.32242491841316223,
0.12142571806907654,
0.33458006381988525,
0.07707981020212173,
-0.12965728342533112,
-0.36471161246299744,
-0.5412033796310425,
0.47960206866264343,
0.2499377429485321,
-0.006368211004883051,
0.7701353430747986,
-0.505250871181488,
-0.23324432969093323,
-0.3318394720554352,
-0.20574277639389038,
-0.315327912569046,
-0.1734190285205841,
-0.20746822655200958,
0.18351425230503082,
-0.3108178377151489,
0.3008917272090912,
-0.28212761878967285,
0.28640100359916687,
-0.678131103515625,
1.0654315948486328,
0.24245291948318481,
0.25861483812332153,
0.4544938802719116,
0.436447411775589,
0.47855472564697266,
0.021712470799684525,
0.010062295012176037,
0.09956304728984833,
-0.3919402062892914,
-0.2798368036746979,
0.27812251448631287,
0.09862405806779861,
0.8196741342544556,
0.04089384526014328,
0.22382467985153198,
0.49201327562332153,
0.27717941999435425,
0.6836140155792236,
-0.1331765502691269,
-0.13270635902881622,
0.9198442101478577,
-0.5475384593009949,
-0.8262885212898254,
0.30160215497016907,
-0.17837747931480408,
0.45363426208496094,
0.37200242280960083,
0.3408578634262085,
0.45443081855773926,
0.2058594673871994,
-0.4260265827178955,
0.0052193403244018555,
0.3186885714530945,
-0.06127867475152016,
-0.5782424807548523,
0.10837892442941666,
-0.1259041577577591,
-0.42999571561813354,
0.4112870693206787,
-0.30442696809768677,
-0.12542688846588135,
0.6167623996734619,
0.06711161136627197,
1.084928035736084,
0.16551277041435242,
0.22267277538776398,
0.25737202167510986,
-0.2303192913532257,
-0.21931111812591553,
-0.44187936186790466,
0.06452298909425735,
-0.5092929005622864,
-0.007119813933968544,
0.011873733252286911,
-0.012222381308674812,
-0.0846661925315857,
0.28803950548171997,
-0.5317358374595642,
0.010826396755874157,
-0.07907476276159286,
-0.17459161579608917,
-0.15990164875984192,
-0.15042494237422943,
0.336521714925766,
-0.5760629773139954,
-0.4294622540473938,
-0.24659356474876404,
-0.33233797550201416,
-0.21536538004875183,
0.28279730677604675,
0.20428194105625153,
0.285083532333374,
-0.12277931720018387,
-0.21072295308113098,
-0.08056968450546265,
-0.08174557238817215,
0.38126206398010254,
-0.34506773948669434,
0.018352173268795013,
-0.27057552337646484,
0.3911692202091217,
0.18457011878490448,
-0.012740346603095531,
-0.3549848198890686,
-0.04992838576436043,
-0.23489050567150116,
0.2657829225063324,
0.3465224802494049,
-0.09962040185928345,
-0.2910309135913849,
-0.12229429930448532,
-0.5791867971420288,
-0.19915221631526947,
-0.6177914142608643,
0.2147471159696579,
0.27897897362709045,
-0.5399503707885742,
-0.6937930583953857,
0.14546740055084229,
0.4595758318901062,
1.0648185014724731,
-0.7710939049720764,
0.20866850018501282,
-0.01430131308734417,
-0.32422131299972534,
-0.2667984366416931,
0.16315339505672455,
0.4539807438850403,
0.5911235213279724,
0.1021520122885704,
-0.48098888993263245,
-0.07341349124908447,
0.049252044409513474,
-0.07021770626306534,
-0.34131985902786255,
0.2668761610984802,
0.49899154901504517,
-0.4920370578765869,
-0.40509575605392456,
0.1742621660232544,
-0.17610687017440796,
0.0486571229994297,
0.231320321559906,
-0.22772035002708435,
-0.149846613407135,
-0.25131818652153015,
-6.004709720611572,
0.029258746653795242,
0.16748863458633423,
-0.34832140803337097,
-0.7085474729537964,
0.13970226049423218,
0.20356257259845734,
-0.1991690993309021,
0.5509952902793884,
-0.07603304088115692,
-0.022238966077566147,
-0.2490992397069931,
-0.46671634912490845,
-0.2716485559940338,
0.23962406814098358,
0.6440590620040894,
-0.017530018463730812,
-0.005612497217953205,
-0.007002594880759716,
-0.17066006362438202,
-0.3800016939640045,
-0.3582979440689087,
-0.0003060231974814087,
0.6585838198661804,
-0.05990345776081085,
0.31707558035850525,
-0.08042221516370773,
-0.4485366642475128,
-0.49980422854423523,
-0.19443465769290924,
-0.40194934606552124,
-0.07159572094678879,
0.7061556577682495,
-0.2097463458776474,
-0.05533096566796303,
-0.38494816422462463,
0.4014457166194916,
0.23429712653160095,
0.08093971014022827,
-0.2654951214790344,
-0.02440602518618107,
-0.23664456605911255,
0.1089499220252037,
-0.4029809832572937,
0.006178815849125385,
-0.29709476232528687,
-0.135715514421463,
-0.2269703447818756,
-0.5829389095306396,
0.6611518859863281,
0.13024677336215973,
-0.03980306535959244,
0.11411913484334946,
-0.33575159311294556,
0.0973934456706047,
0.36155369877815247,
0.044003210961818695,
0.14007568359375,
-0.4016351103782654,
0.4178082048892975,
0.5986924767494202,
0.10407816618680954,
-0.5557493567466736,
-0.08403755724430084,
0.3199898600578308,
-0.010395118966698647,
-0.26130351424217224,
0.21183396875858307,
0.12112848460674286,
0.3359789252281189,
-0.5054414868354797,
0.33193254470825195,
0.028524428606033325,
-0.5778393745422363,
-0.14304181933403015,
-0.5569499135017395,
-0.7231816053390503,
0.017054259777069092,
0.7863783836364746,
0.23803046345710754,
-0.3163430988788605,
-0.0493837408721447,
0.5501224398612976,
0.3449555039405823,
-0.0450933612883091,
-0.4499950110912323,
-0.23379935324192047,
0.02773255668580532,
0.05857577919960022,
0.6616784334182739,
0.9392512440681458,
-0.7206015586853027,
0.1977287381887436,
0.5483896732330322,
0.20915861427783966,
0.25366923213005066,
0.7286313772201538,
-0.34818607568740845,
0.36688515543937683,
-0.23816917836666107,
0.7288153767585754,
0.2607954740524292,
-0.0001462074287701398,
-0.03364063799381256,
-0.3976711332798004,
0.05413614958524704,
-0.2885432243347168,
0.4249107837677002,
0.7082409858703613,
-0.13689683377742767,
-0.35314807295799255,
-0.010026002302765846,
0.41452738642692566,
0.23020456731319427,
0.4614550769329071,
-0.321193128824234,
-0.19468170404434204,
-0.07576818019151688,
0.2320576012134552,
-0.5875203609466553,
-0.24027001857757568,
0.7744552493095398,
0.4916311502456665,
0.18548789620399475,
0.5184441804885864,
0.07323625683784485,
-0.19245338439941406,
0.8471100330352783,
-0.13830222189426422,
-0.02726561203598976,
0.26490095257759094,
-0.6898701786994934,
0.5107547044754028,
-0.4981440007686615,
-0.22882066667079926,
-0.41690921783447266,
-0.45661109685897827,
-0.39212238788604736,
-0.018779130652546883,
-0.042719192802906036,
-0.3472622334957123,
-0.11658667773008347,
-0.05777977779507637,
0.2818562090396881,
0.36585840582847595,
-0.038124144077301025,
0.2730626165866852,
-0.14794085919857025,
-0.1000141128897667,
0.06818567216396332,
0.03987174481153488,
-0.6684111952781677,
0.2510746121406555,
-0.19413313269615173,
-0.22325697541236877,
-0.1704610288143158,
0.04121250659227371,
0.0612318180501461,
0.8222251534461975,
-0.3589681088924408,
0.013463231734931469,
-0.4912572205066681,
-0.5867571234703064,
0.13003398478031158,
-0.340597003698349,
-0.40361911058425903,
0.7440767884254456,
0.2090851068496704,
-0.5038482546806335,
0.237679585814476,
0.737623929977417,
-0.43406417965888977,
-0.34298384189605713,
0.22425462305545807,
-0.13552820682525635,
-0.386029452085495,
-0.18099424242973328,
-0.1976461559534073,
-0.26045867800712585,
0.4422636330127716,
-0.3424718677997589,
-0.07022152841091156,
0.08894749730825424,
0.5366820096969604,
0.34642264246940613,
-0.34809938073158264,
-0.19507135450839996,
-0.21634739637374878,
-0.32641735672950745,
0.31131431460380554,
0.38606616854667664,
-0.172075554728508,
-0.291058212518692,
0.36391735076904297,
-0.0781918466091156,
-0.5474597811698914,
-0.7730005383491516,
0.4508489668369293,
0.37244394421577454,
0.07544347643852234,
-0.289775013923645,
0.4039144515991211,
0.2659452259540558,
0.21731330454349518,
0.020062483847141266,
-0.31369394063949585,
0.6044426560401917,
-0.043318700045347214,
-0.20832383632659912,
-0.4362541735172272,
-0.39170581102371216,
-0.3108851909637451,
-0.022135339677333832,
0.3741811513900757,
-0.2033783346414566,
0.18943914771080017,
0.10923746228218079,
-0.1944805532693863,
-0.34371426701545715,
-0.6699019074440002,
-0.021210504695773125,
-0.39332517981529236,
-0.3755018413066864,
-0.26885050535202026,
0.01205506268888712,
0.8500384092330933,
0.4218060076236725,
-0.6192717552185059,
0.1818745881319046,
-0.23929232358932495,
-0.16814343631267548,
-0.4420396387577057,
0.39243486523628235,
0.18428580462932587,
-0.0688941553235054,
0.1750134378671646,
0.5517041087150574,
-0.2976481318473816,
0.5677405595779419,
0.325544536113739,
0.2172820121049881,
0.786117672920227,
-0.6840201020240784,
-0.12955863773822784,
-0.07208754122257233,
0.33288803696632385,
-0.429019570350647,
-0.6921088695526123,
0.02341834455728531,
-0.2142723649740219,
0.11377324163913727,
-0.17046450078487396,
-0.2682023346424103,
-0.1698017120361328,
0.26474693417549133,
-0.32240554690361023,
0.016431966796517372,
0.49145588278770447,
0.40434572100639343,
-0.06495539098978043,
-0.6328266263008118,
0.14257754385471344,
-0.19370003044605255,
-0.5401671528816223,
-0.060462836176157,
0.08583908528089523,
-0.4117896258831024,
0.11076455563306808,
0.13192597031593323,
-0.13611435890197754,
0.07820247858762741,
-0.7190776467323303,
0.21608252823352814,
-0.05662243813276291,
-0.020767658948898315,
-0.26639601588249207,
-0.4856944680213928,
-0.033601127564907074,
-0.0011855055345222354,
0.19593645632266998,
-1.1145224571228027,
-0.46207037568092346,
0.2611231207847595,
0.06361333280801773,
0.5256971120834351,
-0.7427858710289001,
0.3224005103111267,
0.2061186581850052,
-0.05460873991250992,
-0.35796356201171875,
-0.21932843327522278,
0.011427372694015503,
0.007283671759068966,
0.231869176030159,
0.40173226594924927,
0.5006787776947021,
0.17439709603786469,
0.2954663932323456,
-0.5205507874488831,
0.36102038621902466,
-1.0698424577713013,
-0.10251026600599289,
0.26309362053871155,
-0.4004824161529541,
-0.06758075952529907,
0.15000511705875397,
0.5874147415161133,
-0.2565542161464691,
-0.17761871218681335,
0.6178944110870361,
0.5664654970169067,
0.2515498101711273,
-0.26888471841812134,
0.25250697135925293,
-0.33516156673431396,
0.05498030409216881,
-0.014804576523602009,
-0.4725038707256317,
0.17483283579349518,
0.29541051387786865,
0.26633375883102417,
0.04592880979180336,
-0.012517375871539116,
0.6664844751358032,
0.14775867760181427,
0.28559184074401855,
-0.2741239666938782,
-0.15913882851600647,
0.14353598654270172,
0.19260236620903015,
-0.12634728848934174,
-0.048128802329301834,
-0.2540607154369354,
-0.06505084037780762,
-0.4333961009979248,
-0.39460137486457825,
0.2094482183456421,
-0.5452483892440796,
-0.06490741670131683,
0.31995052099227905,
0.37973082065582275,
0.208160862326622,
-0.24162590503692627,
-0.23873209953308105,
0.19880512356758118,
0.15606099367141724,
0.11620152741670609,
-0.13827137649059296,
0.3006768524646759,
-0.14573867619037628,
0.36113110184669495,
0.07341652363538742,
0.1292123943567276,
-0.028966015204787254,
0.4838451147079468,
0.07559280842542648,
-0.23442915081977844,
0.29925990104675293,
0.30478915572166443,
-0.08114437758922577,
0.12508399784564972,
-0.0949578657746315,
-0.17233483493328094,
0.18332570791244507,
0.18875299394130707,
0.3630218505859375,
-0.1060737743973732,
-0.23398423194885254,
-0.13590985536575317,
0.20533378422260284,
-0.04499008134007454,
0.05216730013489723,
0.33728519082069397,
-0.04308290034532547,
-0.5042761564254761,
-0.08566507697105408,
0.1295001059770584,
0.5674822926521301,
0.07524188607931137,
-0.14874647557735443,
0.08090326189994812,
-0.34507623314857483,
0.29795533418655396,
-0.7853876948356628,
0.3462637960910797,
0.04374806210398674,
0.34549614787101746,
0.3015439212322235,
0.1729310154914856,
-0.016450664028525352,
0.2807937562465668,
-0.5425919890403748,
-0.09753117710351944,
0.07447423040866852,
0.25283917784690857,
-0.13343487679958344,
-0.13531920313835144,
0.6075629591941833,
0.6059379577636719,
0.023329902440309525,
0.2182619869709015,
-0.20785552263259888,
-0.032728567719459534,
0.39253565669059753,
0.36525022983551025,
0.13462083041667938,
-0.2654769718647003,
0.016462555155158043,
-0.15925490856170654,
0.49485597014427185,
0.3434339165687561,
0.49184319376945496,
0.03139916807413101,
0.4625244140625,
-0.05744652822613716,
0.11051369458436966,
0.24825482070446014,
-0.253000408411026,
0.0010743223829194903,
-0.18230107426643372,
-0.4360256791114807,
-0.36632075905799866,
0.04884709417819977,
0.516528844833374,
0.5048888921737671,
-0.4218308627605438,
-0.26612186431884766,
0.342634916305542,
-0.19776897132396698,
0.8156834840774536,
0.09054142981767654,
0.10569998621940613,
-0.5776196718215942,
-0.3381284773349762,
-0.14003543555736542,
-0.28975898027420044,
0.3634645342826843,
0.1255957931280136,
-0.5532094240188599,
-0.21265053749084473,
-0.1596459448337555,
-0.34765884280204773,
0.09024514257907867,
0.41638967394828796,
0.3327006995677948,
-0.21585606038570404,
0.335489422082901,
0.31429556012153625,
-1.1632603406906128,
0.39358189702033997,
0.17329943180084229,
-0.2908201813697815,
0.7174111008644104,
-0.18642690777778625,
-0.04119349643588066,
0.28611886501312256,
0.04907095059752464,
0.09742101281881332,
-0.17598459124565125,
0.1415383219718933
] |
203666
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakri
|
Chakri
|
Chakri may refer to:
People
Chakri (composer) (1974–2014), Tollywood music director
Chakri Toleti, Indian American screenwriter, director, actor, and visual effects coordinator
Other uses
Chakri (noble title), a historical Thai noble title for the king's chief minister
Chakri dynasty, the royal house of Thailand
The Gujarati name for murukku, an Indian snack
Chakri or charkha, Indian name for the spinning wheel used for making khadi cloth
A small chakram, a throwing weapon
Chakri or Chakri, a village in Jhelum, Pakistan
|
[
0.26524731516838074,
0.468688428401947,
-0.18921010196208954,
0.13113053143024445,
-0.20581090450286865,
0.3944092392921448,
0.4201929569244385,
-0.44184017181396484,
-0.45872583985328674,
0.2881077229976654,
-0.8221636414527893,
-0.21908022463321686,
-0.15932178497314453,
0.5885955095291138,
-0.16866391897201538,
0.47694042325019836,
0.44845229387283325,
0.1888113021850586,
-0.4914126396179199,
-0.3193088471889496,
-0.09575742483139038,
0.10817799717187881,
0.5382450222969055,
-0.4682975709438324,
0.19022488594055176,
0.449609637260437,
0.03588618338108063,
0.19378182291984558,
-0.2237403392791748,
0.3163779079914093,
0.092782162129879,
0.5895461440086365,
0.35627222061157227,
-0.03090525045990944,
0.061596084386110306,
0.07995687425136566,
0.09485285729169846,
0.08386843651533127,
-0.12298694998025894,
-0.8018520474433899,
0.4004577696323395,
-0.06334162503480911,
0.3686954379081726,
0.05502273887395859,
-0.7860812544822693,
-0.8461236357688904,
-1.0318001508712769,
0.5730394721031189,
-0.7899729013442993,
0.1769363433122635,
0.025341719388961792,
0.1549452394247055,
-0.01633228361606598,
-0.09825963526964188,
0.5250356197357178,
0.5761900544166565,
-0.373576283454895,
-0.010499256663024426,
0.11573091149330139,
-0.5597161650657654,
0.6380754709243774,
0.08332676440477371,
-0.12194842845201492,
0.12380680441856384,
0.2616788446903229,
0.373896062374115,
0.0011877763317897916,
-0.3627546727657318,
-0.0024105606134980917,
-0.1662587672472,
0.4208217263221741,
0.16799385845661163,
-0.13085314631462097,
0.5855921506881714,
-0.12252961099147797,
-0.10318981856107712,
0.10866553336381912,
-0.195485919713974,
-0.009577030315995216,
0.19814759492874146,
-0.11064790189266205,
-0.001372890779748559,
0.9810149073600769,
0.20766830444335938,
0.08015159517526627,
-0.08699231594800949,
0.01499189529567957,
-0.03647566959261894,
-0.6172451376914978,
-0.39394137263298035,
-0.27926376461982727,
-0.3966411352157593,
0.7579789757728577,
0.6068198680877686,
-0.6588342785835266,
-0.06186670809984207,
0.05059206485748291,
-0.21830549836158752,
0.3528037369251251,
0.2094578891992569,
0.02817484177649021,
0.2758080065250397,
0.01468160841614008,
-0.15697212517261505,
-0.6152575612068176,
0.23354339599609375,
-0.4096665382385254,
0.4976159632205963,
-0.2718621790409088,
-0.13790945708751678,
-0.21396802365779877,
0.23340953886508942,
0.1407337486743927,
0.45516976714134216,
0.35986948013305664,
0.04807249829173088,
0.1321902871131897,
-0.14283162355422974,
-0.2535302937030792,
0.23835709691047668,
-0.03315814957022667,
0.6089681386947632,
0.2240985929965973,
0.5137829184532166,
0.20468008518218994,
-0.1814129501581192,
0.1221250593662262,
0.4479396641254425,
-0.4846840798854828,
0.3987262547016144,
0.3983202278614044,
0.287442147731781,
-0.3145745098590851,
0.1654694676399231,
-0.4613553285598755,
-0.26128849387168884,
0.22427240014076233,
-0.30998989939689636,
0.3876989185810089,
0.4192540645599365,
-0.7715679407119751,
-0.21781152486801147,
-0.43824851512908936,
-0.24493615329265594,
-0.09496419131755829,
-0.3927338123321533,
0.2386663854122162,
0.05745523050427437,
0.14804747700691223,
-0.2042057365179062,
-0.03228594735264778,
0.22594459354877472,
-0.056097593158483505,
-0.1570454090833664,
-0.27591216564178467,
0.32024553418159485,
0.09887902438640594,
-0.32930609583854675,
0.36054879426956177,
0.011309174820780754,
-0.15132401883602142,
0.40824463963508606,
-0.40680932998657227,
-0.13589665293693542,
0.33977949619293213,
-0.0720599815249443,
0.19409476220607758,
0.37418362498283386,
-0.17448484897613525,
-0.22579693794250488,
-0.5155463218688965,
0.45089584589004517,
-0.33888718485832214,
0.12317090481519699,
-0.5763913989067078,
0.4629237949848175,
0.11082785576581955,
0.31417831778526306,
0.47285720705986023,
0.12323232740163803,
-0.5650134682655334,
0.062299374490976334,
-0.3530571758747101,
-0.0861368477344513,
0.34878331422805786,
0.15359149873256683,
0.04347832128405571,
-0.1797206699848175,
0.3422674238681793,
-0.6445093154907227,
-0.6378529071807861,
-0.3259722590446472,
0.0936756506562233,
-0.23907935619354248,
0.7485476732254028,
0.2813129425048828,
-0.030927591025829315,
0.8186479210853577,
0.503709077835083,
0.4725807309150696,
0.09038561582565308,
-0.12842275202274323,
0.24377506971359253,
-0.6629036068916321,
-0.5380058288574219,
0.23942779004573822,
-0.10351485013961792,
0.4224098026752472,
0.37963569164276123,
-0.18027780950069427,
0.6719976663589478,
-0.5970280766487122,
0.030816789716482162,
-0.16247019171714783,
0.01549998763948679,
-0.12774886190891266,
-0.7710212469100952,
0.346948504447937,
0.16263949871063232,
-0.16737672686576843,
0.6167223453521729,
-0.3398004174232483,
-0.14948338270187378,
0.6286174058914185,
-0.238705113530159,
0.918010950088501,
0.03475406393408775,
-0.3020459711551666,
0.17972256243228912,
-0.2294967621564865,
-0.31267890334129333,
-0.2453405261039734,
-0.24359801411628723,
-0.16887173056602478,
-0.3928182125091553,
0.1856376826763153,
-0.09545738250017166,
-0.13507391512393951,
0.4286856949329376,
-0.5425596237182617,
-0.04275550693273544,
0.5600680112838745,
-0.12089995294809341,
-0.36886557936668396,
0.5955382585525513,
0.2610878348350525,
-0.6135767102241516,
-0.13198719918727875,
-0.13336069881916046,
0.18365447223186493,
0.10370143502950668,
0.5776768922805786,
0.2668493390083313,
-0.287585973739624,
-0.14513137936592102,
0.3053111135959625,
-0.08069808781147003,
0.06546186655759811,
-0.1656755656003952,
0.029917633160948753,
-0.5655968189239502,
0.08391283452510834,
0.45466285943984985,
-0.3261537253856659,
-0.5248696208000183,
-0.2860025465488434,
0.4092384874820709,
-0.5210245847702026,
0.753468930721283,
0.4320591390132904,
-0.1355293244123459,
0.019335241988301277,
-0.6225445866584778,
0.21197883784770966,
-0.1266719102859497,
-0.8631592392921448,
0.3100240230560303,
-0.06125178560614586,
-0.42542561888694763,
-0.8392981290817261,
0.06052316725254059,
0.39119458198547363,
0.2439267337322235,
-0.4118543863296509,
-0.20756250619888306,
-0.06392348557710648,
-0.20065124332904816,
-0.03596437722444534,
0.32346901297569275,
0.19678698480129242,
-0.2889035642147064,
0.35106152296066284,
-0.07420248538255692,
-0.11745765805244446,
0.20968370139598846,
-0.03706786409020424,
-0.27847468852996826,
-0.29777202010154724,
0.23969268798828125,
-0.49981942772865295,
-0.6483094692230225,
0.45690953731536865,
-0.1718853861093521,
0.365264356136322,
0.26039424538612366,
0.256008505821228,
-0.2411346137523651,
-0.16073261201381683,
-6.08846378326416,
-0.27199989557266235,
0.21326233446598053,
-0.608625054359436,
0.2785159945487976,
0.5771017074584961,
0.4389561712741852,
-0.29928869009017944,
0.09348654001951218,
-0.04248536378145218,
0.1173284575343132,
-0.003208783222362399,
0.40096744894981384,
0.2569032609462738,
0.523486852645874,
0.29744085669517517,
0.31247377395629883,
0.657747209072113,
0.21288733184337616,
-0.45835942029953003,
0.2488376498222351,
0.33300644159317017,
-0.024553613737225533,
0.47179126739501953,
-0.16039708256721497,
0.26889705657958984,
-0.5715634822845459,
0.14671628177165985,
-0.9382426738739014,
-0.5109231472015381,
-0.2189985066652298,
-0.046310245990753174,
0.058663781732320786,
0.07288942486047745,
-0.35094061493873596,
-0.12544827163219452,
0.16608992218971252,
0.3761598765850067,
0.04627922922372818,
-0.17515043914318085,
-0.09730713069438934,
0.2835797369480133,
0.039526741951704025,
-0.9262463450431824,
0.37451690435409546,
-0.26715394854545593,
-0.49935880303382874,
-0.06394554674625397,
-0.21728995442390442,
0.3090589940547943,
0.08328990638256073,
-0.3690268099308014,
0.7366864681243896,
0.3137916326522827,
-0.04144962877035141,
0.14937295019626617,
0.6445489525794983,
0.38804346323013306,
-0.37898948788642883,
0.18622605502605438,
0.5236791372299194,
-0.008508025668561459,
-0.1570170670747757,
-0.505946159362793,
0.03686273843050003,
-0.22917520999908447,
0.06588852405548096,
-0.5325903296470642,
-0.043688639998435974,
0.514785885810852,
-0.8020349740982056,
-0.4016757011413574,
0.019140221178531647,
-0.8387450575828552,
0.015123246237635612,
-0.4325519800186157,
0.18327470123767853,
0.42677825689315796,
-0.25735846161842346,
0.410089910030365,
-0.18881501257419586,
0.005334091372787952,
0.20983614027500153,
-0.1225876584649086,
-0.18674711883068085,
-0.3406710922718048,
-0.3321448862552643,
-0.31396859884262085,
-0.10011834651231766,
0.4622882902622223,
0.8518651127815247,
-0.5923312306404114,
0.08379527181386948,
0.27081409096717834,
0.5456562042236328,
0.40561848878860474,
0.14863547682762146,
0.03475537523627281,
0.4359319508075714,
-0.3212224543094635,
0.14264735579490662,
-0.3957466781139374,
0.3421262204647064,
-0.22573505342006683,
-0.2094893753528595,
0.10202350467443466,
-0.14664286375045776,
-0.26771336793899536,
0.9263074398040771,
-0.2819412350654602,
-0.18135155737400055,
0.003880574833601713,
0.06208869814872742,
0.042110469192266464,
0.3807395398616791,
-0.3187536895275116,
-0.2608276903629303,
0.16621573269367218,
0.1767737716436386,
0.1471562534570694,
-0.01955670863389969,
0.17914757132530212,
-0.24454383552074432,
-0.023552780970931053,
-0.4553636908531189,
-0.4756392240524292,
-0.11946357041597366,
-0.029665788635611534,
0.15048392117023468,
-0.10793477296829224,
0.2725723385810852,
0.06846039742231369,
0.3645551800727844,
-0.44280409812927246,
-0.14178910851478577,
-0.3759528696537018,
-0.18585126101970673,
-0.31293582916259766,
-0.21598315238952637,
-0.48670509457588196,
0.02301722951233387,
-0.5604127645492554,
-0.22472524642944336,
0.4656673073768616,
0.4077153503894806,
0.20507508516311646,
0.26066187024116516,
0.11194596439599991,
0.17978812754154205,
0.2834692895412445,
-0.06464483588933945,
0.029366817325353622,
0.8995454907417297,
-0.2282690852880478,
-0.6079044938087463,
-0.2816120684146881,
-0.03126809000968933,
0.3976486027240753,
-0.09523118287324905,
-0.07423636317253113,
0.2486594021320343,
-0.13233841955661774,
-1.2175348997116089,
0.016187530010938644,
-0.002240378176793456,
-0.24639463424682617,
-0.04550422728061676,
0.07921198010444641,
0.2921083867549896,
0.6105466485023499,
0.3680148422718048,
-0.3176279366016388,
-0.49838268756866455,
0.35181254148483276,
0.3269541561603546,
-0.0922074094414711,
0.29655155539512634,
-0.22507904469966888,
-0.1998015195131302,
0.4953307807445526,
0.07239718735218048,
0.06258493661880493,
0.20183546841144562,
0.5072441101074219,
0.26299795508384705,
0.09913533180952072,
0.01595834083855152,
-0.4815419912338257,
-0.3320286273956299,
0.2167077213525772,
-0.14754381775856018,
-0.19591279327869415,
0.3189825415611267,
-0.1440475434064865,
0.10763254016637802,
-0.6005834937095642,
0.09539850056171417,
0.3349907398223877,
-0.2557728588581085,
-0.41864973306655884,
0.6024550795555115,
0.1437234729528427,
0.1282755732536316,
0.2144411951303482,
0.6802780628204346,
-0.6903830170631409,
0.4470159709453583,
-0.040262915194034576,
-0.16064809262752533,
-0.23767611384391785,
-0.35622918605804443,
-0.3587488830089569,
0.4529260993003845,
0.13723242282867432,
-0.0779980942606926,
-0.3851383328437805,
0.2783437967300415,
-0.17466981709003448,
-0.15953056514263153,
-0.798687756061554,
-0.07848035544157028,
-0.34246015548706055,
0.3534150719642639,
0.027270235121250153,
-0.4627998173236847,
0.04180709272623062,
0.3512468934059143,
-0.7029992938041687,
0.21250098943710327,
-0.13453857600688934,
-0.4431264102458954,
0.11938957870006561,
0.09150884300470352,
-0.046442121267318726,
-0.2789304554462433,
-0.2638898193836212,
-0.11124823987483978,
-0.18663464486598969,
0.47231853008270264,
0.18216724693775177,
-0.13173124194145203,
0.663220226764679,
0.09103519469499588,
-0.4465027153491974,
-0.48442235589027405,
0.30898261070251465,
0.011472983285784721,
-0.47216540575027466,
-0.41957879066467285,
0.3038744628429413,
0.5244919061660767,
-0.12280546873807907,
-0.3123542070388794,
-0.5588947534561157,
0.9687380194664001,
-0.8298361897468567,
0.05645444244146347,
0.019235046580433846,
0.6891318559646606,
0.5637415647506714,
-0.6692470908164978,
0.10708358138799667,
0.1245800107717514,
-0.3764767646789551,
-0.24744351208209991,
0.4260191023349762,
-0.590420126914978,
-0.3627622723579407,
0.2136063575744629,
-0.579857349395752,
0.025304215028882027,
-0.18419690430164337,
0.5436840057373047,
-0.2181163728237152,
0.5043635964393616,
0.046477627009153366,
-0.555964469909668,
-0.20684325695037842,
-0.051659904420375824,
-0.1881788671016693,
-0.4521629810333252,
-0.11224950850009918,
0.15188729763031006,
-0.015232783742249012,
0.41224125027656555,
-0.6228694319725037,
0.4275417923927307,
-0.20062510669231415,
-0.29481223225593567,
-0.4704391658306122,
-0.4902031123638153,
0.23674897849559784,
-0.04040326178073883,
0.7562726736068726,
-0.5076162815093994,
0.2849964499473572,
0.3435474932193756,
0.6502065062522888,
-0.47101664543151855,
0.06082545593380928,
-0.45560935139656067,
-0.4241894483566284,
0.37095004320144653,
-0.18626871705055237,
-0.5521052479743958,
0.2532801628112793,
0.5386409759521484,
-0.6167944073677063,
-0.13837112486362457,
-0.016422605141997337,
0.4442696273326874,
0.17293627560138702,
0.3832743763923645,
0.47935640811920166,
-0.11352505534887314,
-0.1974792629480362,
0.20033684372901917,
-0.502804696559906,
0.5913490056991577,
0.28481775522232056,
0.3536321520805359,
-0.38065946102142334,
0.5317308902740479,
0.24555373191833496,
-0.14157545566558838,
0.360807329416275,
-0.06565289944410324,
-0.3824162185192108,
0.14106440544128418,
0.40752747654914856,
0.4822526276111603,
-0.06720354408025742,
-0.43802720308303833,
-0.000990013824775815,
-0.2925441861152649,
-0.31080085039138794,
0.043602462857961655,
-0.05348261073231697,
-0.2476048767566681,
0.4239584505558014,
0.6254724860191345,
0.06684516370296478,
-0.2497357726097107,
-0.392126202583313,
0.2690986394882202,
0.06403721123933792,
0.523399293422699,
0.15549132227897644,
-0.2049618363380432,
0.022094078361988068,
-0.4154002070426941,
0.46283650398254395,
0.03391898795962334,
-0.20493029057979584,
0.5063318610191345,
0.30041608214378357,
-0.09433002024888992,
-0.06974485516548157,
0.98453688621521,
0.18254129588603973,
0.2556901276111603,
-0.5256993770599365,
0.19852487742900848,
0.17266307771205902,
-0.2781956195831299,
-0.4122155010700226,
-0.5520896315574646,
-0.720859944820404,
-0.0833466425538063,
0.05298558250069618,
0.2206491231918335,
0.04687359184026718,
-0.7686514854431152,
0.3933502435684204,
-0.1302802413702011,
-0.029846398159861565,
0.3401075005531311,
0.41101640462875366,
0.48110759258270264,
0.10079918056726456,
-0.1305243968963623,
-0.3892137110233307,
0.5106455683708191,
-0.44224509596824646,
0.3766467869281769,
0.12845639884471893,
-0.09804430603981018,
0.09897688031196594,
-0.42028602957725525,
0.11059752851724625,
0.27325665950775146,
-0.22547084093093872,
-0.18724943697452545,
0.4234412908554077,
-0.06529367715120316,
0.0677151158452034,
-0.544749915599823,
0.10714166611433029,
0.09473768621683121,
0.08142135292291641,
0.17305868864059448,
-0.06949825584888458,
0.16864410042762756,
0.5051164627075195,
-0.03312041983008385,
-0.2812274396419525,
-0.6268712282180786,
-0.033072300255298615,
-0.8637703657150269,
0.40053385496139526,
-0.18328344821929932,
-0.10886411368846893,
0.10839630663394928,
-0.07274910807609558,
0.19392672181129456,
-0.3436022400856018,
0.2148859053850174,
-0.117284394800663,
0.22724474966526031,
-0.8613680005073547,
-0.2026757299900055,
-0.1816105842590332,
0.46529069542884827,
0.3957032561302185,
0.0007170193712227046,
-0.3760640323162079,
0.3673740029335022,
0.13674797117710114,
-0.5534960627555847,
0.40130841732025146,
-0.12179639935493469,
-0.06761035323143005,
-0.4642961919307709,
0.18134169280529022,
-0.15566936135292053,
-0.29091736674308777,
0.48883941769599915,
0.6902132034301758,
0.10521697998046875,
-0.47017964720726013,
0.05906275659799576,
0.3306933343410492,
0.32978180050849915,
0.19992415606975555,
-0.3468968868255615,
0.6952145099639893,
0.006702121812850237,
-0.06939928233623505,
-0.6696729063987732,
0.29144608974456787,
0.12386558949947357,
-0.6205416321754456,
0.5122156739234924,
0.008625887334346771,
0.34529703855514526,
0.047838810831308365,
-0.2726781964302063,
-0.30690497159957886,
0.10576552152633667,
-0.4589978754520416
] |
203669
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prorocentrales
|
Prorocentrales
|
The Prorocentrales are a small order of dinoflagellates. They are distinguished by having their two flagella inserted apically, rather than ventrally as in other groups. One flagellum extends forward and the other circles its base, and there are no flagellar grooves. This arrangement is called desmokont, in contrast to the dinokont arrangement found in other groups. Accordingly, the Prorocentrales may be called desmoflagellates, and in some classifications were treated as a separate class Desmophyceae.
All members have chloroplasts and a theca, which is composed of two large plates joined by a sagittal suture. This structure is shared with the Dinophysiales, and they are probably sister groups. This does not show up on rRNA trees, which also show two separate groups of Prorocentrum, but they leave their relationships mostly unresolved.
References
Dinophyceae
Dinoflagellate orders
|
[
0.07994399219751358,
0.16950984299182892,
-0.13101425766944885,
0.08534935861825943,
-0.4239491820335388,
0.04673558473587036,
0.006483684293925762,
0.4249694347381592,
0.12278375029563904,
-0.07313399016857147,
0.06927234679460526,
0.5094248652458191,
-0.40503084659576416,
0.16206125915050507,
0.10806067287921906,
0.5573131442070007,
0.08584725856781006,
0.2249314785003662,
-0.19464273750782013,
-0.31201714277267456,
-0.14498068392276764,
-0.5891451239585876,
0.6156073808670044,
-0.6069406867027283,
0.5140513181686401,
0.3166046440601349,
-0.35452964901924133,
0.3623252809047699,
0.41770464181900024,
-0.6400715708732605,
-0.36190587282180786,
0.8664663434028625,
-0.0907370075583458,
-0.004628353752195835,
0.034799207001924515,
-0.21281735599040985,
0.06872560828924179,
-0.8898423314094543,
-0.32797420024871826,
-0.4094277322292328,
0.2367173433303833,
-0.19931158423423767,
0.2847173511981964,
0.2373138666152954,
-0.6701807379722595,
0.4019283950328827,
-1.2515969276428223,
0.15161380171775818,
-0.8079100251197815,
0.21268942952156067,
-0.1276675909757614,
0.18119995296001434,
0.8618401885032654,
0.3122442364692688,
0.08308571577072144,
0.15352128446102142,
-1.2862728834152222,
0.03383350744843483,
0.17508691549301147,
-0.8338802456855774,
-0.4100061357021332,
0.4886012077331543,
-0.643629252910614,
-0.331769734621048,
0.28698769211769104,
0.6863946914672852,
-0.08030841499567032,
-0.022535355761647224,
-0.6845906376838684,
0.4813477098941803,
-0.1379545032978058,
-0.6872589588165283,
0.4368704855442047,
0.5854794979095459,
-0.5359130501747131,
-0.1379735767841339,
-0.242902472615242,
-0.19296017289161682,
0.415767639875412,
-0.3570657968521118,
0.05234161764383316,
0.4906933903694153,
0.5921287536621094,
-0.21643738448619843,
0.166470006108284,
0.016370616853237152,
-0.5640519261360168,
0.160410076379776,
-0.5586600303649902,
0.579013466835022,
-0.4610387980937958,
-0.13173820078372955,
0.734091579914093,
0.29961487650871277,
0.26730117201805115,
-0.22567909955978394,
-0.1960974484682083,
-0.13449563086032867,
0.1991656869649887,
0.6773209571838379,
-0.6910693645477295,
0.0314343087375164,
0.4405129551887512,
-0.1359470635652542,
-0.20787963271141052,
-0.22335250675678253,
0.006924866698682308,
-0.4321208894252777,
-0.5370855927467346,
0.17421573400497437,
-0.7221325039863586,
0.2711990177631378,
-0.3472292125225067,
0.07042144238948822,
0.035694949328899384,
0.3878118395805359,
0.0439482145011425,
0.3551397919654846,
-0.4812755882740021,
-0.707902193069458,
0.38315656781196594,
0.48239314556121826,
-0.019155504181981087,
0.12561069428920746,
-0.6376949548721313,
0.2988061010837555,
-0.28604328632354736,
0.4026605486869812,
-0.7537682056427002,
0.35119980573654175,
-0.01998399943113327,
1.0247013568878174,
-0.034379441291093826,
0.7222840785980225,
0.11551165580749512,
-0.43657198548316956,
-0.1807834357023239,
-0.09458775073289871,
0.5720400214195251,
0.26088014245033264,
-0.5288156270980835,
0.28457337617874146,
-1.1987671852111816,
-0.3761087954044342,
0.3591919243335724,
-0.47520408034324646,
-0.13193565607070923,
0.1305502951145172,
-0.7061554789543152,
-0.19207483530044556,
0.4484388530254364,
-0.2827114164829254,
-0.47181451320648193,
0.14981918036937714,
-0.20332840085029602,
-0.18778358399868011,
0.8019446730613708,
0.05585435405373573,
0.38450881838798523,
0.38583672046661377,
-0.37407833337783813,
-0.47194209694862366,
-0.48186978697776794,
0.31758958101272583,
1.1092320680618286,
-0.31036704778671265,
0.591001570224762,
0.030016444623470306,
0.26849737763404846,
1.1640113592147827,
-0.46679794788360596,
-0.5257390737533569,
0.06069565936923027,
-0.07581371068954468,
-0.3833855092525482,
-0.3059001863002777,
0.5196592211723328,
0.5455747246742249,
0.7854478359222412,
-0.8475821614265442,
-0.7759750485420227,
-0.24943898618221283,
-0.1428050994873047,
-0.21303731203079224,
0.25171908736228943,
-0.1081242635846138,
0.4896908104419708,
0.21546146273612976,
0.19229920208454132,
-0.2196614146232605,
-0.0750800371170044,
-0.2407938688993454,
0.31937655806541443,
-0.06525688618421555,
1.2557928562164307,
0.02873050980269909,
-0.3787279725074768,
-0.061589278280735016,
0.34376582503318787,
0.046565648168325424,
-0.6815440654754639,
0.44796767830848694,
-0.06820863485336304,
-0.39118045568466187,
-0.5347884297370911,
1.2947429418563843,
0.38265565037727356,
-0.08542858809232712,
1.1704472303390503,
0.20948883891105652,
-0.06561732292175293,
-0.19330693781375885,
0.44438061118125916,
-0.6358392834663391,
0.23978236317634583,
-0.7488391995429993,
-0.2467704862356186,
-0.0488109290599823,
-0.334470272064209,
-0.4488207995891571,
0.7664321660995483,
-0.2894684374332428,
0.4826924800872803,
0.9710537791252136,
-0.5274547338485718,
0.5790773630142212,
0.8170621991157532,
-0.16132070124149323,
0.5613528490066528,
0.22859548032283783,
0.6211020946502686,
0.21974676847457886,
0.5887172818183899,
-0.44694218039512634,
0.08490122854709625,
0.3957909345626831,
-0.0022761938162148,
-0.8945452570915222,
0.43311259150505066,
-0.44846364855766296,
0.07292909175157547,
-0.05298517271876335,
-0.8649522662162781,
0.24364188313484192,
0.7007402777671814,
0.032492995262145996,
0.2767009139060974,
0.5859631896018982,
-0.7516524195671082,
0.5881808400154114,
-0.4200895130634308,
-0.013524108566343784,
0.4630352556705475,
-0.7943041920661926,
0.5446460247039795,
0.4135695993900299,
0.08502085506916046,
-0.447470486164093,
0.30226266384124756,
-0.4432675540447235,
-0.5368386507034302,
0.1766926497220993,
-0.0669516995549202,
0.31146159768104553,
-0.37658581137657166,
-0.07757960259914398,
0.41337093710899353,
0.021275540813803673,
0.9681273102760315,
-0.014198468066751957,
0.06821336597204208,
-0.008837358094751835,
-0.7978683114051819,
-0.5675598978996277,
-0.19008280336856842,
-0.2898419499397278,
-0.624261736869812,
0.33209607005119324,
0.3059847950935364,
0.14208196103572845,
0.16294805705547333,
0.3029809594154358,
0.41567501425743103,
-0.18704000115394592,
-0.5322101712226868,
-0.18122011423110962,
0.7292541861534119,
-0.12491379678249359,
-0.22861866652965546,
-0.814403772354126,
-0.5147771239280701,
-0.5056542158126831,
-0.6602529287338257,
0.44075390696525574,
-0.520317018032074,
0.15424005687236786,
-0.24734632670879364,
-0.05524148792028427,
0.17370834946632385,
-0.7133169174194336,
-0.637299120426178,
-0.40190866589546204,
-0.17961612343788147,
0.15632572770118713,
0.06295710802078247,
-0.28292328119277954,
0.12464490532875061,
0.22967183589935303,
-5.254580974578857,
-0.07910481095314026,
-0.07372744381427765,
0.37111896276474,
0.11384328454732895,
0.5068654417991638,
0.5598251223564148,
-0.6383488178253174,
-0.16861185431480408,
-0.023069659247994423,
-0.10456998646259308,
0.20007073879241943,
-0.008690656162798405,
0.6973894238471985,
0.10021641850471497,
0.5876771807670593,
-0.1243562251329422,
0.3049624562263489,
0.02658478170633316,
-0.03087373822927475,
-0.018784381449222565,
0.1812378615140915,
0.23808228969573975,
-0.10162309557199478,
0.1140078604221344,
-0.2741328775882721,
-0.39428237080574036,
0.4247806668281555,
0.3748836815357208,
-0.4155423641204834,
0.08733844012022018,
-0.16495618224143982,
-0.14866609871387482,
-0.10873117297887802,
0.06037173792719841,
0.4123937785625458,
0.4602796137332916,
0.26441633701324463,
0.13155153393745422,
-0.46986642479896545,
-0.4996016025543213,
0.21201489865779877,
0.31552854180336,
0.035484228283166885,
0.6140139102935791,
-0.15230543911457062,
-0.08766025304794312,
-0.2031886726617813,
-0.059319328516721725,
1.4767110347747803,
-0.17514745891094208,
-0.08240241557359695,
0.9686722755432129,
0.6202378273010254,
0.6996892690658569,
-0.3120589256286621,
0.5009380578994751,
-0.4835497736930847,
-0.5072886943817139,
0.42879238724708557,
0.5200513601303101,
-0.21672745048999786,
-0.5034047961235046,
-0.7550389766693115,
0.33197489380836487,
-0.23900341987609863,
-0.8027123212814331,
0.8271527290344238,
0.7034639120101929,
-0.22518347203731537,
-0.5711182951927185,
0.5751202702522278,
-0.46005964279174805,
-0.6290852427482605,
0.48097172379493713,
-0.06316778808832169,
0.3661159574985504,
0.09297429025173187,
-0.23854182660579681,
0.29573938250541687,
0.19561666250228882,
0.0855843797326088,
-0.4790937006473541,
0.7323210835456848,
-0.029613573104143143,
-0.38075438141822815,
0.18126915395259857,
0.07342006266117096,
-1.098846197128296,
0.07040472328662872,
-0.0913066565990448,
0.1573704034090042,
-0.040526457130908966,
0.18225759267807007,
0.13607066869735718,
0.5794216990470886,
0.0792660340666771,
0.21717843413352966,
0.4557659924030304,
-0.8223674893379211,
0.5845332145690918,
-0.31188181042671204,
-0.32276514172554016,
0.01702805608510971,
-0.47580718994140625,
-1.2068320512771606,
0.10845208913087845,
0.3883953094482422,
-0.332742840051651,
-0.15197722613811493,
0.6426355838775635,
0.258074015378952,
-0.8789045810699463,
0.04906531050801277,
0.4745618999004364,
0.132812961935997,
-0.8293339610099792,
0.3403265178203583,
0.9768163561820984,
-0.17050816118717194,
0.08398353308439255,
0.7469081878662109,
0.15266987681388855,
0.37978920340538025,
-0.8148168325424194,
0.24854452908039093,
0.13605447113513947,
-0.03206567466259003,
-0.7422595024108887,
0.019214089959859848,
0.2827649712562561,
0.09959357231855392,
-0.4334249794483185,
-0.10364244133234024,
0.09683053195476532,
-0.23889276385307312,
-0.3425341546535492,
0.5507524609565735,
-0.13744717836380005,
-0.30452606081962585,
0.11757958680391312,
-0.38401085138320923,
-0.15659651160240173,
0.40130704641342163,
0.1423148661851883,
0.48760786652565,
-0.1492423117160797,
-0.30609577894210815,
0.031490445137023926,
0.7785598635673523,
0.4316606819629669,
-0.2800583839416504,
0.4695490300655365,
-1.2522988319396973,
0.5370591878890991,
0.22217029333114624,
0.006850710604339838,
0.2586246132850647,
0.14667551219463348,
-0.9700972437858582,
0.11373855918645859,
0.14565923810005188,
-0.6195818185806274,
0.1483837068080902,
0.06880881637334824,
-0.5105739235877991,
-0.9618396759033203,
-0.7902492880821228,
-0.3588353991508484,
-0.3986297845840454,
-0.2319021224975586,
0.12405292689800262,
-0.15470930933952332,
-0.5149844288825989,
0.08866086602210999,
-0.5237022042274475,
0.10482535511255264,
0.2116614580154419,
-0.028970107436180115,
-0.6594839096069336,
0.31256523728370667,
0.07484949380159378,
0.5566276907920837,
-0.26743006706237793,
0.7937146425247192,
-0.41314104199409485,
-0.19821663200855255,
-0.6884393095970154,
-0.639020562171936,
-0.0026480932720005512,
0.19375593960285187,
0.6608810424804688,
0.5229607820510864,
-0.15627452731132507,
-0.22336161136627197,
-0.03151225671172142,
-0.04397624731063843,
0.76409512758255,
-0.772849440574646,
-1.4828027486801147,
-0.6569052934646606,
0.230403870344162,
-0.3901617228984833,
0.46409299969673157,
0.14522483944892883,
-0.16734565794467926,
0.6428728103637695,
0.09094042330980301,
-0.542579174041748,
0.2593297064304352,
0.005684994626790285,
-0.10772746056318283,
-0.3341347277164459,
-0.01594073884189129,
-0.30079978704452515,
0.09999440610408783,
0.27107539772987366,
0.11112163215875626,
-0.5248996615409851,
-0.1707909107208252,
0.18683941662311554,
0.05884672701358795,
0.3293621242046356,
-0.34526190161705017,
-0.6711791157722473,
0.07083766162395477,
0.04658180847764015,
0.06082597002387047,
0.4961378574371338,
-0.31237465143203735,
0.006244492717087269,
-0.4291597604751587,
0.1514868140220642,
-0.2524487376213074,
-0.21744433045387268,
0.008256608620285988,
0.07274817675352097,
0.3848300874233246,
-0.11479983478784561,
0.23219753801822662,
0.7110084891319275,
0.5171974301338196,
0.2571427822113037,
-0.23220707476139069,
0.15238843858242035,
0.03747694939374924,
0.48284611105918884,
-0.08708058297634125,
-0.8242223858833313,
0.3614727556705475,
1.1597212553024292,
-0.3193701207637787,
-0.867925763130188,
0.029806125909090042,
1.3240092992782593,
-0.5827142596244812,
-0.13495352864265442,
-0.2139209508895874,
-0.1439470499753952,
0.40588855743408203,
0.2131228893995285,
-0.05066414922475815,
-0.4412578046321869,
0.10992855578660965,
0.010044544003903866,
-0.48619765043258667,
-0.050081465393304825,
0.06511462479829788,
0.6334072947502136,
-0.06246161088347435,
0.3566052317619324,
0.460583359003067,
0.16871513426303864,
0.6210145354270935,
-0.11167793720960617,
0.35768234729766846,
0.4751208424568176,
-0.48161178827285767,
0.26456940174102783,
-0.3163745701313019,
-0.27866190671920776,
-0.011827611364424229,
0.28196388483047485,
-0.06096761301159859,
-0.29551374912261963,
-0.9788408279418945,
-0.8667216300964355,
0.2844094932079315,
-0.06349992752075195,
0.09981290251016617,
0.049586907029151917,
-0.6644699573516846,
-0.5045382976531982,
-0.6168081760406494,
0.6589483618736267,
0.13829949498176575,
0.169698566198349,
0.03220522776246071,
-0.6694757342338562,
0.3562299609184265,
-0.6519474983215332,
0.6337289214134216,
-0.1412433385848999,
-0.6292883157730103,
0.02560063824057579,
0.3253219723701477,
0.12219131737947464,
-0.05507490038871765,
-0.3828102648258209,
-0.07042641192674637,
-0.07835561782121658,
-0.32646292448043823,
0.009156402200460434,
1.0336343050003052,
-0.8945688009262085,
0.28432172536849976,
0.7509148120880127,
-0.8326157331466675,
-0.5558590888977051,
0.6665257811546326,
0.07443054765462875,
0.03017478436231613,
0.0528719499707222,
0.1652241200208664,
-0.14780013263225555,
-0.14686156809329987,
-0.8467192053794861,
-0.11015734821557999,
0.03205007687211037,
0.6546509861946106,
0.7288016676902771,
0.3208332359790802,
-0.9534956216812134,
0.06594675034284592,
-0.3920665979385376,
-0.40115320682525635,
-0.09304433315992355,
-0.2905518710613251,
-0.023547286167740822,
0.5913159251213074,
0.32885080575942993,
0.6464859843254089,
-0.09861297160387039,
-0.08683635294437408,
-0.09067533165216446,
0.9340269565582275,
0.045468322932720184,
-0.05955870449542999,
0.21652260422706604,
-0.017649438232183456,
-0.17030863463878632,
-0.262124627828598,
0.3207716941833496,
-0.1385265737771988,
-0.09297463297843933,
0.03333311155438423,
0.5872628688812256,
-0.23008005321025848,
0.3004220128059387,
-0.3452901840209961,
-0.3058951199054718,
-0.07983594387769699,
-0.2441614866256714,
0.3522239923477173,
-0.2520732879638672,
-0.2954261600971222,
0.04689347371459007,
-0.23721182346343994,
0.05033113434910774,
-0.017583463340997696,
0.43446099758148193,
0.22190894186496735,
-0.23343926668167114,
0.0661582499742508,
-0.2106247842311859,
0.2066633552312851,
-0.30915507674217224,
0.43626660108566284,
0.3960821032524109,
0.30289819836616516,
-0.5878446698188782,
0.5241277813911438,
-0.3525877594947815,
-0.45309415459632874,
0.5357309579849243,
-0.18134425580501556,
0.01088432315737009,
0.052534617483615875,
-0.06370809674263,
0.21648088097572327,
-0.022473042830824852,
-1.0629909038543701,
-0.10252563655376434,
0.4064665734767914,
-0.4553057551383972,
-0.04194093495607376,
0.1763065755367279,
0.9526777863502502,
0.670039176940918,
-0.21731020510196686,
-0.1340872049331665,
0.5664885640144348,
0.16931171715259552,
-0.20044194161891937,
0.27284693717956543,
0.3536229133605957,
-0.3617037534713745,
0.30789637565612793,
-0.45155003666877747,
-0.23681677877902985,
0.807244598865509,
0.4321973919868469,
-0.4582076966762543,
0.43095603585243225,
0.27638038992881775,
0.39556029438972473,
0.4389653205871582,
-0.2167266458272934,
-0.29899367690086365,
0.20680484175682068,
0.07488007843494415,
-0.27207985520362854,
-0.03466847166419029,
0.4765815734863281,
-0.05740482732653618,
-0.22656956315040588,
-0.054182395339012146,
-0.14499473571777344,
-0.2664152979850769,
0.24811170995235443,
0.13140521943569183,
-0.05580715090036392,
-0.6242823004722595,
0.106977678835392,
-0.15468519926071167,
-0.25759071111679077,
0.5705426931381226,
0.2345307618379593,
0.4248180389404297,
-0.22210268676280975,
0.08368761837482452,
0.12185224145650864,
0.485914945602417,
-0.13901720941066742,
-1.0745975971221924,
0.29003721475601196,
-0.5631743669509888,
-0.6288464665412903,
-0.6074900031089783,
-0.225901797413826,
0.25574854016304016,
-0.46170926094055176,
0.19397255778312683,
0.20529364049434662,
-0.294148713350296,
-0.29369696974754333,
-0.30109262466430664,
0.07569743692874908,
0.130080446600914,
0.7105141282081604
] |
203670
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Laos
|
Kingdom of Laos
|
The Kingdom of Laos was a constitutional monarchy that ruled Laos beginning with its independence on 9 November 1953. It survived until December 1975, when its last king, Sisavang Vatthana, surrendered the throne to the Pathet Lao, who abolished the monarchy in favour of a Marxist–Leninist state called the Lao People's Democratic Republic, which has controlled Laos ever since.
Given self-rule with the new Constitution in 1947 as part of the French Union and a federation with the rest of French Indochina, the 1953 Franco-Lao Treaty finally established a sovereign, independent Laos, but did not stipulate who would rule the country. In the years that followed, three groups led by the so-called Three Princes, contended for power: the neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma, the right-wing party under Prince Boun Oum of Champassak, and the left-wing, North Vietnamese-backed Pathet Lao under Prince Souphanouvong and future Prime Minister Kaysone Phomvihane.
The Pathet Lao would eventually emerge victorious in the Laotian Civil War and establish the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975.
History
The Kingdom of Laos was officially proclaimed when the new Constitution was promulgated in 1947, as part of the colonial French Union, and obtained full independence in 1953. The monarchy lasted until 2 December 1975, when the last king Sisavang Vatthana abdicated the throne to the Pathet Lao who abolished the kingdom and proclaimed Laos as a communist state.
Government
Following the Franco-Lao Treaty of 1953, which gave Laos independence, the Royal Lao Government took control of the country. This treaty established a constitutional monarchy, with Sisavang Vong as King and Prince Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister.
Many attempts were made by the Three Princes and King Sisavang Vatthana to establish a coalition government. The First Government of National Unity was established in 1958 under Prince Souvanna Phouma, but collapsed after two months. The Prime Minister, who under the constitution appointed his ministers and received advice from the King, made a deal with his brother Prince Souphanouvong.
Souvanna Phouma gave the Communists two seats in the Cabinet, and in return Souphanouvong would integrate 1,500 of his 6,000 Communist troops into the royal army. Prince Souphanouvong was given the post of Minister of Planning, Reconstruction and Urbanization, while another member of the Communist Party was named Minister of Religion and Fine Arts.
The legislature of the Kingdom was bicameral.
Military
The Kingdom of Laos was divided into five military regions. The Royal Lao Armed Forces were responsible for the defense of the country, comprising three branches of service: the Royal Lao Army, the Royal Lao Navy, and the Royal Lao Air Force, which was under the control of the Ministry of Defence in Vientiane.
The United States supplied the Royal Lao Navy with twenty river patrol boats and sixteen amphibious landing craft. Between 1962 and 1971, the United States provided Laos with an estimated US$500 million in military assistance.
Foreign relations
The Royal Lao Government had close relations with the United States, which gave the country aid and assisted it in the campaign against the Pathet Lao and the North Vietnamese Communist movement. During 1957, the United States spent more per capita on foreign aid for Laos than it had on any other nation. That worked out as US$150 per Laotian, twice the average person's annual income. Some of the money went to support pro-American candidates in an election, while other money went to a program to support the local currency, the kip.
King Savang Vatthana visited the United States in 1963 to meet with President Kennedy.
Laos was also supported by France, Australia, Burma, Thailand and Japan.
North Vietnamese invasion of Laos and Civil war
In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army and the Soviet Union-backed, communist Pathet Lao, a second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 proved to be unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated thereafter as the conflict in Laos became a focus for superpower rivalry. During the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, the Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the NVA and Vietcong.
Laos was also dragged into the Vietnam War after parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam for use as a supply route for its war against the South. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese positions, supported regular and irregular anticommunist forces in Laos, including those led by Hmong General Vang Pao, and supported South Vietnamese incursions into Laos. It also provided supplies, training and funding for the central government.
In 1968, the North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the Royal Lao Army. The attack resulted in the army largely demobilizing, leaving the conflict to irregular forces raised by the United States and Thailand.
Massive aerial bombardment against Pathet Lao and NVA forces was carried out by the United States. It has been reported that Laos was hit by an average of one B-52 bombload every eight minutes, 24 hours a day, between 1964 and 1973. US bombers dropped more ordnance on Laos in this period than was dropped during the whole of the Second World War. Of the 260 million bombs that rained down, particularly on Xiangkhouang Province on the Plain of Jars, some 80 million failed to explode and continue to injure and kill residents to this day.
Laos is the most heavily bombed country, per capita, in the world. Because it was particularly heavily affected by cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and assist victims, and hosted the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.
In 1975, the Pathet Lao, along with Vietnam People's Army and backed by the Soviet Union, overthrew the royalist Lao government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in captivity.
Fall of the government
A ceasefire was finally attained in February 1973, following the Paris Peace Accords between the United States and North Vietnam. In April 1974, another Provisional Government of National Unity was established, with Prince Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister. However, by this time, Pathet Lao forces controlled large areas of the country, and following the fall of Saigon and Phnom Penh to communist forces in April 1975, removed any chances of a coalition government forming in Laos. Following the communist victories in both countries, they advanced on to Vientiane.
On 2 December 1975 in Vientiane, Prince Vong Savang submitted the letter of abdication of King Savang Vatthana to the Pathet Lao. The Lao People's Democratic Republic was established with Prince Souphanouvong as President. Kaysone Phomvihane acted as Prime Minister and Secretary-General of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.
Aftermath
About 30,000 to 40,000 citizens and members of the old government, including the royal family, were taken to re-education camps in remote areas of Laos after the coup.
See also
History of Laos since 1945
Lao Veterans of America
Laotian Royal Family
Laos Memorial
Hmong (disambiguation)
Lao Veterans of America Institute
Vang Pao
References
External links
Country Study – Kingdom of Laos
Kingdom of Laos
Former monarchies
Kingdom Of Laos
Former polities of the Cold War
Former polities of the Indochina Wars
Former countries in Southeast Asia
States and territories established in 1947
States and territories disestablished in 1975
1947 establishments in Laos
1975 disestablishments in Laos
|
[
0.35878852009773254,
0.28282901644706726,
0.08654964715242386,
0.12403174489736557,
0.0980345830321312,
0.05554034933447838,
-0.052218660712242126,
0.27235472202301025,
-0.7858561873435974,
0.42895588278770447,
0.06514628976583481,
0.1945246458053589,
-0.8106359243392944,
0.15724240243434906,
-0.9528894424438477,
0.3286312520503998,
0.7959169745445251,
0.06529805064201355,
0.8610209822654724,
-0.5329065918922424,
-0.2141488939523697,
0.18126308917999268,
0.2070246934890747,
0.48668766021728516,
0.05799723416566849,
0.0386740118265152,
0.47595369815826416,
0.14455591142177582,
0.7637349963188171,
-0.11502783000469208,
-0.1267169862985611,
0.0523269884288311,
-0.02129048854112625,
-0.03784222900867462,
-0.1752987504005432,
0.07754827290773392,
0.0768037810921669,
0.44031673669815063,
-0.5584149360656738,
-0.28804537653923035,
-0.46686673164367676,
0.024536771699786186,
0.04297562316060066,
0.26401370763778687,
0.36737921833992004,
-1.0339324474334717,
-0.7223765254020691,
0.8277422189712524,
-0.14604483544826508,
0.24136248230934143,
-0.7880657911300659,
0.16059726476669312,
-0.14107194542884827,
0.2683958411216736,
0.585806131362915,
-0.00043110569822601974,
-0.8769097328186035,
-0.1462923288345337,
-0.45507729053497314,
0.126106858253479,
0.21191738545894623,
0.1663980782032013,
-0.14362871646881104,
-0.290597140789032,
-0.36166438460350037,
0.14789865911006927,
0.294405460357666,
0.02397235482931137,
0.028169991448521614,
-0.15857331454753876,
0.09399652481079102,
0.711251437664032,
-0.027314327657222748,
0.23440201580524445,
0.05414336547255516,
-0.7842012047767639,
-0.04780969023704529,
-0.1829550415277481,
0.3980903625488281,
0.006475798320025206,
0.4703056216239929,
0.04296113923192024,
0.5089752078056335,
0.36514270305633545,
0.2711721956729889,
0.22393426299095154,
-0.4856051504611969,
0.018805786967277527,
-0.030281394720077515,
-0.06388173997402191,
-0.38950008153915405,
0.37929442524909973,
0.0755261480808258,
-0.14902065694332123,
-0.926586389541626,
-0.6952657103538513,
-0.46251463890075684,
0.5709825754165649,
0.32875803112983704,
0.19559767842292786,
0.19490614533424377,
0.4706372320652008,
0.5197098255157471,
-0.4787760376930237,
-0.8774279356002808,
-0.6551250219345093,
-0.2628600001335144,
0.18133173882961273,
-0.7152494192123413,
-0.3759329915046692,
-0.8300768733024597,
0.28283292055130005,
0.07987084239721298,
0.2618638873100281,
0.021641047671437263,
0.7798197269439697,
0.01295023038983345,
-0.3062994182109833,
0.2912646532058716,
0.04303960129618645,
0.18802019953727722,
0.5479673743247986,
-0.3542921245098114,
0.7020827531814575,
0.3775479793548584,
0.35782596468925476,
0.0832289382815361,
0.23637497425079346,
-0.29424718022346497,
0.6020246148109436,
0.505943775177002,
0.4968430995941162,
-0.4397298991680145,
0.33999568223953247,
0.07454521209001541,
-0.16019529104232788,
0.9893726706504822,
0.2595594525337219,
0.668728768825531,
-0.199509859085083,
-1.0158090591430664,
-0.24722401797771454,
-0.36886146664619446,
0.3808038532733917,
-0.21426443755626678,
-0.2934921979904175,
0.24656067788600922,
-0.3340546190738678,
-0.7575528025627136,
-0.3591402769088745,
0.1076912134885788,
-0.5033711194992065,
0.08030159026384354,
-0.10529729723930359,
-0.2303229123353958,
0.13814938068389893,
0.27601873874664307,
0.36288154125213623,
0.12588098645210266,
0.2812251150608063,
0.04772321134805679,
0.3109726309776306,
0.16255734860897064,
-0.12921662628650665,
0.6958389282226562,
-0.050539691001176834,
-0.06805908679962158,
0.7865151762962341,
-0.10822299122810364,
0.06543820351362228,
-0.5157625079154968,
0.1615964025259018,
-0.2593967318534851,
-0.0832228884100914,
-0.06413174420595169,
-0.40652230381965637,
-0.11828755587339401,
0.023192647844552994,
-0.31234338879585266,
0.12127897143363953,
-0.44610244035720825,
0.5326330065727234,
0.19545352458953857,
0.08228280395269394,
0.41198617219924927,
0.5126945972442627,
0.8932467699050903,
-0.10962329804897308,
0.2825140058994293,
0.02974782884120941,
-0.3270934224128723,
0.048837509006261826,
0.4171217978000641,
-0.4124772548675537,
0.5004084706306458,
0.32492101192474365,
-0.1574130803346634,
0.7570722699165344,
-0.20262496173381805,
0.8807687759399414,
0.25268810987472534,
-0.4453248381614685,
0.5541443824768066,
0.058253802359104156,
-0.33767661452293396,
-0.031079361215233803,
-0.05225289240479469,
0.4109102487564087,
1.0880616903305054,
0.7047817707061768,
0.25551918148994446,
-0.006380428560078144,
-0.5178837180137634,
0.39966705441474915,
0.12672114372253418,
-0.5833062529563904,
-0.7294809222221375,
0.23277707397937775,
-0.06614375859498978,
-0.4558470547199249,
0.10174176841974258,
-0.12509223818778992,
-0.27809658646583557,
0.3706388771533966,
0.3392724394798279,
1.213987112045288,
-0.05639228597283363,
-0.12065921723842621,
-0.1599196493625641,
-0.02058858796954155,
-0.6031262874603271,
-0.4465004503726959,
0.510723352432251,
-0.31205639243125916,
0.2722874879837036,
0.11843589693307877,
-0.32499685883522034,
-0.31644514203071594,
-0.1898491233587265,
-0.12957291305065155,
0.3797580897808075,
-0.5592389702796936,
-0.5532432198524475,
-0.34411320090293884,
-0.09619186073541641,
0.7758426070213318,
-0.66489577293396,
-0.12774401903152466,
-0.5068304538726807,
-0.23005719482898712,
-0.1390838623046875,
-0.32266557216644287,
0.6240643262863159,
-0.06554830819368362,
-0.32304802536964417,
-0.2736365795135498,
-0.7267508506774902,
0.00406786659732461,
0.09450993686914444,
-0.08275832235813141,
-0.17998617887496948,
-0.15757349133491516,
0.39710402488708496,
0.08852144330739975,
0.011736949905753136,
-0.2708422839641571,
-0.4684438109397888,
-0.3774774372577667,
0.30438435077667236,
0.4850045144557953,
0.3093108832836151,
-0.673618733882904,
-0.5139651298522949,
-0.6958344578742981,
-0.2229788899421692,
-0.21977326273918152,
-0.3323103189468384,
0.02551448903977871,
-0.8035128116607666,
-0.7987073659896851,
0.5949211716651917,
0.7461038827896118,
0.3255443274974823,
-1.165776252746582,
-0.3878297805786133,
0.18006673455238342,
-0.20638161897659302,
-0.6402053833007812,
0.18501165509223938,
0.17156147956848145,
0.05266580730676651,
0.14963261783123016,
-0.5987358093261719,
-0.19254575669765472,
-0.016853928565979004,
-0.23303133249282837,
-0.04216398671269417,
0.2158254086971283,
0.6583019495010376,
0.2714751660823822,
-0.6964346766471863,
-0.13477355241775513,
-0.5373051166534424,
0.11005731672048569,
0.46448370814323425,
-0.13159696757793427,
-0.1636442244052887,
-0.11277250200510025,
-5.568272113800049,
-0.3447630703449249,
0.3407042324542999,
-0.5384090542793274,
-0.04754848778247833,
0.6206777095794678,
0.6302809119224548,
0.14575347304344177,
0.4349839985370636,
-0.30840134620666504,
-0.10313152521848679,
-0.3252141773700714,
0.08768739551305771,
0.36130490899086,
0.3154025077819824,
0.5455589294433594,
0.28905797004699707,
-0.280933678150177,
0.41406571865081787,
0.4318702518939972,
0.15498973429203033,
-0.4314928352832794,
0.17785581946372986,
0.4072458744049072,
0.32540932297706604,
0.580924391746521,
0.3826920986175537,
-0.60994553565979,
-0.5566684007644653,
-0.2774096131324768,
-0.848688006401062,
0.039968494325876236,
0.998206615447998,
-1.1059811115264893,
-0.31922540068626404,
-0.5449947714805603,
0.4096713662147522,
0.5377119183540344,
-0.18791314959526062,
-0.4274674654006958,
-0.20247560739517212,
-0.6033682823181152,
-0.0773792713880539,
-0.08891142904758453,
0.2596493363380432,
-0.07253888994455338,
-0.3145817816257477,
-0.12902159988880157,
-0.8400580883026123,
0.8557519316673279,
0.03503501042723656,
0.011744133196771145,
0.41953936219215393,
-0.48714494705200195,
-0.20756244659423828,
0.43713119626045227,
-0.17489969730377197,
-0.2197474092245102,
-0.9693547487258911,
0.6345576047897339,
0.25706079602241516,
-0.12154846638441086,
-0.35684049129486084,
-0.18122535943984985,
0.2258167415857315,
-0.16091032326221466,
-0.5926974415779114,
0.27776163816452026,
0.21141700446605682,
0.747814416885376,
-0.4856526553630829,
0.26120179891586304,
-0.45232439041137695,
-0.559709906578064,
0.08553145080804825,
-0.4338623285293579,
-0.45643460750579834,
-0.43101730942726135,
0.580901563167572,
-0.01732097752392292,
-0.1078951433300972,
0.3483637869358063,
0.31948041915893555,
0.9722335338592529,
-0.16263359785079956,
-0.08188219368457794,
-0.32004034519195557,
0.3114430010318756,
-0.22097928822040558,
0.39949843287467957,
0.5898030400276184,
-0.6491442918777466,
0.1378156691789627,
0.2884654998779297,
0.27549660205841064,
0.4459088146686554,
0.8045910000801086,
-0.24987763166427612,
0.5620319247245789,
-0.26344507932662964,
-0.2398422807455063,
0.07534153014421463,
0.19418661296367645,
-0.27816373109817505,
-0.14852024614810944,
-0.6926533579826355,
-0.4220593571662903,
0.1098276749253273,
0.13473695516586304,
-0.2064158022403717,
-0.0832301527261734,
-0.012280600145459175,
-0.08404449373483658,
0.03152574226260185,
0.24234172701835632,
-0.515082061290741,
0.3339901864528656,
-0.026408160105347633,
0.015738103538751602,
-0.6277211308479309,
-0.4105687141418457,
0.4821022152900696,
0.5545227527618408,
0.6071434617042542,
-0.0037728752940893173,
-0.04973449185490608,
0.003386008320376277,
0.5478435158729553,
-0.09939947724342346,
-0.32490864396095276,
-0.04724796861410141,
-0.6713730692863464,
0.5824049115180969,
-0.3847828507423401,
0.2580019533634186,
-0.3832903802394867,
-0.31121522188186646,
-0.3565060794353485,
-0.012548462487757206,
-0.059885505586862564,
-0.49668088555336,
-0.4473554491996765,
-0.09246505051851273,
0.29186147451400757,
0.2531440556049347,
-0.2549540102481842,
0.24115589261054993,
0.008406679145991802,
0.09813808649778366,
0.12390565872192383,
0.12891827523708344,
0.0038509720470756292,
0.8845973014831543,
-0.5088119506835938,
-0.23064450919628143,
-0.2798079252243042,
0.4524841904640198,
0.04859453812241554,
0.6130249500274658,
-0.2968781292438507,
-0.05125710740685463,
-0.5657019019126892,
-0.6332636475563049,
0.22062914073467255,
0.02671697735786438,
0.13129250705242157,
0.10273692011833191,
0.33909863233566284,
-0.12929560244083405,
0.4292846918106079,
0.6590030789375305,
-0.7297316193580627,
-0.2707407772541046,
-0.13740788400173187,
0.18277567625045776,
-0.15755736827850342,
0.09040066599845886,
0.1339234709739685,
-0.6440011858940125,
-0.4025159180164337,
-0.6260299682617188,
-0.0821482315659523,
-0.40030527114868164,
0.4476894736289978,
0.45054885745048523,
-0.018425194546580315,
0.17961475253105164,
-0.6316797137260437,
-0.39226922392845154,
0.15171454846858978,
0.5831397771835327,
0.1586359143257141,
-0.16598697006702423,
-0.025698725134134293,
-0.5044203996658325,
-0.7979661226272583,
-0.7037321329116821,
0.6354284286499023,
0.37307459115982056,
0.008978074416518211,
-0.04825621470808983,
0.3783961236476898,
0.5521628260612488,
-0.2750016450881958,
0.06782718747854233,
-0.3110704720020294,
0.5547970533370972,
0.03421266749501228,
0.1656571626663208,
0.08768618106842041,
0.08935877680778503,
-0.5031989216804504,
-0.16149470210075378,
0.40296363830566406,
-0.5716674327850342,
0.23905527591705322,
0.41087839007377625,
-0.31428831815719604,
-0.0011425470001995564,
-1.0162557363510132,
0.416978657245636,
-0.11061149090528488,
-0.5092447996139526,
-0.3506729006767273,
-0.32615944743156433,
0.8668688535690308,
0.3410416543483734,
-0.2550756335258484,
0.07906506210565567,
-0.22877168655395508,
-0.44533708691596985,
-0.3072868287563324,
0.44942301511764526,
0.09381455928087234,
-0.7513797283172607,
0.25873786211013794,
0.9058839082717896,
0.18288561701774597,
0.3288736343383789,
0.6926331520080566,
0.18670010566711426,
1.3444980382919312,
-0.1213071271777153,
-0.17129212617874146,
-0.4025845229625702,
-0.10730267316102982,
-0.2908914089202881,
-0.2784041166305542,
0.13114683330059052,
0.0229681096971035,
-0.09014138579368591,
0.3710978627204895,
-0.5011827945709229,
-0.6169442534446716,
0.33272379636764526,
-0.2053801566362381,
0.02915613353252411,
0.24730689823627472,
0.12602372467517853,
-0.1697787046432495,
-0.43452078104019165,
0.29411444067955017,
-0.3974396884441376,
-0.1356358826160431,
0.8623985648155212,
-0.12215906381607056,
-0.108458012342453,
0.18357042968273163,
0.5472204089164734,
-0.2782220244407654,
-0.5566437840461731,
-0.832325279712677,
0.01795727200806141,
0.004508372396230698,
0.22387932240962982,
0.14532430469989777,
-0.021169980987906456,
-0.2803525924682617,
0.39835962653160095,
0.59392911195755,
-0.9283501505851746,
-0.3180323541164398,
0.021625448018312454,
0.09044226258993149,
0.3109915256500244,
-1.0481404066085815,
-0.2847471833229065,
-0.18300803005695343,
-0.4743020534515381,
-0.14451062679290771,
-0.3099304139614105,
-0.06294939666986465,
0.10364796221256256,
0.21648719906806946,
0.4288482666015625,
0.42332056164741516,
-0.1330544799566269,
0.3759210407733917,
0.17996536195278168,
0.13131900131702423,
-0.28584614396095276,
0.15800707042217255,
0.4929972290992737,
-0.3863388001918793,
-0.32890573143959045,
-0.32105135917663574,
0.17615798115730286,
-0.7930527329444885,
0.24860604107379913,
0.9194308519363403,
0.4588002860546112,
0.01961442269384861,
-0.38601893186569214,
-0.3539174199104309,
-0.43161246180534363,
0.5694683194160461,
0.46403104066848755,
-1.0287132263183594,
-0.3382549583911896,
0.3040889799594879,
0.23897351324558258,
0.11875749379396439,
-0.2778102159500122,
0.7072100639343262,
0.2319304347038269,
0.3313998579978943,
-0.31373074650764465,
-0.17780077457427979,
0.1901513636112213,
-0.3684183657169342,
0.13331137597560883,
0.644314706325531,
-0.3377085328102112,
0.3411663770675659,
-0.5957685112953186,
-0.4233146905899048,
0.37816038727760315,
-0.55994713306427,
-0.008982107043266296,
0.9452450275421143,
0.5407077074050903,
0.14821511507034302,
-0.023696474730968475,
-0.45307210087776184,
0.4992575943470001,
-0.19873856008052826,
-0.32220879197120667,
-0.15965618193149567,
0.6119695901870728,
0.1317797601222992,
0.6855452060699463,
0.18410515785217285,
0.10624553263187408,
-0.2521968483924866,
0.3007352650165558,
-0.3485931158065796,
-0.18160028755664825,
-0.17563806474208832,
0.46721428632736206,
-0.28765419125556946,
0.06624554097652435,
-0.19682231545448303,
0.2144545614719391,
0.640704870223999,
0.37630006670951843,
0.6531128883361816,
0.5342079997062683,
-0.044873662292957306,
-0.03117862343788147,
0.5485513806343079,
0.3828745186328888,
0.16504360735416412,
0.1693931370973587,
-0.16098058223724365,
-0.6088814735412598,
-0.2609587609767914,
0.18991146981716156,
-0.01986103132367134,
-0.45315682888031006,
-1.0453965663909912,
0.06420312076807022,
-0.2656618356704712,
-0.1063712015748024,
-0.7691149711608887,
-0.33646830916404724,
0.0035597262904047966,
0.36954230070114136,
0.0009820563718676567,
0.508328914642334,
0.18842504918575287,
-0.12964211404323578,
-0.5676894783973694,
0.3613687753677368,
-0.24105216562747955,
0.038885440677404404,
0.28387272357940674,
-0.23633326590061188,
0.6242938041687012,
0.4854864180088043,
-0.2127854824066162,
0.7507198452949524,
0.4641565680503845,
0.17968063056468964,
-0.09974841773509979,
0.5372089743614197,
0.3837476074695587,
-0.22561731934547424,
0.05981651321053505,
-0.5230223536491394,
0.7385595440864563,
-0.11205780506134033,
0.44525963068008423,
0.3157542049884796,
0.3877212107181549,
0.025974532589316368,
-0.15003220736980438,
0.16016024351119995,
-0.69351726770401,
-0.13215935230255127,
-0.4044080078601837,
-0.4168227016925812,
-0.3215729892253876,
-0.17807628214359283,
0.5316413044929504,
0.033119987696409225,
-0.6769426465034485,
0.14130400121212006,
0.32159289717674255,
-0.3290857672691345,
0.36989009380340576,
0.013276847079396248,
-0.1295802891254425,
-0.08549992740154266,
-0.6670704483985901,
-0.47014859318733215,
-0.12533161044120789,
0.5470238924026489,
0.45640453696250916,
-0.7059991359710693,
-0.4818272292613983,
-0.3274831771850586,
0.3144821226596832,
0.8006470203399658,
0.4501968026161194,
0.3401719331741333,
-0.9695069193840027,
0.12416452169418335,
0.24247141182422638,
-1.0998555421829224,
-0.0984744131565094,
0.10765117406845093,
0.11081197112798691,
0.6076938509941101,
-0.40520378947257996,
0.052421536296606064,
-0.4840701222419739,
0.2184458076953888,
0.05938728153705597,
0.07788503170013428,
0.33530300855636597
] |
203671
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Desert%20Force
|
Western Desert Force
|
The Western Desert Force (WDF) was a British Army formation active in Egypt during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War.
On 17 June 1940, the headquarters of the British 6th Infantry Division was designated as the Western Desert Force. The formation consisted of the British 7th Armoured Division and the 4th Indian Infantry Division. The force was commanded by Major-General Richard Nugent O'Connor.
In September 1940, at the time of the Italian invasion of Egypt, the Western Desert Force consisted of roughly 36,000 soldiers and about 65 tanks.
From early December 1940 to February 1941, during Operation Compass, the exploits of the Western Desert Force earned a parody of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's famous quote, "Never has so much been owed by so many, to so few." So many Italians were captured by the Western Desert Force that Anthony Eden said, "Never has so much been surrendered by so many, to so few." From 14 December, the 6th Australian Division replaced the 4th Indian Infantry Division which was redeployed to East Africa.
The Western Desert Force was retitled XIII Corps on 1 January 1941. By February 1941, the remaining Italian forces in Cyrenaica were withdrawing down the Via Balbia with the British 7th Armoured Division and the 6th Australian Infantry Division close behind. When Operation Compass came to an end with the surrender of the Italian Tenth Army the corps HQ was deactivated in February and its responsibilities taken over by HQ Cyrenaica Command, a static command, reflecting the Allied defensive posture in the Western Desert as Middle East Command became obliged to focus on the campaign in Greece in April.
After the Italian forces in North Africa had been reinforced with the Africa Korps under Erwin Rommel during Operation Sonnenblume, Lieutenant General Philip Neame, General Officer Commanding (GOC) Cyrenaica, was captured during Rommel's advance and the Western Desert Force HQ was reactivated on 14 April, under Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse, to take command of British Commonwealth forces in the western desert and halt the Axis advance at the Egypt–Libya border.
In August 1941 General Archibald Wavell was replaced as Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) Middle East by Claude Auchinleck and the British and Commonwealth forces were reinforced to create, in September 1941, the British Eighth Army. During this reorganisation the Western Desert Force was once again redesignated as XIII Corps in October 1941 and became part of the new army.
Notes
References
Corps of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations of India in World War II
Groups of World War II
Military units and formations disestablished in 1941
ar:القوة الصحراوية الغربية
fr:XIII Corps (Royaume-Uni)
|
[
0.2353544980287552,
-0.12599296867847443,
-0.5096875429153442,
-0.6487260460853577,
-0.29119184613227844,
0.1387898027896881,
0.6315086483955383,
-0.3213381767272949,
0.44159576296806335,
-0.19681145250797272,
-0.7144446969032288,
-0.13983526825904846,
-0.19417043030261993,
0.35561439394950867,
-0.045442335307598114,
0.6805716156959534,
-0.016449907794594765,
-0.054653350263834,
0.5373622179031372,
-0.14886066317558289,
-0.17467574775218964,
-0.16535718739032745,
0.09343180805444717,
0.02236982434988022,
0.34207019209861755,
-0.0517464205622673,
1.3104441165924072,
0.28767919540405273,
0.6120848655700684,
-0.7572553157806396,
0.11642046272754669,
0.045276984572410583,
-0.48364320397377014,
-1.0967413187026978,
0.3904482424259186,
0.36857929825782776,
0.09339027106761932,
-0.11974163353443146,
-0.25584715604782104,
-0.6282544136047363,
0.29318052530288696,
-0.10082143545150757,
0.28124499320983887,
0.5819554924964905,
-0.14932456612586975,
-0.5409193634986877,
-1.6026352643966675,
0.22869990766048431,
0.08728380501270294,
-0.5103102326393127,
-0.16743037104606628,
0.5831469297409058,
0.012238426133990288,
-0.28130313754081726,
0.8755382895469666,
0.551215410232544,
-0.7630584836006165,
-0.33971142768859863,
0.5858356356620789,
0.1864137500524521,
0.45137932896614075,
0.33894017338752747,
-0.10949962586164474,
0.11294841766357422,
-0.4909689128398895,
-0.44991162419319153,
0.18747127056121826,
0.8597526550292969,
-0.01807493530213833,
-0.579145073890686,
0.06393364816904068,
-0.083315908908844,
-0.1892366260290146,
-0.273444801568985,
-0.5268457531929016,
-0.35719606280326843,
0.4888665974140167,
-0.0358009934425354,
-0.3339167535305023,
0.3675735592842102,
0.11062750220298767,
0.007830088026821613,
0.8327419757843018,
-0.05141540244221687,
0.25846418738365173,
0.22440044581890106,
-0.47558480501174927,
0.005466960370540619,
-0.44887247681617737,
0.15793292224407196,
-0.39597487449645996,
-0.12395607680082321,
-0.08734528720378876,
-0.26006361842155457,
0.039229974150657654,
0.20042197406291962,
0.18388476967811584,
0.6774843335151672,
-0.03023916482925415,
-0.027745312079787254,
0.04190688952803612,
0.2427888661623001,
-0.047187596559524536,
-0.3444657623767853,
-1.4148833751678467,
0.3030347228050232,
-0.0012669150019064546,
-0.6598036289215088,
-0.5147157311439514,
-0.30548837780952454,
-0.1838720738887787,
-0.23128923773765564,
0.16453805565834045,
-0.3807770609855652,
-0.23883873224258423,
-0.008875557221472263,
0.11675604432821274,
-0.2033608853816986,
0.0358583964407444,
0.4485960304737091,
-0.5060228705406189,
0.9139851927757263,
-0.5902097821235657,
0.23066268861293793,
-0.14562799036502838,
0.49385493993759155,
0.6598250269889832,
-0.12179739773273468,
-0.7220930457115173,
0.1899000108242035,
0.5513723492622375,
0.8239559531211853,
-0.33123499155044556,
-0.15910908579826355,
-0.3874566853046417,
-0.30935773253440857,
0.12341723591089249,
0.49237358570098877,
-0.18494880199432373,
0.025015654042363167,
-0.6570230722427368,
0.17882227897644043,
-0.7908704876899719,
0.3362054228782654,
0.46604570746421814,
-0.23080958425998688,
0.22238093614578247,
-0.20885004103183746,
-0.42638325691223145,
-1.075008749961853,
0.3224061131477356,
-0.43647345900535583,
-0.3588634729385376,
0.1350487917661667,
-0.24646390974521637,
0.07575321197509766,
0.3834962546825409,
-0.11509306728839874,
0.36226561665534973,
-0.2969359755516052,
0.2142074555158615,
-0.1291130781173706,
0.15119816362857819,
0.37130025029182434,
0.16086739301681519,
0.18294140696525574,
0.28137126564979553,
-0.25431400537490845,
0.3276457190513611,
0.47193530201911926,
-0.23937256634235382,
-0.15897274017333984,
0.6435564756393433,
0.31192266941070557,
-0.30278441309928894,
0.035716380923986435,
1.0275689363479614,
0.43181338906288147,
0.21085165441036224,
-0.0036022707354277372,
-0.24495439231395721,
0.04993664473295212,
0.08170127123594284,
-0.20033881068229675,
0.619486391544342,
0.28884556889533997,
0.2129918485879898,
-0.212642103433609,
-0.301157146692276,
0.005799584556370974,
-0.30137959122657776,
-0.678760290145874,
0.21196770668029785,
-0.4068351089954376,
1.200006365776062,
-0.3363005816936493,
-0.28330162167549133,
0.38306382298469543,
0.013696001842617989,
0.7615305781364441,
0.2988326847553253,
-0.3682605028152466,
0.24438241124153137,
0.2089032083749771,
0.16577789187431335,
0.14003923535346985,
0.22755683958530426,
0.30420660972595215,
0.204814612865448,
0.9346493482589722,
0.02395011857151985,
-0.12181611359119415,
-0.45448827743530273,
-0.27381470799446106,
0.20907829701900482,
0.34706899523735046,
-0.12842480838298798,
0.41137024760246277,
-0.2143578678369522,
-0.2363007515668869,
0.08581432700157166,
-0.16112011671066284,
-0.5053848028182983,
-0.23176029324531555,
-0.1633019894361496,
-0.6836099624633789,
-0.024775704368948936,
0.06120392307639122,
-0.38420921564102173,
-0.9519562721252441,
0.07493159174919128,
0.22429552674293518,
-0.05773846432566643,
-0.42894652485847473,
-0.15586327016353607,
-0.2275281399488449,
0.27579766511917114,
-0.16669034957885742,
-0.1903180330991745,
-0.019169200211763382,
-0.12440591305494308,
0.30307474732398987,
-0.3925623595714569,
0.2630804181098938,
-0.7283059358596802,
0.16975367069244385,
0.4357258975505829,
0.458787202835083,
0.7365306615829468,
-0.21967653930187225,
-0.21157823503017426,
0.6031514406204224,
0.408359557390213,
-0.35432395339012146,
0.08206183463335037,
-0.10061240196228027,
0.18778963387012482,
-0.9580399394035339,
0.9594653844833374,
-0.10117549449205399,
-0.043427497148513794,
0.040014564990997314,
0.10035404562950134,
0.5786539316177368,
0.47244563698768616,
-0.28020426630973816,
-0.8567686080932617,
-0.43830934166908264,
-0.0011504011927172542,
0.2004985213279724,
0.9746527075767517,
-0.0815960168838501,
0.3775910437107086,
-0.5100809931755066,
0.3457275927066803,
0.2881656289100647,
-0.311895489692688,
0.6595972180366516,
-0.28819572925567627,
-0.008665882982313633,
0.607469916343689,
0.2509021461009979,
0.8471689820289612,
-0.17015264928340912,
-0.48873448371887207,
0.1290484219789505,
0.2572649121284485,
0.008467643521726131,
0.2600768804550171,
-0.20999880135059357,
-0.7462829351425171,
0.035495903342962265,
-0.3305964469909668,
0.3284198045730591,
-0.9489924907684326,
0.27461716532707214,
-0.7904188632965088,
-0.266618549823761,
-0.01452326774597168,
0.14254584908485413,
-0.8786188960075378,
1.0928421020507812,
-0.5391084551811218,
0.14149078726768494,
0.06552159041166306,
0.2272350788116455,
-1.3346624374389648,
0.15820616483688354,
-5.41550874710083,
-0.3060840368270874,
-0.15525105595588684,
0.07045608758926392,
-0.11456931382417679,
-0.10914348810911179,
-0.32981446385383606,
-0.40466710925102234,
-0.15236805379390717,
-0.06915560364723206,
0.29844942688941956,
-0.20987097918987274,
-0.3713098466396332,
-0.12007768452167511,
0.5807812809944153,
0.26285994052886963,
0.7607583999633789,
-0.5846284031867981,
0.6625736355781555,
0.218845933675766,
0.3222602605819702,
-0.17680150270462036,
-0.3368624150753021,
0.35991814732551575,
-0.02171391248703003,
0.4991658926010132,
-0.2460407167673111,
0.09161520004272461,
-0.505480945110321,
-0.1722957193851471,
-0.21144133806228638,
-0.8127533793449402,
0.2260100394487381,
-0.11277677118778229,
-0.04860857501626015,
0.13715186715126038,
1.0830533504486084,
0.09075215458869934,
0.5879822373390198,
-0.4638274908065796,
-0.34004712104797363,
0.1459454447031021,
-0.46770957112312317,
0.5318172574043274,
0.5344067811965942,
-0.1651662141084671,
-0.370610773563385,
0.014372792094945908,
0.48360082507133484,
0.6928315758705139,
0.10166849941015244,
0.0809972882270813,
-0.012048867531120777,
-0.06896422058343887,
-0.11435172706842422,
-0.08708016574382782,
-0.28206512331962585,
-0.1337461769580841,
0.2010703980922699,
0.5872954726219177,
-0.18621720373630524,
-0.5745404958724976,
0.4166353642940521,
-0.3697631359100342,
0.3724619448184967,
0.057096511125564575,
-0.3285028040409088,
0.06729217618703842,
0.408778578042984,
-0.0011737837921828032,
0.1772456020116806,
0.4410431683063507,
0.21635185182094574,
-0.6181028485298157,
0.17339114844799042,
-0.5103644728660583,
0.40341705083847046,
-0.3077021539211273,
-0.2166808545589447,
-0.11051282286643982,
0.307066947221756,
-0.39461156725883484,
0.2795409858226776,
-0.44414573907852173,
-0.11857715249061584,
-0.1528465300798416,
0.13530173897743225,
0.0030333001632243395,
0.08200526237487793,
-0.3969573676586151,
0.25345805287361145,
-0.7384849190711975,
0.41277962923049927,
0.817633330821991,
0.3368338644504547,
0.40120917558670044,
0.007704425603151321,
0.8967263698577881,
0.36672675609588623,
-0.49083080887794495,
-0.18915815651416779,
-0.21039661765098572,
0.24605593085289001,
-0.7416658401489258,
-0.4917431175708771,
0.014885651879012585,
-0.24346165359020233,
0.3549462854862213,
0.39905205368995667,
-0.09880776703357697,
-0.001696261577308178,
0.19156202673912048,
-0.3839176297187805,
0.21101738512516022,
-0.3477897644042969,
-0.06998352706432343,
-0.08740077912807465,
0.1220780685544014,
0.6181834936141968,
0.8453930616378784,
-0.39845365285873413,
0.03582187741994858,
-0.13032932579517365,
-0.3863253593444824,
0.180276557803154,
0.021383680403232574,
0.29253289103507996,
-0.13792213797569275,
-0.3185858130455017,
0.1653030514717102,
0.18859270215034485,
0.5854486227035522,
-0.16858303546905518,
0.9141347408294678,
-0.005807142239063978,
-0.7021505236625671,
-0.7523971796035767,
0.13940785825252533,
0.2234640121459961,
0.5285778045654297,
-0.18983206152915955,
0.2303670346736908,
0.1888652890920639,
0.4432709813117981,
0.24243836104869843,
0.11710310727357864,
0.17963796854019165,
-0.8890080451965332,
-0.006652197800576687,
0.5745050311088562,
0.266385942697525,
0.41471219062805176,
0.394423246383667,
-0.07146549224853516,
-0.3176007866859436,
0.16784216463565826,
0.42406904697418213,
0.34112027287483215,
0.09468119591474533,
-0.6636136174201965,
-0.30521833896636963,
-0.054215770214796066,
-1.0405381917953491,
0.4782513678073883,
0.5008785724639893,
-0.3743102252483368,
-0.14176194369792938,
-0.5676913857460022,
-0.09633344411849976,
0.7058841586112976,
-0.40704116225242615,
-0.697027862071991,
-0.32851678133010864,
0.2431773692369461,
0.1500568836927414,
0.16638675332069397,
-0.5629826188087463,
-0.21724793314933777,
-0.5307785272598267,
-0.335511177778244,
-0.02887812815606594,
0.2396533191204071,
-0.39486053586006165,
0.2284121811389923,
0.1371850222349167,
-0.2735759913921356,
-1.0597082376480103,
-0.45611244440078735,
0.11637484282255173,
-0.07683767378330231,
-0.1405935287475586,
-0.19617272913455963,
0.471336305141449,
0.21022404730319977,
-0.5525622963905334,
-0.03405582904815674,
0.28545859456062317,
1.099213719367981,
0.021778210997581482,
-0.5466791987419128,
0.5204276442527771,
0.5544129014015198,
-0.42277318239212036,
-0.023542923852801323,
0.0959264487028122,
-0.36128532886505127,
0.028051281347870827,
-0.24934375286102295,
-0.5247891545295715,
0.42661628127098083,
-0.5324496626853943,
-0.28524985909461975,
-0.1298718899488449,
0.3644832670688629,
-0.5197717547416687,
0.3650989234447479,
-0.16396519541740417,
0.6150151491165161,
-0.27562016248703003,
-0.12216316908597946,
-0.39647021889686584,
-0.13882166147232056,
-0.8132215142250061,
-0.30599814653396606,
-1.0473029613494873,
-0.017568008974194527,
0.3718416094779968,
-0.8438945412635803,
0.15764494240283966,
0.7893287539482117,
-0.24898786842823029,
-0.17780859768390656,
0.3419176936149597,
-0.11629464477300644,
0.08486663550138474,
0.3768990635871887,
0.7153154015541077,
-0.24735192954540253,
-0.17659704387187958,
0.3756645619869232,
0.7309594750404358,
0.6166714429855347,
0.5825362801551819,
-0.35087496042251587,
0.24741235375404358,
0.18151424825191498,
0.47316664457321167,
-0.966951310634613,
0.012070666998624802,
0.224008247256279,
-0.046609971672296524,
-0.21758529543876648,
-0.9681646823883057,
0.11686664074659348,
0.6014179587364197,
0.18122142553329468,
-0.5795763731002808,
-0.12055399268865585,
0.11614066362380981,
0.21096712350845337,
0.39588674902915955,
0.19855999946594238,
-0.28737393021583557,
0.15946756303310394,
0.3163839876651764,
-0.38468751311302185,
-0.08104437589645386,
-0.7017789483070374,
0.5785857439041138,
-0.36201906204223633,
0.03192300349473953,
0.022804543375968933,
-0.0395803302526474,
1.0657479763031006,
0.5627407431602478,
-0.37121081352233887,
-0.17937085032463074,
-0.7801060676574707,
0.5272157192230225,
-0.12595988810062408,
-0.3868582248687744,
-0.13618580996990204,
0.46482741832733154,
-0.3462466299533844,
0.22735966742038727,
-0.8868035674095154,
-0.3737514913082123,
0.19929121434688568,
-0.1048552542924881,
-0.23436081409454346,
0.3000361919403076,
-0.6047789454460144,
-0.6051535606384277,
-0.11328180134296417,
-0.3986981511116028,
-0.17596255242824554,
-0.26498648524284363,
-0.10262162238359451,
-0.09543606638908386,
0.3319256901741028,
-0.1990504115819931,
0.6002878546714783,
-0.159760519862175,
-0.07525625079870224,
-0.2009320855140686,
0.08589162677526474,
-0.23675471544265747,
-0.2914454936981201,
0.1090686172246933,
-0.1469021737575531,
0.442824125289917,
-0.7009438872337341,
0.10203857719898224,
0.5009261965751648,
-0.8345685005187988,
0.24673086404800415,
0.6613680720329285,
-0.5609832406044006,
0.29673439264297485,
0.13697735965251923,
-0.0883801057934761,
0.5353909730911255,
0.30708011984825134,
0.0626470297574997,
-0.39425238966941833,
1.4654288291931152,
-0.4149910509586334,
0.17406411468982697,
0.19203966856002808,
-0.6688796877861023,
-0.042333029210567474,
-0.3641006648540497,
-0.7111733555793762,
0.491285115480423,
-0.1412143111228943,
-0.2286219745874405,
0.41437384486198425,
-0.36868226528167725,
0.17560255527496338,
0.8715994954109192,
0.09041089564561844,
0.07044888287782669,
-0.07712617516517639,
-0.1979612112045288,
0.1838659942150116,
0.5858233571052551,
0.22984431684017181,
0.000851047458127141,
0.6728514432907104,
0.8720126152038574,
0.5042749643325806,
-0.20646162331104279,
0.08197672665119171,
0.002012379001826048,
0.5225033760070801,
-0.1798931211233139,
0.2905178666114807,
-0.31804582476615906,
-0.32728010416030884,
-0.026343148201704025,
0.14291594922542572,
0.1677461415529251,
0.5664488673210144,
-0.31189531087875366,
-0.09828289598226547,
0.4282907247543335,
0.015827754512429237,
-0.7861980199813843,
0.19293911755084991,
0.5667902231216431,
0.4909209907054901,
0.3575174808502197,
-0.23651082813739777,
-0.07133125513792038,
0.5209545493125916,
-0.09822868555784225,
0.3627462685108185,
0.08896487206220627,
0.024002211168408394,
0.1344132423400879,
0.5131646990776062,
-0.30109062790870667,
0.0012488501379266381,
-0.5642021894454956,
-0.03601585701107979,
-0.5619592666625977,
0.2179696261882782,
0.02293389104306698,
-0.7165052890777588,
-0.6053297519683838,
0.10258926451206207,
-0.8305163979530334,
-0.5396803021430969,
-0.7577154040336609,
-0.36431771516799927,
0.2460375428199768,
-0.10751386731863022,
1.090688705444336,
0.2312919646501541,
-0.710513710975647,
0.25224822759628296,
0.4311739206314087,
0.21668320894241333,
0.06987437605857849,
-0.11579150706529617,
0.5576238036155701,
-0.3463994264602661,
-0.5462926626205444,
-0.17993254959583282,
0.2657814025878906,
0.712492823600769,
0.36007869243621826,
0.44756004214286804,
0.0775832012295723,
-0.34212833642959595,
0.2939428985118866,
0.5479933619499207,
-0.780735194683075,
0.09051090478897095,
-0.3231559097766876,
-0.10721999406814575,
-0.09912826120853424,
-0.1637621372938156,
0.3572881519794464,
-0.49502041935920715,
-0.11983905732631683,
0.667439877986908,
0.24652791023254395,
-0.06190027669072151,
0.840009331703186,
-0.0408066026866436,
-0.8467580676078796,
-0.7600741386413574,
-0.5473692417144775,
-0.33151790499687195,
0.182514488697052,
0.8291423916816711,
0.19872093200683594,
0.739105224609375,
0.1613091081380844,
0.6046685576438904,
-0.7986882925033569,
0.5203405618667603,
-0.17774870991706848,
-0.8550973534584045,
-0.3950043320655823,
-0.3860926032066345,
-0.7474614381790161,
0.19244278967380524,
1.1113650798797607,
-0.10423017293214798,
0.06771009415388107,
-0.006976959761232138,
-1.0221784114837646,
0.21299777925014496,
0.2855777144432068,
0.38518959283828735,
-0.5519815683364868,
-0.32151931524276733,
-0.15751786530017853
] |
203673
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28area%29
|
Orders of magnitude (area)
|
This page is a progressive and labelled list of the SI area orders of magnitude, with certain examples appended to some list objects.
to square metres
10−8 to 10−1 square metres
100 to 107 square metres
108 to 1014 square metres
1015 to 1026 square metres
1027 square metres and larger
See also
Orders of magnitude
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area
References
Area
|
[
-0.2763002812862396,
0.3212711215019226,
0.17096436023712158,
-0.2659553587436676,
-0.9283453822135925,
0.06501753628253937,
0.7690194249153137,
0.23234227299690247,
-0.6532101035118103,
-0.6813784837722778,
-0.22582226991653442,
-0.04759472236037254,
-0.047074608504772186,
0.9392169713973999,
0.19409117102622986,
0.5142625570297241,
0.2458125352859497,
0.7434617280960083,
-1.0031369924545288,
0.22798918187618256,
0.012683171778917313,
0.019017603248357773,
0.5550623536109924,
-0.979051411151886,
0.1534584015607834,
-0.2195814549922943,
0.3437217175960541,
0.14019612967967987,
-0.10057559609413147,
-0.32596006989479065,
-0.10209765285253525,
0.637862503528595,
0.23225557804107666,
0.13932427763938904,
0.14760102331638336,
-0.37242642045021057,
0.07082499563694,
-0.07651431858539581,
0.17331184446811676,
-0.9190948605537415,
-0.08289089798927307,
-0.7914516925811768,
0.21278469264507294,
0.3525336682796478,
-0.0952601507306099,
-0.5945714712142944,
-1.3349355459213257,
-0.3765206038951874,
-0.7975534200668335,
0.4882583022117615,
0.08176416903734207,
-0.043351415544748306,
0.8648319244384766,
0.12377329915761948,
0.016129130497574806,
0.3757692873477936,
-0.7653603553771973,
0.29642969369888306,
0.5722129940986633,
-0.2907048165798187,
0.8103828430175781,
-0.1009925901889801,
-0.2632472813129425,
0.06560938060283661,
0.3343193233013153,
1.0249872207641602,
-0.22784551978111267,
0.2913683354854584,
-0.179946169257164,
0.0889359563589096,
0.289558082818985,
-0.8155071139335632,
0.3004342019557953,
0.4983585476875305,
-0.3093547821044922,
-0.5120118856430054,
-0.23333197832107544,
-0.28199681639671326,
-0.3231564164161682,
-0.3517594337463379,
-0.18520483374595642,
0.13494879007339478,
0.6294560432434082,
-0.574241578578949,
0.04588871821761131,
0.05738008767366409,
-0.4310348629951477,
-0.10598558932542801,
-0.33973807096481323,
1.204059362411499,
0.37676888704299927,
-0.1735977828502655,
0.6433402299880981,
0.367105633020401,
0.7103742957115173,
-0.49776193499565125,
0.03459509089589119,
-0.391734778881073,
0.10924652963876724,
0.32644179463386536,
-0.1958860158920288,
0.4302873909473419,
0.376192569732666,
0.37815025448799133,
-0.20849300920963287,
-0.0896645337343216,
-0.10235868394374847,
-0.19029967486858368,
0.19444997608661652,
-1.013896107673645,
-0.9270169138908386,
-0.01941250078380108,
-0.10977857559919357,
-0.15665653347969055,
-0.05353322625160217,
-0.011062250472605228,
0.43647128343582153,
-0.13176769018173218,
-0.02080700360238552,
-0.060760729014873505,
0.42715033888816833,
0.9169630408287048,
0.21185988187789917,
0.25415271520614624,
-0.08211188018321991,
0.6098699569702148,
0.776142418384552,
0.46280360221862793,
0.007222120184451342,
0.5022978782653809,
-0.33061322569847107,
0.852763295173645,
0.3303700387477875,
-0.3137582540512085,
0.07278786599636078,
-0.7348833084106445,
-0.04282465577125549,
0.22952935099601746,
-0.05188136175274849,
-0.1946723908185959,
-0.12059617787599564,
-0.22516994178295135,
-1.2171707153320312,
-0.442850798368454,
0.5422284007072449,
-0.5487067103385925,
-0.16382737457752228,
-0.3626857399940491,
-0.16806542873382568,
0.21001650393009186,
0.40941593050956726,
-0.4983305037021637,
-0.618456244468689,
0.7802924513816833,
0.024345405399799347,
0.10930122435092926,
0.2978818714618683,
0.12942156195640564,
0.5125068426132202,
0.5525451898574829,
0.08012199401855469,
0.1483260840177536,
0.18621687591075897,
-0.27254271507263184,
0.2997429370880127,
-0.5966817736625671,
0.48044514656066895,
0.5001844167709351,
-0.38245517015457153,
0.23330067098140717,
-0.536287784576416,
-0.20828557014465332,
-0.3139500021934509,
0.39725834131240845,
-0.5679931640625,
-0.09456422924995422,
0.609146773815155,
0.29947853088378906,
0.2534591853618622,
-0.18574388325214386,
-0.49117138981819153,
-0.2056654393672943,
0.24388006329536438,
-0.16553489863872528,
0.3246208727359772,
-0.36938828229904175,
0.4925679564476013,
0.12188729643821716,
0.21854066848754883,
0.12595708668231964,
0.11361709982156754,
-0.02481086552143097,
0.31265008449554443,
-0.5549455881118774,
0.567933201789856,
0.03110731765627861,
-0.6332376003265381,
0.4259173274040222,
-0.06448747217655182,
0.3819744884967804,
-0.2908349335193634,
0.0728992149233818,
0.5252322554588318,
0.3145166039466858,
-0.13863424956798553,
0.786587119102478,
-0.17991293966770172,
0.5149807333946228,
0.20708894729614258,
0.25428465008735657,
0.6312747597694397,
-0.7198756337165833,
0.346781462430954,
-0.8873654007911682,
-0.19877713918685913,
-0.03731304034590721,
-0.22839882969856262,
0.3737184405326843,
-0.274216890335083,
0.11467283219099045,
0.8527015447616577,
-0.1301671415567398,
0.09439753741025925,
0.24123218655586243,
-0.5188031792640686,
-0.08597756922245026,
0.3863915801048279,
0.7090489864349365,
0.5773974061012268,
-0.8855270743370056,
0.42076268792152405,
-0.5669869184494019,
0.5552590489387512,
-0.31836622953414917,
-0.4897914230823517,
0.11575590819120407,
0.2545831799507141,
-0.1873706430196762,
0.2832036018371582,
-0.7009661197662354,
0.23372776806354523,
0.12366984784603119,
-0.515699028968811,
0.25236064195632935,
0.22915419936180115,
-0.052417147904634476,
0.21007831394672394,
-0.528352677822113,
-0.466464102268219,
0.32058021426200867,
0.5781621932983398,
0.12253918498754501,
0.29812169075012207,
-0.3618689179420471,
0.04201703891158104,
0.0906589925289154,
-0.07473219186067581,
-0.4475308656692505,
-0.04429204761981964,
0.5505943894386292,
-0.33017730712890625,
-0.2919987142086029,
0.06285800784826279,
0.03848489746451378,
-0.19781765341758728,
-0.5472277402877808,
-0.2578699588775635,
-0.5092200040817261,
0.4495657682418823,
0.04806745797395706,
0.2162501960992813,
0.30626484751701355,
-0.5903260111808777,
-1.2458398342132568,
0.2905642092227936,
-1.0219682455062866,
0.30207476019859314,
0.33555254340171814,
-1.0033615827560425,
-0.32242292165756226,
0.1368272602558136,
0.6040345430374146,
0.9490798711776733,
0.38801270723342896,
-0.05011312663555145,
-0.14404918253421783,
0.7952036261558533,
-0.44349920749664307,
-0.33394655585289,
0.12671799957752228,
-0.8243969678878784,
0.018480688333511353,
-0.39370670914649963,
-0.18407832086086273,
-0.22855797410011292,
-0.2486697882413864,
-0.06669526547193527,
-0.4051641523838043,
0.09456919878721237,
-0.4627627730369568,
-0.5457920432090759,
0.20680102705955505,
-0.1598244458436966,
-0.2517181932926178,
-0.8783953189849854,
0.1290908008813858,
-0.30793678760528564,
0.4501129686832428,
-5.299223899841309,
-0.031749773770570755,
-0.5775110125541687,
0.08305002003908157,
-0.7523209452629089,
0.2502405047416687,
0.6883354783058167,
0.17411929368972778,
-0.48087286949157715,
-0.39318472146987915,
0.5738185048103333,
-0.23654088377952576,
0.5557737350463867,
0.471293181180954,
0.33252769708633423,
0.3980264961719513,
0.7365678548812866,
0.51801598072052,
0.04715073108673096,
0.4471159875392914,
0.08859168738126755,
-0.12079804390668869,
0.37222546339035034,
0.3461238443851471,
0.4980582892894745,
0.09693141281604767,
-0.21735212206840515,
0.5602053999900818,
-0.563481867313385,
-0.2561396360397339,
0.3280876874923706,
-0.32464003562927246,
-0.3723692297935486,
-0.7322468161582947,
-0.42482665181159973,
0.20633430778980255,
0.4444315731525421,
-0.18020328879356384,
0.08623863756656647,
-0.6428006887435913,
0.1087949275970459,
0.41739681363105774,
-0.007528074085712433,
0.3592180907726288,
0.6843772530555725,
-0.41144874691963196,
-0.6442924737930298,
0.7208392024040222,
-0.025907879695296288,
1.0075523853302002,
-0.7186480760574341,
0.5225734114646912,
0.7755669951438904,
-0.10714156925678253,
-0.36927691102027893,
0.023614585399627686,
0.22295556962490082,
0.8215804100036621,
-0.6253054141998291,
0.35710272192955017,
0.49405017495155334,
0.27280041575431824,
0.25692588090896606,
-0.43129733204841614,
-0.006598690524697304,
-0.23125490546226501,
-0.8827161192893982,
-0.3496115803718567,
0.4727307856082916,
-0.12294242531061172,
-0.01671995222568512,
0.041727446019649506,
-0.3318687975406647,
-0.6202834844589233,
0.3680879771709442,
-0.3756049573421478,
0.7000444531440735,
0.5518211126327515,
0.1350775957107544,
0.5842747092247009,
-0.8174411654472351,
-0.4239524006843567,
-0.2170547991991043,
0.1287764012813568,
-0.6287222504615784,
-0.08875831216573715,
-0.20250169932842255,
-0.10632703453302383,
-0.4362359344959259,
-0.23207230865955353,
0.6984302401542664,
0.07453937083482742,
-0.04605616256594658,
0.15950937569141388,
0.2701125144958496,
-0.09919474273920059,
0.9982081651687622,
-0.4692245423793793,
0.564885675907135,
-0.5409740805625916,
0.26867368817329407,
-0.46472612023353577,
0.5419389009475708,
-0.2980659306049347,
-0.04288864508271217,
-0.3357158899307251,
-0.6047190427780151,
0.5145078897476196,
0.5169798731803894,
-0.28926658630371094,
-0.04353462532162666,
-0.5206626057624817,
-0.1297643482685089,
-0.2927573323249817,
0.4451659917831421,
0.09975071996450424,
-0.30962127447128296,
0.5066261291503906,
0.21707341074943542,
-0.09945820271968842,
-0.4560384750366211,
-0.07700929790735245,
-0.13300485908985138,
-0.31548818945884705,
0.18589834868907928,
-0.03153351694345474,
-0.08179551362991333,
0.28529730439186096,
-0.40673425793647766,
-0.12595102190971375,
0.5414131283760071,
0.771062433719635,
-0.14046819508075714,
0.03694187104701996,
0.08760811388492584,
-0.5171967148780823,
0.007902810350060463,
0.3500564396381378,
0.1767839789390564,
-0.807012677192688,
0.5046874284744263,
0.421654611825943,
-0.8171239495277405,
0.30640995502471924,
0.43680936098098755,
0.6767500042915344,
0.2898494601249695,
-0.2334216833114624,
-0.08850634843111038,
0.30620428919792175,
0.12534332275390625,
-0.42157235741615295,
-0.16464950144290924,
-0.34135952591896057,
-0.2204405814409256,
0.6040221452713013,
0.18559396266937256,
-0.1454145312309265,
-0.29613375663757324,
-0.4700552225112915,
0.08679910004138947,
0.3921342194080353,
-1.2897266149520874,
-0.3159942030906677,
0.14563120901584625,
-0.648893415927887,
-0.8744785785675049,
-0.12435818463563919,
0.3771970272064209,
0.5605723261833191,
-0.0626189261674881,
0.36515113711357117,
-0.640527606010437,
-0.7727643847465515,
-0.17907102406024933,
0.37990501523017883,
0.14653678238391876,
0.2975410223007202,
0.20516088604927063,
-0.42914655804634094,
0.3952341377735138,
-0.3565923273563385,
-0.1303645670413971,
0.6376204490661621,
-0.004425047896802425,
0.20568381249904633,
-0.30947431921958923,
0.507725179195404,
0.12507115304470062,
-0.3377719819545746,
0.3054031729698181,
0.1252695918083191,
0.106712706387043,
-0.12749868631362915,
-0.3469093143939972,
-0.47538819909095764,
0.47252246737480164,
0.5908141136169434,
-0.19882749021053314,
-0.8461577892303467,
0.2033243179321289,
0.35896581411361694,
-0.9545764327049255,
0.7226871848106384,
-0.059991899877786636,
-0.7473258376121521,
0.5254128575325012,
0.29814666509628296,
-0.4884401261806488,
0.10200076550245285,
-0.32082921266555786,
-0.3019005060195923,
-0.3377145528793335,
0.3134077787399292,
-0.003049274906516075,
0.39831802248954773,
0.1368415206670761,
-0.17943665385246277,
0.13861879706382751,
-1.0315088033676147,
0.44821399450302124,
0.15177366137504578,
-0.16068759560585022,
0.10243207961320877,
-0.04218225181102753,
-0.12262697517871857,
0.36591601371765137,
-0.22643738985061646,
0.46595218777656555,
-0.4543776214122772,
0.08868911862373352,
0.8763158917427063,
-0.05253148823976517,
0.03937055543065071,
-0.4293156862258911,
-0.5915519595146179,
-0.6491355299949646,
0.17424847185611725,
-0.34642618894577026,
0.34531477093696594,
0.3408551514148712,
0.7088990211486816,
-0.09935114532709122,
-0.8652786612510681,
0.17855264246463776,
-0.25230976939201355,
0.5831855535507202,
-0.6724762916564941,
-0.5494929552078247,
0.21158036589622498,
0.07191361486911774,
-0.8168541789054871,
-0.5278538465499878,
-0.7972013354301453,
0.7199881076812744,
-0.13789935410022736,
-0.11711134761571884,
-0.5492032766342163,
0.34505319595336914,
0.6545113325119019,
-0.2103734016418457,
-0.1849847137928009,
-0.10406320542097092,
0.4310580790042877,
0.3718153238296509,
0.4563949406147003,
-0.4572952091693878,
-0.32778382301330566,
0.8275656700134277,
-0.7564932703971863,
0.3056865334510803,
0.05552640184760094,
-0.06758283823728561,
0.13607093691825867,
0.042986445128917694,
-0.00927779171615839,
0.08627698570489883,
-0.7060949802398682,
-0.07285087555646896,
-0.4914410710334778,
-0.07188533246517181,
0.16755279898643494,
0.49890875816345215,
-0.19918721914291382,
0.742811918258667,
-0.4099632203578949,
-0.2582835853099823,
0.3918984532356262,
-0.49798938632011414,
0.46362125873565674,
-0.435834676027298,
0.24313491582870483,
-0.1921899914741516,
0.20833560824394226,
0.06427518278360367,
0.6838127374649048,
0.6710578799247742,
0.1641026884317398,
-0.05046284198760986,
-0.21041899919509888,
-0.27449607849121094,
0.7747164964675903,
0.3994538187980652,
-0.6484501361846924,
0.22099530696868896,
0.1891203075647354,
0.24039874970912933,
0.22259840369224548,
-0.049491021782159805,
-0.3063603639602661,
-0.3829690217971802,
0.15150108933448792,
-0.26047560572624207,
0.7315092086791992,
-0.2994331419467926,
0.013566328212618828,
0.4799353778362274,
-0.4426065981388092,
0.4947253167629242,
-0.24074800312519073,
-0.387633740901947,
0.30410224199295044,
0.2437155395746231,
-0.13020719587802887,
-1.129092812538147,
0.31117144227027893,
-0.4829864501953125,
-0.04401624575257301,
0.21340826153755188,
-0.04162319749593735,
0.8090765476226807,
0.5471417307853699,
-0.9337605834007263,
0.2450382262468338,
-0.5156816244125366,
-0.5311270356178284,
0.4117847979068756,
0.1617889106273651,
-0.3205518424510956,
0.35302627086639404,
0.2985997796058655,
0.5593886375427246,
0.14656268060207367,
-0.11915426701307297,
-0.25879397988319397,
0.004401149693876505,
-0.7808519601821899,
0.20084010064601898,
0.2289779931306839,
0.13623587787151337,
-0.1388167142868042,
0.37290170788764954,
0.5730413794517517,
-0.37845945358276367,
-0.1776653677225113,
0.2798879146575928,
0.3659197688102722,
-0.33481740951538086,
0.09379437565803528,
-0.5226778388023376,
-0.12999337911605835,
0.18452779948711395,
-0.3567793071269989,
0.31764158606529236,
-0.3949631452560425,
-0.0993405357003212,
0.3878938853740692,
-0.2471199482679367,
-0.34103822708129883,
0.1965143382549286,
0.5870997905731201,
0.5039095282554626,
-0.12637807428836823,
0.3006008565425873,
0.11158312857151031,
-0.14052502810955048,
0.2881626486778259,
0.1560909003019333,
-0.023226913064718246,
0.027147063985466957,
-0.030966103076934814,
0.2834798991680145,
-0.28832873702049255,
-0.8981454968452454,
-0.24886533617973328,
0.21000012755393982,
-0.12910857796669006,
0.3618309497833252,
0.10230161249637604,
0.18266676366329193,
0.30756428837776184,
-0.12011443823575974,
-0.16775597631931305,
-0.6871481537818909,
-0.6440317034721375,
0.44146496057510376,
-0.7025379538536072,
1.079885482788086,
0.5937748551368713,
-0.4065490663051605,
-0.3178234398365021,
-0.05952274426817894,
0.5929580926895142,
0.004398182034492493,
-0.37458229064941406,
0.22158852219581604,
-0.011429408565163612,
-0.2077403962612152,
-0.6198797225952148,
0.40338006615638733,
-0.12702076137065887,
-0.4458732604980469,
-0.05446450039744377,
0.32453304529190063,
-0.3204648196697235,
0.11087840050458908,
0.44540590047836304,
-0.30426132678985596,
0.042815323919057846,
-0.1472092717885971,
-0.19844555854797363,
-0.6622833609580994,
0.16884204745292664,
0.8038602471351624,
0.017356546595692635,
-0.5833609700202942,
0.32337135076522827,
0.22739705443382263,
0.11610499024391174,
-0.04087548702955246,
-0.12547741830348969,
0.16849099099636078,
-0.24298518896102905,
0.5332562923431396,
-0.708919107913971,
0.20325739681720734,
0.40713274478912354,
0.7001600861549377,
0.5406702160835266,
0.038401659578084946,
-0.681636393070221,
-0.5230388045310974,
-0.3517709970474243,
0.27328622341156006,
-1.9032951593399048,
0.7791975140571594,
-0.6721597909927368,
-0.46641847491264343,
-0.2709199786186218,
0.45946452021598816,
0.37101253867149353,
-0.1846662312746048,
0.11072389036417007,
0.019899532198905945,
-0.09835366904735565,
-0.0625595822930336,
0.42426857352256775,
-0.4128710925579071,
0.18357518315315247,
0.5789257884025574
] |
203674
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20O%27Connor
|
Richard O'Connor
|
General Sir Richard Nugent O'Connor, (21 August 1889 – 17 June 1981) was a senior British Army officer who fought in both the First and Second World Wars, and commanded the Western Desert Force in the early years of the Second World War. He was the field commander for Operation Compass, in which his forces destroyed a much larger Italian army – a victory which nearly drove the Axis from Africa, and in turn, led Adolf Hitler to send the Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel to try to reverse the situation. O'Connor was captured by a German reconnaissance patrol during the night of 7 April 1941 and spent over two years in an Italian prisoner of war camp. He eventually escaped after the fall of Mussolini in the autumn of 1943. In 1944 he commanded VIII Corps in the Battle of Normandy and later during Operation Market Garden. In 1945 he was General Officer in Command of the Eastern Command in India and then, in the closing days of British rule in the subcontinent, he headed Northern Command. His final job in the army was Adjutant-General to the Forces in London, in charge of the British Army's administration, personnel and organisation.
In honour of his war service, O'Connor was recognised with the highest level of knighthood in two different orders of chivalry. He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Order (twice), the Military Cross, the French Croix de Guerre and the Legion of Honour, and served as aide-de-camp to King George VI. He was also mentioned in despatches nine times for actions in the First World War, once in Palestine in 1939 and three times in the Second World War.
Early life
O'Connor was born in Srinagar, Kashmir, India, on 21 August 1889. His father was a major in the Royal Irish Fusiliers, and his mother was the daughter of a former governor of India's central provinces. He attended Tonbridge Castle School in 1899 and The Towers School in Crowthorne in 1902. In 1903, after his father's death in an accident, he moved to Wellington College and thereafter to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1908. In September of the following year he was commissioned, as a second lieutenant and posted to the 2nd Battalion, Cameronians (Scottish Rifles). He maintained close ties with the regiment for the rest of his life. In January 1910, the battalion was rotated to Colchester, where he received signals and rifle training. It was then stationed in Malta from 1911 to 1912 where O'Connor served as regimental signals officer.
First World War
During the First World War, O'Connor served as signals officer of 22 Brigade in the 7th Division and captain in command of 7th Division's Signals Company. From October 1916, as a captain and later as a brevet major, he served as brigade major of 91 Brigade, 7th Division. He was awarded the Military Cross in February 1915. In March of that year he saw action at Arras and Bullecourt. O'Connor was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and appointed brevet lieutenant-colonel in command of 2nd Infantry Battalion of the Honourable Artillery Company, part of the 7th Division, in June 1917. In November, the division was ordered to support the Italians against the Austro-Hungarian forces at the River Piave which then formed part of the Italian Front. In late October 1918 the 2nd Battalion captured the island of Grave di Papadopoli on the Piave River for which O'Connor received the Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor and a Bar to his DSO.
At the end of the war, O'Connor reverted to his rank of captain and served as regimental adjutant from April to December 1919.
Between the wars
O'Connor attended the Staff College, Camberley in 1920. O'Connor's other service in the years between the world wars included an appointment from 1921 to 1924 as brigade major of the Experimental Brigade (or 5 Brigade) under the command of J. F. C. Fuller, which was formed to test methods and procedures for using tanks and aircraft in co-ordination with infantry and artillery.
He returned to his old unit, the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles), as adjutant from February 1924 to 1925. From 1925 to 1927 he served as a company commander at Sandhurst. He returned to the Staff College, Camberley as an instructor from October 1927 to January 1930. In 1930 O'Connor again served with the 1st Battalion, Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) in Egypt and from 1931 to 1932 in Lucknow, India. From April 1932 to January 1935 he was a general staff officer, grade 2 at the War Office. He attended the Imperial Defence College in London in 1935. In April 1936 O'Connor was promoted to full colonel and appointed temporary brigadier to assume command of the Peshawar Brigade in north west India. In September 1938 O'Connor was promoted to major-general and appointed General Officer Commanding 7th Infantry Division in Palestine, along with the additional responsibility as Military Governor of Jerusalem. For his services in Palestine O'Connor was mentioned in despatches.
In August 1939, shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, the 7th Division was transferred to the fortress at Mersa Matruh, Egypt, where O'Connor was concerned with defending the area against a potential attack from the massed forces of the Italian Tenth Army over the border in Libya. The 7th Division later converted to become the 6th Division in November 1939. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in July 1940.
Second World War
Italian Offensive and Operation Compass
Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940 and, soon after, O'Connor was appointed commander of the Western Desert Force. He was tasked by Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland Wilson, commander of the British troops in Egypt, to push the Italian force out of Egypt, to protect the Suez Canal and British interests from attack.
On 13 September, Graziani struck: his leading divisions advanced sixty miles into Egypt where they reached the town of Sidi Barrani and, short of supplies, began to dig in. O'Connor then began to prepare for a counterattack. He had the 7th Armoured Division and the Indian 4th Infantry Division along with two brigades. British and Commonwealth troops in Egypt totalled around 36,000 men. The Italians had nearly five times as many troops along with hundreds more tanks and artillery pieces and the support of a much larger air force. Meanwhile, small raiding columns were sent out from the 7th Armoured and newly formed Long Range Desert Group to probe, harass, and disrupt the Italians (this marked the start of what became the Special Air Service). The Royal Navy and Royal Air Force supported by bombarding enemy strongpoints, airfields and rear areas.
During November, O'Connor was appointed an acting lieutenant-general in recognition of the increased size of his command.
The counteroffensive, Operation Compass, began on 8 December 1940. O'Connor's relatively small force of 31,000 men, 275 tanks and 120 artillery pieces, ably supported by an RAF wing and the Royal Navy, broke through a gap in the Italian defences at Sidi Barrani near the coast. The Desert Force cut a swath through the Italian rear areas, stitching its way between the desert and the coast, capturing strongpoint after strongpoint by cutting off and isolating them. The Italian guns proved to be no match for the heavy British Matilda tanks and their shells bounced off the armour. By mid-December the Italians had been pushed completely out of Egypt, leaving behind 38,000 prisoners and large stores of equipment.
The Desert Force paused to rest briefly before continuing the assault into Italian Libya against the remainder of Graziani's disorganised army. At that point, the Commander-in-Chief Middle East General Sir Archibald Wavell ordered the 4th Indian Division withdrawn to spearhead the invasion of Italian East Africa. This veteran division was to be replaced by the inexperienced 6th Australian Division, which, although tough, was untrained for desert warfare. Despite this setback, the offensive continued with minimal delay. By the end of 6 December the Australians besieged and took Bardia along with 40,000 more prisoners and 400 guns.
In early January 1941, the Western Desert Force was redesignated XIII Corps. On 9 January, the offensive resumed. By 12 January the strategic fortress port of Tobruk was surrounded. On 22 January it fell and another 27,000 Italian POWs were taken along with valuable supplies, food, and weapons. As Tobruk fell it was decided to have XIII Corps answerable directly to Wavell at HQ Middle East Command, removing HQ British troops Egypt from the chain of command. On 26 January the remaining Italian divisions in eastern Libya began to retreat to the northwest along the coast. O'Connor promptly moved to pursue and cut them off, sending his armour southwest through the desert in a wide flanking movement, while the infantry gave chase along the coast to the north. The lightly armoured advance units of 4th Armoured Brigade arrived at Beda Fomm before the fleeing Italians on 5 February, blocking the main coast road and their route of escape. Two days later, after a costly and failed attempt to break through the blockade, and with the main British infantry force fast bearing down on them from Benghazi to the north, the demoralised, exhausted Italians unconditionally capitulated. O'Connor and Eric Dorman-Smith cabled back to Wavell, "Fox killed in the open..."
In two months, the XIII Corps/Western Desert Force had advanced over , destroyed an entire Italian army of ten divisions, taken over 130,000 prisoners, 400 tanks and 1,292 guns at the cost of 500 killed and 1,373 wounded. In recognition of this, O'Connor was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath.
Reversal and capture
In a strategic sense, however, the victory of Operation Compass was not yet complete; the Italians still controlled most of Libya and possessed forces which would have to be dealt with. The Axis foothold in North Africa would remain a potential threat to Egypt and the Suez Canal so long as this situation continued. O'Connor was aware of this and urged Wavell to allow him to push on to Tripoli with all due haste to finish off the Italians. Wavell concurred as did Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, now the military governor of Cyrenaica, and XIII Corps resumed its advance. However, O'Connor's new offensive would prove short-lived: when the corps reached El Agheila, just to the southwest of Beda Fomm, Churchill ordered the advance to halt there. The Axis had invaded Greece and Wavell was ordered to send all available forces there as soon as possible to oppose this. Wavell took the 6th Australian Division, along with part of 7th Armoured Division and most of the supplies and air support for this ultimately doomed operation. XIII Corps HQ was wound down and in February 1941 O'Connor was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief the British Troops in Egypt.
Matters were soon to become much worse for the British. By March 1941, Hitler had dispatched General Erwin Rommel along with the Afrika Korps to bolster the Italians in Libya. Wavell and O'Connor now faced a formidable foe under a commander whose cunning, resourcefulness, and daring would earn him the nickname "the Desert Fox". Rommel wasted little time in launching his own offensive on 31 March. The inexperienced 2nd Armoured Division was soundly defeated and on 2 April Wavell came forward to review matters with Lieutenant-General Sir Philip Neame, by now the commander of British and Commonwealth troops in Cyrenaica (Wilson having left to command the Allied expeditionary force in Greece). O'Connor was called forward and arrived from Cairo the next day, but declined to assume Neame's command because of his lack of familiarity with the prevailing conditions. However, he agreed to stay to advise.
On 6 April O'Connor and Neame, while travelling to their headquarters which had been withdrawn from Maraua to Timimi, were captured by a German patrol near Martuba.
Captivity and escape
O'Connor spent the next two and a half years as a prisoner of war, mainly at the Castello di Vincigliata near Florence, Italy. Here he and Neame were in the company of such figures as Major-General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart and Air Vice Marshal Owen Tudor Boyd. Although the conditions of their imprisonment were not unpleasant, the officers soon formed an escape club and began planning a break-out. Their first attempt, a simple attempt to climb over the castle walls, resulted in a month's solitary confinement. The second attempt, by an escape tunnel built between October 1942 and March 1943, had some success, with two New Zealander brigadiers, James Hargest and Reginald Miles, reaching Switzerland. O'Connor and Carton de Wiart, travelling on foot, were at large for a week but were captured near Bologna in the Po Valley. Once again, a month's solitary confinement was the result.
It was only after the Italian surrender in September 1943 that the final, successful, attempt was made. With help from the Italian resistance movement, Boyd, O'Connor and Neame escaped while being transferred from Vincigliati. After a failed rendezvous with a submarine, they arrived by boat at Termoli, then went on to Bari where they were welcomed as guests by General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the Allied Armies fighting on the Italian Front, on 21 December 1943. Upon his return to Britain, O'Connor was presented with the knighthood he had been awarded in 1941 and promoted to lieutenant-general. Montgomery suggested that O'Connor be his successor as British Eighth Army commander, but that post was instead given to Oliver Leese and O'Connor was given a corps to command.
VIII Corps and Normandy
On 21 January 1944 O'Connor became commander of VIII Corps, which consisted of the Guards Armoured Division, 11th Armoured Division, 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division, along with 6th Guards Tank Brigade, 8th Army Group Royal Artillery and 2nd Household Cavalry Regiment.
On 11 June 1944, O'Connor and the leading elements of VIII Corps arrived in Normandy in the sector around Caen, which would be the scene of much hard fighting during the next few weeks. O'Connor's first mission (with 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division under command) was to mount Operation Epsom, a break out from the bridgehead established by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, cross the Odon and Orne rivers, then secure the high-ground positions northeast of Bretteville-sur-Laize and cut Caen off from the south. The break-out and river crossings were accomplished promptly. Montgomery, O'Connor's commanding officer and friend from his days in Palestine, congratulated him and his Corps on their success. But cutting off Caen would prove much harder. VIII Corps was pushed back over the Orne. O'Connor tried to re-establish a bridgehead during Operation Jupiter with the 43rd (Wessex) Division, but met with little success. Although the operation had failed to achieve its tactical objectives, General Sir Bernard Montgomery was pleased with the strategic benefits in the commitment and fixing of the German armoured reserves to the Caen sector.
After being withdrawn into reserve on 12 July, the next major action for VIII Corps would be Operation Goodwood, for which the corps was stripped of its infantry divisions but had a third armoured division (7th Armoured Division) attached. The attack began on 18 July with a massive aerial bombardment by the 9th USAAF, and ended on 20 July with a three-pronged drive to capture Bras and Hubert-Folie on the right, Fontenay on the left, and Bourguébus Ridge in the centre. However, the attack ground to a halt in pouring rain, turning the battlefield into a quagmire, with the major objectives still not taken, notably the Bourguebus Ridge which was the key to any break-out.
Restored to its pre-invasion formation but with British 3rd Infantry Division attached, the corps was switched to the southwest of Caen to take part in Operation Bluecoat. 15th (Scottish) Division attacked towards Vire to the east and west of Bois du Homme in order to facilitate the American advance in Operation Cobra (O'Connor, 5/3/25 July 29 1944). A swift drive was followed by fierce fighting to the south during the first two days of the advance, with both sides taking heavy losses.
As the allies prepared to pursue the Germans from France, O'Connor learned that VIII Corps would not take part in this phase of the campaign. VIII Corps was placed in reserve, and its transport used to supply XXX Corps and XII Corps. His command was reduced in mid-August, with the transfer of the Guards Armoured Divisions and 11th Armoured Division to XXX Corps and 15th (Scottish) Division to XII Corps. While in reserve, O'Connor maintained an active correspondence with Montgomery, Hobart and others, making suggestions for improvements of armoured vehicles and addressing various other problems such as combat fatigue. Some of his recommendations were followed up; such as for mounting "rams" on armoured vehicles in order to cope with the difficult hedgerow country (O'Connor, 5/3/41- 5/3/44 Aug 24, 26 1944).
Operation Market Garden, India and afterwards
O'Connor remained in command of VIII Corps, for the time being, and was given the task of supporting Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks' XXX Corps in Operation Market Garden, the plan by Montgomery to establish a bridgehead across the Rhine in the Netherlands. Following their entry into Weert at the end of September, VIII Corps prepared for and took part in Operation Aintree, the advance towards Venray and Venlo beginning on 12 October.
However, on 27 November O'Connor was removed from his post and was ordered to take over from Lieutenant-General Sir Mosley Mayne as GOC-in-C, Eastern Command, India. Smart's account says that Montgomery prompted the move for "not being ruthless enough with his American subordinates" although Mead states that the initiative was taken by Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, but Montgomery made no attempt to retain O'Connor. He was succeeded as GOC VIII Corps by Major-General Evelyn Barker, formerly the GOC of the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, and one of O'Connor's students at the Staff College, Camberley in the late 1920s. This marked the end of a long and distinguished combat career, although the new job was an important one, controlling the lines of communication of the Fourteenth Army. O'Connor was mentioned in despatches for the thirteenth and final time of his career on 22 March 1945.
Having been promoted to full general in April 1945, O'Connor was appointed GOC-in-C North Western Army in India in October that year (the formation was renamed Northern Command in November of that year). From 1946 to 1947 he was Adjutant-General to the Forces and aide-de-camp general to the King. His career as adjutant general was to be short-lived, however. After a disagreement over a cancelled demobilisation for troops stationed in the Far East, O'Connor offered his resignation in September 1947, which was accepted. Montgomery, then Chief of the Imperial General Staff, maintained that he had been sacked, rather than resigned, for being "not up to the job". Not long after this he was installed as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath.
In retirement
O'Connor retired in 1948 at the age of fifty-eight. However, he maintained his links with the army and took on other responsibilities. He was Commandant of the Army Cadet Force in Scotland from 1948 to 1959; Colonel of the Cameronians, 1951 to 1954; Lord Lieutenant of Ross and Cromarty from 1955 to 1964 and served as Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1964. His first wife, Jean, died in 1959, and in 1963 he married Dorothy Russell. In July 1971 he was created Knight of the Order of the Thistle. O’Connor was interviewed concerning North African operations in episode 8, "The Desert: North Africa (1940–1943)”, of the acclaimed British documentary television series, The World at War. O'Connor died in London on 17 June 1981, just two months shy of his 92nd birthday.
Notes
References
External links
Richard O’Connor Desert War.net
Imperial War Museum Interview
British Army Officers 1939–1945
Generals of World War II
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1889 births
1981 deaths
Alumni of the Royal College of Defence Studies
British Army generals of World War II
British Army personnel of World War I
British escapees
British military personnel of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
British World War II prisoners of war
Cameronians officers
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Escapees from Italian detention
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Honourable Artillery Company officers
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights of the Thistle
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Lord-Lieutenants of Ross and Cromarty
Operation Overlord people
People educated at Wellington College, Berkshire
People from Srinagar
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France)
Recipients of the Military Cross
Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
World War II prisoners of war held by Italy
Academics of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Academics of the Staff College, Camberley
British Army generals
|
[
-0.17847184836864471,
0.5382581353187561,
-0.7097710371017456,
-0.6503870487213135,
-0.07058394700288773,
0.5147879123687744,
0.7456958889961243,
-0.24343560636043549,
0.12869693338871002,
-0.19695980846881866,
-0.7823258638381958,
0.10132163763046265,
-0.16950127482414246,
0.46287569403648376,
0.5139136910438538,
0.68946772813797,
0.10646643489599228,
-0.28325045108795166,
-0.221122145652771,
-0.0976579561829567,
-0.054723430424928665,
-0.14276477694511414,
-0.17340554296970367,
0.33892112970352173,
0.3436921238899231,
0.26721036434173584,
0.36473944783210754,
0.0424165204167366,
0.020702579990029335,
-0.2885831296443939,
-0.36488816142082214,
-0.0020031125750392675,
-0.03908650204539299,
-0.4835013747215271,
-0.5411238074302673,
0.10773956030607224,
-0.3763732612133026,
-0.4949541687965393,
-0.15232905745506287,
0.31869426369667053,
-0.267720103263855,
0.04075941815972328,
0.2346174269914627,
0.1840314120054245,
-0.0059618535451591015,
-0.15846478939056396,
-1.6689292192459106,
0.11192893236875534,
-0.12948432564735413,
-0.19038064777851105,
0.22887460887432098,
-0.009988495148718357,
0.5014608502388,
-0.5906524658203125,
0.33485129475593567,
0.3232572078704834,
-0.4968926012516022,
-0.31785446405410767,
0.372814804315567,
-0.5712235569953918,
0.40508484840393066,
0.4455503225326538,
0.35640352964401245,
-0.39403432607650757,
0.0012707131681963801,
-0.2240385264158249,
0.01949729397892952,
0.2692311704158783,
0.15258967876434326,
0.3574769198894501,
0.3921836018562317,
-0.050150394439697266,
0.45166561007499695,
0.4632289409637451,
-0.13033416867256165,
-0.28526952862739563,
0.40323278307914734,
0.6385205388069153,
-0.5227386951446533,
-0.02139868214726448,
0.4139242172241211,
-0.7268235087394714,
0.8199262619018555,
0.2440941035747528,
-0.1817382127046585,
0.21226684749126434,
-0.4721064865589142,
0.18554113805294037,
-0.8193090558052063,
-0.12527090311050415,
-0.25710535049438477,
-0.2972034215927124,
0.0760817751288414,
-0.13596314191818237,
-0.20697419345378876,
0.044827669858932495,
0.5516862273216248,
0.5678380727767944,
0.16521607339382172,
-0.7113533020019531,
-0.1504685878753662,
-0.35833966732025146,
0.09983740746974945,
-0.11440566927194595,
-0.6715734004974365,
0.43125119805336,
-0.24421095848083496,
-0.476257860660553,
-0.10827973484992981,
-0.14649516344070435,
-0.48000213503837585,
-0.31097686290740967,
0.030532503500580788,
-0.16716480255126953,
0.42248228192329407,
-0.2937699854373932,
0.15871065855026245,
-0.5169424414634705,
-0.3356204330921173,
0.0834268182516098,
-0.2042391151189804,
0.5625061392784119,
-0.5164573192596436,
0.5805809497833252,
-0.8498862385749817,
-0.1838926076889038,
0.32883206009864807,
-0.2498241811990738,
-0.3913326859474182,
0.5031245350837708,
0.41327613592147827,
0.9952868819236755,
-0.8621650338172913,
0.11543809622526169,
-0.4028809666633606,
-0.3849838376045227,
-0.005575818475335836,
-0.27511081099510193,
-0.44682443141937256,
0.24245452880859375,
-0.3260984420776367,
0.27654561400413513,
-0.23238447308540344,
0.19244030117988586,
0.5143749117851257,
0.054100245237350464,
-0.0014591892249882221,
0.13165214657783508,
-0.19348067045211792,
-0.7539111375808716,
0.26127153635025024,
-0.19755493104457855,
-0.2508007884025574,
0.09146353602409363,
-0.19181303679943085,
0.8080400228500366,
0.5212184190750122,
0.09012839198112488,
0.045255307108163834,
-0.030942639335989952,
0.24742013216018677,
-0.4292304813861847,
0.29796770215034485,
0.5929878950119019,
0.5343455076217651,
0.23105554282665253,
0.35986676812171936,
-0.4112923741340637,
-0.43183204531669617,
-0.027738265693187714,
-0.004093707539141178,
-0.24028031527996063,
0.5431891083717346,
0.10940098762512207,
-0.6959360837936401,
0.8402515649795532,
0.5588512420654297,
0.1554373800754547,
0.4051917791366577,
-0.4828560948371887,
-0.5331668257713318,
-0.2911573648452759,
0.21842175722122192,
0.19986382126808167,
0.5132867097854614,
0.14040064811706543,
0.22348527610301971,
-0.7907167077064514,
0.4505656361579895,
0.04866586625576019,
-0.1293429285287857,
-0.7510097026824951,
-0.11112014949321747,
-0.6443251371383667,
0.6051580905914307,
-0.16425958275794983,
-0.38158541917800903,
0.19669994711875916,
0.37030789256095886,
0.6835203766822815,
0.3914337158203125,
0.027735617011785507,
0.3420775830745697,
-0.45815643668174744,
0.05713954567909241,
0.5845277309417725,
0.6539968252182007,
0.15267297625541687,
0.2301633208990097,
1.0697771310806274,
0.6652511358261108,
-0.10164447128772736,
-0.264376699924469,
0.44949501752853394,
0.09318116307258606,
-0.17934568226337433,
0.10516806691884995,
-0.49818161129951477,
-0.010674651712179184,
-0.4072706401348114,
0.10331456363201141,
0.29729172587394714,
-0.16702792048454285,
0.7297556400299072,
0.22370530664920807,
0.23631805181503296,
0.2968236207962036,
-0.0375184491276741,
-0.4276633858680725,
-1.0470936298370361,
0.21472406387329102,
0.13810870051383972,
0.10765484720468521,
-0.39355435967445374,
0.4892604649066925,
0.04662765935063362,
0.5684711337089539,
0.09464108198881149,
-0.35293832421302795,
-0.13152702152729034,
-0.4617108106613159,
0.2900388836860657,
-0.07593373209238052,
0.45290109515190125,
-0.22083130478858948,
0.007944416254758835,
-0.08998294174671173,
0.48464179039001465,
-0.19066888093948364,
-0.13385657966136932,
0.2911883294582367,
0.08881445974111557,
0.7456687688827515,
0.18367129564285278,
-0.05598318949341774,
-0.3767845332622528,
0.08585646003484726,
0.09508918225765228,
0.2546035647392273,
0.21649494767189026,
0.22149045765399933,
0.17719437181949615,
0.2939568758010864,
0.2620660662651062,
0.0535707026720047,
-0.1600702852010727,
-0.6136126518249512,
-0.13861842453479767,
0.31110134720802307,
0.23581254482269287,
0.2884819507598877,
-0.677226185798645,
0.5911087393760681,
-0.17627301812171936,
0.07217955589294434,
-0.20270301401615143,
-0.4724574089050293,
0.587283730506897,
-0.28514909744262695,
-0.5381055474281311,
0.6381186842918396,
0.6730583906173706,
0.21002118289470673,
0.3821938931941986,
-0.498796284198761,
0.008525567129254341,
-0.22794988751411438,
-0.21162647008895874,
0.25352564454078674,
-0.027055557817220688,
-0.3390292823314667,
0.6795392632484436,
-0.15054820477962494,
0.11056632548570633,
-0.35359862446784973,
-0.06820517033338547,
-0.3566257059574127,
-0.643022358417511,
0.07315033674240112,
-0.22791871428489685,
-0.7718677520751953,
0.7339091897010803,
0.23564401268959045,
0.56209796667099,
0.6414831876754761,
0.1276535987854004,
-0.6866039633750916,
-0.2780672013759613,
-5.803221702575684,
0.04487678408622742,
0.24612919986248016,
-0.26798439025878906,
-0.08155757188796997,
-0.09730690717697144,
0.33173540234565735,
-0.3230167329311371,
-0.22114549577236176,
-0.4528261721134186,
0.199457585811615,
0.17044229805469513,
-0.08482351154088974,
-0.11554551124572754,
0.8458319306373596,
-0.03652096539735794,
0.9577702283859253,
-0.19994816184043884,
0.5359394550323486,
0.4037989675998688,
0.10046697407960892,
0.017806490883231163,
-0.11832838505506516,
0.2681458294391632,
-0.2145879566669464,
0.4023687243461609,
-0.47650375962257385,
0.505608081817627,
-0.7367525100708008,
-0.41324368119239807,
0.16974565386772156,
0.1487731635570526,
-0.07006755471229553,
0.2326066642999649,
-0.3458167016506195,
-0.2072104662656784,
0.2662731111049652,
0.22042366862297058,
0.21963663399219513,
0.015613583847880363,
0.5546321272850037,
-0.32791537046432495,
-0.27464133501052856,
0.06547600775957108,
0.2558687925338745,
-0.27952927350997925,
-0.6937522292137146,
0.3637288510799408,
0.036062195897102356,
-0.10001982748508453,
0.274066686630249,
0.33556684851646423,
-0.31804874539375305,
-0.26469215750694275,
-0.3990989327430725,
0.30488038063049316,
0.02771655283868313,
-0.38065436482429504,
-0.22670894861221313,
0.5429944396018982,
-0.15304885804653168,
-1.0496069192886353,
0.10418715327978134,
0.21582525968551636,
-0.04803096503019333,
0.3091256022453308,
-0.21458083391189575,
-0.0969473347067833,
-0.12165682762861252,
-0.20306916534900665,
-0.10870540142059326,
0.4802098870277405,
0.18457955121994019,
-0.7039558291435242,
-0.2811537981033325,
-0.6586467623710632,
0.12995818257331848,
0.17780262231826782,
-0.4607509672641754,
0.011867213994264603,
-0.07696577161550522,
-0.5168941617012024,
-0.14027048647403717,
0.3487553894519806,
-0.035382844507694244,
0.3043975532054901,
-0.6309037804603577,
0.4630609452724457,
0.19408419728279114,
-0.6502840518951416,
-0.01176802720874548,
-0.3508204221725464,
-0.02779270149767399,
0.4503931403160095,
0.392394095659256,
0.18239176273345947,
-0.3226556181907654,
0.49682629108428955,
0.3230265974998474,
-0.020461568608880043,
-0.5478423833847046,
-0.5194815993309021,
0.5446758270263672,
-0.5525200366973877,
-0.174895241856575,
0.25493183732032776,
0.14273889362812042,
0.5341959595680237,
0.30194976925849915,
-0.0030810367316007614,
0.17234395444393158,
0.33760493993759155,
-0.15788482129573822,
-0.14175006747245789,
-0.2483905702829361,
-0.20077578723430634,
-0.03609311208128929,
0.17718814313411713,
0.8474411368370056,
0.6247543692588806,
-0.3466222286224365,
0.23145635426044464,
-0.6484034657478333,
-0.18751223385334015,
0.1092538982629776,
0.30652865767478943,
0.3140890896320343,
-0.6945053339004517,
-0.11020668596029282,
0.05293003469705582,
0.22297976911067963,
1.170714020729065,
-0.060930706560611725,
0.900006115436554,
-0.07688550651073456,
-0.4878319501876831,
-0.4000048041343689,
-0.24068903923034668,
0.44285765290260315,
0.4152274429798126,
0.24319952726364136,
-0.29449698328971863,
-0.004105708561837673,
-0.12118654698133469,
-0.06886495649814606,
0.07107917219400406,
-0.006860122084617615,
-0.5388143062591553,
0.3022446036338806,
0.34936490654945374,
-0.012895855121314526,
-0.16851796209812164,
0.23730549216270447,
-0.4226614236831665,
-0.9269124865531921,
0.17342649400234222,
-0.30848929286003113,
0.162198007106781,
-0.4676275849342346,
-0.3461625874042511,
-0.06368821114301682,
-0.18705183267593384,
-0.7933962345123291,
-0.35801810026168823,
0.5429370999336243,
0.1264343112707138,
-0.022065918892621994,
-0.47371339797973633,
-0.47706884145736694,
0.6736095547676086,
-0.07623302936553955,
-0.5266470313072205,
-0.20169663429260254,
-0.25742027163505554,
-0.27384984493255615,
0.13834229111671448,
0.09549865871667862,
-0.325752854347229,
-0.16290901601314545,
-0.050038039684295654,
0.05993151664733887,
0.4753100574016571,
-0.5109084248542786,
0.2727014720439911,
0.19297069311141968,
-0.18976446986198425,
-0.9474753737449646,
-0.045269377529621124,
-0.18040631711483002,
-0.07724623382091522,
-0.1428324431180954,
-0.44130441546440125,
0.21358895301818848,
0.5494297742843628,
-0.239126518368721,
-0.0011654882691800594,
-0.3119088113307953,
0.002724969293922186,
0.04585479944944382,
-0.521813690662384,
0.29523035883903503,
-0.06207515671849251,
-0.2760191857814789,
-0.27628108859062195,
0.34783321619033813,
-0.750069260597229,
-0.11877860128879547,
-0.43593069911003113,
0.01789054088294506,
0.33930525183677673,
-0.255562961101532,
-0.5427810549736023,
-0.12239917367696762,
0.23411402106285095,
-0.32899239659309387,
0.2051338106393814,
0.16614364087581635,
0.6497902870178223,
-0.45328643918037415,
-0.311665415763855,
-0.5185691118240356,
-0.338807612657547,
-0.43907153606414795,
0.12475655227899551,
-0.680014967918396,
0.08594736456871033,
0.556270956993103,
-0.4517253339290619,
0.700570821762085,
0.4854460656642914,
-0.6645432710647583,
0.03932943195104599,
0.19179373979568481,
0.5212118029594421,
0.23920901119709015,
0.10966113954782486,
0.7023893594741821,
0.2615707814693451,
-0.5677286982536316,
0.36974531412124634,
0.5331665873527527,
1.0322864055633545,
0.6439758539199829,
-0.3441108167171478,
-0.020213941112160683,
-0.21235987544059753,
0.43347883224487305,
-1.1254230737686157,
-0.06497737020254135,
0.37720048427581787,
0.11366299539804459,
-0.04294596612453461,
-0.8214477300643921,
0.5797297358512878,
0.5221695899963379,
-0.2541179955005646,
-0.22900040447711945,
0.026669034734368324,
0.09282439947128296,
0.5169411897659302,
0.41895604133605957,
0.16677434742450714,
0.2717536985874176,
0.3656093180179596,
0.3127025067806244,
0.06656505167484283,
-0.6222690343856812,
-0.46074622869491577,
0.3797707259654999,
-0.07828900963068008,
-0.33851680159568787,
0.04397372528910637,
0.13426373898983002,
0.4859367907047272,
-0.019470131024718285,
-0.0847083106637001,
0.04833851754665375,
-0.40617820620536804,
0.612415075302124,
-0.13347531855106354,
-0.3447713851928711,
-0.14217716455459595,
0.5811901688575745,
-0.6484286189079285,
-0.2570337951183319,
-1.1435723304748535,
0.18604864180088043,
-0.20774053037166595,
-0.12171028554439545,
-0.08528262376785278,
-0.26562538743019104,
-0.38309526443481445,
-0.3230065405368805,
-0.030369341373443604,
-0.095528744161129,
-0.24839600920677185,
-0.44427403807640076,
0.47195225954055786,
-0.19440773129463196,
-0.21011774241924286,
-0.074467234313488,
0.8014081716537476,
0.2291470319032669,
-0.02971312403678894,
-0.47569262981414795,
0.16804289817810059,
0.0934673622250557,
-0.4513128101825714,
-0.326526403427124,
-0.2197391390800476,
0.17826694250106812,
-0.6283947229385376,
0.2122742086648941,
0.05160205066204071,
-0.555853009223938,
-0.12215912342071533,
0.5005411505699158,
-0.6975079774856567,
0.04398949444293976,
-0.04564788192510605,
0.07798019796609879,
0.3464423716068268,
0.25207605957984924,
-0.21099980175495148,
0.47546568512916565,
0.8032090663909912,
0.037069711834192276,
0.03304427117109299,
0.25744256377220154,
0.08590633422136307,
-0.09224491566419601,
-0.37923464179039,
-0.5633412003517151,
0.47929617762565613,
-0.39237359166145325,
0.11987113207578659,
0.3571479022502899,
-0.2268839031457901,
0.5761809945106506,
0.39832088351249695,
0.009540116414427757,
0.8238018155097961,
-0.48217645287513733,
0.012934522703289986,
-0.03210921213030815,
0.2905814051628113,
-0.07386975735425949,
-0.09628729522228241,
0.060318995267152786,
0.20980392396450043,
0.18619683384895325,
-0.25038254261016846,
0.21767911314964294,
-0.18809756636619568,
0.16201205551624298,
-0.015543722547590733,
0.44852346181869507,
-0.5614011883735657,
-0.45833083987236023,
0.2552003562450409,
-0.24357226490974426,
-0.16538672149181366,
0.879154622554779,
-0.21494629979133606,
0.28321728110313416,
0.5168973207473755,
0.06310544908046722,
-0.8138443231582642,
0.2667842507362366,
0.6009615063667297,
-0.011441003531217575,
-0.1869906336069107,
-0.2008242905139923,
-0.2948976457118988,
0.33896398544311523,
-0.02444327436387539,
0.6733683943748474,
0.07918548583984375,
-0.03768450766801834,
0.3105683922767639,
0.1779192090034485,
-0.1165640652179718,
-0.30997535586357117,
-0.60245281457901,
0.3303886353969574,
-0.6263799071311951,
0.15273481607437134,
0.46075329184532166,
-0.4276328682899475,
-0.4485422372817993,
0.7268462181091309,
-0.6509957909584045,
-0.7384146451950073,
-0.09590830653905869,
0.07251790910959244,
-0.14593398571014404,
0.04674198105931282,
0.8777920007705688,
1.0286381244659424,
-0.29990142583847046,
-0.05436039716005325,
0.006260234862565994,
-0.31669798493385315,
-0.30098411440849304,
-0.04668375849723816,
0.42218780517578125,
0.28703606128692627,
-0.3889044523239136,
-0.39741209149360657,
0.17542694509029388,
0.36638855934143066,
0.152769073843956,
-0.3588462769985199,
0.07323424518108368,
-0.13944466412067413,
-0.12505929172039032,
0.5430201292037964,
-0.6584489345550537,
0.0578627735376358,
-0.6574939489364624,
0.1320105642080307,
-0.2493012547492981,
0.290062814950943,
-0.1572577804327011,
0.07112620770931244,
-0.007126942276954651,
0.15435069799423218,
0.27565938234329224,
-0.007135246880352497,
0.7033441066741943,
0.16459940373897552,
-0.3673660457134247,
-0.4369402825832367,
-0.16089054942131042,
-0.08721275627613068,
-0.37465646862983704,
0.6897040605545044,
0.1856786608695984,
-0.01728929579257965,
-0.05902232602238655,
0.40877270698547363,
0.04094388708472252,
-0.25859108567237854,
-0.14889608323574066,
-0.04170358180999756,
-0.07734756171703339,
-0.19339582324028015,
-0.7032549977302551,
0.6049020290374756,
0.5738185048103333,
0.127425879240036,
0.17307695746421814,
0.5246756076812744,
-1.0900869369506836,
0.37839895486831665,
-0.034884531050920486,
-0.49102863669395447,
0.11078966408967972,
0.25825008749961853,
-0.07724225521087646
] |
203675
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisavang%20Vong
|
Sisavang Vong
|
Sisavang Phoulivong (or Sisavangvong, ) (14 July 1885 – 29 October 1959) was king of the Kingdom of Luang Prabang and later the Kingdom of Laos from 28 April 1904 until his death on 29 October 1959.
Early life
He was born in Luang Prabang on 14 July 1885. His father was Zakarine, King of Luang Prabang and his mother was Queen Thongsy. He was educated at Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat, Saigon and l'École Coloniale, Paris. He was known as a "playboy" king. He had up to 50 children by as many as 15 wives, two of whom were his half sisters and one of whom was a niece. Fourteen of the children died in the Mekong after a boating accident.
His wives included:
Princess Kamuni (1885–1915)
Khamphane (1896–1983), his half sister by his father's wife Mom La; they had no children
Khamla, a commoner
Khamboua, a commoner
Khamtip, a commoner
Princess Khamtouan of Luang Prabang, his half sister (one son)
Princess Kamaduni of the Vang Hnaxxs family
Mom Khamphoui, a commoner
Princess Indrakama, a daughter of Prince Jayasena, Prince Sri Dibudinha and his wife, Pong
Princess Kamuni, daughter of Prince Ko and Princess Duangbadani
Princess Khamphoui, the daughter of his half-brother
Chansy (1900–1984), a commoner
King of Laos
He succeeded his father as King of Luang Prabang after the death of his father, 25 March 1904. Luang Prabang was then a French protectorate within French Indochina. He ascended the throne, at the old Royal Palace, Luang Prabang, 15 April 1904, and was crowned there, 4 March 1905. During the early years of his reign, the French built a modern palace for him, the Royal Palace of Luang Prabang for his use of residence. Under his kingdom he had united provinces Houaphan, 1931; Houakhong; Xiengkhouang and Vientiane, 1942; Champassak and Sayboury, 1946.
He was a lifelong supporter of French rule in Laos, and in 1945 he refused to cooperate with Lao nationalists and he was deposed when the Lao Issara declared the country independent. In April 1946, the French took over once again and he was reinstated as king (the first time in almost 250 years that a Lao monarch actually ruled all of what is today called Laos).
Upon Sisavang Vong's death in 1959, he had ruled Luang Prabang and Laos for 55 years. At the time of his death, he was the longest-reigning monarch in the history of modern Laos.
When he became ill, he made his son Crown Prince Savang Vatthana regent. His son succeeded him on his death in 1959. He was cremated and buried in Vat That Luang (Luang Prabang) in 1961, and during his funeral procession was transported by the royal funeral carriage, a 12-metre-high wooden hearse with a carved seven-headed serpent. Many representatives were at the state funeral including Prince Bhanubandhu Yugala, who represented Thailand.
Sisavangvong University was named in his honour, but was abolished in 1975 when the communists took power in Laos.
Because he presided over independence from the French Union, statues of him survived the communist revolution and remain in Luang Prabang and Vientiane. Both statues depict him in the act of bestowing a constitution upon the people.
Honours
Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia – 1905
Grand Cross of the Order of the Dragon of Annam – 1905
Decoration of the Golden Gong, 1st Class of Annam
Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur of France – 1927 (Commander – 1905)
Grand Officer of the Order of the Black Star of Benin of France – 1935
Grand Officer of the Order of the Crown of Belgium – 1935
Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters of France – 1949
Croix de Guerre with Palm of France – 1949
Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri of Thailand – 1955
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit of Vietnam – 1955
See also
Monarchs of Laos
References
1885 births
1959 deaths
Monarchs of Laos
People from Luang Prabang
Grand Officers of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Recipients of the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures
Laotian anti-communists
19th-century Laotian people
|
[
-0.4319038987159729,
0.3310708999633789,
-0.16654875874519348,
0.14539824426174164,
-0.3539145290851593,
0.17085464298725128,
0.3529075086116791,
0.02618064172565937,
-0.7224850058555603,
0.10135491192340851,
-0.013402938842773438,
0.21729858219623566,
-0.7344282865524292,
0.03589199483394623,
-0.43808525800704956,
0.0671350359916687,
0.9345118999481201,
-0.1664327085018158,
0.3483777940273285,
-0.4332909882068634,
-0.4007696509361267,
-0.3824937343597412,
0.2495739459991455,
0.3503969609737396,
0.3410426676273346,
0.12028782814741135,
0.25065651535987854,
0.14456042647361755,
0.7786259651184082,
-0.13306429982185364,
-0.11629228293895721,
0.31153324246406555,
0.43140551447868347,
-0.10314084589481354,
-0.9039996266365051,
0.24181367456912994,
0.08250157535076141,
-0.12113223969936371,
-0.3620549440383911,
0.1770196408033371,
-0.6856197714805603,
0.213974267244339,
-0.3401276171207428,
0.20783203840255737,
0.15554164350032806,
-1.0616164207458496,
-0.8471511006355286,
0.5559062957763672,
-0.07369332760572433,
-0.05982358381152153,
-0.5145320296287537,
0.19677720963954926,
-0.13215559720993042,
-0.0982067734003067,
0.4511372447013855,
-0.16221168637275696,
-0.7938873767852783,
-0.12658999860286713,
-1.1080970764160156,
-0.19686995446681976,
0.3467261791229248,
-0.06560581177473068,
0.11576298624277115,
-0.38123780488967896,
0.004659073427319527,
-0.07603790611028671,
-0.13461726903915405,
-0.14450819790363312,
-0.16465523838996887,
-0.1969078779220581,
0.07591262459754944,
1.0491929054260254,
0.3242180049419403,
0.24864442646503448,
0.6092700362205505,
-0.38089320063591003,
-0.07512078434228897,
-0.09295322746038437,
0.5928319692611694,
0.1892177164554596,
0.031761351972818375,
-0.32962343096733093,
0.6261899471282959,
0.5525063276290894,
-0.1357889473438263,
0.21865414083003998,
-0.07602988928556442,
0.6355119347572327,
-0.1347566843032837,
-0.29693925380706787,
-0.152284175157547,
-0.25442421436309814,
0.21460840106010437,
-0.38870927691459656,
-0.8842226266860962,
-0.3618299961090088,
-0.1892683058977127,
0.5637848377227783,
-0.20791375637054443,
-0.06886301934719086,
0.5135430693626404,
-0.1262497752904892,
0.19670462608337402,
-0.402666836977005,
-0.8269732594490051,
-0.37723299860954285,
-0.30032554268836975,
0.23160924017429352,
-0.6219640970230103,
-0.6870001554489136,
-0.8720366358757019,
0.22999617457389832,
0.19204704463481903,
0.18747366964817047,
0.3022790849208832,
0.4290333092212677,
0.1925957202911377,
0.02111545391380787,
0.16338542103767395,
-0.1306549459695816,
0.3633492588996887,
0.6226614117622375,
-0.0977950170636177,
0.7831311225891113,
0.09143619984388351,
-0.19761483371257782,
-0.3874381184577942,
0.00334707903675735,
-0.4729209840297699,
0.5767821669578552,
0.45897483825683594,
0.37229153513908386,
-0.5582940578460693,
-0.04932049289345741,
0.17031258344650269,
-0.46072134375572205,
0.5863211154937744,
0.4341106414794922,
0.10082267224788666,
-0.12420157343149185,
-0.6519268751144409,
-0.015454213134944439,
-0.44254857301712036,
0.46464696526527405,
0.12964752316474915,
0.11381814628839493,
-0.11392772197723389,
-0.3954277038574219,
-0.3596693277359009,
-0.3648405373096466,
0.10510135442018509,
-0.39564162492752075,
-0.17538514733314514,
0.022194623947143555,
-0.5709349513053894,
0.6596981883049011,
0.15409354865550995,
0.03294762223958969,
-0.31608474254608154,
0.007784631103277206,
0.30402490496635437,
0.1313774734735489,
-0.37434881925582886,
0.11130903661251068,
0.5070744156837463,
-0.364671915769577,
-0.2636103630065918,
0.8713699579238892,
-0.5245734453201294,
-0.4169911742210388,
-0.18988053500652313,
-0.03667817637324333,
-0.3812209367752075,
-0.38836774230003357,
0.18006251752376556,
0.5061610341072083,
-0.11001461744308472,
-0.20043687522411346,
-0.2935618758201599,
-0.16248899698257446,
-0.5641178488731384,
0.1416884958744049,
0.11425746977329254,
-0.033798106014728546,
0.7780754566192627,
0.4900074899196625,
0.7586365938186646,
-0.3876963257789612,
0.6887891888618469,
-0.11608635634183884,
-0.31016525626182556,
-0.42110592126846313,
0.5979897975921631,
-0.1928570568561554,
0.3212422728538513,
0.6348155736923218,
0.34394723176956177,
0.6712623238563538,
-0.009820610284805298,
0.4832311272621155,
0.10059456527233124,
-0.19566598534584045,
0.7169896960258484,
-0.4885878264904022,
-0.09903321415185928,
0.6501876711845398,
0.03446264564990997,
0.7682327032089233,
0.6696692705154419,
1.151389241218567,
0.6895318031311035,
-0.37396979331970215,
-0.2799844443798065,
0.3123633861541748,
0.015591099858283997,
-0.8183697462081909,
-0.6932824850082397,
0.24488548934459686,
-0.08214765787124634,
0.0491303876042366,
0.1375325620174408,
-0.13003431260585785,
-0.06338168680667877,
0.705996572971344,
0.34467917680740356,
1.3721448183059692,
-0.030249442905187607,
-0.6235030293464661,
-0.1343298703432083,
-0.5104890465736389,
-0.1436859667301178,
-0.30690449476242065,
0.5245027542114258,
-0.36144280433654785,
0.39963287115097046,
-0.03687940165400505,
0.25087374448776245,
-0.04791629686951637,
0.17140354216098785,
-0.6620621681213379,
0.29229769110679626,
-0.2839422821998596,
0.09508954733610153,
0.07477198541164398,
0.13595907390117645,
0.7806397676467896,
-0.6843841671943665,
-0.17985637485980988,
-0.3957390785217285,
-0.08018072694540024,
-0.06979595124721527,
0.2864827513694763,
0.6278895139694214,
-0.09756708145141602,
-0.11598245799541473,
-0.3160116672515869,
-0.6037427186965942,
0.12739154696464539,
0.25826096534729004,
-0.03604118898510933,
0.0240891445428133,
-0.35113584995269775,
0.23283986747264862,
0.22062301635742188,
0.11295314878225327,
-0.014937366358935833,
-0.12347016483545303,
-0.13742315769195557,
0.09196557849645615,
0.12507711350917816,
-0.15970605611801147,
-0.48486071825027466,
-0.30029138922691345,
-0.393749862909317,
-0.34096628427505493,
-0.7605502605438232,
-0.39373770356178284,
0.5559570789337158,
-0.6032169461250305,
-1.3198959827423096,
0.8857965469360352,
0.7803781628608704,
0.18868304789066315,
-0.5716322064399719,
-0.4139884114265442,
-0.41941037774086,
-0.31543245911598206,
-0.3210747241973877,
0.4774737060070038,
0.13471096754074097,
-0.08594584465026855,
0.5100056529045105,
0.009104976430535316,
-0.2633224129676819,
-0.12823386490345,
-0.1530781090259552,
-0.4849584996700287,
0.22513306140899658,
0.642615556716919,
-0.15490952134132385,
-0.41144052147865295,
0.16856220364570618,
-0.19630876183509827,
0.18919266760349274,
0.6597980260848999,
0.27168548107147217,
0.36365991830825806,
-0.16422119736671448,
-5.707828044891357,
-0.3204304277896881,
0.522484302520752,
-0.337799608707428,
0.060844745486974716,
0.487705260515213,
0.3002811074256897,
-0.19538365304470062,
0.5541144609451294,
-0.3546901345252991,
0.13412544131278992,
-0.28028377890586853,
0.09008065611124039,
-0.0005851605092175305,
0.5218801498413086,
0.35366952419281006,
0.1467975676059723,
-0.46034130454063416,
0.43934348225593567,
0.8025695085525513,
0.31368350982666016,
-0.34500250220298767,
-0.08806254714727402,
0.3030666708946228,
0.3069583773612976,
0.1895609349012375,
0.13248559832572937,
-0.30397963523864746,
-1.0744081735610962,
-0.5608087182044983,
-0.42107826471328735,
0.4976601302623749,
0.28100764751434326,
0.11461847275495529,
-0.30443015694618225,
-0.7295490503311157,
0.38351303339004517,
0.28208768367767334,
-0.3051582872867584,
0.40908175706863403,
0.2940739691257477,
-0.7286189198493958,
-0.5329556465148926,
-0.046163059771060944,
-0.05935031548142433,
-0.10317306220531464,
-0.6713953018188477,
-0.5066604018211365,
-0.5700911283493042,
0.4007498025894165,
0.5359668731689453,
-0.04191707819700241,
0.30496862530708313,
-0.4892692267894745,
0.011818604543805122,
0.774387001991272,
-0.4891017973423004,
0.4131380021572113,
-0.6293852925300598,
0.6718801259994507,
0.687992513179779,
0.010111302137374878,
-0.42085614800453186,
0.03681659325957298,
0.14380425214767456,
-0.053506217896938324,
0.34193578362464905,
-0.07445962727069855,
0.06427013874053955,
0.5324156284332275,
-0.31517672538757324,
0.552402675151825,
-0.04557099565863609,
-0.5766376256942749,
0.23265083134174347,
-0.08415008336305618,
0.012033439241349697,
0.16246090829372406,
-0.01631525531411171,
-0.13136893510818481,
-0.18138931691646576,
0.06256662309169769,
0.6700291633605957,
0.9807509779930115,
0.4055977761745453,
-0.13509899377822876,
-0.5054464936256409,
0.7046526074409485,
0.45153942704200745,
0.8036306500434875,
0.2976692020893097,
-0.7441547513008118,
-0.14375559985637665,
0.03961090371012688,
0.14922122657299042,
0.0084157083183527,
0.2862188220024109,
0.0829109251499176,
0.6109915971755981,
0.17225515842437744,
0.090955950319767,
-0.03496689721941948,
0.15276184678077698,
-0.26280513405799866,
0.11097176373004913,
0.04333300143480301,
-0.15975601971149445,
0.039311733096838,
0.22505660355091095,
0.3509829342365265,
0.03982658311724663,
0.09013914316892624,
0.09327252954244614,
0.06891251355409622,
0.5182283520698547,
-0.7298761606216431,
0.3073216378688812,
0.0755944773554802,
0.2502034306526184,
-0.13024039566516876,
-0.45890742540359497,
0.8147444725036621,
0.10438890755176544,
0.2660812735557556,
0.8837345838546753,
-0.16625268757343292,
-0.32144033908843994,
0.2967720031738281,
0.027854975312948227,
-0.036118827760219574,
0.20861883461475372,
-0.1864030957221985,
0.6633023619651794,
-0.4662056863307953,
-0.05979091301560402,
-0.7907456755638123,
-0.1533036231994629,
-0.904560387134552,
0.10807736217975616,
-0.007013281807303429,
-0.3692115247249603,
-0.35470977425575256,
-0.3612167239189148,
0.1471644937992096,
-0.028206925839185715,
-0.09298574179410934,
0.19284002482891083,
-0.25849151611328125,
0.07017704844474792,
0.4550171494483948,
-0.022513438016176224,
-0.34423181414604187,
0.9674121141433716,
-0.08707959949970245,
-0.37630048394203186,
-0.050019338726997375,
0.13416096568107605,
-0.30677491426467896,
0.34875258803367615,
0.4295428693294525,
-0.12620201706886292,
-0.7947811484336853,
-0.7409215569496155,
-0.2760487198829651,
-0.45409339666366577,
0.6814176440238953,
0.33087825775146484,
0.14132429659366608,
-0.47707608342170715,
0.5096436738967896,
0.5755595564842224,
-0.8425925970077515,
-0.5136627554893494,
0.1307460218667984,
0.05961945280432701,
-0.2592037320137024,
0.0042508444748818874,
-0.1443244367837906,
-0.38982996344566345,
0.025366084650158882,
-0.7318903803825378,
-0.05324871093034744,
-0.12839695811271667,
0.20312224328517914,
0.6087222695350647,
0.35513290762901306,
-0.278197705745697,
-0.5684763193130493,
-0.5645442008972168,
0.22277791798114777,
-0.034927356988191605,
-0.04666030779480934,
-0.36272886395454407,
-0.034149687737226486,
-0.24415038526058197,
-0.5569858551025391,
-0.560468852519989,
0.31181052327156067,
0.397628515958786,
0.2549128234386444,
-0.2705979347229004,
0.19831189513206482,
0.42165607213974,
-0.30323484539985657,
-0.2526226341724396,
-0.5616474151611328,
0.13288280367851257,
0.1281426101922989,
0.3540763258934021,
0.04427766799926758,
-0.042461831122636795,
-0.5927236676216125,
-0.100928895175457,
0.35074201226234436,
-0.15317781269550323,
0.3447844088077545,
0.43018314242362976,
-0.055275000631809235,
0.14956286549568176,
-1.0773447751998901,
-0.40930384397506714,
-0.3149801194667816,
-0.4711824655532837,
0.10027150064706802,
-0.23611325025558472,
0.5985345840454102,
0.5014373064041138,
-0.37985318899154663,
0.4685068130493164,
-0.015142075717449188,
-0.45599445700645447,
0.033136360347270966,
0.21804054081439972,
0.19165034592151642,
-0.23336312174797058,
-0.19117750227451324,
0.8999295830726624,
0.7359012961387634,
-0.1266576200723648,
-0.2794273793697357,
-0.04981571435928345,
1.2309073209762573,
-0.3566605746746063,
-0.12931017577648163,
-0.17581707239151,
-0.039366938173770905,
-0.22936809062957764,
-0.33402031660079956,
0.03419268876314163,
-0.3703625798225403,
0.25485286116600037,
0.19247546792030334,
-0.6070119142532349,
-0.40776699781417847,
0.35847118496894836,
-0.6131021976470947,
-0.36245912313461304,
0.31178101897239685,
0.35547465085983276,
0.2497584968805313,
-0.5180491805076599,
0.4305824935436249,
0.1431811898946762,
-0.4204046130180359,
0.6346421241760254,
0.3245090842247009,
-0.36376190185546875,
0.18972916901111603,
-0.08501005917787552,
-0.4333781599998474,
-0.23176956176757812,
-0.6169524192810059,
-0.2864716351032257,
-0.017360739409923553,
-0.05410754680633545,
-0.11686395853757858,
-0.020611785352230072,
-0.2137082815170288,
0.0626487210392952,
0.3644860088825226,
-0.678766131401062,
-0.6015437841415405,
0.0806957483291626,
-0.13598406314849854,
0.2980930209159851,
-1.055945634841919,
0.03141172602772713,
-0.08042579144239426,
-0.6226142644882202,
0.26541540026664734,
-0.4220616817474365,
0.33088526129722595,
-0.35383084416389465,
0.3656609058380127,
0.3510556221008301,
0.6593776345252991,
-0.14253349602222443,
1.0379277467727661,
-0.08774112910032272,
-0.28304630517959595,
-0.07997424900531769,
-0.2648864984512329,
0.5378758311271667,
0.03376147896051407,
-0.3588930666446686,
0.017073916271328926,
0.211943581700325,
-0.5363831520080566,
-0.21536162495613098,
0.6027372479438782,
0.1860235184431076,
0.39068520069122314,
-0.009703077375888824,
0.0346013605594635,
-0.6171091198921204,
0.030609751120209694,
0.2296091616153717,
-0.5962236523628235,
-0.2614062428474426,
-0.25986793637275696,
0.40670132637023926,
-0.11645019054412842,
-0.08907376229763031,
0.15438450872898102,
0.3072790503501892,
0.24167469143867493,
-0.21147514879703522,
0.2861862778663635,
0.13302837312221527,
-0.02913771942257881,
-0.4257156550884247,
0.25564369559288025,
-0.4441611170768738,
0.7356756925582886,
-0.2485538274049759,
-0.10930518805980682,
0.14470793306827545,
-0.6982166171073914,
0.3806387782096863,
0.2708427608013153,
0.31322968006134033,
0.7008427381515503,
-0.057640209794044495,
0.10654204338788986,
0.6076627373695374,
0.21584869921207428,
-0.23722122609615326,
0.03840193152427673,
0.3223479092121124,
0.1442604660987854,
0.05319281294941902,
0.019808858633041382,
0.3241080343723297,
-0.4695972204208374,
0.2519717812538147,
0.4142508804798126,
-0.25895237922668457,
-0.12641681730747223,
0.5482179522514343,
-0.4174824059009552,
-0.07886669784784317,
-0.3136829137802124,
-0.14021719992160797,
0.5111716389656067,
0.39049601554870605,
0.37536001205444336,
0.07659737020730972,
-0.19724607467651367,
0.1734742969274521,
0.05471323803067207,
0.03781453147530556,
-0.5391125082969666,
-0.3868163824081421,
-0.2958695590496063,
-0.8998350501060486,
-0.21368308365345,
0.6093520522117615,
0.0592954196035862,
-0.7162507772445679,
-0.5526779890060425,
-0.17137430608272552,
0.09888336062431335,
0.1393345594406128,
-0.4352138936519623,
0.19619892537593842,
0.26289883255958557,
0.195122629404068,
0.1277896761894226,
0.18578092753887177,
0.36019039154052734,
0.4875439703464508,
-0.11258155852556229,
-0.32677605748176575,
0.11862281709909439,
0.27412840723991394,
0.2930923104286194,
-0.1682146042585373,
0.4941648840904236,
0.5169225931167603,
-0.42152950167655945,
0.3018869161605835,
0.0042283316142857075,
-0.09932269155979156,
-0.16837339103221893,
0.616219699382782,
0.46201908588409424,
-0.2343543916940689,
0.041232191026210785,
-0.5008988976478577,
0.6876930594444275,
-0.07223699986934662,
0.6446741819381714,
0.006816451903432608,
0.3926192820072174,
-0.2509006857872009,
-0.10731706768274307,
0.2790123522281647,
-0.4927980601787567,
-0.45304954051971436,
-0.40132075548171997,
-0.07868286967277527,
-0.19018059968948364,
0.013611179776489735,
0.009899439290165901,
0.4733237624168396,
-0.2769697606563568,
-0.1006476879119873,
0.5469818115234375,
-0.16501453518867493,
0.14344659447669983,
-0.2554101049900055,
-0.28625571727752686,
-0.31530267000198364,
-0.9304721355438232,
-0.09412288665771484,
-0.15310990810394287,
0.6577309370040894,
0.2724969983100891,
-0.31733524799346924,
-0.4163283705711365,
-0.28758400678634644,
-0.04775229096412659,
0.5527917742729187,
0.16401773691177368,
0.513503909111023,
-0.1882883459329605,
-0.01709400676190853,
-0.13882628083229065,
-0.6951801776885986,
0.17996804416179657,
0.20911958813667297,
0.3325726091861725,
0.2832795977592468,
-0.8518521785736084,
0.011819127947092056,
-0.22757433354854584,
-0.1686980128288269,
0.2224852293729782,
0.05498165637254715,
0.20367026329040527
] |
203677
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luang%20Prabang
|
Luang Prabang
|
Luang Phabang, (Lao: ຫລວງພະບາງ/ຫຼວງພະບາງ) or Louangphabang (pronounced ), commonly transliterated into Western languages from the pre-1975 Lao spelling ຫຼວງພຣະບາງ (ຣ = silent r) as Luang Prabang, literally meaning "Royal Buddha Image", is a city in north central Laos, consisting of 58 adjacent villages, of which 33 comprise the UNESCO Town Of Luang Prabang World Heritage Site. It was listed in 1995 for unique and "remarkably" well preserved architectural, religious and cultural heritage, a blend of the rural and urban developments over several centuries, including the French colonial influences during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The centre of the city consists of four main roads and is located on a peninsula at the confluence of the Nam Khan and Mekong River. Luang Prabang is well known for its numerous Buddhist temples and monasteries. Every morning, hundreds of monks from the various monasteries walk through the streets collecting alms. One of the city's major landmarks is Mount Phou Si; a large steep hill which despite the constrained scale of the city, is high; a steep staircase leads to Wat Chom Si shrine and an overlook of the city and the rivers.
The city was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name. It had also been known by the ancient name of Xieng Thong. It was the royal capital and seat of government of the Kingdom of Laos, until the Pathet Lao takeover in 1975. The city is part of Luang Prabang District of Luang Prabang Province and is the capital and administrative centre of the province. It lies approximately north of the capital Vientiane. Currently, the population of the city as a whole is roughly 56,000 inhabitants with the UNESCO protected site being inhabited by around 24,000.
History
Dvaravati city state kingdoms
By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet (modern Kalasin, northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region.
Khmer domination
Lan Xang period
Xieng Dong Xieng Thong experienced a brief period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers, however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords. Xieng Dong Xieng Thong in 1353 became the capital of the Lan Xang kingdom. In 1359 the Khmer king from Angkor gave the Phra Bang to his son-in-law, the first Lang Xang monarch Fa Ngum (1353-1373); to provide Buddhist legitimacy both to Fa Ngum's rule and by extension to the sovereignty of Laos and was used to spread Theravada Buddhism in the new kingdom. The capital name was changed to Luangphabang, where it was kept, named after the Buddha image. Luang Prabang was briefly occupied by the Vietnamese forces during Emperor Lê Thánh Tông's 1478–1480 expedition against Lan Xang and Lanna. The capital was moved in 1560 by King Setthathirath I to Vientiane, which remains the capital today.
In 1707, Lan Xang fell apart because of a dynastic struggle and Luang Prabang became the capital of the independent Kingdom of Luang Prabang. When France annexed Laos, the French recognised Luang Prabang as the royal residence of Laos. Eventually, the ruler of Luang Prabang became synonymous with the figurehead of Laos. When Laos achieved independence, the king of Luang Prabang, Sisavang Vong, became the head of state of the Kingdom of Laos.
World War II
The town was the scene of many events during and in the aftermath of World War II and it was occupied by several foreign countries during the war (Vichy France, Thailand, Imperial Japan, Free France, and Nationalist China). Initially the Vichy French controlled the city but lost it to Thai forces following the Franco-Thai War of 1940–1941. On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city. The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the King of Luang Prabang) to declare Laotian independence but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos' status as a French protectorate. The King then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Sisavang Vatthana as representative to the Japanese. Following Japan's surrender to the Allies, Free French forces were sent to reoccupy Laos and entered Luang Prabang on 25 August, at which time the King assured the French that Laos remained a French colonial protectorate. In September the Chinese Nationalist forces arrived to receive the surrender of the remaining Japanese forces but also quickly set about buying up the Laotian opium crop.
Laotian Civil War era
In April and May 1946, the French attempted to recapture Laos by using paratroops to retake Vientiane and Luang Prabang and drive Phetsarath and the Lao Issara ministers out of Laos and into Thailand and Vietnam. During the First Indochina War, the Viet Minh and Pathet Lao forces attempted to capture the city several times in 1953 and 1954, but were stopped before they could reach it by French forces. During the Laotian Civil War of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s, a secret American airbase was located at Luang Prabang and it was the scene of fighting. Luang Prabang remained the royal capital until 1975, when the Pathet Lao communist forces seized power with North Vietnamese support and dissolved the monarchy.
Monarchs of Luang Prabang
Khun Lo, warlord who founded the city
Fa Ngum, prince of Luang Prabang who founded Lan Xang
Oun Kham, king who ruled under the French
Kham Souk (Zakarine), king who ruled under the French and who pushed for independence
Sisavang Vong, king under the French, and who, when France granted Laos independence, became king of the whole country
Tourism
Luang Prabang has both natural and historical sites. Among the natural tourism sites are the Kuang Si Falls, Tat Sae Waterfalls, and Pak Ou Caves. Elephant riding is offered at some sites. Phou Si, in the center of the town, has broad views of the town and river systems, and is a popular place to watch the sun setting over the Mekong River. At the end of the main street of Luang Prabang is a night market where stalls sell shirts, bracelets, and other souvenirs. The Haw Kham Royal Palace Museum and the Wat Xieng Thong temple are among the best known historical sites. The town, particularly the main street, is dotted with many smaller wats such as Wat Hosian Voravihane. Every morning at sunrise, monks walk in a procession through the streets accepting alms offered by local residents, an event popular with tourists. Mountain biking is quite common, with people often biking around the town or to the waterfalls for the day.
Down the Mekong River, a 15-minute boat ride from the city centre, Ban Chan (the pottery village ) is an interesting place. Luang Prabang received 'Best City' in the Wanderlust Travel Awards 2015.
Gastronomy
Luang Prabang has a rich artistic and culinary history and the city's cooks were hired by the king. Typical local dishes include: Or lam (O-lam, the favourite dish of Luang Prabang locals), Luang Prabang sausage, mokpa (steamed fish), and Kaipen made from Mekong River moss (served fried) with the Luang Prabang's famous Jeow Bong.
Transportation
Air
Luang Prabang is served by Luang Prabang International Airport with non-stop flights to adjoining countries.
Road
Luang Prabang is served by Route 13, which connects to Vang Vieng and Vientiane to the south, and to Boten in the north. The road is paved, though the surface is in poor condition at places. Since 2014, a new road connects Kasi (close to Vang Vieng) to Luang Prabang, allowing the trip to be made in about 3 hours (compared to 5 hours via Route 13). Several daily buses run from Vientiane to Luang Prabang, taking 11–13 hours.
The road from Huay Xai to Luang Prabang is poorly maintained, remote, unlit, unmarked and dangerous for the unfamiliar, particularly in the wet season. Buses regularly travel the route in 14–16 hours.
If coming from Vietnam, sleeper buses can be caught from Hanoi to either Luang Prabang or Vang Vieng.
Waterway
The Mekong River itself is also an important transportation link. At Chiang Khong it is possible to hire a barge to cross the river. A trip from Huay Xai, across from Thailand, downstream to Luang Prabang takes two days by slow boat, typically with a stop at Pakbeng.
Rail
Luang Prabang will be served by the Vientiane–Boten railway from the end of 2021. The railway parallels Route 13, and will serve as Laos' first major north-south railway line, from Boten at the Chinese border in the north to Vientiane in the south. The complete journey is expected to be less than three hours by train instead of three days by road.
Climate
Luang Prabang features a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification. While the city is generally very warm throughout the year, it is noticeably cooler during December and January. Luang Prabang also experiences wet and dry seasons, with the wet season from April until October, and the dry season during the remaining five months. The city receives approximately of precipitation annually.
Sister cities
Bagan, Myanmar (2009)
Chengdu, China (2017)
See also
Gallery
References
Further reading
External links
City portal of Luang Prabang on Luangprabang-laos.com
Populated places in Luang Prabang Province
World Heritage Sites in Laos
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Laos
Populated places on the Mekong River
|
[
0.2167118489742279,
0.4535507559776306,
0.022688787430524826,
-0.35351717472076416,
0.2302510291337967,
0.5189967155456543,
0.04803180694580078,
0.6780949234962463,
-1.0438997745513916,
0.11503813415765762,
-0.493658185005188,
-0.24405141174793243,
-0.8584190011024475,
-0.2245824635028839,
-0.1746903508901596,
0.28492027521133423,
0.9982233643531799,
-0.19521623849868774,
0.48025599122047424,
-0.477337121963501,
-0.31522461771965027,
-0.20424866676330566,
-0.05825794115662575,
0.2839203178882599,
0.2663140296936035,
-0.13829417526721954,
0.0140753872692585,
0.3119577169418335,
0.5553069710731506,
-0.08767413347959518,
-0.23428049683570862,
0.41104164719581604,
0.173803448677063,
0.16724413633346558,
0.1781599521636963,
0.33835992217063904,
0.08357115089893341,
0.010134145617485046,
-0.17328980565071106,
0.008445271290838718,
-0.05431930348277092,
-0.09469851851463318,
-0.2415636032819748,
0.290113240480423,
-0.10042601823806763,
-0.8623851537704468,
-0.2511444687843323,
0.9862180352210999,
-0.5085246562957764,
0.4335603713989258,
-0.744490921497345,
0.5209946632385254,
-0.1232355535030365,
-0.1640450656414032,
0.47523632645606995,
0.4252394139766693,
-0.8197466135025024,
0.37418437004089355,
-0.3012320399284363,
-0.2140488177537918,
0.1877313107252121,
0.29429298639297485,
-0.20351487398147583,
-0.07028044760227203,
-0.29236266016960144,
0.2744518220424652,
-0.1791864037513733,
-0.19639095664024353,
0.3915970027446747,
-0.6706334948539734,
-0.013938626274466515,
0.5561849474906921,
-0.37730714678764343,
0.13559864461421967,
-0.298492431640625,
-0.24588154256343842,
-0.5300402045249939,
-0.5537319779396057,
-0.10950393974781036,
-0.3047008812427521,
0.29395222663879395,
0.09286022186279297,
0.3951021134853363,
0.32052797079086304,
0.48504638671875,
0.23296962678432465,
-0.5714464783668518,
0.056328676640987396,
-0.132223978638649,
-0.41463708877563477,
-0.552754819393158,
-0.10431508719921112,
0.006136295385658741,
-0.012682459317147732,
-0.9156103730201721,
-0.6495522856712341,
-0.29404908418655396,
-0.06768234819173813,
0.27653780579566956,
-0.1638271063566208,
-0.12763269245624542,
0.0033105427864938974,
0.951208233833313,
0.21167674660682678,
-1.0439685583114624,
-0.33054792881011963,
-0.3822672367095947,
-0.039013903588056564,
-0.28610071539878845,
-0.33254170417785645,
-0.8823001384735107,
0.2197861522436142,
-0.12439119070768356,
0.134296715259552,
0.4509841203689575,
0.28987133502960205,
-0.24140477180480957,
-0.39170458912849426,
-0.046520497649908066,
-0.5677089691162109,
0.00622313329949975,
0.6311108469963074,
-0.1473413109779358,
0.5950987339019775,
0.39546868205070496,
-0.13778048753738403,
0.22985497117042542,
0.5456323027610779,
-0.641339898109436,
1.0869578123092651,
-0.05370128154754639,
0.5008852481842041,
-0.15222042798995972,
0.0906737819314003,
-0.14908502995967865,
0.013205337338149548,
0.5078216791152954,
0.38240477442741394,
0.7093015909194946,
0.09599465131759644,
-1.0414375066757202,
0.28718534111976624,
-0.23696216940879822,
0.0410134457051754,
0.03573084622621536,
-0.23886825144290924,
-0.14898593723773956,
-0.4597465693950653,
-0.5503278374671936,
-0.6435796022415161,
0.29621368646621704,
-0.12432477623224258,
-0.07845607399940491,
0.14007528126239777,
-0.3764688968658447,
0.2696409821510315,
0.8063361048698425,
0.0927104726433754,
-0.24021580815315247,
-0.2837508022785187,
0.3673246502876282,
0.021436050534248352,
-0.1656436324119568,
-0.14285938441753387,
0.3354824185371399,
0.08166758716106415,
0.35885313153266907,
0.45013055205345154,
0.007590269669890404,
-0.059794604778289795,
-0.40610453486442566,
-0.16367463767528534,
0.11554449796676636,
-0.0720377042889595,
-0.5893036127090454,
-0.13483719527721405,
0.23207971453666687,
0.36212053894996643,
-0.006720077246427536,
0.08043850213289261,
-0.572692334651947,
0.6835156679153442,
-0.20348474383354187,
0.19187520444393158,
0.048588503152132034,
-0.15758776664733887,
0.55043625831604,
0.31406524777412415,
0.10591747611761093,
0.6192034482955933,
-0.2594848871231079,
-0.11758624762296677,
-0.09614650160074234,
0.4374810755252838,
0.3229576349258423,
0.15022480487823486,
-0.03226205334067345,
0.7048340439796448,
0.19345395267009735,
0.7466428279876709,
-0.6071515679359436,
0.15106630325317383,
0.4412972033023834,
-0.3948000967502594,
-0.6191462874412537,
-0.017221635207533836,
-0.13652080297470093,
0.5699871182441711,
0.4635812044143677,
0.32771244645118713,
0.3646713197231293,
-0.14035390317440033,
-0.3951203525066376,
0.13380074501037598,
0.2840481996536255,
-0.5335763692855835,
-0.827451765537262,
0.06296351552009583,
-0.17967155575752258,
-0.27521681785583496,
0.35862669348716736,
0.04346349090337753,
-0.06337544322013855,
0.5425042510032654,
0.08359406888484955,
1.1381815671920776,
0.3385196626186371,
0.021155554801225662,
0.02646896243095398,
-0.02723567932844162,
-0.003430452197790146,
-0.24993574619293213,
0.3569343090057373,
-0.2507856786251068,
0.17702805995941162,
-0.01854080893099308,
0.007503649685531855,
-0.4684259295463562,
0.5231192708015442,
-0.702653706073761,
-0.019873207435011864,
-0.24764840304851532,
-0.4516521692276001,
-0.18183104693889618,
0.30669844150543213,
0.2758720815181732,
-0.7074412703514099,
-0.20586127042770386,
-0.26773810386657715,
0.23818057775497437,
-0.4469486474990845,
0.17556694149971008,
0.3371742069721222,
0.18378140032291412,
0.25155845284461975,
0.2127055525779724,
-0.3348616361618042,
0.17655643820762634,
0.36745885014533997,
-0.22056981921195984,
-0.4912836253643036,
-0.4218636155128479,
0.16467319428920746,
0.4802199900150299,
-0.3130986988544464,
-0.1811264157295227,
0.3401404023170471,
-0.35064494609832764,
0.6664655208587646,
0.5522093772888184,
-0.47528550028800964,
-0.5500778555870056,
-0.39861804246902466,
-0.0012685039546340704,
0.0057691470719873905,
-0.7473900318145752,
0.17257840931415558,
0.3715131878852844,
-0.31432950496673584,
-0.4989965260028839,
0.4888834059238434,
0.6675575375556946,
0.4376319944858551,
-0.6765912771224976,
0.012546834535896778,
0.31770554184913635,
-0.13033173978328705,
-0.2664879262447357,
-0.11400265991687775,
0.2336668074131012,
0.048479486256837845,
0.2618147134780884,
-0.1452019065618515,
-0.10710066556930542,
0.10604432225227356,
-0.21893493831157684,
-0.014745348133146763,
-0.008264548145234585,
0.38799673318862915,
-0.38930097222328186,
-0.08361808210611343,
-0.010984784923493862,
-0.2662197947502136,
0.27005574107170105,
0.02343648299574852,
-0.046619199216365814,
0.21435202658176422,
-0.07307366281747818,
-5.831812858581543,
0.190604567527771,
0.17192405462265015,
-0.5911991000175476,
-0.43716078996658325,
0.137379452586174,
0.45367443561553955,
-0.19103237986564636,
0.3645230829715729,
-0.26608625054359436,
0.0837075486779213,
-0.4627665877342224,
-0.12820032238960266,
0.43903619050979614,
0.4297630488872528,
0.9390763640403748,
-0.10904224216938019,
0.31442326307296753,
0.4226575195789337,
0.39584824442863464,
-0.038965869694948196,
-0.25827181339263916,
-0.08282513916492462,
0.23805898427963257,
0.034775204956531525,
0.633279025554657,
-0.24779844284057617,
-0.5886496901512146,
-0.5310783982276917,
-0.6143206357955933,
-0.36089977622032166,
-0.05038471519947052,
-0.0006177768809720874,
-0.22694340348243713,
-0.12467800825834274,
0.0023147196043282747,
0.272099107503891,
-0.06586729735136032,
0.018063360825181007,
0.036096569150686264,
0.3447844684123993,
0.17289677262306213,
0.2786884903907776,
-0.2782990038394928,
0.19663481414318085,
-0.6749634146690369,
-0.5846084952354431,
-0.25562161207199097,
-0.24258796870708466,
0.4148779511451721,
0.14176486432552338,
0.11235838383436203,
0.4212377965450287,
-0.28141874074935913,
-0.01677219569683075,
0.2195967733860016,
-0.043982040137052536,
0.3168492615222931,
-0.48452284932136536,
0.31194189190864563,
0.507084846496582,
0.1686345487833023,
-0.6270711421966553,
-0.018902162089943886,
0.39994728565216064,
-0.2781004309654236,
0.15025083720684052,
-0.088394895195961,
0.43908005952835083,
0.5220640897750854,
-0.2318413257598877,
0.01328464038670063,
-0.41897788643836975,
-0.7908751368522644,
-0.5357125997543335,
-0.5724566578865051,
-0.8196311593055725,
-0.059155337512493134,
0.07308533787727356,
0.2613506615161896,
-0.47839245200157166,
-0.01582137867808342,
0.40015438199043274,
0.3991483747959137,
0.3047780990600586,
-0.7100239396095276,
-0.35121414065361023,
0.5718769431114197,
-0.019581720232963562,
0.3830792009830475,
0.8504058718681335,
-0.6523546576499939,
0.4920535385608673,
0.161340594291687,
-0.03529494255781174,
0.5080729722976685,
0.46514400839805603,
-0.46545732021331787,
0.5211211442947388,
0.08135215938091278,
0.6893184781074524,
-0.1824573278427124,
0.11438416689634323,
-0.008365495130419731,
-0.4421880543231964,
0.010453770868480206,
0.0504351370036602,
0.2668905258178711,
0.37092676758766174,
0.0017484736163169146,
-0.27441713213920593,
0.10606664419174194,
0.6467126607894897,
0.3108288049697876,
0.7351306676864624,
-0.11366686224937439,
-0.03980984538793564,
0.1345028430223465,
0.02763095684349537,
-0.4284249544143677,
-0.3029541075229645,
0.8204166889190674,
-0.35594651103019714,
0.6725409030914307,
-0.1962442547082901,
-0.7914510369300842,
-0.39937564730644226,
0.6236697435379028,
0.018266955390572548,
-0.08029966056346893,
0.3881634473800659,
-0.5183005928993225,
0.6331706047058105,
-0.456861674785614,
0.026027044281363487,
-0.29486629366874695,
0.09174542129039764,
-0.7934212684631348,
-0.1939946413040161,
0.1992693692445755,
-0.029903456568717957,
0.1721714586019516,
0.20225462317466736,
0.4611426889896393,
0.46420320868492126,
-0.09165187925100327,
0.17109434306621552,
0.20302976667881012,
-0.13937537372112274,
0.11273147910833359,
-0.22309863567352295,
-0.5134859681129456,
0.07216876745223999,
-0.24594639241695404,
-0.33887845277786255,
-0.3970120847225189,
-0.011285330168902874,
0.3121984899044037,
1.0963255167007446,
0.27596721053123474,
0.4591401219367981,
-0.6546694040298462,
-0.6610581278800964,
-0.14925837516784668,
-0.31487008929252625,
-0.3633261024951935,
0.8457996249198914,
-0.28560471534729004,
-0.5624125003814697,
-0.06238874793052673,
0.6380225419998169,
-0.5901429653167725,
-0.3906169831752777,
0.004860008135437965,
0.13441891968250275,
-0.517423689365387,
-0.1263243407011032,
-0.035093002021312714,
-0.1794774979352951,
0.2652140259742737,
-0.7614293098449707,
-0.2670591175556183,
0.09115829318761826,
0.3374578356742859,
0.4901193678379059,
0.07313132286071777,
-0.31221073865890503,
-0.5012694597244263,
-0.1178973838686943,
-0.3197673559188843,
0.4470227360725403,
-0.5421914458274841,
-0.18791063129901886,
0.3073681592941284,
0.5402160882949829,
-0.9306682348251343,
-0.6407988667488098,
0.4230380356311798,
0.1634128838777542,
0.18869543075561523,
-0.194667249917984,
0.22588993608951569,
-0.08844347298145294,
0.7397940754890442,
0.12195411324501038,
-0.2035011202096939,
0.6046584844589233,
0.2129272073507309,
0.1048925369977951,
-0.200917586684227,
-0.31028038263320923,
-0.1981268972158432,
0.21124550700187683,
0.4571825861930847,
-0.681643545627594,
0.5407872200012207,
-0.05868684500455856,
-0.144229456782341,
-0.3412964940071106,
-0.4410827159881592,
-0.2815774977207184,
-0.301848441362381,
-0.2468598634004593,
-0.18470443785190582,
0.041830938309431076,
0.8012698292732239,
0.49042171239852905,
-0.6180638670921326,
0.149032860994339,
-0.2630561590194702,
0.09384845942258835,
0.018428124487400055,
0.35543620586395264,
-0.22085468471050262,
-0.2939809262752533,
-0.23377835750579834,
0.13698020577430725,
0.255887895822525,
0.4332260489463806,
0.5251975059509277,
-0.16861361265182495,
0.6959549188613892,
-0.2780650854110718,
-0.3007405400276184,
-0.22617043554782867,
0.39855247735977173,
0.19499285519123077,
-0.048614222556352615,
-0.002518244320526719,
-0.24121293425559998,
0.27617767453193665,
0.1896699070930481,
-0.11532977223396301,
-0.5062456727027893,
0.18719780445098877,
-0.21559642255306244,
-0.16504229605197906,
0.6796848773956299,
0.2914959788322449,
0.15246310830116272,
-0.23982587456703186,
-0.20174764096736908,
-0.09896202385425568,
-0.5130267143249512,
-0.040359724313020706,
-0.2975633144378662,
-0.653537392616272,
-0.07622499018907547,
0.03678992763161659,
-0.5230198502540588,
-0.056885186582803726,
-0.13163571059703827,
0.14199258387088776,
0.12754085659980774,
0.014059369452297688,
-0.1462118774652481,
-0.2619754374027252,
-0.22751769423484802,
-0.37516143918037415,
0.12939511239528656,
-0.7050134539604187,
-0.26043736934661865,
-0.056275948882102966,
-0.22189052402973175,
0.40928950905799866,
-0.9912760257720947,
0.29556533694267273,
0.10486747324466705,
-0.3530327081680298,
0.13717682659626007,
-0.6168097257614136,
-0.16769294440746307,
-0.12343809753656387,
0.07581508904695511,
-0.038262393325567245,
0.222494974732399,
0.6351065635681152,
0.606097936630249,
-0.5462799668312073,
-0.15451592206954956,
-0.9825233221054077,
-0.2133883833885193,
0.2031651884317398,
-0.3047243654727936,
0.039792295545339584,
-0.09767340123653412,
0.36579808592796326,
-0.6618924140930176,
-0.5236492156982422,
0.6909709572792053,
0.2319442480802536,
0.14629366993904114,
0.15489734709262848,
0.3573211133480072,
-0.3708503246307373,
0.6801040172576904,
0.20282340049743652,
-0.7290193438529968,
-0.18895770609378815,
0.35643383860588074,
-0.03096642717719078,
-0.07377917319536209,
-0.10864313691854477,
0.4061215817928314,
0.45297443866729736,
0.2881842851638794,
-0.3860355615615845,
-0.4214620888233185,
0.03728540614247322,
0.0930948257446289,
-0.18104945123195648,
0.18817023932933807,
-0.20848603546619415,
0.5207229256629944,
-0.6519362926483154,
-0.41335922479629517,
0.35427501797676086,
-0.5553455352783203,
-0.23672646284103394,
-0.1691175252199173,
0.4990875720977783,
0.7609010338783264,
-0.0025893801357597113,
-0.3640250861644745,
0.44228893518447876,
-0.040353357791900635,
0.5610429644584656,
-0.08200586587190628,
0.09789179265499115,
0.3739377558231354,
0.1745772361755371,
-0.18575650453567505,
-0.28260135650634766,
0.013357576914131641,
0.5955694913864136,
0.18736280500888824,
-0.16247735917568207,
-0.07797758281230927,
0.27758073806762695,
0.29786548018455505,
0.15483316779136658,
0.24533790349960327,
-0.6016345620155334,
0.39032185077667236,
-0.3652576804161072,
0.08748215436935425,
-0.05238356813788414,
-0.2759452164173126,
-0.2495541125535965,
0.33943745493888855,
-0.23080730438232422,
0.1691575050354004,
0.11125153303146362,
-0.1653633564710617,
-0.3175138533115387,
-0.0366366021335125,
-0.0996638685464859,
0.4193313717842102,
-0.27391326427459717,
-0.005310540087521076,
0.08716513961553574,
-0.18436601758003235,
0.2124583125114441,
-0.6509034633636475,
0.510680615901947,
0.40617260336875916,
0.05548414960503578,
-0.14369188249111176,
-0.3841150104999542,
0.17146329581737518,
0.03787091746926308,
0.012905171141028404,
-0.09315990656614304,
0.25734856724739075,
0.1743696630001068,
0.10708672553300858,
-0.01252196729183197,
0.7595783472061157,
0.3247936964035034,
0.027783963829278946,
0.4042275547981262,
-0.19239377975463867,
-0.19408969581127167,
0.5849869251251221,
0.8621687293052673,
-0.02365703508257866,
-0.7184408903121948,
0.03412878140807152,
-0.7142935395240784,
0.36736488342285156,
0.09100887179374695,
0.3253583610057831,
0.1984025537967682,
0.42434000968933105,
0.029862230643630028,
0.7341451644897461,
0.20632320642471313,
-0.16255773603916168,
0.08402777463197708,
-0.3624003529548645,
0.06759712845087051,
-0.38948002457618713,
0.15850970149040222,
0.8371760845184326,
0.11402543634176254,
-0.8301878571510315,
0.13951483368873596,
0.3619495928287506,
-0.7626467943191528,
0.17752011120319366,
0.5848492980003357,
-0.2505962550640106,
-0.38912296295166016,
0.11683348566293716,
-0.4151628613471985,
-0.4519311785697937,
0.9291765093803406,
0.8769446611404419,
-0.38743260502815247,
-0.4896942675113678,
-0.5463955402374268,
0.10455106943845749,
0.8830313086509705,
0.018392516300082207,
0.3320760428905487,
-0.015537548810243607,
-0.10232730209827423,
-0.18591217696666718,
-1.3244818449020386,
0.6236358284950256,
-0.17632819712162018,
-0.08690871298313141,
0.39542344212532043,
-0.3146311938762665,
-0.5220210552215576,
0.01046160701662302,
0.051704879850149155,
0.37427622079849243,
0.2827152907848358,
0.07805955410003662
] |
203680
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s%20paradox
|
Moore's paradox
|
Moore's paradox concerns the apparent absurdity involved in asserting a first-person present-tense sentence such as "It is raining, but I do not believe that it is raining" or "It is raining, but I believe that it is not raining." The first author to note this apparent absurdity was G. E. Moore. These 'Moorean' sentences, as they have become known, are paradoxical in that while they appear absurd, they nevertheless
Can be true;
Are (logically) consistent; and
Are not (obviously) contradictions.
The term 'Moore's paradox' is attributed to Ludwig Wittgenstein, who considered the paradox Moore's most important contribution to philosophy. Wittgenstein wrote about the paradox extensively in his later writings, which brought Moore's paradox the attention it would not have otherwise received.
Moore's paradox has been connected to many other well-known logical paradoxes, including, though not limited to, the liar paradox, the knower paradox, the unexpected hanging paradox, and the preface paradox.
There is currently no generally accepted explanation of Moore's paradox in the philosophical literature. However, while Moore's paradox remains a philosophical curiosity, Moorean-type sentences are used by logicians, computer scientists, and those working in the artificial intelligence community as examples of cases in which a knowledge, belief, or information system is unsuccessful in updating its fund of knowledge, belief, or information in light of new or novel data.
The problem
Since Jaakko Hintikka's seminal treatment of the problem, it has become standard to present Moore's paradox by explaining why it is absurd to assert sentences that have the logical form:
"P and NOT(I believe that P)" or "P and I believe that NOT-P."
Philosophers refer to these, respectively, as the omissive and commissive versions of Moore's paradox.
Moore himself presented the problem in two ways.
The more fundamental way of setting up the problem starts from the following three premises:
It can be true at a particular time both that P, and that I do not believe that P.
I can assert or believe one of the two at a particular time.
It is absurd to assert or believe both of them at the same time.
I can assert that it is raining at a particular time. I can assert that I don't believe that it is raining at a particular time. If I say both at the same time, I am saying or doing something absurd. But the content of what I say—the proposition the sentence expresses—is perfectly consistent: it may well be raining, and I may not believe it. So why cannot I assert that it is so?
Moore presents the problem in a second, distinct, way:
It is not absurd to assert the past-tense counterpart; e.g., "It was raining, but I did not believe that it was raining."
It is not absurd to assert the second- or third-person counterparts to Moore's sentences; e.g., "It is raining, but you do not believe that it is raining," or "Michael is dead, but they do not believe that he is."
It is absurd to assert the present-tense "It is raining, and I don't believe that it is raining."
I can assert that I was a certain way—e.g., believing it was raining when it wasn't—and that you, he, or they are that way but not that I am that way.
Subsequent philosophers have further noted that there is an apparent absurdity in asserting a first-person future-tense sentence such as "It will be raining, and I will believe that it is not raining." However, when it does not specify an exact time for when the belief is mistaken, the proposition will tend to be true at some point in the future; its negation would imply that "Every time I believe it's not raining, it will not be raining", which is unlikely since human beliefs are often mistaken.
Many philosophers hold that Moore's paradox arises not only at the level of assertion, but also at the level of belief. One who believes an instance of a Moorean sentence is tantamount to one who is subject to or engaging in self-deception, at least on one standard way of describing it.
Proposed explanations
Philosophical interest in Moore's paradox, since Moore and Wittgenstein, has undergone a resurgence, starting with, though not limited to, Jaakko Hintikka, continuing with Roy Sorensen, David Rosenthal, Sydney Shoemaker and the first publication, in 2007, of a collection of articles devoted to the problem.
There have been several proposed constraints on a satisfactory explanation in the literature, including (though not limited to):
It should explain the absurdity of both the omissive and the commissive versions.
It should explain the absurdity of both asserting and believing Moore's sentences.
It should preserve, and reveal the roots of, the intuition that contradiction (or something contradiction-like) is at the root of the absurdity.
The first two conditions have generally been the most challenged, while the third appears to be the least controversial. Some philosophers have claimed that there is, in fact, no problem in believing the content of Moore's sentences (e.g. David Rosenthal). Others (e.g. Sydney Shoemaker) hold that an explanation of the problem at the level of belief will automatically provide us with an explanation of the absurdity at the level of assertion via the linking principle that what can reasonably be asserted is determined by what can reasonably be believed. Some have also denied (e.g. Rosenthal) that a satisfactory explanation to the problem need be uniform in explaining both the omissive AND commissive versions. Most of the explanations offered of Moore's paradox are united in holding that contradiction is at the heart of the absurdity.
One type of explanation at the level of assertion exploits the view that assertion implies or expresses belief in some way so that if someone asserts that p they imply or express the belief that p. Several versions of this view exploit elements of speech act theory, which can be distinguished according to the particular explanation given of the link between assertion and belief. Whatever version of this view is preferred, whether cast in terms of the Gricean intentions (see Paul Grice) or in terms of the structure of Searlean illocutionary acts (see speech act), it does not obviously apply to explaining the absurdity of the commissive version of Moore's paradox. To take one version of this type of explanation, if someone asserts p and conjoins it with the assertion (or denial) that he does not believe that p, then he has in that very act contradicted himself, for in effect what the speaker says is: I believe that p and I do not believe that p. The absurdity of asserting p & I do not believe that p is thus revealed as being of a more familiar kind. Depending on one's view of the nature of contradiction, one might thus interpret a speaker of the omissive Moorean sentence as asserting everything (that is, asserting too much) or asserting nothing (that is, not asserting enough).
An alternative view is that the assertion "I believe that p" often (though not always) functions as an alternative way of asserting "p", so that the semantic content of the assertion "I believe that p" is just p: it functions as a statement about the world and not about anyone's state of mind. Accordingly, what someone asserts when they assert "p and I believe that not-p" is just "p and not-p" Asserting the commissive version of Moore's sentences is again assimilated to the more familiar (putative) impropriety of asserting a contradiction.
At the level of belief, there are two main kinds of explanation. The first, much more popular one, agrees with those at the level of assertion that contradiction is at the heart of the absurdity. The contradiction is revealed in various ways, some using the resources of doxastic logic (e.g. Hintikka), others (e.g. Sorensen) principles of rational belief maintenance and formation, while still others appeal to our putative capacity for self-knowledge and the first-person authority (e.g. Shoemaker) we have over our states of mind.
Another alternative view, due to Richard Moran, views the existence of Moore's paradox as symptomatic of creatures who are capable of self-knowledge, capable of thinking for themselves from a deliberative point of view, as well as about themselves from a theoretical point of view. On this view, anyone who asserted or believed one of Moore's sentences would be subject to a loss of self-knowledge—in particular, would be one who, with respect to a particular 'object', broadly construed, e.g. person, apple, the way of the world, would be in a situation which violates, what Moran calls, the Transparency Condition: if I want to know what I think about X, then I consider/think about nothing but X itself. Moran's view seems to be that what makes Moore's paradox so distinctive is not some contradictory-like phenomenon (or at least not in the sense that most commentators on the problem have construed it), whether it be located at the level of belief or that of assertion. Rather, that the very possibility of Moore's paradox is a consequence of our status as agents (albeit finite and resource-limited ones) who are capable of knowing (and changing) their own minds.
See also
Belief
Consistency
Doublethink
Doubt
Doxastic logic
Epistemology
Contradiction
Irrationality
List of paradoxes
Philosophy of mind
Rationality
Self-knowledge (psychology)
Self-deception
Notes
References
External links
"Epistemic Paradoxes" (including Moore's) at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Epistemology
Philosophical paradoxes
Pragmatics
|
[
0.08791808038949966,
0.5757867693901062,
-0.4906492531299591,
-0.14883610606193542,
-0.6200205683708191,
0.3951137065887451,
1.1018458604812622,
0.223927840590477,
-0.46079644560813904,
-0.05700520798563957,
-0.4235301613807678,
0.2588537633419037,
-0.7138215899467468,
0.6887569427490234,
0.15611882507801056,
0.19075557589530945,
0.7342315912246704,
0.4953373372554779,
0.21325857937335968,
-0.24879640340805054,
-0.09013684093952179,
0.21966959536075592,
0.0794636458158493,
-0.6444281935691833,
0.4724215567111969,
-0.41970160603523254,
-0.04579523578286171,
0.19895362854003906,
0.23701807856559753,
0.13836120069026947,
-0.4731939136981964,
0.9136509299278259,
0.11983217298984528,
-0.3432011306285858,
-0.21910597383975983,
-0.1753445565700531,
0.06452902406454086,
0.07735294103622437,
-0.028133725747466087,
-0.16932819783687592,
0.492466002702713,
-0.23348326981067657,
0.388695627450943,
-0.3549438714981079,
-0.10925085842609406,
-0.0773206576704979,
-1.6198463439941406,
-0.3776995539665222,
-0.7756062150001526,
-0.3649657368659973,
-0.5790287852287292,
0.681048572063446,
0.03567531332373619,
0.4360823333263397,
-0.21374107897281647,
0.4813650846481323,
-1.0642465353012085,
-0.19125139713287354,
0.2711462378501892,
-0.26581403613090515,
0.44507908821105957,
-0.26454082131385803,
0.32723015546798706,
-0.10332860797643661,
-0.3011530041694641,
0.9629901647567749,
-0.19233886897563934,
0.6857119798660278,
-0.20689786970615387,
-0.19201114773750305,
-0.1906450241804123,
-0.31606006622314453,
-0.15200434625148773,
0.07624224573373795,
-0.2903324365615845,
0.33526739478111267,
0.19389504194259644,
-0.1667315512895584,
-0.3031347393989563,
-0.14901670813560486,
-0.5304604172706604,
0.09711097925901413,
0.4352249205112457,
-0.13067112863063812,
0.579369306564331,
-0.06749845296144485,
-0.1499544382095337,
0.8857495188713074,
-0.11786575615406036,
0.5387024283409119,
0.22682511806488037,
0.5421713590621948,
0.025350352749228477,
-0.21962185204029083,
-0.2924264073371887,
0.18107925355434418,
0.3309556543827057,
0.10136771947145462,
0.42236214876174927,
0.038707684725522995,
-0.21235835552215576,
-0.07404850423336029,
0.725670576095581,
0.0034438332077115774,
-0.02328108809888363,
-0.27956676483154297,
-0.29776978492736816,
-0.7934631705284119,
-0.1443810909986496,
-0.203621506690979,
-0.35110169649124146,
0.34498873353004456,
0.3778909742832184,
-0.10449468344449997,
-0.43570297956466675,
0.04928123950958252,
0.3971053659915924,
0.05465349182486534,
0.15358273684978485,
0.2302718311548233,
0.5596055388450623,
-0.137114018201828,
-0.0049238987267017365,
0.2322489619255066,
0.008182765915989876,
-0.03426418453454971,
0.043931856751441956,
0.83271723985672,
-0.3494911193847656,
0.4881752133369446,
-0.13099783658981323,
0.4395976662635803,
0.22660735249519348,
-0.20652997493743896,
0.2169121503829956,
-0.5491967797279358,
0.31348612904548645,
-0.22257797420024872,
-0.14872044324874878,
0.20080575346946716,
-0.5612326860427856,
-0.2506677806377411,
-0.6921998858451843,
0.09954120218753815,
0.6244104504585266,
0.6315113306045532,
0.020961321890354156,
0.0733494907617569,
0.17141714692115784,
0.21357275545597076,
-0.20451565086841583,
0.08054516464471817,
-0.19504274427890778,
0.16752177476882935,
0.13611671328544617,
0.2627527415752411,
0.3534739017486572,
0.292564332485199,
-0.24354124069213867,
0.4483124613761902,
0.3317641317844391,
0.3267875611782074,
-0.023403698578476906,
-0.10113704204559326,
-0.04623216390609741,
-0.5060053467750549,
0.2465711236000061,
0.06637817621231079,
-0.013773079961538315,
0.1775524914264679,
-0.17554375529289246,
-0.20398175716400146,
-0.014590962789952755,
-0.08049830794334412,
0.4321693778038025,
0.22996579110622406,
0.838236927986145,
0.011738881468772888,
0.9456213712692261,
0.08788391947746277,
-0.8660370707511902,
0.2258240431547165,
0.22741954028606415,
-0.009817495942115784,
0.7192321419715881,
0.2563607096672058,
-0.24669866263866425,
-0.5690944194793701,
0.16590914130210876,
-0.8113532066345215,
-0.6150997877120972,
-0.2938065528869629,
0.24830374121665955,
-0.42436280846595764,
0.807115375995636,
0.31596022844314575,
-0.3810340464115143,
1.1311556100845337,
0.45148956775665283,
0.5107418298721313,
0.32001158595085144,
-0.018988538533449173,
-0.06487149000167847,
0.44591617584228516,
-0.2841835021972656,
0.9968159198760986,
-0.21407055854797363,
0.5192591547966003,
-0.7405779361724854,
0.7294104695320129,
-0.07988982647657394,
-0.23634430766105652,
0.15497563779354095,
-0.4050440192222595,
-0.6202430129051208,
0.23021075129508972,
0.07975903153419495,
-0.240747332572937,
-0.029169395565986633,
-0.06640644371509552,
0.20417048037052155,
-0.27009010314941406,
0.00433967262506485,
0.16923917829990387,
-0.07564019411802292,
0.533964991569519,
0.21242749691009521,
0.17881156504154205,
0.2732580900192261,
-1.1647013425827026,
-0.053906287997961044,
0.637430727481842,
0.20447829365730286,
-0.5996573567390442,
0.0969734787940979,
0.1746343970298767,
0.20759649574756622,
-0.13474291563034058,
-0.2712390422821045,
-0.30545082688331604,
0.11920391768217087,
0.1152871623635292,
-0.4656127989292145,
0.6262409090995789,
-0.5083029866218567,
-0.22591842710971832,
-0.3393316864967346,
0.030722541734576225,
-0.5944494009017944,
0.44424206018447876,
-0.16179479658603668,
0.32630863785743713,
-0.008307727985084057,
0.00870377104729414,
-0.25351035594940186,
-0.012132351286709309,
-0.04106514900922775,
0.16849692165851593,
0.3924747407436371,
0.20419920980930328,
-0.4202543795108795,
0.38479089736938477,
-0.10755233466625214,
-0.13989999890327454,
-0.34348514676094055,
-0.577023446559906,
-0.39905616641044617,
0.01103195734322071,
-0.2460978478193283,
0.37266695499420166,
0.11247212439775467,
-0.6529419422149658,
-0.5780524611473083,
0.4890274107456207,
-0.2722790241241455,
-0.0030257815960794687,
-0.029826175421476364,
0.6081329584121704,
-1.3766285181045532,
-0.09324796497821808,
-0.02393391542136669,
0.6437104940414429,
-0.12614703178405762,
-0.3170900046825409,
0.15919069945812225,
-0.7868548035621643,
-0.07902862131595612,
-0.23138359189033508,
-0.19815824925899506,
-0.4526773989200592,
-0.19965429604053497,
0.130319282412529,
0.38704714179039,
-0.7511770725250244,
0.16324782371520996,
0.2233406901359558,
0.08755684643983841,
0.314332515001297,
0.27015477418899536,
0.08425275981426239,
-0.3717705011367798,
0.26818662881851196,
-0.09173042327165604,
-0.14519022405147552,
0.23017773032188416,
0.400356262922287,
-0.1146465465426445,
0.06803788989782333,
-5.702754974365234,
0.2999674677848816,
0.22667986154556274,
-0.37298300862312317,
-0.05793692171573639,
0.5962222218513489,
0.8512571454048157,
-0.1418091356754303,
-0.20236918330192566,
-0.09637477248907089,
0.2420772761106491,
-0.5333883166313171,
-0.43429893255233765,
0.6950617432594299,
0.6376439929008484,
-0.19845835864543915,
0.28158897161483765,
-0.7440191507339478,
0.44695910811424255,
0.4073961079120636,
-0.22747929394245148,
0.49380722641944885,
-0.062474578619003296,
0.17037227749824524,
-0.1552836298942566,
0.5752803683280945,
-0.007969160564243793,
0.2922685146331787,
-0.4761495292186737,
0.36366820335388184,
0.4535464942455292,
-0.3660404682159424,
-0.00224909745156765,
-0.47625213861465454,
-0.4302642345428467,
0.5382742881774902,
0.539563775062561,
-0.5072901844978333,
-0.45401641726493835,
0.005472210701555014,
-0.2643301784992218,
0.08508758246898651,
0.12149323523044586,
0.6442517638206482,
0.47057604789733887,
-0.08202389627695084,
-0.3274479806423187,
0.09675327688455582,
-0.050598714500665665,
0.2350892573595047,
-0.36740025877952576,
-0.03384001925587654,
0.3684272766113281,
-0.31102779507637024,
-0.022281834855675697,
0.5098768472671509,
0.4837908148765564,
-0.5540621280670166,
-0.39232543110847473,
0.2773873507976532,
0.5316967368125916,
-0.3887319564819336,
0.3040562868118286,
-0.04933227598667145,
0.3264254033565521,
-0.8868667483329773,
-0.8268539309501648,
0.3303217589855194,
0.5322380661964417,
0.2038555145263672,
-0.12588058412075043,
0.07718565315008163,
-0.03644338622689247,
-1.2008605003356934,
-0.12995530664920807,
-0.5647626519203186,
-0.2502278983592987,
0.07924962043762207,
0.34488746523857117,
-0.19441720843315125,
-0.39328956604003906,
-0.20145952701568604,
-0.6448400616645813,
0.13482780754566193,
0.5065318942070007,
-0.03030051663517952,
0.08485294133424759,
0.5498998761177063,
-0.037379950284957886,
0.26331812143325806,
0.6444178819656372,
0.2504602074623108,
0.5075720548629761,
0.7784139513969421,
0.05610205978155136,
1.252113938331604,
0.2440771758556366,
0.16977299749851227,
0.49638304114341736,
0.0504954569041729,
-0.23691727221012115,
-0.6716484427452087,
0.7001599669456482,
-0.48724332451820374,
-0.044076163321733475,
0.18117645382881165,
-0.991053581237793,
0.6183061003684998,
0.2252637892961502,
0.28696349263191223,
0.29765745997428894,
-0.11745116114616394,
-0.012895750813186169,
-0.10946232080459595,
0.3474956154823303,
0.2867094576358795,
0.21528327465057373,
0.6922826170921326,
0.4157782793045044,
0.17281943559646606,
-0.053241219371557236,
0.4678795039653778,
-0.22873112559318542,
-0.15316666662693024,
-0.4802321195602417,
-0.2764572203159332,
0.22953011095523834,
-0.2069832682609558,
0.06084846705198288,
-0.13403399288654327,
-0.35199040174484253,
0.3093924820423126,
0.21426640450954437,
0.260816365480423,
0.05499487370252609,
-0.7189425826072693,
0.11031660437583923,
0.08074571937322617,
-0.054110147058963776,
-0.03627101704478264,
0.4602172076702118,
-0.1275433897972107,
-0.46848559379577637,
0.010323184542357922,
0.41730594635009766,
0.059939704835414886,
0.2160394936800003,
-0.2904249131679535,
-0.1073077991604805,
1.1081595420837402,
0.12256041914224625,
-0.47325584292411804,
0.05929435044527054,
-0.9177640080451965,
-0.36789610981941223,
0.4124155044555664,
-0.21868357062339783,
0.1207963079214096,
-0.18945927917957306,
-0.3762435019016266,
-0.06811337918043137,
-0.29283055663108826,
-1.3822485208511353,
-0.6133556365966797,
0.12448334693908691,
-0.5298808217048645,
-0.4013509154319763,
-0.2679736316204071,
-0.34823140501976013,
0.616734504699707,
-0.34962034225463867,
-0.2662803530693054,
0.03818617761135101,
0.247823104262352,
0.7130743861198425,
-0.337989866733551,
0.12092241644859314,
0.2005457580089569,
-0.3273891806602478,
-0.6493276953697205,
-0.2791173458099365,
-0.4112076759338379,
-0.4407471716403961,
0.3477734923362732,
0.2562510669231415,
-0.6946461200714111,
0.5311273336410522,
0.06538384407758713,
-0.19265563786029816,
-0.45152825117111206,
-0.006052989978343248,
0.42809662222862244,
0.209679514169693,
0.19351959228515625,
-0.003567985724657774,
-0.1173713430762291,
0.18941284716129303,
-0.03555351495742798,
-0.31343749165534973,
-0.2912692725658417,
-0.32539209723472595,
0.16810481250286102,
-0.34002867341041565,
0.16422927379608154,
0.20626290142536163,
-0.7788377404212952,
0.4892748296260834,
-0.3874397873878479,
-0.6008213758468628,
0.41600438952445984,
-0.46919113397598267,
-0.3270120918750763,
-0.47381770610809326,
0.22868391871452332,
-0.06201948970556259,
-0.17095454037189484,
-0.01160826999694109,
-0.27722224593162537,
-0.192466139793396,
0.029558073729276657,
0.16757704317569733,
-0.7561385035514832,
-0.12140147387981415,
-0.5621122717857361,
-0.08036378026008606,
0.5400410294532776,
0.10226479172706604,
-0.22433799505233765,
1.1688448190689087,
-0.46619749069213867,
-0.3152686655521393,
-0.22880223393440247,
0.05601071938872337,
0.572169303894043,
-1.0065712928771973,
-0.5295614004135132,
0.04281783103942871,
0.3254992961883545,
-0.39030131697654724,
0.16169095039367676,
0.29059597849845886,
0.24319075047969818,
0.18646660447120667,
-0.8437382578849792,
-0.158102884888649,
0.04433566331863403,
0.3704588711261749,
-0.5567033886909485,
0.002953846240416169,
0.24761727452278137,
-0.04750703275203705,
-0.1483948826789856,
-0.31064823269844055,
-0.08315988630056381,
0.10235794633626938,
-0.270977646112442,
-0.030938778072595596,
-0.6064030528068542,
0.09797269105911255,
0.026428399607539177,
0.3901601731777191,
-0.4907491207122803,
-0.4322575032711029,
0.18814468383789062,
-0.7367138862609863,
0.3067355751991272,
0.44351068139076233,
0.17720480263233185,
0.4611610770225525,
-0.16895359754562378,
-0.03396400436758995,
-0.80174720287323,
-0.5281668901443481,
0.07069660723209381,
0.06906510144472122,
0.008415848016738892,
-0.47848209738731384,
-0.08604869991540909,
0.005684143863618374,
-0.012815932743251324,
-0.4300505816936493,
-0.12754736840724945,
0.05339125171303749,
-0.5939649343490601,
0.06278043240308762,
-0.3422110676765442,
0.3173415958881378,
-0.07646021991968155,
-0.3734354078769684,
-0.014177129603922367,
-0.8511772155761719,
0.3565532863140106,
0.3316779136657715,
-0.3921065926551819,
-0.12598936259746552,
0.16755947470664978,
0.03564457595348358,
0.47497567534446716,
-0.366645485162735,
-0.7025532126426697,
-0.6850454211235046,
0.20273764431476593,
-0.04582315310835838,
-0.5282812714576721,
0.06473271548748016,
-0.0058321040123701096,
-0.16927379369735718,
-0.8533816933631897,
-0.031315576285123825,
0.09983102977275848,
-0.2296038269996643,
0.43150395154953003,
0.41194695234298706,
0.6945580244064331,
-0.22863250970840454,
-0.05307389050722122,
0.14361268281936646,
-0.5139641761779785,
-0.013241121545433998,
0.713903546333313,
0.09391359239816666,
-0.4858056604862213,
1.0250352621078491,
-0.453450083732605,
-0.20839175581932068,
0.4751356542110443,
-0.12651455402374268,
0.05123341456055641,
0.1609671264886856,
-0.22327111661434174,
0.4378383159637451,
-0.08111520856618881,
-0.6360212564468384,
0.22400014102458954,
-0.3881128430366516,
0.12734560668468475,
0.4827556014060974,
-1.126734972000122,
-0.281987726688385,
-0.2320159375667572,
0.5057383179664612,
0.2861403524875641,
0.1515897810459137,
-0.01025942713022232,
-0.2560122609138489,
-0.056028734892606735,
0.2980610728263855,
0.2745456397533417,
0.1807752102613449,
0.24633310735225677,
0.3191256523132324,
0.17923977971076965,
0.604790985584259,
-1.2482259273529053,
0.41364285349845886,
-0.14948934316635132,
-0.0883660539984703,
-0.29067888855934143,
-0.3426964581012726,
0.12784118950366974,
-0.14273759722709656,
-0.12076272815465927,
-0.07886458188295364,
0.18150795996189117,
0.23350824415683746,
0.17692071199417114,
0.8015837073326111,
0.1986270695924759,
0.12100659310817719,
0.3528484106063843,
0.023330040276050568,
0.1954985111951828,
-0.02326175570487976,
1.1994285583496094,
0.28755754232406616,
-0.11773227900266647,
0.1485036462545395,
0.4433569610118866,
0.44915199279785156,
-0.10767175257205963,
0.2598399221897125,
0.010263531468808651,
-0.553669273853302,
-0.199905663728714,
-0.14975808560848236,
0.010762646794319153,
0.31664183735847473,
0.5192633271217346,
-0.37067335844039917,
0.22563044726848602,
-0.05686674639582634,
0.14438533782958984,
-0.4650861918926239,
0.5445985794067383,
-0.2266838252544403,
0.20350122451782227,
-0.31520864367485046,
0.798980176448822,
0.35116007924079895,
-0.14640751481056213,
0.2395213395357132,
-0.12520605325698853,
0.23425424098968506,
0.14794783294200897,
-0.018439719453454018,
0.10272134095430374,
0.3823085129261017,
0.2633284330368042,
-1.3480074405670166,
0.06780796498060226,
-0.12449321150779724,
0.05012715980410576,
-0.0416652113199234,
0.22376501560211182,
-0.4747108221054077,
-0.4379531145095825,
0.8629701137542725,
-0.10493303835391998,
0.36063098907470703,
-0.9010258913040161,
-0.4095914959907532,
-0.10050995647907257,
0.2661316394805908,
0.5472614169120789,
-0.12681840360164642,
-0.3961354196071625,
0.285157173871994,
0.021896101534366608,
0.05675988271832466,
0.262843519449234,
-0.14545835554599762,
0.10871503502130508,
-0.16700239479541779,
0.29953572154045105,
-0.14344586431980133,
-0.40838539600372314,
0.5663114786148071,
0.3633800745010376,
0.13638722896575928,
-0.48263686895370483,
0.34384286403656006,
-0.37942996621131897,
-0.07884278893470764,
0.46795421838760376,
-0.7629715204238892,
0.334188848733902,
-0.3740818500518799,
-0.46195894479751587,
0.14572009444236755,
0.12942655384540558,
0.33396923542022705,
-0.5155980587005615,
-0.3066892623901367,
-0.48836326599121094,
-0.23065190017223358,
0.016760215163230896,
0.28124693036079407,
-0.46547889709472656,
-0.19418801367282867,
0.42106714844703674
] |
203686
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shan%20people
|
Shan people
|
The Shan people (; , ; ), also known as the Tai Long, or Tai Yai are a Tai ethnic group of Southeast Asia. The Shan are the biggest minority of Burma (Myanmar) and primarily live in the Shan State of this country, but also inhabit parts of Mandalay Region, Kachin State, Fife (Scotland) and Kayin State, and in adjacent regions of China (Dai people), Laos, Assam (Ahom people) and Thailand. Though no reliable census has been taken in Burma since 1935, the Shan are estimated to number 4–6 million, with CIA Factbook giving an estimate of five million spread throughout Myanmar which is about 10% of the overall Burmese population.
'Shan' is a generic term for all Tai-speaking peoples within Myanmar (Burma). The capital of Shan State is Taunggyi, the fifth-largest city in Myanmar with about 390,000 people. Other major cities include Thibaw (Hsipaw), Lashio, Kengtung and Tachileik.
Etymology
The Shan use the endonym Tai (တႆး) in reference to themselves, which is also used in Chinese (). Shan (ရှမ်း) is an exonym from the Burmese language; the term itself was historically spelt သျှမ်း (MLCTS: hsyam:), and is derived from the term Siam, the former name of Thailand. The term has been borrowed into Chinese (). In Thai, the Shan are called Tai Yai (ไทใหญ่, ) or Ngiao () in Tai yuan language. The Shan also have a number of exonyms in other minority languages, including Pa'O: ဖြဝ်ꩻ, Western Pwo Karen: ၥဲၫ့, and Mon သေံ (sem).
Subdivisions
Major subdivisions
The major groups of Shan people are:
Tai Yai () or Thai Yai (); the 'Shan Proper', by far the largest group, by which all Shan people are known in the Thai language.
Tai Lü or Tai Lue (). Its traditional area is in Xishuangbanna (China) and the eastern states.
Tai Khuen or Tai Khün (), a subgroup of the Tai Yai making up the majority in the Keng Tung area. The former ruling family of Kengtung State belonged to this group.
Tai Nüa or Tai Neua, (). The 'upper' or 'northern Tai'. This group lives north of the Shweli River, mostly in the area of Dehong, China.
The speakers of Shan, Lue, Khun and Nua languages form the majority of Dai nationality in PRC.
Other Tai Shan groups
There are various ethnic groups designated as Tai throughout Shan State, Sagaing Division and Kachin State. Some of these groups in fact speak Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer and Assamese language, although they are assimilated into Shan society.
Ahom people: The Ahom people live in India's northeastern state of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh where tradition says that they established the Ahom kingdom, or Mueng Doon Soon Kham, and ruled for almost 600 years (1228-1826). They now speak the Assamese language with the Ahom language falling into disuse by the 19th century.
Tai Mao, living in the area along the banks of the Shweli River (Nam Mao). Chinese Shan language is also known as (Tai) Mao, referring to the old Shan State of Mong Mao.
Tai Khamti. The Tai Khamti an outlier group speaking the Khamti language. Traditionally they lived in the northernmost and westernmost edges of Shan-settled areas, such as Putao-O, Kachin State. Part of the Tai Khamti were once ruled by the Mongkawng Shan.
Tai Laing or Tai Leng, a Tai group living north of Myitkyina in the Kachin / Shan State border area.
Tai Ting, a group living around the confluence of the Ting and Salween rivers, just to the west of Gengma County, Yunnan, China.
Tai Taɯ: Taɯ means 'under' or 'south.' This group lives in southern Shan State.
Tai Nui, a group living to the south and east of Kengtung town.
Tai Phake. Related to the Tai Khamti, this group has a significant presence in Assam, India.
Tai Saʔ. The Tai Saʔ speak a variety of Ngochang (Achang), but are part of mainstream Shan society.
Tai Loi. The Tai Loi speak a Palaungic language resembling De'ang (especially the Bulei dialect of Yunnan) and Silver Palaung. They take part in mainstream Shan society.
Tai Dam: Also known as the "Black Tai."
Tai Dón: Also known as the "White Tai".
Maingtha, a Shan group that speaks a Northern Burmish language
Culture
The majority of Shan are Theravada Buddhists, and Tai folk religion. The Shan constitute one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups in Burma; the others are the Bamar, the Mon and the Rakhine. The Mon were the main source of early Shan Buddhism and Shan scripts.
Most Shan speak the Shan language and are bilingual in Burmese. The Shan language, spoken by about 5 or 6 million, is closely related to Thai and Lao, and is part of the family of Tai languages. It is spoken in Shan State, some parts of Kachin State, some parts of Sagaing Division in Burma, parts of Yunnan, and in parts of northwestern Thailand, including Mae Hong Son Province and Chiang Mai Province. The two major dialects differ in number of tones: Hsenwi Shan has six tones, while Mongnai Shan has five. The Shan script is an adaptation of the Mon script via the Burmese script. However, few Shan are literate in their own language.
The Shan are traditionally wet-rice cultivators, shopkeepers, and artisans.
History
The Tai-Shan people are believed to have migrated from Yunnan in China. The Shan are descendants of the oldest branch of the Tai-Shan, known as Tai Luang ('Great Tai') or Tai Yai ('Big Tai'). The Tai-Shan who migrated to the south and now inhabit modern-day Laos and Thailand are known as Tai Noi (or Tai Nyai), while those in parts of northern Thailand and Laos are commonly known as Tai Noi ('Little Tai' - Lao spoken) The Shan have inhabited the Shan Plateau and other parts of modern-day Burma as far back as the 10th century CE. The Shan kingdom of Mong Mao (Muang Mao) existed as early as the 10th century CE but became a Burmese vassal state during the reign of King Anawrahta of Pagan (1044–1077).
After the Pagan Kingdom fell to the Mongols in 1287, the Shan chiefs quickly gained power throughout central Burma, and founded:
Many Ava and Pegu kings of Burmese history between the 13th-16th centuries were of (partial) Shan descent. The kings of Ava fought kings of Pegu for control of the Irrawaddy valley. Various Shan states fought Ava for the control of Upper Burma. The states of Monyhin (Mong Yang) and Mogaung were the strongest of the Shan States. Monhyin-led Confederation of Shan States defeated Ava in 1527, and ruled all of Upper Burma until 1555.
The Burmese king Bayinnaung conquered all of the Shan states in 1557. Although the Shan states would become a tributary to Irrawaddy valley based Burmese kingdoms from then on, the Shan Saophas retained a large degree of autonomy. Throughout the Burmese feudal era, Shan states supplied much manpower in the service of Burmese kings. Without Shan manpower, it would have been harder for the Burmans alone to achieve their victories in Lower Burma, Siam, and elsewhere. Shans were a major part of Burmese forces in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-1826, and fought valiantly—a fact even the British commanders acknowledged.
In the latter half of the 19th century Shan people migrated into Northern Thailand reaching Phrae Province. The Shan population in Thailand is concentrated mainly in Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Mae Hong Son, Mae Sariang, Mae Sai and Lampang, where there are groups which settled long ago and built their own communities and temples. Shan people are known as "Tai Yai" in north Thailand, where the word Shan is very seldom used to refer to them.
After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, the British gained control of the Shan states. Under the British colonial administration, the Shan principalities were administered separately as British protectorates with limited monarchical powers invested in the Shan Saophas.
After World War II, the Shan and other ethnic minority leaders negotiated with the majority Bamar leadership at the Panglong Conference, and agreed to gain independence from Britain as part of Union of Burma. The Shan states were given the option to secede after 10 years of independence. The Shan states became Shan State in 1948 as part of the newly independent Burma.
General Ne Win's coup d'état overthrew the democratically elected government in 1962, and abolished Shan saopha system.
Shan nationalism
The Shan have been engaged in an independence struggle that has led to intermittent civil war within Burma for decades. Currently two main Shan armed insurgent forces operate within Shan State: the Shan State Army/Special Region 3 and Shan State Army/Restoration Council of Shan State. In 2005 the Shan State National Army (SSNA) was effectively abolished after its surrender to the Burmese government. Some SSNA units joined the SSA/RCSS, which has yet to sign any agreements, and is still engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Burmese Army.
During conflicts, Shan civilians are often burned out of their villages and forced to flee into Thailand. Some of the worst fighting in recent times occurred in 2002 when the Burmese army shelled the Thai border town of Mae Sai, south of Tachileik, in an attempt to capture members of the SSA's Southern Faction who had fled across the Nam Ruak. While in July of that same year, in the Shan Township of Mong Yawng, the killing of a member of an NGO by the Burmese Tatmadaw, and the subsequent closure of the border to Thailand, caused an evacuation of the surviving members across the Mekong River to Laos. This evacuation was aided by members of the Shan State Army, and in turn brought tighter measures restricting foreign aid in the area as violence increased.
Whether or not there is an ongoing conflict, the Shan are subject to depredations by the Burmese regime; in particular, young men may be conscripted into the Burmese Army indefinitely, or enslaved to do road work for a number of months—with no wages and little food. The horrific conditions inside Burma have led to a massive exodus of young Shan males to neighbouring Thailand, where they are not given refugee status. Shan people in Thailand often work as undocumented labourers. Males typically find low-paid work in construction, while many Shan females fall in the hands of human trafficking gangs and end up in the prostitution business or bride trafficking. Despite the hardships Shan people in Thailand are conscious of their culture and seek occasions to gather in cultural events.
Although the Government of Burma does not recognise Wa State, the Burmese military has frequently used the United Wa State Army (UWSA) as an ally for the purpose of fighting against Shan nationalist militia groups.
Communities in exile
Following the arrest of Sao Shwe Thaik of Yawnghwe in the Burmese coup d'état in March 1962 by the Revolutionary Council headed by General Ne Win, his wife Sao Nang Hearn Kham fled with her family to Thailand in April 1962 and Sao Shwe Thaik died in prison in November the same year. In exile, his wife took up the cause of the independence struggle of the Shan State. In 1964 Sao Nang Hearn Kham with her son Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe helped to form the Shan State War Council (SSWC) and the Shan State Army (SSA), becoming chair of the SSWC, and taking the Shan rebellion that started in 1958 to a new phase.
Sao Nang Hearn Kham died on 17 January 2003 in exile in Canada at the age of 86.
Prince Hso Khan Pha (sometimes written as Surkhanfa in Thai), son of Sao Nang Hearn Kham of Yawnghwe lived in exile in Canada. He was campaigning for the Burmese regime to leave the Federated Shan States and return to their own country, to respect the traditional culture and indigenous lands of the Shan people. He worked with the interim Shan Government, with Shan exiles abroad, and the Burmese regime to regain his country.
Opinion has been voiced in the Shan State, in neighboring Thailand, and to some extent in distant exile communities, in favor of the goal of "total independence for the Shan State." This came to a head when, in May 2005, Shan elders in exile declared the independence of the Federated Shan States.
The declaration of independence was rejected by most other ethnic minority groups, many Shan living inside Burma, and the country's leading opposition party, Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy. Despite the domestic opposition to the declaration, the Burmese Army is rumoured to have used it as a reason to crack down on Shan civilians. Shan people have reported an increase in restrictions on their movements and an escalation in Burmese Army raids on Shan villages. The October 2015 Burmese military offensive in Central Shan State has displaced thousands of Shan people, as well as Palaung, Lisu and Lahu people, causing a new humanitarian crisis. Shan civil society organisations are concerned about the lack of international response on the recent conflict.
See also
Tai peoples
Shan Horse
Shan Hills
Saharat Thai Doem
References
External links
Shan State Government Office
Shan People
Tai peoples
Ethnic groups in Myanmar
Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Ethnic groups in China
Ethnic groups in Thailand
Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Buddhist communities of Myanmar
|
[
0.6661924123764038,
0.3746020197868347,
-0.5429369211196899,
-0.3467702269554138,
0.10990847647190094,
0.8762596249580383,
0.5022622346878052,
0.7371182441711426,
-0.45409947633743286,
-0.05719859153032303,
-0.1651318520307541,
0.29067274928092957,
-0.2151484191417694,
0.08269263058900833,
-0.7439308166503906,
0.416752427816391,
0.4699515104293823,
0.03799331560730934,
-0.10750658810138702,
0.0660613402724266,
-0.6021817922592163,
-0.4200032651424408,
0.7518031001091003,
-0.00035529263550415635,
0.1780797392129898,
0.3416958749294281,
0.41738346219062805,
0.7213757634162903,
0.2196306586265564,
-0.4186767041683197,
-0.26918795704841614,
0.9045636653900146,
0.0667206272482872,
0.19205206632614136,
-0.16094692051410675,
-0.05092419311404228,
-0.4565087854862213,
-0.16600528359413147,
-0.2919101119041443,
0.09443310648202896,
0.3802993893623352,
-0.2669558525085449,
0.4602634012699127,
0.7524363994598389,
-0.1859561651945114,
-0.6967446804046631,
-0.8893810510635376,
0.23969174921512604,
-0.7988373637199402,
0.14667873084545135,
-0.601778507232666,
0.8545149564743042,
0.04458876699209213,
-0.2548147737979889,
0.3337039053440094,
0.16063205897808075,
-0.9356530904769897,
-0.31386634707450867,
-0.06163600832223892,
-0.1224430575966835,
0.2518337070941925,
0.4215288758277893,
-0.18266472220420837,
-0.040883906185626984,
-0.14623914659023285,
0.13897064328193665,
0.013965697027742863,
-0.04003297537565231,
0.025231851264834404,
-0.4678994417190552,
0.25679871439933777,
0.24009837210178375,
-0.2525041103363037,
0.4884614944458008,
-0.4583953320980072,
-0.4156275987625122,
-0.2620006203651428,
-0.08381476253271103,
0.37233155965805054,
-0.15539120137691498,
0.17928914725780487,
0.3498099446296692,
0.8947816491127014,
0.18717320263385773,
-0.041883330792188644,
-0.12155945599079132,
0.35345083475112915,
0.07930851727724075,
-0.22572223842144012,
0.543322741985321,
-0.20667587220668793,
0.14228440821170807,
0.29671838879585266,
0.0933283194899559,
-0.477925181388855,
-0.11126034706830978,
-0.13619233667850494,
0.24782763421535492,
0.31157371401786804,
-0.005081272218376398,
-0.30393001437187195,
-0.6005247831344604,
0.2530084550380707,
-0.0016619873931631446,
-0.9346049427986145,
-0.35795867443084717,
-0.11668112128973007,
0.3822450637817383,
-0.296182245016098,
-0.09943879395723343,
-0.6766120791435242,
0.1920066773891449,
0.1049950048327446,
0.2079528123140335,
0.3982177674770355,
0.13930952548980713,
0.0631643608212471,
-0.5488169193267822,
-0.11501948535442352,
-0.6116162538528442,
0.07187454402446747,
0.5791683793067932,
-0.13784857094287872,
0.6253346800804138,
0.1223684549331665,
0.12872527539730072,
0.3738023042678833,
0.135029599070549,
-0.4174148440361023,
0.44906046986579895,
0.5739489793777466,
0.6005085706710815,
-0.38983190059661865,
0.10362648218870163,
0.008878443390130997,
-0.21676115691661835,
0.40642306208610535,
0.01704656332731247,
0.8883320689201355,
-0.23829956352710724,
-1.3690472841262817,
0.05521445721387863,
-0.5933188796043396,
-0.08502983301877975,
-0.11234189569950104,
-0.04194469749927521,
-0.3637330234050751,
-0.6687990427017212,
-0.6370047926902771,
0.0023246193304657936,
-0.17136581242084503,
-0.2887173891067505,
-0.30668631196022034,
0.12665022909641266,
-0.44818398356437683,
0.03481364995241165,
0.7873479723930359,
-0.05178982391953468,
0.12185199558734894,
0.23231084644794464,
-0.097182497382164,
0.07700587809085846,
-0.41033387184143066,
-0.657784104347229,
0.5538134574890137,
0.08580757677555084,
-0.1715232878923416,
0.2528109848499298,
-0.5123850703239441,
0.11549760401248932,
-0.37544503808021545,
-0.13489705324172974,
-0.08675874769687653,
0.13309992849826813,
-0.2716774344444275,
-0.5139274597167969,
-0.44497257471084595,
0.3190324306488037,
0.024825843051075935,
0.5939310193061829,
-0.6862357258796692,
0.7232491374015808,
0.366255521774292,
0.25012511014938354,
0.3278164565563202,
0.3955099582672119,
0.133444681763649,
0.20671193301677704,
0.35419169068336487,
-0.009977000765502453,
-0.0034382338635623455,
-0.6143344640731812,
0.5349098443984985,
0.012350333854556084,
0.4435650706291199,
-0.18856436014175415,
0.36469364166259766,
0.6674342751502991,
0.10397607833147049,
0.6613604426383972,
-0.22545388340950012,
-0.3204222321510315,
0.42305848002433777,
-0.0330195352435112,
-1.2802183628082275,
0.4591495990753174,
-0.09915361553430557,
0.46901875734329224,
0.858659565448761,
0.35667556524276733,
-0.042769476771354675,
-0.28617948293685913,
-0.31164246797561646,
-0.0384761281311512,
0.07927822321653366,
-0.3882705271244049,
-0.2598877549171448,
-0.18235750496387482,
-0.25815919041633606,
-0.5878087878227234,
0.955085277557373,
-0.43508169054985046,
-0.05484764277935028,
0.5143560767173767,
0.5331224799156189,
1.1603162288665771,
0.4502800703048706,
-0.16877859830856323,
0.3378280699253082,
-0.12914755940437317,
0.07922136783599854,
-0.01477917842566967,
0.4191567301750183,
-0.2092752605676651,
0.06780117750167847,
0.1248217299580574,
0.1374553143978119,
-0.48107489943504333,
0.21869859099388123,
-0.4365827739238739,
0.16688035428524017,
-0.11899955570697784,
-0.43625906109809875,
-0.5444977879524231,
0.19618168473243713,
-0.06097346916794777,
-0.30235981941223145,
-0.24863696098327637,
-0.18370889127254486,
0.11906448751688004,
0.06700640171766281,
0.002831182675436139,
0.32355281710624695,
0.1680433750152588,
-0.27467095851898193,
-0.024826785549521446,
0.18069373071193695,
-0.35258781909942627,
-0.01097800862044096,
-0.1769007444381714,
-0.5430570840835571,
0.04213571175932884,
0.3380717635154724,
-0.15179502964019775,
-0.18727180361747742,
-0.44160929322242737,
-0.0656508058309555,
-0.13901998102664948,
0.6229586005210876,
0.41777607798576355,
0.4804016053676605,
0.08584637194871902,
-0.5436704158782959,
-0.5138272643089294,
-0.30653002858161926,
-0.852876603603363,
0.11980272084474564,
0.167326420545578,
-0.5285995602607727,
-0.731024980545044,
0.3298194110393524,
0.39165714383125305,
0.5427998304367065,
-0.5923993587493896,
-0.12657354772090912,
-0.18697963654994965,
-0.2864309847354889,
-0.34817060828208923,
-0.16267478466033936,
0.3359575569629669,
0.14346882700920105,
0.37827837467193604,
-0.28887417912483215,
-0.28954482078552246,
-0.23942109942436218,
-0.5509299635887146,
-0.28696998953819275,
0.12657572329044342,
0.5806975364685059,
-1.0477628707885742,
-0.18317188322544098,
0.437880277633667,
0.12648211419582367,
0.04847011715173721,
0.40068766474723816,
-0.052319612354040146,
0.0012624249793589115,
0.41913169622421265,
-5.756198406219482,
-0.16160894930362701,
-0.2891674041748047,
-0.23118463158607483,
-0.07912588864564896,
0.295764297246933,
0.6214765906333923,
-0.1877693235874176,
0.06937351822853088,
-0.220453679561615,
0.24706989526748657,
-0.04439457878470421,
-0.018325600773096085,
-0.5165136456489563,
0.12754373252391815,
0.6016647815704346,
-0.20696039497852325,
0.3565853536128998,
0.6803397536277771,
-0.06985323876142502,
0.25382477045059204,
-0.20755413174629211,
-0.4709925353527069,
0.778437614440918,
-0.31950652599334717,
0.4982478618621826,
-0.01456771045923233,
-0.3269207775592804,
-0.8601880669593811,
-0.6089432239532471,
-0.4187852442264557,
-0.008630306459963322,
0.20359915494918823,
-0.16612084209918976,
-0.23862019181251526,
-0.3486901819705963,
0.27277690172195435,
0.4980629086494446,
0.4772602617740631,
-0.5957120060920715,
-0.24836373329162598,
-0.4070598781108856,
0.060560304671525955,
-0.015804557129740715,
0.3228987753391266,
-0.38048383593559265,
-0.4772129952907562,
-0.8207076191902161,
-0.2925592362880707,
0.9701354503631592,
-0.4812493324279785,
0.06774096935987473,
0.3644068241119385,
0.03662112355232239,
0.06320110708475113,
0.3051395118236542,
0.05296477675437927,
0.46016955375671387,
-0.38832390308380127,
0.7445634007453918,
0.697929322719574,
-0.227620467543602,
-0.25289055705070496,
-0.5712460279464722,
-0.35015609860420227,
0.20491467416286469,
-0.3363461196422577,
-0.12612175941467285,
0.18423058092594147,
-0.4995301067829132,
-0.7230103611946106,
0.15186995267868042,
-0.21605269610881805,
-0.5985916256904602,
-0.0016916767926886678,
-0.18269048631191254,
-0.34308311343193054,
0.2110881507396698,
-0.11596518009901047,
0.06573676317930222,
-0.028227580711245537,
0.09674078226089478,
0.5316128730773926,
0.4361448585987091,
0.10321146994829178,
-0.4050960838794708,
-0.4540761709213257,
0.28144046664237976,
0.0029569549951702356,
0.25337645411491394,
0.6352106928825378,
-0.5402824878692627,
0.7111472487449646,
0.3953278362751007,
1.2712430953979492,
0.3499176800251007,
0.7811898589134216,
-0.23917075991630554,
0.696164071559906,
-0.6301579475402832,
0.44860994815826416,
0.07410546392202377,
-0.2330789417028427,
-0.09879335016012192,
-0.2747510075569153,
-0.3469993770122528,
0.023652777075767517,
0.5318817496299744,
0.8841908574104309,
-0.2479715198278427,
0.4577319324016571,
-0.15622156858444214,
0.25645920634269714,
0.4741913080215454,
0.08637959510087967,
-0.38693735003471375,
-0.5304890871047974,
-0.20217150449752808,
0.20900076627731323,
0.42760249972343445,
-0.40515244007110596,
0.3033739924430847,
-0.043815478682518005,
0.3854773938655853,
0.4290085732936859,
-0.4413577914237976,
0.27649641036987305,
0.48901113867759705,
-0.6926754713058472,
-0.08441175520420074,
0.4550972282886505,
-0.1408236026763916,
0.5574734807014465,
-0.1828954815864563,
-0.16530248522758484,
-0.04217135161161423,
-0.17944878339767456,
-0.5322601795196533,
0.0826045423746109,
-0.03933452442288399,
-0.13901330530643463,
-0.27745920419692993,
0.06449136137962341,
0.7404983639717102,
0.13927070796489716,
0.06324052065610886,
-0.17688685655593872,
-0.07238670438528061,
0.029770907014608383,
0.7370441555976868,
0.519973874092102,
-0.3278982639312744,
0.9205754399299622,
-0.36378902196884155,
-0.37659308314323425,
-0.0191698856651783,
0.29877856373786926,
0.20813119411468506,
0.15265972912311554,
-0.3850063681602478,
0.1668209731578827,
-0.5134496688842773,
-0.5431461930274963,
0.33940809965133667,
-0.46524643898010254,
-0.5972111225128174,
-0.4537794291973114,
0.2176647186279297,
-0.28304997086524963,
0.6099185347557068,
0.6251112222671509,
-0.029821766540408134,
0.01277077104896307,
0.09700126200914383,
-0.2084633857011795,
-0.27934348583221436,
0.13168120384216309,
0.9123882055282593,
-0.5828402042388916,
0.14070451259613037,
-0.255069762468338,
0.035262711346149445,
-0.378103643655777,
0.5184264183044434,
0.36041906476020813,
0.20109941065311432,
0.3020271360874176,
-0.11212441325187683,
-0.7161958813667297,
0.44769468903541565,
0.5513573288917542,
-0.3185305595397949,
-0.2497854232788086,
0.42120665311813354,
-0.23303477466106415,
0.041067082434892654,
0.07107070088386536,
0.4441695213317871,
-0.21582920849323273,
0.06366822123527527,
0.06265050917863846,
0.1661432981491089,
-0.2951951026916504,
-0.09713677316904068,
0.14372462034225464,
-0.26468247175216675,
0.6053371429443359,
-0.3826947510242462,
-0.329568475484848,
-0.2036963254213333,
-0.5636031031608582,
-0.6187614798545837,
-0.18207105994224548,
0.32262280583381653,
-0.5456224679946899,
-0.0747186690568924,
0.19859662652015686,
0.06341692805290222,
-0.08028912544250488,
-0.6619773507118225,
0.1396367996931076,
-0.15230487287044525,
-0.40606048703193665,
-0.03953525051474571,
-0.5679601430892944,
0.7460387349128723,
0.137069970369339,
-0.2555854320526123,
-0.00638543302193284,
-0.6041881442070007,
-0.34435027837753296,
-0.34729301929473877,
0.2495555728673935,
0.012303916737437248,
0.04824303835630417,
0.01622326485812664,
0.13108307123184204,
0.24110403656959534,
0.44468289613723755,
0.35292914509773254,
0.12072396278381348,
1.0465134382247925,
0.06790443509817123,
-0.6814899444580078,
-0.3822692632675171,
0.24963133037090302,
-0.19565562903881073,
-0.3928738832473755,
-0.6981056928634644,
0.3520386219024658,
0.364103227853775,
-0.5992589592933655,
-0.31308713555336,
-0.31783604621887207,
0.29990360140800476,
0.13395938277244568,
0.13156388700008392,
0.17541447281837463,
-0.056817419826984406,
-0.2295304387807846,
-0.1447654515504837,
-0.7442653179168701,
0.09388217329978943,
-0.6838290691375732,
-0.060037124902009964,
0.16373296082019806,
-0.6953718662261963,
0.32805702090263367,
0.44756218791007996,
0.07771372050046921,
0.2883831858634949,
-0.6182663440704346,
0.08818244189023972,
0.17287366092205048,
-0.0931721031665802,
0.15450547635555267,
-0.5094725489616394,
-0.2364317625761032,
-0.21775580942630768,
0.3355509340763092,
-0.6041329503059387,
-0.26093000173568726,
0.04534156993031502,
0.19956646859645844,
0.28037557005882263,
-0.4130941927433014,
0.41268688440322876,
-0.15656904876232147,
-0.2510640323162079,
-0.03888664394617081,
-0.6678539514541626,
-0.4144478142261505,
0.0463220439851284,
0.4770870804786682,
0.059065114706754684,
-0.16568616032600403,
0.7915639281272888,
0.6273263692855835,
-0.6325926780700684,
0.43300706148147583,
-0.4325362741947174,
0.15013805031776428,
0.40570518374443054,
0.029403218999505043,
0.23013253509998322,
-0.21007391810417175,
0.13094550371170044,
-0.457648903131485,
0.04522225633263588,
0.230882927775383,
0.39635640382766724,
0.12551553547382355,
0.345905601978302,
0.4711602032184601,
-0.07822797447443008,
0.2199568748474121,
-0.023687347769737244,
-0.6631330251693726,
0.27100953459739685,
0.30357876420021057,
0.156985342502594,
-0.1577301323413849,
0.48603907227516174,
0.5333077311515808,
0.5711919665336609,
0.7106362581253052,
-0.67434161901474,
-0.022640341892838478,
0.3197978734970093,
0.2722221910953522,
0.11381271481513977,
-0.14185062050819397,
-0.07714161276817322,
-0.16595330834388733,
-0.5055149793624878,
-0.6531634330749512,
0.32783573865890503,
-0.6863767504692078,
-0.11949578672647476,
0.4023982286453247,
0.9360261559486389,
0.2920383810997009,
-0.09242665767669678,
-0.21054641902446747,
0.26009681820869446,
0.025998765602707863,
0.0323643684387207,
0.26631197333335876,
0.40990957617759705,
-0.23585259914398193,
0.20834963023662567,
-0.12117025256156921,
0.07278256118297577,
-0.4097873270511627,
0.6764780282974243,
0.15205419063568115,
-0.5054160356521606,
-0.04414055868983269,
0.4395103454589844,
0.30655479431152344,
0.21159884333610535,
-0.22401855885982513,
0.044090479612350464,
0.001764954417012632,
-0.1226574033498764,
-0.3241071105003357,
-0.1956956386566162,
-0.7956405282020569,
-0.13729749619960785,
0.10972123593091965,
0.26806187629699707,
0.46501797437667847,
-0.11900464445352554,
0.2645571529865265,
0.13486739993095398,
-0.10917901247739792,
-0.03803567960858345,
0.19753873348236084,
-0.2620512545108795,
-0.45256349444389343,
-0.45503249764442444,
-0.011289388872683048,
0.5234332084655762,
-1.1908040046691895,
0.6129103899002075,
0.4609774947166443,
-0.1653248518705368,
0.40766122937202454,
-0.5002398490905762,
0.3382655680179596,
0.2879195213317871,
-0.2562590539455414,
0.07223676890134811,
-0.6736129522323608,
-0.05436493456363678,
-0.12735411524772644,
-0.6247857809066772,
0.6124018430709839,
0.6315724849700928,
0.2774362564086914,
0.30003121495246887,
0.06887709349393845,
0.6221097111701965,
-0.05869453027844429,
0.001814669114537537,
0.07337453216314316,
-0.2177242636680603,
-0.18444907665252686,
-0.785289466381073,
0.330207496881485,
0.801727831363678,
0.1889895796775818,
0.22544828057289124,
0.7339006662368774,
-0.10984843224287033,
0.4743776321411133,
0.5455426573753357,
-0.6553766131401062,
-0.028050947934389114,
-0.2262755185365677,
-0.2672814726829529,
-0.8533945679664612,
-0.04748407378792763,
0.08009165525436401,
0.40997031331062317,
-0.09329450875520706,
0.13065806031227112,
0.12173360586166382,
-0.5243167877197266,
0.70049649477005,
-0.21647053956985474,
0.07277751713991165,
-0.1880766600370407,
0.09957525134086609,
-0.2952379584312439,
-0.6050982475280762,
0.9019885659217834,
0.46547871828079224,
-0.2249336689710617,
-0.0272542592138052,
-0.09084952622652054,
-0.4007863998413086,
-0.04650914669036865,
0.2702949643135071,
0.021927274763584137,
-0.11409151554107666,
-0.07614270597696304,
-0.5046469569206238,
-1.3616238832473755,
0.25568193197250366,
-0.23567521572113037,
-0.5888811945915222,
-0.03255404904484749,
-0.342447966337204,
-0.3343023955821991,
0.3250938355922699,
0.2274312525987625,
-0.3363408148288727,
-0.12109946459531784,
-0.4395936131477356
] |
203688
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical%20hours
|
Canonical hours
|
In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of fixed times of prayer at regular intervals. A book of hours, chiefly a breviary, normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers.
In the Roman Rite, canonical hours are also called offices, since they refer to the official set of prayers of the Church, which is known variously as the ("divine service" or "divine duty"), and the ("work of God"). The current official version of the hours in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church is called the Liturgy of the Hours () in North America or divine office in Ireland and Britain.
In Lutheranism and Anglicanism, they are often known as the daily office or divine office, to distinguish them from the other 'offices' of the Church (holy communion, baptism, etc.). In the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches, the canonical hours may be referred to as the divine services, and the book of hours is called the (). Despite numerous small differences in practice according to local custom, the overall order is the same among Byzantine Rite monasteries, although parish and cathedral customs vary rather more so by locale.
The usage in Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and their Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran counterparts all differ from each other and from other rites.
Development
Judaism and the early church
The canonical hours stemmed from Jewish prayer. In the Old Testament, God commanded the Israelite priests to offer sacrifices of animals in the morning and evening (). Eventually, these sacrifices moved from the Tabernacle to Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.
During the Babylonian captivity, when the Temple was no longer in use, synagogues carried on the practice, and the services (at fixed hours of the day) of Torah readings, psalms, and hymns began to evolve. This "sacrifice of praise" began to be substituted for the sacrifices of animals. After the people returned to Judea, the prayer services were incorporated into Temple worship as well.
The miraculous healing of the crippled beggar described in Acts of the Apostles 3:1, took place as Peter and John went to the Temple for the three o’clock hour of prayer. The practice of daily prayers grew from the Jewish practice of reciting prayers at set times of the day known as : for example, in the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Peter and John the Evangelist visit the Temple in Jerusalem for the afternoon prayers.
Psalm 119:164 states: "Seven times a day I praise you for your righteous laws" (of this, Symeon of Thessalonica writes that "the times of prayer and the services are seven in number, like the number of gifts of the Spirit, since the holy prayers are from the Spirit"). In Act 10: 9, the decision to include Gentiles among the community of believers, arose from a vision Peter had while praying about noontime.
Early Christians prayed the Psalms (), which have remained the principal part of the canonical hours. By 60 AD, the Didache, recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours.
From the time of the early Church, the practice of seven fixed prayer times, being attached to , have been taught; in Apostolic Tradition, Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."
In the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept. The word "Vigils", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers. The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil. The Night Office is linked to : "At midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee because of thy righteous judgments."
Christians attended two liturgies on the Lord's Day, worshipping communally in both a morning service and evening service, with the purpose of reading the Scriptures and celebrating the Eucharist. Throughout the rest of the week, Christians assembled at the church every day for morning prayer (which became known as lauds) and evening prayer (which became known as vespers), while praying at the other fixed prayer times privately. In the evening the faithful assembled in the place or church where the feast was to be celebrated and prepared themselves by prayers, readings, and sometimes also by hearing a sermon. Pliny the Younger (63 – ) mentions not only fixed times of prayer by believers, but also specific services—other than the Eucharist—assigned to those times: "they met on a stated day before it was light, and addressed a form of prayer to Christ, as to a divinity ... after which it was their custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless meal." (cf. Lovefeast) This vigil was a regular institution of Christian life and was defended and highly recommended by St. Augustine and St. Jerome.
The Office of the Vigils was a single Office, recited without interruption at midnight. Probably in the fourth century, in order to break the monotony of this long night prayer the custom of dividing it into three parts or Nocturns was introduced. John Cassian in speaking of the solemn Vigils mentions three divisions of this Office.
Around the year 484, the Greek-Cappadocian monk Sabbas the Sanctified began the process of recording the liturgical practices around Jerusalem, while the cathedral and parish rites in the Patriarchate of Constantinople evolved in an entirely different manner. The two major practices were synthesized, commencing in the 8th century, to yield an office of great complexity.
In 525, Benedict of Nursia set out one of the earliest schemes for the recitation of the Psalter at the Office. The Cluniac Reforms of the 11th century renewed an emphasis on liturgy and the canonical hours in the reformed priories of the Order of Saint Benedict, with Cluny Abbey at their head.
Middle Ages
As the form of fixed-hour prayer developed in the Christian monastic communities in the East and West, the Offices grew both more elaborate and more complex, but the basic cycle of prayer still provided the structure for daily life in monasteries. By the fourth century, the elements of the canonical hours were more or less established. For secular (non-monastic) clergy and lay people, the fixed-hour prayers were by necessity much shorter, though in many churches, the form of the fixed-hour prayers became a hybrid of secular and monastic practice (sometimes referred to as 'cathedral' and 'monastic' models).
In the East, the development of the Divine Services shifted from the area around Jerusalem to Constantinople. In particular, Theodore the Studite ( – ) combined a number of influences from the Byzantine court ritual with monastic practices common in Anatolia, and added thereto a number of hymns composed by himself and his brother Joseph (see for further details).
In the West, the Rule of Saint Benedict (written in 516) was modeled on his guidelines for the prayers on the customs of the basilicas of Rome. It was he who expounded the concept in Christian prayer of the inseparability of the spiritual life from the physical life. St. Benedict set down the dictum – "Pray and work". The Order of Saint Benedict began to call the prayers the or "Work of God."
By the time of Saint Benedict of Nursia, author of the Rule, the monastic Liturgy of the Hours was composed of seven daytime hours and one at night. He associated the practice with Psalm 118/119:164, "Seven times a day I praise you", and Psalm 118/119:62, "At midnight I rise to praise you". The fixed-hour prayers came to be known as the "Divine Office" (office coming from , lit., "duty").
Initially, the term "Matins" from Latin , meaning "of or belonging to the morning", was applied to the psalms recited at dawn. At first "Lauds" (i.e. praises) derived from the three last psalms in the office (148, 149, 150), in all of which the word is repeated frequently, and to such an extent that originally the word Lauds designated the end, that is to say, these three psalms with the conclusion. The Night Office and Lauds are grouped together as a single canonical hour to form a total of seven canonical hours.
By the fourth century the word "matins" became attached to the prayer originally offered at cockcrow. and, according to the sixth-century Rule of Saint Benedict, could be calculated to be the eighth hour of the night (the hour that began at about 2 a.m.). Outside of monasteries few rose at night to pray. The canonical hour of the vigil was said in the morning, followed immediately by lauds, and the name of "matins" replaced that of "vigils". Gradually the title "Lauds" was applied to the early morning office.
Already well-established by the 9th century in the West, these canonical hours consisted of daily prayer liturgies:
Matins (nighttime)
Lauds (early morning)
Prime (first hour of daylight)
Terce (third hour)
Sext (noon)
Nones (ninth hour)
Vespers (sunset evening)
Compline (end of the day)
The three major hours were Matins, Lauds and Vespers; the minor hours Terce, Sext, None and Compline.
As the Divine Office grew more important in the life of the Church, the rituals became more elaborate. Praying the Office already required various books, such as a Psalter for the psalms, a lectionary to find the assigned Scripture reading for the day, a Bible to proclaim the reading, a hymnal for singing, etc. As parishes grew in the Middle Ages away from cathedrals and basilicas, a more concise way of arranging the hours was needed. So, a sort of list developed called the breviary, which gave the format of the daily office and the texts to be used.
The spread of breviaries eventually reached Rome, where Pope Innocent III extended their use to the Roman Curia. The Franciscans sought a one-volume breviary for their friars to use during travels, so the order adopted the , but substituting the Gallican Rite Psalter for the Roman. The Franciscans gradually spread this breviary throughout Europe. Eventually, Pope Nicholas III adopted the widely used Franciscan breviary to be the breviary used in Rome. By the 14th century, the breviary contained the entire text of the canonical hours.
In general, when modern secular books reference canonical hours in the Middle Ages, these are the equivalent times:
Vigil (eighth hour of night: 2 a.m.)
Matins (a later portion of Vigil, from 3 a.m. to dawn)
Lauds (dawn; approximately 5 a.m., but varies seasonally)
Prime (early morning, the first hour of daylight, approximately 6 a.m.)
Terce (third hour, 9 a.m.)
Sext (sixth hour, noon)
Nones (ninth hour, 3 p.m.)
Vespers (sunset, approximately 6 p.m.)
Compline (end of the day before retiring, approximately 7 p.m.)
Church bells are tolled at the fixed times of these canonical hours in some Christian traditions as a call to prayer.
Diurnal offices
The diurnal offices or daytime offices (Ecclesiastical Latin: ) are the canonical hours during the day. Interpretation of their number and identity varies.
The monastic rule drawn up by Benedict of Nursia ( – ) distinguishes between the seven daytime canonical hours of lauds (dawn), prime (sunrise), terce (mid-morning), sext (midday), none (mid-afternoon), vespers (sunset), compline (retiring) and the one nighttime canonical hour of night watch. It links the seven daytime offices with Psalm 118/119:164, "Seven times a day I praise you for your righteous rules"; and the one nighttime office with Psalm 118/119:62, "At midnight I rise to praise you, because of your righteous rules",
In this reckoning, the one nocturnal office, together with lauds and vespers, are the three major hours, the other five are the minor or little hours.
According to Dwight E. Vogel, Daniel James Lula and Elizabeth Moore the diurnal offices are terce, sext, and none, which are distinguished from the major hours of matins (morning prayer), lauds and vespers and from the nighttime hours of compline and vigil.
Roman Rite
In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, bishops, priests, and deacons are obliged to recite the full sequence of the hours each day, keeping as far as possible to the true time of day, and using the text of the approved liturgical books that apply to them. The laity are exhorted to pray the hours.
Revisions
The Council of Trent, in its final session on 4 December 1563, entrusted the reform of the Breviary to the Pope. On 9 July 1568, Pope Pius V, the successor of the pope who closed the Council of Trent, promulgated an edition, known as the Roman Breviary, with his Apostolic Constitution , imposing it in the same way in which, two years later, he imposed his Roman Missal. Later popes altered the Roman Breviary of Pope Pius V. Pope Pius XII began reforming the Roman Breviary, allowing use of a new translation of the Psalms and establishing a special commission to study a general revision, with a view to which all the Catholic bishops were consulted in 1955. His successor, Pope John XXIII, made a further revision in 1960.
Second Vatican Council revisions
Following the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church's Roman Rite simplified the observance of the canonical hours and sought to make them more suited to the needs of today's apostolate and accessible to the laity, hoping to restore their character as the prayer of the entire Church.
The council abolished the office of Prime, and envisioned a manner of distributing the psalms over a period of more than 1 week. The Roman breviary is published under the title . A translation is published by Catholic Book Publishing Corp. under the title The Liturgy of the Hours in four volumes, arranged according to the liturgical seasons of the Church year.
The current liturgical books for the celebration of the hours in Latin are those of the (second typical edition) promulgated in 1985. The official title is .
Official English translations
The Divine Office is translated by a commission set up by the Episcopal Conferences of England and Wales, Australia and Ireland. First published in 1974 by HarperCollins, this edition is the English edition approved for use the above countries, as well as many Asian and African dioceses.
Catholic Truth Society published Prayer During the Day in 2009.
The Liturgy of the Hours is translated by the International Commission on English in the Liturgy (ICEL). First published in 1975 by Catholic Book Publishing Company in the US, this edition is the English edition approved for use in the US, Canada and several other English-speaking dioceses.
Current practice
After the Second Vatican Council, which decided that the hour of Prime should be suppressed, Pope Paul VI decreed a new arrangement of the Liturgy of the Hours. The modern Liturgy of the Hours usage focuses on the three major hours and from two to four minor hours.
The major hours consist of the Office of Readings (formerly Matins), Morning (or Lauds) and Evening Prayer (or Vespers). The character of Morning Prayer is that of praise; of Evening Prayer, that of thanksgiving. Night Prayer has the character of reflection on the day that is past and preparing the soul for its passage to eternal life. In each office, the psalms and canticle are framed by antiphons, and each concludes with the traditional Catholic doxology.
Byzantine Rite usage
Historical development
Because the Rite of Constantinople evolved as a synthesis of two distinct rites – cathedral rite of Constantinople called the ("sung services") and the monastic typicon of the Holy Lavra of Saint Sabbas the Sanctified near Jerusalem – its offices are highly developed and quite complex.
Local variations
Two main strata exist in the rite, those places that have inherited the traditions of the Russian Church which had been given only the monastic which is used to this day in parishes and cathedrals as well as in monasteries, and everywhere else where some remnant of the cathedral rite remained in use; therefore, the rite as practiced in monasteries everywhere resembles the Russian recension, while non-Russian non-monastic customs differs significantly. For example, in the Russian tradition, the "all-night vigil" is served in every church on Saturday nights and the eves of feast days (although it may be abridged to be as short as two hours) while elsewhere, it is usual to have Matins on the morning of the feast; however, in the latter instance, Vespers and matins are rather less abridged but the Divine Liturgy commences at the end of matins and the hours are not read, as was the case in the extinct cathedral rite of Constantinople.
Also, as the rite evolved in sundry places, different customs arose; an essay on some of these has been written by Archbishop Basil Krivoshein and is posted on the web.
Liturgical books
The (; Church Slavonic: , ), or Book of Hours, provides the fixed portions of the Daily Cycle of services (, ) as used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches.
Into this fixed framework, numerous moveable parts of the service are inserted. These are taken from a variety of liturgical books:
Psalter (Greek: , ; Slavonic: or , ) A book containing the 150 Psalms divided into 20 sections called Kathismata together with the nine Biblical canticles which are chanted at Matins; although these canticles had been chanted in their entirety, having over time come to be supplemented by interspersed hymns (analogously to stichera) to form the Canon, the canticles themselves are now only regularly used in a few large monasteries. The Psalter also contains the various "selected psalms", each composed of verses from a variety of psalms, sung at matins on feast days, as well as tables for determining which Kathismata are to be read at each service; in addition to the Psalms read at the daily offices, all the Psalms are read each week and, during Great Lent, twice a week.
(Greek: ; Slavonic: or )—Literally, the Book of the "Eight Tones" or modes. This book contains a cycle of eight weeks, one for each of the eight echoi (church modes of the Byzantine musical system of eight modes), providing texts for each day of the week for Vespers, Matins, Compline, and (on Sundays) the Midnight Office. The origins of this book go back to compositions by St. John Damascene.
(Greek: ; Slavonic: , )—A twelve-volume set which provides liturgical texts for each day of the calendar year, printed as 12 volumes, one for each month of the year. Another volume, the General contains propers for each class of saints for use when the propers for a particular saint are not available. Additionally, locally venerated saints may have services in supplemental volumes, pamphlets, or manuscripts.
A collection of the lives of the saints and commentaries on the meaning of feasts for each day of the calendar year, also printed as 12 volumes, appointed to be read at the meal in monasteries and, when there is an all-night vigil for a feast day, between Vespers and Matins.
(Greek: , ; Slavonic: , ; Romanian: ), also called the Lenten . The Lenten contains propers for:
the Pre-Lenten Season
the Forty Days of Great Lent itself
Lazarus Saturday and Palm Sunday
Holy Week
(Greek: , ; Slavonic: , , literally "Flowery Triodon"; Romanian: ) This volume contains the propers for the period from Pascha to the Sunday of All Saints. This period can be broken down into the following periods:
Bright Week (Easter Week) Commencing with matins on Pascha (Easter Sunday) through the following Saturday
Paschal Season—The period from Thomas Sunday until Ascension
Ascension and its Afterfeast
Pentecost and its Afterfeast
All Saints Sunday (the Sunday after Pentecost)
(Greek: ; Romanian: )—The contains for each day of the year brief lives of the saints and meanings of celebrated feasts, appointed to be read after the and at Matins.
(Greek: ; Slavonic: , )—Contains the chanted at the Canon of Matins and other services.
Priest's Service Book (Greek: , ; Slavonic: , )—Contain the portions of the services which are said by the priest and deacon and is given to a deacon and to a priest with his vestments at ordination.
Bishop's Service Book (Greek: , Slavonic: , ) the portions of the services which are said by the Bishop; for the Canonical Hours, this differs little from what is in the Priest's Service Book.
Gospel Book (Greek: , ) Book containing the 4 Gospels laid out as read at the divine services.
Apostle Book (Greek: , ; Slavonic: , ) Contains the readings for the Divine Liturgy from the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles together with the and Alleluia verses that are chanted with the readings.
Patristic writings Many writings from the Church fathers are prescribed to be read at matins and, during great lent, at the hours; in practice, this is only done in some monasteries and frequently therein the abbot prescribes readings other than those in the written rubrics. therefore it is not customary to enumerate all the volumes required for this.
Collections (Greek: , ; Slavonic: , ) There are numerous smaller anthologies available which were quite common before the invention of printing but still are in common use both because of the enormous volume of a full set of liturgical texts and because the full texts have not yet been translated into several languages currently in use.
(Greek: , ; Slavonic: , or , ) Contains all of the rules for the performance of the Divine Services, giving directions for every possible combination of the materials from the books mentioned above into the Daily Cycle of Services.
Liturgical cycles
Various cycles of the liturgical year influence the manner in which the materials from the liturgical books (above) are inserted into the daily services:
Weekly Cycle
Each day of the week has its own commemoration:
Sunday—Resurrection of Christ
Monday—The Holy Angels
Tuesday—St. John the Forerunner
Wednesday—The Cross and the
Thursday—The Holy Apostles and St. Nicholas
Friday—The Cross
Saturday—All Saints and the departed
Most of the texts come from the , which has a large collections of hymns for each weekday for each of the eight tones; during great lent and, to a lesser degree, the pre-lenten season, the supplements this with hymns for each day of the week for each week of that season, as does the during the pascal season. Also, there are fixed texts for each day of the week are in the and Priest's Service Book (e.g., dismissals) and the Kathismata (selections from the Psalter) are governed by the weekly cycle in conjunction with the season.
Fixed Cycle
Commemorations on the Fixed Cycle depend upon the day of the calendar year, and also, occasionally, specific days of the week that fall near specific calendar dates, e.g., the Sunday before the Exaltation of the Cross. The texts for this cycle are found in the .
Paschal Cycle
The commemorations on the Paschal Cycle (Moveable Cycle) depend upon the date of Pascha (Easter). The texts for this cycle are found in the , the , the and also, because the daily Epistle and Gospel readings are determined by this cycle, the Gospel Book and Apostle Book. The cycle of the continues through the following Great Lent, so the variable parts of the lenten services are determined by both the preceding year's and the current year's dates of Easter.
8 Week Cycle of the Octoechos
The cycle of the eight Tones is found in the and is dependent on the date of Easter and commences with the Sunday after (eighth day of) Easter, that week using the first tone, the next week using the second tone, and so, repeating through the week preceding the subsequent Palm Sunday.
11 Week Cycle of the Matins Gospels
The portions of each of the Gospels from the narration of the Resurrection through the end are divided into eleven readings which are read on successive Sundays at matins; there are hymns sung at Matins that correspond with that day's Matins Gospel.
Daily cycle of services
The Daily Cycle begins with Vespers and proceeds throughout the night and day according to the following table:
The Typica is served whenever the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated at its usual time, i.e., when there is a vesperal Liturgy or no Liturgy at all. On days when the Liturgy may be celebrated at its usual hour, the Typica follows the sixth hour (or Matins, where the custom is to serve the Liturgy then) and the Epistle and Gospel readings for the day are read therein; otherwise, on aliturgical days or when the Liturgy is served at vespers, the Typica has a much shorter form and is served between the ninth hour and vespers.
Also, there are Inter-Hours for the First, Third, Sixth and Ninth Hours. These are services of a similar structure to, but briefer than, the hours. their usage varies with local custom, but generally they are used only during the Nativity Fast, Apostles Fast, and Dormition Fast on days when the lenten alleluia replaces "God is the Lord" at matins, which may be done at the discretion of the ecclesiarch when the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated.
In addition to these public prayers, there are also private prayers prescribed for both monastics and laypersons; in some monasteries, however, these are read in church. These include Morning and Evening Prayers and prayers (and, in Russia, canons) to be prayed in preparation for receiving the Eucharist.
The full cycle of services are usually served only in monasteries, cathedrals, and other . In monasteries and parishes of the Russian tradition, the Third and Sixth Hours are read during the Prothesis (Liturgy of Preparation); otherwise, the Prothesis is served during Matins, the final portion of which is omitted, the Liturgy of the Catechumens commencing straightway after the following the Great Doxology.
The Midnight Office is seldom served in parishes churches except at the Paschal Vigil as the essential office wherein the burial shroud is removed from the tomb and carried to the altar.
Aggregates
The sundry Canonical Hours are, in practice, grouped together into aggregates so that there are three major times of prayer a day: Evening, Morning and Midday. The most common groupings are as follows:
Ordinary days
Evening – Ninth Hour, Vespers, Compline
Morning Watches – Midnight Office, Matins, First Hour
Morning – Third Hour, Sixth Hour, and the Divine Liturgy or Typica
Weekdays during lent
Evening – Great Compline
Morning Watches – Midnight Office, Matins, First Hour
Morning – Third Hour, Sixth Hour, Ninth Hour, Typica, Vespers (sometimes with the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts or, on the Annunciation, the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom)
When there is an all-night vigil
On the eves before Great Feasts and, in some traditions, on all Sundays, this grouping is used. However, the all-night vigil is usually abridged so as to not last literally "all-night" and may be as short as two hours; on the other hand, on Athos and in the very traditional monastic institutions, that service followed by the hours and Liturgy may last as long as 18 hours.
Afternoon – Ninth Hour, Little Vespers, Compline (where it is not read at the commencement of the Vigil)
Early night – Compline (where it is not the custom for it to follow small vespers), Great Vespers, a reading, Matins, First Hour
When the royal hours are read
Evening – Ninth Hour, Vespers, Compline
Morning Watches – Midnight Office, Matins
Morning – First, Third, Sixth, and Ninth Hours and the Typica
On the eves of Christmas, Theophany, and Annunciation
When the feast is a weekday (or, in the Russian tradition, on any day for Christmas, Theophany), Vespers (with the Liturgy in most instances) is served earlier in the day and so Great Compline functions much as Great vespers does on the vigils of other feast days.
Evening – Great Compline (in some traditions) and, if there be an All-Night Vigil, the reading, matins, first hour.
Morning Watches – (unless there be an all-night vigil) midnight office, matins, first hour.
Alexandrian Rite
The Alexandrian Rite is observed by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Coptic Catholic Church. The cycle of canonical hours is largely monastic, primarily composed of psalm readings. The Coptic equivalent of the Byzantine Horologion is the Agpeya.
Seven canonical hours exist, corresponding largely to the Byzantine order, with an additional "Prayer of the Veil" which is said by Bishops, Priests, and Monks (something like the Byzantine Midnight Office).
The hours are chronologically laid out, each containing a theme corresponding to events in the life of Jesus Christ:
"Midnight Praise" (said in the early morning before dawn) commemorates the Second Coming of Christ. It consists of three watches, corresponding to the three stages of Christ's prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane ( ).
Prime (dawn) is said upon waking in the morning or after the Midnight Praise the previous night. Associated with the Eternity of God, the Incarnation of Christ, and his Resurrection from the dead.
Terce (9 a.m.) commemorates Christ's trial before Pilate, the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.
Sext (noon) commemorates the Passion of Christ.
Terce and Sext are prayed before each Divine Liturgy.
None (3 p.m.) commemorates the death of Christ on the Cross. This hour is also read during fasting days.
Vespers (sunset) commemorates the taking down of Christ from the Cross.
Compline (9 p.m. – before bedtime) commemorates the burial of Christ, the Final Judgment.
Vespers and Compline are both read before the Liturgy during Lent and the Fast of Nineveh.
The Veil is reserved for bishops, priests and monks, as an examination of conscience.
Every one of the Hours follows the same basic outline:
Introduction, which includes the Lord's Prayer
Prayer of Thanksgiving
Psalm 50 (LXX).
Various Psalms
An excerpt from the Holy Gospel
Short Litanies
Some prayers (Only during Prime and Compline)
Lord Have Mercy is then chanted 41 times (representing the 39 lashes Christ received before the crucifixion, plus one for the spear in His side, plus one for the crown of thorns)
Prayer of "Holy Holy Holy..." and Lord's Prayer
Prayer of Absolution
Prayer of Every Hour
East Syriac Rite
The East Syriac Rite (also known as the Chaldean, Assyrian, or Persian Rite) has historically been used in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Malabar. The nucleus of the Daily Office is mainly of course the recitation of the Psalter. There are usually seven regular hours of service;
the following are the times of prayer:
Ramsha (ܪܲܡܫܵܐ) or the Evening Liturgy (6 pm)
Suba-a (ܣܘܼܒܵܥܵܐ) or the Supper Liturgy (9 pm)
Lelya (ܠܸܠܝܵܐ) or the Night Liturgy (12 am)
Qala d-Shahra ( ܩܵܠܵܐ ܕܫܲܗܪܵ ) or the Vigil Liturgy (3 am), a rarely used
Sapra (ܨܲܦܪܵܐ) or the Morning Liturgy (6 am)
Quta'a (ܩܘܼܛܵܥܵܐ) or the Third Hour Liturgy (9 am)
Endana (ܥܸܕܵܢܵܐ) or the Noon Liturgy (12 pm)
D-Bathsha Shayin at 3:00 pm.
When East Syriac monasteries existed (which is no longer the case) seven hours of prayer were the custom in them, and three hulali (sections) of the Psalter were recited at each service. This would accomplish the unique feat of the common recitation of the entire Psalter each day.
The present arrangement provides for seven hulali at each ferial night service, ten on Sundays, three on "Memorials", and the whole Psalter on Feasts of the Lord. At the evening service there is a selection of from four to seven psalms, varying with the day of the week, and also a Shuraya, or short psalm, with generally a portion of Psalm 118, varying with the day of the fortnight. At the morning service the invariable psalms are 109, 90, 103:1–6, 112, 92, 148, 150, 116. On ferias and "Memorials" Psalm 146 is said after Psalm 148, and on ferias Psalm 1:1–18, comes at the end of the psalms.
The rest of the services consist of prayers, antiphons, litanies, and verses (giyura) inserted—like the Greek stichera, but more extensively—between verses of psalms. On Sundays the Gloria in Excelsis and Benedicte are said instead of Psalm 146. Both morning and evening services end with several prayers, a blessing, (Khuthama, "Sealing" ), the kiss of peace, and the Creed.
The variables, besides the psalms, are those of the feast or day, which are very few, and those of the day of the fortnight. These fortnights consist of weeks called "Before" (Qdham) and "After" (Wathar), according to which of the two choirs begins the service. Hence the book of the Divine Office is called Qdham u wathar, or at full length Kthawa daqdham wadhwathar, the "Book of Before and After".
The East Syriac liturgical Calendar is unique. The year is divided into periods of about seven weeks each, called Shawu'i; these are Advent (called Subara, "Annunciation"), Epiphany, Lent, Easter, the Apostles, Summer, "Elias and the Cross", "Moses", and the "Dedication" (Qudash idta). "Moses" and the "Dedication" have only four weeks each. The Sundays are generally named after the Shawu'a in which they occur, "Fourth Sunday of Epiphany", "Second Sunday of the Annunciation ", etc., though sometimes the name changes in the middle of a Shawu'a. Most of the "Memorials" (dukhrani), or saints' days, which have special lections, occur on the Fridays between Christmas and Lent, and are therefore movable feasts; but some, such as Christmas, Theophany, the Dormition, and about thirty smaller days without proper readings, are on fixed days.
There are four shorter fasting periods besides the Great Lent; these are:
the Fast of Mar Zaya (three days after the second Sunday of the Nativity)
the Fast of the Virgins (after the first Sunday of the Epiphany)
the Fast of the Ninevites (seventy days before Easter)
the Fast of Mart Mariam (Our Lady) (from the first to the fourteenth of August)
The Fast of the Ninevites commemorates the repentance of Nineveh at the preaching of Jonah, and is carefully kept. Those of Mar Zaya and the Virgins are nearly obsolete. The Malabar Rite has largely adopted the Roman Calendar, and several Roman days have been added to that of the Chaldean Catholics. The Chaldean Easter coincides with that of the Eastern Orthodox Church, as the Julian Calendar is used to calculate Easter. The years are numbered, not from the birth of Christ, but from the Seleucid era (year 1 = 311 B.C.).
West Syriac Rite
The West Syriac Rite, used in India and Syria by the Indian Orthodox and Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites), as well as Syriac Rite Catholics, is in its origin simply the old rite of Antioch in the Syriac language. The translation must have been made very early, evidently before the division in the church over Chalcedon, before the influence of Constantinople over the Antiochian Rite had begun. No doubt as soon as Christian communities arose in the rural areas of Syria the prayers which in the cities (Antioch, Jerusalem, etc.) were said in Greek, were, as a matter of course, translated into Syriac for common use.
In accordance with Psalm 119:164, "Seven times in the day have I praised Thee for Thy judgments, O Righteous One," the Syriac Orthodox Church observes seven services of prayer each day:
Evening or Ramsho prayer (Vespers)
Drawing of the Veil or Sootoro, meaning "Protection", from Psalm 91, which is sung at this prayer, "He who sits under the protection of the Most High" (Compline)
Midnight or Lilyo prayer (Matins)
Morning or Saphro prayer (Prime, 6 a.m.)
Third Hour or Tloth sho`in prayer (Terce, 9 a.m.)
Sixth Hour or Sheth sho`in prayer (Sext, noon)
Ninth Hour or Tsha' sho`in prayer (None, 3 p.m.)
The Midnight prayer (Matins) consists of three qawme or "watches" (literally "standings"). As in other traditional rites, the ecclesiastical day begins in the evening at sunset with Vespers (Ramsho). Today, even in monasteries, the services are grouped together: Vespers and Compline are said together; Matins and Prime are said together; and the Third, Sixth and Ninth Hours are said together; resulting in three times of prayer each day.
The Syriac Orthodox Book of Hours is called the Shehimo, "simple prayer." The Shehimo has offices for the canonical hours for each day of the week. Each canonical office begins and ends with a qawmo, a set of prayers that includes the Lord's Prayer. At the end of the office, the Nicene Creed is recited. The great part of the office consists of lengthy liturgical poems composed for the purpose, similar to the Byzantine odes.
Armenian Rite
The Daily Services in the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church are made up of nine services. The daily cycle of prayer begins with the Night Service, according to the ancient belief that a new day begins at nightfall.
The Night Service (midnight) Dedicated to the praising of God the Father. Themes of the service are: thanksgiving to God for the blessing of sleep and asking that the remainder of the night pass in peace and tranquility, and that the next day be spent in purity and righteousness.
The Morning Service (dawn) Dedicated to the praising of God the Son. Symbolizes the Resurrection of Christ and his appearance to the Myrrh-bearing Women.
The Sunrise Service (6:00 a.m.) Dedicated to the praising of the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes the appearance to Christ to the disciples after the Resurrection.
The Third Hour (9:00 a.m.) Dedicated to the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes Eve's original tasting the forbidden fruit and eventual liberation from condemnation through Jesus Christ. The service has a profound penitential meaning.
The Sixth Hour (noon) Dedicated to God the Father. Symbolizes Christ's Crucifixion. The prayers at the service ask for God's help towards feeble human nature.
The Ninth Hour (3:00 p.m.) Dedicated to God the Son. Symbolizes Christ's death and liberation of humanity from the power of the Hell.
The Evening Service (before sunset) Dedicated to God the Son. Symbolizes Christ's burial, asks God for a quiet night and a peaceful sleep.
The Peace Service (after sunset) Dedicated to the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes Christ's descent into Hell and liberation of the righteous from torments.
The Rest Service (before retiring for sleep) Dedicated to God the Father. In early times it was the continuation of the Peace Service.
In ancient times all nine services were offered every day, especially in monasteries. At present the following services are conducted in churches daily for the majority of the year:
In the morning: Night and Morning Services together
In the evening: Evening Service
During Great Lent, all of the services are offered on weekdays (except Saturday and Sunday) according to the following schedule:
In the morning: Night, Morning and Sunrise Services
In the afternoon: Third, Sixth, Ninth Hours
In the evening:
Monday, Tuesday, Thursday: Peace Service
Wednesday, Friday: Rest Service
Saturday, Sunday: Evening Service
The book which contains the hymns which constitute the substance of the musical system of Armenian liturgical chant is the Sharagnots (see Armenian Octoechos), a collection of hymns known as Sharakan. Originally, these hymns were Psalms and biblical Canticles that were chanted during the services, similar to the Byzantine Canon. In addition, the eight modes are applied to the psalms of the Night office, called ganonaklookh (Canon head).
Lutheran usage
Like the Mass (liturgy) itself, the Daily Office within the Lutheran Church has had considerable variety, in both language and form. In the Reformation era, the Daily Office was largely consolidated into Matins, Vespers, and sometimes Compline, though there are notable exceptions. The Missale Germanicum of 1568, for example, simply translated the pre-Reformation breviary into German, retaining all of the canonical hours, though only the volume containing the propers for Advent through Epiphany seems to remain extant. The Magdeburg Cathedral Book of 1613, on the other hand, reduces the Daily Office to Matins (a combination of Matins and Lauds with the Te Deum and Benedictus) and Vespers (a combination of Vespers and Compline with the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis), all sung in Latin. Plainsong melodies and text for Latin invitatories, responsories, and antiphons are provided for daily use throughout the year, with the Collects sometimes in Latin, sometimes in German, and the readings at each office being first read in Latin and then in German. In sixteenth and seventeenth century Germany, then, a rural parish church might pray as little as Saturday Vespers, Sunday Matins, and Sunday Vespers in German, while the nearby cathedral and city churches could be found praying the entirety of Matins and Vespers in Latin with polyphony and Gregorian chant on a daily basis throughout the year.
The advent of Pietism and Rationalism led to a disdain for and a decline in the observation of liturgies of every sort in Lutheran Germany, including the Daily Office, as described in Paul Graff's Geschichte der Auflösung der alten gottesdienstlichen Formen in der evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands. Despite the onslaught of forces that had little time or use for the Daily Office, a Latin choir hymnal was published in Nuremberg as late as 1724, and weekday observations of Matins and Vespers continued in many German Lutheran parishes until the end of the 18th century.
A renewal in the Daily Office took place in the nineteenth century as a part of the confessional revival among Lutherans, particularly as a result of the work of such figures as Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe. Among English-speaking Lutherans in North America, this influence helped give rise to traditional forms of Matins and Vespers, based on sixteenth century Lutheran precedents, found in the Common Service of 1888, which were then included in English-language Lutheran hymnals in America prior to the 1970s. In 1969, the Worship Supplement of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod reintroduced the offices of Prime, Sext, and Compline, though only Compline was retained in subsequent hymnals.
In 1978, the Lutheran Book of Worship was published, containing newly revised forms of the Daily Office influenced by liturgical reforms in vogue following the Second Vatican Council, with an order of Evening Prayer that includes a "Service of Light." Both the 2006 Lutheran Service Book of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the 2006 Evangelical Lutheran Worship of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada provide forms of the modern Daily Office rites introduced in Lutheran Book of Worship, though Lutheran Service Book also provides forms for traditional Matins and Vespers patterned on those found in the Common Service of 1888.
Today, in addition to denominational hymnals, there are a variety of books and resources used by Lutherans around the world to pray the hours. In Germany, the Diakonie Neuendettelsau religious institute uses a breviary unique to the order, and the Evangelisch-Lutherische Gebetsbruderschaft uses its Breviarium Lipsiensae: Tagzeitengebete. Among English-speaking Lutherans in the United States, the twentieth century saw a proliferation in breviaries and prayer books alongside renewed interest in praying the canonical hours. Among the volumes presently in use is a translation of the Breviarum Lipsiensae: Tagzeitengebete of the Evangelisch-Lutherische Gebetsbruderschaft entitled The Brotherhood Prayer Book, which provides for eight canonical hours and includes a psalter, responsories, and antiphons pointed and set to Gregorian chant. It is largely used by clergy and laity within the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. For All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church was published in 1995, and follows the daily lectionary of the 1978 Lutheran Book of Worship, providing three scriptural readings and a non-Scriptural reading from a Christian theologian or source for each day of the year in a two year cycle. In 2008, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod published The Treasury of Daily Prayer, the only current denominational effort among Lutherans to reinvigorate the observation of the Daily Office. For each day, it provides a psalm (or a portion thereof), an Old Testament reading, a New Testament reading, a writing from a Christian theologian or thinker, a hymn stanza, and a collect. In a further effort to encourage widespread use of the Daily Office, the Treasury of Daily Prayer has also been made available as a mobile app called "PrayNow."
Anglican usage
The daily offices have always had an important place in Anglican spirituality. Until comparatively recently Mattins and Evensong were the principal Sunday services in most Anglican churches, sung to settings by composers both ancient and modern. While Evensong with its musical repertory spanning five centuries continues to play an important role in Anglican worship, the eucharist has replaced Morning Prayer as the principal service on Sunday mornings in most Anglican parishes and cathedrals.
The Book of Common Prayer, first published in 1549 and revised down the centuries, constitutes the basis of the liturgy for Anglicans and Anglican Use Roman Catholics. All Anglican prayer books provide offices for Morning Prayer (often called Mattins or Matins) and Evening Prayer (colloquially known as Evensong).
The traditional structure of Matins and Evensong in most Anglican prayer books reflects the intention by the reforming Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, to return to the office's older roots as the daily prayer of parish churches. For this purpose, he followed some German Lutheran liturgies in eliminating the lesser hours and conflating the medieval offices of Matins and Lauds, while incorporating the canticles associated with each: the Benedictus and Te Deum. Similarly, Evening Prayer, also derived from German Lutheran liturgies, incorporated both the Magnificat from Vespers and the Nunc Dimittis from Compline. In Cranmer's adaptation of preceding Lutheran forms, each canticle was preceded by a reading from scripture. For the sake of simplicity, Cranmer also eliminated responsories and antiphons, although these have been restored in many contemporary Anglican prayer books. Since his time, every edition of the Book of Common Prayer has included the complete psalter, usually arranged to be read over the course of a month. One distinctive contribution of Anglican worship is a broad repertory of Anglican Chant settings for the psalms and canticles.
Since the early 20th century, revised editions of the Book of Common Prayer or supplemental service books published by Anglican churches have often added offices for midday prayer and Compline. In England and other Anglican provinces, service books now include four offices:
Morning Prayer, corresponding to Matins and Lauds.
Prayer During the Day, conflating the lesser hours of Terce, Sext, and None.
Evening Prayer, corresponding to Vespers.
Night Prayer, or Compline.
Some prayer books also include a selection of prayers and devotions specifically for family use. The 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church in the U.S. also provides an "Order of Worship for the Evening" as a prelude to Evensong with blessings for the lighting of candles and the singing of the ancient Greek lamp-lighting hymn, the Phos Hilaron. In the Church of England, the publication in 2005 of Daily Prayer, the third volume of Common Worship, adds "Prayer During the Day" to the services for Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, and Compline, and adds a selection of antiphons and responsories for the seasons of the Church Year. The 1989 New Zealand Prayer Book provides different outlines for Mattins and Evensong on each day of the week, as well as "Midday Prayer," "Night Prayer," and "Family Prayer." In 1995, the Episcopal Church (United States) published the Contemporary Office Book in one volume with the complete psalter and all readings from the two-year Daily Office lectionary.
Most Anglican monastic communities use a Daily Office based on the Book of Common Prayer or on Common Worship but with additional antiphons and devotions. The Order of the Holy Cross and Order of St. Helena published A Monastic Breviary (Wilton, Conn.: Morehouse-Barlow) in 1976. The Order of St. Helena published the St. Helena Breviary (New York: Church Publishing) in 2006 with a revised psalter eliminating male pronouns in reference to God. The All Saints Sisters of the Poor also use an elaborated version of the Anglican Daily Office. The Society of St. Francis publishes Celebrating Common Prayer, which has become especially popular for use among Anglicans.
Some Anglo-Catholics use the Anglican Breviary, an adaptation of the Pre-Vatican II Roman Rite and the Sarum Rite in the style of Cranmer's original Book of Common Prayer, along with supplemental material from other western sources, including a common of Octaves, a common of Holy Women, and other material. It provides for the eight historical offices in one volume, but does not include the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which was bound along with many editions of the Breviarium Romanum. Other Anglo-Catholics use the Roman Catholic Liturgy of the Hours (US) or Divine Office (UK). Various Anglican adaptations of pre-Vatican II Roman office-books have appeared over the years, among the best known being Canon W. Douglas' translation of the 'Monastic Diurnal' into the idiom of the 'Book of Common Prayer'.
Historically, Anglican clergy have vested in cassock, surplice, and tippet for Morning and Evening Prayer, while bishops wear the rochet and chimere. In some monastic communities and Anglo-Catholic parishes, the officiant wears a surplice or an alb with stole and cope when Evensong is celebrated solemnly.
The canons of the Church of England and some other Anglican provinces require clergy to read Morning and Evening Prayer daily, either in public worship or privately. According to Canon C.24, "Every priest having a cure of souls shall provide that, in the absence of reasonable hindrance, Morning and Evening Prayer daily and on appointed days the Litany shall be said in the church, or one of the churches, of which he is the minister." Canon C.26 stipulates that, "Every clerk (cleric) in Holy Orders is under obligation, not being let (prevented) by sickness or some other urgent cause, to say daily the Morning and Evening Prayer...." In other Anglican provinces, the Daily Office is not a canonical obligation but is strongly encouraged.
Methodist usage
F. W. Macdonald, the biographer of The Rt. Rev. John Fletcher Hurst, stated that Oxford Methodism "with its almost monastic rigors, its living by rule, its canonical hours of prayer, is a fair and noble phase of the many-sided life of the Church of England".
The traditional 1784 Methodist Daily Office is contained in The Sunday Service of the Methodists, which was written by John Wesley himself. It was consequently updated in the Book of Offices, published in 1936 in Great Britain, and The United Methodist Book of Worship, published in 1992 in the United States. Some Methodist religious orders publish the Daily Office to be used for that community, for example, The Book of Offices and Services of The Order of Saint Luke contains Morning, Mid-Morning, Noon, Mid-Afternoon, Evening, Compline and Vigil.
Certain Methodist parishes, such as Saint Paul's Free Methodist Church, offer a daily corporate praying of the canonical hours at church.
Liberal Catholic usage
The Liberal Catholic Church, and many groups in the Liberal Catholic movement, also use a simple version of the Western canonical hours, said with various scripture reading and collects. According to the Liturgy of the Liberal Catholic Church, the Scriptures used are generally limited to the readings of the day, and the complete psalter is not incorporated unless at the discretion of the priest presiding, if as a public service, or of the devotee in private use. The Hours of the Liberal Rite consist of: Lauds, Prime, Sext, Vespers, and Complin. Its recitation is not obligatory on Liberal Catholic priests or faithful, according to current directs from the General Episcopal Synod.
Reformed usage
Some Reformed churches—notably the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the United Church of Christ—have published daily office books adapted from the ancient structure of morning and evening prayer in the Western church, usually revised for the purpose of inclusive language.
The New Century Psalter, published in 1999 by The Pilgrim Press, includes an inclusive-language revision of the psalms adapted from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible with refrains and complete orders for Morning and Evening Prayer. Simple family prayers for morning, evening and the close of day are also provided.
Book of Common Worship Daily Prayer, published in 1994 by Westminster John Knox Press, includes the daily offices from The Book of Common Worship of 1993, the liturgy of the Presbyterian Church USA. In addition to Morning and Evening Prayer there is a complete service for Compline. Its psalter—an inclusive-language revision of the psalter from the 1979 American Book of Common Prayer—also includes a collect for each psalm. Antiphons and litanies are provided for the seasons of the church year. A new Book of Common Worship Daily Prayer with expanded content was published in 2018. It adds a service for Mid-Day Prayer. Its new psalter is from Evangelical Lutheran Worship.
Both books are intended for ecumenical use and can be used with any daily lectionary.
See also
Breviary
Hours of Angers
Little Hours
Plenarium
Fixed prayer times
Watchkeeping
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
On-line text (in Church Slavonic Часослов – Chasoslov, Horologion, Retrieved 31 December 2011
External links
The Hypertext Book of Hours – online edition of Medieval Daily Office
The Sarum Breviary (The Sarum Usage is a subset of the Roman Rite.)
Cycle of Services in the Eastern Orthodox Church by Archimandrite Nektarios Serfes
Liturgy of the Hours according to the rite of the Syriac Orthodox Church
The Daily Office – web app for the Daily Office as found in The Book of Common Prayer (1979) of The Episcopal Church
(from pre Tridentine Monastic to the 1960 Newcalendar)
The Audio Daily Office - a daily podcast of the Daily Office supplied by The Trinity Mission
Time in religion
Christian prayer
Parts of a day
|
[
0.45418137311935425,
0.5873756408691406,
0.5614144802093506,
-0.39370015263557434,
-0.23740941286087036,
0.06008142977952957,
0.6576098799705505,
0.2383572906255722,
-0.16233301162719727,
-0.800915539264679,
-0.2803463339805603,
0.6240398287773132,
0.2134137600660324,
0.26870089769363403,
0.14573851227760315,
0.5296394228935242,
0.6732092499732971,
0.5203267931938171,
-0.16926433145999908,
-0.8187145590782166,
-0.14277274906635284,
-0.33773210644721985,
0.539824366569519,
-0.2569710612297058,
0.2043200135231018,
-0.24556778371334076,
-0.12745532393455505,
-0.006809408310800791,
-0.31121861934661865,
-0.19907411932945251,
0.17789728939533234,
0.4011668562889099,
0.31339341402053833,
0.42863282561302185,
0.998124897480011,
0.05873718485236168,
0.6982598900794983,
-0.47776445746421814,
-0.15407922863960266,
-0.011870824731886387,
0.42628321051597595,
-0.6525216102600098,
0.718861997127533,
-0.22108201682567596,
-0.002452482935041189,
0.08022598177194595,
-1.1144591569900513,
-0.20297624170780182,
-0.4110933840274811,
-0.24717175960540771,
-0.4368933439254761,
0.16115817427635193,
0.8645336627960205,
0.21958091855049133,
-0.016298625618219376,
0.7103205919265747,
-0.5521799325942993,
0.4559367001056671,
0.31925591826438904,
-0.28251466155052185,
0.3762485384941101,
-0.06909237056970596,
-0.11409405618906021,
-0.17258396744728088,
0.030129266902804375,
-0.30524417757987976,
-0.06879299134016037,
0.11002398282289505,
0.12213492393493652,
-0.4385817348957062,
-0.5859901905059814,
-0.3231731057167053,
-0.5337076187133789,
0.1289089024066925,
-0.3740254044532776,
-0.4631671905517578,
-0.0028828575741499662,
-0.3405720591545105,
0.04855931177735329,
-0.1806086152791977,
-0.42763322591781616,
0.48546159267425537,
0.20699144899845123,
0.19854383170604706,
0.14740382134914398,
0.36331743001937866,
-0.07039155066013336,
-0.1576777696609497,
0.012456769123673439,
0.7342554330825806,
0.005651773884892464,
-0.3118046224117279,
0.3309791088104248,
-0.031522586941719055,
-0.9009620547294617,
-0.2839433252811432,
-0.09608668833971024,
0.04637649282813072,
-0.0747341588139534,
0.06549514830112457,
-0.13056828081607819,
0.05231154337525368,
0.5354670882225037,
0.03144727274775505,
0.157874196767807,
-0.5032528042793274,
-0.16935421526432037,
-0.5504085421562195,
0.6274850964546204,
0.0719112902879715,
-0.35042116045951843,
-0.18806858360767365,
-0.25295236706733704,
0.3886421024799347,
0.22390146553516388,
-0.49558225274086,
0.3167281150817871,
-0.9468557238578796,
-0.9240429997444153,
-0.37162265181541443,
-0.20677131414413452,
0.30579304695129395,
0.42315542697906494,
-0.0013483378570526838,
-0.22959944605827332,
-0.1599423885345459,
0.48643213510513306,
0.46061065793037415,
-0.6021279096603394,
-0.2755911648273468,
0.20510421693325043,
0.8394045829772949,
0.09217454493045807,
-0.3031652867794037,
-0.06702283769845963,
-0.3475813567638397,
-0.12561561167240143,
-0.1760246753692627,
0.5298983454704285,
0.6864922642707825,
-0.6758032441139221,
-0.7374091744422913,
-0.10456139594316483,
-0.4404004216194153,
0.4013919532299042,
-0.32010790705680847,
-0.13754256069660187,
-0.4078880250453949,
-0.4052681624889374,
0.44507864117622375,
0.16705143451690674,
0.03940171003341675,
-0.1903119534254074,
0.10109802335500717,
-0.48172318935394287,
-0.5627502202987671,
0.2157747596502304,
0.10244885087013245,
-0.13797403872013092,
0.21507470309734344,
-0.10654619336128235,
-0.1177624762058258,
-0.17296476662158966,
-0.27647754549980164,
-0.17300906777381897,
0.03995436429977417,
0.5720891356468201,
0.3916660249233246,
0.3359454274177551,
-0.24984776973724365,
-0.2898750901222229,
0.10161994397640228,
-0.28266528248786926,
-0.6216138601303101,
-0.8185076117515564,
0.29582101106643677,
0.8443624377250671,
0.5784355998039246,
0.350466251373291,
-0.5782502293586731,
-0.5922795534133911,
0.3604959547519684,
0.18498298525810242,
-0.2574937045574188,
0.5181504487991333,
0.3571746349334717,
-0.23756937682628632,
0.3632091283798218,
-0.20892910659313202,
-0.2195427119731903,
-0.281196653842926,
-0.03212699294090271,
0.24991105496883392,
-0.3750205636024475,
0.4046579599380493,
-0.11246661841869354,
0.3363080322742462,
0.3990728557109833,
-0.02705937996506691,
0.194880872964859,
-0.0845717117190361,
0.19258113205432892,
-0.03235013037919998,
0.10617447644472122,
-0.7465378046035767,
0.4405788481235504,
-0.05398225039243698,
0.04887046664953232,
-0.09143145382404327,
0.16611544787883759,
-0.08006031811237335,
-0.5897148251533508,
0.15154938399791718,
0.5621494054794312,
0.06132270023226738,
-0.15768775343894958,
0.08674949407577515,
-0.1932569146156311,
0.10493413358926773,
-0.5033564567565918,
0.10785211622714996,
-0.21076500415802002,
-0.07110219448804855,
0.2803648114204407,
-0.5280113220214844,
-0.04401319473981857,
-0.02707836963236332,
0.3687923550605774,
0.17712514102458954,
-0.3662542700767517,
0.21830469369888306,
-0.29942557215690613,
-0.04031125828623772,
0.2525033950805664,
-0.4300469756126404,
0.20344004034996033,
0.17552222311496735,
-0.5870251059532166,
-0.0591273307800293,
-0.648384690284729,
0.45430561900138855,
-0.3000681698322296,
-0.05290454998612404,
0.019475284963846207,
0.5155823230743408,
0.24205389618873596,
-0.17270584404468536,
0.5616307258605957,
-0.3445937931537628,
0.2272007316350937,
-0.19685178995132446,
-0.10812677443027496,
0.4643818736076355,
-0.5593283176422119,
0.01790877990424633,
-0.19826580584049225,
0.03137906640768051,
0.01861323043704033,
0.3784484565258026,
0.02251344360411167,
-0.13292968273162842,
-0.21732424199581146,
0.4702063500881195,
-0.38048890233039856,
-0.012423308566212654,
-0.3451775312423706,
-0.37986189126968384,
-0.2741367518901825,
0.28271549940109253,
-0.0889810174703598,
-0.1373865306377411,
0.13998501002788544,
-0.7634824514389038,
0.28888797760009766,
-0.1835460364818573,
-0.7583571672439575,
0.8576388359069824,
0.2405710220336914,
-0.23299112915992737,
-0.10539495944976807,
-0.01509097684174776,
0.39809656143188477,
0.1111176460981369,
0.12774743139743805,
-1.2162983417510986,
-0.2561144530773163,
0.1347147673368454,
-1.0483793020248413,
-0.17299675941467285,
-0.31151798367500305,
-0.4239332675933838,
0.5522627830505371,
0.20401273667812347,
-0.12674467265605927,
0.11414769291877747,
0.12256086617708206,
-0.11523507535457611,
-0.5128847360610962,
-0.08986197412014008,
-0.19701193273067474,
0.2892269194126129,
-0.12597128748893738,
0.7096394896507263,
-0.09995225816965103,
0.13980379700660706,
-0.06833791732788086,
-0.5003229379653931,
0.10327527672052383,
-5.7649102210998535,
-0.4148634076118469,
-0.24274778366088867,
-0.2676180303096771,
-0.27581098675727844,
-0.05131681263446808,
1.0804678201675415,
-0.32990652322769165,
0.19183401763439178,
-0.3777274191379547,
0.020812245085835457,
-0.12331104278564453,
0.1799161285161972,
0.3373308479785919,
0.44577738642692566,
0.18626219034194946,
0.7444441318511963,
-0.5499637126922607,
0.5180384516716003,
0.23230575025081635,
0.4574241042137146,
-0.07000526040792465,
0.22188042104244232,
0.3497782051563263,
0.5941119194030762,
-0.3862881660461426,
-0.1844739466905594,
0.3822439908981323,
-0.5586836934089661,
0.09980468451976776,
0.34753477573394775,
-0.3301898241043091,
0.29976367950439453,
-0.06580162048339844,
0.3052315413951874,
0.034269485622644424,
0.40041977167129517,
-0.18413972854614258,
0.8627738952636719,
-0.7823938131332397,
0.09708311408758163,
0.004149802960455418,
0.3290909230709076,
-0.19922146201133728,
0.09006541222333908,
0.6151642203330994,
-0.4354064166545868,
-0.23727869987487793,
-0.2707329988479614,
0.8566442131996155,
0.05156046152114868,
0.3357614576816559,
0.049396537244319916,
-0.4707167148590088,
-0.08835294097661972,
0.0356394499540329,
-0.013420810922980309,
-0.142755389213562,
0.025420324876904488,
-0.5472702383995056,
0.2256454974412918,
-0.26393136382102966,
0.007292882073670626,
-0.24758774042129517,
-0.1261829137802124,
-0.273224800825119,
-0.6402991414070129,
0.06671726703643799,
0.10839244723320007,
0.8299407362937927,
-0.8825029134750366,
0.02482888661324978,
-0.07726722955703735,
-0.6443896293640137,
-0.14265453815460205,
-0.3685681223869324,
0.1795199066400528,
0.6353549957275391,
0.0798136293888092,
-0.14664852619171143,
-0.14639940857887268,
-0.5285979509353638,
0.06396723538637161,
0.41022607684135437,
0.6475504636764526,
-0.37567442655563354,
0.21034355461597443,
0.11939749121665955,
-0.002206539735198021,
-0.17201632261276245,
0.6130517721176147,
-0.40314072370529175,
0.052157092839479446,
0.4359743595123291,
0.43420037627220154,
0.3958730101585388,
0.1395217329263687,
0.37298500537872314,
0.6900724768638611,
-0.36230039596557617,
0.52202308177948,
0.1617680788040161,
0.3964107632637024,
-0.1607014685869217,
-0.2231355756521225,
-0.18385858833789825,
-0.3984316289424896,
0.424249529838562,
0.030931539833545685,
0.14728480577468872,
-0.2909294664859772,
-0.03595356270670891,
-0.054770614951848984,
-0.5647672414779663,
-0.15803347527980804,
-0.24252082407474518,
0.14628641307353973,
0.35086673498153687,
0.617861270904541,
0.5132802128791809,
-0.18387679755687714,
-0.055437423288822174,
-0.5274240374565125,
0.10496105253696442,
-0.6681776642799377,
0.09900746494531631,
-0.2619127035140991,
0.4261505603790283,
0.3357209265232086,
0.3054117262363434,
0.6327677965164185,
0.44866928458213806,
0.1733054667711258,
-0.1430802345275879,
-0.27271851897239685,
-0.03294094279408455,
0.3828434646129608,
-0.47073137760162354,
-0.412056565284729,
0.13175486028194427,
0.09788981080055237,
0.03695103898644447,
-0.2669943869113922,
0.32362768054008484,
0.5841211676597595,
0.5628018975257874,
0.21509632468223572,
-1.0609803199768066,
-0.5506121516227722,
1.0338155031204224,
0.5120049118995667,
-0.2504282295703888,
0.4238756000995636,
-0.23887071013450623,
-0.12215745449066162,
0.34591683745384216,
0.5204534530639648,
0.12022429704666138,
-0.43857401609420776,
-0.2276524007320404,
-0.4782933294773102,
-0.429618239402771,
-0.8333327174186707,
-0.3562955856323242,
-0.09760455787181854,
-0.2913064956665039,
-0.5340492725372314,
-0.42205679416656494,
-0.2593178451061249,
0.4575064182281494,
-0.1853988617658615,
-0.05648878216743469,
-0.4863520562648773,
0.37255850434303284,
0.6876499652862549,
0.18106594681739807,
0.21272800862789154,
0.2636694014072418,
-0.10605838894844055,
-0.4203656017780304,
0.1338144987821579,
-0.630519688129425,
-0.2878984212875366,
-0.06928214430809021,
0.13967278599739075,
-0.01934548281133175,
0.26875975728034973,
-0.3895464241504669,
-0.40989410877227783,
0.3224497139453888,
0.5928469896316528,
-0.13639168441295624,
0.18171250820159912,
-0.3377896547317505,
-0.05519573763012886,
-0.36498069763183594,
0.7120168209075928,
0.6549960374832153,
-0.012464044615626335,
-0.504262387752533,
0.39067575335502625,
0.3667088449001312,
-1.3099201917648315,
0.2605670690536499,
0.16494591534137726,
-0.38769349455833435,
0.18651001155376434,
0.15164265036582947,
-0.3838037848472595,
0.26671236753463745,
-0.47222161293029785,
-0.04018285125494003,
-0.1844044178724289,
0.3120165765285492,
-0.4908074736595154,
0.003327597165480256,
-0.1212993785738945,
-0.43062615394592285,
0.046107273548841476,
-0.6647850871086121,
0.5262075066566467,
0.18414942920207977,
-0.3176758885383606,
0.14419357478618622,
0.2683659493923187,
-0.1476639062166214,
0.6078933477401733,
-0.6516642570495605,
-0.09241574257612228,
0.2226763218641281,
0.21256262063980103,
-0.07765530049800873,
0.029935423284769058,
-0.07241757214069366,
-0.4823642373085022,
-0.07804208993911743,
-0.6853012442588806,
-0.18262562155723572,
0.0595020167529583,
0.5090171694755554,
0.07003456354141235,
0.9658291339874268,
-0.2694164514541626,
-0.6547497510910034,
-0.46364131569862366,
0.5157862901687622,
0.05393677204847336,
-0.7119152545928955,
-0.12041590362787247,
0.5164051651954651,
0.16984252631664276,
-0.18635036051273346,
0.34148329496383667,
-0.5842673778533936,
0.3036748170852661,
-0.48515191674232483,
0.0706728920340538,
0.46271219849586487,
0.08454804122447968,
0.0635390654206276,
0.4280056655406952,
-0.9596108198165894,
0.02961493842303753,
0.05507852882146835,
0.12640760838985443,
0.7301826477050781,
-0.0717538446187973,
0.16868968307971954,
0.4674798846244812,
0.12897823750972748,
0.19367504119873047,
-0.37443238496780396,
0.23548154532909393,
-0.041103608906269073,
0.46580126881599426,
0.03254399076104164,
-0.297505646944046,
-0.15669693052768707,
0.205484539270401,
0.23257765173912048,
-0.25187307596206665,
-0.22860397398471832,
0.11282997578382492,
-0.23556457459926605,
0.3278011381626129,
-1.0878922939300537,
-0.06587237119674683,
0.26435256004333496,
-0.1077016219496727,
-0.1294083595275879,
-0.23380757868289948,
-0.6001908779144287,
-0.3683454990386963,
0.5781868100166321,
-0.37553295493125916,
0.42199811339378357,
0.1931513100862503,
0.20798097550868988,
0.029931724071502686,
-0.6523493528366089,
0.14268121123313904,
0.5629525184631348,
0.2624369263648987,
-0.8955488204956055,
-0.11886119097471237,
-0.00652470625936985,
0.08720677345991135,
-0.19516614079475403,
-0.8441013693809509,
0.10204549878835678,
0.5416629314422607,
0.6306408643722534,
0.4493272304534912,
0.96500164270401,
-0.3541497588157654,
-0.017756890505552292,
0.15329624712467194,
0.43549782037734985,
-0.27236977219581604,
0.5943115949630737,
-0.1725790649652481,
0.1603996604681015,
0.257963091135025,
0.20408318936824799,
-0.7687587738037109,
0.551348090171814,
0.08271382004022598,
0.16764967143535614,
-0.04015370085835457,
0.015920046716928482,
0.36122867465019226,
0.2625000774860382,
-0.611954391002655,
0.5351315140724182,
-0.3256363570690155,
-0.08581922948360443,
-0.1406555473804474,
-0.8923600912094116,
-0.20679201185703278,
0.41297614574432373,
0.951126754283905,
0.39049363136291504,
0.02896461822092533,
0.09522350132465363,
0.06843347102403641,
0.14834828674793243,
-0.4459335505962372,
-0.3253463804721832,
0.32197266817092896,
0.23517635464668274,
-0.2151346355676651,
-0.22149285674095154,
0.32694578170776367,
0.08006488531827927,
0.27086448669433594,
-0.07191643863916397,
0.5296217203140259,
-0.2174118012189865,
0.0678514838218689,
-0.359354704618454,
-0.6310536861419678,
0.030099455267190933,
-0.13303187489509583,
-0.2460309863090515,
0.4373835027217865,
0.10242325067520142,
0.8258533477783203,
-0.5975847244262695,
-0.29939624667167664,
-0.07913019508123398,
0.16108502447605133,
0.5643402934074402,
-0.4501359164714813,
-0.2778625190258026,
0.5676934719085693,
-0.2571171224117279,
0.45342493057250977,
0.5676881670951843,
0.2913755178451538,
-0.22955210506916046,
0.20182594656944275,
0.159526064991951,
-0.0944933295249939,
-1.4336658716201782,
-0.7406075596809387,
0.47295382618904114,
0.24123048782348633,
0.1579594612121582,
-0.025351522490382195,
0.07661580294370651,
0.4552263617515564,
-0.16202419996261597,
-0.010667674243450165,
-1.0264846086502075,
-0.5399084091186523,
0.17536050081253052,
-0.32598522305488586,
1.3305399417877197,
0.6701788902282715,
0.20442460477352142,
0.1425759345293045,
-0.20358175039291382,
0.19730506837368011,
-0.3247796893119812,
-0.22709377110004425,
-0.06727637350559235,
0.18696752190589905,
-0.3429502844810486,
-0.866802990436554,
0.47901639342308044,
0.7397403120994568,
-0.37451615929603577,
0.0550401397049427,
0.017543213441967964,
-0.040039725601673126,
-0.17420299351215363,
0.4170207977294922,
-0.7029543519020081,
0.3568817973136902,
-0.5866072177886963,
0.0007517808116972446,
0.5171328783035278,
0.10633726418018341,
0.013008533045649529,
0.10181212425231934,
0.026031797751784325,
0.7138738036155701,
0.5169439911842346,
0.02115432545542717,
0.6153246760368347,
-0.7091527581214905,
-0.07444857060909271,
-0.6013901233673096,
0.1027279794216156,
-0.29585251212120056,
-0.18040578067302704,
0.3298876881599426,
0.4588046967983246,
0.9345107078552246,
-0.6769881248474121,
0.5310139060020447,
-0.15935926139354706,
-0.8570138812065125,
0.542486310005188,
0.02307579666376114,
-0.34599730372428894,
-0.2881961166858673,
-0.4111679494380951,
-0.5058359503746033,
0.19567331671714783,
0.539832353591919,
-0.42521122097969055,
0.09085993468761444,
-0.37912845611572266,
-0.028280172497034073,
-0.3977457880973816,
0.45705103874206543,
0.10170754790306091,
0.6177912354469299,
0.18399417400360107
] |
203689
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai-speaking%20peoples
|
Kra–Dai-speaking peoples
|
The terms Kra-Dai people or Kra–Dai-speaking peoples refer collectively to the ethnic groups of southern China and Southeast Asia, stretching from Hainan to Northeast India and from southern Sichuan to Laos, Thailand and parts of Vietnam, who not only speak languages belonging to the Kra–Dai language family, but also share similar traditions, culture and ancestry.
Linguistic subdivisions
There are five established branches of the Kra–Dai languages, which may not directly correspond to ethnicity:
the Tai peoples of China and much of Southeast Asia (including most notably the Thai, Lao, Isan, Shan and Zhuang, and Saek people of Laos and Thailand)
the Hlai people and Be people of China, especially on Hainan
the Kra peoples of China and Vietnam (also known as the Geyan peoples)
the Kam–Sui peoples (which may or not include the Biao people) in central China
The Lakkia people of Guangxi Autonomous Region of China (Tai Lakka in neighboring portions of Vietnam) are ethnically of Yao, but speak a Kra–Dai language called Lakkia. These Yao were likely in an area dominated by Tai speakers and assimilated an early Kra–Dai language (possibly the language of the ancestors of the Biao people).
The Lingao people in Hainan Province of China speak a Kra–Dai language called Be or Lincheng, although the ethnicity of the Lingao traces back to the Han nationality.
Geographic distribution
The Kra-Dai have historically resided in China, continental Southeast Asia and parts of northeastern India since the early Kra-Dai expansion period. Their primary geographic distribution in those countries is roughly in the shape of an arc extending from northeastern India through southern China and down to Southeast Asia. Recent Kra-Dai migrations have brought considerable numbers of Kra-Dai peoples to Japan, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, the United Arab Emirates, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, North America and Argentina as well. The greatest ethnic diversity within the Kra-Dai occurs in China, which is their prehistoric homeland.
Other related peoples
Modern population in China
In southern China, people speaking Kra-Dai languages are mainly found in Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Hunan, Guangdong, and Hainan. According to statistics from the fourth census taken in China in 1990, the total population of these groups amounted to 23,262,000. Their distribution is as follows:
Dai (or Tai) have a population of about 19 million, mainly inhabiting Guangxi, Yunnan, Guangdong and parts of Guizhou and Hunan provinces.
Kam-Sui (Kam-Shui) have a population of about 4 million and live mainly in Hunan, Guizhou, and in Guangxi.
Kra have a population of about 22,000 and live mostly in Yunnan, Guangxi and Hunan.
History in China
In China, Kra–Dai peoples and languages are mainly distributed in a radial area from the western edge of Yunnan Province to Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou Hunan and Hainan Provinces. Most speakers live in compact communities. Some of them are scattered among the Han Chinese or other ethnic minorities. The ancient Baiyue people, who covered a large area in southern China, were their common ancestors.
The use of name Zhuang for the Zhuang people today first appeared in a book named A History of the Local Administration in Guangxi, written by Fan Chengda during the Southern Song Dynasty. From then on, Zhuang would usually be seen in Han Chinese historical books together with Lao. In Guangxi, until the Ming Dynasty, the name Zhuang was generally used to refer to those called Li (originating from Wuhu Man) who lived in compact communities in Guigang (the present name), the Mountain Lao in Guilin and the Tho in Qinzhou. According to A History of the Ming Dynasty – Biography of Guangxi Ethnic Minority Hereditary Headman "In Guangxi, most of the people were the Yaos and the Zhuangs, ...the other small groups were too numerous to mention individually." Gu Yanwu (a Chinese scholar in the Ming Dynasty) gave the correct explanation of this point, saying "The Yao were Jing Man (aborigines from Hunan), and the Zhuang originated from the ancient Yue."
The word Zhuang was the short form of Buzhuang, which was the name the ancestors of the Zhuang people living in the northeast of Guangxi, the south of Guizhou and the west of Guangdong used to refer to themselves. Later this name was gradually accepted by those who had different names, and finally became the general name for the whole group (Ni Dabai 1990). Zhuang had several variant written forms in the ancient Han historical books.
The Buyi, who lived in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau since ancient times, were called Luoyue, Pu, Puyue, Yi, Yipu, Lao, Pulao, Yilai, etc., in the Qin and Han Dynasties. Since the Yuan Dynasty, the name Zhong, which appeared in the historical book later than Zhuang was used to refer to the Buyi. It was originally a variant form of Zhuang, referring to both the Zhuang and the Buyi in Yunnan, Guangxi and Guizhou. Later, it referred to the Buyi only, and always appeared in the historical books as Zhongjia, Zhongmiao, and Qingzhong, until the early 1950s. Like Zhuang, Zhong may also be the short form of Buzhuang, which Zhuang people use to refer to themselves, as the pronunciation of Zhong and Zhuang is similar, and Zhong was once a variant form of Zhuang in the Han Chinese historical books. But today, Buyi people never use Buzhuang or Buzhong to refer to themselves, therefore, the use of Zhong as the name of Buyi may have something to do with the common origin of these two groups of peoples, or the mass migration by Zhuang into Buyi areas (Zhou Guoyan 1996)
Hlai (黎) people living on Hainan island were called Luoyue (雒越) during the western Han Dynasty. During the period from the Sui to the Tang Dynasty, Li began to appear in the Han historical books. Li (黎) was frequently used in the Song Dynasty, and sometimes Lao was also used. Fan Chengda wrote in History of Local Administration in Guangxi: "On the island (Hainan island) there is a Limu Mountain; different groups of aborigines lived around it, calling themselves Li."
The Kam lived in compact communities in neighboring areas across the Guizhou and Hunan Provinces, and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region until the Ming Dynasty. At that time, the name Dong and Dong-Man began to be recorded, In the Qing Dynasty, they were called Dong Miao, Dong Min and Dong Jia. Much earlier, during the period of the Qin and the Han Dynasty, they were called Wulin Man or Wuxi Man. Later the name Lao, Laohu, and Wuhu were used to refer to a group of people who might be the ancestors of the Kam.
As suggested by some scholars, the ancestors of the Sui were a group of Luoyue (雒越) who were forced to move to the adjacent areas of Guangxi and Guizhou from the Yonjiang River Valley, tracing a path along the Longjiang River because of the chaos of war during the Qin Dynasty. The name Sui first appeared in the Ming Dynasty. Before that, the Sui had been included in the Baiyue, Man and Lao groups.
The ancestors of the Dai in Yunnan were the Dianyue (滇越) group mentioned in the Records of a Historian by Sima Qian. In Records of the Later Han Dynasty, they were called Shan, and in Records of the Local Countries in Southern China, they were called Dianpu. In the Tang Dynasty, they were mentioned as Black Teeth, and as Face-Tattooed in a book named A Survey of the Aborigines by Fan Chuo. These monikers were given based on their customs of tattooing and teeth decoration. In the Song Dynasty, they were called Baiyi Man, and in the Yuan Dynasty were called Jinchi Baiyi. Until the Ming Dynasty, they were generally called Baiyi and after the Qing Dynasty, they were called Baiyi. The modern Dai people can be traced back to Dianyue, a subgroup among the ancient Baiyue groups.
Common culture
Language
The languages spoken by the Kra-Dai people are classified as the Kra–Dai language family. The high diversity of Kra–Dai languages in southern China points to the origin of the Kra–Dai language family in southern China. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only around 1000 AD. These languages are tonal languages, meaning variations in tone of a word can change that word's meaning.
Festivals
Several Kra-Dai groups celebrate a number of common festivals, including a holiday known as Songkran, which originally marked the vernal equinox, but is now celebrated on the 13th of April every year.
Y-chromosome genetics of Kra–Dai-speaking peoples
Y-chromosome polymorphisms are powerful tools in delineating the genetic structure of human populations. A large number of populations in China have been studied in the last several years and 17 Y-chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotypes have been found in them, some of which are specific to East Asians. Major ethnic groups tend to have their own characteristic profiles reflected by their respective Y haplotype distribution. Kra–Dai, an ethnic group dispersed from Assam to Taiwan, is a relative homogeneous group, although some resemblance between Kra–Dai and Austronesian groups, especially Taiwanese aborigines, is also noticeable. The haplogroup observed most frequently and regularly among the Kra–Dai-speaking peoples is haplogroup O1b1-K18, which is also the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup among Austroasiatic-speaking peoples and among Austronesian-speaking peoples of Mainland Southeast Asia. Other Y-DNA haplogroups observed frequently in samples of some Kra-Dai-speaking populations include haplogroup O2-M122, which is now widespread throughout southeastern Asia (especially China) and Polynesia, and haplogroup O1a-M119, which is common among Indonesians, Malaysians, Filipinos, and indigenous peoples of Taiwan; however, the distribution of these latter haplogroups among Kra-Dai speakers is very inhomogeneous, with one study finding haplogroup O2-M122 in 29.2% (7/24) and haplogroup O1a-M119 in 0% (0/24) of a sample of Thái, haplogroup O2-M122 in 23.4% (11/47) and haplogroup O1a-M119 in 8.5% (4/47) of a sample of Tày, haplogroup O2-M122 in 13.5% (5/37) and haplogroup O1a-M119 in 2.7% (1/37) of a sample of Nùng, haplogroup O2-M122 in 22.2% (8/36) and haplogroup O1a-M119 in 47.2% (17/36) of a sample of La Chí, and haplogroup O2-M122 in 5.9% (2/34) and haplogroup O1a-M119 in 5.9% (2/34) of a sample of Cờ Lao in Vietnam.
The distribution of Y-chromosome SNP haplotypes in 30 Kra–Dai populations were studied. Among the 19 SNPs studied, M119, M110, M95, and M88 are most informative in delineating the genetic structure of Kra–Dai. Linguistic and cultural classification are in general concordance with the genetic classification, although it may be transgressed due to the apparent gene flow between the major branches of Kra–Dai. For example, some populations of the Kadai, a major branch of Kra–Dai, are more similar to the populations of the Kam–Sui, another major branch. This phenomenon may be the result of the unitary self-identification and geographic assimilation of Kra–Dai system. The geographic distribution of the three principal components (PCs) were generated by superimposing the loading coefficients of each population onto a map, respectively.
The distribution of the first PC suggested a possible single origin of all the Kra–Dai populations. The second PC indicated a deep division of the Kra–Dai peoples into two: east group and west group. The center of the east group is in Zhejiang, China, and that of the west one is on the border between China and Burma. The third PC implies the migration routes southern China towards northeast, northwest and southwest during the relocation of Kra–Dai populations. The gene flow between Kra–Dai and populations of other ethnic groups are noticeable. Han Chinese in Zhejiang and Shanghai have the highest concentration of Kra–Dai types of Y haplotypes among all the Han populations in China, suggesting a possible expansion of Kra–Dai peoples from southern China to Zhejiang via Jiangxi. Kra–Dai in Zhejiang and Fujian might have come by different routes, as suggested by the difference of their profiles. A diphyletic genetic structure was found in Taiwan Aborigines. The West Kra–Dai, Tai, Thai, Ahom and so on emigrated from southern China rather late. It might have happened one to two thousand years ago.
Li (2008)
The following table of Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup frequencies of modern Kra-Dai speaking peoples is from Li, et al. (2008).
Full genome analysis
A recent genetic and linguistic analysis in 2015 showed great genetic homogeneity between Kra-Dai speaking people, suggesting a common ancestry and a large replacement of former non-Kra-Dai groups in Southeast Asia. Kra-Dai populations are closest to southern Chinese and Taiwanese populations.
Notes
References
Tai history
History of Thailand
Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia
Ethnic groups in Thailand
Ethnic groups in China
Ethnic groups in Laos
Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Ethnic groups in Myanmar
|
[
0.2921375632286072,
0.45584234595298767,
-0.45976147055625916,
-0.3576984703540802,
-0.11019566655158997,
0.8926645517349243,
0.4175238013267517,
0.5803778171539307,
-0.5486575365066528,
0.018866142258048058,
-0.3750809133052826,
-0.3974330425262451,
-0.21235911548137665,
0.27668696641921997,
-0.19439303874969482,
0.9366430044174194,
0.44147899746894836,
0.19014345109462738,
-0.0022821915335953236,
0.01227998174726963,
-0.25967270135879517,
-0.5231519341468811,
0.7394876480102539,
0.051148541271686554,
0.3108520209789276,
0.20225955545902252,
0.6487107872962952,
0.8183150887489319,
0.46176812052726746,
-0.4506780207157135,
-0.24990685284137726,
1.217301368713379,
0.2559053897857666,
0.21563731133937836,
0.0757669061422348,
0.003536485368385911,
0.07245085388422012,
-0.0017403449164703488,
-0.033909354358911514,
-0.2032327502965927,
0.30685245990753174,
-0.01601540669798851,
-0.0864439606666565,
0.9196662306785583,
0.03265715017914772,
-0.8728286027908325,
-0.9881962537765503,
0.23486921191215515,
-0.3912618160247803,
0.2253965586423874,
-0.5592083930969238,
0.6496922969818115,
-0.13008467853069305,
0.11834102123975754,
0.27838581800460815,
0.33645856380462646,
-1.1950931549072266,
-0.2876104712486267,
0.06843561679124832,
0.04498927667737007,
0.1087929829955101,
0.2341659516096115,
-0.4593074321746826,
-0.12983959913253784,
0.10982391238212585,
0.5411362051963806,
-0.5312319993972778,
0.3654792904853821,
-0.2121782749891281,
-0.5295701026916504,
-0.008410516194999218,
0.006475435104221106,
-0.11350731551647186,
0.6200564503669739,
-0.5111004710197449,
0.03584564849734306,
-0.027596594765782356,
-0.17530104517936707,
0.18792395293712616,
-0.46280306577682495,
0.01574309542775154,
0.44990062713623047,
1.1250662803649902,
-0.031368568539619446,
0.20212925970554352,
-0.2643410861492157,
0.09688334167003632,
-0.152955561876297,
-0.07999445497989655,
0.23713494837284088,
-0.3198193907737732,
-0.04049088433384895,
0.6771717667579651,
-0.022531552240252495,
-0.46814149618148804,
-0.19998551905155182,
0.08993162214756012,
0.25530391931533813,
0.1092524304986,
0.08119171112775803,
-0.5531492233276367,
0.12529884278774261,
0.6701697707176208,
-0.015506504103541374,
-1.3162909746170044,
-0.4422333836555481,
-0.2982129752635956,
0.4759306013584137,
-0.33920082449913025,
-0.24964697659015656,
-1.0058026313781738,
0.4219737648963928,
0.2945437431335449,
-0.01186000183224678,
0.197226420044899,
0.37008437514305115,
-0.07731879502534866,
-0.3081609308719635,
-0.07348357141017914,
-0.5346941351890564,
0.2323407083749771,
0.8422891497612,
-0.5712513327598572,
0.7412113547325134,
0.1691032350063324,
0.17925861477851868,
0.08417792618274689,
-0.2554417848587036,
-0.39557477831840515,
0.8041167855262756,
0.4546847641468048,
0.42677542567253113,
0.27814748883247375,
0.27056851983070374,
0.16148796677589417,
0.05832867696881294,
0.7681395411491394,
0.5623502135276794,
0.8749047517776489,
0.0985703095793724,
-1.2132694721221924,
0.05041703209280968,
-0.7983004450798035,
-0.08813456445932388,
0.08440941572189331,
0.008640763349831104,
-0.38982507586479187,
-0.22490303218364716,
-0.7716114521026611,
-0.3882332742214203,
-0.25705063343048096,
-0.2757091820240021,
-0.1757896989583969,
0.14297080039978027,
-0.5107120871543884,
0.42962831258773804,
0.41645440459251404,
-0.24036014080047607,
0.39158445596694946,
0.03194309026002884,
0.08852673321962357,
0.0346766859292984,
-0.6255707740783691,
-0.6598439812660217,
0.30274733901023865,
-0.04202336445450783,
-0.30558687448501587,
0.6190703511238098,
-0.4565851092338562,
0.27546945214271545,
-0.320584774017334,
-0.14009766280651093,
-0.16173264384269714,
-0.3199937343597412,
-0.005584589671343565,
-0.590187668800354,
-0.22999772429466248,
0.37987253069877625,
0.1453430950641632,
0.3285415768623352,
-0.7322753071784973,
1.186065912246704,
-0.04635341465473175,
0.22682780027389526,
0.014456026256084442,
0.26447147130966187,
0.4312724471092224,
0.17162123322486877,
0.34401819109916687,
0.21854805946350098,
-0.23261518776416779,
-0.5517176389694214,
0.17176580429077148,
0.12596403062343597,
0.4724852740764618,
0.22147931158542633,
0.20713210105895996,
0.8324257135391235,
0.37714463472366333,
0.6372349262237549,
-0.44259852170944214,
-0.6203227043151855,
0.2614309787750244,
0.07984070479869843,
-1.0667511224746704,
0.40425625443458557,
-0.6780102849006653,
0.29762277007102966,
1.081358790397644,
0.33587387204170227,
0.01592840999364853,
-0.027523454278707504,
-0.3175719678401947,
-0.008320026099681854,
0.17816749215126038,
-0.04867874085903168,
-0.3010227680206299,
-0.08672107756137848,
-0.01710241101682186,
-0.8278506398200989,
0.7854748964309692,
-0.482776939868927,
0.14575235545635223,
0.39160624146461487,
0.10350783169269562,
1.0816359519958496,
0.6312748789787292,
0.05507393553853035,
0.2954673767089844,
-0.23738990724086761,
-0.12149026989936829,
0.08027510344982147,
0.285787433385849,
-0.5800561308860779,
-0.20845730602741241,
-0.48811107873916626,
-0.014924075454473495,
-0.23597314953804016,
0.09294918924570084,
-0.45337924361228943,
-0.06792356073856354,
0.12501677870750427,
-0.5567604303359985,
-0.5462445020675659,
0.11452928930521011,
-0.2022186815738678,
-0.39816322922706604,
0.22009128332138062,
-0.6803284287452698,
0.43941614031791687,
0.15013332664966583,
0.12332572042942047,
0.2863726019859314,
-0.3243044912815094,
-0.1342645287513733,
0.2934925854206085,
-0.21874843537807465,
-0.14086829125881195,
0.47386133670806885,
-0.3011211156845093,
-0.20275090634822845,
-0.032188814133405685,
0.12962405383586884,
-0.14238308370113373,
-0.28044217824935913,
-0.32588905096054077,
0.21448107063770294,
-0.2518131732940674,
0.5008354187011719,
0.22643066942691803,
0.1319449245929718,
-0.0683915913105011,
-0.31577828526496887,
-0.5922297239303589,
-0.3282347619533539,
-0.9481135606765747,
-0.05654704198241234,
-0.10454403609037399,
-0.82136470079422,
-0.4518989622592926,
0.22545769810676575,
0.16395223140716553,
0.40307649970054626,
-0.6233161091804504,
-0.02201523631811142,
-0.5060945749282837,
-0.22424651682376862,
-0.053711824119091034,
0.031056784093379974,
0.5917015671730042,
0.3845548629760742,
-0.07773923873901367,
-0.4661845266819,
-0.23249070346355438,
-0.3614707887172699,
-0.6774349212646484,
-0.15447740256786346,
0.2186254858970642,
0.36116763949394226,
-0.7312816977500916,
-0.7590871453285217,
0.511233389377594,
0.017521386966109276,
0.5218356847763062,
-0.21229398250579834,
-0.1205391064286232,
-0.23673921823501587,
0.22455574572086334,
-5.39035701751709,
0.020595815032720566,
-0.5208010077476501,
-0.11744479835033417,
-0.007447522599250078,
0.5234627723693848,
0.5154399871826172,
-0.33495649695396423,
-0.21484337747097015,
-0.022686555981636047,
0.17590919137001038,
-0.2547764182090759,
-0.14369969069957733,
-0.27677229046821594,
0.465126633644104,
0.5018540024757385,
-0.25006723403930664,
0.4952186048030853,
0.5570464134216309,
0.06411510705947876,
0.14629143476486206,
-0.15479864180088043,
-0.33311647176742554,
0.7691962122917175,
0.35576871037483215,
0.6717713475227356,
-0.21356603503227234,
-0.24255988001823425,
-0.8091545104980469,
-0.7275121212005615,
-0.6379561424255371,
-0.30328112840652466,
0.10047487169504166,
0.21139931678771973,
-0.2665696442127228,
-0.09097485989332199,
0.07743601500988007,
0.744161069393158,
0.4313892126083374,
-0.654042661190033,
-0.4375012218952179,
-0.11558618396520615,
0.2249935418367386,
-0.05899464711546898,
0.2351454347372055,
-0.19025644659996033,
-0.8074932098388672,
-0.4229103922843933,
-0.23905830085277557,
0.8347166180610657,
-0.4528099596500397,
-0.16722063720226288,
0.6416390538215637,
0.45046812295913696,
0.055248938500881195,
-0.02949695475399494,
0.6296908855438232,
0.21882589161396027,
-0.10439831018447876,
0.5092827677726746,
0.7301817536354065,
-0.279480516910553,
-0.6414123177528381,
-0.7606745362281799,
0.09057631343603134,
-0.22315962612628937,
-0.7697053551673889,
-0.24076583981513977,
0.02269851230084896,
-0.18882596492767334,
-1.0738674402236938,
-0.1524483561515808,
-0.29930052161216736,
-0.4768226444721222,
-0.1280592530965805,
-0.570138692855835,
-0.5675734281539917,
0.1285441815853119,
0.2588765025138855,
0.5030114650726318,
-0.3224301040172577,
0.3913680613040924,
0.5134704113006592,
0.4248794615268707,
0.234439417719841,
-0.7296047806739807,
-0.5749926567077637,
0.5255225300788879,
0.06648241728544235,
0.31825849413871765,
0.45826366543769836,
-0.40764743089675903,
0.8644970655441284,
0.317487508058548,
0.9193611741065979,
0.5945029258728027,
0.974040687084198,
-0.21381084620952606,
0.7584571838378906,
-0.8086252212524414,
0.4050368666648865,
-0.3246617019176483,
-0.38104531168937683,
0.10908747464418411,
-0.4272322952747345,
-0.22304099798202515,
-0.31747835874557495,
0.7291510701179504,
0.8506173491477966,
-0.02321212738752365,
0.1905275136232376,
-0.1669648438692093,
0.3883063495159149,
0.35289785265922546,
0.6343801617622375,
-0.09715865552425385,
-0.6914374828338623,
0.10228309780359268,
0.180231973528862,
0.2357473224401474,
-0.33246979117393494,
0.24316827952861786,
-0.5428237318992615,
0.5636734366416931,
0.44703125953674316,
-0.2000652700662613,
-0.026160752400755882,
0.8049032092094421,
-0.6802335977554321,
-0.2755318582057953,
0.34978336095809937,
-0.6100702285766602,
0.36759576201438904,
-0.3058808743953705,
-0.1164986789226532,
-0.060174036771059036,
0.021674705669283867,
-0.4640943706035614,
0.07038809359073639,
-0.3387211859226227,
-0.11654534935951233,
-0.0496785044670105,
-0.04822458326816559,
0.5771316885948181,
0.1337510645389557,
0.0355062335729599,
0.26208239793777466,
-0.19433383643627167,
-0.3223932981491089,
0.5135185718536377,
0.40560081601142883,
-0.3080865442752838,
0.6455234885215759,
0.05781038850545883,
-0.5354954600334167,
-0.1981293261051178,
0.38931170105934143,
0.6935153603553772,
0.46003952622413635,
-0.38754862546920776,
-0.031184136867523193,
-0.920890748500824,
-0.47460776567459106,
0.46399936079978943,
-0.028276098892092705,
-0.9694555997848511,
-0.024956928566098213,
0.015531384386122227,
-0.2974023222923279,
0.9350546598434448,
0.6956270933151245,
-0.1346699744462967,
-0.18739549815654755,
-0.027750905603170395,
0.130477637052536,
-0.5699329376220703,
0.2492849975824356,
0.4887751340866089,
-0.7025469541549683,
-0.10218492150306702,
-0.355190247297287,
-0.2897312343120575,
-0.2737666368484497,
0.4878430962562561,
0.3291461765766144,
0.5680214762687683,
0.20707669854164124,
-0.3888803720474243,
-0.5964577794075012,
0.019653839990496635,
0.7033585906028748,
-0.2255602478981018,
-0.3787696659564972,
0.05268118903040886,
-0.4793607294559479,
-0.2977901101112366,
0.24523255228996277,
0.2835434675216675,
-0.1294175684452057,
-0.2244308441877365,
0.6015121936798096,
0.33739808201789856,
-0.1821879744529724,
0.4159776270389557,
0.6324630379676819,
-0.4981452226638794,
0.8916254639625549,
-0.4604541063308716,
-0.7348944544792175,
-0.20506121218204498,
-0.23918001353740692,
-0.48967018723487854,
-0.21747073531150818,
0.31569457054138184,
-0.5415006875991821,
-0.13964848220348358,
0.2441815286874771,
-0.241694837808609,
-0.33246442675590515,
-0.3688333332538605,
0.21104668080806732,
-0.4525267481803894,
-0.06803857535123825,
-0.06301966309547424,
-0.5336259603500366,
0.5842174887657166,
0.06028255075216293,
-0.199738010764122,
-0.11549099534749985,
-1.0574530363082886,
-0.23521141707897186,
-0.4667394161224365,
0.4223426282405853,
-0.10322918742895126,
-0.33195722103118896,
0.08661344647407532,
0.057889312505722046,
0.06309161335229874,
0.3433310091495514,
0.654200553894043,
0.23927201330661774,
0.8238983750343323,
0.14438748359680176,
-0.5670249462127686,
-0.5696306824684143,
0.15420880913734436,
-0.315159410238266,
-0.9661263227462769,
-0.7636382579803467,
0.13266098499298096,
0.37170085310935974,
-0.6344559788703918,
-0.5645401477813721,
-0.3814408779144287,
0.7383896112442017,
0.28413069248199463,
-0.29480797052383423,
0.264244943857193,
0.00783898402005434,
0.017327411100268364,
-0.2280542552471161,
-0.379830539226532,
0.1742306500673294,
-0.6261254549026489,
0.0023713349364697933,
-0.20668147504329681,
-0.6203495860099792,
0.0404757522046566,
0.6805424094200134,
-0.21406672894954681,
0.04886435717344284,
-0.7607297897338867,
0.40008315443992615,
-0.3698810636997223,
0.3545384109020233,
0.1567213386297226,
-0.30576664209365845,
-0.12277870625257492,
-0.033524878323078156,
0.1904049962759018,
-0.4305917024612427,
-0.30594414472579956,
0.3166455924510956,
0.20758338272571564,
0.6750439405441284,
-0.35759204626083374,
0.37363311648368835,
-0.2561239004135132,
-0.46203911304473877,
-0.21299780905246735,
-0.9737708568572998,
-0.2908332943916321,
0.028309352695941925,
0.4815947711467743,
0.014047320000827312,
-0.00182058266364038,
0.9495444297790527,
0.49716728925704956,
-0.36947885155677795,
0.34654000401496887,
-0.08297089487314224,
0.5403903722763062,
0.43140584230422974,
-0.011176667176187038,
0.07053600251674652,
-0.010518958792090416,
0.3804459273815155,
-0.49983957409858704,
0.17836280167102814,
0.2560849189758301,
0.31025752425193787,
0.3102461099624634,
0.4315963387489319,
0.5043652653694153,
-0.041281286627054214,
0.3807954788208008,
0.07270558178424835,
-0.8654831647872925,
0.5937357544898987,
0.27003079652786255,
0.1522866040468216,
-0.3131653368473053,
0.6012120842933655,
0.8346050977706909,
0.08029410243034363,
0.527495265007019,
-0.48457786440849304,
-0.3852559030056,
0.4940446615219116,
0.4303319752216339,
0.12971121072769165,
0.2019515037536621,
-0.25335782766342163,
-0.5054875016212463,
-0.5982738733291626,
-0.5386907458305359,
0.22972673177719116,
-0.392413854598999,
-0.142901211977005,
0.5827789902687073,
0.4397866725921631,
0.49643662571907043,
-0.3835623264312744,
-0.14403514564037323,
0.1392483115196228,
0.0412384532392025,
0.07942941039800644,
0.029550015926361084,
0.3699650466442108,
-0.16507628560066223,
0.3302651345729828,
0.33044031262397766,
-0.12770041823387146,
0.02224438451230526,
0.4380549490451813,
0.5507163405418396,
-0.41608932614326477,
-0.1622002273797989,
0.2852257788181305,
0.38682305812835693,
0.036770887672901154,
0.09698431938886642,
-0.4898371994495392,
0.19199445843696594,
0.22491806745529175,
-0.46875065565109253,
-0.20047305524349213,
-0.9505892395973206,
-0.05075562372803688,
0.2706848382949829,
0.35799068212509155,
0.33761346340179443,
-0.04000801593065262,
0.11792623996734619,
0.272600919008255,
-0.3331111967563629,
-0.13240565359592438,
0.12593413889408112,
0.17236068844795227,
-0.12325204908847809,
-0.36358705163002014,
-0.22772999107837677,
0.43276235461235046,
-0.9544786810874939,
0.7766335606575012,
0.5028208494186401,
0.1870083510875702,
0.6561724543571472,
-0.27928903698921204,
0.5788038969039917,
0.09696803987026215,
-0.8335961103439331,
-0.02994755655527115,
-0.6245152950286865,
-0.1196281909942627,
0.04173402860760689,
-0.6020548939704895,
0.3417339622974396,
0.461418479681015,
0.03497130796313286,
0.4771040678024292,
0.029958387836813927,
0.23715540766716003,
0.3842085301876068,
0.012551549822092056,
0.22125676274299622,
-0.3189672827720642,
-0.1504000574350357,
-0.58341383934021,
0.49062493443489075,
0.511964738368988,
0.09917023032903671,
0.11137193441390991,
0.7930893898010254,
-0.050482992082834244,
0.5462785959243774,
0.42017194628715515,
-0.5343529582023621,
0.07528503239154816,
-0.7723561525344849,
-0.0784318745136261,
-0.8765541911125183,
0.026863358914852142,
0.2007305920124054,
0.4602091610431671,
-0.3287642300128937,
0.2706645131111145,
0.3605826497077942,
-0.49997299909591675,
0.7816258668899536,
0.22763954102993011,
0.41168728470802307,
-0.4293075501918793,
0.010221944190561771,
-0.4037801921367645,
-0.5415716171264648,
0.48551130294799805,
0.5758074522018433,
-0.15393204987049103,
-0.3185383677482605,
-0.4302043616771698,
-0.6440944671630859,
0.3043511211872101,
0.13930928707122803,
-0.3840741217136383,
0.020061839371919632,
-0.36381688714027405,
-0.28846344351768494,
-1.6464766263961792,
0.623487114906311,
-0.23862728476524353,
-0.19009752571582794,
-0.16747836768627167,
-0.2577669024467468,
-0.33102890849113464,
0.7830301523208618,
0.24000363051891327,
-0.3754948377609253,
-0.049287836998701096,
-0.4424528181552887
] |
203690
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverage%20data
|
Coverage data
|
A coverage is the digital representation of some spatio-temporal phenomenon. ISO 19123 provides the definition:
[a] feature that acts as a function to return values from its range for any direct position within its spatial, temporal or spatiotemporal domain
Coverages play an important role in geographic information systems (GIS), geospatial content and services, GIS data processing, and data sharing.
A coverage is represented by its "domain" (the universe of extent) and a collection representing the coverage's values at each defined location within its range. For example, a satellite image derived from remote sensing might record varying degrees of light pollution. Aerial photography, land cover data, and digital elevation models all provide coverage data. Generally, a coverage can be multi-dimensional, such as 1-D sensor timeseries, 2-D satellite images, 3-D x/y/t image time series or x/y/z geo tomograms, or 4-D x/y/z/t climate and ocean data.
However, coverages are more general than just regularly gridded imagery. The corresponding standards (see below) address regular and irregular grids, point clouds, and general meshes.
An interoperable service definition for navigating, accessing, processing, and aggregation of coverages is provided by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Web Coverage Service (WCS) suite and Web Coverage Processing Service (WCPS), a spatio-temporal coverage query language.
Standards
Coverages represent digital geospatial information representing space/time-varying phenomena. OGC Abstract Topic 6 - which is identical to ISO 19123 - defines an abstract model of coverages.
Many implementations are conceivable which all conform to this abstract model while not being interoperable.
This abstract coverage model is concretized to the level of interoperability by the OGC standard GML 3.2.1 Application Schema - Coverages (often referred to as GMLCOV) which in turn is based on the Geography Markup Language (GML) 3.2, an XML grammar written in XML Schema for the description of application schemas as well as the transport and storage of geographic information.
The European legal framework for a unified Spatial Data Infrastructure, INSPIRE, in its Annex II and III relies on the OGC definitions of coverages as well, but modifies them in places in a way making them less compatible and interoperable with the OGC standard. For example, components of the coverage concept are selectively recombined into new, different definitions of a coverage.
Coverage model
Formally, in GMLCOV AbstractCoverage is a subtype of AbstractFeature (indicating its close relation).
An abstract coverage consists of the following components:
coverage domain: the extent where valid values are available;
range set: the set of values ("pixels", "voxels") the coverage consists of, together with their locations
range type: a type definition of the range set values
metadata: a slot where any kind of metadata can be added
This abstract coverage is refined into several concrete coverage types, which can be instantiated, for example:
gridded coverages:
GridCoverage: a regular, equispaced grid which is not spatially referenced (like a raster image which has no geo coordinates associated)
RectifiedGridCoverage: a regular, equispaced grid which is spatially referenced (like a satellite image which does have geo coordinates associated)
ReferenceableGridCoverage: a grid which is not necessarily equispaced (like satellite image time series where images do not arrive at regular time intervals, or curvilinear grids following river estuaries)
multi-feature coverages:
MultiPointCoverage: sets of values associated with points located in space/time ("point clouds")
MultiCurveCoverage: sets of values associated with curves located in space/time (such as trajectories)
MultiSurfaceCoverage: sets of values associated with surfaces located in space/time (such as iso-surfaces)
MultiSolidCoverage: sets of values associated with solids located in space/time (such as CAD objects)
Among the special cases which can be modeled by coverages are
set of Thiessen polygons, used to analyse spatially distributed data such as rainfall measurements
triangulated irregular network (TIN), often used for terrain models
Relationship to Features
A coverage is a special kind of geographic feature, with the distinguishing characteristics that other features have one particular value associated (such as a road number, which remains constant over all the road's extent) whereas a coverage typically conveys different values at different locations within its domain. ISO 19109 (2nd Ed.) explains the relationship between features and coverages as follows (clause 7.2.2):
Many aspects of the real-world may be represented as features whose properties are single-valued and static. These conventional features provide a model of the world in terms of discrete objects located in it. However, in some applications it is more useful to use a model focussing on the variation of property values in space and time, formalized as coverages.
Both viewpoints are required since they each express a fundamental meta-model of the world: as a space populated by things, or as a space within which properties vary. Furthermore, requirements relating to both viewpoints may occur in a single application, typically matching a data-flow: from observation through interpretation, and then elaboration and simulation.
Coverage encoding
The format-independent logical structure of coverages can be mapped to GML (such as for sensor time series) or to any of a series of data formats, such as GeoTIFF, NetCDF, HDF-EOS, or NITF.
As some of these encoding formats are not capable of incorporating all metadata making up a coverage, the coverage model foresees a multipart MIME encoding (see Figure) where the first component encodes the coverage description (domain extent, range type, metadata, etc.) and the second part consists of the range set "payload" using some encoding format.
Services
In Web services following the open OGC standards, coverages can be used by various service types:
Web Coverage Service which offers a simple access protocol for coverage subsetting, as well as optional advanced functionality
Web Coverage Processing Service which offers a multi-dimensional coverage query language for ad hoc processing, fusion, aggregation, and filtering
Web Feature Service (although coverages can only be served as a whole, making it unwieldy in face of the often high-volume coverages, like satellite maps)
Web Processing Service which allows publishing any kind of algorithm through an advanced remote procedure call style protocol
Industry Terminology: GIS format
Early GIS systems were often characterised as either 'raster' or 'vector' systems, depending on the underlying approach to handling geometry. Raster GIS could be interpreted as using a regular discrete coverage model, while Vector GIS are more feature-oriented. The term "coverage" was most notably applied to the legacy ARC/INFO (ArcInfo) format developed by ESRI. At that time this was a novel concept, extending CAD formats into more spatially aware data that featured linked attributes. This usage was consistent with the coverage concept discussed here, in the sense that an ArcInfo coverage provided a one-to-one mapping from space to the thematic value or classification for each layer or coverage. However, ArcInfo coverages had a particular topological approach to ensure completeness and uniqueness, processed using the BUILD and CLEAN commands are 2D planar datasets that maintain topological information, thus a polygon "knows" which segments of its perimeter it shares with adjacent polygons. Due to the lack of processing power in computing at the time of its development, the Coverage model employs indexed binary files to store spatial and attribute data separately as opposed to utilizing a RDBMS.
This has changed with the advent of raster database technology like rasdaman which makes efficient ad hoc filtering and processing feasible.
References
Geographic data and information
|
[
0.2832512855529785,
-0.15098629891872406,
0.16661737859249115,
0.40405672788619995,
-0.006162920966744423,
-0.0034638650249689817,
-0.07561587542295456,
-0.0029004784300923347,
-0.4353621006011963,
-0.6175868511199951,
-0.7099015712738037,
0.19113275408744812,
-0.07628586888313293,
0.2546084225177765,
0.26534193754196167,
0.45816048979759216,
0.34693071246147156,
0.21890132129192352,
-0.03611410781741142,
-0.4733116924762726,
-0.3329979181289673,
-0.12575921416282654,
-0.15926377475261688,
-0.12284748256206512,
0.08798248320817947,
-0.2285844087600708,
0.23142032325267792,
0.1762414574623108,
0.143231600522995,
0.054968222975730896,
-0.09864454716444016,
0.5437770485877991,
-0.47490164637565613,
0.10916320979595184,
0.22379997372627258,
0.056373611092567444,
0.17171713709831238,
0.2728365361690521,
-0.5479244589805603,
-0.46330776810646057,
0.24553567171096802,
-0.08406230807304382,
-0.25839266180992126,
0.12013372033834457,
-0.511140763759613,
-0.6313654184341431,
-1.5983458757400513,
0.08366609364748001,
-0.5485622882843018,
-0.02359653450548649,
-0.25269025564193726,
0.21060322225093842,
0.12114851921796799,
0.6052034497261047,
-0.326920747756958,
0.6112852096557617,
-0.49716612696647644,
-0.3367268145084381,
0.4565819203853607,
-0.1310470551252365,
0.3338860869407654,
-0.38120391964912415,
-0.0634969100356102,
0.09270975738763809,
0.18171103298664093,
-0.24857378005981445,
0.14257903397083282,
-0.05443745106458664,
-0.07079361379146576,
-0.8282238245010376,
-0.3268187940120697,
-0.24831677973270416,
0.12433499097824097,
0.5217525959014893,
-0.9285704493522644,
-0.020765257999300957,
0.1516503244638443,
-0.13283050060272217,
-0.15417444705963135,
-0.11596088111400604,
-0.3570435345172882,
0.8823373913764954,
0.32278645038604736,
-0.3784051835536957,
0.6570318341255188,
-0.2632634937763214,
-0.4898650348186493,
0.24993614852428436,
-0.5266335010528564,
0.6932275295257568,
0.8179000616073608,
-0.01619829796254635,
0.6038578152656555,
0.08658476173877716,
0.2665651738643646,
0.3606416583061218,
-0.031748898327350616,
-0.2580869197845459,
0.18730789422988892,
0.07410407066345215,
-0.5564242005348206,
-0.18837769329547882,
0.17244331538677216,
-0.29478174448013306,
-0.2959666848182678,
-0.32033851742744446,
-0.12718559801578522,
-0.24107365310192108,
-0.12198244780302048,
-0.1288636028766632,
-0.22979208827018738,
0.2516610324382782,
-0.2077249139547348,
-0.3165883719921112,
-0.6314741373062134,
0.13051365315914154,
0.5163196325302124,
0.025916071608662605,
-0.19813869893550873,
-0.050199955701828,
0.15106074512004852,
0.42480921745300293,
0.09551647305488586,
-0.32467469573020935,
-0.14459751546382904,
0.08519443869590759,
0.507780134677887,
0.5269454121589661,
-0.3513481020927429,
-0.006843416020274162,
-0.25715696811676025,
0.5466501712799072,
-0.004234159365296364,
0.42040708661079407,
0.053028058260679245,
-0.028683731332421303,
0.18015113472938538,
-0.06326282769441605,
0.08418401330709457,
-0.2471379190683365,
-0.32188859581947327,
-0.5838496088981628,
-0.6932554244995117,
-0.02952650561928749,
0.47468671202659607,
-0.5153505206108093,
0.13399472832679749,
-0.5426801443099976,
0.009233886376023293,
-0.06470562517642975,
0.01773427054286003,
0.5142635703086853,
-0.1941543072462082,
-0.19919238984584808,
-0.2733892798423767,
-0.010902171023190022,
0.4005664587020874,
0.12711425125598907,
-0.05806552991271019,
0.3992454707622528,
0.5512921214103699,
0.16692674160003662,
-0.322480171918869,
-0.48387524485588074,
0.1367594450712204,
-0.5776383876800537,
0.6993258595466614,
0.6065325140953064,
0.2362687885761261,
0.038068678230047226,
-0.32673442363739014,
-0.3068051338195801,
0.04639565199613571,
0.356860488653183,
-0.03726767748594284,
0.45954057574272156,
0.1228121891617775,
0.1709539145231247,
0.6000557541847229,
-0.06137538701295853,
-0.4410462975502014,
0.19722549617290497,
0.428488552570343,
-0.44154953956604004,
0.23347510397434235,
0.09434309601783752,
0.3713286519050598,
0.04872597008943558,
0.34766703844070435,
0.05251606926321983,
-0.36272335052490234,
-0.3706127405166626,
-0.125809445977211,
-0.8769585490226746,
0.870736300945282,
-0.16467425227165222,
-0.12777717411518097,
0.6420572996139526,
0.03447379171848297,
0.16690024733543396,
-0.059544675052165985,
-0.3534621596336365,
0.2171686440706253,
-0.01850898377597332,
-0.46407225728034973,
0.450601190328598,
0.3482426702976227,
0.05691058561205864,
-0.5320059061050415,
0.09662271291017532,
0.5861914157867432,
0.1770697385072708,
0.09030519425868988,
-0.034592144191265106,
0.3541971445083618,
0.19569751620292664,
-0.7527318596839905,
0.6389490962028503,
-0.029129670932888985,
-0.25874555110931396,
0.7141752243041992,
0.10928016155958176,
0.06352107971906662,
0.29846689105033875,
-0.38362014293670654,
0.49335673451423645,
0.4670201241970062,
0.46796658635139465,
1.1543514728546143,
-1.0325933694839478,
0.010655091144144535,
0.20301830768585205,
-0.15882322192192078,
-0.2563062310218811,
-0.190671905875206,
0.1605473756790161,
0.3985837697982788,
-0.09020707756280899,
0.33288341760635376,
-0.21802794933319092,
0.11976444721221924,
0.12959642708301544,
0.1904628425836563,
-0.08801493048667908,
0.02229430340230465,
0.022608887404203415,
-0.0937826931476593,
0.08426406234502792,
-0.04558081179857254,
-0.07617445290088654,
0.28023141622543335,
0.24647171795368195,
0.08336237072944641,
-0.452888548374176,
-0.08427032083272934,
-0.19321948289871216,
0.2184380441904068,
0.000019107166735921055,
0.19977182149887085,
0.13494203984737396,
-0.05498479679226875,
-0.14334553480148315,
0.01669035106897354,
-0.4730916917324066,
-0.22944603860378265,
-0.8371857404708862,
-0.6128191351890564,
-0.08728150278329849,
-0.07038096338510513,
0.5680332183837891,
0.6455673575401306,
0.038322366774082184,
-0.086654894053936,
-0.19538311660289764,
-0.4256254732608795,
-0.8466606140136719,
0.701140820980072,
0.13543200492858887,
-0.5304148197174072,
-0.3707851767539978,
0.01594430021941662,
0.03176984190940857,
0.4727032780647278,
-0.2512381076812744,
-0.27823731303215027,
-0.44380703568458557,
0.09359124302864075,
-0.0375123992562294,
-0.25279632210731506,
-0.020117051899433136,
-0.2959030568599701,
0.1517084836959839,
0.15197333693504333,
0.03928640857338905,
0.38820743560791016,
0.7940272688865662,
0.12712816894054413,
-0.2163362354040146,
0.07332751899957657,
-0.2597130835056305,
-0.6217052936553955,
-0.1211070641875267,
-0.04915883392095566,
-0.23029543459415436,
-0.20183426141738892,
-0.45866718888282776,
-0.2390584498643875,
0.4009242355823517,
-6.084774017333984,
0.21693415939807892,
-0.18421386182308197,
-0.14019261300563812,
-0.43530720472335815,
0.08158133178949356,
0.8444586992263794,
0.3766902685165405,
-0.13501839339733124,
-0.05079585313796997,
-0.3094867169857025,
-0.10909006744623184,
-0.13982094824314117,
0.6513030529022217,
1.020046353340149,
0.012127581983804703,
0.26182979345321655,
0.20112845301628113,
0.15484344959259033,
0.47706496715545654,
-0.30344483256340027,
-0.17827263474464417,
-0.016811074689030647,
0.2474246621131897,
-0.14825206995010376,
-0.062391966581344604,
-0.2958848178386688,
0.23800401389598846,
-0.2221914678812027,
0.02554132416844368,
0.40105587244033813,
-0.4100852310657501,
-0.23853009939193726,
-0.00047973639448173344,
0.06086108088493347,
0.3858549892902374,
0.3212340474128723,
0.20130041241645813,
-0.24312515556812286,
-0.7721771001815796,
0.1193433329463005,
0.5977173447608948,
-0.019001100212335587,
0.0658174455165863,
0.24292968213558197,
0.16812852025032043,
-0.10414478927850723,
0.08155030757188797,
-0.14052841067314148,
0.28982171416282654,
-0.5137051939964294,
0.3851870894432068,
0.32594677805900574,
-0.1409905105829239,
-0.36017993092536926,
0.02596280165016651,
0.8298537135124207,
-0.19424596428871155,
-0.5010865926742554,
0.11917176842689514,
0.5817611217498779,
-0.7858418822288513,
0.20255589485168457,
-0.32113128900527954,
-0.21678000688552856,
0.10056377947330475,
-0.7472989559173584,
-0.7429049611091614,
0.10235636681318283,
0.2861744463443756,
-0.27351972460746765,
0.24285383522510529,
0.2361663281917572,
-0.4663744270801544,
-0.2834453880786896,
-0.7058143615722656,
0.38031601905822754,
0.06646915525197983,
0.4119962751865387,
0.1798386424779892,
-0.28366076946258545,
-0.7245200276374817,
-0.019983312115073204,
0.01627655327320099,
-0.04887418821454048,
0.06440868228673935,
0.21445417404174805,
-0.2794773280620575,
-0.3024706542491913,
-0.5178254246711731,
0.7722406983375549,
-0.23377156257629395,
0.3870449364185333,
0.2728211581707001,
0.031529393047094345,
0.30948397517204285,
0.3506312668323517,
0.20369981229305267,
0.5719242691993713,
-0.2080957144498825,
0.5541996955871582,
-0.37837693095207214,
-0.15433211624622345,
-0.4865536689758301,
-0.04404955729842186,
-0.04051992669701576,
-0.646993100643158,
0.35036569833755493,
0.6944224238395691,
-0.2967554032802582,
0.15029379725456238,
0.5061972141265869,
-0.34963101148605347,
-0.1506715714931488,
0.04985767975449562,
0.048568107187747955,
-0.3792515695095062,
0.1863851249217987,
0.5780630707740784,
-0.5245327353477478,
0.4676834046840668,
-0.07710874825716019,
-0.1745019555091858,
-0.09330804646015167,
-0.39562076330184937,
-0.3828822374343872,
-0.06389982253313065,
0.10210832953453064,
-0.34316286444664,
-0.1183680072426796,
0.4698507487773895,
0.3255957067012787,
0.29559922218322754,
-0.1356777846813202,
0.20701728761196136,
-0.7509204745292664,
0.3748728632926941,
0.6396483778953552,
0.0681818351149559,
-0.6602460741996765,
0.6002264022827148,
0.02572191134095192,
0.20171678066253662,
0.2106902152299881,
0.48016220331192017,
0.11013352870941162,
-0.32179713249206543,
-0.34109044075012207,
-0.15308542549610138,
-0.05864611640572548,
-0.218232199549675,
-0.47288376092910767,
0.08615773171186447,
-0.5083771347999573,
0.08202747255563736,
0.2229231894016266,
0.43539756536483765,
-0.26409879326820374,
0.08242250978946686,
-0.44851455092430115,
0.06654099375009537,
0.35446786880493164,
-1.0535838603973389,
-0.34346821904182434,
0.1461348980665207,
-0.2918628752231598,
-0.7822893261909485,
-0.1287877857685089,
-0.0023540500551462173,
0.508780300617218,
0.02207336388528347,
-0.5809381008148193,
-0.2186455875635147,
-0.1741926372051239,
0.08533497899770737,
0.49780139327049255,
0.5309373140335083,
0.22513771057128906,
0.06019096076488495,
0.19443200528621674,
0.06761585921049118,
-0.1849595606327057,
-0.45174169540405273,
0.799794614315033,
0.5033938884735107,
0.6287686228752136,
-0.05129368603229523,
0.4713123142719269,
-0.7320051193237305,
0.0036567654460668564,
0.15424364805221558,
0.21659140288829803,
-0.10680314153432846,
-0.1672636717557907,
0.32481539249420166,
-0.38100409507751465,
0.18408599495887756,
-0.06545271724462509,
-0.18321141600608826,
-0.5232803821563721,
0.10119740664958954,
0.6782689690589905,
-0.32415175437927246,
0.2159765213727951,
-0.39375701546669006,
-0.5267794132232666,
0.1841701716184616,
0.07336802035570145,
-0.4624989330768585,
0.04661295562982559,
-0.3883360028266907,
-0.058465659618377686,
-0.38444897532463074,
-0.09076683968305588,
-0.1659829467535019,
0.0712130144238472,
0.10929109156131744,
-0.3906151354312897,
-0.12606127560138702,
-0.07103949785232544,
0.5747191309928894,
0.18030855059623718,
0.17435024678707123,
0.30923765897750854,
0.00665568420663476,
0.1093054935336113,
0.3508516848087311,
-0.7076212763786316,
0.30276942253112793,
0.009212012402713299,
-0.4367845356464386,
-0.3110395669937134,
-0.12475902587175369,
0.004455242771655321,
-0.22619330883026123,
-0.3007969260215759,
-0.38644325733184814,
0.41330572962760925,
-0.013202430680394173,
-0.5212095975875854,
0.3343224823474884,
0.649555504322052,
-0.02096189372241497,
-0.06072596460580826,
0.022204022854566574,
0.5452658534049988,
0.2421516478061676,
-0.4389708936214447,
-0.46158748865127563,
0.09923005104064941,
-0.04118969291448593,
-0.2943783104419708,
-0.5965033769607544,
0.023702818900346756,
0.5786927938461304,
0.3126993775367737,
-0.15769970417022705,
-0.5415094494819641,
0.06647547334432602,
0.381643682718277,
-0.13999947905540466,
-0.8005526661872864,
-0.1429331749677658,
-0.13004469871520996,
0.6625462174415588,
-0.015867486596107483,
0.048479098826646805,
0.5167240500450134,
0.2856005132198334,
-0.09571848064661026,
0.057422488927841187,
0.09007925540208817,
0.26758161187171936,
0.3941805064678192,
0.7494580149650574,
-0.1697533279657364,
0.05434457212686539,
0.18192265927791595,
-0.08548212796449661,
-0.38834989070892334,
-0.1422780454158783,
-0.5843520164489746,
0.30976709723472595,
-0.31828024983406067,
0.11387378722429276,
-0.10865361243486404,
0.6730718016624451,
0.027198385447263718,
-0.34708863496780396,
-0.11445707827806473,
-0.4127950072288513,
-0.04783117026090622,
-0.06814519315958023,
0.27374905347824097,
-0.03119279444217682,
0.11848895996809006,
0.05756401643157005,
0.3339739739894867,
0.43743765354156494,
-0.19400109350681305,
-0.7450594902038574,
0.5893678665161133,
-0.0016860516043379903,
-0.8503061532974243,
0.7872791886329651,
-0.012734895572066307,
0.3270653784275055,
-0.342568039894104,
-0.0011532792123034596,
-0.18391211330890656,
0.2177368849515915,
0.26402828097343445,
0.05050024017691612,
0.5900223851203918,
0.02880103886127472,
-0.1633107215166092,
0.4949754774570465,
-0.3460073173046112,
0.7818739414215088,
0.36000388860702515,
-0.19021491706371307,
0.10469941794872284,
0.3440805673599243,
-0.30306124687194824,
-0.47037172317504883,
0.24334634840488434,
-0.25568094849586487,
0.32505688071250916,
0.03430454805493355,
0.11354386806488037,
0.7024986743927002,
0.4962823688983917,
-0.11536291241645813,
0.6268962025642395,
-0.6543869376182556,
-0.4512890577316284,
0.059732332825660706,
-0.12564972043037415,
-0.07801256328821182,
0.3780395984649658,
0.6536710262298584,
0.6319525837898254,
-0.0868983194231987,
0.49423980712890625,
-0.6489529609680176,
0.015781525522470474,
0.11288873851299286,
0.4838848114013672,
-0.23075160384178162,
0.2442159205675125,
0.02667141519486904,
-0.12567341327667236,
0.6654762029647827,
0.09638478606939316,
0.030332747846841812,
-0.5812239050865173,
0.6151832342147827,
-0.21293295919895172,
0.07087647914886475,
-0.4485603868961334,
-0.12073250114917755,
0.47295302152633667,
-0.5244783759117126,
-0.12375655770301819,
-0.10625087469816208,
-0.37685978412628174,
0.35687771439552307,
0.04140181839466095,
0.32212430238723755,
0.0433783084154129,
0.12895196676254272,
0.5700570344924927,
-0.17836247384548187,
0.5053291916847229,
0.09800391644239426,
-0.6070573329925537,
0.10792180895805359,
0.11098131537437439,
-0.21621352434158325,
-0.3993092179298401,
0.11554878205060959,
-0.020841239020228386,
0.2808910608291626,
-0.6111342906951904,
0.2593720257282257,
-0.25169405341148376,
0.13592536747455597,
0.14460758864879608,
0.06105531007051468,
-0.0887642651796341,
-0.03669355437159538,
-0.7627556324005127,
0.0003610484709497541,
-0.32947951555252075,
-0.05683315917849541,
0.36165735125541687,
-0.3819001615047455,
0.5706197619438171,
0.3688304126262665,
-0.14230850338935852,
-0.30162879824638367,
-0.04554367810487747,
0.09222682565450668,
0.03086993843317032,
-0.27714523673057556,
0.0019033917924389243,
-0.07648446410894394,
0.2877156734466553,
-0.5221192240715027,
0.28820517659187317,
0.5119970440864563,
-0.609084963798523,
-0.3606169819831848,
0.15683722496032715,
0.06191682070493698,
-0.14244627952575684,
0.051121700555086136,
-0.34192895889282227,
0.28496381640434265,
0.0661676898598671,
-0.15093210339546204,
-0.2570890188217163,
0.3388141989707947,
-0.2852310538291931,
-0.13893991708755493,
0.02264764904975891,
0.35412314534187317,
0.2248711884021759,
0.11439519375562668,
0.45325982570648193,
-0.13954178988933563,
0.45290639996528625,
-0.48983246088027954,
0.5828150510787964,
-0.2582886219024658,
0.009341266006231308,
-0.25708597898483276,
0.16882112622261047,
0.5689089894294739,
-0.2968940734863281,
-0.4418787360191345,
-0.5134665369987488,
-0.15650388598442078,
0.12239578366279602,
-0.9185446500778198,
0.4338420033454895,
-0.2854810655117035,
-0.11323026567697525,
-0.9059498310089111,
0.45273318886756897,
0.18424101173877716,
-0.37357228994369507,
0.11864705383777618,
-0.11964195966720581,
-0.5426299571990967,
0.524248480796814,
0.05269031599164009,
-0.4822394549846649,
-0.3285387456417084,
0.7278892397880554
] |
203693
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anouvong
|
Anouvong
|
Chao Anouvong (; ; ), or regnal name Xaiya Setthathirath V (; ; ), (1767 – 1829), led the Lao rebellion (1826–28) as the last monarch of the Kingdom of Vientiane. Anouvong succeeded to the throne in 1805 upon the death of his brother, Chao Inthavong (; ), Xaiya Setthathirath IV, who had succeeded their father, Ong Bun or Phrachao Siribounyasan (; ) Xaiya Setthathirath III. Anou was known by his father's regal number until recently discovered records disclosed that his father and brother had the same regal name.
Reign
In 1779, following the fall of Vientiane to the army of Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom, the city was looted but was spared destruction. However, the Emerald Buddha and several other important Buddha images were taken to Thonburi, and the sons and daughter of Ong Bun or King Siribounyasan were taken as hostages, along with several thousand Lao families, who were resettled in Saraburi, north of the Thai capital. Siribounyasan had three sons, who were all to succeed him as king of Vientiane – Nanthasen, Inthavong, and Anouvong.
On the death of King Siribounyasan in 1781, Siam allowed his eldest son, Nathasen, to return to Vientiane as king. He was permitted to take with him the Phra Bang, a gold Buddharupa that had, according to legend had been originally brought from Angkor by Fa Ngum, the first king of Lan Xang, and was taken to Thonburi in 1779. In 1791, Nanthasan convinced Rama I that King Anourouth of Luang Phrabang was secretly meeting with the Bamar-ruled Konbaung Kingdom and plotting a rebellion against Thonburi. Nathasan was allowed to attack Luang Prabang and capture the city in 1792. The Luang Phrabang royal family were sent to Bangkok as prisoners and remained there for four years. Two years later, Nanthasan was himself accused of plotting a rebellion with the Lao governor of Nakhon Phanom, allegedly having made diplomatic overtures to Tây Sơn Vietnam. Nanthasen was arrested and possibly executed in 1794.
In 1795, Inthavong was installed as King of Vientiane, with his brother Anouvong assuming the traditional post of oupahat (, "vice-king"). Burmese armies invaded Siam in both 1797 and 1802, and Inthavong dispatched several Lao armies under Anouvong to assist in the defense. Anouvong gained recognition for his bravery and won several major victories at Sipsong Chao Thai.
Inthavong died in 1804, and Anouvong succeeded him as the ruler of Vientiane. However, by 1813 he had begun a series of religious and symbolic acts which remain highly controversial. Anouvong called a great council of the sangha, only the third ever held in Laotian history, and it was decided that a new Emerald Buddha would be carved. Anouvong ordered repairs on the Ho Phra Kèo, and also ordered several new temples to be established and dedicated to the Emerald Buddha. Bizarrely, he ordered a major bridge to be built across the wide Mekong.
In 1819 Anouvong rushed to suppress a rebellion in the Kingdom of Champasak, led by a charismatic monk, who had caused the ruler to flee to Bangkok. Anouvong's son Nyô led an army south from Vientiane and easily suppressed the uprising. As the king of Champasak had died, Rama II of Siam appointed Nyô the new ruler of Champasak. Anouvong had succeeded in uniting two of the three Lao kingdoms under his control. Also that year, Anouwong ordered the construction of Wat Si Saket, which was completed in 1824. The temple was a major statement of his authority, since it was oriented so that when Anouvong's vassals came to pledge their annual allegiance, they physically turned their backs on Bangkok.
Funeral of Rama II
Rama II died in 1824, and it was unclear who would succeed him. The likely successors were young Mongkut, who was the son of Queen Sri Suriyendra, and Mongkut's elder and more experienced half-brother Jessadabodindra, who was only the son of a court concubine. A crisis was avoided when Prince Mongkut chose to become a bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) and Jessadabodindra ascended as Rama III.
The potential crisis had caused the military to be on high alert, and the British Empire, who had recently begun the First Anglo-Burmese War, monitored closely the situation.
In the midst of these events, the Lao kings of Luang Phrabang, Vientiane, and Champasak made their way to Bangkok for the royal funeral ceremonies to be held the following year in accordance with custom. Rama III had already begun implementing the census and forced tattooing policies in the Khorat Plateau. Anouvong's retinue and one of his sons were impressed into corvee projects, including digging canals, felling sugar palms, harvesting bamboo, and constructing the Phra Samut Chedi. At one of the projects, Anouvong's son allegedly had been mocked and possibly even beaten. Anouvong was furious and cut short the traditional obeisance at the Chakri court.
It is not clear whether Anouvong had decided to rebel during his stay in Bangkok, or he had planned it earlier and was just awaiting an excuse. Nevertheless, he made demands before he left. He wanted the return of the Emerald Buddha (which had originally been brought to Vientiane from Chiang Mai), the release of his sister (taken hostage forty-five years earlier), and the return of the Lao families who had been relocated in Saraburi. Thai historians write that Anouvong rebelled over a personal slight, since each of his requests was denied and he was told he could return with only one dancer from his retinue. However, the intensity of his rebellion suggests that his motivations were more complex.
Rebellion
By 1826, Anouvong was making military preparations for rebellion. His strategy involved three key points: 1) respond to the immediate crisis caused by the popular discontent over the forced tattooing; 2) remove the ethnic Lao on the Khorat Plateau to the Kingdom of Vientiane, conducting a scorched Earth policy as he did so to slow the inevitable Siamese pursuit; and 3) seek a diplomatic victory by gaining support from Vietnam, China or Britain.
Anouvong may have believed that the balance of power in Southeast Asia was turning away from Siam. The factionalism at the Siamese court, the presence of the British in nearby Burma, the growing influence of Vietnam in the Cambodian provinces, and the regional dissatisfaction in the Lao areas suggested that Siamese power was waning. In 1826, the British had arrived to finalize the Burney Treaty between Siam and the British Empire, and the presence of the British fleet may have led Anouvong to believe that an invasion was imminent. However, his most serious miscalculation was in the disparity of military power between Siam and Laos. From at least 1822, Siam had been purchasing large quantities of modern firearms and ammunition from Britain, which had a military surplus from the recently ended Napoleonic Wars.
In December 1826, Anouvong's rebellion began with an army of 10 000 men making its way toward Kalasin, following the path of the Siamese tattooing officials. In January, Anouvong led a second larger force towards Nakhon Ratchasima and was able to take the city by a ruse. A contingent of Anouvong's army was sent to Lomsak and Chaiyaphum, before making its way to Saraburi to bring the Lao families there back to Vientiane. A fourth army led by Anouvong's son Nyô, the King of Champasak, was dispatched to take Ubon. All of these armies moved under a web of misinformation and false dispatches that warned of impending attacks on Siam by neighbouring powers.
Anouvong's planned retreats were slowed by the civilians who occupied the roads and passes. Lao commanders also delayed to search for the Thai officials responsible for tattooing, forcing those captured to march north as prisoners. Anouvong wasted foolishly over a month searching for the governor of Nakhon Ratchasima, who had been a key figure in the tattooing and population transfers.
Siam quickly organized a massive counterstrike and dispatched two armies, one by way of Saraburi to retake Nakhon Ratchasima, and the other through the Pasak Valley towards Lomsak. Anouvong's forces withdrew to Nong Bua Lamphu, the strongest fortress on the Khorat Plateau and traditionally held by the crown prince of Vientiane. After a three-day battle, Nong Bua Lamphu finally fell, and Anouvong's men fell back to a second line of defence. Siamese strength and modern arms were greater than what Anouvong had imagined, and his armies continued to march towards Vientiane. They defended the city for five days, as Anouvong fled for his life towards the border with Vietnam.
Siamese general Phraya Ratchasuphawadi, later promoted to Chao Phraya Bodindecha, at last took Anouvong's capital city. He sacked the palaces and levelled the city's defences, but he left the monasteries and much of the city intact. Following the sacking of Vientiane, the rulers of Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, Nan, Phrae, and the kingdom of Luang Phrabang all pledged their renewed allegiance to Siam, although Phraya Bodindecha noted that they had “waited to see the turn of events, and their actions greatly depended on the outcome of the war.”
Bodindecha spent several months organizing the removal of the remaining people from around Vientiane and confiscating all arms and ammunition. He then left a small garrison across the river opposite the empty city and returned to the Khorat Plateau.
Anouvong eventually returned with about 1 000 soldiers and 100 Vietnamese observers. This small force was meant only to negotiate a settlement with Siam. However, he learned that a nine-spire stupa had been erected as a victory monument at Wat Thung Sawang Chaiyaphum (วัดทุ่งสว่างชัยภูมิ) in the town of Yasothon. This enraged him, and he crossed the Mekong and attacked the 300 Thai defenders, killing all but about 40. The now furious Rama III ordered Chao Phraya Bodindecha to return and completely destroy Vientiane, and to capture Anouvong at all costs.
Chao Phraya Bondindecha pursued Anouvong to Xieng Khouang, where according to some accounts he was betrayed by Chao Noy and handed over to the Siamese. Anouvong and his family were placed under heavy guard and marched to Bangkok. A British observer recalled:
Aftermath
The city of Vientiane was totally destroyed and its population completely relocated. The destruction was so thorough that the first French explorers more than 30 years later found only ruins in a jungle to show where the city had once been. The remaining Lao kingdoms of Champasak and Luang Phrabang understandably came under stricter control and arms limitations, while the Khorat Plateau was formally annexed by Siam. Regional rivals Siam and Vietnam would come into increasing conflict over control of the inland trade and Lao territory, leading to the Siamese-Vietnamese Wars of the 1830s. Vietnam annexed the Lao principality of Xieng Khouang, and Chinese bandits after the Taiping rebellion were able to force their way down the Mekong River to fight what became known as the Haw Wars of the 1860s. The first French explorers navigating the Mekong River used the political vacuum as a convenient excuse to create their own colony of French Indochina.
Legacy
The most significant legacy of Anouvong's Lao Rebellion was the impact of the forced population transfers throughout the region. As a consequence of the warfare and population transfers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there are now over 19 million ethnic Lao living in the Isan region of Thailand, while less than 6 million live in the independent country of Laos.
During the French colonial period, Vientiane was rebuilt as the Laotian capital in a deliberate attempt win favor and to demonstrate French authority.
Several accounts of the Siamese-Lao conflict have been written by historians and authorities, many in direct conflict with one another. In particular, the accounts of the Siamese heroines Thao Suranari (or “Lady Mo”) and Khunying Bunleu have been popularized and possibly exaggerated. During the 1930s, Field Marshall Phibun promoted Siamese legends as part of a political and military campaign to unify all of the Tai peoples.
The Siamese government also named schools and a museum after the victorious general. However, modern Lao nationalist movements have turned Anouvong into a hero, even though his rebellion caused the end of the kingdom of Lan Xang, the destruction of Vientiane, and a permanent division of the Lao people between the country of Laos and the Lao-speaking provinces of northeastern Thailand. Nevertheless, his rebellion is regarded as the point at which Lao nationality and identity solidified. He has been credited with the existence of the modern country of Laos, which might have otherwise have been completely incorporated into Thailand, as was the neighboring Tai Yuan kingdom of Lanna.
Memorials
Anouvong had ordered Wat Si Saket to be built in Vientiane, and his name will always be connected with it. An elephant howdah he once owned and used is on display in the Lao National Museum in Vientiane.
In 2010, to coincide with the 450th Anniversary celebrations of Vientiane, the Laos government created Chao Anouvong Park, complete with a large bronze statue of the locally revered ruler.
Children
Chao Anouvong had 27 children.
Prince
Prince Sudhisara Suriya (Sonthesan Sua or Poh)
Prince Nagaya (Ngao)
Prince Yuva (Rajabud Yoh or Nyô), viceroy of Champasak
Prince Deva (Teh)
Prince Barna (Banh)
Prince Duang Chandra (Duang Chanh)
Prince Kiminhiya (Khi Menh), viceroy of Vientiane
Prince Kamabinga (Kham Pheng)
Prince Oanaya (Pane)
Prince Suvarna Chakra (Suvannachak)
Prince Jayasara (Sayasane)
Prince Suriya (Suea)
Prince Maen
Prince Jangaya (Chang)
Prince Ungagama (Ung Kham)
Prince Khatiyara (Khattignah)
Prince Buddhasada (Phuthasath)
Prince Tissabunga (Disaphong)
Prince Dhanandra (Theman)
Prince Hien Noi
Prince Ong-La
Prince Phui
Prince Chang
Prince Khi
Prince Anura (Nu)
Prince Thuan
Prince Di
Princess
Princess Nujini (Nu Chin)
Princess Sri
Princess Chandrajumini (Chantarachome)
Princess Gamavani (Kham Vanh)
Princess Jangami (Siang Kham)
Princess Gamabangi (Kham Pheng)
Princess Buyi (Nang Nu)
See also
Lao rebellion (1826–28)
Military history of Thailand
Laos–Thailand relations
References
External links
Report on murder of couple claiming Lao royal descent presented by Alan Potkin, Ph. D. Adjunct Consultant, Center for the NIU Center for Southeast Asian Studies
Chao Anouvong Park honours kingly deeds
Effigies of the former kings Chao Fangum and Chao Anouvong
King Anouvong or Chao Anou
Chao Anouvong stadium
Kings of Vientiane
1767 births
1829 deaths
19th century in Vientiane
19th-century monarchs in Asia
18th-century Laotian people
19th-century Laotian people
|
[
0.07355410605669022,
0.5846675038337708,
-0.2728886008262634,
-0.10764142870903015,
-0.37931957840919495,
0.2079782634973526,
0.23161830008029938,
0.1117822453379631,
-0.8022011518478394,
0.1477334201335907,
-0.21912986040115356,
0.41458067297935486,
-0.5484004616737366,
-0.09501449018716812,
-0.491707444190979,
0.2984943389892578,
0.9926741123199463,
-0.02873833477497101,
0.2508102357387543,
-0.6902642846107483,
-0.06652338802814484,
-0.11627862602472305,
0.27045685052871704,
0.35054633021354675,
0.11341696977615356,
0.09924036264419556,
0.17981834709644318,
-0.21314354240894318,
0.6483079791069031,
-0.3411538004875183,
-0.14056715369224548,
0.5877807140350342,
0.48606806993484497,
-0.11939650028944016,
-0.6682232022285461,
0.182778462767601,
0.48654380440711975,
-0.027397550642490387,
-0.27457189559936523,
0.10490850359201431,
-0.8217114210128784,
0.02151859551668167,
0.21291226148605347,
0.15757165849208832,
0.041257474571466446,
-1.0082461833953857,
-0.9006367921829224,
0.6649247407913208,
-0.2188519388437271,
0.02743040770292282,
-0.4180290400981903,
0.6072705984115601,
-0.11665696650743484,
-0.11154305934906006,
0.2803886830806732,
0.13974177837371826,
-0.7342816591262817,
-0.5292243957519531,
-0.7083197236061096,
-0.09217530488967896,
0.47141048312187195,
0.2719633877277374,
-0.06549318134784698,
-0.04820454493165016,
-0.49549099802970886,
0.22828726470470428,
-0.06340043246746063,
0.049108389765024185,
-0.05120030790567398,
-0.09444797784090042,
0.07110179215669632,
1.1666059494018555,
0.0670463815331459,
-0.06502073258161545,
0.0951802209019661,
-0.4973776340484619,
-0.22906039655208588,
-0.20632623136043549,
0.5727980732917786,
-0.3423996865749359,
0.3494415283203125,
-0.24618586897850037,
0.625119149684906,
0.6328957676887512,
-0.32595667243003845,
0.21198813617229462,
-0.15118472278118134,
0.4600377380847931,
0.13051605224609375,
-0.20181547105312347,
-0.19295629858970642,
-0.009883199818432331,
0.6942620277404785,
-0.10874680429697037,
-0.9144247770309448,
-0.17367371916770935,
-0.23565304279327393,
0.39337319135665894,
0.30046188831329346,
-0.12668867409229279,
0.48380544781684875,
0.02153824269771576,
0.18673966825008392,
-0.36739835143089294,
-1.04501473903656,
-0.03223379701375961,
-0.41244909167289734,
0.3863796591758728,
-0.7459900975227356,
-0.7625488042831421,
-0.8721725344657898,
0.4545925557613373,
-0.08249714225530624,
0.23625539243221283,
0.44850271940231323,
0.03899291530251503,
0.05810244381427765,
0.026203257963061333,
0.40626561641693115,
-0.3465907573699951,
0.2883235812187195,
0.7727291584014893,
-0.186475932598114,
0.5467426776885986,
0.03319288045167923,
0.009671684354543686,
-0.23342439532279968,
-0.0947645753622055,
-0.25104591250419617,
0.44521018862724304,
0.43214577436447144,
0.5762854814529419,
-0.46016234159469604,
0.11583062261343002,
0.29944831132888794,
-0.38116252422332764,
0.5458175539970398,
0.30198803544044495,
0.6344606876373291,
-0.059049878269433975,
-0.9667757153511047,
-0.03844301775097847,
-0.7225536108016968,
0.6899859309196472,
0.23716576397418976,
0.3813314735889435,
-0.04255131259560585,
0.03118376061320305,
-0.15918724238872528,
-0.3061777353286743,
0.18494994938373566,
-0.9081613421440125,
-0.25708484649658203,
-0.23810985684394836,
-0.5224094986915588,
0.4843287765979767,
0.4074319899082184,
0.05503547564148903,
-0.16549167037010193,
0.10491673648357391,
0.4540407061576843,
0.21607396006584167,
0.1366645246744156,
-0.13343743979930878,
1.0280640125274658,
-0.39673200249671936,
-0.3573894500732422,
0.47739094495773315,
-0.7665590047836304,
-0.31319907307624817,
-0.2447836697101593,
-0.03695235028862953,
-0.40192916989326477,
-0.31273844838142395,
0.08395646512508392,
0.5096372961997986,
-0.039901912212371826,
0.08404280990362167,
0.023649046197533607,
0.01883336901664734,
-0.48852965235710144,
0.7858185768127441,
0.3059137761592865,
0.017435744404792786,
0.6702944040298462,
0.45142263174057007,
0.33376386761665344,
-0.3438810706138611,
0.842806875705719,
0.08428817242383957,
-0.5878610014915466,
-0.39180368185043335,
0.29833829402923584,
-0.3564705550670624,
0.31982144713401794,
0.5609583854675293,
0.39793550968170166,
0.6568440794944763,
0.2622167766094208,
0.8273373246192932,
0.2782118022441864,
-0.05045848712325096,
0.6654297709465027,
-0.4309558570384979,
-0.8054304718971252,
0.6145639419555664,
0.08567937463521957,
0.6713876724243164,
0.6651315689086914,
0.8200527429580688,
0.6421447396278381,
0.08523616939783096,
-0.42496025562286377,
0.12356245517730713,
0.2807316780090332,
-0.5452250838279724,
-0.6187088489532471,
0.17624981701374054,
-0.5854085683822632,
0.023507941514253616,
-0.05242495611310005,
-0.5250741243362427,
-0.2189043164253235,
0.5678075551986694,
0.04238292574882507,
1.3136653900146484,
-0.20895053446292877,
-0.7965756058692932,
-0.18438126146793365,
-0.630462110042572,
-0.1090393140912056,
-0.21285469830036163,
0.38612011075019836,
-0.22964854538440704,
0.39983394742012024,
0.12933877110481262,
-0.14813290536403656,
-0.054717302322387695,
0.45104891061782837,
-0.6958442330360413,
0.3807331621646881,
-0.18710191547870636,
-0.07718614488840103,
0.2330937683582306,
-0.17197208106517792,
0.6382381916046143,
-0.9143120050430298,
-0.4005388915538788,
-0.5432847738265991,
-0.03842872008681297,
-0.10487373173236847,
-0.20060153305530548,
0.6041867136955261,
0.046921875327825546,
-0.03251608833670616,
-0.1968332976102829,
-0.3317502737045288,
0.12071653455495834,
-0.1694849133491516,
-0.11624111980199814,
-0.22569407522678375,
-0.4315943717956543,
0.6060522794723511,
0.3210827708244324,
0.42681580781936646,
-0.12634791433811188,
-0.27849990129470825,
-0.3430670201778412,
0.13173644244670868,
0.5162450075149536,
-0.24573175609111786,
-0.2899496853351593,
-0.2579857409000397,
-0.4096173942089081,
-0.4047836661338806,
-0.531982958316803,
-0.39351075887680054,
0.7339809536933899,
-0.7197510004043579,
-1.02396559715271,
0.9898864030838013,
0.555119514465332,
-0.03764905780553818,
-0.6647686958312988,
-0.34123700857162476,
-0.41060349345207214,
0.025906438007950783,
-0.15668530762195587,
0.19006267189979553,
0.26972368359565735,
0.1906527876853943,
0.15328803658485413,
0.17275509238243103,
-0.3572060465812683,
0.15034295618534088,
-0.2581552565097809,
-0.5340930223464966,
0.5253656506538391,
0.5326921939849854,
-0.571989893913269,
-0.22292444109916687,
-0.02355143614113331,
-0.19175782799720764,
-0.019064558669924736,
0.5028209090232849,
0.10207030177116394,
0.19822534918785095,
0.003958288114517927,
-5.558217525482178,
0.03067326359450817,
0.6916249394416809,
-0.49534356594085693,
-0.0823206678032875,
0.07511842995882034,
0.4503902494907379,
-0.1753600686788559,
0.5123249888420105,
-0.47275078296661377,
0.19622132182121277,
-0.1078038215637207,
0.25420859456062317,
0.1275741308927536,
0.1398373246192932,
0.3969780504703522,
-0.0719054713845253,
-0.3279978930950165,
0.4932437539100647,
0.7596840262413025,
0.3644914925098419,
-0.08104041963815689,
-0.03312410041689873,
0.5170706510543823,
0.22304227948188782,
0.29875171184539795,
0.08410962671041489,
-0.3574170172214508,
-0.9177548885345459,
-0.40448564291000366,
-0.5406084060668945,
0.23957334458827972,
0.5866345167160034,
-0.13098004460334778,
-0.3365516662597656,
-0.5784279704093933,
0.43054908514022827,
-0.1314297616481781,
-0.23714306950569153,
-0.22312018275260925,
0.3259170949459076,
-0.762335479259491,
-0.3465375602245331,
0.012238143011927605,
-0.04711725935339928,
-0.3399352431297302,
-0.3084254264831543,
-0.09330527484416962,
-0.19883857667446136,
0.4212757349014282,
0.1867811679840088,
-0.36049729585647583,
0.27914193272590637,
-0.5467908382415771,
0.04210028052330017,
0.45431700348854065,
-0.3965757191181183,
0.3777541518211365,
-0.5113720893859863,
0.6348907351493835,
0.5320941209793091,
0.0819130688905716,
-0.33018267154693604,
-0.002192643005400896,
0.06145791709423065,
-0.1944132000207901,
0.41743606328964233,
0.12209203094244003,
0.22823219001293182,
0.7446300387382507,
-0.11331137269735336,
0.5281011462211609,
-0.1420929878950119,
-0.353769451379776,
0.01215659361332655,
-0.004617235157638788,
-0.15724554657936096,
0.30984196066856384,
0.11444182693958282,
0.036248695105314255,
-0.44372791051864624,
0.10575505346059799,
0.7101485729217529,
0.9878656268119812,
0.21704153716564178,
0.04616900533437729,
-0.3904860317707062,
0.8212887048721313,
0.20716603100299835,
0.8697296380996704,
0.35008203983306885,
-0.6170235872268677,
-0.03817438706755638,
0.3686148226261139,
0.2429632842540741,
0.128497913479805,
0.4415314197540283,
-0.14407502114772797,
0.8751552104949951,
0.2513890564441681,
0.30660274624824524,
0.028104009106755257,
0.34677574038505554,
-0.2957213819026947,
-0.1378464549779892,
0.044172972440719604,
-0.2933344542980194,
-0.20709586143493652,
0.14519551396369934,
0.4643189609050751,
-0.16403070092201233,
0.10662870854139328,
0.5436737537384033,
-0.1151060163974762,
0.5174607038497925,
-0.6242530941963196,
0.2268129140138626,
-0.25164079666137695,
0.37907931208610535,
-0.25073888897895813,
-0.5261543393135071,
0.7995487451553345,
-0.10489588230848312,
0.35321539640426636,
0.5262202024459839,
-0.34167829155921936,
-0.31637200713157654,
0.4895048141479492,
0.09359672665596008,
-0.32515373826026917,
0.07867103815078735,
-0.4089672267436981,
0.5177175998687744,
-0.45849135518074036,
0.0017203839961439371,
-1.042353868484497,
0.2247176617383957,
-0.6930725574493408,
-0.28015607595443726,
0.014536932110786438,
-0.4345070421695709,
-0.4618081748485565,
-0.538368284702301,
0.15817178785800934,
0.23860929906368256,
0.025438668206334114,
0.1431838721036911,
-0.17135950922966003,
0.001728104893118143,
0.5404260158538818,
0.011923261918127537,
-0.6005113124847412,
0.8866658806800842,
-0.15267550945281982,
-0.27626970410346985,
-0.4821091592311859,
-0.1655316948890686,
-0.16309736669063568,
0.24709399044513702,
0.4599316120147705,
0.15710869431495667,
-0.49854576587677,
-0.7972793579101562,
-0.03347812592983246,
-0.40214407444000244,
0.30543017387390137,
0.9211800694465637,
0.15630649030208588,
-0.48102903366088867,
0.6774953007698059,
0.4337919354438782,
-0.6170094013214111,
-0.25197634100914,
0.01473467331379652,
0.31897470355033875,
-0.7159483432769775,
-0.24239510297775269,
0.25645971298217773,
-0.1214117482304573,
-0.4248295724391937,
-0.5618286728858948,
-0.04319005087018013,
-0.06579066067934036,
0.36321938037872314,
0.4723467528820038,
-0.01810157485306263,
-0.19321340322494507,
-0.5363931059837341,
-0.5542699694633484,
0.0943327471613884,
-0.045925483107566833,
0.04236545041203499,
-0.39202186465263367,
-0.027720976620912552,
-0.2660444378852844,
-0.4508925676345825,
-0.7327904105186462,
0.2576266825199127,
0.2785125970840454,
0.3589945435523987,
-0.25319117307662964,
0.15646009147167206,
0.3208686113357544,
-0.03722664341330528,
-0.16731321811676025,
-0.5160696506500244,
0.5664281249046326,
-0.24961799383163452,
0.263468474149704,
-0.08025579899549484,
-0.16503657400608063,
-0.7232936024665833,
0.1713249683380127,
0.8632304072380066,
-0.17768946290016174,
0.23146870732307434,
0.09116337448358536,
0.055586077272892,
0.27844148874282837,
-1.2327654361724854,
0.009018071927130222,
-0.3678077161312103,
-0.4496380388736725,
0.012615639716386795,
0.1702118217945099,
0.8210138082504272,
0.722025454044342,
-0.4336116313934326,
0.6082943081855774,
-0.15631462633609772,
-0.7873644828796387,
0.04085295647382736,
0.2650526165962219,
0.261382132768631,
-0.4715138077735901,
-0.16642451286315918,
0.8527705073356628,
0.016815314069390297,
-0.015504808165133,
-0.10359036922454834,
-0.4304564297199249,
1.3644226789474487,
-0.37043190002441406,
-0.19550178945064545,
-0.05244090408086777,
0.24825628101825714,
-0.5995462536811829,
-0.29883357882499695,
0.29907795786857605,
-0.26632288098335266,
0.07489343732595444,
0.17543968558311462,
-0.5217933654785156,
-0.9003810882568359,
0.11627811938524246,
-0.7674952745437622,
-0.29045331478118896,
0.27525249123573303,
0.3019111156463623,
0.04826442152261734,
-0.5954722762107849,
0.0824798196554184,
-0.20284296572208405,
-0.46467962861061096,
0.3065168559551239,
0.030532589182257652,
-0.14096754789352417,
0.40531060099601746,
0.18007667362689972,
-0.34446531534194946,
-0.3150946795940399,
-0.9567975997924805,
-0.1903534084558487,
-0.01621134951710701,
0.37160760164260864,
-0.18070487678050995,
-0.015861816704273224,
-0.18602600693702698,
-0.02370329014956951,
0.06586690247058868,
-0.9801895022392273,
-0.3751358091831207,
0.24846823513507843,
0.006190097890794277,
0.48484939336776733,
-0.9972435235977173,
0.20174777507781982,
0.25892260670661926,
-0.7470666170120239,
-0.1154528334736824,
-0.4571625888347626,
0.26595547795295715,
0.036279551684856415,
0.3277052044868469,
0.19728286564350128,
0.6821603178977966,
-0.0997808426618576,
1.0550686120986938,
-0.07905799150466919,
0.10572689026594162,
-0.7977832555770874,
-0.06778210401535034,
0.7319531440734863,
0.09415405243635178,
-0.423216849565506,
-0.22815102338790894,
0.3527671992778778,
-0.6854820847511292,
-0.009619174525141716,
0.6341826915740967,
0.20617204904556274,
0.061196956783533096,
0.06364493817090988,
0.015025006607174873,
-0.26439306139945984,
0.2540189325809479,
-0.009884906932711601,
-0.5336516499519348,
-0.4536561965942383,
-0.040759362280368805,
0.27481693029403687,
-0.47121965885162354,
-0.10019228607416153,
0.4845098555088043,
0.4028218686580658,
-0.09342686086893082,
-0.41715332865715027,
0.3834323287010193,
0.18903982639312744,
-0.00581818912178278,
-0.24750036001205444,
0.04268573597073555,
-0.5586317181587219,
0.4599209427833557,
-0.6018176674842834,
-0.2251216620206833,
0.23710639774799347,
-1.10539710521698,
0.3026176989078522,
0.20290562510490417,
0.6410484313964844,
0.6472886800765991,
0.029785696417093277,
-0.31616947054862976,
0.39841964840888977,
0.06914248317480087,
-0.21259614825248718,
-0.15335513651371002,
0.2985675632953644,
-0.3395223319530487,
0.09142311662435532,
0.11837925761938095,
0.14372816681861877,
-0.5079196691513062,
0.11855105310678482,
0.581618070602417,
-0.3739560842514038,
-0.12562425434589386,
0.7248383164405823,
-0.12026187777519226,
-0.18016867339611053,
-0.4604249894618988,
-0.4824632704257965,
0.1282370239496231,
0.03152718022465706,
0.31144553422927856,
0.17827469110488892,
-0.5218838453292847,
0.1935565322637558,
0.0009965401841327548,
-0.07347293198108673,
-0.35013848543167114,
-0.18987931311130524,
-0.3114122748374939,
-0.4568423330783844,
-0.20617178082466125,
0.05935380607843399,
0.20910239219665527,
-0.6109390258789062,
-0.7094443440437317,
-0.06256534159183502,
-0.22595825791358948,
0.4397895336151123,
-0.36082738637924194,
0.2239982932806015,
0.29140740633010864,
0.2900155484676361,
0.14236964285373688,
0.18247148394584656,
0.26538076996803284,
0.28450119495391846,
0.08776160329580307,
-0.21421553194522858,
-0.0674966424703598,
0.48387429118156433,
0.3451629877090454,
-0.0971103087067604,
0.7490808367729187,
0.646410346031189,
-0.11108726263046265,
0.3967015743255615,
0.038566067814826965,
-0.175896555185318,
0.19534039497375488,
0.7408803701400757,
0.19159279763698578,
-0.19952715933322906,
0.11770390719175339,
-0.6105859279632568,
0.8790392279624939,
0.03475002944469452,
0.4443221390247345,
-0.08222280442714691,
0.5356507301330566,
-0.23644308745861053,
-0.3847258388996124,
0.5799983739852905,
-0.6411733627319336,
-0.697171688079834,
-0.6395994424819946,
0.042582474648952484,
-0.4335601031780243,
-0.05716526508331299,
0.1657009720802307,
-0.24593529105186462,
-0.5818485617637634,
-0.25013771653175354,
0.3167010247707367,
0.030572256073355675,
0.4318968653678894,
-0.12024950981140137,
0.039666857570409775,
-0.5668142437934875,
-0.486860066652298,
-0.5921187996864319,
-0.33024612069129944,
0.9315773844718933,
0.6124297976493835,
-0.5791196823120117,
-0.22371889650821686,
-0.4043637812137604,
-0.10527657717466354,
0.49163487553596497,
0.5962550044059753,
0.2560688853263855,
-0.24312159419059753,
0.01979336328804493,
0.0034777296241372824,
-0.6066926717758179,
0.21865147352218628,
0.17978599667549133,
0.12384538352489471,
0.34797191619873047,
-0.48745253682136536,
-0.10029009729623795,
-0.3076610565185547,
-0.019780587404966354,
0.35104361176490784,
0.13901229202747345,
0.5295979380607605
] |
203695
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setthathirath
|
Setthathirath
|
Setthathirath (; 24 January 1534 – 1571) or Xaysettha (; Chaiyachetthathirat) is considered one of the great leaders in Lao history. Throughout the 1560s until his death, he successfully defended his kingdom of Lan Xang against military campaigns of Burmese conqueror Bayinnaung, who had already subdued Xieng Mai (Chiang Mai) in 1558 and Ayutthaya in 1564. Setthathirath was a prolific builder and erected many Buddhist monuments including Wat Xieng Thong in Luang Prabang, Haw Phra Kaew, Wat Ong Teu Mahawihan and the Pha That Luang in Vientiane.
King of Lanna
Setthathirath also known as Chaiyachettha or Chaiyaset or Jayajestha, Son of the King Photisarath of Lan Xang, he was crowned King of Lanna after the death of his grandfather, Ketklao the previous King of Lanna, who died without a male heir to the throne and gave his daughter Princess Yotkhamtip in marriage to his father King Photisarath of Lan Xang.
When King Ketklao died, there was no other descendant to succeed him. High-ranking officials and Buddhist monks therefore agreed unanimously to assign the Lanna throne to Prince Setthathirath in 1546. His name was lengthened to Chao Chaiyasetthathirath.
In 1548 King Setthathirath (as King of Lanna) had taken Chiang Saen as his capital. Chiang Mai still had powerful factions at court, and the threats from Burma and Ayutthaya were growing.
King of Lan Xang
After the death of King Photisararath, the nobles of Lan Xang were divided, a group supported Prince Tha Heua, another group of nobles led by Phya Vieng, Saen Marong and Kwan Darmpa supported Prince Lanchang who was born from an Ayutthayan princess. Prince Tha Heua and Prince Lanchang began to split the Kingdom up between them, when Prince Settathathirath was still in Chiang Mai. Hearing of the news of his half brothers, King Settathathirath quickly returned to Lan Xang leaving the affairs of Chiang Mai under Queen Chiraprapha's leadership, taking with him the Phra Kaew (Emerald Buddha), the Saekkam and the Phra Phuttha Sihing images. He also claimed that taking the statue would allow his relatives the opportunity to venerate the image and make merit. The Nobles of Lanna felt that Setthathirath had stayed away too long, and sought another descendant of Mangrai dynasty to take the throne in 1551. They chose a distant relative of Setthathirath, the Shan Prince known as Mekuti.
Settathathirath subdued Prince Tarua in Louang Phrabang, and sent his general Phya Sisatthamatailoke to go fight Prince Lanchang in the town of Kengsah, Prince Lanchang was defeated and fled to Thakhek, where the local Lord had him arrested and sent to Phya Sisatthama. The nobles that supported Prince Lanchang were executed, but Prince Setthatathirath pardoned Prince Lanchang and appointed him as governor of Seanmuang. Phya Sisatthama was thus made Lord of Viangchan, and given the title Phya Chantaburi, who built Wat Chan and Pia Wat that can be still found in Viangchan today.
In 1553 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna from Mekuti but was defeated. Again in 1555 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna at the command of Sen Soulintha, and managed to take Chiang Saen. For his success, Sen Soulintha was given the title Luxai (Victorious) and offered one of his daughters to King Setthathirath. In 1556 Burma, under King Bayinnaung invaded Lanna. King Mekuti of Lanna surrendered Chiang Mai without a fight, but was reinstated as a Burmese vassal under military occupation.
In 1560, King Setthathirath formally moved the capital of Lan Xang from Luang Prabang to Viangchan, which would remain the capital over the next two hundred and fifty years. The formal movement of the capital followed an expansive building program which included strengthening city defenses, the construction of a massive formal palace and the Haw Phra Kaew to house the Emerald Buddha, and major renovations to That Luang in Viangchan. In Luang Prabang, Wat Xieng Thong was constructed perhaps in compensation for the loss of status as the former capital of Lan Xang, and in Nakhon Phanom major renovations were made to That Phanom.
The Burmese invasions
In 1563, a treaty was signed between Lan Xang and Ayutthaya, which was sealed by the betrothal of Princess Thepkasattri (whose mother was Queen Suriyothai of Ayutthaya). However, King King Maha Chakkraphat instead tried to exchange Princess Kaeo Fa, which was immediately rejected. In the midst of the disagreement, the Burmese invaded northern Ayutthaya with the assistance of Maha Thammaracha the royal viceroy and governor of Phitsanulok. It was only then in 1564 that King Chakkraphat sent Princess Thepkasattri to Lan Xang along with a massive dowry in an attempt to buy back the broken alliance.
While the procession was en route, Maha Thammaracha ambushed the princess and sent her to his overlords in Burma; she committed suicide shortly thereafter or en route. Facing the threat of a superior Burmese force, King Chakkraphat had lost a potential alliance with Lan Xang, the northern territories of Ayutthaya and his daughter. To prevent further incursions, King Chakkraphat became a vassal of Burma and had to deliver both himself and his son Prince Ramesuan as hostages to King Bayinnaung leaving another son Prince Mahinthrathirat as a vassal in Ayutthaya.
The Burmese then turned north to depose King Mekuti of Lanna, who had failed to support the Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya in 1563. When Chiang Mai fell to the Burmese, a number of refugees fled to Viangchan and stripped of supplies. When the Burmese took Viangchan they were forced into the countryside for supplies, where King Setthathirath had organized guerrilla attacks and small raids to harass the Burmese troops. Facing disease, malnutrition and demoralizing guerrilla warfare, King Bayinnaung was forced to retreat in 1565 leaving Lan Xang the only remaining independent Tai kingdom.
Covert plans
In 1567, King Mahinthrathirat approached King Setthathirath with covert plans for Ayutthaya to rebel against Burma by launching a counterattack against Mahathammarachathirat in Phitsanulok. The plan would involve an overland invasion from Lan Xang with assistance from the royal navy in Ayutthaya passing up the Nan River. Mahathammarachathirat was in Burma at the time, and Maha Chakkraphat had been allowed to return to Ayutthaya as Burma was facing small rebellions in the Shan areas.
The plan was discovered and reinforcements were sent to Phitsanulok. Realizing Phitsanulok was too fortified, Setthathirath withdrew his attack, but set up a devastating counter ambush on his retreat to Vientiane in which five pursuing Burmese generals were killed. Seizing on the weakness, King Chakkraphat ordered a second attack on Phitsanulok in which he successfully took the city, but could only briefly hold it having suffered repeated heavy losses.
King Bayinnaung sent a massive invasion in 1568 in response to the uprising. In early 1569, the city of Ayutthaya was directly under threat and Vientiane sent reinforcements. The Burmese had planned on the reinforcements however and Setthathirath fell into a trap. After a two-day struggle the Lan Xang forces prevailed at the Pa Sak Valley near Phetchabun, at which point one of the commanding generals from Nakhon Phanom broke south toward Ayutthaya. The Burmese rallied and were able to destroy the divided forces, and Setthathirath had to retreat toward Viangchan.
The Burmese then focused their attack on Ayutthaya and took the city. King Setthathirath upon reaching Vientiane ordered an immediate evacuation. The Burmese took several weeks to regroup and rest having taken Ayutthaya, which allowed Setthathirath to rally his forces and plan for prolonged guerrilla warfare. The Burmese arrived in Viangchan and were able to take the lightly defended city. Just as in 1565, Setthathirath began a guerrilla campaign from his base near the Nam Ngum River, northeast of Vientiane. In 1570 Bayinnaung retreated, Setthathirath counterattacked and more than 30,000 were taken prisoner, along with 100 elephants, and 2,300 pieces of ivory from the retreating Burmese.
In 1571, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and Lan Na were Burmese vassals. Having twice defended Lan Xang from Burmese invasions, King Setthathirath moved south to conduct a campaign against the Khmer Empire. Defeating the Khmer would have greatly strengthened Lan Xang, giving it vital sea access, trade opportunities, and most importantly, European firearms which had been growing use since the early 1500s. The Khmer Chronicles record that armies from Lan Xang invaded in 1571 and 1572, during the second invasion King Barom Reacha I was slain in an elephant duel. The Khmer must have rallied and Lan Xang retreated.
Death and aftermath
In 1571, a conspiracy between Lord Phya Nakhon and the former abbot of Wat Maximavat, who held personal grudges against Setthathirath, led to the king's murder in the southern frontier of the country. He was 37 years of age.
Because Setthathirath left only a toddler as his heir, prince Noi Hno Muang Keo Koumane, the child's maternal grandfather, a military commander of common birth named Sen Soulintha, declared himself king. This began a period of turbulence, with different kings ruling unsteadily for short periods, which saw the country finally conquered by King Bayinnaung in 1574, and the toddler son of Setthathirath taken to Burma. with a fratricide by a crown prince; with a rebellion led by someone claiming to be Setthathirath-resurrected; and with a nine-year period in which the country had no king. (The Burmese would rule Laos for eighteen years.) Quarrels and conflicts among the feudal nobility and their followings led to disruptions and unrest within the population.
With the country in chaos, Prince Noi Hno Muang Keo Koumane was always recognised as the rightful king by the people of Laos who campaigned for his return for many years. They finally succeeded when they sent a delegation to Burma after he had come of age in 1590. Released from captivity in Burma by King Nanda Bayin, he returned to Vientiane where he was crowned in 1591. Declared his independence from the Burmese in 1593, but suffered several attacks from them throughout his reign.
There was little peace in Laos until King Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne in 1637 (possibly in 1638).
Family
Father: Photisarath - King of Lan Xang (r. 1520–1548)
Mother: Queen Yudhi Karma Devi (Yot Kam Tip), Nang Nhot-Kham - (m. 1533) daughter of Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna
Consorts and their Respective Issue:
Princess Dharmadevi (Ton Tip) - (m. 1546) daughter of his maternal grandfather, Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna
Princess Dharmakami (Ton Kam) - (m. 1546) daughter of his maternal grandfather, Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna.
Princess Devisra Kshatriyi (Tepsakatri) - (m. 1563), younger daughter of Maha Chakkraphat King of Ayudhya (r. 1548-1564; 1568-1569) by Queen Suriyothai
a daughter of Phragna Sen Soulinthara Lusai - King of Lan Xang (r. 1546-1551)
Prince Nu Muang Kaeva Kumara (Phragna Nakorn-Noi No Muang Keo Koumane) - King of Lan Xang (r. 1571–1572(?); 1591-1598)
a lady from Indapatha-negara
by unknown women
Princess Khau Pheng - (married in 1560 with Prince Kham Khon (Kham Done) Prince of Xieng Xouang (d. 1567), younger son of Prince Su Bun Lan Thai, Prince of S’ieng Wong S’ieng Wang
See also
List of monarchs of Laos
Notes
References
Lorrillard, Michel (1999) "La Succession de Setthathirat : réappréciation d'une période de l'histoire du Lan Xang," Aseanie 4 December 1999, pp. 44–64.
Phothisane, Souneth. (1996). The Nidan Khun Borom: Annotated Translation and Analysis,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland. [This is a translation of a Lan Chang chronicle]
Wyatt, David K. and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo (1995). The Chiangmai Chronicle. Chiangmai:
Silkworm Books, pp. 118–127 [This source records the history of Setthathirath as a ruler of both Lan Chang and Chiang Mai]
Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History, New Haven (Yale University Press), 2003. [Concise description of his reign]
Kings of Lan Xang
Laotian military leaders
1534 births
1571 deaths
16th-century Laotian people
16th-century military personnel
16th-century monarchs in Asia
Laotian Theravada Buddhists
Monarchs of Laos
16th-century murdered monarchs
1540s in Asia
1560s in Asia
1570s in Asia
|
[
0.08358006179332733,
0.6271337270736694,
-0.6273574829101562,
0.03239372372627258,
-0.5480598211288452,
0.41223403811454773,
0.3967440128326416,
-0.22274097800254822,
-0.8208746910095215,
0.017706025391817093,
-0.4642653465270996,
0.5079635381698608,
-0.3234086036682129,
-0.09888320416212082,
-0.7714531421661377,
0.09738669544458389,
0.7389260530471802,
-0.04391304776072502,
-0.16417205333709717,
-0.35542628169059753,
-0.35731685161590576,
0.028563067317008972,
0.1362677812576294,
0.14862406253814697,
0.36014193296432495,
0.3161188066005707,
0.3970779776573181,
-0.2560076415538788,
0.8027373552322388,
-0.3236629068851471,
-0.0335184745490551,
0.3775315284729004,
0.1323866993188858,
-0.6145519018173218,
-0.8232480883598328,
0.632904589176178,
0.45143046975135803,
0.25960469245910645,
-0.02322067879140377,
-0.16048213839530945,
-0.46549421548843384,
0.3002372682094574,
0.2491094172000885,
0.3017331659793854,
0.021893806755542755,
-0.5992408990859985,
-1.1363627910614014,
0.3491860628128052,
-0.44684457778930664,
-0.1110970601439476,
-0.4376186728477478,
0.4736368656158447,
-0.09516042470932007,
0.0663890689611435,
0.1615826040506363,
0.527016282081604,
-1.4112859964370728,
-0.15530991554260254,
-0.5434347987174988,
0.3692058324813843,
0.12644943594932556,
0.27660542726516724,
0.027242552489042282,
-0.1594204157590866,
-0.09984889626502991,
0.15709632635116577,
-0.2603931427001953,
0.46195024251937866,
0.2050565928220749,
-0.14171433448791504,
0.1435222327709198,
0.8267350196838379,
-0.28444579243659973,
0.21093446016311646,
0.5513600707054138,
-0.5739111304283142,
-0.0593242347240448,
0.21895532310009003,
0.6665093302726746,
-0.5685200691223145,
-0.19105170667171478,
0.08833647519350052,
0.614660382270813,
0.591942548751831,
-0.10997673869132996,
-0.13876019418239594,
-0.04958795756101608,
0.1453235149383545,
-0.07676263153553009,
-0.047015681862831116,
-0.027930904179811478,
-0.16488772630691528,
0.5895242691040039,
-0.16215398907661438,
-0.6322750449180603,
-0.04437064751982689,
-0.1280430108308792,
0.36926040053367615,
0.09972550719976425,
0.02084439992904663,
0.3650761842727661,
-0.02463584393262863,
0.23941367864608765,
-0.5559245347976685,
-0.8037591576576233,
0.26876503229141235,
-0.42543092370033264,
-0.09732536226511002,
-0.8527134656906128,
-0.5495263338088989,
-0.9437111616134644,
0.39209866523742676,
0.07384397089481354,
0.013048477470874786,
0.46810010075569153,
0.3293199837207794,
0.20722699165344238,
-0.376571923494339,
0.22634640336036682,
-0.6169631481170654,
0.3707796335220337,
0.43393591046333313,
0.013692699372768402,
0.38556766510009766,
-0.18948934972286224,
0.09950436651706696,
0.3848337233066559,
0.5919896960258484,
-0.36257752776145935,
0.21280406415462494,
-0.18942688405513763,
0.5441083312034607,
-0.45420411229133606,
-0.18978869915008545,
-0.10339532792568207,
-0.14650432765483856,
0.7444953322410583,
0.4169093668460846,
0.5018226504325867,
0.11610711365938187,
-0.7191590070724487,
-0.21177791059017181,
-0.535965085029602,
0.5771417617797852,
0.213585764169693,
0.23598651587963104,
0.06884585320949554,
0.14839637279510498,
-0.24641986191272736,
0.021825363859534264,
0.033083099871873856,
-0.3972311019897461,
0.042526427656412125,
-0.08111383020877838,
-0.5351766347885132,
0.46921512484550476,
0.5210222601890564,
-0.10185065865516663,
-0.1956307590007782,
0.23751291632652283,
0.4580913782119751,
0.005063185002654791,
-0.16087797284126282,
-0.25429922342300415,
0.5511698126792908,
-0.2878609001636505,
-0.5784329175949097,
0.3483429253101349,
-0.3501550853252411,
-0.07501247525215149,
-0.40540850162506104,
0.11753473430871964,
-0.5476581454277039,
-0.12793537974357605,
0.0906093567609787,
0.574160635471344,
0.18088343739509583,
0.43446969985961914,
-0.35386770963668823,
-0.13847607374191284,
-0.5677109360694885,
0.42316773533821106,
0.21910622715950012,
0.0016835161950439215,
0.9701269268989563,
0.34868112206459045,
0.6083768010139465,
-0.2118895798921585,
0.851815402507782,
-0.1397159844636917,
-0.7074334621429443,
-0.41966402530670166,
0.1620718538761139,
0.004174188245087862,
0.9393831491470337,
0.5183435678482056,
0.27881789207458496,
0.3652743101119995,
0.20378099381923676,
0.4908095896244049,
0.12223633378744125,
-0.17681743204593658,
0.30948373675346375,
-0.08912231028079987,
-0.8122456073760986,
0.5783638954162598,
-0.3382653295993805,
0.5927007794380188,
0.5037325024604797,
0.4514129161834717,
0.5490376949310303,
-0.49081167578697205,
-0.5376874804496765,
0.43588191270828247,
-0.18541957437992096,
-0.14710326492786407,
-0.6890404224395752,
0.27857542037963867,
-0.11591753363609314,
-0.23998905718326569,
0.1990983486175537,
-0.39815667271614075,
-0.5150168538093567,
0.7606846690177917,
0.1841549575328827,
1.1022216081619263,
-0.3964807987213135,
-0.8128305077552795,
-0.11146441102027893,
-0.83942711353302,
0.17534668743610382,
-0.595856249332428,
0.27555254101753235,
-0.4404740631580353,
0.3405318856239319,
-0.08299119025468826,
-0.14617326855659485,
-0.4216982424259186,
0.4918694794178009,
-0.851768970489502,
0.4611313045024872,
-0.0013784831389784813,
-0.14965611696243286,
0.3029637932777405,
-0.2510201334953308,
0.643174409866333,
-0.696283757686615,
-0.4652459919452667,
-0.20434536039829254,
0.025206858292222023,
-0.09269486367702484,
-0.06716039031744003,
0.4512181282043457,
-0.38698211312294006,
-0.1780141294002533,
-0.5308074951171875,
-0.27760615944862366,
0.08276090025901794,
0.1517084836959839,
-0.10100611299276352,
0.10508758574724197,
-0.36040621995925903,
0.3701295554637909,
0.38691553473472595,
0.3711183965206146,
-0.6240935921669006,
0.2794392704963684,
-0.1898992657661438,
0.3377884328365326,
0.2777582108974457,
-0.03912995010614395,
-0.6254463791847229,
-0.3155566155910492,
-0.23409810662269592,
-0.6736679077148438,
-0.8091476559638977,
-0.1809084713459015,
0.41633790731430054,
-0.5337303876876831,
-0.9197881817817688,
0.7835759520530701,
0.7934232354164124,
-0.25004076957702637,
-0.3098151981830597,
-0.12218887358903885,
0.11466977000236511,
0.03285032883286476,
-0.35974282026290894,
0.27912819385528564,
0.43456628918647766,
0.3774943947792053,
0.22294536232948303,
0.14689327776432037,
-0.4376829266548157,
0.4363970160484314,
-0.13842274248600006,
-0.4206235706806183,
0.32001176476478577,
0.3388766050338745,
-0.40783172845840454,
-0.04530080407857895,
0.03628823161125183,
-0.2302912324666977,
0.2246789187192917,
0.5308194756507874,
-0.19481128454208374,
0.2359434962272644,
-0.07813005894422531,
-5.386290550231934,
0.08789768069982529,
0.6034569144248962,
-0.5073598027229309,
0.17083530128002167,
0.38269734382629395,
0.22037026286125183,
-0.0913182944059372,
0.6384556889533997,
-0.534755289554596,
-0.4334777891635895,
-0.4977847635746002,
-0.08889614045619965,
0.21721747517585754,
0.3013194501399994,
0.5077565312385559,
-0.052924010902643204,
-0.5916115641593933,
0.7159839272499084,
0.6116201281547546,
0.5091936588287354,
-0.4861571788787842,
0.07428848743438721,
0.8319317102432251,
0.27280160784721375,
0.2230532169342041,
0.10791409760713577,
-0.29501909017562866,
-0.8656629920005798,
-0.510136067867279,
-0.2225155234336853,
0.14288417994976044,
0.6001519560813904,
0.05137387290596962,
-0.27104610204696655,
-0.5980355143547058,
0.7023794054985046,
0.2970065474510193,
-0.3268083333969116,
-0.39515241980552673,
0.06380022317171097,
-0.5393104553222656,
-0.10477976500988007,
-0.13483627140522003,
0.35283493995666504,
-0.41258397698402405,
-0.27181050181388855,
-0.49487191438674927,
-0.19270972907543182,
0.43038317561149597,
-0.04451100155711174,
-0.4219210147857666,
0.37525254487991333,
-0.6433987617492676,
-0.004227235913276672,
0.3113848865032196,
-0.1053197979927063,
0.2785455584526062,
-0.3498483896255493,
0.6126694083213806,
0.8519337177276611,
-0.14691923558712006,
-0.14283697307109833,
0.043963540345430374,
0.5415887236595154,
-0.4348503351211548,
0.47259053587913513,
-0.48025816679000854,
-0.3183431029319763,
0.640844464302063,
-0.11799726635217667,
0.9588912725448608,
-0.24920286238193512,
-0.5781159400939941,
-0.004790007136762142,
-0.11119744181632996,
-0.24849672615528107,
0.3293580114841461,
0.05063478648662567,
0.22408999502658844,
-0.47854653000831604,
0.1015034168958664,
0.8173344135284424,
1.043774962425232,
0.6000404953956604,
0.15400414168834686,
-0.36413663625717163,
0.5307292342185974,
0.0010360745945945382,
1.0959917306900024,
0.5120209455490112,
-0.9176207780838013,
-0.25062212347984314,
0.7088801860809326,
0.22843100130558014,
0.21998099982738495,
0.01764580048620701,
-0.20315495133399963,
1.4070775508880615,
0.08538299053907394,
-0.046944476664066315,
-0.0008917389786802232,
0.30605655908584595,
0.3070501387119293,
-0.12385086715221405,
0.02794303372502327,
-0.05307796224951744,
-0.0738120898604393,
0.5583822727203369,
0.7766555547714233,
0.1928255259990692,
-0.09391127526760101,
0.34024518728256226,
-0.14789453148841858,
0.20209749042987823,
-0.4855155348777771,
0.14814966917037964,
-0.23276321589946747,
0.3009018301963806,
0.27663448452949524,
-0.52228844165802,
0.5676948428153992,
-0.12078317254781723,
0.5498407483100891,
-0.1407218724489212,
-0.5285611152648926,
-0.2810024917125702,
0.22475530207157135,
0.2580988109111786,
-0.4505676329135895,
0.07580749690532684,
-0.4332710802555084,
0.4603944718837738,
-0.3221900463104248,
-0.16001977026462555,
-0.8304531574249268,
0.4096958041191101,
-0.9044850468635559,
-0.3275507092475891,
0.03000796027481556,
-0.7618834972381592,
-0.29394209384918213,
-0.4546273350715637,
0.3937637507915497,
0.4925471246242523,
-0.26673343777656555,
0.00008188773790607229,
-0.05018839240074158,
-0.11301758140325546,
0.8795247077941895,
0.034647442400455475,
-0.641899824142456,
1.1358611583709717,
-0.46416419744491577,
-0.6135978102684021,
-0.3884410858154297,
-0.011781818233430386,
-0.2555701732635498,
0.14161764085292816,
0.13155333697795868,
0.0222819484770298,
-0.54180908203125,
-1.1142183542251587,
-0.55321204662323,
0.06551649421453476,
0.17056037485599518,
0.4213341176509857,
-0.009915216825902462,
-0.6672176122665405,
0.5477185845375061,
0.4919610321521759,
-0.8761792182922363,
-0.38733983039855957,
0.08764786273241043,
0.30971089005470276,
-0.5719422698020935,
0.01667720265686512,
0.35942137241363525,
-0.1955636441707611,
-0.09598659723997116,
-0.8376097083091736,
-0.15569603443145752,
-0.057025544345378876,
0.2883119285106659,
0.5799015164375305,
0.03607919439673424,
-0.7408633828163147,
-0.6932268738746643,
-0.4770249128341675,
0.09127406030893326,
-0.13829103112220764,
0.11938872933387756,
-0.7159535884857178,
-0.19833767414093018,
-0.3340111970901489,
-0.6117262244224548,
-0.7314041256904602,
0.4078480005264282,
0.5728524327278137,
0.21685752272605896,
-0.010705474764108658,
0.4067550301551819,
0.4845578372478485,
-0.11768511682748795,
0.1630362570285797,
-0.748700737953186,
0.7362402677536011,
0.21424029767513275,
0.33539941906929016,
0.10357482731342316,
-0.22059793770313263,
-0.8904823660850525,
-0.2779804766178131,
0.4874045252799988,
-0.08710963279008865,
0.04187845438718796,
-0.007487854454666376,
-0.4574657678604126,
0.0799165815114975,
-1.2712162733078003,
-0.15220552682876587,
-0.18902069330215454,
-0.47238922119140625,
-0.21038413047790527,
-0.14664660394191742,
0.4946615695953369,
0.6907850503921509,
-0.523987352848053,
0.6972370743751526,
-0.322677880525589,
-0.44315648078918457,
0.4491446912288666,
-0.004593601915985346,
0.33353614807128906,
-0.500908374786377,
-0.2376432865858078,
0.6456140875816345,
0.1993996649980545,
-0.1256382018327713,
-0.007310250774025917,
-0.7224823236465454,
1.264941692352295,
-0.15025456249713898,
-0.12179489433765411,
-0.4448329508304596,
0.10827165096998215,
-0.2217370867729187,
-0.20442403852939606,
0.35686904191970825,
-0.570304274559021,
0.08693075180053711,
0.484101265668869,
-0.7494074106216431,
-1.067980408668518,
0.37339720129966736,
-0.6027204990386963,
-0.4216771721839905,
0.20592671632766724,
0.5393027067184448,
-0.3002236783504486,
-0.3297695219516754,
0.1986379325389862,
-0.23261591792106628,
-0.23644116520881653,
0.1756456196308136,
-0.07615955173969269,
-0.3533969521522522,
0.07533275336027145,
0.5157217979431152,
-0.28245747089385986,
-0.5568534731864929,
-1.264059066772461,
-0.23811689019203186,
-0.11478406935930252,
0.2817445695400238,
-0.37946268916130066,
0.03928434103727341,
-0.192095085978508,
0.2188834547996521,
0.18781167268753052,
-0.7938467860221863,
-0.2604752480983734,
0.30421531200408936,
0.40038949251174927,
0.3496444821357727,
-1.1685101985931396,
-0.11588484048843384,
-0.12423411756753922,
-0.5472642779350281,
0.38904669880867004,
-0.5890669822692871,
0.5261609554290771,
-0.0412626713514328,
0.6720182299613953,
-0.05793054401874542,
0.5892245769500732,
0.14781828224658966,
0.8655258417129517,
-0.23809358477592468,
-0.003593095112591982,
-0.5396548509597778,
-0.3010812997817993,
0.5940592885017395,
-0.3277333974838257,
-0.5536150336265564,
-0.2059837430715561,
0.43257418274879456,
-0.9345629215240479,
-0.293981671333313,
0.7437436580657959,
0.07878706604242325,
0.40707066655158997,
0.7008235454559326,
-0.0072409408167004585,
-0.5044764280319214,
0.24519547820091248,
0.4197002351284027,
-0.691080629825592,
-0.5264703631401062,
0.036269839853048325,
0.33374929428100586,
-0.2864390015602112,
-0.09854511171579361,
0.28956449031829834,
0.4852083623409271,
0.12889227271080017,
-0.29271042346954346,
0.2423752248287201,
0.0019418607698753476,
0.012895379215478897,
-0.17365950345993042,
0.18821603059768677,
-0.5155289173126221,
0.6159786581993103,
-0.04709690064191818,
-0.2781524658203125,
0.4621847867965698,
-0.7719066143035889,
0.1654890775680542,
0.2925701141357422,
0.4437384605407715,
0.6703249216079712,
0.08144836127758026,
-0.33572420477867126,
-0.08571241050958633,
0.40867266058921814,
-0.13117508590221405,
-0.043877359479665756,
0.09595019370317459,
0.17107558250427246,
0.4867033362388611,
0.4153912663459778,
0.15116053819656372,
-0.4490881562232971,
0.645538330078125,
0.4872084856033325,
-0.04697634279727936,
0.046666353940963745,
0.4679357409477234,
-0.1615511178970337,
-0.12363220751285553,
-0.2975941002368927,
-0.19132833182811737,
0.13787804543972015,
0.1752616912126541,
0.47053858637809753,
0.10572287440299988,
-0.801014244556427,
0.21437524259090424,
0.18445327877998352,
-0.06581319123506546,
-0.20231842994689941,
-0.10084904730319977,
-0.38013413548469543,
-0.5347592234611511,
-0.21552278101444244,
0.48245474696159363,
-0.19091472029685974,
-0.11793851852416992,
-0.8350194692611694,
-0.31651365756988525,
-0.25062406063079834,
-0.17454472184181213,
-0.25777676701545715,
0.5569230914115906,
0.5420100688934326,
0.4357331693172455,
0.32014182209968567,
-0.03407786786556244,
0.4072672724723816,
0.00810728408396244,
-0.19927705824375153,
-0.10656125843524933,
0.0025889079552143812,
0.12576328217983246,
0.7053647637367249,
-0.38399407267570496,
1.1497447490692139,
0.12411776185035706,
-0.4275567829608917,
0.2834462821483612,
0.13709335029125214,
-0.08825284987688065,
0.1381065845489502,
0.7980758547782898,
0.19251908361911774,
0.00876476988196373,
0.15853360295295715,
-0.7581021785736084,
0.786554753780365,
-0.2053532600402832,
0.5087772011756897,
-0.019020942971110344,
0.5047194957733154,
-0.33013346791267395,
0.09567750245332718,
0.3769245445728302,
-0.4991854727268219,
-0.24263589084148407,
-0.5537563562393188,
0.2694423794746399,
-0.2859402596950531,
-0.1938696950674057,
0.11325772106647491,
-0.4603620767593384,
-0.6649019718170166,
0.309304803609848,
0.38955193758010864,
-0.1970297396183014,
0.4131682217121124,
0.34263864159584045,
-0.27325189113616943,
-0.3169640004634857,
-0.33638858795166016,
-0.18984708189964294,
-0.48076632618904114,
0.960355818271637,
0.28701284527778625,
-0.21890468895435333,
-0.6436065435409546,
-0.10765811055898666,
0.16242583096027374,
0.6535922884941101,
0.6552177667617798,
0.2996431887149811,
-0.20273590087890625,
-0.05261664837598801,
-0.2640291750431061,
-0.49276334047317505,
0.7096671462059021,
-0.1329200565814972,
-0.2562238574028015,
0.18991373479366302,
-0.5080957412719727,
-0.29991355538368225,
-0.0582885816693306,
0.1981959342956543,
0.05939193814992905,
0.08214892446994781,
0.5516890287399292
] |
203698
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat%20Xieng%20Thong
|
Wat Xieng Thong
|
Wat Xieng Thong (; "Temple of the Golden City") is a Buddhist temple (vat or wat) on the northern tip of the peninsula of Luang Phrabang, Laos. Built between 1559 to 1560 by King Setthathirath, Wat Xieng Thong is one of the most important of Lao monasteries and remains a significant monument to the spirit of religion, royalty and traditional art.
Etymology
The name Vat Xieng Thong (Lao: ວັດຊຽງທອງ), means "Temple of the Golden City." In Lao, wat, or vat, means Buddhist temple; these buildings are central to the life of Laotian communities.
History
Wat Xieng Thong was built under the rule of King Setthathirath between 1559 and 1560. Setthathirath oversaw the Lan Xang ("Land of a Million Elephants") kingdom, a geographical area that is now Laos. During his rule, Setthathirath moved the capital from Xieng Thong (which was later renamed Luang Prabang) to Vientiane, claiming dislike for the lack of flat land in Xieng Thong. But, Luang Prabang remained a royal capital until 1975, when the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR) was established.
Vat Xieng Thong was a royal temple under the patronage of the royal family (until the creation of the LPDR), created alongside Vat Keo and Vat That Luang. The vat functioned as a place for kings to be crowned, a place of worship for monks and the laity, a shrine to Buddhist relics, a celebration space of religious rites and festivals, a library for ancient scripts, and a showcasing of traditional architecture.
Architecture
Site
Vat Xieng Thong is located in Luang Prabang, Laos. Luang Prabang means "the place of the Buddha," for the sacred image of Buddha from which kings would derive their divine right. The city is between the Mekong and Nam Khan rivers, and according to UNESCO, contains some of "the most sophisticated Buddhist temples in Southeast Asia." Luang Prabang was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995.
Style and Features
The vat represents typical Laos art and craft.
A Sim is the central shrine hall of a Laotian temple. Vat Xieng Thong's Sim is composed of nine cascading roofs and is decorated by gold stenciling. The roofs are a central element of the structure, sweeping downward in an elaborate array. Along the center of the roof is the Dok So Fa, small pagodas covered in gold that hook upwards to the sky. The number of pagodas and overall detail of this floral sculpture signifies the relative importance of a Laotian temple.
On one side of the sim, there are small halls and stupas that contain Buddha images of the period. There is a reclining Buddha sanctuary, which contains an especially rare reclining Buddha that dates back to the construction of the temple. In 1931, the image was taken to France and displayed at the Paris Exhibition. It was kept in Vientiane until 1964, when it was returned to Luang Phrabang. In the near compound's eastern gate stands the royal funerary carriage house, where it houses the funeral carriage, which stands 12 metres high and there are various urns for the members of the royal family.
The interior of the Sim is similarly adorned by gold stenciling. Rich red and black walls are decorated completely with gold stencils of mythological scenes and geometric design. The ceiling displays Dharmachakras — dharma wheels symbolising Buddhist law and the circle of reincarnation. The rear gable is decorated with a glass mosaic depicting the tree of life. Behind the Sim is the Sanctuary of the Reclining Buddha, a small chapel decorated with mosaics and featuring a large Buddhist statue.
Many other structures fill the compound and complement the Sim, including the Kouti, Ho Tai, and Hor Kong, the library, monk living space, and boat house, respectively.
Wat Xieng Thong Today
Restoration and Conservation
A number of restorations have taken place to maintain the temple, which remains in remarkable condition since its creation in the 1500s.
In 1928, when the French Governor General visited Luang Prabang, King Sisavangvong successfully demanded that the French share in the cost of restoration, as Laos was a French protectorate from 1893–1953. In the 1950s and 1960s, the funerary carriage house was built. Renovations in 2012 and 2013 involved carefully cleaning the building, repainting the gold stencils, restoring damaged tiles and doors and windows, and repainting walls. Interestingly, scholars have noted that in the mid 20th century, "America aid to Laos is higher, on a per capita basis, than that granted by the United States to any other country."
In 1880, the Tripiṭaka library was added and the drum tower in 1961. This temple, along with Wat Suwannaphumaham, was spared any damage during the sacking of the city in 1887. This was because the Black Flag Haw leader, Đèo Văn Trị, had studied here as a monk in his early life and used it as his headquarters during the sacking of Luang Phrabang.
A small entrance fee of 20,000 kip is payable.
Gallery
See also
Wat Sen
Royal Palace, Luang Prabang
Wat Phu
Phou Si
References
External links
Buddhist temples in Laos
Buildings and structures in Luang Prabang
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1560
16th-century Buddhist temples
|
[
0.04632634297013283,
0.39037299156188965,
-0.007875232957303524,
-0.14462324976921082,
0.1365538388490677,
0.3064277470111847,
0.4954995810985565,
0.2860937714576721,
-0.599604606628418,
-0.21368515491485596,
-0.5606935024261475,
0.12355130910873413,
-0.12393543124198914,
0.0057399761863052845,
-0.35242602229118347,
0.38898757100105286,
1.3423049449920654,
-0.10638324916362762,
0.0345788449048996,
-0.4991941750049591,
-0.2115245908498764,
-0.431160032749176,
-0.03646975755691528,
-0.11290290951728821,
0.12914450466632843,
-0.13166815042495728,
0.029108423739671707,
0.6763163805007935,
0.8032256364822388,
0.07056894898414612,
-0.011272142641246319,
0.8476504683494568,
-0.3363259434700012,
-0.12877260148525238,
-0.1382245570421219,
0.5544764399528503,
0.5313782095909119,
-0.3726201057434082,
-0.05140513554215431,
-0.19418661296367645,
0.3599453568458557,
0.04092136025428772,
-0.17533525824546814,
0.1928585320711136,
-0.0585666187107563,
-1.106292963027954,
-1.0136187076568604,
0.48447445034980774,
-0.7438058257102966,
0.4085947573184967,
-0.740480899810791,
0.16047124564647675,
-0.3493705689907074,
-0.12740051746368408,
0.8294914960861206,
0.8523584604263306,
-1.3796671628952026,
0.14203783869743347,
-0.012439219281077385,
-0.24192097783088684,
0.42926082015037537,
0.7259774208068848,
-0.35934174060821533,
0.07703794538974762,
-0.27171024680137634,
0.7150970101356506,
-0.06400757282972336,
0.2820492684841156,
0.4376143217086792,
-0.7500531077384949,
0.45426756143569946,
0.8749186992645264,
-0.23491667211055756,
0.6935707330703735,
0.001154226018115878,
-0.36542725563049316,
-0.9348021149635315,
-0.45023781061172485,
0.05464105308055878,
-0.21085552871227264,
0.11787135154008865,
0.13916908204555511,
0.7909098267555237,
-0.2522694170475006,
0.4767872095108032,
0.03846169263124466,
-0.24202294647693634,
-0.10127981007099152,
-0.6265718936920166,
-0.014336034655570984,
-0.49995604157447815,
-0.12077558785676956,
0.34628427028656006,
0.30312231183052063,
-0.5472412705421448,
-0.6069465279579163,
-0.051825691014528275,
0.5273361802101135,
0.5040777325630188,
0.6782128810882568,
0.24477742612361908,
-0.036121711134910583,
0.5739712715148926,
-0.2073860764503479,
-1.1133276224136353,
-0.41332483291625977,
-0.46457576751708984,
-0.29167091846466064,
-0.4922902584075928,
-0.30201151967048645,
-1.3490002155303955,
0.3763086497783661,
0.031611453741788864,
0.2686749994754791,
0.39649131894111633,
0.3467905521392822,
0.1971844881772995,
-0.3630625903606415,
-0.3554396331310272,
-0.61453777551651,
0.43291178345680237,
0.4893307089805603,
-0.5956684947013855,
0.38605087995529175,
0.47764742374420166,
-0.06919903308153152,
0.14810146391391754,
0.8343488574028015,
-0.5173954367637634,
0.7269845604896545,
0.058339063078165054,
0.6090787053108215,
-0.26948651671409607,
-0.2937025725841522,
0.024356702342629433,
0.16554886102676392,
0.40756022930145264,
0.2624700963497162,
0.27861884236335754,
0.03580024838447571,
-1.181091547012329,
0.11010780930519104,
-0.6935446858406067,
-0.1590908169746399,
-0.025049082934856415,
-0.17206712067127228,
-0.2675970196723938,
-0.7506484985351562,
-0.5638936161994934,
-0.40897130966186523,
0.31993627548217773,
0.13326580822467804,
0.15461936593055725,
0.44153478741645813,
-0.8632165789604187,
0.07403017580509186,
0.6824666261672974,
0.06679743528366089,
-0.010153415612876415,
0.028771953657269478,
-0.11934150755405426,
-0.3476717174053192,
-0.24784407019615173,
-0.05448785796761513,
0.33431124687194824,
0.29850322008132935,
0.5106562972068787,
0.35802751779556274,
-0.11089298129081726,
0.2410864382982254,
-0.6420832276344299,
-0.04330703243613243,
0.12488653510808945,
0.33833616971969604,
-0.3074326515197754,
-0.1623721718788147,
0.5094555616378784,
0.4962907135486603,
-0.5987521409988403,
0.37392258644104004,
-0.915038526058197,
0.05695924162864685,
0.10943897813558578,
0.2603206932544708,
0.9146759510040283,
-0.336263507604599,
0.5122902989387512,
0.35497143864631653,
0.13102717697620392,
0.2220860868692398,
-0.5879435539245605,
0.06613791733980179,
0.20297503471374512,
0.27843230962753296,
0.7579167485237122,
0.4965210258960724,
0.07808087021112442,
0.5608434081077576,
-0.09600495547056198,
0.7620039582252502,
-0.44163548946380615,
-0.1612633913755417,
0.3590410351753235,
0.1034427210688591,
-1.0259371995925903,
0.3288077116012573,
-0.01906028762459755,
0.480966717004776,
0.28095534443855286,
0.38703683018684387,
0.12483321875333786,
-0.3314126133918762,
-0.27281665802001953,
0.24411873519420624,
-0.15137425065040588,
-0.5166218876838684,
-0.5999341011047363,
-0.07402244210243225,
-0.01419366430491209,
-0.40446534752845764,
0.6628336906433105,
0.31428998708724976,
0.006845561321824789,
0.31491419672966003,
-0.10047779232263565,
1.0701818466186523,
0.2763262689113617,
-0.05060001090168953,
0.35683536529541016,
0.2538754343986511,
-0.05695553496479988,
-0.4569934606552124,
0.6083841919898987,
-0.4797883927822113,
0.3123380243778229,
0.059252846986055374,
0.05470877140760422,
-0.5387787818908691,
0.4989166259765625,
-0.6258817315101624,
0.1543809324502945,
-0.019149960950016975,
-0.6865689754486084,
0.14695747196674347,
0.5128150582313538,
0.7535707950592041,
-0.6032719612121582,
-0.1332804560661316,
-0.40133240818977356,
-0.30126953125,
0.1198761910200119,
0.3508889377117157,
0.30787602066993713,
-0.07758880406618118,
0.38052281737327576,
0.09064188599586487,
-0.46459564566612244,
0.05495893955230713,
0.22343531250953674,
-0.48555341362953186,
-0.27346810698509216,
-0.15632407367229462,
0.5281372666358948,
0.2649790346622467,
-0.4093194305896759,
-0.16679613292217255,
0.47933152318000793,
-0.5607019662857056,
0.2869667112827301,
0.2812250554561615,
-0.42709213495254517,
-0.47899603843688965,
-0.6948659420013428,
0.10670695453882217,
-0.4632323682308197,
-0.5583981275558472,
-0.04143878445029259,
0.0549594946205616,
-0.6539306640625,
-0.4490251839160919,
0.698205292224884,
0.7458181381225586,
0.702880859375,
-0.5054845809936523,
0.032926734536886215,
0.4420321583747864,
-0.666885495185852,
-0.2907090187072754,
-0.22331394255161285,
-0.041823260486125946,
-0.12802188098430634,
0.1468987613916397,
-0.22479136288166046,
0.23858553171157837,
0.1721036583185196,
0.04518437013030052,
0.035424504429101944,
-0.09539270401000977,
0.7461169958114624,
-0.7432756423950195,
-0.14379027485847473,
-0.14146246016025543,
-0.4660792052745819,
0.4760444462299347,
-0.004601859953254461,
-0.17847317457199097,
0.26625731587409973,
-0.009595990180969238,
-5.191868782043457,
0.29322972893714905,
0.14534316956996918,
-0.2359141856431961,
-0.08339469879865646,
-0.2277214527130127,
0.14290739595890045,
-0.5811667442321777,
0.25718557834625244,
-0.4725174605846405,
-0.3918434977531433,
-0.6862673163414001,
0.08855932205915451,
0.442668616771698,
0.29700368642807007,
0.7141653895378113,
-0.13333462178707123,
0.07002801448106766,
0.3391474187374115,
-0.19253699481487274,
0.09290309995412827,
-0.21819064021110535,
-0.6792970299720764,
0.5944857001304626,
0.006993194576352835,
0.6126164197921753,
0.04282412305474281,
-0.19900870323181152,
-1.0098823308944702,
-0.7987892627716064,
-0.439351350069046,
-0.108117014169693,
0.07621650397777557,
0.20316416025161743,
-0.26608479022979736,
0.3128661811351776,
0.660152792930603,
-0.17432422935962677,
0.20252220332622528,
-0.6339088082313538,
-0.03627128154039383,
0.14059533178806305,
-0.017967188730835915,
-0.14952810108661652,
0.26190420985221863,
-1.218556523323059,
-0.5462030172348022,
-0.07652951776981354,
-0.26121631264686584,
0.30583465099334717,
0.32214075326919556,
0.1318613737821579,
0.5654051303863525,
0.06320418417453766,
-0.3443514108657837,
-0.24532456696033478,
-0.08059307932853699,
0.029857734218239784,
-0.45365333557128906,
0.36290329694747925,
0.5659700632095337,
-0.3585648238658905,
-0.5716066360473633,
0.050049763172864914,
0.519504189491272,
-0.459054172039032,
0.4359797537326813,
-0.011638790369033813,
-0.432371586561203,
0.3581952750682831,
-0.2866658866405487,
0.5008682012557983,
-0.2416187822818756,
-1.0460429191589355,
0.00018145299691241235,
-0.391299307346344,
-0.7854924201965332,
-0.19631676375865936,
-0.1693088710308075,
0.07614373415708542,
-0.062249958515167236,
-0.2192116379737854,
0.33453482389450073,
1.2464842796325684,
0.3103918433189392,
-0.7978670597076416,
0.05893070995807648,
0.3618782162666321,
-0.058287058025598526,
0.2511341869831085,
1.1109912395477295,
-0.7561238408088684,
0.4109423756599426,
0.094235360622406,
-0.4473441243171692,
0.6365792751312256,
0.6473337411880493,
-0.13764913380146027,
0.292249858379364,
0.2682604491710663,
0.7008407711982727,
-0.26351454854011536,
0.08571241796016693,
0.5929785966873169,
-0.4621749222278595,
-0.09854938089847565,
0.2823896110057831,
0.5736078023910522,
0.7378973364830017,
-0.29617559909820557,
-0.3556453585624695,
0.3229564130306244,
0.2600055932998657,
0.6661553978919983,
0.797171950340271,
-0.29236093163490295,
-0.4434755742549896,
0.4327670633792877,
0.21201393008232117,
-0.13562680780887604,
-0.04081335663795471,
0.934532105922699,
0.23916251957416534,
-0.07301083952188492,
-0.7636076211929321,
-0.4878898561000824,
-0.05893396958708763,
0.5695076584815979,
0.038815829902887344,
0.07146721333265305,
0.254332035779953,
-0.25797170400619507,
0.667150616645813,
-0.5502857565879822,
-0.6606744527816772,
-0.7391663193702698,
-0.44263872504234314,
-0.9048992991447449,
0.17123836278915405,
-0.08206672221422195,
0.3424043357372284,
0.18649351596832275,
-0.10650323331356049,
0.6884095668792725,
0.48621538281440735,
0.25988027453422546,
0.10466272383928299,
0.10456573218107224,
-0.825737714767456,
0.447566956281662,
-0.6268818974494934,
-0.5082294344902039,
0.5426539182662964,
-0.24714024364948273,
-0.45740383863449097,
0.16656427085399628,
-0.29220807552337646,
0.30283114314079285,
0.9857699871063232,
0.5797591209411621,
0.12041030079126358,
-0.4113140106201172,
-0.6634048819541931,
-0.3298402428627014,
-0.17600350081920624,
-0.23130843043327332,
0.7533457279205322,
-0.2095773071050644,
-0.48110827803611755,
0.4132118225097656,
0.7792962789535522,
0.015708472579717636,
-0.9491167068481445,
-0.18822163343429565,
0.1667013317346573,
-0.4720173478126526,
0.06024090573191643,
-0.1821717768907547,
-0.3367402255535126,
-0.128064826130867,
-0.45901545882225037,
-0.22712695598602295,
0.45711949467658997,
0.35361751914024353,
0.9383870959281921,
-0.20085199177265167,
-0.6139390468597412,
-0.7732595801353455,
-0.20351985096931458,
0.1671208143234253,
0.6942498087882996,
-0.21151350438594818,
-0.26172810792922974,
-0.012279893271625042,
0.1345083862543106,
-1.0985009670257568,
-0.4199197292327881,
0.27685731649398804,
0.1754424124956131,
-0.17351692914962769,
-0.5265447497367859,
0.4328659176826477,
-0.25111454725265503,
0.7981688380241394,
0.011533347889780998,
-0.8024937510490417,
0.8395228981971741,
0.2701888084411621,
0.24832236766815186,
-0.16445335745811462,
-0.8375851511955261,
-0.5818741321563721,
-0.026589861139655113,
0.441646546125412,
-0.7323744297027588,
0.07539884001016617,
-0.44331538677215576,
-0.4022359848022461,
-0.7722477912902832,
-0.6205131411552429,
0.08732236921787262,
-0.6080777049064636,
-0.3759746849536896,
-0.32279038429260254,
-0.7306872010231018,
0.0028493772260844707,
0.42479023337364197,
-0.8437967896461487,
0.3857199251651764,
-0.5088781118392944,
-0.18087081611156464,
0.1761646270751953,
0.6234716176986694,
0.022017767652869225,
-0.2670173943042755,
-0.23252618312835693,
-0.12567611038684845,
0.375703901052475,
0.307922899723053,
0.452982634305954,
-0.026913298293948174,
1.008224606513977,
-0.2565416097640991,
-0.5385355353355408,
-0.3621726632118225,
-0.006637837737798691,
-0.10815487056970596,
-0.1030413880944252,
-0.8615313172340393,
0.005579108837991953,
-0.02467983402311802,
0.06436724960803986,
-0.37215936183929443,
-0.6830558180809021,
0.7346160411834717,
-0.6185253262519836,
-0.035926155745983124,
0.6512420773506165,
0.5742876529693604,
0.16610121726989746,
-0.2633399963378906,
-0.24092644453048706,
-0.47618338465690613,
-0.5853780508041382,
0.11355723440647125,
-0.07865456491708755,
-0.3610813319683075,
-0.37659385800361633,
0.1411319375038147,
-0.7596632242202759,
-0.36238983273506165,
-0.8321716785430908,
0.45671138167381287,
-0.023338915780186653,
-0.4735078513622284,
-0.07492424547672272,
-0.25716540217399597,
-0.34583818912506104,
0.029549483209848404,
-0.015310260467231274,
-0.5913735032081604,
-0.09915299713611603,
0.046651873737573624,
0.028431689366698265,
0.24875707924365997,
-0.9465086460113525,
0.27253854274749756,
-0.06336754560470581,
-0.2220655381679535,
0.1758904606103897,
-0.44637632369995117,
-0.09237603098154068,
-0.12402095645666122,
0.46036776900291443,
0.24974769353866577,
0.4202233850955963,
0.5388790369033813,
0.3130033314228058,
-0.548613965511322,
-0.17953288555145264,
-0.8889919519424438,
-0.1754830926656723,
0.27901190519332886,
-0.408322274684906,
0.06116815283894539,
-0.2598522901535034,
0.6843791007995605,
-0.13104331493377686,
-0.43591392040252686,
0.9980809092521667,
0.4398760497570038,
0.5918028950691223,
-0.07728268206119537,
0.36244097352027893,
-0.01943657174706459,
0.38262009620666504,
0.18442560732364655,
-0.5334038734436035,
-0.16408653557300568,
0.8774479031562805,
-0.2000330239534378,
-0.1282126009464264,
0.43533021211624146,
0.4935309588909149,
-0.22607719898223877,
0.9664636254310608,
-0.4525197446346283,
-0.571593165397644,
0.6880677938461304,
0.5277611613273621,
-0.06768401712179184,
-0.29945841431617737,
0.06738731265068054,
1.0322797298431396,
-0.14202573895454407,
-0.36946794390678406,
0.24060408771038055,
-0.6578457355499268,
0.10570378601551056,
0.0033793493639677763,
0.3413728177547455,
0.38333773612976074,
-0.17047759890556335,
-0.19629161059856415,
0.18335957825183868,
0.2081480622291565,
0.09184741973876953,
0.27888160943984985,
0.29287341237068176,
-0.19616630673408508,
0.7411339282989502,
0.12980635464191437,
-0.054130226373672485,
-0.47211524844169617,
0.47353529930114746,
0.5887953042984009,
-0.6939203143119812,
-0.2128329873085022,
0.020955370739102364,
0.5791754722595215,
0.7097750902175903,
0.2221345156431198,
-0.2994692325592041,
-0.10514486581087112,
-0.36305469274520874,
0.06539735943078995,
0.11306332796812057,
-0.6745427250862122,
-0.27273282408714294,
0.4953001141548157,
0.13977068662643433,
0.3588749170303345,
0.08717641979455948,
-0.2371744066476822,
-0.18651147186756134,
0.3540806174278259,
0.1370893269777298,
-0.031412702053785324,
-0.2793506979942322,
-0.08669635653495789,
0.058257922530174255,
0.15607419610023499,
-0.23559287190437317,
-0.38152799010276794,
0.3673990070819855,
0.1871970146894455,
0.2140554040670395,
0.2948856055736542,
-0.5792695879936218,
-0.11915470659732819,
-0.06848929822444916,
-0.31063616275787354,
0.04421476274728775,
-0.26854076981544495,
-0.248840793967247,
0.26757243275642395,
-0.435930460691452,
0.709522008895874,
0.22963622212409973,
0.1280992180109024,
0.1329887956380844,
-0.38235384225845337,
0.31070011854171753,
0.67262202501297,
0.24011918902397156,
0.03229233995079994,
-0.5043510794639587,
0.5686107873916626,
-0.47726184129714966,
0.4605289101600647,
0.20062102377414703,
0.6883801817893982,
0.44717711210250854,
0.38069722056388855,
-0.3976110517978668,
0.6529585123062134,
0.42040207982063293,
-0.06875750422477722,
0.07812363654375076,
-0.5674235820770264,
-0.2794347107410431,
-0.7110479474067688,
0.1687794178724289,
0.6752371191978455,
-0.09364037215709686,
-0.5631760954856873,
0.3458404839038849,
0.4276164770126343,
-0.6708148717880249,
0.12332136183977127,
0.6027529835700989,
-0.3099718987941742,
-0.861731767654419,
0.04043188691139221,
-0.6689940690994263,
-0.5580688714981079,
0.6213502883911133,
0.9530801177024841,
-0.11496929824352264,
0.1454831063747406,
0.01861865259706974,
-0.09020693600177765,
0.9355273842811584,
0.4574452340602875,
0.16997642815113068,
0.12480500340461731,
-0.16560819745063782,
-0.10209644585847855,
-0.9783957600593567,
0.6915743350982666,
0.36817920207977295,
-0.3215172588825226,
0.2918810546398163,
-0.7162909507751465,
-0.2565350830554962,
0.16949397325515747,
0.031559381633996964,
0.12767313420772552,
0.5551860332489014,
-0.16044561564922333
] |
203702
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boun%20Oum
|
Boun Oum
|
Prince Boun Oum (also Prince Boun Oum Na Champassak; ; ; ; 2 December 1912 – 17 March 1980) was the son of King Ratsadanay, and was the hereditary prince of Champassak and also Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos from March 1949 to February 1950 and again from December 1960 to June 1962.
Early life
He was born in Don Talad in 1912, the eldest son of Prince Ratsadanay, Prince of Champassak by his fourth wife, Princess Sudhi Saramuni. He was educated at Wat Liep Monastery Sch. and l'École de Droit, Vientiane. He met Mom Bouaphanh Soumpholphakdy of Kengkok and married in 1943. The couple had six sons and three daughters: Prince Keo Champhonesak na Champassak, Prince Saysanasak na Champassak, Prince Keo Halusak na Champassak, Prince Simoungkhounsak na Champassak, Prince Vannahsak na Champassak, Prince Vongdasak na Champassak, Princess Ninhdasak na Champassak, Princess Keosondarasak na Champassak and Princess Keomanisak na Champassak. He has 11 grandchildren. He succeeded on the death of his father as Head of the Princely House of Champassak, June 1946. in the same time, he renounced his rights in order to establish a unified kingdom, the Kingdom of Laos, on 27 August 1946. He was appointed the President of the Royal Council in 1947. In 1949, he was appointed as Inspector-General of the Kingdom.
Prime Minister of Laos
Sympathetic to the French in Laos, he commanded a force of 15,000 that fought Japanese troops and the Lao Issara in the south of Laos. Titular leader of the royalist faction (and one of the Three Princes of the Kingdom of Laos), he served as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos from March 1949 to February 1950 and again from December 1960 to June 1962 when The National Assembly installed him by unanimous vote.
He retired from politics to pursue business interests from his base in Pakse and Champassak but continued to be a major power broker until his exile in 1975, the year the communist Pathet Lao came to power. In 1975 he went to France for medical treatment and never returned to Laos. He died in Boulogne-Billancourt, France in 1980 and his ashes are buried at the Cimetiere de Trivaux in Meudon France, next to his wife Princess Bouaphanh na Champassak (1920–2013).
Honours
National Honours
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol.
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Laos.
Commander of the Order of Civic Merit of Laos.
Foreign Honours
Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant (special class).
Grand Officer of the Royal Order of Cambodia.
Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honour.
Combatant's Cross (1940).
Croix de Guerre [with palm and star] (1941).
Medal of French Gratitude [1st class] (1946).
Croix de guerre (1946).
Indochina Campaign commemorative medal (1954).
Resistance Medal [2nd class] (1945).
Ancestry
References
1912 births
1980 deaths
Boun Oum
Laotian anti-communists
People of the Vietnam War
Prime Ministers of Laos
Pretenders
Laotian exiles
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
People from Champasak province
|
[
-0.2397696077823639,
0.3313247263431549,
0.09960106760263443,
-0.22071614861488342,
-0.02031412534415722,
0.09393662959337234,
0.21701984107494354,
0.1752656251192093,
-0.7137319445610046,
0.2528764605522156,
-0.31119683384895325,
0.3710945248603821,
-0.6451171636581421,
-0.13135410845279694,
-0.3242310583591461,
0.054122719913721085,
0.9303987622261047,
0.15406019985675812,
0.007779931183904409,
-0.5599015951156616,
-0.0821814015507698,
-0.17257094383239746,
0.4258926212787628,
0.18844377994537354,
0.31600067019462585,
0.24371498823165894,
0.11294742673635483,
0.24707508087158203,
0.46240705251693726,
-0.11550132185220718,
-0.05982961505651474,
0.11851368844509125,
0.43330609798431396,
-0.3530378043651581,
-0.7868216633796692,
0.2094746083021164,
0.16972018778324127,
-0.25648218393325806,
-0.1807681918144226,
0.11519414186477661,
-0.4006851613521576,
-0.10053551197052002,
-0.19465653598308563,
-0.09418711811304092,
-0.1282244771718979,
-1.590376615524292,
-0.7503595352172852,
0.35997533798217773,
-0.26836907863616943,
0.045731671154499054,
-0.22240133583545685,
0.39527735114097595,
-0.13809151947498322,
-0.0010587733704596758,
0.7121573686599731,
-0.18457631766796112,
-1.0006767511367798,
-0.24704566597938538,
-0.8243139982223511,
-0.18395490944385529,
0.5120289325714111,
0.16215328872203827,
-0.0655432939529419,
0.05386051908135414,
-0.3356376588344574,
0.40379247069358826,
-0.018549775704741478,
-0.16736242175102234,
-0.17374631762504578,
0.15273010730743408,
0.15113413333892822,
1.3999439477920532,
0.15297064185142517,
0.14661313593387604,
0.394289493560791,
-0.2808414399623871,
-0.22587282955646515,
-0.08045697957277298,
0.3531555235385895,
-0.025832008570432663,
0.4037308990955353,
-0.35976842045783997,
0.6358944773674011,
0.5767463445663452,
-0.27797797322273254,
0.20255926251411438,
0.20371006429195404,
0.5396762490272522,
-0.10048374533653259,
-0.15328705310821533,
-0.3527297377586365,
-0.02281937561929226,
0.26639559864997864,
-0.1651301234960556,
-0.7026700377464294,
-0.3223172426223755,
-0.17018140852451324,
0.25124841928482056,
0.2753065228462219,
0.0839020162820816,
0.14251624047756195,
-0.3446950614452362,
0.35871076583862305,
-0.08727111667394638,
-1.246935486793518,
-0.29524877667427063,
-0.41606423258781433,
-0.05454384163022041,
-0.5958691835403442,
-0.4175572395324707,
-0.6821514964103699,
0.2918524742126465,
-0.07958091795444489,
0.3633238673210144,
0.5291507244110107,
0.28697073459625244,
-0.02037225291132927,
-0.027955904603004456,
0.23433685302734375,
-0.11119081825017929,
0.16942425072193146,
0.5379765033721924,
-0.3015221357345581,
0.643199622631073,
0.39653241634368896,
-0.03953113034367561,
-0.11745475232601166,
0.128896564245224,
-0.33823031187057495,
0.4800754487514496,
0.5775094628334045,
0.5173488855361938,
-0.4594634473323822,
0.21870633959770203,
-0.08038942515850067,
-0.15122021734714508,
0.7453637719154358,
0.3213482201099396,
0.1501535326242447,
-0.3156636655330658,
-1.0456149578094482,
0.16595841944217682,
-0.50067138671875,
0.61971515417099,
0.027569422498345375,
-0.12177439779043198,
-0.17296653985977173,
0.1904785931110382,
-0.32320091128349304,
-0.06353282928466797,
0.24402515590190887,
-0.9140063524246216,
-0.07211609184741974,
-0.30662861466407776,
-0.614533543586731,
0.4869720935821533,
0.207698255777359,
0.6713747382164001,
-0.35945168137550354,
0.08220205456018448,
0.3041404187679291,
0.29217079281806946,
0.05463192239403725,
-0.2918633222579956,
0.6571065783500671,
-0.048839449882507324,
-0.3916769027709961,
0.4396930932998657,
-0.6151291728019714,
-0.24331910908222198,
-0.17254966497421265,
-0.07020770758390427,
-0.1221783384680748,
-0.3473476767539978,
0.02223101630806923,
0.6334093809127808,
0.1516634076833725,
0.016596220433712006,
-0.10383346676826477,
0.0064301216043531895,
-0.45956799387931824,
0.09289053827524185,
0.08890296518802643,
-0.03939621150493622,
0.8368079662322998,
0.26062291860580444,
0.22406832873821259,
-0.5081291198730469,
0.6347069144248962,
-0.15368489921092987,
-0.4940882921218872,
-0.48155975341796875,
0.3552073538303375,
-0.2423563450574875,
0.1412380039691925,
0.4883291721343994,
0.2985536456108093,
0.5095826983451843,
0.016882235184311867,
0.8699187636375427,
0.19592028856277466,
-0.1777886003255844,
0.8959940075874329,
-0.2174016386270523,
-0.11488233506679535,
0.8351045250892639,
0.2663740813732147,
0.5499524474143982,
0.6850838661193848,
1.088940978050232,
0.6327294111251831,
-0.34760451316833496,
-0.503282904624939,
0.37774431705474854,
-0.07527302950620651,
-0.6993795037269592,
-0.5472772121429443,
-0.05381512641906738,
-0.4050387144088745,
0.06367936730384827,
0.15382133424282074,
-0.07349395006895065,
-0.31787413358688354,
0.5767950415611267,
-0.10060904920101166,
1.0688631534576416,
-0.07953770458698273,
-0.5362873673439026,
-0.19673289358615875,
-0.2699977159500122,
-0.28131213784217834,
-0.2680400013923645,
0.4866221249103546,
-0.2774960398674011,
0.4491785168647766,
0.05453779175877571,
0.12653866410255432,
0.022857699543237686,
0.38753414154052734,
-0.40530234575271606,
0.2357657104730606,
-0.005932190455496311,
-0.29034146666526794,
0.1364806592464447,
-0.0006616726750507951,
0.7111837863922119,
-0.7043080925941467,
0.10115684568881989,
-0.6198868751525879,
-0.042967796325683594,
-0.18039624392986298,
0.21007579565048218,
0.7052083611488342,
-0.01454788725823164,
-0.0887298732995987,
-0.2203022688627243,
-0.5349869728088379,
0.4468773305416107,
0.02413908950984478,
0.1707780510187149,
-0.04002128168940544,
-0.25279074907302856,
0.7175535559654236,
0.36646315455436707,
0.0852140262722969,
0.27116379141807556,
-0.16161717474460602,
-0.29547715187072754,
0.16979366540908813,
0.2887582778930664,
-0.24083881080150604,
-0.2688221037387848,
-0.6471861600875854,
-0.1519027203321457,
-0.12898650765419006,
-0.25618499517440796,
-0.5507130026817322,
0.5856783986091614,
-0.5992370843887329,
-1.1590297222137451,
0.7333148717880249,
1.0278302431106567,
-0.1283084601163864,
-0.3081832528114319,
-0.29003483057022095,
-0.29981282353401184,
-0.5775783061981201,
-0.30875909328460693,
-0.03866715356707573,
0.28945955634117126,
-0.24356751143932343,
0.28107085824012756,
-0.011462667025625706,
-0.1880272626876831,
-0.07208046317100525,
-0.26420608162879944,
-0.4607557952404022,
0.04464106261730194,
0.5916581153869629,
-0.054422199726104736,
-0.025350529700517654,
-0.07718310505151749,
0.04962810501456261,
0.19814296066761017,
0.7230924367904663,
-0.022567622363567352,
0.41415560245513916,
0.26204243302345276,
-5.620532512664795,
-0.5607074499130249,
0.6564160585403442,
-0.13858580589294434,
0.10341226309537888,
0.18266768753528595,
0.29556185007095337,
-0.26388803124427795,
0.5830985307693481,
-0.23918047547340393,
0.30609580874443054,
-0.2555570602416992,
0.27467796206474304,
0.4247097969055176,
0.37756964564323425,
0.11098572611808777,
0.3061613440513611,
-0.4637819826602936,
0.23323993384838104,
0.9062187671661377,
0.5206299424171448,
-0.3062271773815155,
-0.22021576762199402,
0.1857791244983673,
-0.0012442306615412235,
0.4363160729408264,
-0.06923199445009232,
-0.31776878237724304,
-1.0316790342330933,
-0.714226484298706,
-0.40837210416793823,
0.47224870324134827,
0.5742799639701843,
-0.3788509666919708,
-0.12947259843349457,
-0.40823084115982056,
0.4399307668209076,
0.04298964887857437,
-0.31452256441116333,
0.4058493375778198,
0.5144239664077759,
-0.8564808964729309,
-0.2647358179092407,
-0.1890641301870346,
-0.30059853196144104,
-0.20280763506889343,
-0.5435948371887207,
-0.2068294882774353,
-0.014386529102921486,
0.3318866193294525,
0.06395658105611801,
0.10893195867538452,
0.47912347316741943,
-0.3684258759021759,
0.020207742229104042,
0.6490886807441711,
-0.5830466747283936,
0.7273022532463074,
-0.6591904163360596,
0.7579764127731323,
0.44141310453414917,
0.084540456533432,
-0.22161853313446045,
0.0359676219522953,
0.27345070242881775,
-0.1997038871049881,
0.48526427149772644,
0.12841199338436127,
0.35419800877571106,
0.3404080867767334,
-0.22094500064849854,
0.2614656090736389,
-0.110249824821949,
-0.6753886938095093,
0.06954124569892883,
-0.20081600546836853,
0.058439016342163086,
0.054257042706012726,
-0.23281456530094147,
-0.2136441469192505,
-0.17035946249961853,
0.04459891840815544,
0.19454480707645416,
0.7589846849441528,
0.18874697387218475,
-0.3800182342529297,
-0.26767823100090027,
0.5224032402038574,
0.2578081786632538,
0.7903133034706116,
0.4086049497127533,
-0.9523348808288574,
-0.06730260699987411,
0.28732314705848694,
0.16229453682899475,
-0.14169175922870636,
-0.058277521282434464,
0.10319959372282028,
0.6043234467506409,
-0.0837443470954895,
-0.35185182094573975,
-0.351732075214386,
0.25824806094169617,
-0.4671890139579773,
-0.32824984192848206,
-0.1261540800333023,
-0.061358414590358734,
-0.192494198679924,
-0.05190844088792801,
0.22784528136253357,
-0.12467900663614273,
0.07084649056196213,
0.04668170586228371,
0.2536286413669586,
0.33819353580474854,
-0.7181757688522339,
0.10858021676540375,
-0.05523880198597908,
0.45696118474006653,
0.07618628442287445,
-0.6427848935127258,
0.814339280128479,
0.08717238157987595,
0.39266619086265564,
0.46687397360801697,
-0.3245466351509094,
-0.21959465742111206,
0.0346403568983078,
-0.1867367923259735,
-0.15631218254566193,
0.05349869653582573,
0.28887152671813965,
0.4273260533809662,
-0.38450807332992554,
0.17930112779140472,
-0.8082176446914673,
-0.08302416652441025,
-0.42659232020378113,
-0.2520749866962433,
-0.19169384241104126,
-0.2588934004306793,
-0.47924095392227173,
-0.1477787345647812,
0.08917383849620819,
-0.030179882422089577,
-0.08590199053287506,
0.30149903893470764,
0.010359611362218857,
-0.09601669013500214,
0.6937317252159119,
0.05290369689464569,
-0.4926152527332306,
1.0995166301727295,
0.027507657185196877,
-0.5182023048400879,
-0.1421573907136917,
-0.10700352489948273,
0.015598347410559654,
0.49365025758743286,
0.14039717614650726,
-0.1608770191669464,
-0.7978125214576721,
-0.837677001953125,
-0.24312615394592285,
-0.3027537167072296,
0.9109576940536499,
0.2072942852973938,
-0.05558863654732704,
-0.5561838746070862,
1.0101361274719238,
0.6300045847892761,
-0.7224087119102478,
-0.394682377576828,
-0.18489918112754822,
0.04424447566270828,
-0.7349780201911926,
0.003933243453502655,
-0.2701237201690674,
0.14008374512195587,
-0.22318728268146515,
-0.5483925938606262,
0.04209855571389198,
-0.018572000786662102,
0.2467186450958252,
0.747279942035675,
0.316629022359848,
-0.24115821719169617,
-0.7366800904273987,
-0.3469119369983673,
0.04803932458162308,
0.12399149686098099,
0.16773930191993713,
-0.18587447702884674,
0.008375312201678753,
-0.17224067449569702,
-0.4952861964702606,
-0.888534426689148,
0.43100497126579285,
0.047933172434568405,
0.4550168514251709,
-0.15760783851146698,
-0.03105337917804718,
0.46035072207450867,
0.008465155959129333,
-0.4078904390335083,
-0.6898720264434814,
-0.04443453252315521,
-0.07735098898410797,
0.4907495081424713,
0.024231674149632454,
-0.2875136435031891,
-0.5291316509246826,
0.3120400309562683,
0.6961285471916199,
-0.4232809841632843,
0.33635008335113525,
0.09092332422733307,
-0.10202230513095856,
-0.011819195002317429,
-1.1348280906677246,
-0.3349705636501312,
-0.7514134645462036,
-0.395202100276947,
0.04058969393372536,
-0.46021610498428345,
0.3255975842475891,
0.7532773017883301,
-0.16128039360046387,
0.775959849357605,
-0.16038712859153748,
-0.3434183597564697,
0.2576669156551361,
0.30247771739959717,
0.24267809092998505,
-0.40997418761253357,
-0.23779472708702087,
0.8667824268341064,
0.04539470002055168,
-0.0675954669713974,
0.020025335252285004,
-0.12022724747657776,
1.1333320140838623,
-0.011854531243443489,
-0.5598919987678528,
-0.04954416677355766,
0.08633637428283691,
0.12682107090950012,
-0.6072070002555847,
0.32066085934638977,
0.01302439346909523,
0.13356903195381165,
0.23681460320949554,
-0.5854198336601257,
-0.630307137966156,
0.38706016540527344,
-0.5357054471969604,
-0.2426583468914032,
0.12205683439970016,
0.29270029067993164,
0.427278071641922,
-0.45028993487358093,
0.3307570517063141,
-0.06688044965267181,
-0.33390718698501587,
0.6791730523109436,
0.1827961802482605,
-0.12274807691574097,
0.7549291849136353,
0.01625504158437252,
-0.3895424008369446,
-0.3161414861679077,
-1.0208452939987183,
-0.33854231238365173,
0.46241381764411926,
-0.2691907584667206,
-0.22901371121406555,
-0.23795296251773834,
-0.21035470068454742,
0.2156505584716797,
0.18030807375907898,
-0.9772570729255676,
-0.277798056602478,
0.17245009541511536,
-0.11003157496452332,
0.31384700536727905,
-1.052347183227539,
0.18636038899421692,
-0.05176982283592224,
-0.563232421875,
0.3341691195964813,
-0.6455095410346985,
0.3131495714187622,
-0.40859416127204895,
0.4725787043571472,
-0.02230904810130596,
0.5621914863586426,
0.007859380915760994,
1.1105862855911255,
-0.20035970211029053,
-0.12291769683361053,
-0.3181220293045044,
-0.12406689673662186,
0.4941382110118866,
0.11912743002176285,
-0.2635003328323364,
0.06473430246114731,
0.22264377772808075,
-0.7230884432792664,
0.04534677043557167,
0.7805712223052979,
0.3892589509487152,
0.34665361046791077,
-0.1878957748413086,
-0.1435970813035965,
-0.4967041015625,
0.2782518267631531,
0.14180703461170197,
-0.9627059698104858,
-0.809139609336853,
-0.1326340287923813,
0.4520443081855774,
0.018758073449134827,
-0.14490121603012085,
0.4097591042518616,
0.39918550848960876,
0.28286901116371155,
-0.12284746021032333,
-0.1195928230881691,
0.2685163915157318,
-0.1244884580373764,
-0.4176780879497528,
0.31193116307258606,
-0.46111369132995605,
0.6122937202453613,
-0.6143385171890259,
-0.3130000829696655,
0.2837200462818146,
-0.576744556427002,
0.2907838821411133,
0.5443845391273499,
0.18312978744506836,
0.6742687821388245,
-0.3468518555164337,
-0.44844308495521545,
0.5948599576950073,
0.118676096200943,
-0.05495046079158783,
0.20893815159797668,
0.21278662979602814,
-0.12080053240060806,
0.025572974234819412,
-0.1987193077802658,
0.011933542788028717,
-0.6712109446525574,
0.1876489669084549,
0.49784550070762634,
-0.26411473751068115,
-0.30993902683258057,
0.5780597925186157,
0.18792642652988434,
-0.15539436042308807,
-0.6753643751144409,
0.3476850390434265,
0.31591859459877014,
0.7231974601745605,
0.25518518686294556,
0.0981869027018547,
-0.398904949426651,
0.3701464831829071,
0.08493921160697937,
0.15789122879505157,
-0.1150277629494667,
-0.2302154153585434,
-0.3685567080974579,
-0.6698968410491943,
-0.07147560268640518,
0.24017921090126038,
0.07641320675611496,
-0.5460070371627808,
-0.5655767321586609,
-0.1648494452238083,
0.1229567602276802,
0.05465640872716904,
-0.30927443504333496,
0.13963118195533752,
0.6363105177879333,
0.3610348105430603,
0.38081231713294983,
-0.17815639078617096,
0.035327110439538956,
0.589979887008667,
-0.46158429980278015,
-0.536159098148346,
0.298035204410553,
0.3909042477607727,
0.11093064397573471,
0.026403702795505524,
0.5377203822135925,
0.49528002738952637,
-0.34292683005332947,
0.4075812101364136,
-0.13500992953777313,
-0.15117742121219635,
-0.0720423012971878,
0.6438189148902893,
0.2884747385978699,
-0.26745814085006714,
-0.2088114321231842,
-0.851311206817627,
0.4048794209957123,
0.023737842217087746,
0.41066551208496094,
-0.06806629151105881,
0.355754017829895,
-0.05607147514820099,
-0.34191954135894775,
0.18125392496585846,
-0.8760387897491455,
-0.3286305367946625,
-0.37994861602783203,
-0.059501104056835175,
-0.4373127818107605,
0.023265285417437553,
0.3301113545894623,
-0.01915556751191616,
-0.598606526851654,
-0.0226447694003582,
0.6012474298477173,
-0.1780455857515335,
0.41505706310272217,
-0.21968014538288116,
-0.26110097765922546,
-0.22347614169120789,
-0.42148613929748535,
-0.42657962441444397,
0.0499771349132061,
1.094219446182251,
0.5503915548324585,
-0.5116057395935059,
-0.21259842813014984,
-0.224656343460083,
0.06814464181661606,
0.7316375374794006,
0.40619203448295593,
-0.17650766670703888,
-0.32293224334716797,
0.13027219474315643,
-0.15557682514190674,
-0.6863856315612793,
-0.20564642548561096,
0.21933437883853912,
0.08419732004404068,
0.4104572534561157,
-0.6340786814689636,
0.2995150089263916,
-0.4119759798049927,
-0.04939751699566841,
0.3536306917667389,
0.10539495199918747,
0.2438679337501526
] |
203711
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence
|
Bioluminescence
|
Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism. It is a form of chemiluminescence. Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria, and terrestrial arthropods such as fireflies. In some animals, the light is bacteriogenic, produced by symbiotic bacteria such as those from the genus Vibrio; in others, it is autogenic, produced by the animals themselves.
In a general sense, the principal chemical reaction in bioluminescence involves a light-emitting molecule and an enzyme, generally called luciferin and luciferase, respectively. Because these are generic names, luciferins and luciferases are often distinguished by the species or group, e.g. firefly luciferin. In all characterized cases, the enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of the luciferin.
In some species, the luciferase requires other cofactors, such as calcium or magnesium ions, and sometimes also the energy-carrying molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In evolution, luciferins vary little: one in particular, coelenterazine, is found in 11 different animal phyla, though in some of these, the animals obtain it through their diet. Conversely, luciferases vary widely between different species, which is evidence that bioluminescence has arisen over 40 times in evolutionary history.
Both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder mentioned that damp wood sometimes gives off a glow. Many centuries later Robert Boyle showed that oxygen was involved in the process, in both wood and glowworms. It was not until the late nineteenth century that bioluminescence was properly investigated. The phenomenon is widely distributed among animal groups, especially in marine environments. On land it occurs in fungi, bacteria and some groups of invertebrates, including insects.
The uses of bioluminescence by animals include counterillumination camouflage, mimicry of other animals, for example to lure prey, and signaling to other individuals of the same species, such as to attract mates. In the laboratory, luciferase-based systems are used in genetic engineering and biomedical research. Researchers are also investigating the possibility of using bioluminescent systems for street and decorative lighting, and a bioluminescent plant has been created.
History
Before the development of the safety lamp for use in coal mines, dried fish skins were used in Britain and Europe as a weak source of light. This experimental form of illumination avoided the necessity of using candles which risked sparking explosions of firedamp. Another safe source of illumination in mines was bottles containing fireflies. In 1920, the American zoologist E. Newton Harvey published a monograph, The Nature of Animal Light, summarizing early work on bioluminescence. Harvey notes that Aristotle mentions light produced by dead fish and flesh, and that both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder (in his Natural History) mention light from damp wood. He also records that Robert Boyle experimented on these light sources, and showed that both they and the glowworm require air for light to be produced. Harvey notes that in 1753, J. Baker identified the flagellate Noctiluca "as a luminous animal" "just visible to the naked eye", and in 1854 Johann Florian Heller (1813–1871) identified strands (hyphae) of fungi as the source of light in dead wood.
Tuckey, in his posthumous 1818 Narrative of the Expedition to the Zaire, described catching the animals responsible for luminescence. He mentions pellucids, crustaceans (to which he ascribes the milky whiteness of the water), and cancers (shrimps and crabs). Under the microscope he described the "luminous property" to be in the brain, resembling "a most brilliant amethyst about the size of a large pin's head".
Charles Darwin noticed bioluminescence in the sea, describing it in his Journal:
While sailing in these latitudes on one very dark night, the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle. There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which during the day is seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed by a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid flames, was not so utterly obscure, as over the rest of the heavens.
Darwin also observed a luminous "jelly-fish of the genus Dianaea", noting that: "When the waves scintillate with bright green sparks, I believe it is generally owing to minute crustacea. But there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent." He guessed that "a disturbed electrical condition of the atmosphere" was probably responsible. Daniel Pauly comments that Darwin "was lucky with most of his guesses, but not here", noting that biochemistry was too little known, and that the complex evolution of the marine animals involved "would have been too much for comfort".
Bioluminescence attracted the attention of the United States Navy in the Cold War, since submarines in some waters can create a bright enough wake to be detected; a German submarine was sunk in the First World War, having been detected in this way. The navy was interested in predicting when such detection would be possible, and hence guiding their own submarines to avoid detection.
Among the anecdotes of navigation by bioluminescence is one recounted by the Apollo 13 astronaut Jim Lovell, who as a navy pilot had found his way back to his aircraft carrier USS Shangri-La when his navigation systems failed. Turning off his cabin lights, he saw the glowing wake of the ship, and was able to fly to it and land safely.
The French pharmacologist Raphaël Dubois carried out work on bioluminescence in the late nineteenth century. He studied click beetles (Pyrophorus) and the marine bivalve mollusc Pholas dactylus. He refuted the old idea that bioluminescence came from phosphorus, and demonstrated that the process was related to the oxidation of a specific compound, which he named luciferin, by an enzyme. He sent Harvey siphons from the mollusc preserved in sugar. Harvey had become interested in bioluminescence as a result of visiting the South Pacific and Japan and observing phosphorescent organisms there. He studied the phenomenon for many years. His research aimed to demonstrate that luciferin, and the enzymes that act on it to produce light, were interchangeable between species, showing that all bioluminescent organisms had a common ancestor. However, he found this hypothesis to be false, with different organisms having major differences in the composition of their light-producing proteins. He spent the next 30 years purifying and studying the components, but it fell to the young Japanese chemist Osamu Shimomura to be the first to obtain crystalline luciferin. He used the sea firefly Vargula hilgendorfii, but it was another ten years before he discovered the chemical's structure and published his 1957 paper Crystalline Cypridina Luciferin. Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, and Roger Y. Tsien won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their 1961 discovery and development of green fluorescent protein as a tool for biological research.
Harvey wrote a detailed historical account on all forms of luminescence in 1957. An updated book on bioluminescence covering also the twentieth and early twenty-first century was published recently.
Evolution
In 1932 E. N. Harvey was among the first to propose how bioluminescence could have evolved. In this early paper, he suggested that proto-bioluminescence could have arisen from respiratory chain proteins that hold fluorescent groups. This hypothesis has since been disproven, but it did lead to considerable interest in the origins of the phenomenon. Today, the two prevailing hypotheses (both concerning marine bioluminescence) are those put forth by Howard Seliger in 1993 and Rees et al. in 1998.
Seliger's theory identifies luciferase enzymes as the catalyst for the evolution of bioluminescent systems. It suggests that the original purpose of luciferases was as mixed-function oxygenases. As the early ancestors of many species moved into deeper and darker waters natural selection favored the development of increased eye sensitivity and enhanced visual signals. If selection were to favor a mutation in the oxygenase enzyme required for the breakdown of pigment molecules (molecules often associated with spots used to attract a mate or distract a predator) it could have eventually resulted in external luminescence in tissues.
Rees et al. use evidence gathered from the marine luciferin coelenterazine to suggest that selection acting on luciferins may have arisen from pressures to protect oceanic organisms from potentially deleterious reactive oxygen species (e.g. H2O2 and O2− ). The functional shift from antioxidation to bioluminescence probably occurred when the strength of selection for antioxidation defense decreased as early species moved further down the water column. At greater depths exposure to ROS is significantly lower, as is the endogenous production of ROS through metabolism.
While popular at first, Seliger's theory has been challenged, particularly on the biochemical and genetic evidence that Rees examines. What remains clear, however, is that bioluminescence has evolved independently at least 40 times. Bioluminescence in fish began at least by the Cretaceous period. About 1,500 fish species are known to be bioluminescent; the capability evolved independently at least 27 times. Of these, 17 involved the taking up of bioluminous bacteria from the surrounding water while in the others, the intrinsic light evolved through chemical synthesis. These fish have become surprisingly diverse in the deep ocean and control their light with the help of their nervous system, using it not just to lure prey or hide from predators, but also for communication.
All bioluminescent organisms have in common that the reaction of a "luciferin" and oxygen is catalyzed by a luciferase to produce light. McElroy and Seliger proposed in 1962 that the bioluminescent reaction evolved to detoxify oxygen, in parallel with photosynthesis.
Thuesen, Davis et al. showed in 2016 that bioluminescence has evolved independently 27 times within 14 fish clades across ray-finned fishes.
Chemical mechanism
Bioluminescence is a form of chemiluminescence where light energy is released by a chemical reaction. This reaction involves a light-emitting pigment, the luciferin, and a luciferase, the enzyme component. Because of the diversity of luciferin/luciferase combinations, there are very few commonalities in the chemical mechanism. From currently studied systems, the only unifying mechanism is the role of molecular oxygen, which provides chemical energy; often there is a concurrent release of carbon dioxide (CO2). For example, the firefly luciferin/luciferase reaction requires magnesium and ATP and produces CO2, adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate (PP) as waste products. Other cofactors may be required, such as calcium (Ca2+) for the photoprotein aequorin, or magnesium (Mg2+) ions and ATP for the firefly luciferase. Generically, this reaction can be described as:
Luciferin + O2->[\text{Luciferase}][\text{other cofactors}]Oxyluciferin + light energy
Instead of a luciferase, the jellyfish Aequorea victoria makes use of another type of protein called a photoprotein, in this case specifically aequorin. When calcium ions are added, rapid catalysis creates a brief flash quite unlike the prolonged glow produced by luciferase. In a second, much slower step, luciferin is regenerated from the oxidized (oxyluciferin) form, allowing it to recombine with aequorin, in preparation for a subsequent flash. Photoproteins are thus enzymes, but with unusual reaction kinetics. Furthermore, some of the blue light released by aequorin in contact with calcium ions is absorbed by a green fluorescent protein, which in turn releases green light in a process called resonant energy transfer.
Overall, bioluminescence has arisen over 40 times in evolutionary history. In evolution, luciferins tend to vary little: one in particular, coelenterazine, is the light emitting pigment for nine phyla (groups of very different organisms), including polycystine radiolaria, Cercozoa (Phaeodaria), protozoa, comb jellies, cnidaria including jellyfish and corals, crustaceans, molluscs, arrow worms and vertebrates (ray-finned fish). Not all these organisms synthesise coelenterazine: some of them obtain it through their diet. Conversely, luciferase enzymes vary widely and tend to be different in each species.
Distribution
Bioluminescence occurs widely among animals, especially in the open sea, including fish, jellyfish, comb jellies, crustaceans, and cephalopod molluscs; in some fungi and bacteria; and in various terrestrial invertebrates including insects. In marine coastal habitats, about 2.5% of organisms are estimated to be bioluminescent, whereas in pelagic habitats in the eastern Pacific, about 76% of the main taxa of deep-sea animals have been found to be capable of producing light. Most marine light-emission is in the blue and green light spectrum. However, some loose-jawed fish emit red and infrared light, and the genus Tomopteris emits yellow light.
The most frequently encountered bioluminescent organisms may be the dinoflagellates in the surface layers of the sea, which are responsible for the sparkling phosphorescence sometimes seen at night in disturbed water. At least 18 genera exhibit luminosity. A different effect is the thousands of square miles of the ocean which shine with the light produced by bioluminescent bacteria, known as mareel or the milky seas effect.
Pelagic zone
Bioluminescence is abundant in the pelagic zone, with the most concentration at depths devoid of light and surface waters at night. These organisms participate in diurnal vertical migration from the dark depths to the surface at night, dispersing the population of bioluminescent organisms across the pelagic water column. The dispersal of bioluminescence across different depths in the pelagic zone has been attributed to the selection pressures imposed by predation and the lack of places to hide in the open sea. In depths where sunlight never penetrates, often below 200m, the significance of bioluminescent is evident in the retainment of functional eyes for organisms to detect bioluminescence.
Bacterial symbioses
Organisms often produce bioluminescence themselves, rarely do they generate it from outside phenomena. However, there are occasions where bioluminescence is produced by bacterial symbionts that have a symbiotic relationship with the host organism. Although many luminous bacteria in the marine environment are free-living, a majority are found in symbiotic relationships that involve fish, squids, crustaceans etc. as hosts. Most luminous bacterial inhabit the marine sea, with Photobacterium and Vibrio genera dominating the marine environment.
In the symbiotic relationship, bacterium benefit from having a source of nourishment and a refuge to grow. Hosts obtain these bacterial symbionts either from the environment, spawning, or the luminous bacterium is evolving with their host. Coevolutionary interactions are suggested as host organisms’ anatomical adaptations have become specific to only certain luminous bacteria, to suffice ecological dependence of bioluminescence.
Benthic zone
Bioluminescence is widely studied amongst species located in the mesopelagic zone, but the benthic zone at mesopelagic depths has remained widely unknown. Benthic habitats at depths beyond the mesopelagic are also poorly understood due to the same constraints. Unlike the pelagic zone where the emission of light is undisturbed in the open sea, the occurrence of bioluminescence in the benthic zone is less common. It has been attributed to the blockage of emitted light by a number of sources such as the sea floor, and inorganic and organic structures. Visual signals and communication that is prevalent in the pelagic zone such as counterillumination may not be functional or relevant in the benthic realm. Bioluminescence in bathyal benthic species still remains poorly studied due to difficulties of the collection of species at these depths.
Uses in nature
Bioluminescence has several functions in different taxa. Steven Haddock et al. (2010) list as more or less definite functions in marine organisms the following: defensive functions of startle, counterillumination (camouflage), misdirection (smoke screen), distractive body parts, burglar alarm (making predators easier for higher predators to see), and warning to deter settlers; offensive functions of lure, stun or confuse prey, illuminate prey, and mate attraction/recognition. It is much easier for researchers to detect that a species is able to produce light than to analyze the chemical mechanisms or to prove what function the light serves. In some cases the function is unknown, as with species in three families of earthworm (Oligochaeta), such as Diplocardia longa where the coelomic fluid produces light when the animal moves. The following functions are reasonably well established in the named organisms.
Counterillumination camouflage
In many animals of the deep sea, including several squid species, bacterial bioluminescence is used for camouflage by counterillumination, in which the animal matches the overhead environmental light as seen from below. In these animals, photoreceptors control the illumination to match the brightness of the background. These light organs are usually separate from the tissue containing the bioluminescent bacteria. However, in one species, Euprymna scolopes, the bacteria are an integral component of the animal's light organ.
Attraction
Bioluminescence is used in a variety of ways and for different purposes. The cirrate octopod Stauroteuthis syrtensis uses emits bioluminescence from its sucker like structures. These structures are believed to have evolved from what are more commonly known as octopus suckers. They do not have the same function as the normal suckers because they no longer have any handling or grappling ability due its evolution of photophores. The placement of the photophores are within the animals oral reach, which leads researchers to suggest that it uses it bioluminescence to capture and lure prey.
Fireflies use light to attract mates. Two systems are involved according to species; in one, females emit light from their abdomens to attract males; in the other, flying males emit signals to which the sometimes sedentary females respond. Click beetles emit an orange light from the abdomen when flying and a green light from the thorax when they are disturbed or moving about on the ground. The former is probably a sexual attractant but the latter may be defensive. Larvae of the click beetle Pyrophorus nyctophanus live in the surface layers of termite mounds in Brazil. They light up the mounds by emitting a bright greenish glow which attracts the flying insects on which they feed.
In the marine environment, use of luminescence for mate attraction is chiefly known among ostracods, small shrimplike crustaceans, especially in the family Cyprididae. Pheromones may be used for long-distance communication, with bioluminescence used at close range to enable mates to "home in". A polychaete worm, the Bermuda fireworm creates a brief display, a few nights after the full moon, when the female lights up to attract males.
Defense
The defense mechanisms for bioluminescent organisms can come in multiple forms; startling prey, counterillumination, smoke screen or misdirection, distractive body parts, burglar alarm, sacrificial tag or waning coloration. The shrimp family Oplophoridae Dana use their bioluminescence as a way of startling the predator that is after them. Acanthephyra purpurea, within the Oplophoridae family, uses its photophores to emit light, and can secrete a bioluminescent substance when in the presence of a predator. This secretory mechanism is common among prey fish.
Many cephalopods, including at least 70 genera of squid, are bioluminescent. Some squid and small crustaceans use bioluminescent chemical mixtures or bacterial slurries in the same way as many squid use ink. A cloud of luminescent material is expelled, distracting or repelling a potential predator, while the animal escapes to safety. The deep sea squid Octopoteuthis deletron may autotomise portions of its arms which are luminous and continue to twitch and flash, thus distracting a predator while the animal flees.
Dinoflagellates may use bioluminescence for defense against predators. They shine when they detect a predator, possibly making the predator itself more vulnerable by attracting the attention of predators from higher trophic levels. Grazing copepods release any phytoplankton cells that flash, unharmed; if they were eaten they would make the copepods glow, attracting predators, so the phytoplankton's bioluminescence is defensive. The problem of shining stomach contents is solved (and the explanation corroborated) in predatory deep-sea fishes: their stomachs have a black lining able to keep the light from any bioluminescent fish prey which they have swallowed from attracting larger predators.
The sea-firefly is a small crustacean living in sediment. At rest it emits a dull glow but when disturbed it darts away leaving a cloud of shimmering blue light to confuse the predator. During World War II it was gathered and dried for use by the Japanese army as a source of light during clandestine operations.
The larvae of railroad worms (Phrixothrix) have paired photic organs on each body segment, able to glow with green light; these are thought to have a defensive purpose. They also have organs on the head which produce red light; they are the only terrestrial organisms to emit light of this color.
Warning
Aposematism is a widely used function of bioluminescence, providing a warning that the creature concerned is unpalatable. It is suggested that many firefly larvae glow to repel predators; some millipedes glow for the same purpose. Some marine organisms are believed to emit light for a similar reason. These include scale worms, jellyfish and brittle stars but further research is needed to fully establish the function of the luminescence. Such a mechanism would be of particular advantage to soft-bodied cnidarians if they were able to deter predation in this way. The limpet Latia neritoides is the only known freshwater gastropod that emits light. It produces greenish luminescent mucus which may have an anti-predator function. The marine snail Hinea brasiliana uses flashes of light, probably to deter predators. The blue-green light is emitted through the translucent shell, which functions as an efficient diffuser of light.
Communication
Communication in the form of quorum sensing plays a role in the regulation of luminescence in many species of bacteria. Small extracellularly secreted molecules stimulate the bacteria to turn on genes for light production when cell density, measured by concentration of the secreted molecules, is high.
Pyrosomes are colonial tunicates and each zooid has a pair of luminescent organs on either side of the inlet siphon. When stimulated by light, these turn on and off, causing rhythmic flashing. No neural pathway runs between the zooids, but each responds to the light produced by other individuals, and even to light from other nearby colonies. Communication by light emission between the zooids enables coordination of colony effort, for example in swimming where each zooid provides part of the propulsive force.
Some bioluminous bacteria infect nematodes that parasitize Lepidoptera larvae. When these caterpillars die, their luminosity may attract predators to the dead insect thus assisting in the dispersal of both bacteria and nematodes. A similar reason may account for the many species of fungi that emit light. Species in the genera Armillaria, Mycena, Omphalotus, Panellus, Pleurotus and others do this, emitting usually greenish light from the mycelium, cap and gills. This may attract night-flying insects and aid in spore dispersal, but other functions may also be involved.
Quantula striata is the only known bioluminescent terrestrial mollusc. Pulses of light are emitted from a gland near the front of the foot and may have a communicative function, although the adaptive significance is not fully understood.
Mimicry
Bioluminescence is used by a variety of animals to mimic other species. Many species of deep sea fish such as the anglerfish and dragonfish make use of aggressive mimicry to attract prey. They have an appendage on their heads called an esca that contains bioluminescent bacteria able to produce a long-lasting glow which the fish can control. The glowing esca is dangled or waved about to lure small animals to within striking distance of the fish.
The cookiecutter shark uses bioluminescence to camouflage its underside by counterillumination, but a small patch near its pectoral fins remains dark, appearing as a small fish to large predatory fish like tuna and mackerel swimming beneath it. When such fish approach the lure, they are bitten by the shark.
Female Photuris fireflies sometimes mimic the light pattern of another firefly, Photinus, to attract its males as prey. In this way they obtain both food and the defensive chemicals named lucibufagins, which Photuris cannot synthesize.
South American giant cockroaches of the genus Lucihormetica were believed to be the first known example of defensive mimicry, emitting light in imitation of bioluminescent, poisonous click beetles. However, doubt has been cast on this assertion, and there is no conclusive evidence that the cockroaches are bioluminescent.
Illumination
While most marine bioluminescence is green to blue, some deep sea barbeled dragonfishes in the genera Aristostomias, Pachystomias and Malacosteus emit a red glow. This adaptation allows the fish to see red-pigmented prey, which are normally absent from the deep ocean environment where red light has been filtered out by the water column.
The black dragonfish (also called the northern stoplight loosejaw) Malacosteus niger is probably the only fish to produce a red glow. Its eyes, however, are insensitive to this wavelength; it has an additional retinal pigment which fluoresces blue-green when illuminated. This alerts the fish to the presence of its prey. The additional pigment is thought to be assimilated from chlorophyll derivatives found in the copepods which form part of its diet.
Biotechnology
Biology and medicine
Bioluminescent organisms are a target for many areas of research. Luciferase systems are widely used in genetic engineering as reporter genes, each producing a different color by fluorescence, and for biomedical research using bioluminescence imaging. For example, the firefly luciferase gene was used as early as 1986 for research using transgenic tobacco plants. Vibrio bacteria symbiose with marine invertebrates such as the Hawaiian bobtail squid (Euprymna scolopes), are key experimental models for bioluminescence. Bioluminescent activated destruction is an experimental cancer treatment.
In Vivo luminescence cell and animal imaging uses dyes and fluorescent proteins as chromophores. The characteristics of each chromophore determine which cell area(s) will be targeted and illuminated.
Light production
The structures of photophores, the light producing organs in bioluminescent organisms, are being investigated by industrial designers. Engineered bioluminescence could perhaps one day be used to reduce the need for street lighting, or for decorative purposes if it becomes possible to produce light that is both bright enough and can be sustained for long periods at a workable price. The gene that makes the tails of fireflies glow has been added to mustard plants. The plants glow faintly for an hour when touched, but a sensitive camera is needed to see the glow. University of Wisconsin–Madison is researching the use of genetically engineered bioluminescent E. coli bacteria, for use as bioluminescent bacteria in a light bulb.
In 2011, Philips launched a microbial system for ambience lighting in the home.
An iGEM team from Cambridge (England) has started to address the problem that luciferin is consumed in the light-producing reaction by developing a genetic biotechnology part that codes for a luciferin regenerating enzyme from the North American firefly.
In 2016, Glowee, a French company started selling bioluminescent lights for shop fronts and street signs, for use between 1 and 7 in the morning when the law forbids use of electricity for this purpose. They used the bioluminescent bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri, but the maximum lifetime of their product was three days.
In April 2020, plants were genetically engineered to glow more brightly using genes from the bioluminescent mushroom Neonothopanus nambi to convert caffeic acid into luciferin.
ATP Bioluminescence
ATP Bioluminescence is the process in which ATP is used to generate luminescence in an organism. It proves to be a very good biosensor to test cell viability. Optical biosensors include process of measurement of luminescence, fluorescence absorbance or emission. Through these measurements, quantitative measurement of ATP bioluminescence is applied to detect existence of living microbes only. Since the method is quick and convenient, it results in real-time data. It is faster, economical and easier to work with. Optical biosensors sense the observed optical signal based on measuring the photons involved in the phenomenon (spiking) It depends on the interaction of microbes with analytes. Thus, it is correlated with the concentration of the microbial population which is determined through this method.
Differentiation between living and non living cells
In ATP bioluminescence, it is assumed that all living cells in the same have the same amount of ATP over time during the chemical reaction between luciferin, luciferase to produce ATP, This is done in order to measure the viability of the cell and allows the researcher to measure the amount of living and dead cells in the sample on basis of presence or absence of ATP. Living cells that contain ATP produce a bioluminescent flash due to the luciferin-luciferase reaction in presence of ATP. Dead cells do not produce any bioluminescence due to absence of ATP The amount of the intensity of the signal is constant for each living cell in a healthy sample. In this way, the overall number of living cells within a sample is determined.
Process of measurement of microbial population
ATP, which is a fundamental compound in the luciferase reaction, is utilized and in the second step, oxyluciferin is produced. The oxyluciferin is produced in an excited state, which produces light when it goes back to ground state. The light emitted is detected by a luminometer. Concentration of the ATP is directly proportional to the expressed light measured as Relative Light Units (RLU). A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) is used to calculate the sensitivity and specificity of the measurements. There is direct correlation between luminescence intensity and concentration of standard ATP. There is a direct correlation between bioluminescence and colony forming unit (CFU). Thus, concentration of standard ATP and CFU gives a standard correlation. In this way, ATP is measured and microbial population is determined through bioluminescence.
Note :
However, it is important to keep in mind that different types of microbial populations are determined through different sets of ATP assays using other substrates and reagents. Renilla and Gaussia based cell viability assays use the substrate coelenterazine.
See also
Animal coloration
Biophoton
Life That Glows, 2016 full-length documentary
Notes
References
Further reading
Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow (2009) Bioluminescence in Focus – a collection of illuminating essays Research Signpost:
Shimomura, Osamu (2006). Bioluminescence: Chemical Principles and Methods. Word Scientific Publishing. .
Lee, John (2016). "Bioluminescence, the Nature of the Light." The University of Georgia Libraries. http://hdl.handle.net/10724/20031
Anctil, Michel (2018). Luminous Creatures: The History and Science of Light Production in Living Organisms. McGill-Queen's University Press.
External links
BBC: Red tide: Electric blue waves wash California shore
MBARI: Gonyaulax Bioluminescence
UF/IFAS: glow-worms
TED: Glowing life in an underwater world (video)
Smithsonian Ocean Portal: Bioluminescent animals photo gallery
National Geographic: Bioluminescence
Annual Review of Marine Science: Bioluminescence in the Sea
Canon Australia – Tips on How to Photograph Bioluminescence
Fisheries science
Light sources
Camouflage
Mimicry
Bioelectromagnetics
|
[
0.6443035006523132,
0.21148599684238434,
-0.23562964797019958,
0.15150058269500732,
-0.1008979007601738,
-0.4400177001953125,
0.3812043368816376,
0.5720268487930298,
-0.21944557130336761,
-0.8647656440734863,
-0.6385304927825928,
0.7706604599952698,
-0.14707142114639282,
0.9181807637214661,
-0.08927527070045471,
0.4468749463558197,
0.2814221680164337,
1.1639012098312378,
0.16289180517196655,
0.17071545124053955,
-0.3024357855319977,
-0.07009227573871613,
0.3593623638153076,
-0.22884400188922882,
0.3382206857204437,
-0.5330202579498291,
0.2374919056892395,
0.47105464339256287,
0.08018568158149719,
0.113309346139431,
-0.29124027490615845,
0.20827616751194,
-0.4563427269458771,
0.030471578240394592,
0.10749241709709167,
-0.13846375048160553,
-0.3106386661529541,
-0.5297162532806396,
-0.46099546551704407,
-0.2851181924343109,
-0.18827448785305023,
0.33012107014656067,
0.6710419654846191,
0.4648510217666626,
-0.36938920617103577,
-0.43489599227905273,
-1.065974235534668,
0.27379110455513,
-0.7379900217056274,
0.5928323268890381,
0.0245230570435524,
-0.4537050724029541,
0.35375159978866577,
0.47667479515075684,
-0.4363686442375183,
0.8903889060020447,
-0.732746958732605,
0.4736868739128113,
0.04817333444952965,
-0.31912150979042053,
0.11631887406110764,
-0.44758161902427673,
-0.5768740773200989,
0.5058001279830933,
0.7506694793701172,
0.14317096769809723,
-0.015529682859778404,
-0.26156285405158997,
-0.009794670157134533,
-0.3183870315551758,
-0.0674624815583229,
0.09931233525276184,
0.2782939076423645,
-0.059129465371370316,
-1.0389403104782104,
0.15995050966739655,
0.2131447046995163,
-0.2821701467037201,
-0.42477476596832275,
-0.19355560839176178,
-0.4591890275478363,
0.8486722111701965,
0.28982290625572205,
0.010795014910399914,
0.16852529346942902,
0.13925373554229736,
-0.41022542119026184,
0.8159559369087219,
-0.28930729627609253,
0.7213745713233948,
0.21821610629558563,
-0.23350520431995392,
0.8876051902770996,
0.30335313081741333,
0.6790890097618103,
-0.209078848361969,
0.1042991504073143,
-0.31373050808906555,
-0.22656211256980896,
0.29669350385665894,
0.13430073857307434,
0.15553899109363556,
0.3019719421863556,
-0.24122443795204163,
0.06857475638389587,
0.07462619990110397,
-0.8443384170532227,
-0.49282607436180115,
0.07737281173467636,
0.2386162281036377,
0.06913069635629654,
0.34537607431411743,
-0.7004383206367493,
0.2966654896736145,
-0.27344006299972534,
0.6253686547279358,
0.7532705068588257,
0.07379931956529617,
-0.15395408868789673,
-0.2708069384098053,
0.6261182427406311,
0.48185601830482483,
-0.08470437675714493,
-0.3339981436729431,
-0.8197168707847595,
0.10012801736593246,
0.4257607161998749,
0.3626866340637207,
-0.6160069108009338,
-0.01023674476891756,
0.26657646894454956,
0.6423867344856262,
0.0008107910398393869,
-0.29239994287490845,
0.37467166781425476,
-0.7356982827186584,
0.5565611720085144,
-0.06426447629928589,
0.551918625831604,
0.26513683795928955,
-0.334341824054718,
-0.68494713306427,
-0.5298337936401367,
-0.16508887708187103,
0.5512822866439819,
-0.18046517670154572,
0.2817559838294983,
-0.49308979511260986,
-0.33404141664505005,
-0.08103150874376297,
0.11637038737535477,
-0.0847674012184143,
-0.0793510153889656,
0.11224575340747833,
-0.7524341344833374,
-0.09019379317760468,
0.3290003836154938,
0.16724829375743866,
0.3036555349826813,
0.19947530329227448,
-0.1146092340350151,
-0.05402616411447525,
-0.02553846314549446,
0.11746858060359955,
-0.4282751977443695,
-0.006652796175330877,
0.3066633641719818,
1.147705316543579,
0.4366346001625061,
-0.13119131326675415,
0.10045719146728516,
-0.28330785036087036,
-0.05866502597928047,
-0.26381632685661316,
0.24733597040176392,
-0.00740034831687808,
0.18961608409881592,
0.30061379075050354,
0.08062467724084854,
0.008876304142177105,
-0.6678714752197266,
0.00007451016426784918,
0.43443161249160767,
-0.17960608005523682,
0.44736093282699585,
-0.47027722001075745,
0.4432474374771118,
0.430982768535614,
0.10518486797809601,
-0.4196423292160034,
-0.597015380859375,
-0.10339726507663727,
-0.14155560731887817,
-1.0870417356491089,
0.6627786755561829,
0.21638846397399902,
-0.27984943985939026,
0.23253031075000763,
-0.36755695939064026,
0.0034274484496563673,
-0.28313344717025757,
0.3220019042491913,
0.044960904866456985,
-0.37844690680503845,
-0.7516409754753113,
0.2021440863609314,
0.7875901460647583,
-0.09522479772567749,
0.5460920333862305,
0.17627127468585968,
0.39670148491859436,
-0.24690407514572144,
0.4819302260875702,
-0.05251753702759743,
0.34771478176116943,
-0.1472667157649994,
-0.8665586113929749,
0.19915278255939484,
-0.39181914925575256,
-0.2839425504207611,
0.5276384353637695,
0.45832833647727966,
-0.29430583119392395,
0.4907452166080475,
-0.03462690860033035,
0.7579103708267212,
0.10422280430793762,
-0.4110700190067291,
0.608812153339386,
-0.2950058877468109,
0.3802870512008667,
-0.10809483379125595,
0.2831694781780243,
-0.2739705741405487,
-0.6372037529945374,
-0.0064198048785328865,
0.2845846712589264,
-0.12788788974285126,
0.34993141889572144,
-0.3051125705242157,
-0.19659537076950073,
-0.14309938251972198,
-0.6359291076660156,
0.6501230597496033,
0.24508161842823029,
0.02638978697359562,
0.21262937784194946,
0.4485935568809509,
-0.5617954134941101,
-0.33063971996307373,
0.4252835512161255,
0.3668801188468933,
0.42169952392578125,
-0.4281104803085327,
0.25814175605773926,
-0.8516380786895752,
-0.6832286715507507,
0.014202645048499107,
0.23874223232269287,
-0.028859296813607216,
0.27627697587013245,
-0.4413882791996002,
0.4451253116130829,
-0.04249715805053711,
-0.4768012464046478,
-0.7080400586128235,
-0.035870809108018875,
-0.4259587228298187,
-0.017919640988111496,
0.5317156910896301,
0.474027156829834,
0.3453367352485657,
-0.6399794816970825,
-0.15312550961971283,
0.2572643458843231,
-0.5064205527305603,
0.4626785218715668,
0.2203555554151535,
0.07598844915628433,
0.4050857126712799,
0.25451499223709106,
0.7811029553413391,
0.02066023275256157,
-0.6472936868667603,
-0.7482365965843201,
-0.4721025228500366,
0.04537512734532356,
-0.38684794306755066,
0.062176939100027084,
-0.36969825625419617,
-0.8023626804351807,
-0.07601550221443176,
0.016455579549074173,
0.30202576518058777,
-0.5421019792556763,
0.1845734566450119,
-0.06294038146734238,
-0.4384528696537018,
0.3973308801651001,
-0.5976765751838684,
0.12280195206403732,
-0.7217172980308533,
-0.4131757915019989,
0.09997746348381042,
-0.1550995111465454,
-0.344352126121521,
0.1203601136803627,
-0.6631733179092407,
-5.366113662719727,
0.17509815096855164,
0.48005786538124084,
0.006006656214594841,
0.2645469903945923,
-0.1488264948129654,
0.7557712197303772,
-0.09171178191900253,
0.11166252195835114,
0.31761229038238525,
-0.6808702349662781,
-0.024090459570288658,
-0.009217705577611923,
1.0020538568496704,
0.5549881458282471,
0.2829338312149048,
0.6897469162940979,
-0.13970297574996948,
0.20191499590873718,
0.3260969817638397,
-0.6987212300300598,
0.42592620849609375,
0.4245082437992096,
0.6663387417793274,
0.35260137915611267,
-0.3921644985675812,
-0.7755900621414185,
-0.38279423117637634,
-0.15931390225887299,
0.1308276504278183,
0.25387677550315857,
-0.21391183137893677,
0.009797916747629642,
-0.1460425853729248,
0.24148035049438477,
0.6956318616867065,
0.2752973735332489,
-0.3097911477088928,
-0.16739702224731445,
-0.6910848617553711,
0.12448889762163162,
0.8235328197479248,
-0.4537879228591919,
0.18813101947307587,
0.3655482530593872,
0.09113264083862305,
-0.7028864622116089,
-0.2939629852771759,
0.3800656199455261,
0.6718625426292419,
-0.46455448865890503,
0.5269219875335693,
0.7388685345649719,
-0.7056872248649597,
0.24347315728664398,
-0.26427504420280457,
0.971625566482544,
-0.03165046125650406,
-0.2057635337114334,
-0.7906658053398132,
0.29670530557632446,
-0.2722904086112976,
0.0358985960483551,
0.01590418443083763,
0.16487595438957214,
0.3129255473613739,
-0.5304318070411682,
-0.5188512206077576,
0.3672715723514557,
-0.280874639749527,
-0.6437360644340515,
0.641622006893158,
-0.030579622834920883,
-0.7979940176010132,
0.17737214267253876,
-0.2684067189693451,
-0.3095192313194275,
-0.22409556806087494,
0.3794708251953125,
0.049640633165836334,
-0.4265578091144562,
-0.3930036723613739,
-0.3431430757045746,
0.3721074163913727,
0.3709143400192261,
-0.6560202836990356,
-0.08299347758293152,
0.017243219539523125,
-0.7160148024559021,
-0.278089314699173,
0.9586712718009949,
-0.1168704554438591,
0.24045875668525696,
0.26222461462020874,
0.6337423324584961,
0.6766960024833679,
0.5127230882644653,
0.1337931752204895,
0.78071528673172,
-0.32312315702438354,
0.33602869510650635,
0.19443191587924957,
-0.21944482624530792,
0.0908568874001503,
-0.21428343653678894,
-0.23306788504123688,
-0.45513439178466797,
0.12573479115962982,
0.1411897838115692,
-0.5730625987052917,
-0.07095598429441452,
0.4451538026332855,
-0.6001155376434326,
0.23454612493515015,
0.48979032039642334,
0.3935336172580719,
-0.415844589471817,
1.043257236480713,
0.6886513829231262,
-0.01733333058655262,
0.5340408086776733,
0.24753673374652863,
-0.4603314995765686,
-0.12343774735927582,
-0.3434336483478546,
-0.1553422510623932,
-0.14451615512371063,
0.2931312024593353,
-0.26200395822525024,
-0.37426474690437317,
0.45131224393844604,
0.08042719215154648,
-0.0976065918803215,
-0.22558045387268066,
0.3484569191932678,
-0.05315933749079704,
-0.0016422043554484844,
-0.44719889760017395,
-0.16764354705810547,
-0.7180135846138,
0.3700241148471832,
-0.33187195658683777,
0.2637987732887268,
0.17373105883598328,
0.6072914004325867,
0.295113205909729,
0.19999314844608307,
-0.39769548177719116,
-0.010068852454423904,
0.49491116404533386,
0.016098739579319954,
-0.2583690583705902,
-0.5253873467445374,
-0.7399174571037292,
0.0665922686457634,
-0.04733315110206604,
0.0980602353811264,
-0.4581201374530792,
-0.0691828653216362,
-0.7458789944648743,
0.17220966517925262,
0.3770207464694977,
-0.9920520186424255,
0.14331568777561188,
-0.3636290431022644,
-0.07345103472471237,
-0.7740135192871094,
0.4618799090385437,
-0.4359070658683777,
0.6061080694198608,
-0.22938407957553864,
-0.08807186782360077,
-1.0377724170684814,
-0.601543128490448,
0.13719718158245087,
0.09344635903835297,
0.3704219162464142,
0.289901465177536,
-0.13181661069393158,
-0.7357764840126038,
0.48952439427375793,
-0.1213320940732956,
-0.1720624417066574,
0.16729725897312164,
0.5678629279136658,
-0.7907254099845886,
-0.25371649861335754,
-0.3082233965396881,
-0.5615627765655518,
-0.10425214469432831,
0.37135523557662964,
0.6874473690986633,
0.21155108511447906,
-0.569038987159729,
-0.5256506204605103,
-0.6113511919975281,
-0.18971705436706543,
0.2601476311683655,
0.26317429542541504,
-0.9493499994277954,
0.049159593880176544,
0.13355739414691925,
-0.954245924949646,
0.3775164783000946,
0.17130683362483978,
-0.36787131428718567,
-0.16624295711517334,
0.49892178177833557,
-0.5279219150543213,
0.003538119839504361,
-0.37365490198135376,
-0.38997387886047363,
-0.3958127200603485,
0.24744181334972382,
-0.1887899935245514,
0.15186277031898499,
0.12683622539043427,
-0.4676160216331482,
-0.11891970783472061,
-0.3655303716659546,
0.4703409969806671,
-0.023888595402240753,
0.15855534374713898,
-0.12220165878534317,
-0.39602264761924744,
-0.2194317877292633,
0.5324961543083191,
0.05069869011640549,
0.15628309547901154,
-0.5666863918304443,
-0.11487850546836853,
0.018723446875810623,
0.1659962385892868,
-0.025671781972050667,
-0.5295606255531311,
0.19995155930519104,
-0.17411571741104126,
0.11624963581562042,
0.022109504789114,
0.15628179907798767,
0.0792987272143364,
0.47609779238700867,
-0.29737958312034607,
-0.06178099662065506,
-0.3029170036315918,
0.8078691363334656,
0.06753924489021301,
-0.1186736524105072,
-1.0332742929458618,
-0.3849887251853943,
0.15340015292167664,
-0.6622233986854553,
-0.4157690405845642,
-0.41256439685821533,
0.5704183578491211,
-0.3310699164867401,
-0.11246785521507263,
-0.05330101028084755,
-0.021300382912158966,
-0.06877446919679642,
-0.24213361740112305,
-0.39562156796455383,
-0.5005963444709778,
0.39750900864601135,
0.4474678933620453,
-0.308622807264328,
-0.6142374873161316,
0.03908946365118027,
0.26141002774238586,
-0.05956491082906723,
0.4443252384662628,
-0.15761986374855042,
0.38647767901420593,
0.45697808265686035,
0.2357102483510971,
0.3353639543056488,
-0.23538267612457275,
-0.4691017270088196,
-0.3103382885456085,
-0.765696108341217,
0.2536563277244568,
-0.17434996366500854,
0.20712895691394806,
-0.4736146628856659,
0.2128513902425766,
-0.6613587737083435,
-0.08116982877254486,
-0.5906049609184265,
-0.5038937926292419,
-0.24225622415542603,
-0.38885271549224854,
-0.30457472801208496,
0.4301756024360657,
0.03332418575882912,
0.3791866600513458,
0.49354684352874756,
0.05132785439491272,
0.2761301100254059,
-0.45160841941833496,
-0.15596792101860046,
-0.32166191935539246,
0.41309234499931335,
0.22078005969524384,
-0.8600572347640991,
1.0048269033432007,
0.23602619767189026,
0.26902496814727783,
-0.21796445548534393,
0.00041500330553390086,
-0.5246235132217407,
-0.47387734055519104,
0.7447567582130432,
-0.22779878973960876,
0.5744875073432922,
-0.30008041858673096,
0.46985897421836853,
0.5128371119499207,
-0.4148309528827667,
0.6789034008979797,
0.4848024845123291,
0.23202326893806458,
-0.9753404259681702,
0.0444951169192791,
-0.4297632575035095,
-0.49067407846450806,
0.7167336940765381,
0.18654431402683258,
-0.050063103437423706,
0.0942111536860466,
-0.11401955783367157,
0.978280782699585,
0.4017102122306824,
-0.4865710437297821,
0.47015830874443054,
-0.4854614734649658,
-0.11143633723258972,
-0.030209455639123917,
0.0060556079261004925,
-0.8938248753547668,
0.9183470010757446,
0.5449563264846802,
0.8631786108016968,
0.09912312030792236,
0.005136434454470873,
-0.35780179500579834,
0.2675333321094513,
-0.10981065779924393,
0.9997277855873108,
-0.5881722569465637,
-0.017867721617221832,
0.39253678917884827,
-0.48706403374671936,
0.4715248644351959,
0.10916034132242203,
0.053040530532598495,
-0.9952788352966309,
1.1002237796783447,
-0.3182295560836792,
-0.11662213504314423,
-0.6096788048744202,
-0.29007765650749207,
0.6599842309951782,
0.4065079987049103,
0.3448713719844818,
-0.10431652516126633,
-0.5717527866363525,
-0.04779887571930885,
0.06870224326848984,
-0.2595199942588806,
0.09129370748996735,
0.788998007774353,
0.5782060623168945,
-0.2734330892562866,
0.3436409831047058,
0.5257948040962219,
0.4597393274307251,
0.2893197536468506,
-0.07686339318752289,
-0.2811475098133087,
0.035414572805166245,
-0.40290722250938416,
0.5862398743629456,
-0.3576502501964569,
-0.6433189511299133,
0.18405970931053162,
0.6753271222114563,
-0.5502682328224182,
0.48969098925590515,
-0.05188121274113655,
0.14497004449367523,
0.5788042545318604,
0.1683197319507599,
0.42610329389572144,
0.4064364731311798,
-0.5910301804542542,
-0.09736665338277817,
0.21362519264221191,
0.5945329666137695,
0.2732938528060913,
-0.8091688752174377,
0.372871071100235,
0.7269421219825745,
-0.007605036720633507,
0.5795731544494629,
-0.6266059279441833,
0.7357352375984192,
-0.6654609441757202,
0.0442964993417263,
-0.6013398170471191,
0.35753974318504333,
0.43976449966430664,
-0.5169605016708374,
0.01356176845729351,
-0.051844581961631775,
-0.40430712699890137,
0.19191929697990417,
0.27006837725639343,
-0.11276594549417496,
0.39719632267951965,
0.04067843407392502,
0.3703089952468872,
-0.4950491786003113,
0.06647354364395142,
0.4795806109905243,
-0.02922726608812809,
-0.056415192782878876,
0.18743644654750824,
0.24628496170043945,
-0.09179750829935074,
-0.1996462196111679,
-0.10311184823513031,
0.44884419441223145,
-0.5290084481239319,
0.45077911019325256,
-0.5721835494041443,
-0.6142316460609436,
-0.01609792374074459,
0.3110825717449188,
0.480506032705307,
-0.801673948764801,
0.14282478392124176,
-0.16845908761024475,
0.6624738574028015,
-0.5942239165306091,
-1.3736915588378906,
-0.2686990201473236,
0.28831931948661804,
-0.22937487065792084,
-0.5309268236160278,
0.03482930362224579,
0.44199344515800476,
-0.8869016766548157,
0.1449742466211319,
0.12348994612693787,
-0.5019232630729675,
0.08677512407302856,
0.26237019896507263,
0.17594489455223083,
0.12163858860731125,
0.6664959788322449
] |
203717
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phetsarath%20Ratanavongsa
|
Phetsarath Ratanavongsa
|
Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa (Somdej Chao Maha Uparaja Petsaraj Ratanavongsa () (19 January 1890 – 14 October 1959) was the 1st Prime Minister of Luang Phrabang in French Laos from 21 August 1941 to 10 October 1945, and Head of State of Laos between 12 October 1945 and 4 April 1946.
Biography
Early life
Phetsarath was born on 19 January 1890 in the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang, the second son of Oupahat Bounkhong and his second wife, Princess Thongsy. One of his younger brothers was Souvanna Phouma. Bounkong's eleventh wife was the mother of Souphanouvong. Luang Phrabang became a French protectorate in 1893. Phetsarath went to study at the colonial Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat in Saigon and continued on in 1905 at the Lycée Montaigne and to the École coloniale in Paris. He returned to Laos in 1912, married Princess Nhin Kham Venne in 1913, and started working as an interpreter for his father.
Government service: 1914-1941
In 1914, he became a clerk at the Office of the French governor in Vientiane. Two years later he was promoted to assistant secretary to the French governor. In 1919 he received the title of Somdeth Chao Ratsaphakhinay, a title held by his father and one of the highest ranks in the country. That same year he was named Director of Indigenous Affairs of Laos operating under the French governor in Laos.
As the country's last uparaja, he became a leading figure of modern Laos. He established the system of ranks and titles of the civil service, promotion and pension plans, and created a Lao consultative assembly, reorganized the king's Advisory Council. Phetsarath reorganized the administrative system of the Buddhist clergy, and established a system of schools for educating monks in Pali. He created the Institute of Law and Administration to train entry level officers (Samien) who would then move up the ladder as Phouxouei, Chao Meuang, and Chao Khoueng successively. He set up rules to reward, reassign, and promote deserving civil servants, and created the judicial system, including civil and penal codes.
Japanese occupation and Lao Issara: 1941-1957
Phetsarath played a dominant role in Lao politics before and after the Japanese occupation. He was the Prime Minister of Luang Phrabang, beginning in August 1941, ascending in prominence under the promises for power from Japan. From 1941 to 1945, Phetsarath attempted to supplant officials in Laos and Vietnam, but in the regions of Vietnam, the resistance from the local proletariat was too strong.
In March 1945 Japan overthrew the French rule in all of Indochina, including Laos. On 8 April 1945 King Sisavang Vong had declared–under Japanese pressure and at the urging of Phetsarath–that his kingdom was no longer a French protectorate. Shortly thereafter however, on 28 August 1945, Japan surrendered.
In the ensuing power vacuum, Phetsarath moved to unite the southern provinces of Laos with Luang Phrabang. This put him at odds with the pro-French King Sisavang Vong, who had agreed with the French that he intended to have the country resume its former status as a French colony. Phetsarath sent a telegram to all Laotian provincial governors notifying them that the Japanese surrender did not affect Laos' status as independent and warning them to resist any foreign intervention. On 15 September Phetsarath declared a unified Kingdom of Laos which led the King to dismiss him from his post as Prime Minister on 10 October.
Phetsarath and other Lao nationalists then created the Lao Issara (Free Laos) movement and took control of the country. The Lao Issara provisional assembly under Phetsarath proclaimed the deposition of the King and appointed Phetsarath as "Head of State". As the French retook control of Laos, Phetsarath fled in April 1946 to Thailand, where he led the Lao Issara government-in-exile. The group was dissolved in 1949 and its former members were allowed to return to Laos under amnesty.
Return: 1957-1959
In March 1957, he returned to Vientiane where he received a wild welcome. On 10 April 1957, he traveled to Luang Prabang by car and was received by an enormous crowd of citizens, government officials, and members of the police and the army. On 16 April he paid a courtesy call to King Sisavang Vong and was given back his old title of Uparaja of the Kingdom of Laos. In December 1957 he visited Samneua and Phongsaly where Souphanouvong symbolically offered the return of the Pathet Lao's two regrouping provinces to the Kingdom of Laos.
He was offered an official government residence in Vientiane, but preferred to stay in his villa, Xieng Keo, in Luang Prabang with his Thai consort, Mom Aphiphorn. In early October 1959 the Phoui Sananikone Government decided to use Phetsarath's official residence in Vientiane as the new prime minister's office. They vacated the building and shipped his personal belongings by boat to Luang Prabang, which upset him immensely. On 14 October 1959 Phetsarath was taken ill to the hospital, suffering from a severe brain hemorrhage. A French doctor operated on him, but it was already too late. He never regained consciousness and he died at the age of 69.
In part because of his popularity and in part because of his perceived shakti/shiva power, many Lao people hang his picture in their homes.
Awards and decorations
Legion of Honour
Chevalier of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (France)
Sena Jayaseddh Medal (Kingdom of Cambodia)
Officer of the Royal Order of Sowathara (Cambodia)
Other decorations
References
Sila Viravong: Chao Phetcharat - Strong Man of Kingdom of Laos, Thai Translation by Sommai Premjit, Matichon Press, BE 2542 (AD 1999),
Søren Ivarsson and Christopher E. Goscha: Prince Phetsarath (1890–1959): Nationalism and Royalty in the Making of Modern Laos, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (2007), 38: 55–81, Cambridge University Press
1959 deaths
Laotian princes
Phetsarath
Prime Ministers of Laos
1890 births
People from Luang Prabang
Lycée Montaigne (Paris) alumni
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
|
[
-0.21139788627624512,
0.49595749378204346,
-0.18380580842494965,
0.3379823863506317,
-0.29617899656295776,
0.31003716588020325,
0.4596858620643616,
-0.022600620985031128,
-0.8852540850639343,
0.1692250519990921,
-0.09189140051603317,
0.31264764070510864,
-0.6299393177032471,
0.31056296825408936,
-0.36522993445396423,
-0.02143220230937004,
0.9545372724533081,
0.03677672892808914,
-0.05759139731526375,
-0.4757235050201416,
-0.08830060809850693,
0.026317017152905464,
0.5961163640022278,
0.2026432752609253,
0.37710392475128174,
-0.035208843648433685,
0.12723340094089508,
0.07948123663663864,
0.5779281258583069,
-0.11324046552181244,
-0.10207556188106537,
0.42671117186546326,
0.28860393166542053,
-0.20748774707317352,
-0.5623795986175537,
-0.0818178728222847,
0.3681904375553131,
0.13508881628513336,
-0.44387441873550415,
-0.09978287667036057,
-0.34224897623062134,
0.2675792872905731,
-0.02779231034219265,
-0.14757010340690613,
-0.08531282842159271,
-1.3612045049667358,
-0.6788904666900635,
0.380815327167511,
-0.21400369703769684,
-0.16035477817058563,
-0.05091063305735588,
0.4080755412578583,
0.4568586051464081,
-0.045830946415662766,
0.45942679047584534,
0.14640681445598602,
-1.034030556678772,
-0.09636203944683075,
-1.0010136365890503,
0.09699292480945587,
0.02725859358906746,
0.22383268177509308,
-0.26973751187324524,
0.02753637172281742,
0.15749476850032806,
-0.17528899013996124,
0.04520707204937935,
-0.05166672542691231,
0.10582373291254044,
-0.0924919843673706,
0.125904843211174,
1.2540948390960693,
0.4265028238296509,
0.38860270380973816,
0.4140893518924713,
-0.33218371868133545,
-0.21126846969127655,
0.16725748777389526,
0.38690394163131714,
-0.3865026533603668,
0.05202927812933922,
-0.18591207265853882,
0.6556740403175354,
0.38368770480155945,
0.015504458919167519,
0.004675282631069422,
-0.0019779379945248365,
0.4312381148338318,
-0.13352715969085693,
-0.008522856049239635,
-0.08956579864025116,
0.2056596279144287,
0.48413634300231934,
-0.5178619027137756,
-0.6945798397064209,
-0.41707533597946167,
-0.3994988203048706,
0.2153811752796173,
0.14574630558490753,
0.10680218786001205,
0.33961260318756104,
0.025987669825553894,
0.3863552212715149,
-0.22617578506469727,
-0.9051518440246582,
-0.3460392355918884,
-0.5752403736114502,
0.2557975947856903,
-0.8948990702629089,
-0.4526981711387634,
-0.45227134227752686,
0.4382638931274414,
0.02689627930521965,
0.24205881357192993,
0.24301251769065857,
0.35833150148391724,
0.18701785802841187,
-0.2946692705154419,
0.2740274667739868,
-0.3615264594554901,
0.20656464993953705,
0.571643590927124,
0.1766602247953415,
0.6109856963157654,
-0.04245448857545853,
0.10400406271219254,
-0.08457095175981522,
-0.04746120795607567,
-0.2550795376300812,
0.39638015627861023,
0.5489463806152344,
0.5369827151298523,
-0.5651538968086243,
-0.11120905727148056,
-0.0013838402228429914,
-0.407345175743103,
0.8422940373420715,
0.4881928861141205,
0.3057401180267334,
0.02443675696849823,
-0.7095589637756348,
0.15284068882465363,
-0.34999707341194153,
0.24869394302368164,
0.18798232078552246,
0.21346977353096008,
-0.3018348515033722,
-0.048530034720897675,
-0.4162342846393585,
-0.1289258450269699,
0.17936700582504272,
-0.6908003687858582,
-0.12613068521022797,
-0.49204355478286743,
-0.5088002681732178,
0.3350960612297058,
0.27806031703948975,
0.21139734983444214,
-0.22868165373802185,
0.1962832361459732,
0.2326148897409439,
0.2255186289548874,
-0.1385660320520401,
0.07556906342506409,
0.44832926988601685,
-0.25527679920196533,
-0.4287261962890625,
0.7249593138694763,
-0.5987284779548645,
-0.044100936502218246,
-0.22873646020889282,
0.05950320512056351,
-0.4640370011329651,
-0.3829093277454376,
0.2862086594104767,
0.6815824508666992,
0.19226014614105225,
0.0004545670235529542,
-0.12480923533439636,
-0.14349791407585144,
-0.47280389070510864,
0.42462384700775146,
-0.04876621812582016,
-0.03237976133823395,
0.7758783102035522,
0.2761496901512146,
0.8999846577644348,
-0.04036986455321312,
0.8690925240516663,
-0.26779407262802124,
-0.623896062374115,
-0.267581045627594,
0.46037760376930237,
-0.12437185645103455,
0.5637167692184448,
0.7992120981216431,
0.35083892941474915,
0.5036745667457581,
0.02867402695119381,
0.6566004753112793,
0.3115409016609192,
-0.13294222950935364,
0.573233425617218,
-0.39140820503234863,
-0.3682198226451874,
0.4633936882019043,
0.09866475313901901,
0.5914077758789062,
0.7389696836471558,
1.2525485754013062,
0.5090405344963074,
-0.40897125005722046,
-0.41320285201072693,
0.09736356884241104,
-0.12145435810089111,
-0.6227579116821289,
-0.8401691317558289,
0.3671218156814575,
-0.29976126551628113,
0.05023489519953728,
0.19941532611846924,
-0.03314310684800148,
-0.42101070284843445,
0.6453573107719421,
-0.045937325805425644,
1.1378329992294312,
-0.21351927518844604,
-0.7421460747718811,
-0.35327863693237305,
-0.4562488794326782,
0.139567568898201,
-0.49077898263931274,
0.4831736385822296,
-0.3883802592754364,
0.34122467041015625,
0.07988753169775009,
-0.08914797753095627,
-0.060220085084438324,
0.14371678233146667,
-0.5406364798545837,
0.40618544816970825,
-0.017607729882001877,
-0.43511614203453064,
0.351340115070343,
0.0881904736161232,
0.59116530418396,
-0.9934515953063965,
-0.3610791862010956,
-0.5472249984741211,
-0.08145324140787125,
-0.011597425676882267,
0.10437025129795074,
0.5240099430084229,
-0.2261965274810791,
-0.3791816830635071,
-0.22867780923843384,
-0.7225835919380188,
0.11327263712882996,
0.1891842484474182,
0.26906949281692505,
-0.17580661177635193,
-0.04800068587064743,
0.5361971259117126,
0.40987104177474976,
0.07031887024641037,
0.02584991604089737,
-0.1479744166135788,
-0.19192731380462646,
-0.08573096245527267,
0.16361789405345917,
-0.05310314893722534,
-0.5710321664810181,
-0.6617870926856995,
-0.419556200504303,
-0.23518581688404083,
-0.9585409164428711,
-0.5760678648948669,
0.8272171020507812,
-0.48780643939971924,
-1.1114084720611572,
0.7934786081314087,
1.0315814018249512,
-0.16003400087356567,
-0.5192157030105591,
-0.3700847625732422,
-0.11835978180170059,
-0.4098673164844513,
-0.16852883994579315,
0.042956847697496414,
0.36511746048927307,
-0.2511749863624573,
0.36665722727775574,
-0.20004014670848846,
-0.40085935592651367,
-0.28711703419685364,
0.053437668830156326,
-0.7521247863769531,
0.021562127396464348,
0.8553593754768372,
0.13157746195793152,
-0.4597408175468445,
-0.1060517206788063,
-0.321389377117157,
0.6298195123672485,
0.4508727490901947,
-0.2536957859992981,
0.29832035303115845,
-0.09298017621040344,
-5.5164923667907715,
-0.3743685185909271,
0.4093557596206665,
-0.5828006863594055,
0.5823927521705627,
0.36462995409965515,
0.5504840016365051,
-0.32746148109436035,
0.7298279404640198,
-0.16597913205623627,
0.2710556089878082,
-0.3610243797302246,
0.12061724066734314,
0.37312421202659607,
0.397120863199234,
0.5016844272613525,
-0.022472966462373734,
-0.5522295236587524,
0.4672975540161133,
0.6953115463256836,
0.5259964466094971,
-0.13862870633602142,
0.02874177135527134,
0.41752681136131287,
0.4122476577758789,
0.3044390380382538,
0.0037937837187200785,
-0.3916687071323395,
-1.0508663654327393,
-0.44419753551483154,
-0.5439250469207764,
0.3304302394390106,
0.5501402020454407,
-0.07181345671415329,
-0.28701186180114746,
-0.9269377589225769,
0.4988752007484436,
0.3445245027542114,
-0.5528027415275574,
0.1339978128671646,
0.3430517017841339,
-0.5340990424156189,
-0.3422500789165497,
-0.12192247807979584,
-0.1910952776670456,
-0.1292751431465149,
-0.6136727333068848,
-0.34780988097190857,
-0.25271841883659363,
0.47499510645866394,
0.13083143532276154,
0.0820920541882515,
0.31476759910583496,
-0.3820329010486603,
-0.3187427818775177,
0.6759217381477356,
-0.24671784043312073,
0.4235534965991974,
-0.5929200053215027,
0.6177340745925903,
0.4149864912033081,
-0.10496113449335098,
-0.37801069021224976,
0.029419904574751854,
0.41211801767349243,
-0.1512165665626526,
-0.0906447172164917,
0.16440188884735107,
0.253332257270813,
0.49750980734825134,
-0.2995164096355438,
0.13493067026138306,
-0.15511202812194824,
-0.6955987811088562,
0.2422725260257721,
-0.29631009697914124,
-0.07561064511537552,
0.26907187700271606,
-0.037765923887491226,
0.015077798627316952,
-0.21451054513454437,
0.3571917712688446,
0.1996757537126541,
1.2834572792053223,
0.41136300563812256,
-0.2943471074104309,
-0.3771449029445648,
0.38510456681251526,
0.16497907042503357,
0.8988541960716248,
0.13168467581272125,
-1.15537691116333,
-0.1460767537355423,
0.09468355774879456,
0.13778239488601685,
-0.06834433972835541,
0.11263208091259003,
0.2163851261138916,
0.5270088911056519,
-0.23538900911808014,
0.050351981073617935,
-0.09401863813400269,
0.318258136510849,
-0.18799515068531036,
0.0692141056060791,
-0.2624702453613281,
-0.0419195182621479,
-0.2835889458656311,
0.022639404982328415,
0.6070918440818787,
0.000002611513764350093,
0.020925110206007957,
0.09950131177902222,
0.01576094515621662,
0.34027981758117676,
-0.6564132571220398,
0.09965865314006805,
0.17020323872566223,
0.4689233899116516,
-0.23437714576721191,
-0.6063258647918701,
0.6990662813186646,
-0.14136359095573425,
0.469615638256073,
0.751831591129303,
-0.20653562247753143,
-0.30822592973709106,
0.10280441492795944,
-0.18922840058803558,
0.04276708513498306,
0.13169601559638977,
-0.1769786924123764,
0.4555988907814026,
-0.5038622617721558,
0.3284192979335785,
-0.8819111585617065,
-0.054277610033750534,
-0.4690287709236145,
-0.22926776111125946,
0.05018526688218117,
-0.412586510181427,
-0.3741423189640045,
-0.47218573093414307,
0.42660683393478394,
0.23372983932495117,
-0.20951873064041138,
0.28852033615112305,
-0.172694593667984,
0.018331175670027733,
0.5126451849937439,
-0.3447316586971283,
-0.4631393253803253,
1.004148244857788,
-0.10341212898492813,
0.04080676659941673,
-0.3463473618030548,
-0.023971939459443092,
-0.2840602993965149,
0.21283477544784546,
0.37770378589630127,
0.008566216565668583,
-0.6962158679962158,
-1.1063326597213745,
-0.3413711488246918,
0.00913885049521923,
0.33554887771606445,
0.16683977842330933,
-0.031347986310720444,
-0.5641891956329346,
0.7052901387214661,
0.5523086786270142,
-0.6927354335784912,
-0.07213859260082245,
0.05994003266096115,
0.20394264161586761,
-0.4458278715610504,
0.4495338499546051,
0.1986609399318695,
-0.29555580019950867,
-0.10717685520648956,
-0.9862375259399414,
0.11283621937036514,
-0.053521618247032166,
0.36308732628822327,
0.40842726826667786,
0.19053252041339874,
-0.2785385847091675,
-0.6693127155303955,
-0.3199950158596039,
0.008708950132131577,
-0.004923892207443714,
0.08703915029764175,
-0.34228938817977905,
-0.0415603332221508,
-0.3653497099876404,
-0.5555135011672974,
-0.8100928068161011,
0.550736665725708,
0.2428116649389267,
0.21843551099300385,
-0.14875486493110657,
0.29735028743743896,
0.715471625328064,
-0.13535593450069427,
-0.050658635795116425,
-0.45838046073913574,
0.08125077188014984,
0.19118666648864746,
0.7776341438293457,
0.39564064145088196,
-0.1248568743467331,
-0.4985368847846985,
0.4553590714931488,
0.5415924191474915,
-0.18691296875476837,
0.3580688536167145,
0.3085569143295288,
-0.24269625544548035,
0.191079780459404,
-1.2352066040039062,
-0.1965257227420807,
-0.2853703200817108,
-0.5987035036087036,
-0.349177747964859,
-0.29830536246299744,
0.6497421264648438,
0.6550421714782715,
-0.3627091646194458,
0.5196906924247742,
-0.4466562867164612,
-0.595649003982544,
0.09449465572834015,
0.337549090385437,
0.020469052717089653,
-0.366333931684494,
-0.23120078444480896,
0.6805723905563354,
0.6185662150382996,
0.19823414087295532,
0.031194360926747322,
-0.27656644582748413,
1.1859960556030273,
-0.1195182055234909,
-0.3961551785469055,
-0.39304059743881226,
0.21778936684131622,
-0.02636111155152321,
-0.3039395809173584,
0.1706409752368927,
-0.19920846819877625,
0.2501668632030487,
0.14468133449554443,
-0.790073037147522,
-0.8215239644050598,
0.3615296185016632,
-0.4317868947982788,
-0.36906197667121887,
0.2851162850856781,
0.26513293385505676,
0.31811052560806274,
-0.5704330801963806,
0.47746115922927856,
-0.04090045765042305,
-0.25447434186935425,
0.769723653793335,
0.25776270031929016,
-0.26375579833984375,
0.24021540582180023,
-0.10442248731851578,
-0.4997521638870239,
-0.3521168828010559,
-0.9854235053062439,
-0.5053830742835999,
-0.04818597063422203,
0.04038902744650841,
-0.21652095019817352,
-0.08266853541135788,
-0.3051186800003052,
0.23755651712417603,
0.1848316192626953,
-0.6314030885696411,
-0.30750665068626404,
0.07769227027893066,
-0.007678678724914789,
0.13893358409404755,
-1.2268956899642944,
-0.0822790116071701,
-0.1238378956913948,
-0.6019910573959351,
0.2679348289966583,
-0.8189458250999451,
-0.03233088552951813,
-0.46440795063972473,
0.316005140542984,
0.1804088056087494,
0.6129466891288757,
-0.1803678274154663,
1.0691120624542236,
0.10376205295324326,
-0.004446879960596561,
-0.5014287829399109,
-0.21542027592658997,
0.7782073020935059,
0.14549650251865387,
-0.6417801976203918,
-0.014431102201342583,
0.3114127516746521,
-0.5588777661323547,
-0.15008863806724548,
0.4860101640224457,
0.4364791214466095,
0.3104841113090515,
0.20375610888004303,
-0.2824309170246124,
-0.5981521010398865,
0.06332837045192719,
0.14377522468566895,
-0.9425981044769287,
-0.503208577632904,
0.22090551257133484,
0.3434388339519501,
-0.2820358872413635,
-0.3309119641780853,
0.07150457054376602,
0.5659850835800171,
0.25406429171562195,
-0.3805203139781952,
0.39453303813934326,
0.34107810258865356,
-0.22201891243457794,
-0.22152617573738098,
0.37527990341186523,
-0.7929925918579102,
0.7561312913894653,
-0.2672092020511627,
-0.040149711072444916,
0.2550683617591858,
-0.8045806884765625,
0.32304561138153076,
0.29730480909347534,
0.5210892558097839,
0.793100893497467,
-0.20676513016223907,
-0.04147404804825783,
0.4306645691394806,
0.3113291263580322,
-0.13045227527618408,
0.01867879554629326,
0.2541424632072449,
0.14544807374477386,
0.31665605306625366,
0.27648141980171204,
-0.01585296541452408,
-0.5827906131744385,
0.29549291729927063,
0.5102821588516235,
-0.19953466951847076,
-0.06239200010895729,
0.6188976168632507,
-0.29747775197029114,
-0.2804517149925232,
-0.606479823589325,
-0.3694470524787903,
0.4078129231929779,
0.704136312007904,
0.15640559792518616,
0.27879491448402405,
-0.2664634883403778,
0.30025190114974976,
-0.09754598885774612,
0.1466865986585617,
-0.4479407072067261,
-0.4382550120353699,
-0.4363170564174652,
-0.8600283861160278,
-0.0730522945523262,
0.5883628726005554,
-0.3129768669605255,
-0.38272058963775635,
-0.6586726307868958,
-0.11749241501092911,
0.20435507595539093,
0.0005677314475178719,
-0.42605337500572205,
0.24624444544315338,
0.5821591019630432,
0.3399432301521301,
0.22354713082313538,
0.15170815587043762,
0.060009151697158813,
0.22917813062667847,
0.07882849872112274,
-0.5042623281478882,
0.21753253042697906,
0.20936933159828186,
0.37122678756713867,
-0.2483365535736084,
0.5538194179534912,
0.6018889546394348,
-0.26767197251319885,
0.2892899811267853,
0.12303824722766876,
0.04679495841264725,
0.1375911384820938,
0.7441527843475342,
0.18528153002262115,
-0.08404169976711273,
-0.05668427422642708,
-0.7439799904823303,
0.3601151406764984,
-0.42456069588661194,
0.5024263858795166,
-0.11936779320240021,
0.2300700843334198,
-0.30612775683403015,
-0.08080512285232544,
0.5193198323249817,
-0.8460596203804016,
-0.3862587511539459,
-0.29697659611701965,
-0.12178625911474228,
-0.47777295112609863,
0.25938817858695984,
0.4764121472835541,
-0.17777395248413086,
-0.6982438564300537,
0.12044700980186462,
0.3464065194129944,
-0.13618583977222443,
0.011640672571957111,
-0.14234435558319092,
-0.23715902864933014,
0.002700037555769086,
-0.6453732252120972,
-0.12360666692256927,
-0.1464063823223114,
0.68736732006073,
0.6699976325035095,
-0.3289841115474701,
-0.17624248564243317,
-0.2556708753108978,
-0.017350567504763603,
0.668012261390686,
0.4060005843639374,
0.32543185353279114,
-0.173594668507576,
0.06900083273649216,
-0.34316033124923706,
-0.7398936152458191,
0.07964903861284256,
0.17641781270503998,
0.1084383875131607,
0.47091802954673767,
-0.7126120328903198,
0.05253634601831436,
-0.44504207372665405,
-0.06625588238239288,
0.23786288499832153,
0.15034544467926025,
-0.02265094593167305
] |
203718
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rebel%20Angels
|
The Rebel Angels
|
The Rebel Angels is Canadian author Robertson Davies's most noted novel, after those that form his Deptford Trilogy.
First published by Macmillan of Canada in 1981, The Rebel Angels is the first of the three connected novels of Davies' Cornish Trilogy. It was followed by What's Bred in the Bone (1985), and The Lyre of Orpheus (1988). Like the rest of the Cornish Trilogy, the novel takes place in the same universe as the Deptford Trilogy, with the major characters Clement Hollier and John Parlabane being alums of Colborne College (the college where Dunstan Ramsay taught history in Fifth Business) and former classmates of Boy Staunton's son David.
Plot
The Rebel Angels follows several faculty and staff of the fictional College of St. John and Holy Ghost, affectionately referred to as "Spook".
The story, like many of Davies', is notable for very strongly drawn and memorable characters:
The defrocked monk Parlabane, a brilliant and sinister sodomite with a thundering voice and voracious appetite;
Anglican priest and professor of New Testament Greek Simon Darcourt;
Maria Theotoky, a graduate student researching Rabelais;
Clement Hollier, a frazzled and absentminded professor; and
Urquhart McVarish, a greedy and manipulative counterpoint to Hollier.
The novel's narration alternates between Theotoky's and Darcourt's points of view. Darcourt is attempting to write a history of the university based on Aubrey's Brief Lives.
Much of the story is set in motion by the death of eccentric art patron and collector Francis Cornish. Hollier, McVarish, and Darcourt are the executors of Cornish's complicated will, which includes material that Hollier wants for his studies. The deceased's nephew Arthur Cornish, who stands to inherit the fortune, is also a character.
Background
Many of the characters (including Parlabane and McVarish) were based on college acquaintances of Davies; their stories are recounted in Judith Skelton Grant's biography Robertson Davies: Man of Myth (1994) and Brian Busby's Character Parts: Who's Really Who in CanLit (2003). As well, many believe that Davies based the College of St. John and the Holy Ghost (or "Spook" as it is affectionately called in the novel) on Toronto's Trinity College. Evidence for this connection includes numerous similarities between the fictional and the real life college (including architectural style, layout of rooms, age, and religious affiliation); the fact that Davies taught at Trinity College for twenty years and lived across the street from Trinity while master of Massey College; and perhaps most convincingly that a picture of Trinity's central tower is prominently featured on the cover of the novel's first edition. Equally plausible is the belief that Ploughwright College in the book is patterned after Davies's own Massey College. This connection is supported by the fact that much of the fortune donated by the Massey family to the University of Toronto for the founding of Massey College was originally made in the manufacture of farm equipment. Like the real-life Massey College, Ploughwright is a graduate college where scholars are invited to partake in interdisciplinary discussions and High Table dinners.
Reception
Dave Langford reviewed The Rebel Angels for White Dwarf #45, and stated that "Not for the squeamish, it features a murder whose inventive nastiness makes the destruction of whole shiploads of the people in Downbelow Station pale into insignificance."
References
Brian Busby. Character Parts: Who's Really Who in CanLit. Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2003.
Judith Skelton Grant. Robertson Davies: Man of Myth. Toronto: Viking Canada, 1994.
External links
1981 Canadian novels
Novels by Robertson Davies
Novels set in Toronto
|
[
-0.22298181056976318,
0.4825592339038849,
-0.5043390989303589,
-0.5106167197227478,
-0.16557970643043518,
0.7403262853622437,
0.7151891589164734,
-0.10459952056407928,
-0.2543494999408722,
-0.36316820979118347,
-0.7824925184249878,
0.23711739480495453,
-0.028807301074266434,
0.21144713461399078,
0.5901666879653931,
0.7034035921096802,
-0.09059257805347443,
0.41688215732574463,
-0.04638538509607315,
-0.8686541318893433,
-0.05946126952767372,
-0.19830863177776337,
0.4013858735561371,
-0.06554216891527176,
0.42874258756637573,
0.17546671628952026,
0.32794487476348877,
-0.36870643496513367,
-0.11992713809013367,
0.5837781429290771,
0.11602318286895752,
0.493264764547348,
0.20734010636806488,
-0.24805398285388947,
0.21873250603675842,
-0.16228684782981873,
-0.03420082479715347,
-0.41302022337913513,
-0.17214973270893097,
-0.3831215798854828,
0.1317419707775116,
-0.46771422028541565,
0.6255228519439697,
0.13217492401599884,
0.2793033719062805,
-0.019986016675829887,
-1.5263515710830688,
0.007627610117197037,
-0.8901091814041138,
-0.008088194765150547,
-0.05005984380841255,
0.32763469219207764,
0.5292115211486816,
-0.178683802485466,
0.6759538650512695,
0.5344120264053345,
-0.47576749324798584,
-0.15332503616809845,
0.7223067879676819,
-0.4037697911262512,
0.20895417034626007,
0.060741253197193146,
0.403902530670166,
0.20491063594818115,
-0.35420018434524536,
-0.16984717547893524,
0.0035973242484033108,
-0.09606819599866867,
0.24357151985168457,
-0.28520941734313965,
0.05552089214324951,
-0.16833673417568207,
0.2981284260749817,
0.10669255256652832,
-0.31070825457572937,
0.033784475177526474,
0.4234336018562317,
0.1747751235961914,
0.22196635603904724,
0.31480032205581665,
-0.13831837475299835,
0.33950942754745483,
0.4616391956806183,
0.10096852481365204,
-0.28889721632003784,
0.10538674890995026,
-0.04209529608488083,
0.1949753314256668,
0.20910976827144623,
0.4702131748199463,
-0.16011178493499756,
-0.7954501509666443,
-0.3822013735771179,
0.47821614146232605,
0.4509131610393524,
-0.5429782271385193,
0.4885580837726593,
-0.009477374143898487,
-0.15522392094135284,
0.2996630072593689,
0.06428621709346771,
0.732134997844696,
0.6275467276573181,
0.0013152118772268295,
-0.6010001301765442,
-0.2464061677455902,
-0.39751556515693665,
0.019484736025333405,
0.010434597730636597,
0.11382210999727249,
0.12382081896066666,
0.3654666244983673,
-0.27824315428733826,
0.08057813346385956,
0.17084547877311707,
0.016773931682109833,
-0.018470989540219307,
-0.6339475512504578,
-0.5899352431297302,
-0.004102036822587252,
0.2961590588092804,
0.251821905374527,
0.35983335971832275,
0.3634950816631317,
-0.4367767572402954,
-0.18295125663280487,
-0.02504008077085018,
-0.07305464148521423,
-0.4233827292919159,
0.5232715010643005,
-0.03483840450644493,
0.8162927627563477,
-0.4302370846271515,
0.12118056416511536,
-0.03691152483224869,
-0.12099191546440125,
0.09525550901889801,
0.015435406938195229,
0.32101553678512573,
0.4603894352912903,
-1.1865273714065552,
-0.20114447176456451,
-0.23319560289382935,
-0.09968811273574829,
0.6294447779655457,
0.1520625501871109,
-0.07984203100204468,
-0.2525380253791809,
-0.330686092376709,
-0.4875446856021881,
0.05538966879248619,
-0.35139742493629456,
-0.46822383999824524,
-0.5936456918716431,
-0.07835501432418823,
0.5047879815101624,
0.9041909575462341,
0.38419702649116516,
0.4524534344673157,
0.07943116873502731,
0.05903252586722374,
0.6955507397651672,
0.5665379166603088,
-0.16873927414417267,
-0.22657647728919983,
-0.2751690745353699,
0.4661518633365631,
-0.28476738929748535,
0.30935677886009216,
-0.442924827337265,
-0.20108662545681,
0.16033513844013214,
0.2593640089035034,
-0.30301424860954285,
0.35831332206726074,
-0.44575074315071106,
1.1273177862167358,
1.0341455936431885,
-0.22424761950969696,
-0.025605224072933197,
-0.31369420886039734,
0.4143390357494354,
-0.12770090997219086,
-0.44741830229759216,
-0.07934091240167618,
0.40528592467308044,
-0.03543121740221977,
0.20607180893421173,
-0.23279590904712677,
0.14948126673698425,
-0.8494808673858643,
-0.21345070004463196,
0.7603145837783813,
-0.07988979667425156,
0.7239621877670288,
-0.18226978182792664,
-0.5972034335136414,
0.7784280776977539,
0.12981535494327545,
0.7588282227516174,
0.031444575637578964,
0.24816550314426422,
0.34980669617652893,
0.0310641061514616,
-0.582313597202301,
-0.0005996750551275909,
0.029280606657266617,
0.6022358536720276,
-0.11403629183769226,
0.2735106348991394,
0.3987644612789154,
-0.2993372976779938,
-0.02546258270740509,
0.31047677993774414,
-0.033182110637426376,
-0.0770518034696579,
-0.45326775312423706,
0.0650959238409996,
-0.10217741131782532,
-0.6419385075569153,
0.5549455881118774,
-0.10255655646324158,
0.0737115666270256,
0.3792480528354645,
-0.33934417366981506,
0.0037854586262255907,
-0.04878386855125427,
-0.3962889611721039,
0.14690327644348145,
-0.6330982446670532,
-0.026260465383529663,
0.5346589684486389,
-0.42854413390159607,
-0.45702505111694336,
0.2432837188243866,
-0.49185916781425476,
-0.08764710277318954,
-0.2581797242164612,
0.4578428864479065,
0.013788089156150818,
0.4570481479167938,
-0.7202056646347046,
-0.06429679691791534,
0.5448027849197388,
0.43790289759635925,
-0.29463014006614685,
0.11663510650396347,
-0.1800292283296585,
-0.09162770956754684,
-0.25318774580955505,
-0.27096399664878845,
0.6548343896865845,
0.26324886083602905,
0.7381295561790466,
0.6578609943389893,
0.18873941898345947,
-0.10563043504953384,
-0.3680998384952545,
0.15379640460014343,
0.19612382352352142,
-0.3031936585903168,
-0.08240550011396408,
-0.06996467709541321,
0.08763755857944489,
0.022539496421813965,
-0.548322319984436,
-0.4267679750919342,
-0.5825755596160889,
0.11645171791315079,
0.3612472712993622,
-0.49600914120674133,
-0.38549336791038513,
-0.18588103353977203,
0.2463657408952713,
0.1530555635690689,
-0.01823117770254612,
0.4500657021999359,
-0.27702486515045166,
-0.027452602982521057,
-0.36587852239608765,
-0.12017250806093216,
0.4473857879638672,
0.48779913783073425,
-0.3149160146713257,
-0.37882959842681885,
-0.3895988166332245,
0.6736796498298645,
-0.46702003479003906,
-0.041655272245407104,
-0.26169776916503906,
-0.10518719255924225,
0.09157872945070267,
0.41041260957717896,
-0.31392160058021545,
-0.30486127734184265,
0.00229454948566854,
0.1542448103427887,
0.05414215475320816,
-0.11306365579366684,
-0.05180998146533966,
0.3263297379016876,
0.2863267660140991,
-0.14364659786224365,
0.44213196635246277,
0.9678815603256226,
0.32265588641166687,
-0.16381403803825378,
0.6676990389823914,
-5.854107856750488,
-0.01635226048529148,
0.10552749782800674,
-0.23111720383167267,
0.31737467646598816,
0.16022969782352448,
0.5474836230278015,
-0.26209157705307007,
-0.012890822254121304,
-0.7891034483909607,
-0.05311086028814316,
-0.19970344007015228,
0.263667494058609,
-0.2774287462234497,
0.17799821496009827,
-0.15688979625701904,
0.24228833615779877,
-0.2663424015045166,
0.057732563465833664,
0.5206846594810486,
-0.07294832170009613,
0.10070114582777023,
-0.2030472606420517,
-0.22403165698051453,
-0.005490384995937347,
0.7302003502845764,
0.2079755663871765,
-0.19608567655086517,
-0.31952881813049316,
0.4860796332359314,
-0.040411774069070816,
-0.4429490566253662,
0.03504064306616783,
-0.15802490711212158,
-0.015390792861580849,
-0.10639069974422455,
0.6908025741577148,
0.11690869927406311,
0.5713191032409668,
-0.17453840374946594,
-0.5200457572937012,
-0.21344543993473053,
-0.0835181400179863,
-0.13155171275138855,
0.2553987205028534,
-0.4664517045021057,
-0.8061150908470154,
0.24047957360744476,
-0.10552049428224564,
0.8339240550994873,
0.12845566868782043,
-0.21529161930084229,
-0.2412390261888504,
0.4118508994579315,
0.40739181637763977,
0.2005419284105301,
-0.12837080657482147,
-0.14674663543701172,
-0.11522090435028076,
0.4667721092700958,
0.12387774884700775,
-0.27573657035827637,
-0.03716999664902687,
0.09187234938144684,
0.09790325164794922,
-0.4665442705154419,
-0.11256319284439087,
0.13389258086681366,
-0.02630438655614853,
-0.2142266184091568,
0.006801737938076258,
-0.14585243165493011,
-0.08177033811807632,
-1.16338050365448,
-0.2737833559513092,
-0.32996273040771484,
-0.335298627614975,
-0.030172500759363174,
-0.39435577392578125,
0.010324313305318356,
-0.12139271199703217,
-0.33393362164497375,
-0.07616043835878372,
-0.31207558512687683,
0.11009138822555542,
-0.7085736989974976,
-0.7926614880561829,
0.787123441696167,
-0.360213965177536,
-0.7082825303077698,
0.09625960141420364,
-0.25764480233192444,
0.011248728260397911,
0.32340678572654724,
0.8401744365692139,
0.5842906832695007,
0.6266210675239563,
0.17677851021289825,
0.18998309969902039,
-0.15707136690616608,
0.24800747632980347,
-0.47165894508361816,
0.5860042572021484,
-0.49228623509407043,
-0.3573877215385437,
-0.05157516151666641,
-0.063495934009552,
0.3382387161254883,
0.44009026885032654,
-0.39348849654197693,
0.2183724194765091,
-0.3368074595928192,
-0.17534789443016052,
-0.4259386956691742,
0.6057794094085693,
-0.3561737537384033,
0.4652164876461029,
0.22422166168689728,
0.34323471784591675,
0.4778420031070709,
-0.37955302000045776,
0.23786216974258423,
-0.25400224328041077,
-0.01930062286555767,
0.12775667011737823,
0.04467065632343292,
0.2434467226266861,
-0.051786553114652634,
-0.07921794056892395,
-0.02797248773276806,
0.0250961072742939,
-0.619446337223053,
0.18426288664340973,
0.07326161861419678,
-0.7378557920455933,
-0.5569654703140259,
-0.6333287358283997,
-0.38582611083984375,
0.06792628020048141,
0.7998485565185547,
0.24392138421535492,
-0.10513652116060257,
-0.012808441184461117,
0.2122402787208557,
0.6714381575584412,
-0.14177639782428741,
-0.07574676722288132,
-0.11698345839977264,
-0.1363067328929901,
0.26348498463630676,
-0.16132843494415283,
0.7913848757743835,
1.1109989881515503,
-0.779996931552887,
0.0791393592953682,
-0.03816893696784973,
-0.4850415587425232,
0.34619587659835815,
-0.8323476910591125,
-0.006167749408632517,
0.062147919088602066,
-0.6732860207557678,
-0.7167325615882874,
-0.2598457932472229,
-0.0012224400416016579,
0.33252692222595215,
-0.15570729970932007,
-0.618935763835907,
-0.11087679862976074,
0.21164630353450775,
0.1477486789226532,
-0.30551886558532715,
-0.25445157289505005,
0.3675788342952728,
0.45270103216171265,
0.12150812894105911,
-0.5009742379188538,
-0.4758809208869934,
0.22995604574680328,
-0.7243266105651855,
-0.7034152150154114,
0.4420676827430725,
-0.013205085881054401,
0.1727350503206253,
0.5374408960342407,
0.0855792686343193,
-0.3983011841773987,
-0.5092400908470154,
-0.40247246623039246,
0.08359774202108383,
0.2424013763666153,
0.20696276426315308,
0.40782737731933594,
0.08915505558252335,
-0.5272690057754517,
-0.6204373836517334,
-0.1427101492881775,
-0.12982290983200073,
0.39771610498428345,
-0.34498411417007446,
-0.10048234462738037,
0.09949659556150436,
-0.19906733930110931,
0.032221388071775436,
0.7689457535743713,
-1.118382215499878,
0.6252468228340149,
-0.4716860353946686,
-0.6096606850624084,
0.5059617161750793,
0.034841958433389664,
-0.3849641978740692,
-0.2700568437576294,
0.9182626008987427,
-0.015619054436683655,
-0.26140210032463074,
-0.25375211238861084,
-0.2138422578573227,
-0.5668056607246399,
-0.08269810676574707,
-0.39178991317749023,
-0.3736373782157898,
-0.3828843832015991,
-0.07403238862752914,
-0.5623661875724792,
0.4123673737049103,
-0.005735569167882204,
-0.951378345489502,
0.382573664188385,
0.026220086961984634,
-0.3084394633769989,
0.3247036337852478,
0.12773244082927704,
-0.14115388691425323,
-0.2663033604621887,
0.5188372135162354,
0.05238958075642586,
-0.2993847131729126,
-0.1423562914133072,
0.6796092391014099,
0.2824597954750061,
0.8701934218406677,
0.2586078643798828,
-0.6656701564788818,
0.5659735202789307,
0.4462955892086029,
-0.13167236745357513,
-0.3691740930080414,
-0.6589840054512024,
-0.026148077100515366,
-0.2692427635192871,
-0.13710562884807587,
0.37054580450057983,
-0.36366090178489685,
0.839026927947998,
-0.3347868025302887,
-0.096303291618824,
-0.22351393103599548,
-0.3486526906490326,
-0.27558860182762146,
0.46578505635261536,
-0.06392565369606018,
-0.38180914521217346,
0.04933178424835205,
0.06396543979644775,
0.037426307797431946,
-0.16178010404109955,
-0.28671151399612427,
0.19447363913059235,
-0.12798035144805908,
-0.352347195148468,
-0.281730979681015,
0.3852413594722748,
0.6656444668769836,
-0.057937897741794586,
0.2061290740966797,
-0.05224446579813957,
-0.4382704794406891,
-0.25979435443878174,
-0.16548150777816772,
-0.34367290139198303,
0.30531594157218933,
-0.36243459582328796,
-0.7685976624488831,
-0.004890592768788338,
-0.5103031396865845,
0.06862805783748627,
-0.1558280736207962,
0.21672090888023376,
-0.03006281703710556,
0.12633958458900452,
-0.214707612991333,
0.08386091142892838,
0.4964246153831482,
0.396824449300766,
0.041067760437726974,
-0.12734484672546387,
-0.19115614891052246,
-0.1709713190793991,
0.18271997570991516,
-0.26758062839508057,
0.5145575404167175,
-0.09616334736347198,
-0.47396793961524963,
0.7596677541732788,
-0.4009596109390259,
-0.30768075585365295,
0.3358043134212494,
-0.49951624870300293,
0.2365441620349884,
0.4568003714084625,
-0.22047381103038788,
0.015858836472034454,
0.35826587677001953,
-0.3714682459831238,
0.16740837693214417,
0.43891847133636475,
-0.5692868828773499,
0.3747890293598175,
0.5345719456672668,
0.510497510433197,
0.835928738117218,
0.5191975235939026,
-0.1311943382024765,
-0.4036419093608856,
0.43213045597076416,
-0.22775720059871674,
-0.1507965326309204,
0.2077062875032425,
-0.18349961936473846,
0.29572969675064087,
-0.4523674547672272,
-0.4507327079772949,
0.349417507648468,
-0.5557754039764404,
-0.5520003437995911,
0.4893534779548645,
-0.27211135625839233,
-0.41111254692077637,
0.17711211740970612,
0.0048098075203597546,
0.06816275417804718,
-0.010321192443370819,
-0.3244074285030365,
-0.08170973509550095,
-0.22543908655643463,
0.5121999979019165,
0.15226124227046967,
0.35160359740257263,
0.34290140867233276,
-0.09395929425954819,
0.4559306502342224,
0.6058347225189209,
-0.3575672507286072,
-0.09866326302289963,
-0.06298217177391052,
-0.16558443009853363,
-0.04427963122725487,
-0.8659300208091736,
-0.43557363748550415,
-0.8387447595596313,
-0.2869148552417755,
0.15748706459999084,
0.11167803406715393,
0.49997785687446594,
0.45145025849342346,
0.24360865354537964,
-0.2763203978538513,
-0.4349465072154999,
-0.4179868698120117,
0.522352933883667,
-0.15226984024047852,
-0.12640848755836487,
0.05232470482587814,
0.35005849599838257,
0.557226300239563,
0.1657354086637497,
0.10335507988929749,
0.04707465320825577,
0.4177037477493286,
-0.3870076835155487,
-0.15139654278755188,
-0.021431831642985344,
-0.14855609834194183,
1.1080368757247925,
-0.050408169627189636,
0.042685091495513916,
0.14580215513706207,
-0.031601279973983765,
-0.247611403465271,
0.45225000381469727,
-0.41299164295196533,
-0.534027099609375,
0.15399643778800964,
-0.465133398771286,
0.02211162820458412,
0.4957725405693054,
1.259364366531372,
-0.14796769618988037,
0.1570211499929428,
0.03863612189888954,
0.012974669225513935,
0.37193310260772705,
0.16296182572841644,
-0.7487780451774597,
0.44783344864845276,
-0.4904758036136627,
0.2840851843357086,
-0.8163443207740784,
0.15366552770137787,
0.03944750130176544,
0.26053938269615173,
-0.13733002543449402,
0.11316681653261185,
-0.7273625731468201,
-0.6594777703285217,
0.513214647769928,
0.22365893423557281,
0.3890977203845978,
-0.11338678747415543,
-0.006580267567187548,
0.5809549689292908,
0.06979138404130936,
0.5214746594429016,
-0.32168713212013245,
0.0866609662771225,
-0.2236604541540146,
0.1430557370185852,
-0.1873638927936554,
0.4002324342727661,
0.265874445438385,
-0.32413148880004883,
-0.15867234766483307,
0.5525413155555725,
-0.28342941403388977,
-0.07207319885492325,
0.969894289970398,
0.4127875864505768,
-0.3345445394515991,
-0.5262778401374817,
-0.08451222628355026,
-0.6826073527336121,
0.1761731505393982,
0.12946735322475433,
-0.47420749068260193,
-0.12453296780586243,
0.008371144533157349,
-0.3314688205718994,
0.12590324878692627,
0.6337543725967407,
0.214201882481575,
-0.24700511991977692,
-0.31641873717308044,
-0.5905468463897705,
-0.29499879479408264,
0.23494119942188263,
0.2990782856941223,
0.09340021014213562,
0.2544781565666199,
-0.1653674840927124
] |
203719
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistance%20dog
|
Assistance dog
|
In general, an assistance dog, known as a service dog in the United States, is a dog trained to aid or assist an individual with a disability. Many are trained by an assistance dog organisation, or by their handler, often with the help of a professional trainer.
Terminology
'Assistance dog' is the internationally established term for a dog that provides assistance to a disabled person, and is task-trained to help mitigate the handler's disability. Assistance Dogs International, an international network of assistance dog providers across the globe, notes that there is some variability of terminology in different states, particularly within the United States. They are working to establish consistent global terminology, and note that 'assistance dog' is the term adopted by organisations who train and provide assistance dogs, and the disabled people who partner with assistance dogs.
Distinctive features
For a dog to be considered an assistance dog, they must meet the following criteria:
The dog's partner must be disabled and meet the legal definition of disability in the specific country or region.
The dog must be specifically trained to mitigate the partner's disability in some way, e.g. opening doors, detecting high blood sugar or allergens and notifying of such, alerting to a ringing phone, leading those who are visually or mobility impaired.
The dog must be trained to a high level not to be a nuisance in public, to be safe with members of the public and well-behaved, as well as being healthy and not posing a hygiene threat.
Some assistance dogs wear harnesses that signify such in bold letters, but this is not required by law.
assistance dogs in America are not required by the ADA law to have a ID card or be registered.
Individual countries and regions will have specific laws and regulations, with these international criteria having broad recognition across the globe.
Training process
Assistance dogs have traditionally been trained by charities and other organisations who then partner a disabled person with a trained dog when the dog has completed its training program at approximately the age of 2. Increasingly, more disabled people are self-training their own assistance dogs, whereby the disabled person selects their own dog (often referred to as a 'prospect') and the dog is trained by the disabled person who also becomes their eventual handler.
There is great variability between the length and type of training that any future assistance dog receives; however, all assistance dog candidates will go through certain stages.
Selection
Assistance dog candidates are generally selected with care for appropriate health, temperament and characteristics. Large established organisations such as The Guide Dogs for the Blind select and maintain their own breeding stock to ensure healthy pups with desirable traits. Someone may carefully select prospect puppies from reputable breeders, or they may choose to commence training with a dog who was already part of the family. The reality TV show Rescue Dog to Super Dog featured the process of carefully selecting rescue dogs from shelters to train as assistance dogs.
Socialization
The first period of a puppy prospect's life is normally spent in socialization rather than formal training. Large formal organisations often use puppy foster parents during the pups first year and the pup grows up in a normal family environment surrounded by the sights, sounds and smells of the type of environment they will later work in, learning to be clean and toilet trained, confident and happy. Owner Trainers raise their pups themselves, so the dog lives with the same person who will later be their handler, but will also focus on giving the puppy confidence, play experiences and socialisation in the environments they will later work in.
Task training
Once a puppy is old enough they will commence their specialist training which will include training in work and/or tasks. It is these tasks which will make them distinct and specialised assistance dogs. In the US, an assistance dog handler may be asked if they have a disability, and what tasks the dog does to mitigate that disability as the only two legal questions to ascertain that a dog is indeed an assistance dog. The tasks that an assistance dog prospect will learn depend on the disabilities that their current or future handler has and there is therefore almost no limit on the types of tasks a dog can be trained to. These may vary from picking up dropped items and taking laundry out of a washing machine to interrupting self-harming behaviors to providing deep pressure therapy for an autistic person.
Obedience and public access
At the same time as learning their unique tasks to support their handler, an assistance dog candidate also learns how to be well behaved, polite and to present acceptably in public. Large organisations who train assistance dogs will use their own in house training processes. Owner trainers may also approach this in a variety of ways. Many owner-trainer support groups recommend following established dog obedience schemes such as the Kennel Club Bronze, Silver and Gold obedience training programme to gain a high and dependable recognized standard of obedience and behavior followed by the Public Access Test. Public Access tests evaluate a dog's ability to behave appropriately in public, and in places not normally deemed pet friendly where a person may enter with an assistance dog, such as a supermarket or restaurant.
Classification
In the United States, assistance dogs fall into two broad categories: service dogs and facility dogs. Service dogs are defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act as dogs that are individually trained to do work or perform tasks for people with disabilities. State and local governments, businesses, and nonprofit organizations that serve the public generally must allow service animals to accompany people with disabilities in all areas of the facility where the public is normally allowed to go. Facility dogs are used by working professionals to aid multiple people.
Common examples of assistance dogs include:
Guide dogs assist the blind and the visually impaired.
Hearing dogs, or signal dogs, help the deaf and hard of hearing.
Mobility assistance dogs
Medical response dogs
Psychiatric service dogs
Autism Assistance dogs
Common examples of facility dogs include:
Courthouse facility dogs are typically handled by professionals working in the legal system. They are often used to assist crime victims, witnesses, and others during the investigation and prosecution of crimes as well as other legal proceedings.
Facility dogs in educational settings are usually handled by special education teachers to facilitate interaction with the students.
Facility dogs in healthcare environments are typically handled by physical therapists, psychologists, and other healthcare professionals to facilitate recovery and symptom management for patients.
Similarities and differences between facility dogs and therapy dogs
Because both may aid people in similar settings such as healthcare environments, facility dogs are often mistakenly called therapy dogs; however, there are several important distinctions between them. Facility dogs are trained by accredited assistance dog organizations and therapy dogs are trained by their owners. Facility dogs may be handled by a wide variety of working professionals, while therapy dogs must be handled by their owners.
Facility dogs are trained by canine professionals or by their owner for a period of 18 to 24 months, and must pass very rigorous tests before graduating from an assistance dog organization. In contrast, registration for therapy dogs by a therapy dog organization does not require enrollment in obedience classes or therapy dog classes, meaning that therapy dogs often undergo a much less rigorous training process. Furthermore, the tests that therapy dogs must pass are less complicated and challenging than those taken by facility dogs.
A person with either a therapy dog or a facility dog must have permission from the facilities they visit before they can enter with their animal. They do not have the right to demand access to places where pets are not generally permitted, or to have fees associated with their pets waived.
See also
Dogs for Good (in the UK)
Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (in the UK)
Hounds for Heroes
References
External links
Delta Society's National Service Animal Resource Center
Assistance dog
Dog roles
|
[
0.29102396965026855,
0.3453862965106964,
-0.4603056013584137,
-0.18287663161754608,
0.2605319321155548,
0.32224711775779724,
0.9486132264137268,
-0.05170172080397606,
-0.27841660380363464,
-0.29787611961364746,
-0.8122738599777222,
0.40584900975227356,
-0.2992286682128906,
-0.17309793829917908,
-0.9177439212799072,
0.37936243414878845,
0.20780663192272186,
0.9678051471710205,
-0.10343793779611588,
-0.011443722061812878,
-0.6597518920898438,
-0.7595693469047546,
-0.14702388644218445,
-0.7141022682189941,
0.42875659465789795,
0.26063185930252075,
0.3341194689273834,
0.5466262102127075,
-0.3492722809314728,
-0.3271878957748413,
0.6034960150718689,
0.22151115536689758,
0.24642762541770935,
-0.29943767189979553,
-0.07402677088975906,
0.6005586981773376,
0.13920535147190094,
-0.38430479168891907,
-0.11627738177776337,
-0.5478917956352234,
0.308367520570755,
0.12939563393592834,
-0.20235198736190796,
0.40329664945602417,
0.015155632980167866,
-0.3090384900569916,
-2.0197060108184814,
0.03114193119108677,
-0.18001869320869446,
-0.10451778769493103,
-0.6028439998626709,
0.20493841171264648,
0.02701425738632679,
0.17835891246795654,
0.08270946145057678,
0.35594695806503296,
-0.31814539432525635,
-0.24810472130775452,
0.05591069906949997,
-0.5112895965576172,
-0.30574965476989746,
0.27756282687187195,
0.5107290148735046,
0.069781593978405,
-0.016132794320583344,
0.28125977516174316,
-0.08610977977514267,
0.5703570246696472,
-0.12393024563789368,
-0.4450018107891083,
-0.16676504909992218,
-0.5458939671516418,
0.049789153039455414,
0.2678855359554291,
-0.15635401010513306,
-0.5258410573005676,
0.3172736167907715,
-0.3540720045566559,
0.23888994753360748,
0.29908525943756104,
0.43453943729400635,
0.7182545065879822,
0.23003903031349182,
-0.14542818069458008,
0.06692609935998917,
0.30360954999923706,
0.03309665620326996,
0.09315972775220871,
-0.03544703871011734,
0.2963942289352417,
0.4212915003299713,
0.24388284981250763,
0.40996861457824707,
0.2906082570552826,
0.3131261467933655,
0.34881410002708435,
0.27240443229675293,
0.0728406086564064,
0.22644823789596558,
0.025315914303064346,
0.11484610289335251,
-0.003154309233650565,
0.13577784597873688,
0.19960950314998627,
-0.2896265387535095,
-0.00542183592915535,
0.5166418552398682,
-0.892338216304779,
-0.3582339286804199,
0.12050946056842804,
-0.3682072162628174,
0.09180673956871033,
-0.20984220504760742,
-0.11350742727518082,
-0.6738150119781494,
0.11630809307098389,
0.6429756283760071,
0.4095328450202942,
-0.6730902194976807,
0.19798004627227783,
0.39014846086502075,
-0.08237463980913162,
-0.2892332375049591,
-0.42164015769958496,
0.2501758635044098,
0.3216664791107178,
0.042439501732587814,
0.6107016205787659,
-0.1738937646150589,
0.20420755445957184,
0.37704333662986755,
0.4231983423233032,
-0.056534603238105774,
-0.20900006592273712,
-0.2551649510860443,
0.2678717374801636,
0.5197902321815491,
-0.06111672520637512,
-0.22629830241203308,
0.16364501416683197,
-0.7980613112449646,
-0.162008598446846,
-0.3837937116622925,
-0.5387316346168518,
0.3827216327190399,
0.037752073258161545,
0.282941997051239,
0.04655915126204491,
-0.32785913348197937,
0.08518669009208679,
-0.024577151983976364,
-0.08232497423887253,
-0.18247821927070618,
0.32106614112854004,
-0.20371228456497192,
0.2583008110523224,
-0.10768812149763107,
-0.5152551531791687,
0.11644873768091202,
-0.03864632174372673,
0.010046850889921188,
0.19607380032539368,
-0.7031620740890503,
-0.030805250629782677,
0.1410427838563919,
0.12105614691972733,
-0.04409100115299225,
0.19169719517230988,
-0.1550910323858261,
0.6476119160652161,
-0.22841966152191162,
0.2586355209350586,
-0.005863519385457039,
-0.06510207056999207,
0.1857546716928482,
0.00417424226179719,
0.2771775424480438,
-0.24146687984466553,
0.6691389679908752,
-0.23524965345859528,
-0.6398264169692993,
0.4202229678630829,
0.6124987006187439,
-0.3339993357658386,
0.48366910219192505,
-0.37847763299942017,
0.3563075363636017,
-0.43368369340896606,
-0.6697033643722534,
-0.5246593356132507,
-0.6164754629135132,
-0.8505089282989502,
0.575503408908844,
-0.32362011075019836,
1.510201096534729,
-0.30330678820610046,
-0.8255106210708618,
0.5790699124336243,
0.038547635078430176,
0.5427832007408142,
0.17642609775066376,
-0.476764440536499,
0.3695235252380371,
0.26442912220954895,
-0.8403736352920532,
0.6405155658721924,
0.4167257845401764,
0.12185530364513397,
0.1205073669552803,
0.13454121351242065,
0.6114940047264099,
-0.35154393315315247,
-0.27559295296669006,
-0.1045667976140976,
-0.28845709562301636,
-0.016176126897335052,
-0.039140038192272186,
0.13100922107696533,
-0.4774439036846161,
-0.12820535898208618,
0.5356726050376892,
-0.3296242952346802,
-0.4882148206233978,
0.5060444474220276,
-0.20572225749492645,
0.48988914489746094,
0.28877219557762146,
0.08782406896352768,
0.46933993697166443,
-0.412607878446579,
0.5555468201637268,
0.0961482897400856,
-0.13578012585639954,
-0.29862117767333984,
-0.804535984992981,
-0.17619912326335907,
0.474350243806839,
-0.38041532039642334,
0.41620633006095886,
-0.1356469839811325,
-0.6082979440689087,
0.4552081227302551,
-0.41640764474868774,
-0.07966411113739014,
0.09523437172174454,
-0.29185742139816284,
-0.4100830852985382,
0.7294505834579468,
-0.255684494972229,
-0.3529079258441925,
-0.1924060583114624,
0.258422315120697,
0.7487277984619141,
0.018140770494937897,
0.4560593366622925,
-0.07664117217063904,
-0.588529646396637,
-0.0028522310312837362,
0.11180298030376434,
-0.14556117355823517,
-0.3297063410282135,
0.7202714085578918,
0.13527274131774902,
0.043627623468637466,
-0.1791989505290985,
-0.7348535060882568,
-0.014433260075747967,
-0.2837592363357544,
-0.07636706531047821,
0.5890045762062073,
0.25370097160339355,
0.25933837890625,
-0.30511099100112915,
-0.45254451036453247,
-0.22558800876140594,
0.23423577845096588,
0.49703124165534973,
0.217630073428154,
-0.2909434735774994,
-0.7161169648170471,
0.019484829157590866,
0.4914975166320801,
0.5285845994949341,
-0.23336489498615265,
-0.0009358206298202276,
-0.6640353202819824,
0.027312498539686203,
-0.5722272396087646,
-0.611224353313446,
0.36335912346839905,
-0.3500872254371643,
0.40031468868255615,
0.004232634324580431,
0.5129322409629822,
0.19236239790916443,
0.2283632606267929,
-0.04415271058678627,
0.4424726665019989,
0.5989545583724976,
-0.03404697775840759,
-0.2927696108818054,
0.0495176836848259,
-0.40339395403862,
-0.42980608344078064,
-0.16035810112953186,
0.01714550517499447,
-0.2589414715766907,
-0.3655740022659302,
-5.785760402679443,
0.14880836009979248,
-0.6423041820526123,
-0.15268079936504364,
0.17452478408813477,
0.34299880266189575,
0.8375716805458069,
0.04617063328623772,
-0.6568808555603027,
0.7600204944610596,
-0.03246000409126282,
0.2215535193681717,
0.812410295009613,
0.25560781359672546,
0.5144386291503906,
-0.15716658532619476,
0.08140020817518234,
-0.06858773529529572,
-0.023244675248861313,
0.19002823531627655,
0.04074352979660034,
0.1784445345401764,
-0.24281544983386993,
0.532940149307251,
-0.09376759082078934,
0.21694067120552063,
-0.21559418737888336,
0.42749249935150146,
-0.2717917561531067,
0.04410301521420479,
0.5458686947822571,
0.2705881893634796,
-0.31247270107269287,
-0.5738330483436584,
0.06240195035934448,
0.32688015699386597,
0.6455152034759521,
0.27434447407722473,
-0.0054399692453444,
-0.2599627375602722,
-0.1690431833267212,
-0.11277581751346588,
0.2044193595647812,
0.05830340459942818,
0.4843752682209015,
0.07514647394418716,
-0.26231035590171814,
-0.587525486946106,
-0.051985304802656174,
0.4308883249759674,
-0.048545558005571365,
0.515036940574646,
-0.15882432460784912,
0.48708048462867737,
0.4603201150894165,
0.09915456920862198,
0.36837589740753174,
0.07292087376117706,
-0.45073699951171875,
-0.04642362520098686,
0.23071202635765076,
-0.48233339190483093,
-0.496402382850647,
-0.7911890745162964,
0.0475735180079937,
-0.04961579293012619,
-0.3911178410053253,
-0.9228470921516418,
-0.13604311645030975,
0.03001522645354271,
-0.6032506823539734,
0.0208622757345438,
-0.1069650650024414,
-0.884548544883728,
0.4976806044578552,
-0.5335252285003662,
-0.2194691300392151,
-0.1196984276175499,
-0.12599779665470123,
-0.2955484092235565,
-0.13531671464443207,
-0.3404199182987213,
-0.3206668496131897,
0.48587509989738464,
-0.1640312373638153,
-0.678741455078125,
-0.17733299732208252,
0.34178853034973145,
-0.09101781249046326,
0.013211216777563095,
0.6680423617362976,
0.09137166291475296,
-0.3533433675765991,
-0.01742659881711006,
-0.16735318303108215,
0.3872763216495514,
0.1914210468530655,
0.24332942068576813,
-0.03814266622066498,
-0.35291552543640137,
0.28113287687301636,
-0.19381728768348694,
0.19270575046539307,
-0.5762479901313782,
0.38203927874565125,
-0.7986108660697937,
-0.36013010144233704,
0.12721221148967743,
1.27047860622406,
0.14025266468524933,
-0.18155047297477722,
-0.44727596640586853,
-0.5312434434890747,
-0.16008883714675903,
-0.15869078040122986,
0.5104561448097229,
0.3043011724948883,
0.10737467557191849,
0.3585588335990906,
0.12919753789901733,
-0.2579125463962555,
0.2661250829696655,
0.3931563198566437,
-0.37772709131240845,
-0.4476552903652191,
-0.12925922870635986,
-0.07313135266304016,
-0.03924991190433502,
0.08352749794721603,
0.20940759778022766,
0.8404951691627502,
0.655040442943573,
-0.07143270969390869,
0.32044079899787903,
-0.1522178053855896,
-0.05374155566096306,
0.0163881815969944,
0.19527001678943634,
0.1785430908203125,
-0.7967423796653748,
-0.14088189601898193,
-0.26961609721183777,
-0.5059056878089905,
-0.12561222910881042,
0.38949209451675415,
-0.12759509682655334,
-0.058554742485284805,
0.3109769821166992,
0.01236031949520111,
0.41008132696151733,
-0.037231866270303726,
-0.28001293540000916,
-0.09688808768987656,
-0.23258452117443085,
0.13992895185947418,
-0.33100640773773193,
0.1713874489068985,
0.2877781093120575,
-0.2322465032339096,
-0.36266759037971497,
-0.0778503566980362,
-0.09393001347780228,
-1.0427112579345703,
-0.5086541771888733,
-0.03912169486284256,
-0.05042078718543053,
-0.265698105096817,
-0.9519923329353333,
0.10195837169885635,
0.6919999122619629,
-0.0478166826069355,
-0.5668123364448547,
-0.626207172870636,
-0.1265237182378769,
0.2109346091747284,
-0.10395755618810654,
0.2009337842464447,
0.015115482732653618,
-0.3752661347389221,
-0.11150984466075897,
0.05826437100768089,
-0.3512389659881592,
-0.05066359415650368,
-0.24961541593074799,
0.7575334906578064,
0.12869198620319366,
0.40174350142478943,
-0.15724162757396698,
0.09855937957763672,
-0.46777746081352234,
0.08656716346740723,
0.193854421377182,
0.21804985404014587,
0.2514020800590515,
-0.3616991639137268,
0.20922215282917023,
-0.4014790952205658,
0.7879364490509033,
-0.1431419551372528,
-0.09979018568992615,
0.0294953603297472,
0.3891671299934387,
-0.8153153657913208,
-0.01924000307917595,
0.1721697300672531,
-0.8398764729499817,
0.14239351451396942,
-0.20984295010566711,
-0.7720490097999573,
0.8840054869651794,
-0.31654325127601624,
-0.4250333309173584,
0.3954711854457855,
0.44375020265579224,
-0.6345317363739014,
0.11750012636184692,
-0.009359506890177727,
0.17880333960056305,
-0.1704908013343811,
-0.30473387241363525,
-0.3832726776599884,
-0.37572458386421204,
-0.4148999750614166,
-0.15782544016838074,
-0.17352522909641266,
-0.26880016922950745,
0.15215861797332764,
-0.26563021540641785,
0.4936154782772064,
0.10396859794855118,
-0.4033551812171936,
0.2817225456237793,
0.4438535273075104,
0.07949693500995636,
-0.22605277597904205,
-0.007359401788562536,
-0.37234678864479065,
0.3994482755661011,
0.21961234509944916,
0.1308521032333374,
0.7082563042640686,
0.8654493093490601,
0.25707659125328064,
-0.34071534872055054,
-0.07979270815849304,
0.4125274121761322,
0.3442021608352661,
-0.6360378265380859,
-0.3043323755264282,
0.18070173263549805,
0.42348185181617737,
0.05960877612233162,
-0.1882256120443344,
-0.08248382806777954,
0.1390761137008667,
0.014155346900224686,
-0.49825721979141235,
0.22240939736366272,
0.3744843900203705,
0.5477648973464966,
0.3842068314552307,
-0.03748997673392296,
-0.24703305959701538,
0.47005465626716614,
0.020444339141249657,
-0.08598707616329193,
-0.21740926802158356,
-0.5654950141906738,
0.1457008719444275,
-0.4739275574684143,
0.3016643524169922,
0.196229487657547,
1.2831332683563232,
0.6041252017021179,
0.02443561889231205,
-0.370699405670166,
0.49950921535491943,
-1.0254855155944824,
-0.013368467800319195,
-0.10181588679552078,
0.3824102282524109,
0.366105318069458,
0.19217067956924438,
-0.4739796817302704,
0.0920657068490982,
-0.8481987714767456,
0.4240172207355499,
-0.23067404329776764,
-0.5546086430549622,
-0.10247614979743958,
-0.1391991227865219,
0.25755661725997925,
-0.39456626772880554,
0.5356543064117432,
-0.14554834365844727,
0.13482704758644104,
-0.05697929114103317,
0.2173539251089096,
0.046446990221738815,
-0.012621559202671051,
-0.9806309342384338,
0.8741638660430908,
-0.12076283246278763,
-1.0655986070632935,
0.3055860698223114,
0.26505330204963684,
0.28013676404953003,
-0.4321107566356659,
0.06139637529850006,
0.17629902064800262,
-0.481537789106369,
-0.4576937258243561,
0.15298280119895935,
0.9511892795562744,
0.39620038866996765,
0.15588116645812988,
0.16782264411449432,
-0.8230739831924438,
0.25118184089660645,
0.6274353861808777,
0.06575776636600494,
-0.13644255697727203,
0.0740605965256691,
0.13050873577594757,
-0.4215899407863617,
0.4229988157749176,
-0.43046531081199646,
0.3781600892543793,
0.767464280128479,
0.43753674626350403,
0.5406503677368164,
-0.36165347695350647,
0.3113953769207001,
0.17679822444915771,
0.27104201912879944,
0.09514317661523819,
0.31699439883232117,
0.055667512118816376,
-0.47783398628234863,
0.46288001537323,
-0.22642233967781067,
-0.03658962622284889,
0.3429062068462372,
-0.22989991307258606,
0.016126340255141258,
0.6221757531166077,
-0.010428468696773052,
0.3715769052505493,
0.23216988146305084,
0.034431543201208115,
0.219551682472229,
0.3107650578022003,
0.280065655708313,
-0.23744958639144897,
-0.4726065695285797,
-0.48455044627189636,
0.031917233020067215,
-0.46788960695266724,
-0.9947124719619751,
-0.208857923746109,
0.26209911704063416,
-0.0407874658703804,
0.4127223789691925,
0.09691537171602249,
0.13294290006160736,
-0.13332000374794006,
0.7249523997306824,
-0.8260952830314636,
0.25719574093818665,
0.3917964994907379,
-0.1882133185863495,
0.7849198579788208,
-0.04506490007042885,
0.695889413356781,
0.23624643683433533,
-0.07218050956726074,
0.9593390822410583,
0.06825079023838043,
0.14637428522109985,
-0.18248412013053894,
-0.07858530431985855,
-0.023362917825579643,
-0.23613804578781128,
-0.7888069152832031,
-0.25942352414131165,
-0.333667516708374,
0.1683083027601242,
0.07235462963581085,
-0.14733728766441345,
-0.045725017786026,
0.13248124718666077,
-0.47369253635406494,
-0.08609530329704285,
-0.10113440454006195,
0.14568570256233215,
-0.2959729731082916,
0.3999776244163513,
0.48052695393562317,
0.5067311525344849,
-0.44414058327674866,
-0.3741351366043091,
0.05224577337503433,
0.4380394220352173,
-0.17807461321353912,
-0.42431914806365967,
0.07826054841279984,
-0.09451127052307129,
-0.07461301237344742,
-0.4635791480541229,
0.08824777603149414,
0.484077125787735,
-0.0515412800014019,
0.11181449890136719,
-0.20285464823246002,
0.7436978816986084,
0.43657150864601135,
0.43909952044487,
-0.6268026232719421,
-0.45984402298927307,
-0.8294341564178467,
0.7064685225486755,
-0.049719639122486115,
0.4732048213481903,
0.026295315474271774,
-0.09694132953882217,
-0.27643564343452454,
0.16877664625644684,
-0.38013893365859985,
-0.34830257296562195,
0.4266771078109741,
-0.39657798409461975,
0.3614237308502197,
-0.6381316184997559,
0.07990057021379471,
-0.1149303987622261,
-0.6640401482582092,
0.4190675616264343,
0.2596680521965027,
0.3602849841117859,
0.10380534827709198,
-0.18040893971920013,
-0.32743263244628906,
0.394120454788208,
0.1580982804298401,
-0.0030139589216560125,
0.48324164748191833,
-0.4153863787651062,
-0.450403094291687,
-0.6677746176719666,
-0.3135083317756653,
0.06707506626844406,
-0.5253604054450989,
0.04348810762166977,
0.11758875101804733,
0.2936719059944153,
0.3692116141319275,
-0.07795470952987671,
-0.991533637046814,
-0.6341331005096436,
0.37856757640838623
] |
203721
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souvannarath
|
Souvannarath
|
Prince Souvannarath (, 8 July 1893 – 23 June 1960) was the 3rd prime minister of the Kingdom of Laos from 1947 – 1948. He was a son of Prince Bounkhong and half-brother to Princes Phetsarath, Souvanna Phouma and Souphanouvong.
References
Laotian royalty
Prime Ministers of Laos
1893 births
1960 deaths
|
[
-0.17091324925422668,
0.4529641568660736,
-0.2793003022670746,
0.2642984390258789,
-0.08973894268274307,
0.10877735912799835,
0.06018104404211044,
-0.09208741784095764,
-0.7233282923698425,
0.21286803483963013,
0.10004705935716629,
0.4141294062137604,
-0.3563672602176666,
-0.04876498505473137,
-0.4289005696773529,
0.031615667045116425,
0.5757533311843872,
0.011660824529826641,
0.047726716846227646,
-0.5104340314865112,
-0.2724757194519043,
0.00836338009685278,
0.23933817446231842,
-0.04042496904730797,
0.2232128381729126,
0.20832282304763794,
0.2362205535173416,
0.170380637049675,
0.6392053961753845,
-0.04028739780187607,
-0.010052214376628399,
0.31164586544036865,
0.1946738064289093,
0.04550912231206894,
-0.5294331312179565,
0.07671882957220078,
0.298211932182312,
0.11222176998853683,
-0.34041887521743774,
-0.03896782174706459,
-0.2537401020526886,
-0.047249116003513336,
0.09203294664621353,
-0.16333840787410736,
-0.09092583507299423,
-1.4812394380569458,
-0.8423361778259277,
0.33930206298828125,
-0.08035433292388916,
-0.13928718864917755,
-0.01676311530172825,
0.2840113043785095,
0.16889087855815887,
-0.03770764544606209,
0.6196271777153015,
0.21001411974430084,
-0.9073407053947449,
-0.1578512042760849,
-1.0191352367401123,
-0.04351413995027542,
0.10370340943336487,
-0.058877166360616684,
-0.05712093040347099,
-0.14716458320617676,
0.027621235698461533,
-0.1803918331861496,
0.03425237536430359,
-0.15489532053470612,
0.11411740630865097,
-0.04090403765439987,
-0.01213829219341278,
1.188889980316162,
0.23759132623672485,
0.1367378532886505,
0.5930489897727966,
-0.3406636416912079,
-0.0560530424118042,
0.16696029901504517,
0.34517836570739746,
-0.08207019418478012,
-0.1319863349199295,
-0.2118324339389801,
0.6733875274658203,
0.4676872789859772,
-0.03129227086901665,
-0.15710359811782837,
0.1283569484949112,
0.7065833806991577,
-0.19745148718357086,
-0.27306053042411804,
-0.23986026644706726,
-0.014267247170209885,
0.2755550146102905,
-0.5003953576087952,
-0.8433589339256287,
-0.15419316291809082,
0.14249436557292938,
0.23775863647460938,
0.22066126763820648,
-0.10777926445007324,
0.3585205376148224,
-0.1126241385936737,
0.18306536972522736,
-0.5659907460212708,
-1.0911558866500854,
-0.07107694447040558,
-0.371208131313324,
0.0730639100074768,
-0.9293756484985352,
-0.4713398516178131,
-0.633267879486084,
0.5150278806686401,
0.15105758607387543,
0.2656785547733307,
0.127020001411438,
0.15320971608161926,
-0.021488206461071968,
-0.10582488775253296,
0.05557713285088539,
-0.15059693157672882,
0.0797242745757103,
0.5919666886329651,
0.000270530057605356,
0.47697657346725464,
0.004224801901727915,
0.3802332878112793,
-0.14740470051765442,
0.13395527005195618,
-0.286260724067688,
0.39241868257522583,
0.8077737092971802,
0.5251098871231079,
-0.7357770800590515,
0.22089682519435883,
-0.04243640974164009,
-0.1850605458021164,
0.8014629483222961,
0.45103806257247925,
0.24671350419521332,
0.19596438109874725,
-0.6143500208854675,
0.09443692117929459,
-0.32280799746513367,
0.3733566999435425,
-0.13759081065654755,
-0.17200833559036255,
-0.16383641958236694,
0.1651022732257843,
-0.1047944650053978,
-0.033789973706007004,
0.13792996108531952,
-0.49813011288642883,
-0.05917607992887497,
-0.32940614223480225,
-0.5553468465805054,
0.46276015043258667,
0.40990200638771057,
0.20811672508716583,
-0.024064991623163223,
0.39060306549072266,
0.3074120581150055,
0.18204650282859802,
-0.2294103503227234,
-0.18814876675605774,
0.34213748574256897,
-0.09906627237796783,
-0.4768887758255005,
0.510566771030426,
-0.22482848167419434,
-0.2259005904197693,
-0.1848299503326416,
0.16619086265563965,
-0.26528170704841614,
-0.27383285760879517,
0.1376943290233612,
0.4485391676425934,
0.11789097636938095,
0.07586673647165298,
-0.09904216974973679,
-0.13361704349517822,
-0.5036588907241821,
0.13098344206809998,
-0.04022115841507912,
0.004719811491668224,
0.9198642373085022,
0.34262794256210327,
0.9351552724838257,
-0.14705565571784973,
0.728696882724762,
-0.41474124789237976,
-0.6149038076400757,
-0.4817180037498474,
0.4901553988456726,
-0.4150935113430023,
0.4315967857837677,
0.36300572752952576,
0.4250769317150116,
0.48527729511260986,
0.09542103856801987,
0.6199427843093872,
0.09933585673570633,
-0.16297586262226105,
0.6770718097686768,
-0.42220354080200195,
-0.005685298703610897,
0.7445034384727478,
0.31103724241256714,
0.6424533128738403,
0.7023162245750427,
1.20396089553833,
0.6184872388839722,
-0.3291078507900238,
-0.5798463225364685,
0.5048271417617798,
-0.16626998782157898,
-0.9283795356750488,
-0.5636129975318909,
0.329045832157135,
-0.30180832743644714,
0.382662296295166,
0.5177076458930969,
-0.13854272663593292,
-0.35042130947113037,
0.9751772284507751,
0.02679537795484066,
1.2160848379135132,
-0.170542374253273,
-0.7553882598876953,
-0.11844669282436371,
-0.16696153581142426,
-0.273721843957901,
-0.5638113617897034,
0.34280839562416077,
-0.2946476638317108,
0.4097902178764343,
0.2731076776981354,
0.17007818818092346,
-0.09750104695558548,
0.17278771102428436,
-0.3932477533817291,
0.23063167929649353,
0.04936293512582779,
-0.5030703544616699,
0.05492950975894928,
-0.12203218042850494,
0.8103585243225098,
-0.9159596562385559,
-0.24213378131389618,
-0.4547553062438965,
-0.24222125113010406,
-0.09795726090669632,
0.12444599717855453,
0.5152875185012817,
-0.3263642191886902,
-0.2920214533805847,
-0.15292294323444366,
-0.4999253451824188,
0.0890706330537796,
0.009982493706047535,
0.011455245316028595,
-0.12278791517019272,
-0.32088732719421387,
0.663085401058197,
0.4104153513908386,
0.07299353927373886,
0.22079326212406158,
-0.266478031873703,
-0.4087543189525604,
-0.11411549150943756,
0.18342192471027374,
-0.09765558689832687,
-0.5983551144599915,
-0.43192240595817566,
-0.14376571774482727,
-0.17629653215408325,
-0.7701318860054016,
-0.6389337182044983,
0.6776546239852905,
-0.6146569848060608,
-0.972149670124054,
0.9210179448127747,
0.8279297947883606,
-0.22357656061649323,
-0.28444036841392517,
-0.36668968200683594,
0.05943332985043526,
-0.5925834774971008,
-0.4132905602455139,
0.07604455947875977,
0.025721408426761627,
-0.2608157992362976,
0.2629668414592743,
-0.07925760746002197,
-0.3320397734642029,
-0.0810062512755394,
-0.10034945607185364,
-0.7432640790939331,
-0.348649799823761,
0.9029771685600281,
0.1674317717552185,
-0.11163797229528427,
-0.026733683422207832,
-0.20630693435668945,
0.3123306334018707,
0.6026844382286072,
-0.09074418991804123,
0.3267597258090973,
-0.028915997594594955,
-5.661174297332764,
-0.46637797355651855,
0.5636236667633057,
-0.5435023307800293,
0.6956632733345032,
0.23019260168075562,
0.3085861802101135,
-0.3323293924331665,
0.7674523591995239,
-0.27094709873199463,
0.10961420089006424,
-0.2051887810230255,
0.12917189300060272,
0.4391564428806305,
0.36514046788215637,
0.2565208673477173,
0.3934917747974396,
-0.41225332021713257,
0.6739466190338135,
0.6811491847038269,
0.6879270076751709,
-0.13508683443069458,
0.022567013278603554,
0.1600537747144699,
0.32339343428611755,
0.2700795829296112,
0.12110210210084915,
-0.1443738341331482,
-0.9537242650985718,
-0.23342764377593994,
-0.4624370038509369,
0.3762637972831726,
0.8027637004852295,
-0.16876401007175446,
-0.1624835580587387,
-0.8647580146789551,
0.4381844997406006,
0.39576971530914307,
-0.20669914782047272,
-0.0025114126037806273,
0.2306542545557022,
-0.599396824836731,
-0.38041457533836365,
-0.1806633323431015,
-0.22242023050785065,
-0.03355793654918671,
-0.4582541882991791,
-0.21384553611278534,
-0.3696969151496887,
0.5552904605865479,
0.1100766584277153,
0.01676907390356064,
0.3063547909259796,
-0.24668793380260468,
-0.004431804176419973,
0.49937552213668823,
-0.3973020911216736,
0.518006443977356,
-0.5269069075584412,
0.6908007860183716,
0.36037784814834595,
0.01007003802806139,
-0.12889479100704193,
-0.24088458716869354,
0.09133132547140121,
-0.16774339973926544,
0.15781502425670624,
0.08713658154010773,
0.36061733961105347,
0.3080796003341675,
-0.39452141523361206,
0.26957911252975464,
0.20451612770557404,
-0.6857593655586243,
0.24975861608982086,
-0.11267963796854019,
-0.10112184286117554,
0.1744377762079239,
-0.10206618905067444,
-0.1427050679922104,
-0.19166092574596405,
0.05271858721971512,
0.25514382123947144,
0.8880417346954346,
0.3388887047767639,
-0.20054933428764343,
-0.34642961621284485,
0.37550902366638184,
0.16961902379989624,
0.9657484889030457,
0.4745868742465973,
-1.3270158767700195,
-0.13074441254138947,
0.26808875799179077,
0.46100473403930664,
0.005600651726126671,
0.03855152800679207,
0.35299479961395264,
0.6778112649917603,
-0.3595447838306427,
-0.19319488108158112,
-0.11131990700960159,
0.3210778534412384,
-0.4302842319011688,
-0.11674424260854721,
-0.1927233338356018,
-0.2417246550321579,
-0.2676745355129242,
-0.2611028254032135,
0.39559683203697205,
-0.0019619488157331944,
0.08973858505487442,
-0.18338720500469208,
0.005266133230179548,
0.33099961280822754,
-0.759803056716919,
0.15796908736228943,
-0.043328095227479935,
0.3559994697570801,
-0.22360539436340332,
-0.5457859635353088,
0.5189424157142639,
0.146673783659935,
0.4707626402378082,
0.3592759966850281,
-0.04076351225376129,
-0.23071077466011047,
-0.013428826816380024,
-0.3483174741268158,
0.16347280144691467,
0.08341982215642929,
0.16780498623847961,
0.4097503125667572,
-0.3649873733520508,
0.272561252117157,
-0.8225524425506592,
0.016135305166244507,
-0.33573389053344727,
-0.15873099863529205,
-0.024974392727017403,
-0.2997274398803711,
-0.34584957361221313,
-0.2965729236602783,
0.1967315673828125,
-0.2567123472690582,
-0.24856705963611603,
0.21533411741256714,
-0.23031079769134521,
0.006770906038582325,
0.6577740907669067,
0.03406327962875366,
-0.39235934615135193,
1.130832552909851,
-0.15498818457126617,
0.08170735090970993,
-0.10509714484214783,
0.029195552691817284,
-0.4373890161514282,
-0.14828649163246155,
0.13700135052204132,
-0.156830295920372,
-0.7450335025787354,
-1.1978602409362793,
-0.19597068428993225,
0.03458770737051964,
0.3592662215232849,
0.03506245091557503,
-0.021027853712439537,
-0.5425310134887695,
0.9794437885284424,
0.5452631711959839,
-0.4442884624004364,
-0.3507181406021118,
-0.026538392528891563,
0.07831238210201263,
-0.5005772709846497,
0.20347489416599274,
0.1590515822172165,
-0.22302427887916565,
-0.20246273279190063,
-0.8614526987075806,
0.15907509624958038,
-0.05242221802473068,
0.26051491498947144,
0.36990466713905334,
0.184640571475029,
-0.5061899423599243,
-0.9343543648719788,
-0.319556325674057,
0.07107668370008469,
-0.020649855956435204,
0.29579979181289673,
-0.3266858160495758,
0.11090514808893204,
-0.030210016295313835,
-0.467617928981781,
-0.6973453760147095,
0.39743247628211975,
0.009825984947383404,
0.22608907520771027,
-0.20293760299682617,
0.3729947507381439,
0.46592819690704346,
-0.17768695950508118,
-0.15623699128627777,
-0.6215953230857849,
0.1775093674659729,
0.30604299902915955,
0.6959511041641235,
0.2922385334968567,
-0.24464979767799377,
-0.4265444278717041,
-0.0415499322116375,
0.31802788376808167,
-0.2567387521266937,
0.44678694009780884,
0.32173097133636475,
-0.26190048456192017,
-0.13698378205299377,
-1.1279950141906738,
-0.3291515111923218,
-0.3638125956058502,
-0.66374671459198,
-0.09910417348146439,
-0.39834830164909363,
0.2458638697862625,
0.4613349437713623,
-0.19988934695720673,
0.47188252210617065,
-0.03804543614387512,
-0.5842680931091309,
0.0160597562789917,
0.43008705973625183,
0.06404504179954529,
-0.2899107038974762,
-0.28236013650894165,
0.7607445120811462,
0.5796741247177124,
-0.06162748858332634,
-0.24305567145347595,
-0.2795136868953705,
1.1530522108078003,
0.056882116943597794,
-0.48110389709472656,
-0.4719574749469757,
0.15619368851184845,
0.19107700884342194,
-0.2474653273820877,
0.18891096115112305,
-0.09712033718824387,
0.3171273469924927,
0.25706934928894043,
-0.904499351978302,
-0.6814931035041809,
0.45543304085731506,
-0.5450716614723206,
-0.41524797677993774,
0.2310418039560318,
0.4740827977657318,
0.11282503604888916,
-0.4263063967227936,
0.3880802094936371,
0.05407268553972244,
-0.193838968873024,
0.9144637584686279,
0.11750303953886032,
0.19438821077346802,
0.24679620563983917,
0.13209664821624756,
-0.5880141258239746,
-0.5204948782920837,
-0.851198673248291,
-0.4477062225341797,
0.2156895250082016,
-0.08240626007318497,
-0.194933220744133,
0.031470607966184616,
-0.21939785778522491,
0.31927603483200073,
0.09042797982692719,
-0.7245916128158569,
-0.19234591722488403,
-0.09066947549581528,
0.060342490673065186,
-0.13595178723335266,
-1.1413077116012573,
-0.18929699063301086,
-0.13919883966445923,
-0.522447943687439,
0.16301068663597107,
-0.6302540302276611,
-0.012057416141033173,
-0.42421960830688477,
0.19308598339557648,
-0.05963366851210594,
0.7077083587646484,
-0.21323825418949127,
1.094075322151184,
-0.18238982558250427,
-0.14534088969230652,
-0.16435904800891876,
-0.30164459347724915,
0.5413622260093689,
0.12445763498544693,
-0.5186964273452759,
-0.058454323559999466,
0.15119701623916626,
-0.8099314570426941,
-0.2301667183637619,
0.5815504193305969,
0.4442776143550873,
0.1508488804101944,
-0.23611734807491302,
-0.26225176453590393,
-0.9256055355072021,
0.04731345921754837,
0.20277366042137146,
-0.9161047339439392,
-0.6875206232070923,
0.08505420386791229,
0.2583993375301361,
-0.04286649823188782,
-0.3261682689189911,
0.09221260994672775,
0.34656286239624023,
0.5139842629432678,
-0.15753883123397827,
0.19979020953178406,
0.37261733412742615,
-0.3102353811264038,
-0.14487804472446442,
0.4388343393802643,
-0.6204270124435425,
0.5308792591094971,
-0.23464368283748627,
0.09774088114500046,
0.2088494896888733,
-0.7471729516983032,
0.5316279530525208,
0.35030171275138855,
0.45127806067466736,
0.88612961769104,
-0.05043947696685791,
-0.182419091463089,
0.5119954943656921,
0.3912505805492401,
-0.17699968814849854,
0.08468633890151978,
0.2592005431652069,
0.23529382050037384,
0.33889853954315186,
0.25596556067466736,
0.039317961782217026,
-0.5103521347045898,
0.05654528737068176,
0.20752742886543274,
-0.09830048680305481,
-0.23859991133213043,
0.7490614652633667,
-0.016859639436006546,
0.08990785479545593,
-0.6739094257354736,
0.22089993953704834,
0.4295031726360321,
0.6656589508056641,
0.23698057234287262,
0.03245052322745323,
-0.1762773096561432,
0.2903200089931488,
0.10346365720033646,
0.21943244338035583,
-0.4089473783969879,
-0.6074905395507812,
-0.391385018825531,
-0.8724334239959717,
-0.05878233164548874,
0.6450977325439453,
-0.2746486961841583,
-0.6067119836807251,
-0.619422972202301,
-0.1186380609869957,
0.3939376473426819,
-0.14216488599777222,
-0.33950501680374146,
-0.08495640009641647,
0.3656204044818878,
0.39187994599342346,
0.1062106192111969,
0.15080659091472626,
0.03638077154755592,
0.33288663625717163,
-0.29636165499687195,
-0.5272433757781982,
0.17587332427501678,
0.38967400789260864,
0.4342394173145294,
-0.0697055384516716,
0.4260293245315552,
0.5508622527122498,
-0.26666876673698425,
0.2889918386936188,
-0.025130299851298332,
-0.06279655545949936,
-0.25352486968040466,
0.6764199733734131,
0.06674688309431076,
-0.20463250577449799,
0.05140022933483124,
-0.774653434753418,
0.3706417679786682,
-0.23713485896587372,
0.8064359426498413,
0.12057673931121826,
0.2562907338142395,
-0.1510637253522873,
-0.052277933806180954,
0.37630078196525574,
-0.8000786304473877,
-0.06151420995593071,
0.050126105546951294,
-0.11721797287464142,
-0.24679429829120636,
0.060248199850320816,
0.30892887711524963,
-0.19575031101703644,
-0.5164929032325745,
0.28793787956237793,
0.4120025634765625,
-0.17876273393630981,
0.1438065767288208,
-0.31106823682785034,
-0.36661818623542786,
-0.13339930772781372,
-0.5421085953712463,
-0.3508397340774536,
0.040962137281894684,
0.6536334156990051,
0.25969791412353516,
-0.3552910089492798,
-0.44186702370643616,
-0.05746641382575035,
0.22786517441272736,
0.7120140790939331,
0.3735707998275757,
0.22944378852844238,
-0.1199721023440361,
0.14446857571601868,
-0.13603635132312775,
-0.41329827904701233,
0.13898955285549164,
0.07643426954746246,
-0.04405554383993149,
0.4919624328613281,
-0.5795168280601501,
0.37633663415908813,
-0.22144436836242676,
-0.00004727415580418892,
0.0754530131816864,
0.18687017261981964,
0.08109800517559052
] |
203723
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristal%20%28wine%29
|
Cristal (wine)
|
Cristal is the flagship cuvée of Champagne Louis Roederer, created in 1876 for Alexander II, tsar of Russia.
History
Champagne increased in popularity with the Russian nobility from 1855 onwards. An especially popular brand was Louis Roederer's, who shipped a third of his production to Russia.
Cristal was first created for Alexander II of Russia, and is viewed by many as the first prestige cuvée. As the political situation in Russia at the time of his rule was unstable, the Tsar feared assassination. Thus when he visited Paris in 1867 for the Exposition Universelle, the Tsar ordered that champagne bottles for the lavish dinner he hosted for the German Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (later termed the Three Emperors Dinner) be made clear, so that he could see the bubbles and also to prevent an explosive being hidden beneath them, as could happen with a typical dark green indented bottle. Louis Roederer commissioned a Flemish glassmaker to create a clear lead glass Champagne bottle with a flat bottom. The Champagne has since become known as "Cristal".
The wine was not commercially available until 1945.
Hip-hop culture
In the mid 1990s and early 2000s, hip hop music discovered the brand, with several artists referencing the drink in song lyrics and as part of their public image, including Raekwon, 50 Cent, The Notorious B.I.G., R. Kelly, Sean Combs, Big L, Jeru the Damaja, Trina, and Jay-Z. Those in hip hop sometimes used the nickname "Crissy" for the drink. Tupac Shakur created a cocktail called "Thug Passion", which is a blend of Alizé Gold Passion and Cristal.
In an interview with The Economist in 2006, Louis Roederer managing director Frederic Rouzaud said he viewed the attention from rappers with "curiosity and serenity." Asked if he thought the association would harm the brand, he replied, "that's a good question, but what can we do? We can't forbid people from buying it. I'm sure Dom Pérignon or Krug would be delighted to have their business."
Subsequent interpretations and reactions to these statements resulted in those associated with hip-hop culture disengaging from the brand. Jay-Z, for example, released a statement saying he would never "drink Cristal or promote it in any way or serve it at any of [his] clubs". The loss of position in hip hop and Jay Z's statement had no effect on sales of Cristal; output doubled from 400,000 bottles in 2004 to over 800,000 bottles in 2010.
Production
The 1974 vintage was the first release of a rosé Cristal. The grape composition is an approximately equal blend of Chardonnay and Pinot noir, while the rosé contains more Pinot noir, and is coloured with red wine via the saignée method rather than by the Pinot noir grape skins. The 2000 vintage was 55% Pinot Noir and 45% Chardonnay, with a dosage of 10 g/l.
Cristal had an annual production run of 300,000 to 400,000 bottles in the early to mid 2000s but that had doubled to 800,000 bottles by 2010.
Since 2012, all vintages of Cristal champagne are produced entirely from Demeter-certified, biodynamically-farmed fruit, which is a landmark for Maison Roederer.
See also
Champagne in popular culture
Armand de Brignac
Ciroc
Veblen good
References
Champagne producers
Alcoholic drink brands
|
[
-0.5163847208023071,
0.23906132578849792,
0.5553874969482422,
-0.14316342771053314,
-0.14163869619369507,
0.42943984270095825,
0.32317179441452026,
0.5226150751113892,
-0.5187665224075317,
0.010191674344241619,
-0.0742172822356224,
0.30856579542160034,
0.015289089642465115,
1.100609302520752,
0.17625701427459717,
0.23564225435256958,
0.7178683280944824,
0.7620089650154114,
-0.02306520566344261,
-0.7697159051895142,
-0.07646659761667252,
-0.3237777352333069,
0.11641807109117508,
0.2946297228336334,
0.7006293535232544,
-0.5698665976524353,
-0.07694228738546371,
-0.07409839332103729,
0.8549250364303589,
0.7713435292243958,
0.062450893223285675,
0.9150197505950928,
0.3405703008174896,
-0.6995136737823486,
0.10962306708097458,
-0.04759352281689644,
0.11974005401134491,
-0.23098541796207428,
-0.13105949759483337,
-0.4777809679508209,
-0.24244087934494019,
0.04745899885892868,
0.39976173639297485,
-0.07126221805810928,
-0.10865722596645355,
-0.22656062245368958,
-1.1687846183776855,
0.9542107582092285,
-0.2881581485271454,
0.4697427451610565,
-0.2459789365530014,
0.11949490010738373,
-0.026370516046881676,
0.10401651263237,
0.03632437437772751,
0.6096286773681641,
-1.0035463571548462,
0.45760461688041687,
-0.11218124628067017,
-0.33349505066871643,
-0.026391785591840744,
0.29121625423431396,
0.2280651032924652,
0.31646689772605896,
0.14219243824481964,
0.1728866994380951,
0.22035779058933258,
0.25895971059799194,
-0.32152259349823,
-0.06987957656383514,
-0.019215548411011696,
-0.3115241527557373,
-0.24166855216026306,
-0.5802253484725952,
-0.5002253651618958,
0.12984010577201843,
-0.5464312434196472,
0.021774349734187126,
0.24460138380527496,
0.4575902819633484,
0.12747259438037872,
-0.8392124772071838,
0.6487463116645813,
0.22826020419597626,
-0.263197124004364,
0.8005768060684204,
-0.29886624217033386,
-0.2515265941619873,
-0.17441397905349731,
-0.028431499376893044,
-0.8622375130653381,
0.22398121654987335,
0.8980070352554321,
-0.08159641176462173,
-0.09556948393583298,
-0.2609448730945587,
0.30905693769454956,
-0.1766820102930069,
0.19989176094532013,
0.13452193140983582,
-0.38506731390953064,
0.48687928915023804,
-0.1471550464630127,
-0.08237676322460175,
-0.6173451542854309,
0.13585226237773895,
-0.6151633858680725,
-0.24132031202316284,
-0.09489462524652481,
-0.18197183310985565,
-0.16479066014289856,
-0.14787280559539795,
0.10757603496313095,
0.5024041533470154,
-0.2050812542438507,
0.3437955379486084,
0.4374411404132843,
0.03588683903217316,
0.23125123977661133,
-0.08088432252407074,
0.018325941637158394,
0.5165075063705444,
0.38156557083129883,
0.2732451558113098,
0.20398496091365814,
0.16405072808265686,
0.7767680287361145,
0.5723404288291931,
0.0036119904834777117,
0.2577836513519287,
-0.026650363579392433,
0.4234461486339569,
-0.15085914731025696,
-0.30200979113578796,
-0.2391243278980255,
-0.2679072618484497,
-0.0034484488423913717,
-0.1524820178747177,
0.45282819867134094,
0.2667924463748932,
-0.6710625290870667,
0.09392865747213364,
-0.1321636289358139,
-0.46660688519477844,
0.5896562337875366,
0.10564921051263809,
-0.20767909288406372,
-0.5809200406074524,
0.1223096176981926,
-0.5541352033615112,
-0.03205116465687752,
0.0738036260008812,
0.03630708530545235,
-0.25763770937919617,
-0.6199762225151062,
0.6615458130836487,
-0.02875320240855217,
-0.2986885607242584,
0.23660467565059662,
-0.1432843953371048,
0.09250899404287338,
0.36706241965293884,
0.42425382137298584,
0.08768965303897858,
-0.04136398434638977,
0.024799060076475143,
-0.04515103995800018,
0.7618642449378967,
-0.23830503225326538,
0.1780121624469757,
0.10627096891403198,
0.3601609170436859,
0.7172224521636963,
-0.7901818156242371,
-0.17155686020851135,
0.648267388343811,
0.3968810439109802,
0.4134797751903534,
0.22775045037269592,
-0.14615227282047272,
-0.5331124663352966,
0.8176770806312561,
0.002517848741263151,
-0.6006783843040466,
0.21033599972724915,
-0.1618596315383911,
0.2871561646461487,
-0.0993458554148674,
0.5795258283615112,
0.11222170293331146,
-0.4465942978858948,
-0.10176589339971542,
-0.44580143690109253,
-0.3891312777996063,
0.7186440229415894,
0.1246359720826149,
-0.6069388389587402,
0.9977831244468689,
-0.18808941543102264,
0.024530604481697083,
-0.6024236083030701,
0.591548502445221,
0.6034210324287415,
-0.13315771520137787,
-0.9327124953269958,
-0.17362557351589203,
0.14572393894195557,
0.154259592294693,
-0.033090416342020035,
0.6985747814178467,
-0.04954368621110916,
-0.40925803780555725,
0.2620653212070465,
-0.39260947704315186,
-0.006295389030128717,
0.5261503458023071,
-0.27378562092781067,
0.08940086513757706,
0.16206148266792297,
0.3551802337169647,
0.46443697810173035,
-0.022286076098680496,
-0.4360544681549072,
0.7683885097503662,
-0.6140437126159668,
0.535573422908783,
0.05507809296250343,
-0.055942222476005554,
-0.10085450112819672,
-0.1776287704706192,
-0.15182194113731384,
-0.1494452953338623,
-0.07133384793996811,
-0.13846811652183533,
-0.4961567223072052,
-0.15156786143779755,
0.0376485213637352,
-0.1469046026468277,
0.14354869723320007,
-0.16064190864562988,
0.7554444074630737,
0.2838379144668579,
0.024565737694501877,
0.5805559158325195,
0.1686028391122818,
-0.10244803875684738,
-0.16883045434951782,
0.40539097785949707,
0.2872602045536041,
-0.7919102907180786,
-0.12246473133563995,
0.7155733704566956,
-0.355229914188385,
-0.1400270313024521,
0.17155855894088745,
-0.5144043564796448,
0.335661917924881,
0.6781262159347534,
0.02149595506489277,
0.6182544827461243,
-0.015662536025047302,
-0.07347936183214188,
-0.126913920044899,
0.6989734172821045,
0.3431430160999298,
-0.296446830034256,
-0.0852704793214798,
-0.41120100021362305,
0.5684607028961182,
0.1305815875530243,
-0.27016717195510864,
-0.05395419895648956,
-0.45703020691871643,
0.08640746027231216,
0.14329466223716736,
-0.12731194496154785,
-0.7461140751838684,
0.4063243865966797,
-0.5370917320251465,
-0.07980718463659286,
0.059982482343912125,
0.49088895320892334,
0.3184819519519806,
0.19528073072433472,
-0.674689531326294,
-0.20513150095939636,
-0.22022567689418793,
-0.2174707055091858,
0.35377228260040283,
-0.3043392598628998,
-0.14385169744491577,
0.19589418172836304,
-0.3036740720272064,
-0.3427989184856415,
-0.39070236682891846,
-0.3480062484741211,
-0.11277687549591064,
0.771098792552948,
-0.1725943684577942,
-0.2917395234107971,
-0.18393835425376892,
0.24511398375034332,
0.07958757877349854,
0.24799844622612,
0.48315954208374023,
0.5279249548912048,
0.16670453548431396,
-0.3391459882259369,
-5.79263973236084,
-0.24415019154548645,
-0.02089107409119606,
-0.025105129927396774,
-0.42030057311058044,
-0.17079482972621918,
0.09625804424285889,
-0.3027092218399048,
0.36426785588264465,
-0.2367149442434311,
-0.2631523609161377,
0.1528848260641098,
-0.5011955499649048,
0.5387954115867615,
0.20173421502113342,
0.4643346667289734,
-0.11087793856859207,
-0.4461207091808319,
0.1474006175994873,
0.0657077357172966,
-0.42121684551239014,
0.4419442415237427,
-0.2258276641368866,
0.36158424615859985,
-0.24547769129276276,
0.027974754571914673,
-0.3667123019695282,
-0.3380098044872284,
-1.191371202468872,
0.004726514685899019,
-0.6013756990432739,
-0.06618871539831161,
0.3453022539615631,
0.15267130732536316,
-0.28127527236938477,
0.05568020045757294,
0.12257722020149231,
-0.46739137172698975,
0.09816921502351761,
-0.26187583804130554,
0.08131293952465057,
0.7741785049438477,
0.0185623150318861,
-0.0027590745594352484,
0.25996875762939453,
-0.4527229368686676,
-0.4531136751174927,
-0.04201614111661911,
-0.3748784065246582,
0.7876294851303101,
0.18890970945358276,
-0.6556233167648315,
-0.07470455020666122,
0.01694674603641033,
0.4801568388938904,
0.41041579842567444,
0.5152131915092468,
0.07155607640743256,
-0.05002517253160477,
0.07811599224805832,
0.15184985101222992,
0.29680079221725464,
-0.07715119421482086,
-0.25818654894828796,
-0.22709709405899048,
-0.31579306721687317,
-0.49985793232917786,
0.07719498872756958,
-0.19423824548721313,
0.3757150173187256,
0.22916223108768463,
0.38083288073539734,
-0.39385443925857544,
-0.8727544546127319,
-0.34181228280067444,
-0.7876205444335938,
-0.7364199161529541,
-0.09804882854223251,
-0.3077511191368103,
0.6718204617500305,
-0.15088212490081787,
-0.5553911924362183,
-0.02753923088312149,
-0.2449483722448349,
-0.16692815721035004,
-0.3463681638240814,
0.05577696114778519,
0.21168763935565948,
0.12418240308761597,
-0.11464551836252213,
0.5424473881721497,
-0.9203414916992188,
0.046544693410396576,
0.21638649702072144,
-0.2526242434978485,
0.7041524052619934,
0.3994363844394684,
-0.09035797417163849,
0.02936231717467308,
0.13978448510169983,
0.17388254404067993,
-0.024865273386240005,
0.008840478956699371,
-0.45851612091064453,
-0.059596430510282516,
0.34219732880592346,
-0.17266826331615448,
0.1970912218093872,
0.5488202571868896,
0.057772040367126465,
0.10586090385913849,
-0.06355635076761246,
-0.3335404098033905,
-0.4999243915081024,
0.8399432897567749,
-0.12915559113025665,
0.10166126489639282,
0.14684505760669708,
-0.13995233178138733,
-0.23331616818904877,
0.24496355652809143,
0.22340816259384155,
-0.5394874215126038,
0.028473857790231705,
0.38506200909614563,
-0.06148483231663704,
0.1786138266324997,
0.23637685179710388,
-0.5203882455825806,
0.8136860132217407,
-0.5059660077095032,
-0.2824326753616333,
0.15090228617191315,
0.0005568120395764709,
0.6784719824790955,
-0.2895176112651825,
-0.2143784761428833,
-0.44045618176460266,
0.42452603578567505,
-0.21464374661445618,
0.43791839480400085,
0.24918344616889954,
-0.5367564558982849,
0.32183408737182617,
0.1186671108007431,
0.6214684247970581,
-0.30684587359428406,
0.18439553678035736,
-0.5368116497993469,
0.4306502044200897,
-0.48607417941093445,
0.32943275570869446,
-0.23240068554878235,
0.10100837796926498,
-0.40484821796417236,
-0.7411957383155823,
-0.17081807553768158,
0.5734814405441284,
-0.24659791588783264,
-0.022887419909238815,
0.0525987446308136,
-0.4162903428077698,
-0.910389244556427,
-0.13060669600963593,
0.1397019773721695,
0.040025051683187485,
-0.2267964780330658,
-0.5128230452537537,
-0.23821167647838593,
0.9300851225852966,
-0.13627144694328308,
-0.02579365484416485,
-0.41572126746177673,
-0.29753607511520386,
0.17339766025543213,
0.6297746300697327,
0.4009343683719635,
0.07560776174068451,
0.028662579134106636,
0.1303909569978714,
0.027667555958032608,
0.04382854327559471,
-0.014667969197034836,
0.3087313175201416,
0.36570224165916443,
-0.2691342234611511,
-0.3494275212287903,
0.18978945910930634,
0.2779577970504761,
0.3785339891910553,
-0.17713923752307892,
0.4683786630630493,
-0.3476147949695587,
0.049223706126213074,
-0.5043917894363403,
-0.4792701005935669,
-0.352207750082016,
0.07368326932191849,
-0.013958333060145378,
-0.5019118785858154,
0.06811758130788803,
0.25489452481269836,
-0.19433552026748657,
0.4705374240875244,
0.7239723801612854,
-0.38971588015556335,
0.5126368403434753,
0.5446778535842896,
-0.38247159123420715,
0.27283772826194763,
-0.08745099604129791,
-1.039939045906067,
0.8565989136695862,
0.6828491687774658,
-0.13735240697860718,
0.17224860191345215,
-0.4365381896495819,
-0.4871828258037567,
-0.29931315779685974,
0.16915376484394073,
0.010674390941858292,
-1.0677601099014282,
-0.5925056338310242,
-0.6642981767654419,
-0.43441876769065857,
0.6503768563270569,
0.6070330142974854,
0.20328621566295624,
0.46522557735443115,
-0.09635940939188004,
0.6817362904548645,
-0.11748452484607697,
-0.13469569385051727,
-0.0025206005666404963,
0.13402357697486877,
0.16565267741680145,
-0.5362066030502319,
0.1586577147245407,
0.22715158760547638,
0.1633811593055725,
0.010401759296655655,
0.8685288429260254,
-0.07188934832811356,
-0.45810917019844055,
-0.4632170796394348,
0.0703514888882637,
0.22746627032756805,
-0.3122476637363434,
-0.3978577256202698,
0.47849565744400024,
-0.46915966272354126,
-0.2586076557636261,
-0.2515569031238556,
-1.0844964981079102,
0.24658258259296417,
-0.3413742482662201,
-0.04977951571345329,
0.4930233359336853,
-0.44597023725509644,
0.8662069439888,
-0.4603487551212311,
0.25282320380210876,
-0.42041704058647156,
0.0597468763589859,
0.4033803641796112,
0.21592694520950317,
-0.38581329584121704,
-0.47242915630340576,
-0.286408007144928,
0.1835656315088272,
0.10965674370527267,
-0.4605521857738495,
0.11316856741905212,
0.09491927921772003,
-0.09240870922803879,
0.670543909072876,
-0.5047494173049927,
-0.3979854881763458,
0.09896692633628845,
-0.18430005013942719,
-0.6336331367492676,
0.17591917514801025,
0.2784409821033478,
0.6469195485115051,
0.28416624665260315,
-0.31652966141700745,
-0.6766252517700195,
-0.11094406992197037,
-0.2469244748353958,
0.3986358642578125,
-0.21501493453979492,
0.5980055332183838,
0.010708237998187542,
0.3267638385295868,
0.04096706584095955,
0.16673646867275238,
0.11235398799180984,
0.5967566967010498,
-0.4149186611175537,
0.7059472799301147,
-0.4506262242794037,
0.4708186388015747,
0.5351241827011108,
-0.31515270471572876,
0.10329020023345947,
0.4795844554901123,
0.048194851726293564,
-0.17802360653877258,
0.24320967495441437,
0.06815541535615921,
0.15823934972286224,
-0.1525339037179947,
-0.19774629175662994,
-0.2978493273258209,
-0.14183814823627472,
0.5071130394935608,
0.04600468650460243,
-0.2320786565542221,
0.5914150476455688,
0.3198445439338684,
0.7615451812744141,
0.3895903527736664,
0.057662978768348694,
-0.22006602585315704,
-0.38082796335220337,
1.005334496498108,
-0.9103323817253113,
0.33473533391952515,
0.35724860429763794,
0.042480915784835815,
0.6630094647407532,
0.12186925858259201,
-0.8190709352493286,
0.03485947847366333,
-0.04483376815915108,
0.13812704384326935,
-0.17089468240737915,
-0.7178711891174316,
-0.4205705523490906,
0.31367456912994385,
1.2452024221420288,
0.29151201248168945,
-0.34031251072883606,
-0.3207329213619232,
0.5397726893424988,
0.42905092239379883,
0.07142433524131775,
-0.12705892324447632,
0.2531144320964813,
-0.17854784429073334,
0.3829280436038971,
0.14828844368457794,
0.10130977630615234,
-0.6444973945617676,
0.36220985651016235,
0.1390189528465271,
-0.1548430472612381,
-0.40682050585746765,
-0.6221394538879395,
0.1825850009918213,
-0.33529287576675415,
-0.4181514382362366,
-0.43376168608665466,
0.08380666375160217,
-0.7648786902427673,
-0.006291327998042107,
0.03152498975396156,
-0.2205030471086502,
-0.27317631244659424,
0.21039703488349915,
-0.14242933690547943,
-0.4389524757862091,
0.03806212916970253,
0.49587205052375793,
0.1998489946126938,
-0.092482790350914,
-0.5721859335899353,
0.5235076546669006,
0.22465971112251282,
0.7365692257881165,
-0.6389847993850708,
-0.3737458884716034,
-0.15193937718868256,
0.18738685548305511,
-0.6800652742385864,
0.01793588511645794,
-0.43977996706962585,
-0.03937225788831711,
-0.35913634300231934,
-0.3421531319618225,
-0.40311768651008606,
0.004461394622921944,
-0.08472238481044769,
0.3764398992061615,
-0.37197262048721313,
-0.04917198792099953,
0.07747805863618851,
0.29001033306121826,
-0.4147401452064514,
-0.3263438940048218,
0.11125408113002777,
-0.30906856060028076,
-0.07150552421808243,
0.3247855305671692,
0.24735678732395172,
0.23797504603862762,
-0.5921167135238647,
0.22732028365135193,
-0.19015681743621826,
0.19691577553749084,
-0.47405484318733215,
-0.37289807200431824,
-0.32801416516304016,
0.6026867032051086,
-0.11560701578855515,
0.34878411889076233,
0.5731064677238464,
0.18935568630695343,
0.07462156563997269,
-1.0404630899429321,
-0.38625553250312805,
-0.31784695386886597,
0.5444725155830383,
0.636564314365387,
0.036343108862638474,
-0.2442864328622818,
-0.03491451218724251,
-0.0571654848754406,
-0.2312445491552353,
0.2542679011821747,
0.018203621730208397,
0.4456889033317566,
-0.3117932081222534,
0.847713053226471,
-0.5372158288955688,
-0.2648330330848694,
0.16706743836402893,
0.48307254910469055,
-0.09570052474737167,
-0.02204260230064392,
-0.1981348842382431,
-0.3710409104824066,
0.2444770634174347,
-0.5209994316101074,
-0.14048202335834503,
0.11468182504177094,
0.10868672281503677,
-0.2482226938009262,
-0.725135087966919,
-0.056602705270051956,
-0.10642749816179276,
-0.46153613924980164,
0.25978347659111023,
-0.41949960589408875,
-0.06234917417168617,
-0.4317837953567505,
0.04528499022126198,
-0.4069821238517761,
0.24101956188678741,
-0.4450920820236206
] |
203724
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souvanna%20Phouma
|
Souvanna Phouma
|
Prince Souvanna Phouma (; 7 October 1901 – 10 January 1984) was the leader of the neutralist faction and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times (1951–1954, 1956–1958, 1960, and 1962–1975).
Early life
Souvanna Phouma was the son of Bounkhong, the last vice-king of Luang Prabang and a nephew of King Sisavang Vong of Laos, given a French education in Hanoi, Paris and Grenoble, where he obtained his degree in architecture and engineering. He returned to his homeland in 1931, married Aline Claire Allard, the daughter of a French father and a Lao mother, and entered the Public Works Service of French Indochina.
Souvanna Phouma, together with his brother, Prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa (1891–1959) and his half-brother, Prince Souphanouvong (1909–1995), around the end of World War II, joined the Lao Issara (Free Laos) movement established to counter the French occupation and its provisional Vientiane government (1945–46).
When the French reoccupied Laos, Souvanna fled to exile in Bangkok, but returned to Laos in 1949 as France began conceding autonomy to Laos.
Souvanna Phouma and his wife had four children including Mangkra Souvanna Phouma and Princess Moune, who married Perry J. Stieglitz, cultural-affairs attaché of the U.S. embassy.
Prime Ministership
In 1951, Souvanna became Prime Minister of Laos under the National Progressive Party banner with a landslide victory, winning 15 of the 39 seats in the National Assembly. He was prime minister until 1954.
After elections in December 1955, Souvanna Phouma returned to the prime ministership on a platform of national reconciliation. In August 1956 Souvanna and the Communist Pathet Lao, which his half-brother Souphanouvong headed agreed on broad proposals for a 'government of national union'. Elections for 21 extra assembly seats were finally held in May 1958, with parties aligned with the Pathet Lao acquiring 13. Souphanouvong entered the government as Economic Minister. Another Pathet Lao leader, Phoumi Vongvichit, also acquired a Ministry.
In June 1958 Souvanna was again forced to resign by the rightists. The king accepted the vote as legal the next day when he signed Royal Ordinance No. 282, dismissing Souvanna Phouma's government and giving powers provisionally to the Revolutionary Committee. Royal Ordinance No. 283, approved a provisional government formed by Prince Boun Oum, who acted as front man for Phoui Sananikone. He was one of the Three Princes, whom Sisavang Vatthana appointed to form a coalition government between the rightists and Pathet Lao but it collapsed, and the Laotian Civil War began.
Souvanna Phouma was elected President of National Assembly from May 1960 to August 1960 following the 1960 elections.
Honours
Foreign Honours
: Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (1971)
: Knight Grand Cordon(Special Class) of the Order of the White Elephant
: Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia
: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun
: Honorary Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)
: Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
: Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna
References
Bibliography
Stieglitz, Perry. In a Little Kingdom. 1990 M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
1901 births
1984 deaths
Laotian royalty
People of the Laotian Civil War
Presidents of the National Assembly (Laos)
Prime Ministers of Laos
National Progressive Party (Laos) politicians
People from Luang Prabang
University of Paris alumni
Grenoble Alpes University alumni
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
|
[
-0.12979744374752045,
0.11363458633422852,
-0.34732335805892944,
-0.20927371084690094,
-0.17739737033843994,
0.24518118798732758,
-0.05505389720201492,
0.0789073258638382,
-0.660649299621582,
0.25934329628944397,
-0.0032546422444283962,
0.5668649077415466,
-0.8660405874252319,
0.08762304484844208,
-0.2483450323343277,
0.10623850673437119,
0.510064423084259,
0.06532192975282669,
0.12305203080177307,
-0.32071104645729065,
0.1369650959968567,
0.02087223157286644,
0.4371879994869232,
0.01651732623577118,
0.030947832390666008,
0.09598300606012344,
0.2180025428533554,
0.09354399144649506,
0.6544275879859924,
0.1025157943367958,
0.03439781069755554,
0.4327966570854187,
0.3461102545261383,
-0.17726261913776398,
-0.33744823932647705,
0.20103637874126434,
0.3858330547809601,
0.43690162897109985,
-0.19526799023151398,
-0.1359245330095291,
-0.32052847743034363,
-0.10036347806453705,
-0.19154420495033264,
0.1444772481918335,
0.19764360785484314,
-1.0628228187561035,
-0.7221900224685669,
0.5896034836769104,
-0.3226519823074341,
-0.3311293125152588,
-0.5464844107627869,
0.5009791851043701,
0.11678367853164673,
0.23574115335941315,
0.6228824853897095,
-0.05841747671365738,
-0.9423272013664246,
-0.3193809390068054,
-0.7466108202934265,
0.08110901713371277,
-0.017092816531658173,
0.16103392839431763,
0.0663250982761383,
-0.19289568066596985,
-0.14985913038253784,
-0.06537139415740967,
-0.2801923453807831,
-0.30411791801452637,
-0.025203565135598183,
0.0028709378093481064,
-0.004458501003682613,
1.138279676437378,
0.05026058107614517,
0.2574440538883209,
0.6548895239830017,
-0.32004493474960327,
-0.01714157871901989,
-0.00021931905939709395,
0.33517205715179443,
-0.044556643813848495,
0.07722790539264679,
-0.35669928789138794,
0.5969106554985046,
0.4557666480541229,
-0.07768461853265762,
-0.06193132698535919,
0.2765585780143738,
0.5389803647994995,
-0.09019938111305237,
-0.18274728953838348,
0.006430163513869047,
-0.18080927431583405,
0.4771755635738373,
-0.4742087423801422,
-0.9132808446884155,
-0.03585781157016754,
0.2663390636444092,
0.16229766607284546,
0.09183035045862198,
-0.09467790275812149,
0.603056788444519,
0.399442583322525,
0.22926270961761475,
-0.5929235816001892,
-1.2926162481307983,
-0.36961740255355835,
-0.2890988290309906,
-0.09504561871290207,
-0.6709835529327393,
-0.3548116385936737,
-0.7840036749839783,
0.5292269587516785,
0.03508599475026131,
0.12911657989025116,
-0.030996978282928467,
0.4261256754398346,
-0.29900747537612915,
-0.11864146590232849,
0.30434221029281616,
-0.15883807837963104,
-0.012862271629273891,
0.7792699933052063,
-0.15026859939098358,
0.6333220601081848,
-0.05265434458851814,
-0.02081146650016308,
-0.11028897762298584,
0.05641859024763107,
-0.3321218192577362,
0.5100516080856323,
0.6137572526931763,
0.43346673250198364,
-0.7563683390617371,
0.14663521945476532,
0.10400088131427765,
-0.5541518330574036,
1.1021051406860352,
0.13207188248634338,
0.46647268533706665,
-0.0073561896570026875,
-0.8366584181785583,
-0.25411906838417053,
-0.28137949109077454,
0.18091227114200592,
0.01072730217128992,
-0.24501574039459229,
-0.32957392930984497,
0.22534801065921783,
-0.14561820030212402,
-0.43278220295906067,
-0.01961945928633213,
-0.7571316957473755,
0.21874572336673737,
-0.5714092254638672,
-0.5201196670532227,
0.39777621626853943,
0.23437002301216125,
0.38860413432121277,
-0.20439444482326508,
0.1440715193748474,
0.5171289443969727,
0.24469304084777832,
-0.016209736466407776,
-0.0005235407734289765,
0.6283947825431824,
-0.0640171617269516,
-0.43537503480911255,
0.6708816885948181,
-0.42302677035331726,
-0.2057838886976242,
-0.3526190221309662,
0.3124181628227234,
-0.10928170382976532,
-0.44296663999557495,
0.055251527577638626,
0.5694646239280701,
-0.0735011026263237,
-0.026657698675990105,
0.07237796485424042,
-0.02265072427690029,
-0.5500708818435669,
-0.054775420576334,
0.022604001685976982,
0.12800319492816925,
0.5535280704498291,
0.253277987241745,
0.5823314189910889,
-0.3070591688156128,
0.8284337520599365,
-0.13046172261238098,
-0.6157082319259644,
-0.2708856165409088,
0.3450823128223419,
-0.3310234546661377,
0.38443607091903687,
0.39507123827934265,
0.22739119827747345,
0.7536219358444214,
0.23500056564807892,
0.6426568031311035,
0.2810209095478058,
-0.4386914372444153,
0.5862341523170471,
-0.16675683856010437,
-0.23665566742420197,
0.712161123752594,
-0.010401617735624313,
0.5930194854736328,
0.7141766548156738,
1.2278778553009033,
0.5546732544898987,
-0.5250062942504883,
-0.46896952390670776,
0.5629906058311462,
0.04453746974468231,
-0.8735063076019287,
-0.8543491363525391,
0.6821619868278503,
-0.32069262862205505,
0.4055342376232147,
0.08747020363807678,
-0.1941704899072647,
-0.5919507145881653,
0.9011809229850769,
0.10008731484413147,
0.9913583993911743,
-0.18964636325836182,
-0.46331337094306946,
-0.11458984017372131,
0.07889100909233093,
-0.03990635648369789,
-0.4620598554611206,
0.26332542300224304,
-0.37460869550704956,
0.3760305941104889,
0.3158246576786041,
0.04274130240082741,
-0.1274344027042389,
0.3462916314601898,
-0.6816350221633911,
0.3203525245189667,
-0.0164777971804142,
-0.2949094772338867,
0.007048580329865217,
-0.24521493911743164,
0.8173112869262695,
-0.9858130812644958,
-0.11815547943115234,
-0.33640554547309875,
0.0788152813911438,
-0.17033922672271729,
0.1913839429616928,
0.7961879372596741,
-0.14275026321411133,
0.09212373197078705,
-0.22544297575950623,
-0.16785700619220734,
0.26981502771377563,
0.08795429766178131,
-0.032011762261390686,
-0.07412706315517426,
-0.4055677354335785,
0.4371696412563324,
0.3657741844654083,
0.13743937015533447,
-0.1851111650466919,
-0.21162277460098267,
-0.35052692890167236,
-0.08449244499206543,
0.23438766598701477,
0.08208145946264267,
-0.6471795439720154,
-0.5593953728675842,
-0.18143194913864136,
-0.3716910779476166,
-0.5787364840507507,
-0.8072682619094849,
0.929602861404419,
-0.7678961753845215,
-0.8074977397918701,
0.8936463594436646,
0.823869526386261,
-0.3361837863922119,
-0.3446929156780243,
-0.3480629324913025,
0.04306161403656006,
-0.4152804911136627,
-0.3193266689777374,
0.05523990839719772,
0.3658895790576935,
-0.18480612337589264,
0.28888100385665894,
-0.0712185800075531,
-0.5433397889137268,
-0.28064411878585815,
0.06324360519647598,
-0.6115068793296814,
-0.13351842761039734,
0.7755277156829834,
0.36445561051368713,
-0.0261222030967474,
0.17106398940086365,
-0.27564966678619385,
0.44028374552726746,
0.6852164268493652,
-0.04938434064388275,
0.12120962888002396,
0.16640165448188782,
-5.498105525970459,
-0.07530096173286438,
0.4532424509525299,
-0.29424768686294556,
0.3236958980560303,
0.2097901850938797,
0.19665321707725525,
-0.40436333417892456,
0.5971746444702148,
-0.43203243613243103,
0.028237879276275635,
-0.557259738445282,
0.08061563223600388,
0.43764981627464294,
0.4965057075023651,
0.31407058238983154,
0.19590692222118378,
-0.7592023611068726,
0.8399038314819336,
0.6823674440383911,
0.6022433042526245,
0.011662081815302372,
-0.06214906647801399,
0.21319520473480225,
0.2750750482082367,
0.5970005393028259,
0.11726095527410507,
-0.40963736176490784,
-0.8241521716117859,
-0.24975165724754333,
-0.47089868783950806,
0.17827239632606506,
0.4793872535228729,
-0.5657348036766052,
-0.08365810662508011,
-0.6415354609489441,
0.1952490508556366,
0.10134240239858627,
-0.40563488006591797,
0.14662709832191467,
0.04299085959792137,
-0.4711851179599762,
-0.4196414649486542,
-0.2903713583946228,
0.0968889370560646,
0.0172736756503582,
-0.35861706733703613,
0.06505046039819717,
-0.32967305183410645,
0.3738715350627899,
0.22785507142543793,
-0.04064815491437912,
0.31680557131767273,
-0.35116082429885864,
0.002662374870851636,
0.6828258037567139,
-0.15170259773731232,
0.13871356844902039,
-0.894526481628418,
0.6950811743736267,
0.26381760835647583,
0.07673758268356323,
-0.3444501757621765,
0.06403881311416626,
0.07629027962684631,
-0.2646936774253845,
0.2902931869029999,
-0.1228199228644371,
0.2736303508281708,
0.2823323905467987,
-0.31315338611602783,
0.503183901309967,
-0.12973174452781677,
-0.5941631197929382,
0.19971367716789246,
-0.11281202733516693,
-0.4001392722129822,
0.22578772902488708,
0.25947827100753784,
-0.07737557590007782,
-0.36462312936782837,
-0.06606972217559814,
0.3330964744091034,
0.7169862985610962,
0.14352577924728394,
-0.2598598301410675,
-0.2102685570716858,
0.6554761528968811,
0.04502023383975029,
0.9483038783073425,
0.4543212950229645,
-1.0169966220855713,
0.08112257719039917,
-0.01922997459769249,
0.21345147490501404,
0.05412113294005394,
-0.053004343062639236,
0.08099526166915894,
0.9862484335899353,
-0.08336561173200607,
-0.19285480678081512,
-0.25572845339775085,
0.3410283327102661,
-0.4607141613960266,
-0.1326078325510025,
-0.3371873199939728,
-0.07948701083660126,
-0.28873711824417114,
-0.07167436182498932,
0.21675921976566315,
-0.05556958541274071,
0.34402161836624146,
0.1774510145187378,
-0.16335070133209229,
0.47152236104011536,
-0.8030092716217041,
0.38118571043014526,
0.13583941757678986,
0.42199718952178955,
-0.34154438972473145,
-0.5040696263313293,
0.6178155541419983,
0.1845656782388687,
0.49667274951934814,
0.48805785179138184,
-0.16384285688400269,
-0.47084423899650574,
0.09914710372686386,
0.035142648965120316,
-0.0017882296815514565,
-0.017200350761413574,
-0.2721368074417114,
0.22964930534362793,
-0.2851119935512543,
0.31837934255599976,
-0.9700183868408203,
-0.24913810193538666,
-0.43561747670173645,
-0.41016891598701477,
0.04021603614091873,
-0.37784749269485474,
-0.32120880484580994,
-0.37200021743774414,
0.14073733985424042,
-0.004698601551353931,
-0.4866708815097809,
0.2782033383846283,
0.03003029339015484,
0.15367993712425232,
0.6417495012283325,
0.29639488458633423,
-0.01757550798356533,
1.0346081256866455,
-0.2203417420387268,
-0.047568853944540024,
0.2985597252845764,
0.2787185609340668,
-0.1807512491941452,
0.11765620112419128,
-0.05923167243599892,
-0.03063197061419487,
-0.7542460560798645,
-1.2917176485061646,
-0.37827998399734497,
-0.10223040729761124,
0.5420194268226624,
0.15335778892040253,
0.10819137096405029,
-0.5575220584869385,
0.6769421100616455,
0.4325467050075531,
-0.8789785504341125,
-0.19905076920986176,
0.045884888619184494,
0.3117920160293579,
-0.6457050442695618,
0.21416401863098145,
-0.18484526872634888,
-0.08154112100601196,
-0.1315588802099228,
-0.8877453207969666,
0.021354231983423233,
-0.14747865498065948,
0.1468796283006668,
0.6505792737007141,
0.17390908300876617,
-0.27604275941848755,
-0.8713920712471008,
-0.17995929718017578,
-0.017499536275863647,
0.303897887468338,
0.39543282985687256,
-0.3712666928768158,
-0.10629833489656448,
-0.10652221739292145,
-0.7783361077308655,
-0.8798931837081909,
0.43527284264564514,
0.06514722853899002,
0.2585226893424988,
-0.014867405407130718,
0.39344966411590576,
0.5054106712341309,
-0.18493923544883728,
-0.05059696361422539,
-0.43947407603263855,
0.4225844144821167,
0.15589649975299835,
0.7012807726860046,
0.39995551109313965,
-0.273797869682312,
-0.4754081666469574,
0.03694874048233032,
0.43565839529037476,
-0.41240212321281433,
0.5540820956230164,
0.1769447922706604,
-0.2845267653465271,
0.05494064465165138,
-0.8633612990379333,
-0.2447911649942398,
-0.44341233372688293,
-0.41354066133499146,
-0.15754176676273346,
-0.479483962059021,
0.4836004674434662,
0.6083186268806458,
-0.30116093158721924,
0.7519429922103882,
0.11648382991552353,
-0.5388798117637634,
0.008929738774895668,
0.5455232858657837,
0.3472365736961365,
-0.5264207124710083,
-0.41717079281806946,
0.5566941499710083,
0.25961145758628845,
-0.18491864204406738,
0.007620249409228563,
0.0011855282355099916,
1.082151174545288,
-0.1361858993768692,
-0.3189188838005066,
-0.47329992055892944,
0.16098099946975708,
0.21611271798610687,
-0.3595791459083557,
0.2165626585483551,
-0.5736714005470276,
0.04696256294846535,
0.24080409109592438,
-0.9011320471763611,
-0.7192403078079224,
0.38051965832710266,
-0.6131159663200378,
-0.18270926177501678,
0.14346739649772644,
0.5083597302436829,
-0.13017581403255463,
-0.5603578686714172,
0.2355170100927353,
0.06418976187705994,
-0.1459454894065857,
0.746428370475769,
-0.14188389480113983,
-0.020007383078336716,
0.391828328371048,
0.1051110178232193,
-0.49605709314346313,
-0.4727057218551636,
-1.0027971267700195,
-0.22094613313674927,
0.4957493543624878,
-0.1157003864645958,
-0.2136991322040558,
-0.23463281989097595,
-0.2982679307460785,
0.29600989818573,
0.01357689592987299,
-1.090702772140503,
-0.5517624616622925,
0.09088561683893204,
0.21186316013336182,
0.3613830804824829,
-1.381880521774292,
-0.22382882237434387,
-0.15236039459705353,
-0.5080469250679016,
-0.022113000974059105,
-0.5110571384429932,
0.07157772779464722,
-0.1395120471715927,
0.2843007445335388,
0.06209705397486687,
0.6647462844848633,
-0.02596074901521206,
1.1249459981918335,
-0.07460515946149826,
-0.10788796097040176,
-0.511677086353302,
-0.2733985185623169,
0.4630206227302551,
-0.18066376447677612,
-0.28586018085479736,
-0.26545095443725586,
0.3581072688102722,
-0.9780296683311462,
-0.22031401097774506,
0.8744572997093201,
0.4098993241786957,
0.354530394077301,
-0.13582336902618408,
-0.059596091508865356,
-0.3749186396598816,
0.33914077281951904,
0.22595351934432983,
-1.200939416885376,
-0.6261835694313049,
0.1723102331161499,
0.5156987905502319,
0.029353436082601547,
-0.2538973391056061,
0.24194146692752838,
0.6309797763824463,
0.3086758255958557,
-0.02250681258738041,
0.34370100498199463,
0.18952131271362305,
-0.28697285056114197,
-0.361361563205719,
0.44885125756263733,
-0.6226264834403992,
0.20477217435836792,
-0.36974650621414185,
-0.11995553970336914,
0.29202181100845337,
-0.6554014086723328,
0.4288196861743927,
0.5838372707366943,
0.4413224756717682,
0.8862339854240417,
-0.15733331441879272,
-0.3797268271446228,
0.6054094433784485,
0.07252746820449829,
-0.05726565793156624,
0.19508807361125946,
0.22002442181110382,
0.1771525889635086,
0.3504248857498169,
0.34337949752807617,
0.0005948708858340979,
-0.7860884070396423,
0.23682746291160583,
0.28237536549568176,
-0.09199930727481842,
-0.19182395935058594,
0.4763215184211731,
-0.015520433895289898,
-0.07901909947395325,
-0.4826609194278717,
-0.00445038266479969,
0.3840455710887909,
0.9145405888557434,
0.48554250597953796,
0.2605963349342346,
-0.41465485095977783,
0.4330991506576538,
0.01956942304968834,
0.04121628776192665,
-0.24838455021381378,
-0.4560281038284302,
-0.5261412262916565,
-0.8778409361839294,
-0.36456528306007385,
0.3488128185272217,
-0.2758044898509979,
-0.5647477507591248,
-0.6220828890800476,
-0.355648398399353,
-0.010950504802167416,
-0.10508368909358978,
-0.22906963527202606,
-0.012911261059343815,
0.35885730385780334,
0.6729839444160461,
0.022803407162427902,
0.14601323008537292,
0.2641139030456543,
0.46638813614845276,
-0.14531661570072174,
-0.4502454996109009,
0.26505717635154724,
0.3587668836116791,
0.3896775245666504,
-0.09147827327251434,
0.48314356803894043,
0.39187976717948914,
-0.5674629807472229,
0.4280237853527069,
0.2765950858592987,
-0.038054607808589935,
0.019847974181175232,
0.5255458354949951,
0.07065053284168243,
-0.1320987343788147,
-0.28208887577056885,
-0.9921603202819824,
0.5084913372993469,
-0.1066117063164711,
0.48906561732292175,
-0.12218461185693741,
0.48700588941574097,
-0.29156869649887085,
-0.09585873037576675,
0.11131300032138824,
-0.6184298396110535,
-0.3118155896663666,
-0.18781740963459015,
0.3530013859272003,
-0.22941894829273224,
0.07522334903478622,
0.23033872246742249,
-0.17060132324695587,
-0.7236151695251465,
0.22468578815460205,
0.2904752194881439,
0.13468150794506073,
0.3631352186203003,
-0.3134457767009735,
-0.2635657787322998,
0.10098782181739807,
-0.538336455821991,
-0.5647177696228027,
-0.24966676533222198,
0.8730647563934326,
0.4133051037788391,
-0.36853423714637756,
-0.49158164858818054,
0.1151709109544754,
0.20272988080978394,
0.6707987189292908,
0.18823304772377014,
0.2522747814655304,
-0.24838075041770935,
0.04184895381331444,
-0.03433844447135925,
-0.454449862241745,
0.08230476081371307,
0.1399804800748825,
-0.10608801990747452,
0.42329299449920654,
-0.6644861698150635,
0.3711422383785248,
-0.5427051186561584,
0.04996132478117943,
0.17996907234191895,
0.22345642745494843,
0.29622530937194824
] |
203725
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20data
|
Feature data
|
In geographic information systems, a feature is an object that can have a geographic location and other properties. Common types of geometries include points, arcs, and polygons. Carriageways and cadastres are examples of feature data. Features can be labeled when displayed on a map.
Feature types
The definition of features that share membership of a common theme is a feature type, though there are a number of terms for this characteristic, including category, feature class, group, layer, level, object, and theme.
Layer served as the traditional term of choice, but use of this word has declined as data has become more object-oriented and less concerned with cartographic layering.
Data modelers can use feature types to create a hierarchical structure. For example, a dataset may consist of types called highways, streets and lanes. The system may group these particular types together under a category called "Roads".
See also
Feature class
References
Cartography
|
[
0.2804580330848694,
0.07427778840065002,
-0.20480437576770782,
0.5204294323921204,
0.09211566299200058,
-0.05770227685570717,
-0.0927765741944313,
0.39174410700798035,
-0.2954652011394501,
-0.6871120929718018,
-0.7266952395439148,
0.29598039388656616,
0.09656727313995361,
0.46989351511001587,
-0.06744512915611267,
0.40124011039733887,
0.22326987981796265,
0.6500810384750366,
0.24053581058979034,
0.13227906823158264,
-0.30256250500679016,
-0.1035459041595459,
-0.012049314565956593,
-0.7380321621894836,
0.13820843398571014,
-0.1965862661600113,
0.2730371057987213,
0.49828535318374634,
-0.1305249184370041,
-0.049494024366140366,
-0.18970903754234314,
0.39858657121658325,
-0.4896419644355774,
0.6457804441452026,
-0.3274039328098297,
0.034243546426296234,
0.08897040039300919,
-0.028584104031324387,
-0.5725203156471252,
-0.6545440554618835,
0.22190828621387482,
-0.025660892948508263,
0.136985182762146,
0.44237327575683594,
-0.774861216545105,
-0.5057499408721924,
-1.9169795513153076,
0.2069644331932068,
-0.6940965056419373,
0.13254815340042114,
-0.17835019528865814,
0.4888269901275635,
0.2042509764432907,
0.37396278977394104,
-0.2546387314796448,
0.5507093667984009,
-0.25784799456596375,
-0.49459242820739746,
0.12645015120506287,
-0.04712394252419472,
0.26743119955062866,
-0.19333778321743011,
0.02537153847515583,
0.13318993151187897,
0.2259056121110916,
0.21207410097122192,
-0.1484554409980774,
-0.385632187128067,
-0.37909558415412903,
-0.37698811292648315,
-0.06197824701666832,
-0.20946013927459717,
0.09162763506174088,
0.7437880635261536,
-1.0059634447097778,
0.340068519115448,
-0.10663891583681107,
0.024673473089933395,
-0.10820052772760391,
0.1535933017730713,
-0.65338134765625,
0.7624826431274414,
0.3816964626312256,
-0.20520688593387604,
0.2626032531261444,
-0.08042653650045395,
-0.6469654440879822,
0.19279085099697113,
-0.5312675833702087,
0.6564003229141235,
0.5531512498855591,
0.09096107631921768,
0.5392730236053467,
0.30671411752700806,
0.17345456779003143,
-0.08947116881608963,
-0.04314533248543739,
0.03302604332566261,
0.061635419726371765,
0.3588912785053253,
-0.22468528151512146,
-0.31332215666770935,
0.22051399946212769,
-0.23660708963871002,
-0.5286002159118652,
-0.10079113394021988,
-0.17602017521858215,
-0.18278881907463074,
-0.15694597363471985,
0.13805001974105835,
-0.326054185628891,
0.28322046995162964,
-0.24778497219085693,
-0.094418466091156,
-0.6233426928520203,
0.3292974829673767,
0.5654554963111877,
0.2711823284626007,
-0.39804136753082275,
-0.14666453003883362,
-0.0256190188229084,
0.26300495862960815,
-0.08293354511260986,
-0.5042247176170349,
0.1476697325706482,
0.14946824312210083,
0.5642063021659851,
0.6414154171943665,
-0.09919516742229462,
0.06736751645803452,
-0.1955733448266983,
0.503415584564209,
0.18483425676822662,
0.29466453194618225,
0.10400696843862534,
-0.2419935017824173,
0.2804594039916992,
-0.1484033316373825,
0.1649772822856903,
-0.28232499957084656,
-0.6466582417488098,
-0.5278430581092834,
-0.7588170766830444,
-0.23348595201969147,
0.569328248500824,
-0.49228692054748535,
0.13924679160118103,
-0.5878365635871887,
-0.4022044837474823,
0.039619337767362595,
0.011534075252711773,
0.0899854302406311,
-0.10722898691892624,
-0.17494195699691772,
-0.40414443612098694,
0.22468402981758118,
0.01112341322004795,
-0.01577460579574108,
-0.007611404173076153,
0.2872658371925354,
0.13478998839855194,
0.35777685046195984,
-0.49281546473503113,
-0.4716819226741791,
0.19969190657138824,
-0.7434514760971069,
0.6501216888427734,
0.37651899456977844,
0.31345343589782715,
0.352912575006485,
-0.2670719623565674,
-0.5388415455818176,
0.08644331246614456,
0.5598045587539673,
0.1500585377216339,
0.3548400402069092,
-0.10308760404586792,
-0.19145730137825012,
0.5115878582000732,
0.12030160427093506,
-0.6863269209861755,
0.2537800967693329,
0.4547385573387146,
-0.3467109799385071,
0.5179541110992432,
-0.1377500742673874,
0.30769869685173035,
0.005976325832307339,
0.03551841527223587,
-0.4939325451850891,
-0.5526636242866516,
-0.5522930026054382,
-0.33069896697998047,
-0.7748068571090698,
1.058262586593628,
-0.34944039583206177,
-0.5270705223083496,
0.5662134289741516,
-0.15981151163578033,
0.4597909450531006,
-0.10128425061702728,
-0.3546314239501953,
-0.017330126836895943,
-0.021784765645861626,
-0.20154546201229095,
0.3002379536628723,
0.5806463956832886,
0.1338173747062683,
-0.16185098886489868,
0.16051724553108215,
0.47189515829086304,
0.11541979014873505,
-0.1285841166973114,
-0.22408944368362427,
0.5049219727516174,
0.14662544429302216,
-0.6609054207801819,
0.5599743127822876,
-0.22750402987003326,
-0.5414897799491882,
1.0081663131713867,
0.04936427250504494,
-0.3029370605945587,
0.23534004390239716,
-0.6268544793128967,
0.7157545685768127,
0.32458236813545227,
0.3927488625049591,
1.002461552619934,
-1.004777193069458,
0.17617769539356232,
-0.0712089091539383,
0.032335322350263596,
-0.6304184794425964,
-0.44652819633483887,
0.22292783856391907,
0.5902153849601746,
0.11137600988149643,
0.5200879573822021,
-0.07992707192897797,
0.09634216874837875,
-0.0858263149857521,
-0.43718281388282776,
-0.2957116663455963,
0.1995881348848343,
-0.2817505896091461,
-0.08741938322782516,
0.03554937243461609,
-0.3390839993953705,
-0.36960047483444214,
0.26798081398010254,
0.30354252457618713,
0.3726939558982849,
-0.33620867133140564,
0.09892553836107254,
-0.2523176968097687,
-0.06121087446808815,
-0.3515567183494568,
0.055711690336465836,
0.2653481364250183,
-0.12402082979679108,
0.17922252416610718,
-0.18063271045684814,
-0.4189206659793854,
-0.21385185420513153,
-0.42979297041893005,
-0.17216230928897858,
-0.2613004446029663,
0.17452694475650787,
0.9353490471839905,
0.4858364760875702,
-0.14702975749969482,
-0.032011728733778,
-0.2529345452785492,
-0.3967307209968567,
-0.7555372714996338,
0.7071142792701721,
0.05307110771536827,
-0.3368278443813324,
-0.633210301399231,
0.09769223630428314,
0.3052945137023926,
0.4347204267978668,
-0.48037341237068176,
-0.01463185902684927,
-0.733589231967926,
-0.018121065571904182,
0.20860640704631805,
-0.42804643511772156,
0.08072973042726517,
-0.6112257242202759,
0.1425565630197525,
-0.1414632797241211,
0.09471570700407028,
0.3095226585865021,
0.7997679114341736,
0.06569701433181763,
-0.2217993289232254,
0.0671594962477684,
-0.22263461351394653,
-0.575708270072937,
-0.22934938967227936,
-0.09953084588050842,
-0.7425136566162109,
-0.10942494869232178,
-0.1420326679944992,
-0.10268320888280869,
0.54571533203125,
-5.756882190704346,
-0.049112606793642044,
-0.4331226944923401,
-0.5091193914413452,
-0.28184592723846436,
-0.08993199467658997,
0.9544719457626343,
0.4079885482788086,
-0.045413002371788025,
0.21065138280391693,
-0.33840256929397583,
-0.15879015624523163,
0.14280682802200317,
0.7053890824317932,
0.906683087348938,
0.16646943986415863,
0.5110670924186707,
0.30777934193611145,
-0.0734976977109909,
0.7679054141044617,
-0.25565287470817566,
-0.09533195197582245,
-0.04490760713815689,
0.5553627610206604,
-0.19968169927597046,
0.18045580387115479,
-0.378281831741333,
0.3267993927001953,
-0.04074372723698616,
-0.04022851958870888,
0.35638290643692017,
-0.15063047409057617,
-0.18815988302230835,
-0.2571460008621216,
-0.002755340188741684,
0.22758959233760834,
0.21339839696884155,
0.07826367765665054,
-0.05992775410413742,
-0.3843100965023041,
0.05213004723191261,
0.6619124412536621,
0.028830885887145996,
-0.04685260355472565,
0.233858123421669,
-0.17371943593025208,
-0.3110233545303345,
-0.0795922577381134,
-0.2593933045864105,
0.17101368308067322,
-0.2764762341976166,
0.22086046636104584,
0.34231793880462646,
-0.12011267244815826,
-0.002879012143239379,
0.11582636088132858,
1.1116987466812134,
-0.2969842255115509,
-0.7208558917045593,
0.17216597497463226,
0.6668974757194519,
-0.9301252961158752,
0.31711888313293457,
-0.7987571954727173,
-0.26648831367492676,
0.0007777628488838673,
-0.7708132266998291,
-0.24598245322704315,
-0.09954797476530075,
0.10610510408878326,
-0.34544888138771057,
0.40533679723739624,
-0.09849822521209717,
-0.48545822501182556,
0.3184898793697357,
-0.4543497562408447,
0.2699691355228424,
-0.15251938998699188,
0.16389310359954834,
0.16871795058250427,
-0.489530086517334,
-0.3420068025588989,
-0.2604523003101349,
0.27703580260276794,
-0.08761266618967056,
-0.4155120253562927,
0.06624970585107803,
-0.15164224803447723,
-0.37544727325439453,
-0.6353999376296997,
0.9367309212684631,
-0.2648865878582001,
0.6702256798744202,
0.29883328080177307,
0.10499817878007889,
0.09456775337457657,
0.5836836099624634,
-0.11843691021203995,
0.42818471789360046,
-0.5511480569839478,
0.45084503293037415,
-0.22316433489322662,
-0.36635249853134155,
-0.37941551208496094,
-0.09575148671865463,
-0.37812307476997375,
-0.6527039408683777,
0.17099203169345856,
1.013146996498108,
-0.07309389859437943,
0.03250051662325859,
0.6312711238861084,
-0.6684504151344299,
-0.34193554520606995,
0.30368199944496155,
0.18737123906612396,
-0.5822568535804749,
0.22438077628612518,
0.6712006330490112,
-0.41106855869293213,
0.41761624813079834,
0.15898297727108002,
-0.08532106876373291,
0.12089989334344864,
-0.2024921029806137,
-0.7377227544784546,
-0.09260305017232895,
-0.08690127730369568,
-0.4044022560119629,
-0.25990185141563416,
0.8497335910797119,
0.5432760715484619,
0.3734036386013031,
0.08796670287847519,
0.4459478259086609,
-0.5145187973976135,
0.40405431389808655,
0.2508504092693329,
-0.2103721648454666,
-1.0852018594741821,
0.6686657071113586,
-0.14373299479484558,
0.15372629463672638,
0.299944132566452,
0.8682681322097778,
-0.010700352489948273,
-0.14100764691829681,
0.35503822565078735,
-0.11929763853549957,
0.3285466432571411,
-0.34608399868011475,
-0.26187917590141296,
0.09016400575637817,
-0.2603728175163269,
0.20185142755508423,
-0.001230682129971683,
0.1189572736620903,
-0.3732418715953827,
0.24315132200717926,
-0.5210232734680176,
0.21549852192401886,
0.41972777247428894,
-0.7642788887023926,
-0.2947459816932678,
-0.17845502495765686,
0.060088399797677994,
-0.7881981134414673,
0.14225614070892334,
0.21749025583267212,
0.618335485458374,
0.027087215334177017,
-0.3687078654766083,
-0.1105237677693367,
-0.5005385279655457,
-0.3030485510826111,
0.0404839925467968,
0.6251368522644043,
0.3583277463912964,
-0.03229403868317604,
0.2011447250843048,
0.19675129652023315,
-0.11558154970407486,
-0.10186651349067688,
0.775203287601471,
0.8094226121902466,
0.6039255857467651,
-0.17307539284229279,
0.469244122505188,
-0.5988044142723083,
-0.0932147353887558,
-0.006933350116014481,
-0.11002345383167267,
0.3062596619129181,
-0.14531560242176056,
0.09841669350862503,
-0.21396265923976898,
0.195665642619133,
-0.19466011226177216,
-0.3249198794364929,
-0.7506902813911438,
-0.2338428646326065,
0.3802402913570404,
-0.5449995994567871,
0.11307577043771744,
0.20705509185791016,
-0.640007734298706,
0.1434689313173294,
0.0691915974020958,
-0.49751970171928406,
-0.15368813276290894,
-0.3099699914455414,
-0.06747839599847794,
-0.18681621551513672,
-0.08640655875205994,
-0.08144300431013107,
0.002913570264354348,
0.17324146628379822,
-0.4206986427307129,
-0.02901008352637291,
-0.32115891575813293,
0.5254592895507812,
0.08793714642524719,
-0.08126106858253479,
0.025135785341262817,
0.35970163345336914,
-0.17896215617656708,
0.397443026304245,
-0.12674638628959656,
0.5331590175628662,
0.1459125280380249,
-0.062451835721731186,
-0.2879399061203003,
0.0599544495344162,
0.06649728119373322,
-0.14242671430110931,
-0.22115151584148407,
-0.2555760145187378,
0.48678451776504517,
0.6275062561035156,
-0.08887355029582977,
0.3585412800312042,
0.9683693051338196,
0.004786692559719086,
-0.06888660043478012,
0.23603154718875885,
0.3730720579624176,
0.010625319555401802,
-0.31226855516433716,
-0.8101974725723267,
0.2214726209640503,
0.3222765326499939,
-0.27189385890960693,
-0.8554713129997253,
-0.12113849073648453,
0.39854755997657776,
0.5768428444862366,
-0.05503646656870842,
-0.6371383666992188,
-0.07999066263437271,
0.5262418985366821,
0.012034786865115166,
-0.5545985698699951,
0.02041693590581417,
0.002840969944372773,
0.7722722291946411,
-0.1692539006471634,
-0.1506449282169342,
0.7903351783752441,
0.7037977576255798,
-0.35803863406181335,
0.1417846828699112,
0.05034847557544708,
0.29495733976364136,
0.6977823972702026,
0.2897864878177643,
-0.1012331023812294,
-0.14325888454914093,
-0.37536799907684326,
-0.05265364423394203,
-0.22396443784236908,
-0.3261673152446747,
-0.20092469453811646,
0.29790323972702026,
-0.19981242716312408,
0.19573533535003662,
-0.10838314890861511,
0.5338036417961121,
-0.08059437572956085,
-0.42045190930366516,
-0.2556512951850891,
-0.6113484501838684,
0.06297089159488678,
-0.11164962500333786,
0.21702001988887787,
-0.09544817358255386,
-0.0055628130212426186,
0.21203170716762543,
0.5840854048728943,
0.09285774827003479,
0.23983721435070038,
-0.7650806903839111,
0.9084017872810364,
0.25635185837745667,
-1.019209623336792,
0.8739029169082642,
0.12909092009067535,
0.05943278968334198,
-0.47331276535987854,
-0.028265343979001045,
-0.22189560532569885,
-0.044635508209466934,
0.2044287472963333,
0.3117522895336151,
0.19708314538002014,
-0.17500203847885132,
-0.25983282923698425,
0.6992771625518799,
-0.4378295838832855,
0.9649415612220764,
0.15080299973487854,
-0.34428659081459045,
-0.31459441781044006,
0.24751615524291992,
-0.1409471333026886,
-0.23603087663650513,
0.48450106382369995,
-0.31639721989631653,
0.22385714948177338,
0.12100423872470856,
0.1319846510887146,
0.5713469386100769,
0.2917434275150299,
0.04874258488416672,
0.1386932134628296,
-0.8127397298812866,
-0.34421634674072266,
0.2152056097984314,
-0.24210286140441895,
-0.1014796644449234,
0.61761474609375,
0.3284205198287964,
0.5567578077316284,
0.32271257042884827,
0.43727120757102966,
-0.735971987247467,
0.43355658650398254,
-0.06756094843149185,
0.5124871134757996,
-0.14732198417186737,
0.17966695129871368,
0.1912476122379303,
-0.08703526854515076,
0.628656804561615,
0.3917311131954193,
-0.14964962005615234,
-0.5545369386672974,
0.456952303647995,
-0.1250007599592209,
-0.48507726192474365,
-0.18467767536640167,
-0.41512781381607056,
0.7343217134475708,
-0.1375456601381302,
0.05458247289061546,
-0.16052769124507904,
-0.199280247092247,
0.5242773294448853,
-0.34870660305023193,
0.5024481415748596,
0.053788941353559494,
0.04826969653367996,
1.1927989721298218,
-0.2491074949502945,
0.4557110369205475,
0.07309069484472275,
-0.31129762530326843,
0.3012668192386627,
0.1486540138721466,
-0.18498636782169342,
-0.20902122557163239,
0.4072256088256836,
0.17821377515792847,
-0.15215487778186798,
-0.6942266225814819,
0.24770104885101318,
-0.1539774388074875,
-0.12230564653873444,
0.6005716323852539,
0.4236014485359192,
-0.010374042205512524,
0.04660264030098915,
-0.6997566223144531,
0.4854733943939209,
-0.3096178472042084,
-0.17947636544704437,
0.35146811604499817,
-0.2768155336380005,
0.8193632960319519,
0.393856942653656,
-0.36399930715560913,
-0.4277387857437134,
-0.012543760240077972,
0.23223260045051575,
0.2832517921924591,
-0.6670268774032593,
0.4694613516330719,
-0.3332720696926117,
-0.026116281747817993,
-0.6236531734466553,
0.5162026882171631,
0.5410682559013367,
-0.8807581663131714,
-0.15335018932819366,
0.027157094329595566,
0.04362686350941658,
-0.05586504936218262,
0.31932058930397034,
-0.30726373195648193,
-0.05776458978652954,
-0.3050563335418701,
0.027568673714995384,
-0.24520622193813324,
0.34542280435562134,
0.06900251656770706,
-0.12226986140012741,
-0.2290063053369522,
0.12419437617063522,
0.5027026534080505,
-0.4771954119205475,
0.22523713111877441,
-0.2791667580604553,
0.3774130344390869,
-0.5173940658569336,
0.6552006602287292,
-0.07832582294940948,
0.1009671688079834,
-0.09485001862049103,
0.35781076550483704,
0.4890483617782593,
-0.2861235439777374,
-0.46296772360801697,
-0.4031328558921814,
-0.22351431846618652,
-0.16905975341796875,
-0.9423208832740784,
0.5409237146377563,
-0.4094654619693756,
-0.3673303723335266,
-1.2484773397445679,
0.11490602791309357,
0.0715632513165474,
-0.3050369322299957,
0.062251731753349304,
-0.24904221296310425,
-0.6864346861839294,
0.24311155080795288,
0.11412006616592407,
-0.5918823480606079,
-0.49207401275634766,
0.5444669723510742
] |
203726
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varadero
|
Varadero
|
Varadero (), also referred to as Playa Azul (Blue Beach), is a resort town in the province of Matanzas, Cuba, and one of the largest resort areas in the Caribbean. Varadero Beach was rated one of the world's best beaches in TripAdvisor's Traveler's Choice Awards of 2019, ranking at number two. Common activities include fishing and excursions to Matanzas, Cárdenas, and the Península de Zapata.
Geography
Varadero is a two-hour drive east of central Havana. It is situated on the Hicacos Peninsula, between the Bay of Cárdenas and the Straits of Florida, some 140 km east of Havana, at the eastern end of the Via Blanca highway. The peninsula is only 1.2 km wide at its widest point and is separated from the island of Cuba by the Kawama Channel, separated from the mainland by the Laguna Paso Malo. This spit of land extends more than 20 kilometers from the mainland in a northeasterly direction and its tip, Punta Hicacos, is the northernmost point of the island of Cuba. Varadero's town has three longitudinal avenues, intersected by 69 cross streets. At the northeastern end of the peninsula there is a nature reserve with virgin forests and beaches. The Hicacos Point Natural Park is a ecological preserve established in 1974. It contains the -long Cave of Ambrosio, Mangón Lake (home to 31 species of birds and 24 species of reptiles) and the ruins of the La Calavera (The Skull) Salt Works (one of the first salt works to be constructed by the Spanish in the New World). The cays developed off shore, such as Cayo Piedras and Cayo Cruz del Padre are the westernmost part of the Sabana-Camaguey Archipelago.
Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport, located 16 kilometers west of Varadero and situated west of the peninsula, is Varadero's airport. It is the second-most important airport of the island after José Martí Airport in Havana, and serves international and domestic flights. It was finished in the 1990s and replaced the old Varadero airport.
Economy
Havana and Varadero each have the greatest development in Cuba. Varadero generates and provides over 50,000 jobs with over 52 hotel facilities. Canada's Blue Island and Spain's Meliá, Iberostar and Globalia are some of the foreign companies that operate these hotels. A record 1.7 million foreign tourists visited the resort in 2017. Plans for the next three years exist to build at least 3,000 more rooms in five-star hotels, to add facilities including a theme park and a shopping mall, and to bring back the Festival de la Cancion, a music festival.
Climate
The climate in Varadero is tropical, for it is at sea level at the tip of the island. Weather may change due to many factors such as exposure to hurricanes, windy tropical storms and by the cooling effect of the trade winds. It is surrounded by enormous bodies of water that can cool air flowing from North America. The yearly mean is 25˚ Celsius (77 ˚F). Summer mean is 27˚Celsius (80.6 ˚F), while winter mean is 21˚C (69.8 ˚F). Humidity is 81% and the average yearly rainfall is roughly 1,400 millimeters (55 inches). June 1 is the beginning of hurricane season; this normally ends on November 15. September and October are the months when hurricanes are most likely to occur.
Over 150 hurricanes have passed through the country of Cuba since 1498, when Christopher Columbus first recorded them. These hurricanes have caused significant damage to the Cuban economy and claimed many Cuban lives. One of the worst hurricanes occurred in 1791 and killed an estimated 3,000 Cubans. The most recent, Hurricane Irma, hit Varadero as a Category 5 storm on September 8, 2017. Irma claimed 10 Cuban lives and caused major flooding and wind damage. Meteorologists reported this hurricane as one of the biggest in the Atlantic and the strong winds were reported at 125 mph. Irma ripped many trees from the ground and roofs from homes. Much of Varadero was damaged, along with the country's agricultural main crops such as sugar.
History
Varadero was mentioned for the first time in 1555. The place was first used as a dry dock (Spanish: varadero) and the salt mines of the peninsula (closed in 1961) supplied most of the Spanish Latin America Fleet since 1587. However, the foundation date of Varadero as city was only on December 5, 1887, when ten families from the city of Cárdenas obtained a permission to build their vacation homes between today's 42nd and 48th Street. Varadero village came about in the 1880s as a summer resort. The first homes with red-roof's made of wood can still be seen along Avenida 1ra.
It was established as a municipality (Spanish: municipio) at the administrative re-distribution of July 3, 1976 from territories previously part of Cárdenas. In August 2010, the Varadero municipality was abolished according to a Law approved by the Cuban National Assembly, becoming again part of the Cárdenas municipality.
Tourism
Varadero is known as a tourist resort town, with more than 20 km of white sandy beaches. The first tourists visited Varadero as early as the 1870s, and for years it was considered an elite resort. In 1910 the annual rowing regatta was started; five years later the first hotel, named Varadero, which later was renamed Club Nautico, was built. Tourism grew in the early 1930s as Irénée du Pont, an American millionaire, built his estate on the peninsula (now Maison Xanadu or DuPont House). People who have stayed in the area include Al Capone.
After the Cuban Revolution in 1959, many mansions were expropriated from their rich owners. These mansions soon became museums. As a symbol of the new integrated tourism for Cubans and foreign visitors of all social classes, the Park of the 8000 Cubicles (Parque de las 8000 Taquillas) was built in 1960. Visitors could leave their belongings in the basement of the park, had access to sanitary installations and gastronomic services on the first floor, and could rent bathing articles and swimsuits. The surroundings of the park became the center of the city.
Between the 1960s and 1980s Varadero transformed itself into a cultural centre. During those years the central park (8000 Taquillas) (located between 44th and 46th Street) saw countless concerts, festivals and sporting events.
The 1990s brought the start of another hotel building campaign, mostly in the 4-star and 5-star segment. Many of the hotels are operated or co-owned by foreign businesses like Meliá, Barceló, TRYP, etc. (France's Club Med used to have a property but has since left Varadero.) As international tourism was opened up, the local population expanded with the arrival of people, some in key economic positions, from other parts of Cuba. As a consequence, Varadero has lost much of its social and cultural life and its traditions. The central park, the cinema and various cultural meeting places were neglected in favor of a hotel-centred all-inclusive-tourism and finally closed. The International Carnival, an initiative of Cubans and foreigners started in the 1980s, also ceased.
In addition to the beach, Varadero has natural attractions such as caves and a chain of easily accessed virgin cays. There are also cultural, historical and environmental attractions in the vicinity, such as the cities of Matanzas and Cárdenas, the Zapata Peninsula and the resort of San Miguel de los Baños. Varadero, which is a free port, also possesses facilities for scuba diving, deep-sea fishing, yachting and other water sports.
Varadero receives more than 1 million tourists annually.
Varadero is primarily visited by European and Canadian tourists. The number of U.S. tourists visiting Varadero, although increasing, has been limited because of the U.S. government restrictions that make it difficult for U.S. citizens to visit Cuba as "tourists", as defined by US rules.
Varadero is home to one of two Canadian Consulates in Cuba.
Activities and attractions
Varadero hotels offer catamaran cruises with snorkeling and a visit to the dolphin center, Delfinario, a coral-rimmed lagoon located 400 meters east of Marina Chapelín. Swimming and interacting with the dolphins along with dolphin shows are available here. Hotels can also supply kayaks or small boats for their guests. Fishing charts are available at Marlin Náutica y Marinas at Marina Chapelin. They also have sailboards and kiteboards.
Other attractions in the area include the amusement park Centro Todo En Uno, Puente Bacunayagua, and an electric-powered Hershey train.
Scuba diving is another attraction in Varadero. There are more than 30 dive sites, such as Parque Marino Cayo Piedras del Norte, where divers can view a sunken military vessel and a soviet military AN-24 aircraft, and Ojo de Mégano, which has an underwater cave east of Varadero.
Events and festivals
Every year in the month of June Varadero hosts the World Music Festival. Artists come to perform from different parts of Latin America. Concerts and open-air shows happen in different places of Varadero.
Varadero Gourmet Festival is held annually between April and June.
A five-day event that is held every February in Varadero, comes from the motorcyclists from Harlistas Cubanas, which are Harley-Davidson bikes.
Varadero hosts the Melia Golf Club Cup event, held annually on the third week of October. It is followed by Los Cactus Varadero Golf Tournament, a two-day tournament held at Hotel Los Cactus at Varadero Golf Club.
Sights and landmarks
Mansión Xanadu is a hotel and restaurant that was formerly a three-story mansion built by an American millionaire, Alfred Irénée Dupont de Nemours. Construction on this mansion cost Dupont $338,000. After the revolution in 1959, Dupont escaped Cuba and left the villa to the Cuban government. In 1963 it was named 'Las Américas', converting it to a luxury restaurant that served French cuisines. The dining room still has original furniture.
Parque Retiro Josone, located on Avenida Primera y Calle 56, was established in 1942 by José Iturrioz, the Managing Director of the Arechabala Ronera which is the rum factory just outside Cárdenas.
The Museo Municipal de Varadero located on Calle 57. Furniture and history are displayed in what used to be Leopoldo Abreu's summer home in the 1920s.
Santa Elvira Church, a structure built from stones and wood, is a Catholic church that dates back to 1938. A horseshoe half-arch that ends with a cross located at the top serves as the bell tower.
Reserva Ecológico Varahicacos is located at the island's east end of the peninsula near Punta Hicacos and provides 730 acres, which has long trails that lead to different caves. Cueva Ambrosio, discovered in the 1960s has Indian drawings along with 47 pre-Columbian symbols that are more than 3,000 years old. Cueva de los Musulmanes (Cave of Muslims) is located on a second trail. It was once used as an indigenous tomb.
Playa de Varadero (Varadero Beach).
Cueva de Ambrosio (Ambrosio Cave). The cave contains, across its 300 meters, around 47 Pre-Columbian paintings.
Dolphinarium.
Demographics
In 2007, the municipality of Varadero had a population of about 20,000 between the Hicacos peninsula (7,000) and the two incorporated localities of Santa Marta and Boca de Camarioca. With a total area of , it has a population density of . Many of the workers in the tourist sector commute from Cardenas.
Notable people
José Miranda (b. 1986), Cuban-born American footballer
Leonel "Bebito" Smith (1909–2000), swimmer
J.R. Ramirez (b. 1980), Cuban born American actor
Amalia Aguilar (1924-2021), Cuban-born Mexican actress and dancer
Transportation
Air
Varadero is served by Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport and Kawama Airport.
Roads
The main road is Autopista Sur, which begins before crossing the bridge over Laguna Paso Malo and ends at a cul de sac at Barceló Marina Palace. Traffic from Vía Blanca and Carretera a into the Barceló Marina Palace merges into Varadero on this road near Kawama Airport. The paved highway has two lanes in both directions for most of the route, but a portion is closed off reducing it to only a single lane in each direction. Side roads cross this road as regular intersections with only a partial cloverleaf at Laguna Paso Malo.
The main street is Avenida Primera (1ra) and runs along the oceanfront from Calle 8 in the west to Calle 64 in the East. In the Kawama suburb cross streets begin at Calle 1 and run eastward to Calle 64. Farther east the streets become lettered beginning with Calle A to L. Between Calles 23 and 54 you will find the old village.
Bus operators
There are several bus operators, some providing connections from resorts to town and others as public transit operators within the main town.
See also
List of cities in Cuba
Municipalities of Cuba
References
External links
Cities in Cuba
Populated places in Matanzas Province
Varadero
Beaches of Cuba
Port cities and towns in Cuba
Tourism in Cuba
Tourist attractions in Matanzas Province
Populated places established in 1887
|
[
-0.03574134781956673,
-0.4983271062374115,
0.14512550830841064,
-0.04527857527136803,
0.3788827657699585,
-0.05296487733721733,
0.15375658869743347,
0.7016379237174988,
-0.5454171299934387,
0.2661510705947876,
-0.12053141742944717,
0.4865421950817108,
-0.021023530513048172,
0.5216462016105652,
-0.14713868498802185,
0.7558125257492065,
0.851044774055481,
0.03474344313144684,
0.6405233144760132,
-0.6402068734169006,
-0.6959251165390015,
-0.2338450402021408,
-0.14625154435634613,
0.17943207919597626,
0.43311983346939087,
-0.5786066651344299,
-0.5284959077835083,
0.5162692666053772,
0.03027215041220188,
0.44931742548942566,
0.22829735279083252,
0.3369148373603821,
-0.4994312822818756,
0.05208283290266991,
0.3323442339897156,
0.038447629660367966,
-0.2319789081811905,
-0.4553011655807495,
-0.4469889998435974,
-0.440368115901947,
-0.6159630417823792,
-0.1527327597141266,
0.826995313167572,
0.025748373940587044,
-0.10924986749887466,
0.13609053194522858,
-0.5288199186325073,
0.5885788798332214,
-0.4983740448951721,
0.048528168350458145,
-0.8207787275314331,
0.5204443335533142,
-0.4303811490535736,
0.03290694206953049,
0.13732418417930603,
0.15671151876449585,
-1.0409741401672363,
0.13383926451206207,
0.4162982106208801,
-0.5244401097297668,
0.3540325462818146,
0.8137494921684265,
0.14480429887771606,
-0.19426897168159485,
0.08630663901567459,
0.4405263066291809,
0.17449872195720673,
-0.07598380744457245,
-0.09865225851535797,
-0.29807496070861816,
0.1506965309381485,
0.27282029390335083,
-0.31904372572898865,
-0.565605103969574,
-0.4464583992958069,
-0.2770938277244568,
-0.8645990490913391,
-0.052517544478178024,
-0.1132018193602562,
0.7580848336219788,
0.536895215511322,
-0.43081074953079224,
0.6942261457443237,
-0.22219792008399963,
0.26916682720184326,
0.37753382325172424,
-0.17135989665985107,
0.024239398539066315,
-0.6508649587631226,
0.0037432832177728415,
-0.3899243175983429,
0.13858801126480103,
0.7794415950775146,
-0.1320086568593979,
-0.40401491522789,
-0.1926996111869812,
-0.013521616347134113,
0.000013659073374583386,
-0.17991456389427185,
0.3697759509086609,
-0.6348419189453125,
-0.05850825086236,
0.2901041507720947,
0.18990445137023926,
-0.5535383224487305,
0.44835925102233887,
-0.6235705018043518,
0.2777443826198578,
-0.1186632364988327,
-0.1889302283525467,
-0.8500335216522217,
0.17920248210430145,
-0.19291463494300842,
0.24339503049850464,
-0.38710319995880127,
0.09840072691440582,
0.23193621635437012,
0.42058396339416504,
-0.15004852414131165,
-0.4307622015476227,
0.45203953981399536,
0.029012411832809448,
-0.26898568868637085,
0.025029826909303665,
0.026572952046990395,
-0.22251956164836884,
0.3715541660785675,
0.2948455214500427,
-0.30343911051750183,
0.07143096625804901,
0.28354036808013916,
0.022091198712587357,
-0.3298504948616028,
0.6003140807151794,
0.12497422099113464,
-0.6461390852928162,
-0.3598622679710388,
0.03241591155529022,
0.43375495076179504,
0.10251668095588684,
-0.8016580939292908,
-0.05972492694854736,
-0.3972283601760864,
-0.027399806305766106,
0.2543114423751831,
-0.4029824733734131,
-0.010425060987472534,
-0.292084276676178,
-0.43262434005737305,
-0.4320030212402344,
0.41675224900245667,
0.5788511037826538,
-0.1734183430671692,
-0.08288419991731644,
-0.282031387090683,
-0.2336897999048233,
-0.05220359191298485,
-0.4714236557483673,
0.12616340816020966,
-0.07418940961360931,
-0.19451290369033813,
0.1788317710161209,
0.9172037839889526,
0.7842305302619934,
0.2600661814212799,
0.08387330174446106,
0.5850369334220886,
0.04002708941698074,
0.16047252714633942,
0.7596501708030701,
0.00812793429940939,
0.4082297384738922,
0.6650949120521545,
-0.5381495356559753,
-0.737426221370697,
0.03192679211497307,
0.06866952031850815,
0.025574008002877235,
0.09702488780021667,
0.20072217285633087,
-0.5039964318275452,
0.29291030764579773,
-0.18332278728485107,
-0.24911439418792725,
-0.39079999923706055,
-0.42861586809158325,
0.4287078082561493,
0.4172935485839844,
-0.02662808820605278,
-0.04461095854640007,
-0.3226185441017151,
-0.03071768395602703,
-0.19531962275505066,
-0.09117259085178375,
0.43534478545188904,
-0.007440072484314442,
-0.4369632601737976,
1.0727542638778687,
-0.3392443358898163,
0.4891825318336487,
-0.7147267460823059,
0.059382546693086624,
0.7562071084976196,
0.3264939486980438,
-0.9524376392364502,
-0.3442012667655945,
0.4689848721027374,
0.4081789255142212,
0.16853134334087372,
0.413292795419693,
-0.5552522540092468,
-0.07538658380508423,
-0.01159320306032896,
-0.014564553275704384,
0.28118419647216797,
-0.6312066912651062,
-0.4027106463909149,
-0.17601913213729858,
0.257480263710022,
-0.43935638666152954,
0.34850388765335083,
-0.10849352926015854,
-0.33467617630958557,
0.22412557899951935,
0.12399294227361679,
0.8767604827880859,
-0.09888805449008942,
0.006762076634913683,
0.4039342403411865,
-0.32299545407295227,
-0.05806170031428337,
0.10767380148172379,
0.023838546127080917,
-0.27197059988975525,
0.2535388469696045,
0.6197863817214966,
0.17428533732891083,
-0.5463165640830994,
0.27243292331695557,
-0.2063099890947342,
0.1765819638967514,
-0.15252694487571716,
-0.3291614353656769,
0.35276222229003906,
0.6092052459716797,
0.16121579706668854,
0.2888917326927185,
0.3767916262149811,
-0.46602582931518555,
-0.294022798538208,
0.07914414256811142,
0.21934542059898376,
0.22460833191871643,
0.4677807688713074,
0.7383742332458496,
0.24661344289779663,
-0.28155434131622314,
0.007909588515758514,
0.10568245500326157,
-0.16833637654781342,
-0.38318899273872375,
0.16551339626312256,
-0.024918217211961746,
0.8940979242324829,
0.07624766230583191,
-0.013805915601551533,
0.16258656978607178,
-0.8153854608535767,
0.8106392025947571,
0.06079929694533348,
-0.21743972599506378,
-0.5306030511856079,
-0.2250341922044754,
-0.1607627272605896,
-0.6204088926315308,
-0.33466336131095886,
0.18596188724040985,
-0.3118949234485626,
-0.31440550088882446,
-0.17698855698108673,
0.1605880856513977,
0.2140125185251236,
-0.2195969969034195,
-0.9079095125198364,
-0.16367343068122864,
-0.6091466546058655,
-0.03506765514612198,
-0.12477202713489532,
-0.3935401141643524,
-0.10159876942634583,
-0.2558416426181793,
-0.3148347735404968,
-0.1839323341846466,
0.5944114923477173,
-0.4612061381340027,
-0.13902579247951508,
0.22363683581352234,
0.07293634116649628,
0.563133180141449,
-0.4954632818698883,
-0.13625293970108032,
0.08150974661111832,
-0.2407960295677185,
-0.04839356616139412,
0.2933890223503113,
-0.24713747203350067,
0.19405503571033478,
0.22201314568519592,
-5.654330253601074,
0.8328737616539001,
-0.16527488827705383,
-0.12663275003433228,
-0.25752371549606323,
-0.11921370774507523,
0.29073959589004517,
0.012443899177014828,
0.30513879656791687,
-0.6326171159744263,
-0.41257137060165405,
-0.05931232497096062,
0.13783690333366394,
0.9023410081863403,
0.2007879614830017,
1.111419677734375,
0.0945204421877861,
-0.20571084320545197,
0.01902708411216736,
0.148308664560318,
-0.48978281021118164,
0.3096093237400055,
-0.40398159623146057,
0.2175692468881607,
0.3225025236606598,
0.554085910320282,
-0.41058918833732605,
-0.2727334499359131,
-1.010915756225586,
-0.4140400290489197,
-0.5040990710258484,
0.33945372700691223,
0.08699876070022583,
0.045051585882902145,
0.29871436953544617,
0.3851863145828247,
-0.1099691167473793,
-0.6512126326560974,
0.2918919622898102,
-0.37510427832603455,
0.14349907636642456,
0.6572772860527039,
-0.31518465280532837,
-0.14125338196754456,
0.30632656812667847,
-0.2701011002063751,
-0.0008141199941746891,
-0.02219226397573948,
0.22960001230239868,
0.13363024592399597,
0.5057306885719299,
-0.2782159149646759,
0.3843744099140167,
0.3481425642967224,
0.29993921518325806,
-0.24115441739559174,
0.44407710433006287,
-0.5905494689941406,
-0.18272750079631805,
0.8823971748352051,
0.465790331363678,
-0.39738449454307556,
-0.04265226051211357,
-0.44906261563301086,
0.2305857539176941,
-0.21373069286346436,
0.38984930515289307,
-0.13053205609321594,
0.2343926876783371,
0.3738628029823303,
0.47204506397247314,
-0.14153262972831726,
-0.1029219850897789,
-0.7271478176116943,
-0.24734224379062653,
-0.37956538796424866,
-1.0403645038604736,
-0.45493319630622864,
-0.30332380533218384,
0.19990307092666626,
0.004699039738625288,
-0.3968028128147125,
-0.42809873819351196,
0.0883614718914032,
-0.3146374523639679,
-0.918487012386322,
0.13424822688102722,
0.027937691658735275,
-0.5526313185691833,
-0.2682708203792572,
0.2700536847114563,
-0.2949480712413788,
0.7224166393280029,
-0.41584059596061707,
-0.72324538230896,
1.0016992092132568,
-0.5357506275177002,
-0.05402097478508949,
0.12141665816307068,
-0.014898627065122128,
0.7111906409263611,
-0.1688176840543747,
0.28637489676475525,
0.018028195947408676,
0.22506648302078247,
-0.3320266008377075,
0.615976870059967,
0.6459105014801025,
0.2909765839576721,
-0.3743264675140381,
0.2192699909210205,
0.5864510536193848,
-0.58402419090271,
-0.21685029566287994,
0.9338157773017883,
-0.17240488529205322,
-0.3163513243198395,
0.18316714465618134,
0.23930813372135162,
-0.47189438343048096,
0.3647392988204956,
0.3098093271255493,
0.07870868593454361,
0.3252128064632416,
-0.5409438014030457,
-0.12070667743682861,
0.43979451060295105,
0.4341980814933777,
-0.1032508835196495,
0.20488359034061432,
-0.04434140771627426,
-0.0980776697397232,
0.3397705852985382,
-0.5227086544036865,
0.20543178915977478,
-0.12317872047424316,
-0.5395496487617493,
-1.3277145624160767,
0.08498794585466385,
0.019321806728839874,
0.1313832551240921,
-0.3462887406349182,
0.022408226504921913,
0.4981580972671509,
0.1689356565475464,
0.17452938854694366,
-0.3582555055618286,
-0.6233525276184082,
-0.5069724917411804,
0.1870109587907791,
0.11147837340831757,
0.32449567317962646,
-0.1450480818748474,
-0.021966252475976944,
-0.3279465138912201,
-0.887198269367218,
0.047935619950294495,
0.009447723627090454,
0.32601433992385864,
0.16634123027324677,
0.454752653837204,
-0.43249520659446716,
-1.5515211820602417,
0.04603351652622223,
0.2180365025997162,
-0.11707499623298645,
-0.7208875417709351,
-0.2088928073644638,
0.5085949897766113,
0.3763044476509094,
0.12622196972370148,
-0.6564671993255615,
-0.18444402515888214,
-0.3150025010108948,
0.3375478684902191,
-0.2188909947872162,
-0.5380114912986755,
0.5089817047119141,
-0.16948501765727997,
0.12198866903781891,
0.4748375713825226,
-0.14093303680419922,
0.22047542035579681,
0.6250051856040955,
0.35922807455062866,
-0.4357391595840454,
-0.5442153215408325,
0.1231619194149971,
0.053096022456884384,
0.18148109316825867,
0.16279739141464233,
0.22013168036937714,
0.09944602847099304,
0.44698742032051086,
-0.7019185423851013,
-0.8188613057136536,
-0.44666004180908203,
0.41695937514305115,
-0.24624349176883698,
0.10458977520465851,
-0.7163400650024414,
-0.20593924820423126,
-0.36507391929626465,
0.6062814593315125,
-0.04224676638841629,
-0.08834611624479294,
0.880825936794281,
0.1971474587917328,
-0.9945785999298096,
0.3946882486343384,
-0.34840649366378784,
-0.680328369140625,
0.4581868648529053,
0.6158000826835632,
-0.22474201023578644,
0.6355679035186768,
-0.5163931846618652,
-0.30252256989479065,
-0.7408539056777954,
0.228226900100708,
0.36940866708755493,
-0.25216785073280334,
0.33554670214653015,
-0.05332588031888008,
-0.40301811695098877,
0.6666252017021179,
0.3185003101825714,
-0.7723423838615417,
0.4716029465198517,
0.0809515193104744,
0.06661828607320786,
-0.7135933637619019,
0.18232205510139465,
0.22983619570732117,
-0.42325347661972046,
0.22440773248672485,
-0.186965212225914,
-0.20842477679252625,
0.6079068183898926,
0.22283798456192017,
0.22429697215557098,
0.27527809143066406,
-0.4121021032333374,
-0.19650278985500336,
0.07588288187980652,
0.35755017399787903,
-0.1925787776708603,
0.21096259355545044,
-0.7199980020523071,
0.2879451811313629,
-0.26961326599121094,
0.1387297660112381,
-0.37662428617477417,
0.12364474684000015,
0.6651191115379333,
-0.12799593806266785,
0.21528466045856476,
0.49649468064308167,
-0.13246272504329681,
0.31782686710357666,
0.42791783809661865,
0.11607493460178375,
-0.06059417873620987,
0.3314475119113922,
0.3968850076198578,
-0.7449327707290649,
0.23746143281459808,
-0.08874133974313736,
0.17750054597854614,
0.058899082243442535,
0.14336447417736053,
0.2554009258747101,
0.291260689496994,
0.5822662115097046,
-0.11934976279735565,
0.2915897071361542,
-0.010827742516994476,
-0.6710395812988281,
0.12503540515899658,
0.3762510418891907,
-1.075509786605835,
-0.3197135329246521,
-0.3415899872779846,
-0.19314059615135193,
-0.4025809168815613,
-0.11427971720695496,
-0.17867602407932281,
-0.05779265984892845,
-0.10826043784618378,
-0.01749672181904316,
0.09768018871545792,
-0.17945986986160278,
0.2732226848602295,
-0.42138808965682983,
-0.10083046555519104,
-0.2860405445098877,
0.3091217875480652,
0.5042524933815002,
-0.030827917158603668,
-0.2020375281572342,
-0.941890299320221,
0.6722387671470642,
-0.03724735602736473,
-0.1048627570271492,
0.22427166998386383,
-0.3159375786781311,
0.8082796335220337,
-0.3205288052558899,
-0.2588639259338379,
0.1266607940196991,
-0.004028028342872858,
0.2684028446674347,
-0.21110032498836517,
0.6974093317985535,
-0.03238344192504883,
0.91720050573349,
0.9162442088127136,
0.12293722480535507,
0.3332096338272095,
0.5576237440109253,
0.18900743126869202,
-0.3139744699001312,
0.24374547600746155,
0.04058816656470299,
0.4976339340209961,
0.7495284080505371,
-0.5466659069061279,
-0.4594569206237793,
0.5402246713638306,
0.673979640007019,
0.4554096460342407,
-0.3616889715194702,
-0.08153887093067169,
0.20147645473480225,
-0.7520994544029236,
-0.1595778614282608,
-0.20306220650672913,
-0.6429206728935242,
-0.46727049350738525,
0.09871585667133331,
0.9446892738342285,
0.3958354592323303,
0.025792038068175316,
0.3731633722782135,
0.16811956465244293,
-0.11516346782445908,
0.3190290927886963,
0.29272153973579407,
-0.1484525203704834,
-0.7456843256950378,
0.6315533518791199,
-0.07144864648580551,
0.42176029086112976,
-0.22673872113227844,
-0.012863077223300934,
0.29339829087257385,
0.048011552542448044,
-0.2018750011920929,
-0.8200742602348328,
0.11531892418861389,
0.11060523241758347,
0.34910252690315247,
0.10612592101097107,
-0.20174528658390045,
-0.5247285962104797,
-0.1880369335412979,
0.1195841133594513,
-0.12056730687618256,
-0.2484389990568161,
0.29035165905952454,
-0.0721723884344101,
0.37016862630844116,
-0.1907840222120285,
-0.31830888986587524,
-0.11784640699625015,
0.4574742913246155,
-0.2458297312259674,
0.7713239789009094,
0.08386591821908951,
0.35424816608428955,
-0.36796075105667114,
0.09806275367736816,
-0.5458040237426758,
0.006522210780531168,
-0.04880967363715172,
-0.6245908737182617,
-0.20010212063789368,
-0.32331907749176025,
-0.6226683259010315,
0.3785511255264282,
-0.4480251669883728,
-0.5483298897743225,
-0.1171850711107254,
0.45610564947128296,
-0.018192850053310394,
0.10217048227787018,
0.041898299008607864,
1.0395466089248657,
0.4085652828216553,
-0.057129260152578354,
-0.0881383940577507,
0.19787655770778656,
-0.054045699536800385,
-0.04181554540991783,
-0.3691522479057312,
0.519265353679657,
-0.34633952379226685,
0.013315017335116863,
-0.05077193304896355,
0.6978505253791809,
0.4500192105770111,
0.17851552367210388,
-0.47560518980026245,
0.47911539673805237,
-0.1882040798664093,
0.7057254910469055,
0.48013752698898315,
-0.11539941281080246,
-0.18765684962272644,
-0.5141777396202087,
-0.026230039075016975,
0.14018413424491882,
0.10108552128076553,
0.11765224486589432,
0.39955171942710876,
-0.519631028175354,
-0.10195207595825195,
0.3147035241127014,
-0.9801588654518127,
0.15294384956359863,
0.4781194031238556,
-0.3074694275856018,
-0.33350566029548645,
0.5052218437194824,
-0.6796168684959412,
-0.6646427512168884,
0.2860126495361328,
0.5113648772239685,
0.2721179723739624,
0.0352090485394001,
0.05149049311876297,
0.21034030616283417,
0.5644117593765259,
-0.3347984552383423,
0.672701358795166,
-0.44679269194602966,
-0.41117045283317566,
-0.149959996342659,
-0.7755816578865051,
-0.05204026773571968,
0.14506185054779053,
-0.25084900856018066,
0.3480491042137146,
0.17671933770179749,
-0.0283075999468565,
-0.0867992490530014,
-0.013943013735115528,
-0.21563589572906494,
0.30105435848236084,
-0.24792824685573578
] |
203729
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisavang%20Vatthana
|
Sisavang Vatthana
|
Sisavang Vatthana () or sometimes Savang Vatthana (full title: Samdach Brhat Chao Mavattaha Sri Vitha Lan Xang Hom Khao Phra Rajanachakra Lao Phengdara Parama Sidha Khattiya Suriya Varman Brhat Maha Sri Savangsa Vadhana; 13 November 1907 – 13 May 1978) was the last king of the Kingdom of Laos and the 6th Prime Minister of Laos serving from 29 October to 21 November 1951. He ruled from 1959 after his father's death until his forced abdication in 1975. His rule ended with the takeover by the Pathet Lao in 1975, after which he and his family were sent to a re-education camp by the new government.
Early life
Prince Savang Vatthana was born on 13 November 1907 at the Royal Palace of Luang Prabang, the son of King Sisavang Vong and Queen Kham-Oun I. He was the second of five children along with Princess Khampheng, Princess Sammathi, Prince Sayasack, and Prince Souphantharangsri. He was also a distant cousin of Prince Souvanna Phouma and Prince Souphanouvong. At the age of 10, Prince Savang was sent to study in France. He attended a lycée in Montpellier and obtained a degree from École Libre des Sciences Politiques (now called Sciences Po) in Paris, where French diplomats were trained. The young heir continued his studies in France, and after a decade overseas, he could no longer speak Lao. Upon his return, he had to be instructed by a palace functionary for years.
On 7 August 1930, he married Queen Khamphoui and they had five children, Crown Prince Vong Savang, Prince Sisavang Savang, Prince Sauryavong Savang, Princess Savivanh Savang, and Princess Thala Savang. The family played tennis together, and liked to attend major tournaments on their travels abroad. The prince was also a devout Buddhist and became an authority on the Sangha, and would later take his role as protector of the state religion seriously.
During World War II, he represented his father with the Japanese forces. His father sent him to the Japanese headquarters in Saigon, where he vigorously protested about the Japanese actions, when they invaded Laos and forced them to declare independence from France.
King of Laos
In 1951, he served as Prime Minister, and when his father became ill on 20 August 1959, he was named Regent.
On 29 October 1959, he informally acceded upon the death of his father. He was, however, never officially crowned and anointed king, deferring his coronation until the cessation of civil war. During his reign, Savang Vatthana visited many countries on diplomatic missions. In March 1963, he toured 13 countries, including the United States, where he stopped at Washington, D.C., to meet with President Kennedy. It was the second stop on a tour of 13 of the nations signatory to the Geneva Pact that guaranteed the "neutrality" of the Kingdom of Laos. The first stop had been Moscow, and the Russians showered gifts, including the GAZ-13 Chaika limousines. He was also accompanied by his Prime Minister, Souvanna Phouma.
He was active in Lao politics, trying to stabilise his country after the political turmoil started with the Geneva Conference of July 1954, which granted full independence to Laos but did not settle the issue of who would rule. Prince Souvanna Phouma, a neutralist, operated from Vientiane, claiming to be Prime Minister and being recognized by the USSR; Prince Boun Oum of Champassak in the south, right-wing, pro-US, dominated the Pakse area, recognized as Prime Minister by the US; and in the far north, Prince Souphanouvong led the leftist resistance movement, the Pathet Lao, drawing support from North Vietnam, also claiming to be Prime Minister with the backing of the communists. To avoid argument over whether Souvanna or Boun Oum was the "legitimate" Prime Minister, both sides would deal through the pro-Western King Sisavang Vatthana.
In 1961, a majority of the National Assembly had already voted Boun Oum into power and King Sisavang Vatthana left Luang Prabang, visiting the capital to give the new government his blessing. But he wanted the Three Princes to form a coalition government, which happened in 1962 but then the coalition government collapsed.
In 1964 series of coups and counter coups resulted in the final alignment of the Pathet Lao on one side with the neutralist and right wing factions on the other. From this point the Pathet Lao refused to join any offers of coalition or national elections and the Laotian Civil War began.
Abdication and death
On 23 August 1975, Pathet Lao forces entered Vientiane, the last city to be captured. The Phouma Government became effectively powerless for the next few months. On 2 December, Vatthana was forced to abdicate the throne by the Pathet Lao, abolishing the 600-year-old monarchy, and was appointed to the meaningless position of "Supreme Advisor to the President". He refused to leave the country and in 1976 he surrendered the royal palace to the Lao Government, which turned it into a museum, and moved to a nearby private residence where he was later placed under house arrest. In March 1977, fearing Vatthana might escape to lead a resistance, the Communist authorities arrested him along with the Queen, Crown Prince Vong Savang, Prince Sisavang, and his brothers Princes Souphantharangsri and Thongsouk and sent them to the northern province of Viengxai. He was transported to Xam Neua and imprisoned in "Camp Number One," which held high-ranking officials from the former government. During his time in the camp, he and other members of the royal family were allowed to move freely around their compounds during the day, and were often visited by members of the politburo, including Sopuhanouvong himself. Vatthana was the oldest prisoner in the camp and turned 70 during the earlier months of his imprisonment, whereas the average age of prisoners was around 55.
In 1978, the government reported that Vatthana, Queen Khamphoui, and Crown Prince Vong Savang had died from malaria. The World Press Review reported that they had suffered from the effects of forced labor and starvation. More recent accounts suggest that the King died in mid-March 1980. However, according to Kaysone Phomvihane, Vatthana died in 1984, at the age of 77. Following the deaths of Vatthana and the Crown Prince, the King's youngest son, Sauryavong Savang, became the head of the Laotian royal family, acting as regent for his nephew Crown Prince, Soulivong Savang, until the regent died in Paris in 2018.
Issue
The children of Savang Vatthana and Khumphoui as follows:
See also
King Sisavang Vong
Monarchs of Laos
Pathet Lao
Kingdom of Laos
Soth Phetrasy
Laotian Royal Family
References
External links
Photographs of Royal Family of Laos
Death of King Savang Vatthana reported
|-
|-
|-
|-
Laotian royalty
20th-century murdered monarchs
1907 births
1978 deaths
Monarchs of Laos
Pretenders to the Laotian throne
Prime Ministers of Laos
People from Luang Prabang
Laotian anti-communists
Prisoners who died in Laotian detention
Laotian people who died in prison custody
|
[
-0.17801083624362946,
0.4071533679962158,
-0.04548884555697441,
-0.2678801417350769,
-0.33145299553871155,
0.11615702509880066,
0.5377298593521118,
-0.3668629229068756,
-0.9692574143409729,
0.26514285802841187,
-0.2563794255256653,
0.48258668184280396,
-0.7192694544792175,
0.04157831147313118,
-0.4386144280433655,
0.08546946197748184,
1.0711781978607178,
0.050240661948919296,
0.31449249386787415,
-0.4444292485713959,
0.02278359979391098,
0.08931652456521988,
0.6669187545776367,
0.08168211579322815,
0.39515334367752075,
0.23798510432243347,
0.3092755377292633,
-0.1525595337152481,
0.5661519765853882,
-0.07406986504793167,
-0.07098103314638138,
0.1780177354812622,
0.4269457161426544,
-0.0863109901547432,
-0.2640118896961212,
-0.07522962242364883,
0.38420620560646057,
0.14144502580165863,
-0.5117247700691223,
0.1316467672586441,
-0.8215656876564026,
-0.10621563345193863,
0.21648822724819183,
-0.1304536759853363,
-0.15805985033512115,
-1.2143759727478027,
-0.27927467226982117,
0.6776959896087646,
-0.15429164469242096,
-0.17234230041503906,
-0.45070862770080566,
0.5794094800949097,
0.15934275090694427,
0.1025983989238739,
0.4867209792137146,
0.11419197916984558,
-0.9101976156234741,
0.1281566172838211,
-0.9922977089881897,
-0.20415446162223816,
0.24137185513973236,
0.0967419221997261,
-0.006181822158396244,
-0.0657426118850708,
-0.21915197372436523,
-0.35338982939720154,
-0.06787088513374329,
-0.1803264170885086,
0.07674351334571838,
-0.14949199557304382,
-0.2494133710861206,
1.0602208375930786,
0.4124262034893036,
0.3182043433189392,
0.504322350025177,
-0.5169718861579895,
0.13381986320018768,
-0.23441335558891296,
0.6398935914039612,
-0.3630770444869995,
0.12678316235542297,
-0.1517893671989441,
0.5708380937576294,
0.843635618686676,
0.06827302277088165,
0.12159772962331772,
0.015026412904262543,
0.0628555417060852,
-0.15294314920902252,
0.20024386048316956,
-0.05426247790455818,
-0.10085835307836533,
0.6948294639587402,
-0.35714417695999146,
-0.8849475979804993,
-0.29540878534317017,
-0.1678600013256073,
0.17526626586914062,
0.3057493567466736,
-0.30141669511795044,
0.13144047558307648,
0.5027279257774353,
0.25572797656059265,
-0.6273952722549438,
-0.9740850925445557,
0.05052311345934868,
-0.4370414912700653,
0.4768804609775543,
-0.6537676453590393,
-0.7615124583244324,
-0.5983164310455322,
0.2167307287454605,
0.02999786101281643,
0.2801872491836548,
0.47531062364578247,
0.4119678735733032,
-0.01066244300454855,
-0.23863384127616882,
0.34073203802108765,
-0.46548327803611755,
0.6745454668998718,
0.8306777477264404,
0.3841758966445923,
0.3613280951976776,
0.03134763613343239,
0.033170122653245926,
0.07791110128164291,
-0.06858059763908386,
-0.11636405438184738,
0.7213314175605774,
0.4497140645980835,
0.3365807831287384,
-0.7623702883720398,
0.20458853244781494,
-0.29917219281196594,
-0.10918641090393066,
0.8539608716964722,
0.3532319962978363,
0.718925416469574,
0.41080567240715027,
-0.861325204372406,
-0.08654335141181946,
-0.29284828901290894,
0.5769848823547363,
0.29824554920196533,
0.30607691407203674,
0.06415460258722305,
0.11396929621696472,
-0.6952235102653503,
-0.2264288365840912,
0.22952961921691895,
-0.606052041053772,
0.23338694870471954,
-0.24940522015094757,
-0.40729978680610657,
0.6688231229782104,
0.43712562322616577,
0.13943377137184143,
-0.2165406346321106,
0.03351833298802376,
0.46454918384552,
0.48758864402770996,
0.1224353164434433,
0.1918109953403473,
0.8903798460960388,
-0.057122547179460526,
-0.5433030128479004,
0.8404387831687927,
-0.43277856707572937,
-0.3372521996498108,
-0.13310132920742035,
0.11413748562335968,
-0.10457057505846024,
-0.5003229975700378,
-0.2878127098083496,
0.6897628903388977,
0.26739946007728577,
-0.015297128818929195,
-0.18296131491661072,
-0.161356583237648,
-0.509109377861023,
0.49843829870224,
-0.12776406109333038,
0.34218111634254456,
0.5949190855026245,
0.25849786400794983,
0.6951678991317749,
-0.2772885262966156,
0.7815808057785034,
-0.34041839838027954,
-0.899010181427002,
-0.19442200660705566,
0.5878984928131104,
-0.16169673204421997,
0.5205315947532654,
0.6188766956329346,
-0.056033652275800705,
0.7704883813858032,
0.46618345379829407,
0.7395941615104675,
0.07089381664991379,
-0.3010389506816864,
0.25349316000938416,
-0.3387400805950165,
-0.3463476598262787,
0.6558889746665955,
-0.15159013867378235,
0.5737498998641968,
0.8711385130882263,
1.0021452903747559,
0.4779539108276367,
-0.5224966406822205,
-0.5498607754707336,
0.2835254967212677,
-0.047157060354948044,
-0.5307186841964722,
-0.9132446050643921,
0.2454356551170349,
-0.0749778226017952,
0.021491752937436104,
0.14949852228164673,
-0.18833279609680176,
-0.43433523178100586,
0.34307974576950073,
0.24851152300834656,
1.0968027114868164,
-0.38902533054351807,
-0.6491857767105103,
-0.2551175355911255,
-0.19717416167259216,
-0.13596975803375244,
-0.46392667293548584,
0.4060952365398407,
-0.2268352508544922,
0.38741111755371094,
0.0230975691229105,
-0.18798400461673737,
0.006506378762423992,
0.2352321445941925,
-0.6331978440284729,
0.3640640377998352,
-0.1123395711183548,
-0.13894027471542358,
0.16261708736419678,
-0.17683619260787964,
0.4851570427417755,
-0.8226165771484375,
-0.4177716374397278,
-0.48818808794021606,
0.10655596852302551,
-0.21622927486896515,
0.37165912985801697,
0.37559932470321655,
-0.030164524912834167,
-0.38682225346565247,
0.017981085926294327,
-0.7194553017616272,
0.14775611460208893,
-0.09541123360395432,
0.009007910266518593,
-0.48662999272346497,
-0.3070090115070343,
0.6347509622573853,
0.5503761172294617,
0.2279604971408844,
-0.2514263093471527,
-0.2202291041612625,
-0.20102660357952118,
0.36424800753593445,
0.3457967936992645,
-0.09732682257890701,
-0.8991058468818665,
-0.417654424905777,
-0.39088648557662964,
-0.26752370595932007,
-0.6795015335083008,
-0.500981330871582,
0.41662269830703735,
-0.46564358472824097,
-1.1191747188568115,
0.9630780220031738,
0.830446720123291,
0.16675600409507751,
-0.5587766170501709,
-0.2867341935634613,
-0.1672644019126892,
0.21193356812000275,
-0.077333003282547,
0.3308466672897339,
0.31630417704582214,
-0.13774609565734863,
0.39166510105133057,
0.09055906534194946,
-0.6526720523834229,
0.01468611042946577,
0.11967490613460541,
-0.3911590874195099,
0.3201880156993866,
0.6538758873939514,
-0.10717358440160751,
-0.45445719361305237,
-0.05510994791984558,
-0.009182226844131947,
0.33177658915519714,
0.7882364988327026,
-0.010745692998170853,
0.08275947719812393,
-0.03908843174576759,
-5.469945907592773,
-0.022807298228144646,
0.4503626823425293,
-0.5827575922012329,
0.31312844157218933,
0.5952472686767578,
0.14844410121440887,
-0.23230595886707306,
0.6346907019615173,
-0.5495349764823914,
0.25975465774536133,
-0.13931576907634735,
0.21064016222953796,
0.2621707618236542,
0.41343629360198975,
0.3920000195503235,
0.057847946882247925,
-0.6378094553947449,
0.9331704378128052,
0.4837280511856079,
0.5624271035194397,
-0.11599545925855637,
-0.07785817980766296,
0.24080915749073029,
0.34341779351234436,
0.36933740973472595,
0.17112997174263,
-0.43898823857307434,
-0.6916840672492981,
-0.2952573001384735,
-0.28710877895355225,
0.04252689331769943,
0.5760720372200012,
-0.24757878482341766,
-0.10595157742500305,
-0.5463275909423828,
0.33739814162254333,
0.11620122939348221,
-0.4199517071247101,
-0.0011173381935805082,
0.5415167808532715,
-0.653593122959137,
-0.039754174649715424,
-0.15071329474449158,
-0.25211775302886963,
0.023270877078175545,
-0.6135920286178589,
-0.07491032779216766,
0.12865681946277618,
0.5171599984169006,
0.007998766377568245,
-0.40090814232826233,
0.07625661790370941,
-0.6334167718887329,
-0.03714147210121155,
0.837313711643219,
-0.49400660395622253,
0.3825514018535614,
-0.8117473721504211,
0.42591890692710876,
0.4142553210258484,
-0.24430494010448456,
-0.08250023424625397,
-0.10679510980844498,
0.16775541007518768,
-0.06871368736028671,
0.07046372443437576,
-0.2921924889087677,
0.28783687949180603,
0.4401591718196869,
-0.08780529350042343,
0.12531940639019012,
-0.47568652033805847,
-0.6689115762710571,
-0.17688241600990295,
-0.3480598032474518,
-0.14253805577754974,
0.11782430112361908,
0.20416972041130066,
0.002503357594832778,
-0.48014047741889954,
0.0698428675532341,
0.32834675908088684,
0.6969729661941528,
0.3051450252532959,
-0.2927713096141815,
-0.4121786653995514,
0.5252459049224854,
-0.03925598785281181,
0.8904027938842773,
0.36394819617271423,
-0.854326069355011,
-0.1566040962934494,
0.4758606255054474,
0.229740172624588,
0.13057371973991394,
0.05650324746966362,
-0.010255773551762104,
0.8774846196174622,
0.16952155530452728,
-0.08555782586336136,
0.03471186012029648,
0.37279337644577026,
-0.48629510402679443,
-0.27231505513191223,
0.0817241296172142,
-0.56728196144104,
-0.22344230115413666,
-0.00023065692221280187,
0.37819501757621765,
-0.05343225598335266,
-0.12334415316581726,
0.5434280037879944,
-0.04263615608215332,
0.6739140152931213,
-0.7065372467041016,
0.05417003855109215,
0.2808908224105835,
0.3002394139766693,
-0.40683361887931824,
-0.5960695743560791,
0.5419784784317017,
0.04946129396557808,
0.4592776596546173,
0.5620066523551941,
-0.27090370655059814,
-0.4239198863506317,
0.20481468737125397,
-0.10989684611558914,
-0.06584661453962326,
0.18806318938732147,
-0.3527282774448395,
0.6989744901657104,
-0.37826868891716003,
0.3130565583705902,
-0.913202166557312,
0.17416425049304962,
-0.17951689660549164,
-0.3395059406757355,
-0.10084565728902817,
-0.6155564188957214,
-0.5592995285987854,
-0.5125131011009216,
0.4545949399471283,
0.022993646562099457,
-0.2559104561805725,
0.11610883474349976,
0.09920215606689453,
0.2757507562637329,
0.2964838445186615,
-0.09899892657995224,
-0.23604846000671387,
0.8655815720558167,
-0.37595078349113464,
-0.3519641160964966,
-0.3508584499359131,
0.06576444208621979,
-0.12879082560539246,
0.4150881767272949,
0.27094951272010803,
-0.35190093517303467,
-0.8078652024269104,
-1.0565112829208374,
-0.5142049193382263,
-0.5273906588554382,
-0.07384603470563889,
0.5014740824699402,
-0.14950895309448242,
-0.5462867021560669,
0.6208357214927673,
0.31640496850013733,
-0.7238795757293701,
-0.05067278817296028,
-0.016609016805887222,
0.31487929821014404,
-0.31474408507347107,
0.12463440746068954,
-0.1664494276046753,
-0.3327156603336334,
-0.013388434424996376,
-1.0270708799362183,
0.25212445855140686,
-0.13929645717144012,
0.37057462334632874,
0.05166357010602951,
0.26787710189819336,
-0.21764777600765228,
-0.5714191198348999,
-0.553324282169342,
0.10507572442293167,
0.036015067249536514,
0.23963896930217743,
-0.01755896583199501,
-0.13808655738830566,
-0.36783096194267273,
-0.5839750170707703,
-0.7655267715454102,
0.6664127707481384,
0.32977741956710815,
0.16626964509487152,
0.23487168550491333,
0.10478934645652771,
0.34034839272499084,
-0.12381638586521149,
-0.060740694403648376,
-0.5428392291069031,
0.5615575909614563,
0.3202812969684601,
0.3550036549568176,
0.0884261280298233,
-0.04571077972650528,
-0.5584962964057922,
0.22328050434589386,
0.9467398524284363,
-0.20736806094646454,
0.5087175965309143,
-0.17591184377670288,
-0.06804881244897842,
0.13378924131393433,
-1.3773468732833862,
-0.11446941643953323,
-0.2281721979379654,
-0.340545654296875,
-0.12476955354213715,
-0.33260494470596313,
0.6339377164840698,
0.903950572013855,
-0.7053674459457397,
0.7128252387046814,
-0.13194572925567627,
-0.45812422037124634,
-0.0722879022359848,
-0.1435597985982895,
0.22833366692066193,
-0.485876202583313,
-0.2567742168903351,
0.5021011233329773,
0.36166882514953613,
0.24076710641384125,
0.20380745828151703,
-0.4126797020435333,
1.2827305793762207,
-0.21061600744724274,
-0.44632095098495483,
-0.5774722099304199,
0.1037934347987175,
-0.18589843809604645,
-0.3046383559703827,
0.4568519592285156,
-0.2393883466720581,
0.3712769150733948,
0.38468480110168457,
-0.42855921387672424,
-0.5549190044403076,
0.45999765396118164,
-0.5816606879234314,
-0.3751029670238495,
-0.1656407117843628,
0.2742456793785095,
0.055207736790180206,
-0.3891996145248413,
0.4369640648365021,
-0.05534238740801811,
-0.44501566886901855,
0.43813085556030273,
-0.07148158550262451,
-0.14654378592967987,
0.3304354250431061,
0.07468386739492416,
-0.2804359793663025,
-0.2473936229944229,
-0.829081118106842,
-0.4830528795719147,
-0.35604631900787354,
-0.045446816831827164,
-0.25260505080223083,
-0.06536270678043365,
-0.3050476908683777,
0.5066179633140564,
0.39362508058547974,
-0.8418512344360352,
-0.5380659699440002,
0.3328506052494049,
0.253659188747406,
0.3096403479576111,
-1.2210530042648315,
0.18432584404945374,
-0.09488002210855484,
-0.7918125987052917,
0.3423159420490265,
-0.46584492921829224,
0.33857598900794983,
-0.1870766431093216,
0.25487571954727173,
0.046585563570261,
0.5216796398162842,
0.15187494456768036,
1.1527032852172852,
-0.1480102688074112,
0.12213137000799179,
-0.46016058325767517,
-0.6780163645744324,
0.5761613845825195,
0.031875915825366974,
-0.7572570443153381,
-0.1448291391134262,
0.1526879072189331,
-0.8855413794517517,
-0.11602361500263214,
0.7389310002326965,
0.1984911859035492,
0.12084677815437317,
0.2215229868888855,
-0.09419848024845123,
-0.7647549510002136,
0.07689743489027023,
0.2641180157661438,
-0.6276367902755737,
-0.29508695006370544,
0.21192029118537903,
0.46791014075279236,
-0.2473585456609726,
-0.33201244473457336,
0.02733803540468216,
0.5672300457954407,
-0.0896741971373558,
-0.418694406747818,
0.19222676753997803,
0.32523244619369507,
-0.05154389888048172,
-0.04196526110172272,
0.2534133493900299,
-0.3549210727214813,
0.6101033091545105,
-0.19463470578193665,
-0.08044198155403137,
0.015733463689684868,
-0.9330344796180725,
0.32072633504867554,
0.19534260034561157,
0.509027361869812,
0.7204816341400146,
0.05659208074212074,
-0.15352430939674377,
0.4771992564201355,
-0.04804309457540512,
0.007847102358937263,
-0.08772747218608856,
0.20255428552627563,
0.04499245807528496,
0.2751087248325348,
0.339430034160614,
-0.13391610980033875,
-0.3461483120918274,
0.46653425693511963,
0.3878231346607208,
-0.055061277002096176,
-0.0717834085226059,
0.46734267473220825,
-0.23062393069267273,
-0.1610218584537506,
-0.44285330176353455,
-0.43414145708084106,
0.4241028428077698,
0.5363178253173828,
-0.07082490622997284,
0.29368844628334045,
-0.3805772364139557,
0.574803352355957,
-0.14651137590408325,
-0.06365122646093369,
-0.21413958072662354,
-0.5242140293121338,
-0.12866972386837006,
-0.6708893179893494,
0.058862943202257156,
0.35004594922065735,
-0.1640588343143463,
-0.2657902240753174,
-0.834484338760376,
-0.2146846204996109,
-0.0466257706284523,
0.15471488237380981,
-0.3654482364654541,
0.0822935551404953,
0.42106756567955017,
0.5848287343978882,
0.059085190296173096,
0.054992660880088806,
0.09251146018505096,
0.11487078666687012,
0.07806273549795151,
-0.33083194494247437,
0.0780491828918457,
0.31726008653640747,
0.32663601636886597,
-0.1990809440612793,
0.5567772388458252,
0.5434888005256653,
-0.42041653394699097,
0.26625746488571167,
0.1435774266719818,
-0.10262484103441238,
0.12540829181671143,
0.649830162525177,
0.062031324952840805,
-0.06332384049892426,
-0.3716137707233429,
-0.6793046593666077,
0.6976646780967712,
-0.3999401926994324,
0.3816069960594177,
-0.02701854705810547,
0.3513016402721405,
-0.08318246901035309,
0.04768054559826851,
0.5655756592750549,
-0.6991108655929565,
-0.3920552134513855,
-0.6515299677848816,
-0.1790132373571396,
-0.5317682027816772,
0.2657870054244995,
0.45066455006599426,
-0.2578255534172058,
-0.5930802822113037,
0.23369435966014862,
0.48649564385414124,
-0.20792527496814728,
0.10879836231470108,
-0.0478137731552124,
-0.4561702311038971,
0.036834582686424255,
-0.39197665452957153,
-0.2918049991130829,
0.03283504396677017,
0.4882359802722931,
0.25345784425735474,
-0.7012844681739807,
-0.6870366334915161,
-0.52712082862854,
-0.09848664700984955,
0.9256354570388794,
0.3532775044441223,
0.5017428994178772,
-0.5647239089012146,
-0.2022254317998886,
-0.12809017300605774,
-0.9022094011306763,
0.10607443749904633,
-0.04405900463461876,
0.060832083225250244,
0.551066517829895,
-0.7708485126495361,
0.13970203697681427,
-0.24318674206733704,
-0.016516925767064095,
0.2920624613761902,
0.08444955945014954,
0.5270252823829651
] |
203733
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Deptford%20Trilogy
|
The Deptford Trilogy
|
The Deptford Trilogy (published 1970 to 1975) is a series of inter-related novels by Canadian novelist Robertson Davies.
Overview
The trilogy consists of Fifth Business (1970), The Manticore (1972), and World of Wonders (1975). The series revolves around a precipitating event: a young boy throws a snowball at another, hitting a pregnant woman instead, who goes into premature labor. It explores the longterm effects of these events on numerous characters.
The Deptford trilogy has won praise for its narrative voice and its characterizations. The main characters originate from the same small village. Each carries a secret that crosses the lives of the others and drives the plot forward. Fifth Business is considered one of Davies' best novels. The second novel, The Manticore, won the Governor-General's Literary Award in the English-language fiction category in 1972.
The trilogy was named for its setting in the fictional village of Deptford, Ontario. This is based in part on Davies' native Thamesville. Davies takes the view of different characters in each novel, and expresses each in a different style. The tone and unconventional literary devices of metafiction have led some later critics to suggest the series was a precursor to what has been called "slipstream" fiction in the 21st century.
Fifth Business
Fifth Business is narrated by Dunstable (later Dunstan) Ramsay, who grows up in Deptford, a fictional town in southwestern Ontario, Canada. After World War I, he becomes a teacher and serves for decades at a college. The epistolary novel takes the form of a letter Ramsay writes to the headmaster of Colborne College after his retirement. He feels ill used by an article about him in the school paper. He recalls how, as a boy, he ducked a snowball intended for him. It hit a pregnant woman instead, and she gave birth prematurely. This incident and related events deeply affected Ramsay's life. He tells how he came to terms with his guilt. He also tells of his boyhood friend and enemy, Percy Boyd "Boy" Staunton, who becomes a wealthy businessman and politician.
The Manticore
The Manticore is the story of Boy Staunton's only son, David, who undergoes Jungian psychoanalysis in Switzerland. During his therapy, he tries to understand his father and his relationship to him. The novel is a detailed record of his therapy and his coming to understand his own life. It sheds new light on many of the characters introduced in Fifth Business, including his father's friend Dunstan Ramsay, who happens to be in Switzerland recuperating from a heart attack.
The Manticore won the Governor-General's Literary Award in the English-language fiction category in 1972.
World of Wonders
World of Wonders tells of Paul Dempster, a boy born prematurely who is befriended by Dunstan Ramsay. He learns to conjure and, as an adult, takes the name of Magnus Eisengrim as he establishes a successful career as a noted magician. Eisengrim is to portray Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin in a television movie. During lulls in the filming, he recounts his life, including obstacles he has overcome. He elaborates on his career as an actor traveling through Canada in the early 20th century. Dunstan Ramsay also appears in this novel. More insight is provided into the characters of Fifth Business.
Key characters
Dunstan Ramsay
Dunstan Ramsay is the narrator of both Fifth Business and World of Wonders (he is not the protagonist in the last novel). He also appears as a major character in The Manticore and as a supporting character in several other novels by Davies. Ramsay is a gentle schoolmaster with surprising depths and is probably a stand-in for Davies himself. (Since Davies has said that the main business of a writer is to be an enchanter, a weaver of spells, a magician, Dempster/Eisengrim may stand for Davies.) Ramsay counsels his students to write in "the plain style," as Davies does—to highlight the story rather than the writer.
Ramsay appears in Davies' novels What's Bred in the Bone and The Lyre of Orpheus, two of his Cornish trilogy, and in the later novel The Cunning Man. Ramsay is not religious but he is fascinated by the lives of the saints. He writes several well-regarded treatises on saints. In the novels he is compared with Saint Dunstan in his struggle with Satan.
Magnus Eisengrim
Like several of the main characters in Davies' novels, Paul Dempster undergoes a series of symbolic rebirths, each of which is accompanied by a name change. Magnus Eisengrim is the final name taken on by Paul Dempster in the course of story told in the Deptford trilogy. The name is derived from 'Isengrin', a wolf in the stories of Reynard the Fox.
In "World of Wonders", the final book of the Deptford trilogy, Magnus Eisengrim, now a world famous stage magician, relates his life story to several friends and colleagues as they work to complete a film about the life of the renowned 19th century theatrical magician Robert-Houdin.
As related by Eisengrim:
On December 28, 1908, Paul Dempster was born prematurely after his pregnant mother was hit in the head by a snowball thrown by Percy Boyd Staunton. As a result (it is assumed) of the mishap, she went insane.
Paul is raised by his strict and religious father, but at age 10 Paul visits the traveling 'World of Wonders' circus, where he is raped by Willard the Wizard, a performing sleight-of-hand magician with the troupe. To protect Willard, the troupe abducts and renames Paul. Traveling with the troupe under the assumed identity of Cass Fletcher, Paul endures a long period of continued psychological and physical abuse by Willard, but he also manages to learn the rudimentary skills of pick-pocketing, slight of hand, and watch-repair. After eight hellish years, Paul escapes the World of Wonders and travels to France where, under a new assumed name, Faustus LeGrande, he becomes a traveling magician. Eventually, Willard dies. Although penniless, uneducated, and psychologically wounded, Paul, finally rid of his sodomizing tormentor, is at last able to begin shaping his own life in whatever way he wishes.
After several years later, Paul makes his way to England, where, by a stroke of great luck, he becomes the stunt double for Sir John Tresize, a famous, aging English actor. As time goes by Paul (under the new assumed name, "Fetch") begins to adopt Sir John's personality and appearance until he has almost completely taken on Sir John's persona.
Notes
External links
Novels by Robertson Davies
Novel series
Literary trilogies
|
[
-0.029334597289562225,
0.24774475395679474,
-0.0030912875663489103,
-0.7837045788764954,
0.10958228260278702,
0.6353230476379395,
0.49687615036964417,
-0.02918175980448723,
-0.4447059631347656,
-0.03490663692355156,
-0.3689888119697571,
0.40990909934043884,
-0.13445185124874115,
0.18359190225601196,
0.7237297892570496,
0.4886644780635834,
0.40408560633659363,
0.18970823287963867,
-0.3055022954940796,
-0.7431891560554504,
-0.056789178401231766,
0.009889311157166958,
0.40236854553222656,
-0.04740476980805397,
0.33360418677330017,
0.146026149392128,
0.3235461711883545,
-0.19869069755077362,
0.2505332827568054,
0.3875519633293152,
0.2958005666732788,
0.27540960907936096,
0.03657841682434082,
0.17034772038459778,
0.34671303629875183,
-0.17216253280639648,
-0.08011102676391602,
-0.20726656913757324,
-0.27474480867385864,
-0.782582700252533,
0.2788577377796173,
-0.007549833040684462,
0.17059874534606934,
0.013803984969854355,
0.033458080142736435,
0.4257497191429138,
-1.6320909261703491,
-0.5564194321632385,
-1.0245202779769897,
-0.15490086376667023,
-0.40786033868789673,
0.2926989793777466,
0.8251786828041077,
-0.016743827611207962,
0.7449802756309509,
0.7741544246673584,
-0.38867026567459106,
-0.45877718925476074,
0.41737833619117737,
-0.025873564183712006,
0.36203891038894653,
-0.04138359799981117,
0.3912009000778198,
0.08940308541059494,
-0.2869136333465576,
-0.08409539610147476,
-0.3430767059326172,
0.32190775871276855,
0.23124025762081146,
-0.3162190914154053,
0.25209155678749084,
0.22780099511146545,
0.4037557542324066,
0.3234823942184448,
-0.40171054005622864,
0.5077362656593323,
0.26211366057395935,
-0.4771391749382019,
0.212515190243721,
0.16647019982337952,
-0.3087690770626068,
0.2386457622051239,
0.41511428356170654,
-0.05605997517704964,
-0.03527829423546791,
-0.07762789726257324,
0.07765969634056091,
0.4084177017211914,
0.03669566288590431,
0.94023197889328,
-0.25520944595336914,
-0.7742228507995605,
-0.2483232468366623,
0.05275951698422432,
0.44810253381729126,
-0.42340508103370667,
-0.16545329988002777,
-0.007430097088217735,
0.13224053382873535,
0.018708117306232452,
-0.07315054535865784,
0.4294981360435486,
0.20369425415992737,
-0.21105235815048218,
-0.6757710576057434,
-0.3024696111679077,
-0.22576072812080383,
0.07990442961454391,
0.0017427850980311632,
-0.3356001377105713,
-0.267240971326828,
0.18262533843517303,
-0.03198213130235672,
0.3010699152946472,
0.31344708800315857,
0.14804187417030334,
-0.15219558775424957,
-0.28471508622169495,
-0.5716663002967834,
0.06038425862789154,
0.2856629192829132,
0.07378558069467545,
0.427773654460907,
0.13620570302009583,
-0.2190709263086319,
-0.22469758987426758,
0.04865109175443649,
-0.4053528904914856,
-0.8124540448188782,
-0.08717795461416245,
-0.32952338457107544,
0.6666777729988098,
-0.6889010667800903,
0.10729405283927917,
0.23920798301696777,
-0.34697774052619934,
0.18871407210826874,
0.0928877666592598,
0.3670080900192261,
0.4573174715042114,
-0.38912278413772583,
0.42361414432525635,
-0.10598142445087433,
-0.07909034192562103,
0.6816398501396179,
0.09015791863203049,
0.28246667981147766,
-0.4480726420879364,
-0.13553723692893982,
-0.08322461694478989,
0.10420972853899002,
0.001759557519108057,
-0.09163887798786163,
-0.7875359058380127,
-0.18483945727348328,
0.09508462250232697,
0.946282684803009,
0.36178794503211975,
0.26147228479385376,
-0.21049058437347412,
-0.07602133601903915,
0.3947114050388336,
0.5389800071716309,
-0.10913392901420593,
-0.12117161601781845,
-0.2520158886909485,
0.4869920015335083,
-0.29476845264434814,
0.2886689603328705,
0.04596138373017311,
0.044320542365312576,
0.14731118083000183,
0.03762303292751312,
0.06879540532827377,
-0.07084404677152634,
-0.2466956526041031,
1.1336021423339844,
1.00825834274292,
-0.3018966019153595,
-0.16320280730724335,
-0.32801392674446106,
0.1667250096797943,
0.1486305147409439,
-0.5818144083023071,
0.11190454661846161,
0.4080043137073517,
0.11916428059339523,
0.47313010692596436,
0.10592019557952881,
0.4260161817073822,
-0.2362077385187149,
0.011742311529815197,
0.8175055384635925,
-0.1693529188632965,
0.9373480081558228,
-0.21408434212207794,
-0.6493933796882629,
0.45848309993743896,
-0.2522885203361511,
0.9118748903274536,
0.2535923719406128,
-0.06357420980930328,
0.33382678031921387,
0.07141126692295074,
-0.33370864391326904,
-0.35869503021240234,
-0.5292823314666748,
0.6636047959327698,
-0.20348796248435974,
0.5248024463653564,
0.28159502148628235,
-0.10996970534324646,
0.00036015428486280143,
0.7088589668273926,
0.1135568767786026,
-0.07964394986629486,
0.004225181415677071,
0.18916107714176178,
-0.35162797570228577,
-0.6551899909973145,
0.5437334775924683,
-0.21971559524536133,
-0.03765357658267021,
0.09305161982774734,
-0.10387150943279266,
0.12689869105815887,
0.09360022097826004,
-0.5474590063095093,
0.4600609540939331,
-0.6985135078430176,
-0.23841066658496857,
0.8415457606315613,
-0.4162992835044861,
-0.137201189994812,
0.5808644890785217,
0.10515184700489044,
-0.232261523604393,
-0.3821496367454529,
-0.24754133820533752,
-0.20310936868190765,
0.4049254059791565,
-0.66401606798172,
-0.437621146440506,
0.7060232758522034,
0.8361252546310425,
-0.016223931685090065,
0.1707383394241333,
0.19666741788387299,
-0.511536180973053,
-0.26246076822280884,
-0.05645640194416046,
0.256374716758728,
0.08986788988113403,
0.7144140005111694,
0.5578944683074951,
-0.037282004952430725,
0.31256458163261414,
-0.236726775765419,
0.35017719864845276,
0.23385325074195862,
-0.17732487618923187,
0.49906110763549805,
0.13496796786785126,
-0.06530231982469559,
-0.38786783814430237,
-0.5770094990730286,
-0.29937461018562317,
-0.8913131952285767,
-0.030858151614665985,
-0.049796875566244125,
-0.31929734349250793,
0.021218067035079002,
-0.31839028000831604,
0.38957875967025757,
0.17737968266010284,
-0.262409508228302,
0.6938570141792297,
-0.37045854330062866,
0.04626647010445595,
-0.5121023654937744,
-0.2531828284263611,
0.674974262714386,
0.13399723172187805,
-0.23136724531650543,
-0.311736524105072,
-0.7444428205490112,
0.16544029116630554,
-0.5584756731987,
0.22010394930839539,
-0.002612060634419322,
0.1700928658246994,
0.11866063624620438,
-0.0326942540705204,
-0.6105093359947205,
-0.8024494647979736,
0.32267245650291443,
-0.6031789779663086,
0.10615721344947815,
-0.11918127536773682,
0.20210954546928406,
0.2614292800426483,
0.22972385585308075,
-0.0699121430516243,
0.3470822870731354,
0.7715478539466858,
0.04011918976902962,
-0.4866711497306824,
0.306731253862381,
-5.844378471374512,
0.4487049877643585,
0.1834079772233963,
-0.33138641715049744,
0.2997235953807831,
0.27036696672439575,
0.5195279121398926,
-0.006568059790879488,
0.4599011540412903,
-0.3619181215763092,
0.05910870432853699,
-0.5042173266410828,
-0.12971511483192444,
-0.10444722324609756,
0.385379821062088,
-0.12542317807674408,
-0.008513671346008778,
0.15961554646492004,
-0.11600848287343979,
0.5813337564468384,
0.04320499300956726,
-0.1484731137752533,
-0.03133019804954529,
-0.13925060629844666,
0.07680702954530716,
0.5194472670555115,
-0.16468699276447296,
-0.45512866973876953,
-0.18938657641410828,
0.37860164046287537,
0.08565933257341385,
-0.12618769705295563,
0.5563430786132812,
-0.24440273642539978,
-0.2673243582248688,
-0.22110456228256226,
0.6568092703819275,
0.22355876863002777,
0.44973325729370117,
-0.8329653739929199,
-0.09690612554550171,
0.16134221851825714,
-0.4103691279888153,
-0.28305527567863464,
0.10496357828378677,
-0.2815950810909271,
-0.4794800877571106,
0.4010235071182251,
-0.042515791952610016,
0.48701775074005127,
-0.08720359951257706,
0.16188590228557587,
-0.5046590566635132,
0.10782863199710846,
0.06067794933915138,
-0.006791955791413784,
-0.4101220369338989,
-0.3795565664768219,
-0.42902132868766785,
0.38483160734176636,
0.19426774978637695,
-0.07842659205198288,
0.052684489637613297,
0.04734458401799202,
-0.036654770374298096,
-0.7508366703987122,
-0.5897024869918823,
0.43133842945098877,
0.39932066202163696,
0.21006739139556885,
-0.15797536075115204,
-0.09943624585866928,
-0.0287787988781929,
-1.1688817739486694,
-0.160197913646698,
-0.25629720091819763,
0.051961835473775864,
-0.22985318303108215,
-0.015249812975525856,
-0.20302529633045197,
0.1257576197385788,
-0.11999136954545975,
-0.23306895792484283,
0.26036107540130615,
0.32454586029052734,
-0.49225008487701416,
-1.1497766971588135,
0.33358335494995117,
-0.42042919993400574,
-0.6195339560508728,
0.4274410605430603,
-0.023749930784106255,
0.0658155009150505,
0.7925711274147034,
0.5898318290710449,
0.2531071901321411,
0.3457298278808594,
0.3859582841396332,
0.4048886001110077,
-0.5852412581443787,
0.6772658228874207,
-0.19048064947128296,
0.8477128744125366,
-0.49415817856788635,
-0.4506324827671051,
-0.24592068791389465,
-0.24780713021755219,
0.38102567195892334,
0.48353561758995056,
-0.40581589937210083,
-0.1282365620136261,
-0.0004926178371533751,
-0.2023628056049347,
-0.740175724029541,
-0.06545151770114899,
-0.3643916845321655,
-0.06008629873394966,
0.035848066210746765,
0.15827421844005585,
0.32275545597076416,
-0.4176199734210968,
0.6297500133514404,
-0.12758462131023407,
-0.5166233777999878,
-0.12447553873062134,
-0.22747179865837097,
0.23717688024044037,
-0.4058885872364044,
-0.202448308467865,
0.2356204092502594,
0.33689388632774353,
-0.3476794362068176,
0.13890141248703003,
-0.2210383266210556,
-0.5939121842384338,
-0.5854932069778442,
-1.054887294769287,
-0.3259603977203369,
0.051192913204431534,
0.7859759330749512,
0.4632384777069092,
-0.3206293284893036,
-0.028566261753439903,
0.28095710277557373,
0.17213502526283264,
-0.179376021027565,
-0.012520466931164265,
-0.357534795999527,
-0.09783239662647247,
0.16865888237953186,
-0.03617243468761444,
0.4494665265083313,
0.846540093421936,
-0.6079270243644714,
-0.22514788806438446,
0.051840752363204956,
-0.3114003539085388,
0.3513973653316498,
-0.666187584400177,
-0.32116830348968506,
0.1114506796002388,
-0.5879768133163452,
-0.6752523183822632,
0.013696773909032345,
-0.03760860860347748,
0.3858388662338257,
-0.7110782265663147,
-0.31346994638442993,
-0.03464488312602043,
0.18162603676319122,
0.30500760674476624,
-0.3458805978298187,
-0.5522140264511108,
0.5092779397964478,
0.08931337296962738,
0.2413080632686615,
-0.8503395318984985,
-0.04245612770318985,
0.0547754168510437,
-0.45217466354370117,
-0.36477360129356384,
0.2370143085718155,
-0.01686912216246128,
0.20452331006526947,
0.8514208197593689,
-0.03323432430624962,
-0.2533456087112427,
-0.2914000153541565,
-0.774857759475708,
0.02365979738533497,
0.4756891429424286,
-0.031557392328977585,
0.5407732725143433,
0.49574148654937744,
-1.0302015542984009,
-0.7691400647163391,
-0.1991880089044571,
0.1614832878112793,
0.37835317850112915,
-0.31193146109580994,
-0.4202786087989807,
0.5422120094299316,
-0.054540958255529404,
-0.37213990092277527,
0.4867568910121918,
-1.0094788074493408,
-0.15153510868549347,
-0.6927570700645447,
-0.2740326225757599,
0.8497892618179321,
-0.30940765142440796,
-0.2230760008096695,
-0.29940328001976013,
0.787229597568512,
-0.040233634412288666,
-0.06899263709783554,
-0.17963433265686035,
-0.5104557275772095,
-0.08659275621175766,
-0.28123942017555237,
0.014660811983048916,
-0.3408968150615692,
-0.35577061772346497,
-0.20631781220436096,
-0.5073739290237427,
0.5471665859222412,
0.4441128969192505,
-0.7219060659408569,
0.10718826204538345,
-0.23730948567390442,
-0.21410095691680908,
0.2398325353860855,
-0.30452588200569153,
-0.03935037925839424,
-0.06298930943012238,
0.3034990131855011,
0.27512824535369873,
-0.3825504183769226,
0.5400087833404541,
0.6638997197151184,
0.40422090888023376,
0.6971613168716431,
0.38267815113067627,
-0.8144227862358093,
0.33365434408187866,
0.49349117279052734,
0.003017671639099717,
-0.581378161907196,
-0.3732333183288574,
0.08036386966705322,
-0.08138485997915268,
-0.6099636554718018,
0.3289259374141693,
-0.4203000068664551,
0.6337787508964539,
-0.3189202845096588,
-0.07850166410207748,
-0.14605703949928284,
-0.1670360118150711,
-0.3434183597564697,
0.24078379571437836,
0.2577541172504425,
-0.22949008643627167,
-0.2857394218444824,
0.4087471663951874,
0.08639086782932281,
-0.3285757899284363,
0.22212781012058258,
0.3182467520236969,
0.3171076774597168,
-0.04164453595876694,
-0.5167127847671509,
0.02866201102733612,
0.3167394995689392,
-0.10536931455135345,
0.33700940012931824,
0.05328059196472168,
-0.6043218374252319,
0.3661651611328125,
-0.27558574080467224,
-0.7767026424407959,
0.38134366273880005,
-0.4393990635871887,
-0.6659865379333496,
-0.015045538544654846,
-0.8082159161567688,
-0.03966711089015007,
-0.49486061930656433,
0.4089761972427368,
0.08822637051343918,
0.40501654148101807,
-0.31291767954826355,
0.07322723418474197,
-0.22457922995090485,
0.31728217005729675,
0.004120667465031147,
-0.4077318012714386,
0.2502627968788147,
-0.0504036620259285,
0.2891160845756531,
-0.03354107216000557,
0.187300443649292,
-0.2786496877670288,
-0.37299907207489014,
0.6252124309539795,
0.04272269457578659,
-0.12452150881290436,
-0.09967754036188126,
-0.6462957262992859,
0.08127783238887787,
0.17892029881477356,
0.108175128698349,
0.0807991623878479,
0.44091174006462097,
-0.6828634142875671,
-0.054663997143507004,
0.4297693371772766,
-0.4303213655948639,
0.4379494786262512,
0.321804016828537,
0.7843617796897888,
0.6988361477851868,
0.3019099831581116,
-0.14297330379486084,
-0.5282520055770874,
0.9336079359054565,
-0.1515475958585739,
0.011820935644209385,
-0.2566627562046051,
-0.01584603451192379,
0.1790040284395218,
-0.44401413202285767,
-0.6549010276794434,
0.21246975660324097,
-0.18465620279312134,
-0.7055596113204956,
0.12908372282981873,
-0.09940792620182037,
-0.1654028594493866,
0.41709980368614197,
0.41619718074798584,
0.451058030128479,
-0.007198734674602747,
-0.3720496594905853,
-0.12913277745246887,
-0.1563056856393814,
0.2919217348098755,
0.2377845197916031,
0.5348742008209229,
0.3168802857398987,
0.5307680368423462,
0.4829998016357422,
0.34690260887145996,
-0.5316681861877441,
0.18468892574310303,
0.5516687631607056,
-0.11325044929981232,
-0.24082304537296295,
-0.26242735981941223,
-0.6999955773353577,
-0.40693408250808716,
-0.07931653410196304,
0.1361335963010788,
0.048027973622083664,
0.4714237153530121,
0.08900899440050125,
0.16246360540390015,
-0.13433924317359924,
-0.2589679956436157,
0.2543591856956482,
0.6164826154708862,
0.09504477679729462,
0.14324745535850525,
-0.2028736025094986,
0.18943338096141815,
0.35123875737190247,
0.16160842776298523,
0.3056364953517914,
-0.038602497428655624,
-0.04027911648154259,
-0.33240652084350586,
-0.2737835943698883,
0.06529644876718521,
-0.49670344591140747,
0.3515093922615051,
0.25864821672439575,
0.07971036434173584,
0.14988785982131958,
-0.1522371470928192,
-0.23710396885871887,
0.2223224639892578,
-0.0392671562731266,
-0.4015379548072815,
-0.022838303819298744,
-0.453735888004303,
0.006111557129770517,
0.2709730267524719,
1.4640007019042969,
-0.1287727802991867,
0.24230675399303436,
-0.11312081664800644,
-0.15874607861042023,
0.16710801422595978,
-0.012477944605052471,
-0.47618475556373596,
0.28418269753456116,
-0.3980134427547455,
0.31819817423820496,
-0.42663058638572693,
0.11719262599945068,
-0.062225714325904846,
0.04610273614525795,
-0.10896184295415878,
0.20113934576511383,
-0.8660631775856018,
-0.4943917989730835,
0.1089569479227066,
0.08464143425226212,
0.11777528375387192,
0.37958526611328125,
0.22065764665603638,
0.6331226229667664,
0.02650601975619793,
0.5236946940422058,
-0.6815003752708435,
0.1234322264790535,
0.12721692025661469,
-0.05272307246923447,
-0.26974689960479736,
0.7600829005241394,
-0.17249783873558044,
-0.06134181469678879,
-0.28503379225730896,
0.0136385727673769,
-0.25255802273750305,
-0.6491740942001343,
0.5746095180511475,
0.21059110760688782,
-0.007827545516192913,
-0.3188115656375885,
0.12858425080776215,
-0.2876109480857849,
0.44427919387817383,
0.5467594265937805,
0.08427107334136963,
-0.24922050535678864,
0.3558630049228668,
-0.1811932921409607,
-0.22942471504211426,
0.17354074120521545,
0.274444580078125,
-0.337823748588562,
-0.4768045246601105,
-0.08495797961950302,
-0.03226738050580025,
0.454214870929718,
0.16413988173007965,
-0.13861298561096191,
0.4393857419490814,
-0.04494965448975563
] |
203741
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cruisers%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Navy
|
List of cruisers of the United States Navy
|
This list of cruisers of the United States Navy includes all ships that were ever called "cruiser", either publicly or in internal documentation.
Nomenclature
Comprehension of the history of cruisers as shown in these lists requires some understanding of the unique role (sharing both independent and combined fleet operations) that cruisers were expected to support in the U.S. fleet, and of the consequent influence this role had on design. In one example, the Navy's Bureau of Ships issued a memorandum in 1947 listing the ways in which cruiser hulls differed from destroyer hulls, including details such as double hull construction, electrical generation and distribution, water mains for firefighting, fuel lines and tankage, and fresh water distillation.
CGN-9 Long Beach, commissioned in 1961, was the last U.S. cruiser built on a true cruiser hull. All subsequent cruisers, including nuclear powered cruisers, were based on the less expensive and less capable destroyer hulls - the one attempt since Long Beach to revert to the advantages of a "cruiser hull" design was the canceled CSGN nuclear strike cruiser (the CSGN proposal mentioned the greater powerplant survivability from the separation of the two nuclear reactors in a cruiser hull over the adjacent reactors in a destroyer hull).
The sole example of a destroyer built on a cruiser hull was the experimental DL-1 Norfolk, which was originally classed as a hunter-killer cruiser (CLK-1).
Overview of hull classifications
Since the cruiser nomenclature predates the hull numbering system, and there were several confusing renumberings and renamings, there are multiple entries on these lists referring to the same physical ship. Combat history summaries (wars and battle stars) are listed only for the specific hull classification and number; for example, the World War II battle stars for a heavy cruiser (CA) and the Vietnam War battle stars for the same ship after its conversion to a guided missile cruiser (CG) are listed separately in each ship type list.
Hull reclassifications and skipped hull numbers
CA-1, CA-6 and CA-10 were never used, as ACR-1 Maine, ACR-6 California/San Diego and ACR-10 Tennessee/Memphis were lost prior to the 1920 redesignation, and their sisters' original hull numbers were carried over. CA-20 through CA-23 were skipped with the merger of the CA and CL sequences, which allowed the reclassification of the Washington Treaty CLs as CAs without re-numbering.
Heavy cruisers CA-149 and CA-151 to CA-153, light cruisers CL-154 to CL-159, hunter-killer cruiser CLK-2, and nuclear guided missile cruiser CGN-42 were canceled before being named.
Guided missile cruisers CG-1 through 8 and CG-10 through 12 were converted from World War II cruisers. CAG-1 USS Boston and CAG-2 USS Canberra retained most of their original gun armament and were later returned to their gun cruiser designations CA-69 and CA-70. CGN-9, Long Beach, originally held the last designation in the heavy-light cruiser sequence, CLGN-160.
CG-15 was skipped so the Leahy-class guided missile frigates (CG-16 class) could be redesignated without renumbering. The other missing numbers in the guided-missile cruiser series, 43–46, were not used so that DDG-47 Ticonderoga and DDG-48 Yorktown could be similarly redesignated. (It has been argued in some sources that the DDG-993 guided missile destroyers, which were essentially identically armed to the s, should have been redesignated CG-43 through −46.)
Before 30 June 1975, CG-16 USS Leahy through CGN-38 USS Virginia were designated DLG or DLGN (Destroyer Leader, Guided Missile (Nuclear powered)). They were redesignated cruisers in the 1975 ship reclassification. CGN-39 USS Texas and CGN-40 USS Mississippi were laid down as DLGNs but redesignated CGN before commissioning. CG-47 Ticonderoga and CG-48 Yorktown were ordered as guided missile destroyers (DDG) but were redesignated to guided missile cruisers (CG) before any ship was laid down. CGN-41 Arkansas and CG-49 through 73 were ordered, laid down and delivered as guided missile cruisers, although as Virginia or Ticonderoga-class ships they had not been designed as cruisers.
The Navy has 22 cruisers (CG-52 through CG-73) in active service, as of the end of 2015. With the cancellation of the CG(X) program in 2010, the Navy currently has no cruiser replacement program planned. The Navy is looking to the AEGIS-equipped destroyers to increasingly fill the role of the cruiser in the protection of the carrier strike group, as it could be well into the 2030s before any possible cruiser replacement program is up and running.
Lists by type
Cruisers without hull designations
The first three modern cruisers in the Navy, the Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago, were most successful as technology demonstrators that stimulated the U.S. industrial base, with features such as steel hulls and electricity generation. The last two protected cruisers which never received hull classification numbers, the New Orleans and Albany, were purchased from a British builder during mobilization for the 1898 Spanish-American War.
Atlanta (1884), protected cruiser
Boston (1884), protected cruiser - Spanish-American War, later Despatch (IX-2)
Chicago (1885), protected cruiser
Vesuvius (1888), experimental dynamite guns - Spanish-American War
New Orleans-class
New Orleans (1898), ex-Brazilian Amazonas - Spanish-American War, WW1
Albany (1899), ex-Brazilian Almirante Abreu - Spanish-American War, WW1
Armed merchant cruisers
Beginning in 1891 Congress subsidized a number of fast ocean liners with plans to requisition them in wartime. St. Louis, St. Paul, Harvard, and Yale were the largest and were chartered by the Navy for the Spanish-American War, and seven others were purchased in 1898.
St. Louis (1894) - Spanish-American War
St. Paul (1895) - Spanish-American War
Harvard (1898), ex-SS City of New York - Spanish-American War, later WW1 as troopship Plattsburg
Yale (1889), ex-SSCity of Paris - Spanish-American War, later WW1 as troopship Harrisburg
Badger (1889), ex-Yumuri - Spanish-American War
Panther (1889), ex-Austin - Spanish-American War, later WW1 as destroyer tender AD-6
Prairie (1890), ex-El Sol - Spanish-American War, United States occupation of Veracruz, later WW1 as destroyer tender AD-5
Buffalo (1892), ex-El Cid, later WW1 as destroyer tender AD-8
Yankee (1892), ex-El Norte - Spanish-American War, wrecked 1908
Yosemite (1892), ex-El Sud - Spanish-American War, sank 1900
Dixie (1893), ex-El Rio - Spanish-American War, later WW1 as destroyer tender, later AD-1
German war prize
Frankfurt (1915), sunk as target
Armored cruisers
Officially these ships were e.g., "Armored Cruiser No. 1". Unofficially, top naval officers initially referred to these ships as battleships because they cost almost as much, shared many features with them, and were intended to accompany them in fleet actions; they took care to ensure that Congress never heard their opinion. The 1905 Russo-Japanese War showed armored cruisers did not perform as well as either battleships or as other cruiser types. As battleship technology advanced they were judged obsolete for their original role about the time the last U.S. armored cruiser was commissioned (this process in part led to the development of battlecruisers as a replacement), and so they were retained for other cruiser roles despite their deficiencies. During 1912-1920 the U.S. armored cruisers had their names changed from states to cities within those states to free up the names for battleships.
(ACR-1) Maine (1895), later classed as a second class battleship, lost 1898
(ACR-2) New York (1893) - Spanish-American War, later Saratoga, WW1 as Rochester, later CA-2
(ACR-3) Brooklyn (1896) - Spanish-American War, later CA-3
(ACR-4) Pennsylvania (1905), later Pittsburgh - United States occupation of Veracruz, WW1, later CA-4
(ACR-5) West Virginia (1905), later Huntington - WW1, later CA-5
(ACR-6) California (1907), later San Diego - WW1, war loss 1918
(ACR-7) Colorado (1905), later Pueblo - WW1, later CA-7
(ACR-8) Maryland (1905), later Frederick - WW1, later CA-8
(ACR-9) South Dakota (1908) - WW1, later Huron CA-9
(ACR-10) Tennessee (1906), later Memphis, wrecked 1916
(ACR-11) Washington (1906), later Seattle - WW1, later CA-11
(ACR-12) North Carolina (1908) - WW1, later Charlotte CA-12
(ACR-13) Montana (1908), later Missoula - WW1, later CA-13
Protected and Peace cruisers
In the pre-1920 period abbreviations were informal and not standardized; officially these ships were, e.g., "Cruiser No. 1". Only the Montgomery class were unprotected cruisers, all the rest were protected cruisers. The Navy often referred to unprotected cruisers and obsolete protected cruisers (and some large gunboats without cruiser features) as peace cruisers due to their use in major policing and diplomatic roles.
(C-1) Newark (1891) - Spanish-American War
(C-2) Charleston (1889) - Spanish-American War, wrecked 1899
(C-3) Baltimore (1890) - Spanish-American War, WW1, later minelayer CM-1
(C-4) Philadelphia (1890), later IX-24
(C-5) San Francisco (1890) - Spanish-American War, WW1, later minelayer CM-2
(C-6) Olympia (1895) - Spanish-American War, WW1
(C-7) Cincinnati (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1
(C-8) Raleigh (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1
(C-9) Montgomery (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1 as Anniston
(C-10) Detroit (1893) - Spanish-American War
(C-11) Marblehead (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1, later PG-27
(C-12) Columbia (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1, later CA-16
(C-13) Minneapolis (1894) - Spanish-American War, WW1, later CA-17
(C-14) Denver (1904) - WW1, later PG-28, CL-16
(C-15) Des Moines (1904) - WW1, later PG-29, CL-17
(C-16) Chattanooga (1904) - WW1, later PG-30, CL-18
(C-17) Galveston (1905) - WW1, later PG-31, CL-19
(C-18) Tacoma (1904) - United States occupation of Veracruz, WW1, later PG-32, CL-20
(C-19) Cleveland (1903), later PG-33, CL-22
(C-20) St. Louis (1906) - WW1, later CA-18
(C-21) Milwaukee (1906), wrecked 1917
(C-22) Charleston (1905) - WW1, later CA-19
While classified as patrol gunboats by the Navy and as sloops by the London Naval Treaty, the 2,000 ton displacement Erie-class gunboats were designed to fulfill the role of peace cruisers in Asia and the Caribbean as detailed in internal Navy documents.
Erie-class
(PG-50) Erie (1936) - WW2: 1 battle star, war loss 1942
(PG-51) Charleston (1936) - WW2: 1 battle star
Scout cruisers
The use of fast armed merchant cruisers in the Spanish-American War and the fleet exercises of 1902-03 convinced the Navy that it needed fast scout cruisers. The Chester class was built in part to test high speed propulsion plants. The Omaha class would become the oldest U.S. cruisers to serve in World War II. Officially these ships were, e.g., "Scout Cruiser No. 1", and sometimes abbreviated SC or SCR; on 8 August 1921 all would be reclassed as light cruisers.
(CS-1) Chester (1908) - United States occupation of Veracruz, WW1; later CL-1
(CS-2) Birmingham (1908) - WW1, later CL-2
(CS-3) Salem (1908) - WW1, later CL-3
Omaha class
(CS-4) Omaha (laid down 1918) - later CL-4
(CS-5) Milwaukee (laid down 1918) - later CL-5
(CS-6) Cincinnati (laid down 1920) - later CL-6
(CS-7) Raleigh (ordered 1916) - later CL-7
(CS-8) Detroit (ordered 1916) - later CL-8
(CS-9) Richmond (laid down 1920) - later CL-9
(CS-10) Concord (ordered 1916) - later CL-10
(CS-11) Trenton (ordered 1916) - later CL-11
(CS-12) Marblehead (ordered 1916) - later CL-12
(CS-13) Memphis (ordered 1916) - later CL-13
Battlecruisers
The United States laid down its only six battlecruisers as part of the 1917 construction program; in accordance with the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty four were scrapped incomplete and two converted during construction into the s.
s
(CC-1) Lexington - completed as
(CC-2) Constellation - canceled
(CC-3) Saratoga - completed as
(CC-4) Ranger - canceled
(CC-5) Constitution - canceled
(CC-6) United States - canceled
Heavy and light cruisers
On 17 July 1920, all First and Second Class Cruisers (armored and protected cruisers) still in service were reclassified as Armored Cruisers (CA).
(CA-1) skipped
(CA-2) Rochester (ex-ACR-2)
(CA-3) Brooklyn (ex-ACR-3)
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
(CA-4) Pittsburgh (ex-ACR-4)
(CA-5) Huntington (ex-ACR-5)
(CA-6) skipped
(CA-7) Pueblo (ex-ACR-7)
(CA-8) Frederick (ex-ACR-8)
(CA-9) Huron (ex-ACR-9)
Tennessee-class cruisers
(CA-10) skipped
(CA-11) Seattle (ex-ACR-11; later IX-39)
(CA-12) Charlotte (ex-ACR-12)
(CA-13) Missoula (ex-ACR-13)
(CA-14) Chicago (from 1885 unclassified)
(CA-15) Olympia (ex-C-6)
Columbia-class cruisers
(CA-16) Columbia (ex-C-12)
(CA-17) Minneapolis (ex-C-13)
St. Louis-class cruisers (1905)
(CA-18) St. Louis (ex-C-20)
(CA-19) Charleston (ex-C-22)
In the 1920 hull designation system, of the Third Class Cruisers the fast Scout Cruisers became Light Cruisers (CL), and the slower New Orleans and Denver-class "peace cruisers" were reclassified as Patrol Gunboats (PG).
On 8 August 1921 the system was revised; the surviving protected cruisers (except for the "semi-armored" St Louis class) and the peace cruiser/patrol gunboats were all grouped with the scout cruisers as Light Cruisers (CL).
Chester-class cruisers
(CL-1) Chester (ex-CS-1)
(CL-2) Birmingham (ex-CS-2)
(CL-3) Salem (ex-CS-3)
Omaha-class cruiser
(CL-4) Omaha (ex-CS-4, 1923) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-5) Milwaukee (ex-CS-5, 1923) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-6) Cincinnati (ex-CS-6, 1924) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-7) Raleigh (ex-CS-7, 1924) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CL-8) Detroit (ex-CS-8, 1923) - WW2: 6 battle stars
(CL-9) Richmond (ex-CS-9, 1923) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CL-10) Concord (ex-CS-10, 1923) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-11) Trenton (ex-CS-11, 1924) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-12) Marblehead (ex-CS-12, 1924) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CL-13) Memphis (ex-CS-13, 1925)
(CL-14) Chicago (ex-CA-14; later IX-5 Alton)
(CL-15) Olympia (ex-C-6, ex-CA-15, later IX-40, then museum ship)
Denver-class cruisers
(CL-16) Denver (ex-C-14, ex-PG-28)
(CL-17) Des Moines (ex-C-15, ex-PG-29)
(CL-18 Chattanooga (ex-C-16, ex-PG-30)
(CL-19) Galveston (ex-C-17, ex-PG-31)
(CL-20) Tacoma (ex-C-18, ex-PG-32), wrecked 1924
(CL-21) Cleveland (ex-C-19, ex-PG-33)
New Orleans-class cruisers (1896)
(CL-22) New Orleans (ex-Amazonas, ex-PG-34)
(CL-23) Albany (ex-Almirante Abreu, ex-PG-36)
The CA/CL overlap of hull numbers would persist until the last armored cruiser of the original CA series, Seattle, was reclassed as IX-39.
The first cruisers of the Pensacola, Northampton, New Orleans, and Portland classes - which were designed after the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, so quickly that the last design was complete before sea trial of the first were finished - were originally designated Light Cruisers (CL) due to their light protection. In accordance with the 1930 London Naval Treaty, they were reclassified as "Heavy Cruisers" (CA) in 1931 due to their guns. Thenceforward new heavy and light cruisers were numbered in a single sequence. These four classes were known as "Treaty cruisers" and were seen even before World War II as deficient by the Navy due to the treaty limitations, but despite their high losses in the early days of the war they performed well.
(CL/CA-24) Pensacola (1930) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL/CA-25) Salt Lake City (1929) - WW2: 11 battle stars
(CL/CA-26) Northampton (1930) - WW2: 6 battle stars, war loss 1942
(CL/CA-27) Chester (1930) - WW2: 11 battle stars
(CL/CA-28) Louisville (1931) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL/CA-29) Chicago (1931) - WW2: 3 battle stars, war loss 1943
(CL/CA-30) Houston (1930) - WW2: 2 battle stars, war loss 1942
(CL/CA-31) Augusta (1931) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CL/CA-32) New Orleans (1934) - WW2: 17 battle stars
(CL/CA-33) Portland (1933) - WW2: 16 battle stars
New Orleans class
(CL/CA-34) Astoria (1934) - WW2: 3 battle stars, war loss 1942
Portland class
(CL/CA-35) Indianapolis (1932) - WW2: 10 battle stars, war loss 1945
New Orleans class
(CL/CA-36) Minneapolis (1934) - WW2: 17 battle stars
(CA-37) Tuscaloosa (1934) - WW2: 7 battle stars
(CA-38) San Francisco (1934) - WW2: 17 battle stars
(CA-39) Quincy (1936) - WW2: 1 battle star, war loss 1942
The terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty motivated the signatories to de-emphasize heavy cruiser construction in favor of light cruisers. The resultant nine ship Brooklyn-class of light cruisers had a strong influence on US cruiser design. Nearly all subsequent US cruisers, heavy and light, were directly or indirectly based on them, including the unique heavy cruiser Wichita.
(CL-40) Brooklyn (1937) - WW2: 4 battle stars, later Chilean O'Higgins
(CL-41) Philadelphia (1937) - WW2: 5 battle stars, later Brazilian Barroso
(CL-42) Savannah (1938) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CL-43) Nashville (1938) - WW2: 10 battle stars, later Chilean Capitan Prat
New Orleans class
(CA-44) Vincennes (1937) - WW2: 2 battle stars, war loss 1942
Wichita class
(CA-45) Wichita (1939) - WW2: 13 battle stars
Brooklyn class
(CL-46) Phoenix (1938) - WW2: 11 battle stars, later ARA General Belgrano
(CL-47) Boise (1938) - WW2: 11 battle stars, later ARA Nueve de Julio
(CL-48) Honolulu (1938) - WW2: 8 battle stars
Brooklyn class (St. Louis subclass)
(CL-49) St. Louis (1939) - WW2: 11 battle stars, later Brazilian Almirante Tamandaré
(CL-50) Helena (1939) - WW2: 7 battle stars, war loss 1943
The 1936 Second London Naval Treaty would also influence the Navy's light cruiser program. It imposed limits that resulted in the smaller displacement Atlanta class with a dual purpose rapid fire main gun battery, the first such ship in the Navy. Parallel to the Atlanta design was an abortive attempt to design a super-Atlanta known as the Cruiser-Destroyer, or CLD.
When the United States entered World War II it had three major classes of cruisers under construction: the Atlanta and Cleveland light cruiser classes (with 5-inch and 6-inch main batteries, respectively), and the Baltimore-class of heavy cruisers. These ships would form the bulk of the cruiser war construction effort, with eight Atlanta-class, twenty-seven Cleveland-class, and fourteen Baltimore-class cruisers ultimately completed. Early in the war nine Cleveland hulls would be diverted for conversion into light aircraft carriers (CVLs). By the end of the war three Cleveland hulls would be canceled, and one incomplete hull would later be converted to a guided missile cruiser.
(CL-51) Atlanta (1941) - WW2: 5 battle stars, war loss 1942
(CL-52) Juneau (1942) - WW2: 4 battle stars, war loss 1942
(CL-53) San Diego (1942) - WW2: 18 battle stars
(CL-54) San Juan (1942) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL-55) Cleveland (1942) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL-56) Columbia (1942) - WW2: 10 battle stars
(CL-57) Montpelier (1942) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL-58) Denver (1942) - WW2: 11 battle stars
(CL-59) Amsterdam (completed as )
(CL-60) Santa Fe (1942) - WW2: 13 battle stars
(CL-61) Tallahassee (completed as )
(CL-62) Birmingham (1943) - WW2: 8 battle stars
(CL-63) Mobile (1943) - WW2: 11 battle stars
(CL-64) Vincennes (ex-Flint) (1944) - WW2: 6 battle stars
(CL-65) Pasadena (1944) - WW2: 5 battle stars
(CL-66) Springfield (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars, later converted to CLG-7
(CL-67) Topeka (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars, later converted to CLG-8
(CA-68) Baltimore (1943) - WW2: 9 battle stars
(CA-69) Boston (1943) - WW2: 10 battle stars, later converted to CAG-1
(CA-70) Canberra (ex-Pittsburgh) (1943) - WW2: 7 battle stars, later converted to CAG-2
(CA-71) Quincy (ex-St Paul) (1943) - WW2: 5 battle stars
(CA-72) Pittsburgh (ex-Albany) (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CA-73) St. Paul (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star, Korea: 8 stars, Vietnam: 9 stars
(CA-74) Columbus (1945) - later converted to CG-12
(CA-75) Helena (ex-Des Moines) (1945) - WW2: 4 battle stars
Cleveland class
(CL-76) New Haven (completed as )
(CL-77) Huntington (completed as )
(CL-78) Dayton (completed as )
(CL-79) Wilmington (completed as )
(CL-80) Biloxi (1943) - WW2: 9 battle stars
(CL-81) Houston (ex-Vicksburg) (1943) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CL-82) Providence (1945) - later converted to CLG-6
(CL-83) Manchester (1946) - Korea: 9 battle stars
(CL-84) Buffalo - canceled
(CL-85) Fargo (completed as )
(CL-86) Vicksburg (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CL-87) Duluth (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CL-88) Newark - canceled
(CL-89) Miami (1943) - WW2: 6 battle stars
(CL-90) Astoria (ex-Wilkes-Barre) (1944) - WW2: 5 battle stars
(CL-91) Oklahoma City (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars, later converted to CLG-5
(CL-92) Little Rock (1945) - later converted to CLG-4
(CL-93) Galveston (completed as CLG-3)
(CL-94) Youngstown - canceled after construction started
Atlanta class (Oakland subclass)
(CL-95) Oakland (1943) - WW2: 9 battle stars
(CL-96) Reno (1943) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CL-97) Flint (1944) - WW2: 4 battle stars
(CL-98) Tucson (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star
Cleveland class
(CL-99) Buffalo (completed as )
(CL-100) Newark (completed as )
(CL-101) Amsterdam (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star
(CL-102) Portsmouth (1945)
(CL-103) Wilkes-Barre (1944) - WW2: 4 battle stars
(CL-104) Atlanta (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars, later IX-304
(CL-105) Dayton (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star
As the Navy gained experience with World War II combat conditions, it was decided that the Atlanta, Cleveland, and Baltimore classes needed improvement. However, major improvements would cause unacceptable delays in the construction programs. A new generation of cruisers with minor improvements would consist of the Juneau and Fargo classes of light cruisers (respectively 5-inch and 6-inch main batteries), and the Oregon City-class of heavy cruisers. Due to the near-total destruction of the Imperial Japanese Navy, the number of the ships of this generation to be completed as gun cruisers would be small: three Juneau-class, two Fargo-class, and three Oregon City-class cruisers. A fourth Oregon City-class cruiser would be completed as a command cruiser. Seventeen hulls from among the three classes were canceled.
(CL-106) Fargo (1945)
(CL-107) Huntington (1946)
(CL-108) Newark - canceled after construction started
(CL-109) New Haven - canceled after construction started
(CL-110) Buffalo - canceled after construction started
(CL-111) Wilmington - canceled after construction started
(CL-112) Vallejo - canceled
(CL-113) Helena - canceled
(CL-114) Roanoke - canceled
(CL-115) - canceled unnamed
(CL-116) Tallahassee - canceled after construction started
(CL-117) Cheyenne - canceled after construction started
(CL-118) Chattanooga - canceled after construction started
(CL-119) Juneau (1946)
(CL-120) Spokane (1946)
(CL-121) Fresno (1946)
Oregon City class
(CA-122) Oregon City (1946)
(CA-123) Albany (1946) - later converted to CG-10
(CA-124) Rochester (1946) - Korea: 6 battle stars
(CA-125) Northampton (completed as CLC-1)
(CA-126) Cambridge - canceled after construction started
(CA-127) Bridgeport - canceled after construction started
(CA-128) Kansas City - canceled after construction started
(CA-129) Tulsa - canceled
Baltimore class
(CA-130) Bremerton (1945) - Korea: 2 battle stars
(CA-131) Fall River (1945)
(CA-132) Macon (1945)
(CA-133) Toledo (1946) - Korea: 5 battle stars
The Navy agreed in the waning days of World War II to construct a small number of cruisers for the purpose of operationally testing new gun designs and other major improvements incorporating the lessons learned of World War II combat: the 'CL-154' and Worcester classes of light cruisers (respectively 5-inch and 6-inch main batteries), and the Des Moines-class of heavy cruisers. Initially the Navy wanted at least one squadron of six ships of each class, but in the end only two Worcester-class and three Des Moines-class cruisers would be completed, and the CL-154 class would be cancelled in its entirety. A total of seventeen hulls from among the three planned classes would be canceled.
(CA-134) Des Moines (1948)
Baltimore class
(CA-135) Los Angeles (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star, Korea: 5 stars
(CA-136) Chicago (1945) - WW2: 1 battle star, later converted to CG-11
Oregon City class
(CA-137) Norfolk - canceled after construction started
(CA-138) Scranton - canceled after construction started
Des Moines class
(CA-139) Salem (1949), museum ship
(CA-140) Dallas - canceled after construction started
CA-141 to 143 - canceled unnamed
(CL-144) Worcester (1948) - Korea: 2 battle stars
(CL-145) Roanoke (1949)
(CL-146) Vallejo - canceled after construction started
(CL-147) Gary - canceled after construction started
Des Moines class
(CA-148) Newport News (1949) - Vietnam: 3 battle stars
(CA-149) - canceled unnamed
(CA-150) Dallas - canceled
CA-151 to 153 - canceled unnamed
CL-154 class
CL-154 to 159 - canceled unnamed
The last ship to be assigned a hull number in the Heavy and Light Cruiser sequence would be the 1950's era nuclear powered Long Beach, though this ship would be assigned another number and designation before launch.
Long Beach class
CLGN/CGN-160 Long Beach, completed as CGN-9 (1961)
Large cruisers
The large cruiser design motivation came from the deployment of Germany's so-called pocket battleships in the early 1930s, and from concerns that Japan would follow with similar ships. These large cruisers had design features intermediate between heavy cruisers and battleships, unlike the designs of the earlier battlecruisers which were intended to serve much the same role.
(CB-1) Alaska (1944) - WW2: 3 battle stars
(CB-2) Guam (1944) - WW2: 2 battle stars
(CB-3) Hawaii - construction stopped after launching, conversion to a missile ship (CBG-3) and then a command ship (CBC-1) canceled
(CB-4) Philippines - canceled
(CB-5) Puerto Rico - canceled
(CB-6) Samoa - canceled
German cruiser war prize
(IX-300) Prinz Eugen (1940 Germany heavy cruiser, entered USN service in 1945 after award as war prize and expended in nuclear testing in 1946)
Hunter-Killer cruisers
CLK-1 was authorized in 1947 as an anti-submarine hunter killer. She was designed on a light cruiser hull so she could carry a greater variety of detection gear than a destroyer.
(CLK-1) Norfolk, reclassified as Destroyer Leader DL-1 prior to launch
(CLK-2) - canceled unnamed
Antiaircraft cruisers
On 18 March 1949, the surviving light cruisers of the Atlanta and Juneau classes were redesignated as antiaircraft cruisers (CLAA) without changing their hull numbers; San Diego, San Juan, and Flint were redesignated even though they had been decommissioned and were in reserve. The CL-154 class would also have received this designation had they not been canceled.
Atlanta class
(CLAA-53) San Diego
(CLAA-54) San Juan
Atlanta class (Oakland subclass)
(CLAA-95) Oakland
(CLAA-96) Reno
(CLAA-97) Flint
(CLAA-98) Tucson
Juneau class
(CLAA-119) Juneau - Korea: 5 battle stars
(CLAA-120) Spokane, later AG-191
(CLAA-121) Fresno
Command cruisers
By the end of World War II the Navy had gained favorable experience with dedicated amphibious command ships, and desired similar but faster ships to accompany aircraft carriers for fleet command, which would also relieve overcrowded fleet command facilities on other ships. The result would be the highly capable but expensive command cruisers.
(CLC/CC-1) Northampton (ex-CA-125) (1953)
(CBC-1) Hawaii (ex-CB-3, ex-CBG-3) - conversion canceled
(CC-2) Wright (ex-CVL-49, ex-AVT-7) (1963)
(CC-3) Saipan (ex-CVL-48, ex-AVT-6), - conversion canceled, later AGMR-2 as Arlington
Guided missile cruisers
With the exception of the purpose-built nuclear powered guided missile cruiser Long Beach, all of the early guided missile cruisers were converted heavy or light cruisers from the World War II era. The early conversions (CAG and CLG) were 'single-enders' which placed the missile facilities aft and conservatively retained their forward main gun batteries; the later conversions (CG) were 'double-enders' which eliminated the main guns. In 1975 the surviving 'single enders' would be reclassified as CG even though they retained their guns.
Alaska class
(CBG-3) Hawaii (ex-CB-3) - conversion canceled
(CAG-1) Boston (ex-CA-69, 1955) - Vietnam: 5 battle stars
(CAG-2) Canberra (ex-CA-70, 1956) - Vietnam: 4 battle stars
(CLG-3) Galveston (ex-CL-93, 1958) - Vietnam: 2 battle stars
(CLG/CG-4) Little Rock (ex-CL-92, 1960), museum ship
(CLG/CG-5) Oklahoma City (ex-CL-91, 1960) - Vietnam: 11 battle stars
(CLG/CG-6) Providence (ex-CL-82, 1959) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars
(CLG/CG-7) Springfield (ex-CL-66, 1960)
(CLG-8) Topeka (ex-CL-67, 1960) - Vietnam: 3 battle stars
Long Beach class
(CGN-9) Long Beach (ex-CLGN-160, 1961) - Vietnam: 7 battle stars
(CG-10) Albany (ex-CA-123, 1962)
(CG-11) Chicago (ex-CA-136, 1964) - Vietnam: 11 battle stars
(CG-12) Columbus (ex-CA-74, 1962)
(CG-13) Rochester - conversion canceled
(CG-14) Bremerton - conversion canceled
Following the conversion of the Albany class, all guided missile cruisers would be built on 'destroyer hulls'; the pre-1975 ships were originally classified as destroyers (DDG) or as destroyer leaders (DLG) and termed 'frigates' before reclassification as cruisers.
(CG-15) skipped to redesignate the Leahy-class frigates without renumbering
(DLG/CG-16) Leahy (1962) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars
(DLG/CG-17) Harry E. Yarnell (1963)
(DLG/CG-18) Worden (1963) - Vietnam: 9 battle stars, Gulf War: 2 stars
(DLG/CG-19) Dale (1963) - Vietnam: 8 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-20) Richmond K. Turner (1964) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars, Gulf War 3 stars
(DLG/CG-21) Gridley (1963) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars, Gulf War 1 star
(DLG/CG-22) England (1963) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars, Gulf War 1 star
(DLG/CG-23) Halsey (1963) - Vietnam: 8 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-24) Reeves (1964) - Vietnam: 9 battle stars
Bainbridge class
(DLGN/CGN-25) Bainbridge (1962) - Vietnam: 8 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-26) Belknap (1964) - Vietnam: 3 battle stars
(DLG/CG-27) Josephus Daniels (1965) - Vietnam: 3 battle stars
(DLG/CG-28) Wainwright (1966) - Vietnam: 4 battle stars
(DLG/CG-29) Jouett (1966) - Vietnam: 7 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-30) Horne (1967) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-31) Sterett (1967) - Vietnam: 7 battle stars
(DLG/CG-32) William H. Standley (1966) - Vietnam: 4 battle stars
(DLG/CG-33) Fox (1966) - Vietnam: 4 battle stars, Gulf War: 1 star
(DLG/CG-34) Biddle (1967) - Vietnam: 6 battle stars, Gulf War: 2 star
Truxtun class
(DLGN/CGN-35) Truxtun (1967) - Vietnam: 7 battle stars
(DLGN/CGN-36) California (1974) - Gulf War: 1 battle star
(DLGN/CGN-37) South Carolina (1975) - Gulf War: 1 battle star
(DLGN/CGN-38) Virginia (1976) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars
(DLGN/CGN-39) Texas (1977) - Gulf War: 1 battle star
(CGN-40) Mississippi (1978) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars
(CGN-41) Arkansas (1980) - Gulf War: 1 battle star
CSGN, proposed nuclear-powered Aegis strike cruiser, canceled unnamed and unnumbered
CGN-42, Virginia-class derivative nuclear-powered Aegis cruiser, proposed as a cheaper alternative to the CSGN, canceled unnamed
CG-43 to CG-46 skipped to allow redesignation of DDG-47 Ticonderoga without renumbering.
(DDG/CG-47) Ticonderoga (1983) - Gulf War: 1 battle star
(DDG/CG-48) Yorktown (1984)
(CG-49) Vincennes (1985)
(CG-50) Valley Forge (1986) - Gulf War: 3 battle stars
(CG-51) Thomas S. Gates (1987) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-52) Bunker Hill (1986) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-53) Mobile Bay (1987) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, Iraq War, GWOT
(CG-54) Antietam (1987) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, Iraq War: 1 star, GWOT
(CG-55) Leyte Gulf (1987) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-56) San Jacinto (1988) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-57) Lake Champlain (1988) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-58) Philippine Sea (1989) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-59) Princeton (1989) - Gulf War: 3 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-60) Normandy (1989) - Gulf War: 2 battle stars, Iraq War, GWOT
(CG-61) Monterey (1990)
(CG-62) Chancellorsville (1989) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-63) Cowpens (1991) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-64) Gettysburg (1991)
(CG-65) Chosin (1991) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-66) Hué City (1991) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-67) Shiloh (1992) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-68) Anzio (1992) - Iraq War: 2 battle stars, GWOT
(CG-69) Vicksburg (1992) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-70) Lake Erie (1993) - Gulf War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-71) Cape St. George (1993) - Iraq War: 1 battle star, GWOT
(CG-72) Vella Gulf (1993) - GWOT
(CG-73) Port Royal (1994)
CG(X) class - canceled
Nuclear powered cruisers
To date all nuclear cruisers have been guided missile cruisers.
Long Beach class
(CGN-9) Long Beach
Bainbridge class
(CGN-25) Bainbridge
Truxtun class
(CGN-35) Truxtun
California class
(CGN-36) California
(CGN-37) South Carolina
Virginia class
(CGN-38) Virginia
(CGN-39) Texas
(CGN-40) Mississippi
(CGN-41) Arkansas
CGN-42 - cancelled
List by name
Names without links were not completed, or completed as aircraft carriers
Albany (1899/PG-36/CL-23)
Albany (CA-123/CG-10)
Amsterdam (CL-59)
Astoria (CL/CA-34)
Atlanta (1884)
Atlanta (CL-104/IX-304)
Augusta (CL/CA-31)
Badger (1889)
Bainbridge (DLGN/CGN-25)
Belknap (DLG/CG-26)
Biddle (DLG/CG-34)
Birmingham (CS/CL-2)
Boston (1884)
Boston (CA-69/CAG-1)
Bremerton (CA-130/CG-14)
Bridgeport (CA-127)
Brooklyn (ACR/CA-3)
Buffalo (CL-84)
Buffalo (CL-99)
Buffalo (CL-110)
California (DLGN/CGN-36)
Cambridge (CA-126)
Canberra (CA-70/CAG-2)
Charleston (C-22/CA-19)
Charlotte (ACR/CA-12)
Chattanooga (C-16/PG-30/CL-18)
Chattanooga (CL-118)
Chester (CS/CL-1)
Chattanooga (CL/CA-27)
Cheyenne (CL-117)
Chicago (1885/CA-14/CL-14/IX-5)
Chicago (CL/CA-29)
Chicago (CA-136/CG-11)
Cincinnati (CS/CL-6)
Cleveland (C-19/PG-33/CL-21)
Columbia (C-12/CA-16)
Columbus (CA-74/CG-12)
Concord (CS/CL-10)
Constellation (CC-2)
Constitution (CC-5)
Dale (DLG/CG-19)
Dallas (CA-140)
Dallas (CA-150)
Dayton (CL-78)
Denver (C-14/PG-28/CL-16)
Des Moines (C-15/PG-29/CL-17)
Detroit (CS/CL-8)
Dixie (1893)
England (DLG/CG-22)
Fargo (CL-85)
Flint (CL/CLAA-97)
Fox (DLG/CG-33)
Frankfurt (1915)
Frederick (ACR/CA-8)
Fresno (CL/CLAA-121)
Galveston (C-17/PG-31/CL-19)
Galveston (CL-93/CLG-3)
Gary (CL-147)
Gridley (DLG/CG-21)
Halsey (DLG/CG-23)
Harry E. Yarnell (DLG/CG-17)
Harvard (1888)
Hawaii (CB-3/CBG-3/CBC-1) - launched, not completed, held in reserve
Helena (CL-113)
Horne (DLG/CG-30)
Houston (CL/CA-30)
Huntington (ACR/CA-5)
Huntington (CL-77)
Huron (ACR/CA-9)
Indianapolis (CL/CA-35)
Josephus Daniels (DLG/CG-27)
Jouett (DLG/CG-29)
Juneau (CL/CLAA-119)
Kansas City (CA-128)
Leahy (DLG/CG-16)
Lexington (CC-1)
Little Rock (CL-92/CLG-4/CG-4)
Long Beach (CLGN-160/CGN-160/CGN-9)
Louisville (CL/CA-28)
Marblehead (C-11/PG-27)
Marblehead (CS/CL-12)
Memphis (CS/CL-13)
Milwaukee (CS/CL-5)
Minneapolis (C-13/CA-17)
Minneapolis (CL/CA-36)
Missoula (ACR/CA-13)
Newark (CL-88)
Newark (CL-100)
Newark (CL-108)
New Haven (CL-76)
New Haven (CL-109)
New Orleans (1896/PG-34/CL-22)
New Orleans (CL/CA-32)
Norfolk (CA-137)
Northampton (CL/CA-26)
Northampton (CA-125/CLC-1/CC-1)
Oakland (CL/CLAA-95)
Oklahoma City (CL-91/CLG-5/CG-5)
Olympia (C-6/CA-15/CL-15/IX-40)
Omaha (CS/CL-4)
Panther (1889)
Pensacola (CL/CA-24)
Philippines (CB-4)
Pittsburgh (ACR/CA-4)
Portland (CL/CA-33)
Prairie (1890)
Providence (CL-82/CLG-6/CG-6)
Pueblo (ACR/CA-7)
Puerto Rico (CB-5)
Raleigh (CS/CL-7)
Ranger (CC-4)
Reeves (DLG/CG-24)
Reno (CL/CLAA-96)
Richmond (CS/CL-9)
Richmond K. Turner (DLG/CG-20)
Roanoke (CL-114)
Rochester (ACR/CA-2)
Rochester (CA-124/CG-13)
St. Louis (1894)
St. Louis (C-20/CA-18)
St. Paul (1895)
Salem (CS/CL-3)
Saipan (CVL-48/AVT-6/CC-3)
Salt Lake City (CL/CA-25)
Samoa (CB-6)
San Diego (CL/CLAA-53)
San Juan (CL/CLAA-54)
Saratoga (CC-3)
Scranton (CA-138)
Seattle (ACR-11/CA-11/IX-39)
South Carolina (DLGN/CGN-37)
Spokane (CL-120/CLAA-120/AG-191)
Springfield (CL-66/CLG-7/CG-7)
Sterett (DLG/CG-31)
Tacoma (C-18/PG-32/CL-20)
Tallahassee (CL-61)
Tallahassee (CL-116)
Texas (DLGN/CGN-39)
Ticonderoga (DDG/CG-47)
Topeka (CL-67/CLG-8)
Trenton (CS/CL-11)
Truxtun (DLGN/CGN-35)
Tucson (CL/CLAA-98)
Tulsa (CA-129)
United States (CC-6)
Vallejo (CL-112)
Vallejo (CL-146)
Vesuvius (1888)
Virginia (DLGN/CGN-38)
William H. Standley (DLG/CG-32)
Wilmington (CL-79)
Wilmington (CL-111)
Worden (DLG/CG-18)
Wright (CVL-49/AVT-7/CC-2)
Yale (1889)
Yankee (1892)
Yorktown (DDG/CG-48)
Yosemite (1892)
Youngstown (CL-94)
List of unnamed ships by hull number
CL-115 canceled
CA-141 to 143 canceled
CA-149 canceled
CA-151 to 153 canceled
CL/CLAA-154 to 159 canceled
CLK-2 canceled
CGN-42 canceled
List of canceled conversions
Bremerton (CG-14) 1959
Hawaii (CBG-3) 1950s
Hawaii (CBC-1) 1950s
Rochester (CG-13) 1959
Saipan (CC-3) 1963
List of skipped hull numbers
CA-1, CA-6, CA-10
CG-15
CG-43 to CG-46
See also
List of cruisers of World War II
List of light cruisers of the United States Navy
References
Notes
Sources
Cruisers of the United States Navy
Cruisers
United States
Cruisers list
|
[
0.2153669148683548,
0.5182116627693176,
-0.7218602895736694,
-0.10286490619182587,
-0.15973876416683197,
0.3391115367412567,
0.1885560005903244,
-0.10892545431852341,
-0.7210336327552795,
-0.3217165768146515,
-0.14259295165538788,
0.8812957406044006,
-0.13307692110538483,
0.4955422878265381,
-0.22680874168872833,
0.5824865698814392,
-0.032425206154584885,
0.8716650605201721,
-0.15583844482898712,
-0.25370287895202637,
-0.3200901448726654,
0.13220836222171783,
0.25668710470199585,
-0.6154909729957581,
0.18278388679027557,
0.48925572633743286,
0.571232259273529,
0.08187615126371384,
0.028131399303674698,
0.3436487913131714,
-0.10304747521877289,
0.3756565451622009,
-0.26790356636047363,
0.4800468981266022,
-0.4177037477493286,
-0.5743328928947449,
0.03669599071145058,
-0.4310067594051361,
0.5445706248283386,
-0.6913842558860779,
-0.4664055109024048,
-0.34959542751312256,
0.3869880735874176,
0.7171130776405334,
0.02282407507300377,
0.674199640750885,
-1.530336856842041,
-0.6504489779472351,
-0.3703899085521698,
0.012703600339591503,
-0.27082058787345886,
-0.3231494128704071,
0.2811431288719177,
0.6984851360321045,
0.1160261258482933,
0.5107058882713318,
-0.5196911692619324,
0.21132005751132965,
-0.42761287093162537,
-0.6780393719673157,
0.6077368855476379,
0.5536509156227112,
0.7895597815513611,
0.2278977632522583,
0.8101511597633362,
-0.010852359235286713,
-0.30673426389694214,
0.25763067603111267,
-0.28503814339637756,
-0.06179577857255936,
0.2440134584903717,
-0.5108588933944702,
0.49724748730659485,
-0.009366150945425034,
-0.33117684721946716,
0.06883905827999115,
-0.1360785812139511,
-0.2042820006608963,
-0.2684973180294037,
-0.30487415194511414,
0.05533144250512123,
0.40044817328453064,
0.6849625110626221,
0.10379503667354584,
-0.3580726385116577,
-0.017599307000637054,
-0.7735753655433655,
-0.2818578779697418,
-0.3684103488922119,
1.0434073209762573,
0.16785374283790588,
-0.07241440564393997,
0.5543211102485657,
0.2889464199542999,
-0.05405132472515106,
-0.09919419884681702,
-0.3369145393371582,
-0.03121650218963623,
-0.017378685995936394,
0.4024631679058075,
-0.07355806231498718,
0.7079751491546631,
0.7653940320014954,
-0.19799292087554932,
-0.66948002576828,
-0.5660623908042908,
0.1720084697008133,
0.24580466747283936,
-0.2241578847169876,
-0.08046925812959671,
-0.1311054229736328,
0.15733927488327026,
0.1964447796344757,
0.20385761559009552,
-0.43301406502723694,
0.03146980330348015,
-0.013095774687826633,
-0.2950841784477234,
-0.2391444891691208,
-0.17810304462909698,
0.1534634381532669,
0.7112670540809631,
-0.2166132777929306,
-0.6628099083900452,
0.3464972972869873,
0.684780478477478,
1.0103809833526611,
0.26797324419021606,
-0.4621690511703491,
-0.3727942407131195,
0.31116172671318054,
1.0306715965270996,
-0.5591875314712524,
0.5057299733161926,
-0.6905063390731812,
-0.5385347604751587,
0.2718144357204437,
0.08154279738664627,
0.4769573211669922,
0.6014726161956787,
-0.7455931305885315,
-0.5400115847587585,
-0.30096128582954407,
-0.5024309754371643,
0.2903810441493988,
-0.6406146883964539,
0.7634007334709167,
-0.47079670429229736,
-0.7617232203483582,
0.09051714837551117,
0.07326854765415192,
-0.39528563618659973,
-0.03273279592394829,
0.45233866572380066,
-0.3183935582637787,
-0.420858770608902,
0.5569027662277222,
-0.5191049575805664,
0.34321123361587524,
0.07534877955913544,
-0.5803912281990051,
0.01559719629585743,
-0.3268212080001831,
0.321958988904953,
0.06772308051586151,
0.1859837770462036,
0.08858218044042587,
-0.1294006109237671,
-0.31569287180900574,
-0.2922254204750061,
-0.2710976302623749,
-0.21401920914649963,
0.45042499899864197,
0.4216979444026947,
-0.11330855637788773,
0.25866201519966125,
0.5503885746002197,
-0.03385103493928909,
0.6420831084251404,
-0.31967654824256897,
-0.6168458461761475,
0.05241411551833153,
0.6540284156799316,
-0.14176742732524872,
0.46897992491722107,
-0.4159916341304779,
0.08726416528224945,
-0.027390968054533005,
0.02461438812315464,
-0.28940409421920776,
0.3307873606681824,
-0.4709101915359497,
0.21292884647846222,
-0.2640566825866699,
1.2947137355804443,
-0.08685792982578278,
-0.6870740056037903,
0.23384065926074982,
-0.08990214020013809,
0.21601729094982147,
0.38309410214424133,
0.003558321623131633,
0.5394706130027771,
0.11856795847415924,
-0.7857743501663208,
0.10697904974222183,
-0.15447814762592316,
0.6428616046905518,
-0.021730320528149605,
0.5087578892707825,
0.5692753791809082,
-0.4463381767272949,
0.14749950170516968,
-0.2443968802690506,
0.09771028161048889,
0.17456986010074615,
-0.3954244554042816,
0.22079235315322876,
0.09312998503446579,
-0.6847699880599976,
0.8539352416992188,
0.37195509672164917,
0.07437804341316223,
-0.13176673650741577,
-0.2856391966342926,
-0.12925271689891815,
-0.3639802038669586,
0.193967804312706,
-0.15306805074214935,
-0.25720566511154175,
1.007403016090393,
-0.21818320453166962,
-0.5073227286338806,
-0.49363163113594055,
0.19076435267925262,
0.013499460183084011,
-0.15180742740631104,
-0.18257354199886322,
0.38768255710601807,
-0.5133858323097229,
-0.0850445106625557,
-0.31010812520980835,
-0.6648612022399902,
0.3926882743835449,
0.2609791159629822,
-0.3864628076553345,
0.27947232127189636,
-0.3572876751422882,
-0.1394045650959015,
-0.6273833513259888,
0.3677714765071869,
0.12675002217292786,
0.5080331563949585,
-0.5833631157875061,
0.07488180696964264,
0.002429870655760169,
0.12870141863822937,
-0.17090143263339996,
0.5155903697013855,
-0.23383191227912903,
-0.045945100486278534,
0.3018553853034973,
-0.37092283368110657,
0.21155531704425812,
0.06080611050128937,
-0.5276958346366882,
-0.09509620815515518,
-0.25567349791526794,
-0.014452548697590828,
0.1803591251373291,
-0.10067807137966156,
0.772351086139679,
-0.07783174514770508,
-0.8031641840934753,
0.016371067613363266,
0.012705013155937195,
0.167722687125206,
0.4230593144893646,
-0.3314002752304077,
-0.13698197901248932,
0.3450358510017395,
0.6031510233879089,
0.34413689374923706,
-0.8142226934432983,
-0.26263898611068726,
-0.8306663036346436,
0.5253487229347229,
-0.43376749753952026,
0.008222095668315887,
0.3381974995136261,
-0.4249364137649536,
-0.005807470064610243,
-0.5083179473876953,
0.12124750763177872,
-0.07355008274316788,
0.16342182457447052,
-0.0780361220240593,
0.32457980513572693,
-0.26711317896842957,
-0.5244995355606079,
-0.5476261973381042,
0.0029775795992463827,
-0.004234699998050928,
-0.1943371742963791,
0.047192368656396866,
0.0889812633395195,
-0.31857338547706604,
0.03133607283234596,
-5.49886417388916,
-0.13465386629104614,
-0.6356545090675354,
-0.30728188157081604,
-0.3767319619655609,
0.06863953173160553,
0.1699356734752655,
0.012037210166454315,
-0.14315344393253326,
-0.5027320384979248,
0.3016888499259949,
0.11995482444763184,
0.16491398215293884,
0.8734111189842224,
0.5374809503555298,
0.37362709641456604,
1.2519326210021973,
-0.11922124773263931,
0.23416700959205627,
-0.04318152368068695,
0.2017693668603897,
-0.17879454791545868,
0.7453495860099792,
0.39863184094429016,
0.10896720737218857,
0.2572859823703766,
-0.32461658120155334,
0.14260663092136383,
-0.501005232334137,
-0.12243128567934036,
0.15240544080734253,
0.32295680046081543,
-0.09486859291791916,
-0.22556111216545105,
-0.03470959886908531,
-0.26554587483406067,
0.19972559809684753,
0.4048914313316345,
0.2069900631904602,
-0.47983166575431824,
-0.3964154124259949,
0.34043464064598083,
-0.40793687105178833,
-0.09268644452095032,
0.4224292039871216,
0.020304221659898758,
-0.25044605135917664,
0.2756936848163605,
0.05912000313401222,
1.0074563026428223,
-0.32182076573371887,
0.32820481061935425,
0.7480418682098389,
0.24858371913433075,
0.5591148138046265,
-0.6197662949562073,
-0.01810753345489502,
0.43021318316459656,
-0.4871037006378174,
-0.09244249016046524,
0.13518355786800385,
-0.3814319372177124,
-0.2085685282945633,
-0.23392431437969208,
-0.3148391544818878,
-0.5813490152359009,
-0.7388961911201477,
-0.25914278626441956,
0.11485272645950317,
0.3963453769683838,
-0.29146406054496765,
0.9306988716125488,
-0.0795605406165123,
-0.9872687458992004,
0.4716649353504181,
-0.272591769695282,
0.08111131191253662,
0.16006778180599213,
0.11546395719051361,
0.5466001033782959,
-0.333225816488266,
0.01421351544559002,
-0.5588306188583374,
0.4093759059906006,
-0.0699944868683815,
-0.5349439978599548,
-0.5390142202377319,
0.1984930783510208,
-0.18873512744903564,
-0.43738695979118347,
0.6486667990684509,
-0.006007705815136433,
0.5599174499511719,
-0.05978997424244881,
0.6413081884384155,
-0.30836668610572815,
0.3665563762187958,
0.5817702412605286,
0.9918924570083618,
-0.4797617197036743,
0.613653838634491,
-0.04129476100206375,
0.5395618677139282,
-0.45521149039268494,
-0.294085294008255,
-0.5497428178787231,
0.07120202481746674,
0.11920031905174255,
1.1148549318313599,
-0.5107088685035706,
-0.19331198930740356,
-1.153810739517212,
0.08655714243650436,
-0.6554850935935974,
0.7312152981758118,
0.1670030951499939,
0.21325905621051788,
0.8290132880210876,
0.6083733439445496,
0.4389064610004425,
0.1893703192472458,
0.2621191442012787,
-0.10298381000757217,
-0.4320692718029022,
0.04617918282747269,
-0.5258606672286987,
0.09154799580574036,
-0.047850482165813446,
-0.5553032159805298,
0.23908157646656036,
0.7436087727546692,
0.8830500841140747,
0.21817605197429657,
0.5391100645065308,
0.3990156948566437,
-0.16755926609039307,
-0.13006167113780975,
-0.007740058470517397,
0.2303544133901596,
-0.49105095863342285,
-0.04547903686761856,
-0.195842444896698,
-0.38832491636276245,
0.20156148076057434,
0.9884840846061707,
0.43038004636764526,
0.3245570957660675,
-0.22890175879001617,
0.05463764816522598,
0.4914511740207672,
-0.3885990381240845,
-0.7225160598754883,
0.19651338458061218,
-0.6665804982185364,
-0.20513717830181122,
-0.010164064355194569,
0.30290791392326355,
0.24245519936084747,
-1.1373051404953003,
-0.4510032832622528,
0.09357189387083054,
-0.3033846318721771,
-0.08844341337680817,
-0.590856671333313,
0.5950571298599243,
-0.1844916045665741,
-0.5716366767883301,
-0.21055346727371216,
0.13876138627529144,
0.682874321937561,
0.24887453019618988,
-0.4657457172870636,
-1.1450563669204712,
-0.22914472222328186,
0.2903412878513336,
0.28022897243499756,
-0.3131590187549591,
-0.016443248838186264,
-0.041635043919086456,
-0.22340168058872223,
-0.11741165071725845,
-0.2624872922897339,
-0.2422577291727066,
-0.03631480410695076,
-0.16831813752651215,
-0.0008020219393074512,
-0.044580087065696716,
0.2958378791809082,
-0.3810226619243622,
-0.2521105706691742,
-0.13480740785598755,
-0.2886069416999817,
0.40521299839019775,
0.05842242389917374,
-1.1610736846923828,
0.1903524398803711,
0.12798155844211578,
0.4437526762485504,
0.318791002035141,
-0.6742745041847229,
0.5593929290771484,
0.4959664046764374,
-0.9572897553443909,
-0.04517005383968353,
-0.04514002427458763,
-0.4367539584636688,
0.7021735906600952,
0.31490087509155273,
-0.2763020694255829,
0.46103331446647644,
-0.5063228011131287,
-0.7775795459747314,
-0.18197952210903168,
0.38215312361717224,
-0.08751897513866425,
-0.21417418122291565,
-0.09635914117097855,
0.07370111346244812,
-0.4107762575149536,
-0.806275486946106,
-0.022097080945968628,
0.35733211040496826,
-0.1536286175251007,
-0.11281903833150864,
-0.31597480177879333,
0.3607122004032135,
-0.15925836563110352,
-0.4007687270641327,
0.10239250212907791,
0.047159601002931595,
-0.7105104923248291,
0.21584607660770416,
-0.3530672788619995,
-0.3114943206310272,
0.5428286194801331,
-0.12039107084274292,
-0.21513617038726807,
-0.09879053384065628,
-0.07061890512704849,
0.4802672863006592,
0.21566608548164368,
1.1475002765655518,
-0.013760116882622242,
-0.7052852511405945,
-0.3229432702064514,
0.30512887239456177,
0.7913892865180969,
-0.633262574672699,
-0.5828672051429749,
0.34315165877342224,
0.042196810245513916,
-1.1947191953659058,
-0.9902716279029846,
-0.6720467209815979,
0.6670069098472595,
-0.05905899032950401,
-0.2718878388404846,
0.3084240257740021,
-0.1550305187702179,
0.16677384078502655,
-0.05660092085599899,
0.6816121935844421,
-0.9425738453865051,
0.04179668053984642,
0.25967520475387573,
-0.09215990453958511,
-0.5443850159645081,
-0.2614805996417999,
0.40504878759384155,
-0.11603628098964691,
0.16446825861930847,
0.52924644947052,
0.49041759967803955,
0.4563358426094055,
0.24993380904197693,
0.18544356524944305,
0.2479083240032196,
-0.26321670413017273,
0.48004013299942017,
0.043195705860853195,
-0.5999099612236023,
0.18511644005775452,
-0.05859779193997383,
-0.287984162569046,
0.04514613375067711,
-0.7271894812583923,
-0.23126329481601715,
-0.17859630286693573,
-0.4392533302307129,
-0.011222965084016323,
0.2664375603199005,
-0.136090949177742,
-0.2711636424064636,
0.13303284347057343,
-0.1294431984424591,
0.24904653429985046,
0.19049391150474548,
0.13052795827388763,
0.12945613265037537,
0.6936341524124146,
-0.18778321146965027,
0.6873698234558105,
-0.269768089056015,
-0.6316866874694824,
0.488661527633667,
0.16856446862220764,
0.5103245973587036,
-0.14635644853115082,
-0.30835533142089844,
-0.24640746414661407,
-0.26570630073547363,
-0.3133571445941925,
0.21781234443187714,
1.0762970447540283,
-0.6086183786392212,
-0.1486274152994156,
0.6012143492698669,
-0.42474958300590515,
-0.04215589910745621,
0.004955402109771967,
-0.12234850972890854,
-0.1573527306318283,
-0.0759340301156044,
0.4419645667076111,
-0.5970563292503357,
0.310650497674942,
-0.538350522518158,
-0.5767554044723511,
0.6079070568084717,
0.6467499732971191,
0.41715413331985474,
-0.4723564386367798,
-0.29785585403442383,
0.4001968204975128,
-0.43892672657966614,
-0.048974476754665375,
0.4833053648471832,
-0.4591638147830963,
-0.8958762288093567,
1.0565822124481201,
0.03196001797914505,
0.35782065987586975,
0.10469333082437515,
-0.2927226126194,
-0.3471553325653076,
0.3121212124824524,
-0.08509258925914764,
0.39883458614349365,
0.4087074100971222,
-0.17746230959892273,
-0.10655297338962555,
0.28161633014678955,
0.16340932250022888,
0.06593900173902512,
0.10394283384084702,
-0.3147079050540924,
0.2726346254348755,
-0.35974109172821045,
-0.04340633377432823,
-1.1886889934539795,
-0.5397157669067383,
0.27416977286338806,
0.2787526547908783,
0.06635915488004684,
0.08019805699586868,
0.35783520340919495,
0.15526218712329865,
0.19551371037960052,
-0.22228284180164337,
0.310529500246048,
0.13020916283130646,
0.5008837580680847,
-0.3863782584667206,
0.005202236585319042,
-0.24388697743415833,
0.36635956168174744,
0.6259298324584961,
-0.002230995800346136,
0.35591548681259155,
-0.22992461919784546,
-0.07423011213541031,
0.4662114381790161,
-0.10470800846815109,
-0.9143308401107788,
0.3232614994049072,
0.12237544357776642,
-0.46132194995880127,
0.5822262167930603,
0.4643389880657196,
0.4711783826351166,
0.32826122641563416,
-0.2932470738887787,
-0.23516230285167694,
0.045877858996391296,
-0.43294933438301086,
-0.054163556545972824,
-0.18593072891235352,
0.5281943082809448,
0.353265643119812,
-0.6974947452545166,
-0.5769323706626892,
0.2219567894935608,
0.037021834403276443,
0.2022315263748169,
-0.4740273952484131,
-0.3575264811515808,
-0.5181885361671448,
-0.1309453248977661,
0.3478175401687622,
0.45351502299308777,
-0.2972576320171356,
-0.389662504196167,
-0.07612297683954239,
0.1171618103981018,
-0.2502371370792389,
0.16575941443443298,
0.9130720496177673,
-0.43530261516571045,
-0.34468045830726624,
-0.18936029076576233,
0.2877080738544464,
-0.25971680879592896,
-0.21190501749515533,
0.8926070928573608,
-0.2333417385816574,
-0.5240081548690796,
-0.11000078916549683,
-0.16885550320148468,
-0.24744223058223724,
0.22748267650604248,
-0.25322970747947693,
-0.45243915915489197,
-0.7148861289024353,
0.09514107555150986,
0.2511932849884033,
-0.06712819635868073,
0.6174879670143127,
0.4115983247756958,
0.458181232213974,
-0.32734155654907227,
-0.25097203254699707,
-0.0892004743218422,
0.03078327514231205,
0.15665388107299805,
-0.3017731308937073,
0.2606422007083893,
0.15054818987846375,
-0.017478596419095993,
-0.2586510479450226,
0.7345969676971436,
-0.09933541715145111,
-0.3152296841144562,
0.4293048083782196,
-0.007419412489980459,
0.5043730139732361,
-0.1084510013461113,
0.3214705288410187,
-0.24100899696350098,
-0.012175474315881729,
0.384027361869812
] |
203745
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake%20Bay%20Retriever
|
Chesapeake Bay Retriever
|
The Chesapeake Bay Retriever is a large-sized breed of dog belonging to the retriever, gundog, and sporting breed groups. The breed was developed in the United States Chesapeake Bay area during the 19th century. Historically used by area market hunters to retrieve waterfowl, pull fishing nets, and rescue fishermen, it is today primarily a family pet and hunting companion. They are often known for their love of water and their ability to hunt. It is a medium to large sized dog similar in appearance to the Labrador Retriever. The Chesapeake has a wavy coat, rather than the Labrador's smooth coat. They are described as having a bright and happy disposition, courage, willingness to work, alertness, intelligence, and love of water as some of their characteristics.
Appearance
Distinctive features include eyes that are very clear, of yellowish or amber hue, hindquarters as high or a trifle higher than the shoulders, and a double-coat that tends to wave on shoulders, neck, back, and loins. The waterproof coat feels slightly oily and is often associated with a slight musky odor. Three basic colors are generally seen in the breed: brown, which includes all shades from a light to a deep dark brown; sedge, which varies from a reddish yellow through a bright red to chestnut shades; and deadgrass in all its shades, varying from a faded tan to a dull straw color. The breed standard states that white may also appear but it must be limited to the breast, belly, toes, or back of the feet. The head is round and broad with a medium stop and muzzle. The lips are thin, and the ears are small and of medium leather. The forelegs should be straight with good bone. The hindquarters are especially strong and the toes webbed since excellent swimming ability is important for the Chesapeake. This breed is also known for its large and powerful chest, used to break apart ice when diving into cold water while duck hunting.
Coat
The coat of the Chesapeake Bay Retriever is given the most consideration of any trait listed on the Positive Scale of Points in the Breed Standard. However the AKC Standard also reads "The question of coat and general type of balance takes precedence over any scoring table which could be drawn up. The Chesapeake should be well proportioned, an animal with a good coat and well balanced in other points being preferable to one excelling in some but weak in others." The hair on the face and legs should be very short and straight with a tendency to wave, never curl, on the shoulders, neck, back, and loins only and nowhere over 1.5 inches long. Moderate feathering on the rear of the hindquarters and tail is permissible although not longer than 1.75 inches long.The texture of the thick double-coat is important in protecting the dog from cold water and icy conditions. The oil in the harsh outer coat and woolly undercoat resists water, keeping the dog dry and warm. Maintenance of the coat is minimal and mainly consists of brushing with a short-tooth brush once a week. It is difficult to get a Chesapeake Bay Retriever thoroughly wet, but they should be bathed every 3–4 months using a suitably mild shampoo, then dried thoroughly. Brushing or bathing more often can ruin the texture since it strips the protective oil from the coat and may even remove the undercoat. The color of the coat must be similar to the working surroundings. Any color of brown, sedge or deadgrass is acceptable and one color is not preferred over another. The American Chesapeake Club includes a discussion on color:
Three basic colors are generally seen in the breed: Brown which includes all shades from a light cocoa (a silvered brown) to a deep bittersweet chocolate color; sedge which varies from a reddish yellow through a bright red to chestnut shades; deadgrass which takes in all shades of deadgrass, varying from a faded tan to a dull straw color. Historic records show that some of the deadgrass shades can be very light, almost white in appearance, while darker deadgrass colors can include diluted shades of brown called ash, that appear as either gray or taupe. The almost white and ash/taupe/gray shades are not commonly seen, but are acceptable.
The difference between a sedge and a deadgrass is that the deadgrass shades contain no significant amount of red, while the sedge shades do have red. Coat and texture also play a factor in the perception of color. The self-color pattern is preferred by the standard (One color with or without lighter and darker shadings of the same color). You will see dogs with varying degrees of other markings such as: masking on top of the skull, striping effect of light & dark through the body and on legs, distinct & indistinct saddle markings, agouti coloring and tan points. All are acceptable, they are just not preferred.
A white spot on the breast (not extending above the sternum), belly, toes or back of the feet is permissible, but the smaller the spot the better. White beyond these areas and black anywhere on the body is not allowed in the breed standard.
Temperament
The quintessential Chesapeake Bay Retriever has a bright and happy disposition, intelligence, quiet good sense, and an affectionate protective nature. Some can be quite vocal when happy, and some will 'smile' by baring their front teeth in a peculiar grin; this is not a threat, but a sign of joy or submissiveness.
Chesapeake Bay Retrievers can make excellent family dogs when socialized properly. Some Chesapeakes are assertive and willful and may be reserved with strangers, but others are passive and outgoing with people.
Training
thumb|right|A Chesapeake Bay Retriever competing in agilityThe Chesapeake Bay Retriever is a versatile breed competing in field trials, hunt tests, conformation, obedience, agility and tracking, yet remains true to its roots as a hunting dog of great stamina and ability. The Chesapeake Bay Retriever is an intelligent breed and learns at a high speed. Historically considered stubborn and difficult to train, many trainers thought this breed required more physical discipline than other retriever breeds. Some trainers now recommend that the Chesapeake Bay Retriever owner use consistent, daily obedience training with play time before and after to keep the dog wanting to work with little or no physical discipline required.
Health
The breed is subject to a number of hereditary diseases. These include, but are not limited to:
Exercise-induced collapse
Hip dysplasia
Progressive retinal atrophy
Type 3 von Willebrand disease
Cataract
Regional Alopecia in both sexes
A UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 10.75 years (average 9.85). A US breed club survey puts the average lifespan at 9.4 years. 1 in 4 lived to 13 years or more while 1 in 5 don't live past 5 years.
History
Chesapeake Bay Retrievers trace their history to two pups who were rescued from a foundering ship in Maryland in 1807. The male "Sailor" and female "Canton" were described as Newfoundland dogs, but were more accurately Lesser Newfoundland or St. John's water dogs. These two lived in different parts of the bay area and there is no record of a litter being produced together. They were bred with area dogs, with more consideration given to ability than to breed, to create the beginnings of the Chesapeake Bay Retriever breed. There are few records of the breeds of these early dogs, but spaniels and hounds were included. Dogs from both Chesapeake Bay shores were recognized as one of three types of Chesapeake Bay Ducking Dog in 1877. In 1918 a single type, called the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, was recognized by the American Kennel Club, and there have been few changes to the breed standard since then.
George Law, who rescued the pups, wrote this account in 1845 which appears on the website of the American Chesapeake Bay Retriever Club:
In the fall of 1807 I was on board of the ship Canton'', belonging to my uncle, the late Hugh Thompson, of Baltimore, when we fell in, at sea, near the termination of a very heavy equinoctial gale, with an English brig in a sinking condition, and took off the crew. The brig was loaded with codfish, and was bound to Pole, in England, from Newfoundland. I boarded her, in command of a boat from the Canton, which was sent to take off the English crew, the brig's own boats having been all swept away, and her crew in a state of intoxication. I found onboard of her two Newfoundland pups, male and female, which I saved, and subsequently, on our landing the English crew at Norfolk, our own destination being Baltimore, I purchased these two pups of the English captain for a guinea apiece. Being bound again to sea, I gave the dog pup, which was called Sailor, to Mr. John Mercer, of West River; and the slut pup, which was called Canton, to Doctor James Stewart, of Sparrow's Point. The history which the English captain gave me of these pups was, that the owner of his brig was extensively engaged in the Newfoundland trade, and had directed his correspondent to select and send him a pair of pups of the most approved Newfoundland breed, but of different families, and that the pair I purchased of him were selected under this order. The dog was of a dingy red colour; and the slut black. They were not large; their hair was short, but very thick-coated; they had dew claws. Both attained great reputation as water-dogs. They were most sagacious in every thing, particularly so in all duties connected with duck-shooting. Governor Lloyd exchanged a Merino ram for the dog, at the time of the Merino fever, when such rams were selling for many hundred dollars, and took him over to his estate on the eastern shore of Maryland, where his progeny were well known for many years after; and may still be known there, and on the western shore, as the Sailor breed. The slut remained at Sparrows Point till her death, and her progeny were and are still well known, through Patapsco Neck, on the Gunpowder, and up the bay, amongst the duck-shooters, as unsurpassed for their purposes. I have heard both Doctor Stewart and Mr. Mercer relate most extraordinary instances of the sagacity and performance of both dog and slut, and would refer you to their friends for such particulars as I am unable, at this distance of time, to recollect with sufficient accuracy to repeat.
Mercer is said to have described Sailor:
... he was of fine size and figure-lofty in his carriage, and built for strength and activity; remarkably muscular and broad across the hips and breast; head large, but not out of proportion; muzzle rather longer than is common with that race of dogs; his colour a dingy red, with some white on the face and breast; his coat short and smooth, but uncommonly thick, and more like a coarse fur than hair; tail full, with long hair, and always carried very high. His eyes were very peculiar: they were so light as to have almost an unnatural appearance, something resembling what is termed a wail eye, in a horse; and it is remarkable, that in a visit which I made to the Eastern Shore, nearly twenty years after he was sent there, in a sloop which had been sent expressly for him, to West River, by Governor Lloyd, I saw many of his descendants who were marked with this peculiarity.
In 1964, it was declared the official dog of Maryland. It is the mascot of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
Members of the breed were owned by General George Armstrong Custer, President Theodore Roosevelt, Senator John McCain, and actors Paul Walker and Tom Felton.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
References
External links
Pedigree Databases
The Chesapeake Bay Retriever Pedigree Database
ChessieInfo Network - Health, Titling and Pedigree database
FCI breeds
Maryland culture
Dog breeds originating in the United States
Gundogs
Retrievers
|
[
-0.2932617664337158,
0.23685592412948608,
-0.11389421671628952,
-0.3214750289916992,
0.38441982865333557,
0.28558552265167236,
-0.14077748358249664,
0.3386789560317993,
-0.6986854076385498,
-0.22965914011001587,
-0.649311363697052,
0.5131422877311707,
-0.4344896972179413,
0.2686932384967804,
-0.17835254967212677,
0.9280213117599487,
0.20005036890506744,
0.3844309151172638,
0.31141555309295654,
-0.27056512236595154,
-0.4673261046409607,
-0.6836279034614563,
0.16471914947032928,
-0.45497557520866394,
-0.0656023621559143,
0.04823003336787224,
0.4943538010120392,
0.42996248602867126,
-0.2004227489233017,
-0.041353609412908554,
-0.1951337307691574,
0.7428686618804932,
-0.07784067094326019,
-0.16065597534179688,
0.033182039856910706,
0.03149723634123802,
0.04398810863494873,
-0.4980001151561737,
-0.18394163250923157,
-0.32536518573760986,
0.12112236768007278,
-0.08162066340446472,
0.010243011638522148,
0.454608678817749,
0.06806003302335739,
-0.3290451169013977,
-1.002371072769165,
-0.05233994126319885,
-0.3207387626171112,
-0.3316905200481415,
-0.39690476655960083,
0.46043676137924194,
-0.6282399892807007,
0.6694954037666321,
0.5386260747909546,
0.43275314569473267,
-0.2050533890724182,
-0.6694238781929016,
0.09966202080249786,
-0.301948219537735,
0.18527062237262726,
0.4731484651565552,
0.09423927962779999,
0.07918010652065277,
-0.26450803875923157,
0.3037968575954437,
0.016347970813512802,
0.2321186661720276,
-0.4903129041194916,
-0.13848206400871277,
0.06410079449415207,
-0.06528522819280624,
0.038481034338474274,
0.08429567515850067,
-0.001924375188536942,
0.005900340620428324,
-0.042589928954839706,
-0.3869207203388214,
0.4132516384124756,
0.04156087711453438,
0.31478351354599,
0.04428455978631973,
0.23469868302345276,
0.6333730220794678,
-0.0565023310482502,
0.745640754699707,
0.13214319944381714,
-0.23690466582775116,
-0.26765984296798706,
0.8920811414718628,
0.12185733765363693,
0.13157890737056732,
0.4771077036857605,
0.6834834218025208,
0.08928262442350388,
-0.10417184233665466,
0.12365493178367615,
0.45967575907707214,
0.0665147602558136,
0.16539065539836884,
-0.2375565469264984,
0.7628432512283325,
0.5239806771278381,
0.5104489922523499,
-0.8330020308494568,
-0.050481922924518585,
-0.32164275646209717,
-0.4575943946838379,
0.036648135632276535,
0.23057998716831207,
0.15113697946071625,
0.11277002841234207,
-0.06583714485168457,
0.15689042210578918,
0.16258946061134338,
0.24798209965229034,
0.3279263377189636,
-0.47362831234931946,
-0.09992167353630066,
0.031031787395477295,
0.242279514670372,
0.5261344909667969,
-0.6149685978889465,
-0.535801112651825,
0.2993811070919037,
0.1527230441570282,
-0.1452411711215973,
0.5729591846466064,
0.13295535743236542,
-0.48279261589050293,
0.1386653482913971,
0.2562176287174225,
-0.3460746705532074,
0.15439453721046448,
-0.4452619254589081,
0.3009454011917114,
0.384113073348999,
-0.3777274191379547,
0.20309290289878845,
0.5063756108283997,
-1.0253064632415771,
-0.9305087327957153,
-0.18014387786388397,
-0.851505696773529,
-0.14230017364025116,
0.025117237120866776,
-0.05706510692834854,
0.10391316562891006,
-0.12426642328500748,
0.1599564403295517,
0.1866244077682495,
0.15908822417259216,
-0.40814048051834106,
-0.21576832234859467,
-0.2916613519191742,
-0.2586904466152191,
0.39105039834976196,
-0.3862030506134033,
0.6144499778747559,
0.22314827144145966,
-0.0018115495331585407,
0.20740418136119843,
-0.37474656105041504,
-0.114732526242733,
0.4121379852294922,
-0.1318744271993637,
0.598206102848053,
0.12064333260059357,
-0.8708288073539734,
0.15320783853530884,
-0.16622506082057953,
0.5639270544052124,
0.8858191967010498,
-0.5078384876251221,
-0.5421821475028992,
-0.176924929022789,
0.35700616240501404,
-0.06629011780023575,
0.7956051230430603,
-0.5612462759017944,
-0.7998847365379333,
0.2831915318965912,
0.5410153865814209,
-0.4619819223880768,
0.4598942697048187,
-0.29410943388938904,
0.01100004743784666,
-0.4008946716785431,
-0.34479665756225586,
-0.2926171123981476,
-0.1094130128622055,
-0.564845621585846,
0.41307783126831055,
-0.12517596781253815,
0.9684759974479675,
-0.4831753075122833,
-0.9314438700675964,
1.3445173501968384,
0.18857979774475098,
0.7553549408912659,
-0.5565598607063293,
-0.20052970945835114,
0.541805624961853,
0.10617028176784515,
-1.116849422454834,
0.2556770145893097,
0.03019552119076252,
0.6864011287689209,
0.09159378707408905,
0.31227079033851624,
0.32634440064430237,
-0.42422500252723694,
0.02086743339896202,
-0.03473237156867981,
0.0631309449672699,
-0.17940692603588104,
-0.07555712014436722,
0.3583112359046936,
-0.6239250302314758,
-0.3795926570892334,
1.1362727880477905,
0.05349300801753998,
-0.4218721389770508,
0.8616372346878052,
-0.11957506835460663,
0.7872061133384705,
-0.050932545214891434,
0.030873065814375877,
0.3535376489162445,
0.26353996992111206,
0.43820920586586,
-0.42743566632270813,
-0.16758957505226135,
-0.7048879861831665,
-1.0151405334472656,
0.0636129304766655,
0.30736130475997925,
-0.09740842133760452,
0.5514987707138062,
0.25574636459350586,
0.1043999120593071,
0.4033844470977783,
-0.5973944067955017,
0.19774433970451355,
0.028252672404050827,
-0.3955646753311157,
-0.09275362640619278,
0.8487791419029236,
-0.3980248272418976,
-1.1729423999786377,
0.25388434529304504,
0.5533784031867981,
0.7185033559799194,
-0.0632191151380539,
1.1108715534210205,
0.4263702929019928,
-0.2809773087501526,
0.06946738064289093,
-0.01625935733318329,
-0.009099476970732212,
0.0021878089755773544,
0.6576022505760193,
-0.11611786484718323,
-0.13202431797981262,
-0.06986638903617859,
-0.4240770936012268,
0.046576861292123795,
-0.3159559369087219,
-0.11657974123954773,
0.682723879814148,
0.21114122867584229,
0.2809566855430603,
-0.19954873621463776,
-0.09914245456457138,
0.27725616097450256,
0.2464512288570404,
0.00852359738200903,
-0.3605819344520569,
-0.7273533344268799,
-0.611659586429596,
-0.29022538661956787,
0.24186095595359802,
0.2585657835006714,
-0.3399704098701477,
-0.17183734476566315,
-0.8778847455978394,
-0.08839403837919235,
-0.5580154657363892,
-0.4077044725418091,
-0.05140852928161621,
-0.23919081687927246,
-0.45072031021118164,
0.1130775660276413,
0.46913275122642517,
-0.7613377571105957,
0.3296181857585907,
0.19682036340236664,
0.22563500702381134,
-0.05230555683374405,
-0.1317683309316635,
-0.2713204026222229,
0.12391117215156555,
-0.2760632336139679,
-0.2068352848291397,
0.23563967645168304,
-0.012855014763772488,
-0.14185868203639984,
0.10559745132923126,
-5.376321315765381,
0.3422761857509613,
-0.6187337636947632,
-0.12763501703739166,
-0.11991133540868759,
-0.05167737975716591,
0.39983513951301575,
-0.29085618257522583,
-0.3566036820411682,
0.39886027574539185,
0.41569122672080994,
0.25242507457733154,
0.23812678456306458,
0.25749197602272034,
0.6474395394325256,
-0.22453823685646057,
0.407863050699234,
-0.12286487221717834,
-0.10398703813552856,
-0.2165871113538742,
0.015239440836012363,
0.06657583266496658,
-0.38434508442878723,
0.006059129256755114,
0.01212227065116167,
0.27253952622413635,
-0.2596052587032318,
-0.47240620851516724,
-0.5755199790000916,
0.3810940086841583,
-0.35497480630874634,
0.5101473331451416,
-0.07500865310430527,
-0.5651524066925049,
0.5461454391479492,
-0.1926369071006775,
0.37717992067337036,
0.5074716806411743,
0.5849040150642395,
-0.2709965407848358,
0.467984139919281,
0.3077756464481354,
-0.19125084578990936,
-0.34276819229125977,
0.27115538716316223,
0.01276243943721056,
0.3299880921840668,
0.07240883260965347,
-0.22879943251609802,
0.6364242434501648,
0.005217978730797768,
0.1558230072259903,
0.342191606760025,
1.0526984930038452,
0.8813763856887817,
-0.43486887216567993,
0.18910180032253265,
-0.29137396812438965,
-0.5074120759963989,
-0.0895652174949646,
0.6694862246513367,
-0.7586769461631775,
-0.06713485717773438,
-0.3426980972290039,
-0.29701754450798035,
-0.3375970721244812,
-0.7422375679016113,
0.12798966467380524,
0.42889463901519775,
0.5709046721458435,
-0.17260803282260895,
0.31776803731918335,
-0.2865450978279114,
-1.0234369039535522,
0.4248450696468353,
-0.1412472128868103,
0.03808032348752022,
-0.08397453278303146,
-0.31438761949539185,
-0.42340272665023804,
-0.026363970711827278,
-0.6865744590759277,
-0.8465002179145813,
0.7418394684791565,
-0.0332287959754467,
-1.6670010089874268,
-0.45860594511032104,
0.5639029741287231,
-0.3020608425140381,
-0.6454541683197021,
0.2985694408416748,
-0.16622792184352875,
0.18776248395442963,
-0.26311683654785156,
0.15134279429912567,
0.2912644147872925,
0.09306123852729797,
0.08556033670902252,
0.11487264931201935,
-0.49690765142440796,
1.176880955696106,
-0.27939343452453613,
-0.1923612654209137,
-0.780703604221344,
-0.14132508635520935,
-0.5381288528442383,
0.3708803057670593,
0.43507710099220276,
1.3004282712936401,
-0.1842649281024933,
-0.2529090642929077,
-0.3785463273525238,
-0.45720696449279785,
-0.5880663394927979,
0.409741073846817,
0.3252027928829193,
0.1447056382894516,
-0.044005703181028366,
0.31770962476730347,
-0.17689120769500732,
0.1544484943151474,
0.6284552216529846,
-0.11454568058252335,
0.12425810098648071,
-0.3254278004169464,
-0.6502434015274048,
0.7339221239089966,
0.23177772760391235,
-0.7449800968170166,
-0.1175069585442543,
0.4458398222923279,
0.39292094111442566,
-0.11666535586118698,
0.3342038094997406,
-0.27478528022766113,
0.058245882391929626,
-0.19180017709732056,
-0.37596505880355835,
-0.11081457883119583,
-0.6711968183517456,
-0.2883698344230652,
-0.03304601460695267,
-0.16663223505020142,
0.13614940643310547,
0.0522034727036953,
0.5525261163711548,
-0.21476347744464874,
0.6222265958786011,
-0.5830233097076416,
0.6022003293037415,
-0.03487634286284447,
-0.5893861055374146,
-0.059472061693668365,
-0.258086621761322,
0.1911746710538864,
-0.14482949674129486,
0.39041459560394287,
0.6056538224220276,
0.2319752424955368,
-0.11492759734392166,
0.5845643281936646,
-0.07577026635408401,
-1.036780595779419,
-0.3134661316871643,
-0.28681933879852295,
0.3348572254180908,
-0.5983459949493408,
-0.08959152549505234,
0.005643914919346571,
0.8262383341789246,
0.03405211865901947,
-0.4655398726463318,
-0.6801373958587646,
-0.550075352191925,
0.27548748254776,
-0.08116424828767776,
-0.34872373938560486,
0.06948258727788925,
-0.4326445758342743,
-0.011813703924417496,
0.4245563745498657,
0.008993199095129967,
0.12698064744472504,
-0.021398838609457016,
0.7809165120124817,
-0.23882141709327698,
0.22905530035495758,
0.1912415772676468,
-0.11533378809690475,
0.2107214480638504,
-0.028736941516399384,
0.19050610065460205,
0.747724175453186,
0.017097502946853638,
-0.5060815811157227,
0.1800672858953476,
-0.13712894916534424,
1.3148671388626099,
-0.10762105882167816,
-0.5013424158096313,
0.09088238328695297,
0.9165536165237427,
-0.33711767196655273,
0.3794494569301605,
-0.01340208575129509,
-0.27196449041366577,
0.732058584690094,
-0.3436863422393799,
-0.6157093048095703,
1.15938138961792,
0.0689348578453064,
-0.6050194501876831,
0.8486851453781128,
0.21492360532283783,
-0.3624472916126251,
0.34749549627304077,
0.04102133959531784,
-0.2250078171491623,
0.09899381548166275,
0.1530129611492157,
-0.7435466051101685,
-0.10703879594802856,
-0.22106148302555084,
-0.1657731682062149,
-0.4926711916923523,
0.2500518262386322,
0.4143165946006775,
0.27399417757987976,
0.4273337423801422,
-0.5186975002288818,
-0.04060358926653862,
-0.6049591898918152,
0.14776156842708588,
-0.2597121000289917,
-0.046018317341804504,
-0.22894926369190216,
0.05509144812822342,
0.2900572419166565,
0.392564594745636,
0.661331295967102,
0.9939150214195251,
1.2967302799224854,
0.10892380028963089,
-0.6595736742019653,
-0.21622797846794128,
0.526150643825531,
-0.1344296783208847,
-0.21991629898548126,
-0.6666558384895325,
0.2462160736322403,
0.29453516006469727,
-0.20367670059204102,
-0.4612168073654175,
0.031249264255166054,
0.44345855712890625,
-0.36587706208229065,
0.13479863107204437,
0.31208571791648865,
0.09172675758600235,
0.0752461850643158,
0.7084304094314575,
0.6073999404907227,
-0.9997429847717285,
0.4905819594860077,
0.15717187523841858,
-0.29597708582878113,
-0.49605661630630493,
-0.17929768562316895,
0.09198227524757385,
-0.0006339249084703624,
0.5029042959213257,
0.09572084248065948,
0.7329833507537842,
0.6232331395149231,
-0.270253986120224,
0.19451119005680084,
0.35849931836128235,
-0.7814620733261108,
0.16382920742034912,
0.09594105184078217,
-0.2045169174671173,
-0.08493482321500778,
0.1166997104883194,
-0.2347726821899414,
-0.29917237162590027,
-0.7783921957015991,
-0.34479475021362305,
-0.27873289585113525,
0.11258022487163544,
-0.29115796089172363,
0.10756802558898926,
0.0028732193168252707,
-0.45733803510665894,
-0.42564281821250916,
-0.03364448994398117,
0.5991174578666687,
0.3961372375488281,
0.5912121534347534,
-0.10807063430547714,
0.4507696032524109,
-0.9710960388183594,
1.0869375467300415,
-0.15740399062633514,
-0.9542630910873413,
0.5934957265853882,
-0.35727792978286743,
0.18970505893230438,
0.31421756744384766,
-0.20557615160942078,
0.14039136469364166,
-0.09092569351196289,
-0.2908483147621155,
0.34408318996429443,
0.49245354533195496,
0.5569092631340027,
0.037870123982429504,
0.29347655177116394,
-0.2925328016281128,
0.2974640727043152,
0.4528789222240448,
0.0021759490482509136,
0.21225899457931519,
0.42529094219207764,
0.2889825105667114,
-0.3135014772415161,
0.7673271894454956,
-0.9309638738632202,
-0.1502123922109604,
0.8858076333999634,
0.49560725688934326,
0.07977645844221115,
-0.38675206899642944,
-0.6489315032958984,
0.025397861376404762,
-0.19956322014331818,
-0.06013757735490799,
-0.1361224204301834,
-0.5489769577980042,
-0.9615119695663452,
0.8348286747932434,
0.5172375440597534,
0.31114619970321655,
0.12465456128120422,
-0.5791879296302795,
0.1802961826324463,
0.088496632874012,
-0.5572106838226318,
0.07786901295185089,
0.1677500605583191,
-0.6613244414329529,
1.0446377992630005,
-0.6189082264900208,
0.5322438478469849,
-0.31845057010650635,
0.2444106787443161,
-0.2583979666233063,
-0.7093494534492493,
-0.44244086742401123,
-0.6596628427505493,
-0.0015543693443760276,
-0.3451775014400482,
0.09242190420627594,
0.27149710059165955,
-0.2426229864358902,
-0.21839627623558044,
-0.15962828695774078,
0.21475385129451752,
-0.1624121218919754,
0.20051585137844086,
0.16029353439807892,
-0.4636620581150055,
0.6121613383293152,
0.11120475083589554,
0.36106881499290466,
-0.20266175270080566,
0.26073092222213745,
-0.04336698353290558,
0.40632206201553345,
-0.4291759729385376,
-0.0011348857078701258,
-0.861642062664032,
-0.11758136749267578,
-0.3780425190925598,
-0.49172472953796387,
0.0753105953335762,
-0.08143645524978638,
-0.38674357533454895,
-0.1771935373544693,
-0.09649671614170074,
0.17041799426078796,
-0.06979568302631378,
-0.8985304236412048,
-0.6231499314308167,
0.18851852416992188,
-0.3214714825153351,
-0.9386927485466003,
-0.04116735979914665,
0.6883074045181274,
0.14099064469337463,
0.012407063506543636,
-0.2136174887418747,
0.3987250030040741,
0.2236603945493698,
0.12232831120491028,
-0.20175586640834808,
-0.27174752950668335,
-0.12751947343349457,
0.13081572949886322,
-0.5391156673431396,
0.7687218189239502,
0.2816263735294342,
-0.2752838730812073,
-0.39526376128196716,
0.3222127854824066,
0.14980420470237732,
0.48473024368286133,
0.8077847957611084,
-0.8049599528312683,
-0.5918871760368347,
-0.8898700475692749,
0.037608206272125244,
-0.18012739717960358,
0.5123022198677063,
0.4757680296897888,
0.17970313131809235,
-0.03806326538324356,
0.10948897153139114,
-0.5223080515861511,
-0.9937411546707153,
0.43323713541030884,
-0.6844770908355713,
0.20970012247562408,
-0.42019033432006836,
0.4838155210018158,
-0.3824283182621002,
-0.9817569851875305,
0.4993952512741089,
0.3007413446903229,
0.6424522995948792,
0.17376241087913513,
-0.15431596338748932,
-0.5319432020187378,
0.3861526548862457,
-0.14126360416412354,
0.6171659827232361,
-0.2479032427072525,
0.5173991918563843,
-0.293846070766449,
-0.5357347726821899,
-0.017495540902018547,
-0.04507926106452942,
-0.3783203661441803,
-0.1862579882144928,
-0.08109917491674423,
0.07841348648071289,
0.012129264883697033,
0.25317516922950745,
-0.913773775100708,
-0.15317673981189728,
0.06952422857284546
] |
203748
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarit%20Thanarat
|
Sarit Thanarat
|
Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat (also spelt Dhanarajata; , ; 16 June 1908 – 8 December 1963) was a Thai general who staged a coup in 1957, replacing Plaek Phibunsongkhram as Thailand's prime minister until Sarit died in 1963. He was born in Bangkok, but grew up in his mother's home town in Isan-speaking northeastern Thailand and considered himself from Isan. His father, Major Luang Ruangdetanan (birth name Thongdi Thanarat), was a career army officer best known for his translations into Thai of Cambodian literature. He had partial Chinese ancestry.
Military career
Sarit Thanarat was educated at a monastery school, and entered Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy in 1919, not completing his military studies until 1928, after which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. During World War II he served as commander of an infantry battalion and took part in the invasion and occupation of the Shan States in Burma. Unlike many of his fellow officers, Sarit was not discharged at the end of the war. Instead, he was promoted to command the 1st Infantry Regiment of the Bangkok-based Guards Division. As a colonel, he played a leading role in the 1947 military coup that overthrew the government of Prime Minister Thawal Thamrong Navaswadhi, a protege of Pridi Phanomyong, reinstalling the previously deposed Field Marshal Luang Phibunsongkram as premier. Sarit thereafter took a lasting interest in politics. He became Commander of the Royal Thai Army in 1954.
Events leading to the coup
During the early-1950s, the Phibun government grew increasingly unpopular. This paved the way for the rise of Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat.
Elections of 26 February 1957
The passing of the 1955 Political Party Bill led to the proliferation of more than twenty-five political parties. The government's Legislative Committee was revamped into the Seri Manangkhasila Party which was headed by Phibun with Sarit as deputy chief and Phao as secretary-general. Sarit did not play a significant role in the election process and generally left Phao in charge.
Although the Seri Manangkhasila Party beat the Democrat Party, the latter was seen to have won a moral victory. The Democrat Party and the press accused the government of rigging the vote and using hooligans to terrorize both candidates and voters. In a bid to repress public discontent, Phibun declared a state of emergency and Sarit was appointed as the supreme commander of military forces. However, Sarit effectively disassociated himself from the corrupt party when he commented that the 1957 elections. "were dirty, the dirtiest. Everybody cheated."
The Isan crisis
In 1957, one of Isan's worst droughts occurred. It prompted a mass exodus of people from the northeast to Bangkok, which led to social problems. The government seemed to regard this diaspora as natural and said that it could neutralize peasant discontent. The Minister of Agriculture, Field Marshal Phin Choonhavan, said that northeasterner's migration to the city and their consumption of frogs and lizards was normal and that there was nothing to worry about. At Hua Lamphong railway station in Bangkok, there were so many refugees arriving daily that students and monks had to set up emergency help stations.
On 10 August, the Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Phin, was sent by helicopter to survey the Isan region where he found nothing amiss. A second survey, also done by air, was published and again indicated that there was no crisis in Isan as all the land was in acceptable condition. In a final attempt to resolve the issue, the Phibun government allocated 53 million baht, which was to be divided equally among the 53 Isan representatives.
The lumber swindle
Before the government could recover from its inept management of the Isan crisis, its integrity was once again questioned. Thailand was loaned US$66 million for the Bhumibol Dam, a dam 154 meters high on the Ping River in Tak. The project was to take six years and had to pay for itself after completion. Many MPs were against the loan as it came immediately after the Isan famine. Out of respect for the king, the plan for the dam was not rejected. Things further escalated when Thiem Khomrit, Director-General of the Forestry Department, was forced to resign and was charged with administrative incompetence.
Enraged by the charges, Thiem went to the press to reveal the real reason for his dismissal. He stated that several powerful figures in the Thai government wanted to establish the Forestry Company of Thailand which would merge with other private companies and thereby control the lumber and teak industries. Phin, who headed this project, wanted to suspend all forestry licenses when other companies refused to collude. The plan to establish the Forestry Company of Thailand involved the Bhumibhol Dam project, as members of the Forestry Company wanted to monopolize the cutting of timber in the areas to be flooded by the dam. Thiem further revealed that the Seri Manangkhasila Party had submitted an early application for a license to cut down trees in the area. According to Thiem, his refusal to approve the government's application was the cause of his dismissal.
The coup
On 13 September 1957, Sarit handed Phibun the army's ultimatum. The ultimatum, signed by 58 army officers, called for the resignation of the government. The public was supportive of Sarit's ultimatum.
On 15 September, a public gathering assembled to protest Phibun and his government. The crowd, which quickly grew in numbers, marched to Sarit's residence to show support for the army's demands. As Sarit was not at home, the crowd broke into the government compound where they made speeches condemning the government. The protesters later returned to Sarit's home where he was waiting to address them. In his speech, Sarit said, "In the name of the army and deputies of the second category, I have conducted my activities based on popular will, and the interests of the people — your coming here gives me moral support to continue."
The following morning, Sarit and his army staged a coup d'etat. In less than an hour, the army successfully captured strategic points with no resistance. To identify themselves, Sarit's forces wore white arm bands as a sign of purity. Following these developments, Phibun immediately fled the country and Phao was deported to Europe. Thus began Sarit's rule.
Influences on Sarit's rule
According to many Western academics, the Cold War largely propped up Sarit's regime. In his book, Daniel Fineman states that Phibun, and later Sarit, aligned their foreign policies with US anti-communist foreign policy, so as to receive financial and military aid. Sarit's strict stance against communism further reinforced the US belief that only the Thai military could contain the communist threat.
In contrast, Likhit Dhiravegin stresses that the notion of phokho (patriarchal rule) from the Sukhothai Kingdom and devaraja (god–king) and sakdina (dignity marks) from the Ayutthaya Kingdom are essential in understanding modern Thai politics. Likhit's analysis shows how Sarit combined paternalistic rule from the Sukothai (phokhun) with Ayuthaya's despotic power to create his personal political style. According to Thak, Luang Wichit Wathakan was essential in moulding the leadership principles of Phibun and Sarit. From him, Sarit was introduced to the idea of pattiwat (revolution) and the guiding leadership principle of phokhun.
Sarit's tenure
Paternalism
Within days of the coup, electricity rates were lowered and families living in the water-scarce Bangkok-Thonburi area were given 300 large buckets of water free every month. To help the needy, the Revolutionary Council ordered the municipal government to abolish certain taxes, charges for official service, and license fees. Hospitals were ordered to give out free medicine and healthcare to the poor, while student nurses and social workers were instructed to make house calls to help with child delivery and health problems.
To lower food prices, Sarit ordered the opening of new markets modeled after the Sunday flea markets at Sanam Luang. Merchants could sell their goods directly to the public instead of going through middlemen, thus reducing food prices. Participating merchants only had to pay nominal fee. Sarit also lowered the price of iced black coffee, a popular beverage among locals, from 70 satang per glass to 50 satang per glass. (To evade this, merchants served the coffee in smaller glasses, added less coffee, or more ice into the beverage. Thais were then forced to order the "special" coffee which was the original coffee at the original price).
The Association of Rice Merchants agreed to lower their rice prices in the stores they controlled. In a bid to show that everyone was participating in the revolution, the navy was called on by Sarit to provide cheap coconuts to be sold to the public.
Even though many of these programs did not last long or were not implemented, their announcements helped to create an atmosphere of enthusiasm for the new government.
Dealing with deviants
Soon after the coup, Sarit ordered the arrest and reformation of hooligans (anthaphan). According to the Revolutionary Council's Proclamation No. 21, anthaphan were the bane of the society and to maintain common people's happiness, there was a need to get rid of them. Those with long hair, flashy clothing, and tight pants, in fashion at the time, were also targeted. Weekly dances at Lumpini Garden were banned, and rock and roll music was prohibited from government parties. Upon the release of the victims, Sarit said that he did not hate them, but his actions were necessary for the "family".
Prostitution was also considered as a menace to society. Sarit ordered all arrested prostitutes be reformed by sending them to institutions which would equip them with new skills. He also passed the Law Against Prostitution, B.E. 2503.
Getting rid of opium
Sarit was determined to end the consumption and sale of opium in Thailand for several reasons. First, he wanted to illustrate to the people that he did not intend to gain from the opium trade, unlike his predecessor Phao. Second, he wanted to please the Western powers who believed that the drug was used by communists to undermine the morals and economy of democratic countries. Last, he saw the eradication of opium as part of his mission to uplift the country morally. Consequently, 43,445 opium pipes were destroyed, and the Committee to Combat Addictive Drugs, headed by Sarit, was created.
Imposing order
General Sarit declared that Thailand would abide by the UN's Universal Declaration on Human Rights of 1948, to which Thailand was a signatory, except in cases when it did not.
Article 17 of the Interim Constitution of Thailand, B.E. 2502 or " M17" was the legal basis for Sarit to order executions. Using M17, parliament was abolished, newspapers were strictly censored, political parties were prohibited, and people who were suspected of colluding with communists were imprisoned. From 1958 to 1963, eleven people were executed under M17. Five were given death penalty for arson, one for heroin production, one for spearheading a messianic uprising, and four on charges of communism, including the activist and former MP Khrong Chandawong. The Revolutionary Council Proclamation No. 12, dated 22 October 1958, gave investigating authorities the power to detain suspects as long as needed. Many of those persecuted were not communists, but rather writers or intellectuals who opposed Sarit's rule. Under the proclamation, an estimated 1,000 suspects were imprisoned.
According to Frank Darling, Sarit's regime was authoritarian and retreated from what little democracy was gained during the 1932 revolution. Thak suggests that Sarit's strict rule can be understood as the modern phokhun style of leadership, where the benevolent leader intervenes to help his people.
The monarchy
Under Sarit's rule, the monarchy was revived and brought back to centre stage. Sarit arranged for King Bhumibhol Adulyadej to attend public ceremonies, visit provinces, patronize development projects, and present diplomas to Thailand's university graduates, helping to bring the monarchy closer to the people and raising the stature of the king to that of reverence. The practice of prostration, with the head touching the ground before royal audiences, banned decades earlier by King Chulalongkorn, was reinstated. On 5 December 1982, the Army's 21st infantry regiment was transferred to the palace and Queen Sirikit was appointed its colonel-in-chief.
The Sarit government revived traditional festivals and ceremonies which were abandoned after the 1932 revolution. An example was the revival of the First Ploughing ceremony (Raek Nakhwan) which dates back to the Sukothai Kingdom.
According to Thak, the Sarit regime had two main reasons for reinvigorating the monarchy. First, the monarchy legitimized not only his regime, but its policies as well. Sarit's plan to stage a coup against Phibun was supported by the monarchy as evidenced by a letter written by the king. The letter expressed the king's confidence in Sarit and urged Sarit to do his duty to the government. Second, the monarch contributed to regime's paternalistic programs. In this instance, the throne acted as a charity, collecting funds from private donors, channeling them into public programs that enhanced both the regime's and the monarchy's reputation.
After 1966, the number of public appearances by the king increased and as the years passed, more visits were made. The king's newly powerful position was evidenced by the number of scheduled audiences with the prime minister and other cabinet ministers. The monarchy also moved closer to the military as illustrated by the number of military affairs attended by the king in 1963.
Sarit's death and aftermath
Sarit died unexpectedly in late-1963 from liver failure, just as his economic measures were proving successful. There was a peaceful transfer of power to Sarit's deputy generals, Thanom Kittikachorn, who became prime minister, and Praphas Charusathien, who became deputy prime minister. Thanom and Praphas maintained Sarit's authoritarian style of government, his anti-communism, and his pro-US policies.
The strength of Sarit's relationship with King Bhumibol was evident when the king ordered 21 days of official mourning in the palace after his death, with Sarit's body lying in state under royal patronage for 100 days and the king and queen attending his cremation on 17 March 1964.
Posthumous revelations
After Sarit's death, his reputation took a blow when an inheritance battle between his son, Major Setha Thanarat, and his last wife, Thanpuying Vichitra Thanarat, revealed the massive extent of Sarit's wealth, which totaled over US$100 million. Besides sitting on the boards of 22 companies, he was discovered to have owned a trust company, a brewery, 51 cars, and 30 plots of land, most of which he gave to his dozens of mistresses. Thai language newspapers published the names of 100 women who claimed to have shared his bed, shocking the public when his corruption was uncovered.
Royal decorations
As usual with senior Thai military officers and politicians, Sarit received many royal decorations in the Honours System. These include:
Safeguarding the Constitution Medal – 1934 – for helping put down the Boworadet Rebellion
Companion (Fourth Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant – 1940
Commander (Third Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand – 1941
Chakra Mala Medal – 1942
Knight Commander (Second Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand. – 1948
Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand – 1949
Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant – 1950
King Rama VIII Royal Cypher Medal, 2nd Class – 1950
Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand – 1951
Knight Commander (Second Class, lower grade) of The Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao – 1952
Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant – 1952
King Rama IX Royal Cypher Medal, 2nd Class – 1953
Knight Grand Commander (Second Class, higher grade) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao – 1953
King Rama IX Royal Cypher Medal, 1st Class – 1958
Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao – 1959
Knight of The Ancient and Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems – 1959
Border Service Medal – 1962
Knight Grand Commander of the Honourable Order of Rama – 1962
Boy Scout Citation Medal – 1962
Victory Medal – World War II – 1962
Foreign Honours
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol-1956
:
Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 1st Class
:
Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Sahametrei-1955
:
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic-1955
:
Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm(S.M.N.)
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross-1960
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
:
Commander of the Legion of Merit-1954
:
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers
:
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
:
Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Sword
:
Grand Cross of the Military Order of Aviz(G.C.A.)
:
Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna(G.C.S.)
:
Grand Cross with White Decoration of the Order of Military Merit
:
Republic of Korea Medal of the Order of Merit for National Foundation
:
Special Grand Cordon of the Order of Propitious Clouds
:
Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
:
Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav
:
Grand Cross of the Royal Order of George I
:
Gold Star with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín
See also
List of prime ministers of Thailand
Khao Yai National Park
Khon Kaen University
References
Further reading
1908 births
1963 deaths
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Leaders who took power by coup
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
Sarit Thanarat
|
[
-0.4083755314350128,
0.1333836168050766,
-0.4663739800453186,
0.08638522773981094,
-0.2918907701969147,
0.1938614547252655,
0.2960030138492584,
-0.43699294328689575,
-0.4349862039089203,
0.2046297937631607,
-0.3160454332828522,
0.2644484341144562,
-0.3066939115524292,
0.2794327437877655,
-0.3254377841949463,
-0.03355681523680687,
0.741733193397522,
-0.16821695864200592,
-0.08173868805170059,
0.24100960791110992,
-0.10017265379428864,
0.16815757751464844,
0.4844408929347992,
-0.02053212746977806,
0.5103810429573059,
0.29087239503860474,
0.22048482298851013,
0.010713362134993076,
0.5408703684806824,
-0.12795604765415192,
-0.0025043922942131758,
0.310346782207489,
0.01008198969066143,
-0.10829629749059677,
-0.7886049747467041,
0.21310609579086304,
0.21510589122772217,
0.4480419158935547,
-0.15530484914779663,
-0.2540510892868042,
-0.5244405269622803,
0.27813780307769775,
0.009996471926569939,
0.12805742025375366,
-0.03430231288075447,
-1.4081027507781982,
-0.8516301512718201,
0.3345760107040405,
-0.5172176957130432,
-0.41621455550193787,
-0.2455793172121048,
0.10686616599559784,
0.05959121882915497,
-0.2436663955450058,
0.5334545969963074,
-0.13609635829925537,
-0.6665950417518616,
-0.19997602701187134,
-0.8849490284919739,
-0.3285673260688782,
0.26753151416778564,
0.2165215164422989,
0.11333106458187103,
-0.1345311850309372,
0.11859401315450668,
0.11449810862541199,
0.6239861249923706,
0.17448924481868744,
0.17918524146080017,
-0.22911719977855682,
0.15410582721233368,
1.0603190660476685,
0.2789752185344696,
0.7459303140640259,
0.5015650391578674,
-0.5532056093215942,
0.1360659897327423,
0.1990620642900467,
-0.18817314505577087,
-0.30255886912345886,
0.009027819149196148,
-0.21314333379268646,
0.6979851722717285,
0.14574114978313446,
0.13339662551879883,
-0.440360426902771,
-0.045621417462825775,
0.536873996257782,
-0.44882044196128845,
-0.14408594369888306,
0.05341307073831558,
-0.21486903727054596,
0.6569695472717285,
-0.5350714325904846,
-0.966618001461029,
-0.39175090193748474,
0.20635180175304413,
0.5326709747314453,
0.21268808841705322,
-0.43373435735702515,
0.08484495431184769,
-0.4170699417591095,
0.27053102850914,
-0.5164034366607666,
-0.794398307800293,
-0.23802514374256134,
-0.25796806812286377,
0.26662448048591614,
-0.5976946353912354,
-0.25565654039382935,
-0.7030450701713562,
0.40335947275161743,
-0.036144766956567764,
0.27860650420188904,
-0.10428924113512039,
0.49619796872138977,
0.14737758040428162,
-0.28982797265052795,
0.17261312901973724,
-0.42072591185569763,
0.2330477088689804,
0.643182635307312,
0.047433167695999146,
0.3822158873081207,
0.10547236353158951,
-0.17143288254737854,
0.09874487668275833,
-0.28347131609916687,
-0.5570195317268372,
0.647269070148468,
0.3463931083679199,
0.6353960037231445,
-0.7054179906845093,
0.04807110130786896,
-0.1170143410563469,
-0.6323567628860474,
0.6881134510040283,
0.21224436163902283,
-0.2477341741323471,
0.21111544966697693,
-0.6136648654937744,
0.2998046875,
-0.3558253347873688,
0.18173076212406158,
0.2298315167427063,
0.00793654378503561,
0.1716780811548233,
-0.2728572189807892,
-0.5609824061393738,
-0.13915950059890747,
0.239386186003685,
-0.2445557862520218,
-0.1543000191450119,
-0.358550101518631,
-0.24955114722251892,
0.6572774052619934,
0.5159173607826233,
0.18707972764968872,
0.11383872479200363,
0.29173487424850464,
0.36145201325416565,
0.2701488137245178,
-0.39361122250556946,
-0.12630419433116913,
0.42823299765586853,
-0.14009256660938263,
-0.5456918478012085,
0.5559998154640198,
-0.2923250198364258,
-0.10558338463306427,
-0.29919004440307617,
-0.020785851404070854,
-0.04021941497921944,
0.037562984973192215,
0.14173024892807007,
0.5608208775520325,
-0.0491611510515213,
-0.09934435784816742,
-0.18518662452697754,
-0.34538260102272034,
-0.37505030632019043,
0.17247483134269714,
-0.04027484729886055,
0.27673041820526123,
0.5083194375038147,
-0.08550470322370529,
0.7475953698158264,
-0.39434391260147095,
0.830336332321167,
-0.34330159425735474,
-0.7032061815261841,
-0.4630514085292816,
0.2824586033821106,
-0.10071053355932236,
0.42606985569000244,
0.8486356735229492,
0.24325548112392426,
0.7489000558853149,
-0.06912114471197128,
0.7261332869529724,
0.21927925944328308,
-0.2641252875328064,
0.5278286337852478,
-0.4647068977355957,
0.05475794896483421,
0.5286799669265747,
0.2643173933029175,
0.4776589274406433,
0.5794233679771423,
1.0644118785858154,
0.6084399223327637,
-0.7359282970428467,
-0.7359717488288879,
0.23853673040866852,
0.06380018591880798,
-0.5748670697212219,
-0.7825156450271606,
0.25498881936073303,
-0.08045508712530136,
-0.03270592913031578,
0.3770741820335388,
0.24942545592784882,
-0.4844556748867035,
0.9330901503562927,
0.07378062605857849,
1.0583434104919434,
-0.3371105194091797,
-0.48047691583633423,
-0.45943301916122437,
-0.3796699047088623,
0.5287195444107056,
-0.3658255338668823,
0.5692517757415771,
-0.1411880999803543,
0.34054189920425415,
0.1870412826538086,
0.2036653757095337,
-0.21631747484207153,
0.3955981433391571,
-0.9597251415252686,
0.4833337068557739,
-0.1043558195233345,
0.08687426149845123,
0.49731001257896423,
0.08918348699808121,
0.33683472871780396,
-0.8491098880767822,
-0.3132390081882477,
-0.24902696907520294,
0.2055092453956604,
-0.33910438418388367,
-0.02896575629711151,
0.7349445819854736,
-0.5016539692878723,
-0.3601801097393036,
-0.20045244693756104,
-0.33140841126441956,
-0.14079569280147552,
0.06625420600175858,
0.25196874141693115,
-0.24744202196598053,
-0.019395960494875908,
0.6125197410583496,
0.3856329023838043,
0.04923480004072189,
-0.1852150410413742,
0.05541718751192093,
-0.4617164134979248,
0.2384389340877533,
0.28765150904655457,
0.07058671116828918,
-0.5942138433456421,
-0.3616097569465637,
-0.043395400047302246,
-0.3389133810997009,
-0.882686197757721,
-0.4791889488697052,
0.6977375149726868,
-0.6973816752433777,
-1.2418866157531738,
0.921891450881958,
0.7282723188400269,
0.17479804158210754,
-0.21766069531440735,
-0.32247036695480347,
0.10168396681547165,
-0.5428568720817566,
-0.24857158958911896,
0.016143718734383583,
0.6321608424186707,
-0.4244093894958496,
0.5469276309013367,
-0.3065599203109741,
-0.2258826047182083,
-0.3191758096218109,
0.12255760282278061,
-0.2498932182788849,
-0.2705988883972168,
0.712685227394104,
-0.04353964701294899,
-0.7240158319473267,
0.07007889449596405,
-0.20123235881328583,
0.8209066390991211,
0.525320827960968,
-0.16146281361579895,
0.22951851785182953,
0.003876937087625265,
-5.550155162811279,
-0.5488404631614685,
0.6153584718704224,
-0.4712211489677429,
0.5439848303794861,
0.6193387508392334,
0.015228930860757828,
-0.3902376592159271,
0.48813924193382263,
-0.2835381329059601,
0.5168084502220154,
-0.395363986492157,
0.24407260119915009,
0.3625241816043854,
0.6025558114051819,
0.14854006469249725,
0.12470398843288422,
-0.16790562868118286,
0.42658352851867676,
0.6025615334510803,
0.654148519039154,
-0.42366093397140503,
0.3008175194263458,
0.6029698848724365,
0.010353566147387028,
0.5099616646766663,
0.10451431572437286,
-0.29233959317207336,
-1.194676399230957,
-0.3037547767162323,
0.034233734011650085,
0.32946696877479553,
0.21969610452651978,
0.24701444804668427,
-0.5791032910346985,
-0.6900849342346191,
0.14134421944618225,
0.21353237330913544,
-0.30027756094932556,
0.074178546667099,
0.34089961647987366,
-0.6900909543037415,
-0.011549939401447773,
0.13365988433361053,
0.38540971279144287,
0.11084504425525665,
-0.48799583315849304,
-0.0808468908071518,
-0.23908671736717224,
0.16765570640563965,
0.11121993511915207,
0.23641571402549744,
0.018881160765886307,
-0.3543767035007477,
-0.3656647205352783,
0.7603280544281006,
-0.2944129705429077,
0.27584341168403625,
-0.6728122234344482,
0.7464778423309326,
0.10964146256446838,
0.031723178923130035,
-0.3256884813308716,
0.12563371658325195,
-0.06925458461046219,
-0.059294190257787704,
0.36955028772354126,
-0.21122725307941437,
0.4161994159221649,
0.35968926548957825,
-0.24221335351467133,
0.34428828954696655,
-0.22897446155548096,
-0.9388320446014404,
0.4005078673362732,
-0.5447815656661987,
0.06338494271039963,
0.4938333332538605,
-0.26664865016937256,
0.0825318917632103,
-0.5555635690689087,
0.1615479290485382,
0.3641979694366455,
0.6408603191375732,
0.4400317966938019,
-0.0820763111114502,
-0.17924052476882935,
0.39059990644454956,
0.3925493061542511,
0.5526055693626404,
0.31619900465011597,
-1.192025899887085,
0.08304445445537567,
-0.05037005990743637,
0.3528136909008026,
0.014047770760953426,
-0.08305820822715759,
0.5917346477508545,
0.8598069548606873,
-0.21362735331058502,
-0.13547053933143616,
-0.15511153638362885,
0.2763831317424774,
-0.4423789381980896,
0.11468146741390228,
-0.26589787006378174,
0.14253978431224823,
-0.038848627358675,
0.25683659315109253,
0.10203196853399277,
0.23817995190620422,
0.18881435692310333,
0.26966592669487,
0.09847597032785416,
0.007030248176306486,
-0.6602998971939087,
0.0017859824001789093,
0.10315078496932983,
0.3680869936943054,
0.1664246916770935,
-0.7020056247711182,
0.33377501368522644,
-0.23506465554237366,
0.14933234453201294,
0.6600552797317505,
-0.36110952496528625,
-0.45241665840148926,
0.020392945036292076,
-0.09439783543348312,
-0.21541567146778107,
0.2680756747722626,
0.19637475907802582,
0.44072872400283813,
-0.2812432646751404,
0.25662878155708313,
-1.0393633842468262,
-0.005203485023230314,
-0.24861547350883484,
-0.0025759658310562372,
0.15175937116146088,
-0.27132099866867065,
-0.23610110580921173,
-0.3682592213153839,
0.23784679174423218,
0.07397347688674927,
-0.29482313990592957,
-0.015009659342467785,
-0.26175838708877563,
0.39117395877838135,
0.5306586623191833,
-0.23770998418331146,
-0.22130286693572998,
1.0509878396987915,
-0.3850523829460144,
-0.2776709198951721,
0.07074536383152008,
-0.1860392987728119,
-0.33825501799583435,
-0.04349217563867569,
0.09722460061311722,
-0.5295971632003784,
-0.6647874712944031,
-1.1664915084838867,
-0.32422518730163574,
-0.018520960584282875,
0.28666386008262634,
0.00025156053015962243,
-0.08683032542467117,
0.01620795950293541,
0.6114535927772522,
0.4982937276363373,
-0.9783818125724792,
0.005728769116103649,
0.06550712883472443,
0.06287618726491928,
-0.13918936252593994,
0.17688651382923126,
-0.11747054755687714,
0.026531731709837914,
0.23236845433712006,
-0.8212052583694458,
0.2183683067560196,
-0.49566152691841125,
0.40059173107147217,
0.6627776026725769,
0.11948256939649582,
-0.7044658660888672,
-0.6168174743652344,
-0.4450320303440094,
-0.015768568962812424,
0.3201492428779602,
-0.02128705009818077,
-0.2307616025209427,
-0.039677780121564865,
-0.13033728301525116,
-0.2366979569196701,
-0.6489221453666687,
0.49841195344924927,
-0.03698241338133812,
0.07112213969230652,
0.10564491897821426,
0.17479011416435242,
0.3559912145137787,
-0.32465285062789917,
0.3744064271450043,
-0.830482006072998,
0.45910680294036865,
0.09840600937604904,
0.6556165218353271,
0.19860932230949402,
-0.3301454186439514,
-0.5936427712440491,
-0.13028915226459503,
0.396625816822052,
-0.07042644917964935,
0.13017602264881134,
0.03843351826071739,
-0.21598462760448456,
0.30452752113342285,
-1.1539390087127686,
-0.34956857562065125,
-0.17657370865345,
-0.4230005741119385,
-0.152394101023674,
-0.6575106978416443,
0.102199487388134,
0.2781963646411896,
-1.0201791524887085,
0.642060399055481,
-0.19317758083343506,
-0.32398107647895813,
-0.06477133929729462,
0.41872456669807434,
0.49290019273757935,
-0.11407435685396194,
-0.3363814949989319,
0.6843905448913574,
0.30528250336647034,
-0.2141132354736328,
0.08267294615507126,
0.004294073674827814,
1.0930503606796265,
0.06482167541980743,
-0.22060850262641907,
-0.5154533386230469,
0.31666070222854614,
0.3031305968761444,
-0.3193592131137848,
0.1376771479845047,
-0.05976507440209389,
0.6273857355117798,
-0.07653110474348068,
-1.13274085521698,
-0.3754902184009552,
0.6783463954925537,
-0.5332695245742798,
0.11873374134302139,
0.05678018927574158,
0.19431452453136444,
0.11969619244337082,
-0.5288268327713013,
0.37038639187812805,
0.29873964190483093,
-0.269908607006073,
0.26619261503219604,
0.01989479549229145,
-0.3875816762447357,
-0.20090405642986298,
0.1954607516527176,
-0.5890195369720459,
-0.32462745904922485,
-0.965083658695221,
-0.4023951292037964,
-0.009539172053337097,
0.18390735983848572,
-0.09567729383707047,
-0.0845065712928772,
-0.16483905911445618,
0.08558891713619232,
-0.11915630847215652,
-0.8111661076545715,
-0.16508562862873077,
0.09011240303516388,
-0.34166958928108215,
0.004057854879647493,
-1.613660216331482,
0.04258107393980026,
-0.12482964247465134,
-0.47212591767311096,
0.45486578345298767,
-0.6359915733337402,
0.14431419968605042,
0.08414527028799057,
0.04660758748650551,
-0.17956581711769104,
0.4447692036628723,
-0.21174463629722595,
1.3961198329925537,
-0.36952659487724304,
0.02847912907600403,
-0.1359749585390091,
-0.36242592334747314,
0.4733960032463074,
0.1970250904560089,
-0.800741970539093,
-0.20044153928756714,
0.2555355131626129,
-0.7966175675392151,
-0.05077941343188286,
0.2620071470737457,
0.40637457370758057,
0.10371820628643036,
0.20453259348869324,
-0.16156451404094696,
-0.9426848888397217,
0.07930931448936462,
0.27525922656059265,
-0.9828163981437683,
-0.4048474431037903,
0.10984371602535248,
0.41408705711364746,
-0.04389325901865959,
0.15589088201522827,
0.07716160267591476,
0.5981010794639587,
0.44248372316360474,
-0.021703951060771942,
0.11152275651693344,
-0.1822427362203598,
0.06904469430446625,
-0.17937405407428741,
-0.006277113687247038,
-0.5438690185546875,
0.5178567171096802,
-0.0882708877325058,
-0.3141730725765228,
0.7683694362640381,
-0.4750790297985077,
0.45130467414855957,
0.029022833332419395,
0.33076825737953186,
0.8241289258003235,
0.11599770188331604,
-0.34864485263824463,
0.2571382522583008,
0.16778765618801117,
0.47011256217956543,
0.4629310369491577,
0.06099856272339821,
0.26563501358032227,
0.21736545860767365,
0.2668403685092926,
0.12870031595230103,
-0.5096134543418884,
0.635112464427948,
0.3441939055919647,
-0.2023264616727829,
-0.165832981467247,
0.4187120497226715,
-0.05330026149749756,
-0.1301773488521576,
-0.39015865325927734,
0.08190374076366425,
0.5721625089645386,
0.5717216730117798,
0.292710542678833,
-0.39682844281196594,
-0.38132965564727783,
0.2734040915966034,
0.2285090982913971,
-0.06991817057132721,
-0.35760602355003357,
-0.7784886360168457,
-0.09404144436120987,
-0.841801643371582,
0.15654198825359344,
0.23138776421546936,
-0.20674240589141846,
-0.24772831797599792,
-0.3169141113758087,
-0.1303497552871704,
-0.2387475073337555,
0.18541765213012695,
-0.3421224355697632,
0.5205240845680237,
0.15207742154598236,
0.31211841106414795,
0.22981742024421692,
-0.15295526385307312,
0.07329417765140533,
0.585774302482605,
-0.020788639783859253,
-0.29015275835990906,
0.5286158323287964,
0.4003525674343109,
0.4795266389846802,
-0.04986954107880592,
0.4421623945236206,
0.6932756900787354,
-0.5113303065299988,
0.14726315438747406,
0.07280050218105316,
0.019536731764674187,
-0.15437908470630646,
0.45007771253585815,
0.027011889964342117,
-0.09433962404727936,
-0.048648327589035034,
-0.6989981532096863,
0.5975598096847534,
-0.6213359832763672,
0.48734405636787415,
-0.07091182470321655,
0.016061216592788696,
-0.4237074553966522,
0.0746481865644455,
0.4216545820236206,
-0.5272200703620911,
-0.02871045097708702,
-0.40373939275741577,
0.012864776886999607,
-0.3666308522224426,
0.01896185241639614,
0.3576847314834595,
-0.01564181037247181,
-0.2399963140487671,
0.5990228056907654,
0.4243059754371643,
-0.09181240946054459,
0.3046559989452362,
-0.29875025153160095,
-0.40497198700904846,
-0.15503302216529846,
-0.5557101964950562,
-0.15859472751617432,
-0.15113160014152527,
0.8168582916259766,
0.22276067733764648,
-0.3461162745952606,
-0.028498977422714233,
-0.18749655783176422,
0.037968285381793976,
0.4614168107509613,
0.09381380677223206,
0.3836383521556854,
-0.13261133432388306,
-0.3480815291404724,
-0.420484334230423,
-0.5727207660675049,
0.2722504436969757,
0.15431493520736694,
0.16666698455810547,
0.808180034160614,
-0.7628239393234253,
0.1171177476644516,
0.14487753808498383,
-0.22704321146011353,
0.21598990261554718,
0.03281566873192787,
-0.16614684462547302
] |
203754
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama%20III
|
Rama III
|
Nangklao (, ; 31 March 1788 – 2 April 1851), birth name Thap (), also styled Rama III, was the third king of Siam under the House of Chakri, ruling from 21 July 1824 to 2 April 1851.
Nangklao was the eldest surviving son of his predecessor, king Rama II. His mother Sri Sulalai was one of the king's secondary wives. Nangklao was likely designated as heir by his father, his accession was uncontested and smoothly confirmed by the grand council. Foreign observers, however, falsely perceived him as having usurped the prior claim of his half-brother Prince Mongkut, who was younger, but born to queen Sri Suriyendra and thus "legitimate" according to Western customs. Under the old concept of Thai monarchy, however, a proper king must emulate Maha Sammata in that he must be "elected by the people." Ironically, Prince Mongkut may have later contributed to this misconception, when he feared that his own accession might be perceived by foreign observers as a usurpation.
During Nangklao's reign, the military hegemony of Siam was established by putting down the Laotian Rebellion (1826–1828, in what would come to be called Isan), the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1831–34), and the Siamese-Vietnamese War fought in Cambodia (1841–45).
Early life
King Nangklao was born as Prince Thap in 1788 to Prince Isarasundhorn and one of his royal wives Chao Chom Manda Riam, who came from a Muslim noble family from the south. Following Isarasundhorn's coronation (posthumously known as Phutthaloetla Naphalai, or Rama II) in 1809, Prince Kshatriyanuchit (Mom Men), the surviving son of Taksin, revolted as pretender to the throne. Prince Thap was assigned to suppress the rebellion, which he did. Praised by his father for his competence, Prince Thap was given the Sanskrit-derived title Chetsadabodin, raised to the bureaucratic rank of Kromma Muen, and served his father as Kromma Tha (minister of trade and foreign affairs.) As Kromma Tha, he developed proficiency in foreign trade, and developed an affection for Chinese goods and culture. Temples he later had constructed were characterized by Chinese influence. After a private audience in 1822, Crawfurd wrote of the Prince Krom-chiat that, "he seemed certainly to maintain the character assigned to him in public estimation, of being the most intelligent of all the princes and chiefs of the Siamese Court." The Portuguese Consul stated that the Prince had offered him a large sum of money, if he would translate from the French into the Portuguese language a history of the wars of Napoleon, for the purpose of being rendered into Siamese through the Christian interpreters.
Succession
As the prince administered trade affairs, his half-brother Prince Mongkut pursued the way of religion, becoming a monk in 1824. In that year, Phutthaloetla Naphalai died suddenly without having named a successor to viceroy Maha Senanurak, who had died 16 July 1817. According to the traditions of royal succession, the viceroy or uparaja was heir presumptive. If there were none, then an ad hoc senabodi consisting of senior officials present at the death of a king, would elect a successor. Foreign observers accustomed to the concept of an heir apparent expected Prince Mongkut, as the a son of the queen, to ascend to the throne. However, the assembled Senabodi considered Prince Chetsadabodin a more competent choice as he had served the king in Kromma Tha for years. Support came strongly from high-ranking nobility, including Chao Phraya Abhay Pudhorn, the Samuha Nayok, and Dis Bunnag then Minister of Kromma Tha, and other Bunnag family members.
Chetsadabodin accepted the throne and was crowned in 1824. He raised his mother, Riam, to Princess Mother Sri Suralai. He appointed his uncle, Sakdiphonlasep, viceroy on 21 July 1824 – who predeceased the king 1 May 1832, leading to yet another succession crisis. He did not name his reign, but was posthumously awarded the name Nangklao by Mongkut, who had in the interim remained in ecclesiastic status to avoid the intrigues of royal politics.
Western contacts
The reign of Nangklao (as he was posthumously known) saw the renewal of Western contacts. In 1822, British East India Company agent John Crawfurd's mission to Siam laid the groundwork for a British request for Siamese support in the First Anglo-Burmese War, which broke out in 1824. Nangklao provided fleets and elephants to rush through Burmese forests. He also sent Siamese armies to participate in the invasion of Burma since the British promised Siam the conquered lands. Phraya Chumporn ordered the forced migration of Mergui (a common practice in Southeast Asia regarding the newly-conquered lands), which had been conquered by the British. The British were frustrated at Phraya Chumporn's actions, and hostilities were heightened. Nangklao ordered the Siamese armies to leave to avoid further conflict.
In 1825, Henry Burney arrived to negotiate peace agreements. The Burney Treaty was the first treaty with the West in the Rattanakosin period. Its purpose was to established free trade in Siam and to greatly reduce taxation on foreign trading ships. That it accomplished the objectives is disputed.
In 1833, US President Andrew Jackson's "special agent" and envoy Edmund Roberts, referring often to Crawfurd's account, concluded the Siamese–American Treaty of Amity and Commerce, signed at the Royal City of Sia-Yut'hia (Bangkok) on 20 March, the last of the fourth month of the year 1194 CS (Chula Sakarat). This treaty, with later modifications, is still in force. Dan Beach Bradley, an American physician and prominent Western personality of the time, introduced printing and vaccination.
Anouvong insurgency
The three Laotian kingdoms (Lan Xang in Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champasak) became Siamese tributary states after Chao Phraya Maha Kshatriyaseuk (King Rama I, Nangklao's grandfather) had conquered them in 1778. Anouvong, the son of the king of Vientiene, was taken to Bangkok as a captive. He spent nearly thirty years in Siam and joined the Siamese forces in wars with Burma. In 1805, Anouvong returned to Vientiane to be crowned as the king.
In 1824, Phutthaloetla Naphalai died and, in the following year, Siam was dragged into conflicts with the British Empire. Anouvong saw this as an opportunity to wield his power. In 1825, returning from the funeral of Phutthaloetla Naphalai in Bangkok, Anouvong assembled a large force and went on the offensive. After defeating Bangkok-vassal principalities along the way, Anouvong captured Korat, the main defensive stronghold of Siam in the northeast. He forced the city to be evacuated while marching to Saraburi, on approach to the capital, Bangkok. However, the Korat captives rebelled—said to have been at the instigation of Lady Mo, wife of a ruling noble of Korat—although this claim is countered by many historians who say Mo had no heroic role in the events at Tung Samrit, though a contemporary account did mention her action. As Bangkok gathered counterattacking troops, Anouvong withdrew to return to Vientiane.
Nangklao sent his uncle Maha Sakdi Polsep the Front Palace and Sing Singhaseni (at the time styled Phraya Ratchasuphawadi) to defeat the armies of Anouvong in Isan. Anouvong was defeated and fled to Vietnam. The Siamese captured Vientiane and ordered the evacuation of the city.
In 1827, Nangklao ordered the total destruction of Vientiane. Anouvong returned to Laos with Vietnamese forces. Ratchasuphawadi led the Siamese to fight and the engagements occurred at Nong Khai. Anouvong was defeated again and, after an attempt to flee, was captured. Vientiane was razed, extinguishing her 200 year reign, and ceased to be a kingdom. Anouvong was imprisoned in an iron cage in front of the Suthaisawan Hall and died in 1829.
Vietnam and Cambodia
In 1810, internal conflicts between Cambodian princes forced Ang Im and Ang Duong to flee to Bangkok. Otteyraja of Cambodia turned to Gia Long of Vietnam for support against the opposing princes. However, this was perceived by Siam as treacherous as the two countries had fought for centuries for control of Cambodia.
In 1833, the Lê Văn Khôi revolt against Minh Mạng broke out in Vietnam. Lê Văn Khôi, the rebel leader, sought Siamese aid. Nangklao intended to take this opportunity to install a pro-Siamese monarch on the Cambodian throne.
Phraya Ratchasuphawadi, who had been promoted to Chao Phraya Bodindecha, was ordered to capture Saigon. Dis Bunnag, the Minister of Kromma Tha, commanded a fleet to rendezvous with ground forces at Saigon. The two Cambodian princes, Ang Im and Ang Duong, also joined the expedition. Bodindecha took Udongk and the fleet took Bantey Mas. The fleet proceeded to Saigon but was repelled.
Bodindecha then took Phnom Penh and again invaded Vietnam by land in 1842. In 1845, the Vietnamese recaptured Phnom Penh, but Bodindecha was able to defend Udongk. In 1847, prompted by Emperor Thiệu Trị's treatment of Christian missionaries, French forces invaded Vietnam. A cessation of hostilities with Siam was negotiated. Ang Duong was installed as the Cambodian monarch under the equal patronage of both Siam and Vietnam, thus ending the war.
Revolt of Kedah
In 1837, Krom Somdet Phra Sri Suralai, mother of Nangklao, died. All officials throughout the kingdom went to Bangkok to attend the funeral. At Syburi (Kedah of Malaysia now), without the presence of Siamese governors, a nephew of the Sultan of Kedah then staged a revolt. Nangklao then sent Tat Bunnag down south to subjugate the rebellion quickly in 1838. Tat then suggested an autonomous government for Kedah Sultanate. In 1839, Kedah was divided into four autonomous parts.
Religious devotion and Educational Reforms
Nangklao was famous for his Buddhist faith. He fed the poor each day after becoming prince, and released animals every monastery day. More than 50 temples were built and repaired in his reign, including the first Chinese style temple at Rajorasa, the highest stupa at Wat Arun, the Golden Mountain at Wat Saket, the metal temple at Wat Ratchanadda, and Chetupol Temple or Wat Pho. Wat Pho is the site of the first university in Thailand. Under his reign, King Rama III was also responsible for the writing of the Chindamanee textbook and also the revision of the Buddhist textbook the Tripitaka which was to be distributed throughout the kingdom. In addition to that Rama III also allowed monks to use castles as classrooms for the teaching of Buddhism.
Death and legacy
Nangklao died on 2 April 1851 without having named a successor. He had 51 children including sons, but had raised none of his consorts to the queen. The throne passed to his half-brother, Prince Mongkut.
Nangklao stated on his deathbed that "Our wars with Burma and Vietnam were over, only the threats of the Westerners was left to us. We should study their innovations for our own benefits but not to the degree of obsession or worship." This vision coincided with Western intervention in Siam in the reign of Mongkut. He was able to predict, but not live to see the neighboring kingdoms of Burma and Vietnam fall to European colonial rule.
During his reign, trade between Siam and China became lucrative. The king kept his profits in red purses beside his bed, subsequently this money was known as "red purse money". Nangklao stipulated that the red purse money that he had earned through his business acumen should be set aside as the state's emergency fund for the future "so that Siam would be able to buy the land back" if it fell into a squabble with a foreign power. In the reign of his nephew Chulalongkorn, Siam indeed had to pay reparations to France for the 1893 Paknam incident during the Franco–Siamese War), and funding in part came from Nangklao's red purse money.
In memoriam
Thai baht 15th Series banknotes issued to draw attention to deeds of Chakri Dynasty monarchs in agriculture, science, religion and finance, depicted King Rama III on the reverse of the 500 baht banknote issued 3 August 2001, with a partial quotation of his deathbed statement below a Chinese sailing ship.
A statue of Rama III was dedicated in the front of Wat Ratchanatdaram.
Phra Nang Klao Hospital is a hospital in Nonthaburi Province bearing his name
Phra Nang Klao Bridge is a bridge across the Chao Phraya River in Nonthaburi Province bearing his name, with the Phra Nang Klao Bridge MRT station.
Maha Chesadabodindranusorn Bridge is a bridge across the Chao Phraya River in Nonthaburi Province bearing his title.
Ancestry
See also
List of people with the most children
References
External links
http://www.thailandguidebook.com/provinces/bangkok.html
Rama 03
Thai people of Malay descent
Thai people of Mon descent
Rama 03
1787 births
1851 deaths
18th-century Chakri dynasty
19th-century Chakri dynasty
Thai Buddhists
1820s in Siam
1830s in Siam
1840s in Siam
1850s in Siam
19th-century monarchs in Asia
Thai diplomats
Thai male Phra Ong Chao
Thai male Mom Chao
18th-century Thai people
19th-century Thai people
|
[
-0.4186050295829773,
0.28061389923095703,
0.12240860611200333,
0.055528175085783005,
-0.4698517322540283,
0.3518418073654175,
1.040175199508667,
-0.3246600925922394,
-0.7746185064315796,
-0.2235603928565979,
-0.3043420910835266,
0.06596341729164124,
-0.8956498503684998,
0.1833001971244812,
-0.4885069727897644,
0.11500275135040283,
0.8807398080825806,
-0.23123681545257568,
0.10157239437103271,
-0.3138246238231659,
-0.23288847506046295,
0.37694692611694336,
0.46208876371383667,
-0.12380053848028183,
0.38143715262413025,
0.03138279169797897,
0.3406756818294525,
-0.14013002812862396,
0.26228249073028564,
-0.31525248289108276,
0.2491261512041092,
0.07670603692531586,
0.046911317855119705,
-0.007729402277618647,
-0.48786839842796326,
-0.3565879464149475,
0.07216770946979523,
-0.2871040105819702,
-0.2386128008365631,
0.029416637495160103,
-0.5251507759094238,
-0.1416754126548767,
0.01772886887192726,
-0.13130466639995575,
-0.09821057319641113,
-1.148867130279541,
-0.9329016804695129,
0.34448713064193726,
-0.44883620738983154,
0.2112671583890915,
-0.5235306620597839,
0.2061658799648285,
-0.005250006448477507,
-0.00822786707431078,
0.5556625127792358,
0.16539797186851501,
-0.8350442051887512,
-0.04848020151257515,
-0.86007159948349,
0.24016982316970825,
0.46912601590156555,
-0.005392656195908785,
0.14261555671691895,
0.0010260050185024738,
0.002818178851157427,
0.20311836898326874,
0.08856802433729172,
0.28283464908599854,
0.21537670493125916,
-0.18720625340938568,
0.30031242966651917,
1.0337028503417969,
0.20725184679031372,
0.7055841684341431,
0.39728203415870667,
-0.42485886812210083,
0.008952503092586994,
-0.09696294367313385,
0.3482956290245056,
-0.13508349657058716,
-0.29829689860343933,
-0.0772261992096901,
0.6327961683273315,
0.46928778290748596,
-0.1814781129360199,
-0.10731332004070282,
0.07941975444555283,
0.37592613697052,
-0.04806935787200928,
0.11374052613973618,
-0.29323384165763855,
0.5183971524238586,
0.7796697616577148,
-0.184225395321846,
-0.68586665391922,
-0.3617892861366272,
-0.3901081085205078,
-0.10618072003126144,
0.42054617404937744,
-0.18354623019695282,
0.028313564136624336,
-0.2972337007522583,
0.39569732546806335,
-0.46464332938194275,
-1.1296390295028687,
-0.1661451905965805,
-0.39672091603279114,
0.27660951018333435,
-0.8195374608039856,
-0.1939845085144043,
-0.11603009700775146,
0.6130480170249939,
0.13578692078590393,
0.3028593361377716,
0.1444656252861023,
0.5056898593902588,
-0.10630892962217331,
-0.24339541792869568,
-0.24489817023277283,
-0.15890491008758545,
0.2697981894016266,
0.3881513178348541,
0.2320094108581543,
0.23919375240802765,
0.1313873529434204,
-0.17117281258106232,
0.044057756662368774,
-0.30585435032844543,
-0.1940946877002716,
0.0501713827252388,
0.5617369413375854,
0.36000359058380127,
-0.13699063658714294,
-0.34706589579582214,
-0.36471036076545715,
-0.47037529945373535,
0.5632572770118713,
0.13308009505271912,
-0.19240538775920868,
-0.33326825499534607,
-0.41492393612861633,
-0.3221000134944916,
-0.16115444898605347,
0.6791913509368896,
-0.08071290701627731,
0.7152894735336304,
0.18692611157894135,
0.15229666233062744,
-0.6928367614746094,
0.012812910601496696,
-0.18886859714984894,
-0.07227616012096405,
0.032930538058280945,
-0.6409460306167603,
-0.4372777044773102,
0.6447064876556396,
0.16094672679901123,
0.24901989102363586,
0.1279045045375824,
0.06271769106388092,
0.17487139999866486,
0.3633885681629181,
-0.2423531413078308,
-0.17574132978916168,
0.5907926559448242,
-0.07464086264371872,
0.004895573947578669,
0.5925964713096619,
-0.3467881977558136,
-0.39638930559158325,
0.16210678219795227,
-0.08247643709182739,
-0.3887104094028473,
0.05248294398188591,
0.10258879512548447,
0.16619566082954407,
0.29724404215812683,
-0.12645579874515533,
-0.04431431367993355,
-0.4930315613746643,
-0.4880673289299011,
-0.0853741243481636,
0.013245941139757633,
0.23047679662704468,
0.6294249892234802,
-0.0002913933130912483,
0.7529125809669495,
-0.19605796039104462,
0.22241777181625366,
-0.25161415338516235,
-0.6975840330123901,
-0.11654885858297348,
0.018727652728557587,
-0.160583958029747,
0.5847422480583191,
0.8615133762359619,
-0.18642553687095642,
0.524737536907196,
0.016565658152103424,
0.8433613181114197,
0.19745275378227234,
-0.20572428405284882,
0.6800388693809509,
-0.1944202184677124,
-0.056942861527204514,
0.32485702633857727,
-0.284956157207489,
0.8317729830741882,
0.819233775138855,
1.1021062135696411,
0.236378014087677,
-0.02952575869858265,
-0.8495741486549377,
0.2258194237947464,
-0.11694450676441193,
-0.3385728597640991,
-0.28689417243003845,
0.2036643773317337,
-0.3583383560180664,
0.1362595409154892,
0.4274449944496155,
0.03900861367583275,
-0.5979182124137878,
0.45115944743156433,
-0.08217506855726242,
1.4056371450424194,
-0.05879659205675125,
-0.3070017397403717,
-0.23823390901088715,
-0.3794199526309967,
-0.5734649896621704,
-0.49808263778686523,
0.599912703037262,
0.09873048961162567,
0.3598213791847229,
0.041048564016819,
0.002367594977840781,
0.10443901270627975,
-0.15229208767414093,
-0.37027981877326965,
0.8261077404022217,
-0.347273051738739,
0.21316419541835785,
0.3578329384326935,
0.15755508840084076,
0.9839559197425842,
-0.5132130980491638,
-0.521385669708252,
-0.6973256468772888,
0.024672163650393486,
0.35656818747520447,
0.3986038267612457,
0.46346315741539,
-0.04659225791692734,
0.012270932085812092,
-0.4570564031600952,
-0.5943173170089722,
-0.09523490071296692,
0.2148723304271698,
0.8621352910995483,
-0.0011010674061253667,
0.1811007410287857,
0.4530625641345978,
0.5269045829772949,
0.0469646230340004,
0.5103593468666077,
0.03423318266868591,
-0.32115352153778076,
-0.035517629235982895,
0.36166146397590637,
-0.16834552586078644,
-0.7224942445755005,
-0.6908507943153381,
-0.1744174063205719,
0.11916039139032364,
-0.8859719038009644,
0.037101879715919495,
-0.057525355368852615,
-0.1704791784286499,
-1.1006810665130615,
0.6192063093185425,
0.7225115895271301,
-0.3721064627170563,
-0.3661797344684601,
-0.5377944707870483,
-0.1967039406299591,
-0.39178910851478577,
-0.2489464282989502,
0.3359990417957306,
0.1527046412229538,
-0.09678202867507935,
0.7738581299781799,
0.053502511233091354,
-0.4360431134700775,
-0.31815117597579956,
0.17155821621418,
-0.9602047204971313,
-0.10537604987621307,
0.6835904717445374,
0.1204892173409462,
-0.869246244430542,
-0.2870599925518036,
0.1364426612854004,
0.555729329586029,
0.37861600518226624,
-0.21562489867210388,
0.23879975080490112,
0.2350611537694931,
-5.470740795135498,
-0.8900027275085449,
0.40680932998657227,
-0.5524286031723022,
0.3105505406856537,
0.27910110354423523,
0.5428474545478821,
-0.05365278199315071,
0.9883925914764404,
-0.19208985567092896,
0.9465837478637695,
-0.2115945816040039,
0.23892296850681305,
0.2048298567533493,
0.0923365131020546,
0.11118343472480774,
-0.1326247602701187,
-0.010207070969045162,
0.21178968250751495,
0.9045040607452393,
0.5197824239730835,
-0.20774675905704498,
-0.08080179989337921,
0.1348584145307541,
0.06378213316202164,
-0.03467362001538277,
0.13587212562561035,
-0.43483468890190125,
-0.7554466128349304,
-0.44266876578330994,
-0.7046492099761963,
0.35984158515930176,
0.8082700967788696,
-0.49903419613838196,
-0.2667640745639801,
-0.5587993860244751,
0.5710819959640503,
0.3749493360519409,
-0.37342536449432373,
0.24457098543643951,
0.5154434442520142,
-0.7996460199356079,
-0.436847060918808,
0.09422857314348221,
0.3192114531993866,
-0.1798565536737442,
-0.7828375101089478,
0.28319063782691956,
-0.003677696455270052,
0.23028409481048584,
0.15910661220550537,
0.0905655100941658,
0.07088521867990494,
-0.6463156938552856,
-0.20847727358341217,
0.5284973978996277,
-1.093384861946106,
0.6279863715171814,
-0.9309267997741699,
0.6258594989776611,
0.6219514608383179,
-0.22674423456192017,
-0.30741265416145325,
0.33344805240631104,
0.23027755320072174,
-0.5156607031822205,
-0.05761455371975899,
0.3291054368019104,
0.3139730393886566,
0.5857617855072021,
-0.15338578820228577,
0.3734463155269623,
0.039506327360868454,
-0.5836217403411865,
0.23186331987380981,
-0.19567522406578064,
0.26669424772262573,
0.04160219430923462,
0.36248084902763367,
-0.2385646253824234,
-0.45685967803001404,
0.24521803855895996,
0.20871786773204803,
1.147874116897583,
0.30865755677223206,
-0.09573890268802643,
-0.1942991316318512,
0.2054266482591629,
0.14757439494132996,
0.26641398668289185,
0.5125353336334229,
-1.1473044157028198,
-0.11799053847789764,
0.41102322936058044,
0.014522532001137733,
-0.29446807503700256,
-0.08006932586431503,
0.11042599380016327,
0.6215482950210571,
-0.1198497861623764,
0.2629203200340271,
-0.13991890847682953,
-0.16847577691078186,
-0.09128125756978989,
-0.1383952647447586,
0.04014801234006882,
-0.275359570980072,
0.009422613307833672,
0.12461470812559128,
0.3776124119758606,
0.109949491918087,
0.12856733798980713,
0.09258496761322021,
-0.051374346017837524,
0.579582154750824,
-0.6515678763389587,
-0.08698353916406631,
-0.24223800003528595,
0.06980354338884354,
-0.0383467935025692,
-0.5684671401977539,
0.41329824924468994,
-0.01981940306723118,
0.4266195297241211,
0.7680791020393372,
0.09822127223014832,
0.14649078249931335,
0.001671774429269135,
-0.28497087955474854,
-0.28580209612846375,
0.14118868112564087,
-0.15465520322322845,
0.2663113474845886,
-0.18504023551940918,
0.3000492751598358,
-0.7195093631744385,
-0.19211691617965698,
-0.2301989048719406,
-0.020378878340125084,
-0.2146482914686203,
-0.7865622043609619,
-0.2939088046550751,
-0.368463397026062,
0.44801971316337585,
-0.40898624062538147,
-0.17520791292190552,
0.3100317418575287,
-0.009596353396773338,
0.16861389577388763,
0.3814915418624878,
-0.2208440899848938,
-0.5755944848060608,
1.2634059190750122,
0.330321341753006,
-0.3780226409435272,
-0.1655973196029663,
-0.1829659640789032,
-0.06410079449415207,
0.26287582516670227,
-0.0457269512116909,
-0.2579820454120636,
-0.06805959343910217,
-0.8038867115974426,
-0.22364743053913116,
-0.012430116534233093,
0.8064915537834167,
-0.30806854367256165,
0.24682237207889557,
0.08769562095403671,
0.6751940846443176,
0.7488906979560852,
-0.7029563784599304,
0.06872954964637756,
-0.2792152166366577,
0.1606263965368271,
0.0118169616907835,
-0.17680999636650085,
-0.4109882414340973,
-0.16270096600055695,
0.008131175301969051,
-0.6925672888755798,
-0.04825948178768158,
-0.43065834045410156,
0.5047057867050171,
0.4159741997718811,
0.0288681797683239,
-0.332744836807251,
-1.2073628902435303,
-0.07059626281261444,
-0.012309607118368149,
0.3383709192276001,
0.03708794713020325,
-0.47730907797813416,
-0.29196810722351074,
-0.5149511098861694,
-0.7923887372016907,
-0.4380324184894562,
0.7249343991279602,
0.5618208050727844,
0.09310043603181839,
-0.35202524065971375,
0.14631617069244385,
0.17380505800247192,
-0.44315195083618164,
0.07290766388177872,
-0.6424760818481445,
-0.18176640570163727,
0.2712886929512024,
0.5993320345878601,
0.3278902471065521,
-0.21135513484477997,
-0.7046629786491394,
0.17367665469646454,
0.39585283398628235,
-0.14561991393566132,
0.33074426651000977,
0.05442004278302193,
-0.3723865747451782,
0.4235316216945648,
-1.1708993911743164,
0.022208895534276962,
-0.26665520668029785,
-0.4917140305042267,
-0.07110993564128876,
-0.10224899649620056,
0.4878976345062256,
0.22140248119831085,
-0.4508242905139923,
0.5250574946403503,
-0.4944515824317932,
-0.31751641631126404,
0.3683517277240753,
-0.028845328837633133,
0.6275581121444702,
-0.3745115399360657,
-0.2863697409629822,
1.0496721267700195,
0.47322243452072144,
0.34919536113739014,
0.3462825119495392,
-0.0667835921049118,
0.9332156181335449,
-0.14442133903503418,
-0.12454201281070709,
0.22063441574573517,
-0.2901601791381836,
-0.3006282150745392,
-0.3213825523853302,
0.0758139044046402,
0.2939023971557617,
0.10833508521318436,
0.0010365128982812166,
-0.12501652538776398,
-0.5166687369346619,
0.706593930721283,
-0.90230792760849,
0.15019147098064423,
0.07220639288425446,
0.21073076128959656,
0.09898223727941513,
-0.4336507320404053,
0.6630117893218994,
0.13773319125175476,
-0.23414455354213715,
1.003987431526184,
0.10835053771734238,
-0.1385001689195633,
0.30445557832717896,
-0.025813262909650803,
-0.21551267802715302,
-0.4464341998100281,
-1.551180124282837,
-0.5818828344345093,
-0.1062147468328476,
-0.2912769019603729,
0.055500008165836334,
-0.20839393138885498,
-0.21495746076107025,
0.33038029074668884,
0.005394426174461842,
-0.580163836479187,
-0.32599878311157227,
-0.07447391003370285,
-0.2440473586320877,
-0.12558522820472717,
-1.2560327053070068,
-0.15458616614341736,
-0.05806661397218704,
-0.5579324960708618,
0.28284522891044617,
-0.9640941023826599,
0.23178009688854218,
-0.5062134265899658,
0.2844676375389099,
-0.11070923507213593,
0.3659575581550598,
-0.10804277658462524,
1.2082200050354004,
-0.4106910824775696,
0.07894428819417953,
0.10726630687713623,
-0.12588661909103394,
0.3565615117549896,
0.2285422384738922,
-0.3136553466320038,
-0.4132590591907501,
0.22608105838298798,
-0.5606989860534668,
-0.11640774458646774,
0.7317326664924622,
0.2909151613712311,
0.3977718651294708,
0.48688772320747375,
-0.37458500266075134,
-0.8826649188995361,
0.1781887263059616,
0.2920021414756775,
-0.5330080986022949,
-0.2847437858581543,
-0.056885976344347,
0.4788497984409332,
-0.15685106813907623,
-0.18558959662914276,
0.3518899381160736,
0.07499094307422638,
0.024331307038664818,
-0.18166549503803253,
0.021797634661197662,
-0.025840898975729942,
-0.02733602374792099,
-0.09463787823915482,
-0.032269857823848724,
-0.44289955496788025,
1.095718502998352,
-0.02197488769888878,
-0.22742050886154175,
0.38997694849967957,
-0.35689833760261536,
0.07413070648908615,
0.480205774307251,
0.3396851122379303,
0.7736493349075317,
-0.7252594232559204,
0.15436525642871857,
0.5266175270080566,
0.1378277987241745,
-0.2567872107028961,
0.05147290974855423,
0.36930420994758606,
0.2474551498889923,
0.819617748260498,
0.026217592880129814,
0.46493229269981384,
-0.3739742040634155,
0.5166077017784119,
0.7146076560020447,
0.023534324020147324,
0.0052014486864209175,
0.5516929626464844,
-0.6479616761207581,
0.18034879863262177,
-0.5507605671882629,
0.06072057783603668,
0.19557534158229828,
0.7351750731468201,
0.13578450679779053,
-0.17619505524635315,
-0.26798558235168457,
0.23349741101264954,
-0.007340619806200266,
0.11708866059780121,
0.06733369827270508,
-0.6032469272613525,
-0.605318546295166,
-0.3127779960632324,
-0.1811966896057129,
0.22376585006713867,
-0.36387500166893005,
-0.2221103012561798,
-0.6570529341697693,
-0.4003293216228485,
0.060607798397541046,
0.02702740766108036,
-1.005237340927124,
-0.5463331937789917,
0.5394951105117798,
0.3046964704990387,
0.2827794849872589,
-0.5133932828903198,
-0.11234550178050995,
0.0963926836848259,
0.04945586249232292,
-0.1696123331785202,
-0.0478963665664196,
-0.3121042847633362,
0.2490123063325882,
-0.00693506607785821,
0.3003285527229309,
0.5663968920707703,
0.12784375250339508,
0.5273834466934204,
0.3157563805580139,
0.16962777078151703,
-0.12701468169689178,
0.173397034406662,
0.47369828820228577,
-0.41532832384109497,
-0.3965323269367218,
-0.6122816205024719,
0.18753276765346527,
-0.5332434773445129,
0.02362668327987194,
-0.257856160402298,
-0.26270589232444763,
-0.3059645891189575,
0.14772675931453705,
0.12703411281108856,
-1.2332013845443726,
-0.08602064102888107,
-0.17471762001514435,
0.03991939127445221,
0.04399736598134041,
0.286044716835022,
0.5385972857475281,
-0.1014794111251831,
-0.619720458984375,
0.3339409828186035,
0.5982282161712646,
-0.27605485916137695,
0.4716409146785736,
-0.009791847318410873,
-0.7026154398918152,
-0.3552621006965637,
-0.6204426884651184,
-0.2165209949016571,
-0.3563469350337982,
0.6201828122138977,
-0.046539708971977234,
-0.009815958328545094,
-0.1701722890138626,
-0.33038097620010376,
0.22709053754806519,
0.7695359587669373,
0.6312835216522217,
0.26735004782676697,
-0.39248695969581604,
0.2813548743724823,
-0.34943804144859314,
-0.473049134016037,
0.14010092616081238,
0.5503514409065247,
0.7056165933609009,
0.04541479051113129,
-0.4132797122001648,
0.5198318362236023,
-0.038608480244874954,
0.033048924058675766,
-0.007755393162369728,
0.35694360733032227,
-0.028446467593312263
] |
203756
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhumibol%20Adulyadej
|
Bhumibol Adulyadej
|
Bhumibol Adulyadej (; ; ; 5 December 192713 October 2016), conferred with the title King Bhumibol the Great in 1987 (officially conferred by King Vajiralongkorn in 2019), was the ninth monarch of Thailand from the Chakri dynasty, titled Rama IX. Reigning since 9 June 1946, he was the world's longest-reigning current head of state from the death of Emperor Hirohito of Japan in 1989 until his own death in 2016, and is the second-longest reigning monarch of all time, reigning for 70 years and 126 days. During his reign, he was served by a total of 30 prime ministers beginning with Pridi Banomyong and ending with Prayut Chan-o-cha.
Forbes estimated Bhumibol's fortune – including property and investments managed by the Crown Property Bureau, a body that is neither private nor government-owned (assets managed by the Bureau were owned by the crown as an institution, not by the monarch as an individual)– to be US$30 billion in 2010, and he headed the magazine's list of the "world's richest royals" from 2008 to 2013. In May 2014, Bhumibol's wealth was again listed as US$30 billion.
After a period of deteriorating health which left him hospitalized on several occasions, Bhumibol died on 13 October 2016 in Siriraj Hospital. He was highly revered by the people in Thailand – some saw him as close to divine. Notable political activists and Thai citizens who criticized the king or the institution of monarchy were often forced into exile or to suffer frequent imprisonments. Yet many cases were dropped before being proceeded or were eventually given royal pardon. His cremation was held on 26 October 2017 at the royal crematorium at Sanam Luang. His son, Maha Vajiralongkorn, succeeded him as King.
Early life
Bhumibol was born at Mount Auburn Hospital in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the United States, on 5 December 1927. He was the youngest son of Prince Mahidol Adulyadej, the Prince of Songkla, and his commoner wife Mom Sangwan (later Princess Srinagarindra, the Princess Mother). His father was enrolled in the public health program at Harvard University, which is why Bhumibol was the only monarch to be born in the US. Bhumibol had an older sister, Princess Galyani Vadhana, and an older brother, Prince Ananda Mahidol.
Bhumibol came to Thailand in 1928, after his father obtained a certificate from Harvard. His father died of kidney failure in September 1929, when Bhumibol was less than two years old. He briefly attended Mater Dei school in Bangkok, but in 1933 his mother took her family to Switzerland, where he continued his education at the École nouvelle de la Suisse romande in Lausanne. In 1934 Bhumibol was given his first camera, which ignited his lifelong enthusiasm for photography. When Bhumibol's childless uncle Prajadhipok abdicated in 1935, his nine-year-old brother Ananda Mahidol became King Rama VIII. However, the family remained in Switzerland and the affairs of the head of state were conducted by a regency council. They returned to Thailand for only two months in 1938. In 1942, Bhumibol became a jazz enthusiast, and started to play the saxophone, a passion that he kept throughout his life. He received the baccalauréat des lettres (high-school diploma with a major in French literature, Latin, and Greek) from the Gymnase Classique Cantonal de Lausanne, and by 1945 had begun studying sciences at the University of Lausanne, when World War II ended and the family was able to return to Thailand.
Succession and marriage
Bhumibol ascended the throne following the death by gunshot wound of his brother, King Ananda Mahidol, on 9 June 1946, under circumstances that remain unclear. While a first government statement stated that Ananda had accidentally shot himself, an investigation committee ruled this was virtually impossible. Two palace aides were eventually convicted of regicide and executed. A third possibility, that Bhumibol accidentally shot his brother while the brothers played with their pistols, was never officially considered.
Bhumibol succeeded his brother, but returned to Switzerland before the end of the 100-day mourning period. Despite his interest in science and technology, he changed his major and enrolled in law and political science to prepare for his duties as head of state. His uncle, Rangsit, Prince of Chainat, was appointed Prince Regent. In Bhumibol's name, Prince Rangsit acknowledged a military coup that overthrew the government of Thamrongnawasawat in November 1947. The regent also signed the 1949 constitution, which returned to the monarchy many of the powers it had lost by the 1932 Revolution.
In December 1946, the Siamese government allocated several hundred thousand dollars for the ceremonial cremation of the remains of the late King Ananda, a necessary preliminary to the coronation of Bhumibol who was required by religious custom to light the funeral pyre. Unsettled conditions in 1947 following a coup d'état resulted in a postponement, and court astrologers determined that 2 March 1949 was the most auspicious date.
While doing his degree in Switzerland, Bhumibol visited Paris frequently. It was in Paris that he first met Mom Rajawongse Sirikit Kitiyakara, daughter of the Thai ambassador to France (Nakkhatra Mangala) and a great-granddaughter of King Chulalongkorn and thus a cousin of Bhumibol. She was then 15 years old and training to be a concert pianist.
On 4 October 1948, while Bhumibol was driving a Fiat Topolino on the Geneva-Lausanne road, he collided with the rear of a braking truck 10 km outside Lausanne. He injured his back, suffered paralysis in half of his face and incurred cuts on his face that cost him the sight of his right eye. Both the royal cremation and coronation had to be postponed once more. While he was hospitalised in Lausanne, Sirikit visited him frequently. She met his mother, who asked her to continue her studies nearby so that Bhumibol could get to know her better. Bhumibol selected for her a boarding school in Lausanne, Riante Rive. A quiet engagement in Lausanne followed on 19 July 1949, and they were married on 28 April 1950, just a week before his coronation. Their wedding was described by The New York Times as "the shortest, simplest royal wedding ever held in the land of gilded elephants and white umbrellas". The ceremony was performed by Bhumibol's ageing grandmother, Savang Vadhana.
Bhumibol and Sirikit have four children:
(Formerly HRH) Princess Ubolratana Rajakanya, born 5 April 1951 in Lausanne, Switzerland; married Peter Ladd Jensen (now divorced), and has two daughters. Her son, Bhumi Jensen, was killed in the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
King Maha Vajiralongkorn (Rama X), born 28 July 1952; married Mom Luang Soamsawali Kitiyakara (later divorced and became HRH the Princess Niece); one daughter. Then married Yuvadhida Polpraserth (later divorced); four sons and a daughter. Third marriage was to Srirasmi Suwadee (now divorced); one son. Fourth and current marriage is to Suthida Tidjai.
HRH Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, The Princess Royal, born 2 April 1955; never married, no issue
HRH Princess Chulabhorn Walailak, born 4 July 1957; married Virayudh Tishyasarin (now divorced); two daughters
Coronation and titles
After presiding over the long-delayed, ceremonial cremation of his brother Ananda Mahidol, Bhumibol was crowned King of Thailand on 5 May 1950 in the Baisal Daksin Throne Hall in the Grand Palace in Bangkok. It was the first coronation ceremony of a Thai sovereign to rule under the system of constitutional monarchy. During the ceremony, he pledged that he would "reign with righteousness for the benefit and happiness of the Siamese people" ("เราจะครองแผ่นดินโดยธรรม เพื่อประโยชน์สุขแห่งมหาชนชาวสยาม"). Notable elements associated with the coronation included the Bahadrabith Throne beneath the Great White Umbrella of State and royal regalia and utensils.
In 1950 on Coronation Day, Bhumibol's consort was made queen (Somdej Phra Boromarajini). The date of his coronation is celebrated each 5 May in Thailand as Coronation Day, a public holiday. On 9 June 2006, Bhumibol celebrated his 60th anniversary as the King of Thailand, becoming the longest reigning monarch in Thai history.
The royal couple spent their honeymoon at Hua Hin before they returned to Switzerland, where the king completed his university studies. They returned to Thailand in 1951.
Following the death of his grandmother Queen Savang Vadhana, Bhumibol entered a 15-day monkhood (22 October 19565 November 1956) at Wat Bowonniwet, as is customary for Buddhist males on the death of elder relatives. He was ordained by the Supreme Patriarch on 22 October 1956 at the Royal Chapel of the Emerald Buddha in the Grand Palace. During this time, Sirikit was appointed his regent. She was later appointed Queen Regent (Somdej Phra Boromarajininat) in recognition of this.
Although Bhumibol was sometimes referred to as King Rama IX in English, Thais referred to him as Nai Luang or Phra Chao Yu Hua (ในหลวง or พระเจ้าอยู่หัว), which translated to "the King" and "Lord Upon our Heads", respectively. He was also called Chao Chiwit ("Lord of Life"). Formally, he was referred to as Phrabat Somdet Phra Chao Yu Hua (พระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว) or, in legal documents, Phrabat Somdet Phra Paraminthara Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej (พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรมินทรมหาภูมิพลอดุลยเดช), and in English as "His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej". He signed his name as ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช ป.ร. (Bhumibol Adulyadej Por Ror, the Thai equivalent of "Bhumibol Adulyadej R[ex])".
Role in Thai politics
In 1957, a military coup overthrew the government of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram with allegations of lèse-majesté, corruption and manipulation of the election held earlier that year. This began a new and long-lasting relationship between the monarch and military, leading some to perceive that the king condones the Thammasat University massacre in defense of his throne, and support a series of military dictatorships. However, during his interview given to the BBC in 1979, the king reiterated that the monarchy should remain impartial and be in peaceful co-existence with everybody. Bhumibol invited public criticism in a 2005 speech, but the lèse majesté laws have not been revoked by the Thai parliament yet.
Plaek Phibunsongkhram era
In the early years of his reign, during the government of military dictator Plaek Phibunsongkhram, Bhumibol had no real political power and was little more than a ceremonial figure under the military-dominated government. In August 1957, six months after parliamentary elections, General Sarit Thanarat accused the government of Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram of lèse-majesté due to its conduct of the 2,500th anniversary celebration of Buddhism. On 16 September 1957, Phibunsongkhram went to Bhumibol to seek support for his government. Bhumibol advised the field marshal to resign to avoid a coup. Phibunsongkhram refused. That evening, Sarit Thanarat seized power. Two hours later Bhumibol imposed martial law throughout the kingdom. Bhumibol issued a proclamation appointing Sarit as "military defender of the capital" without anyone countersigning the proclamation. It included the following:
Whereas it appears that the public administration by the government under the premiership of Field Marshal P. Phibunsongkhram is untrustworthy, and that the government could not maintain the public order; and whereas the military, led by Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, has successfully taken over the public administration and now acts as the Military Defender of the Capital; now, therefore, I do hereby appoint Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat as the Military Defender of the Capital, and command that all the citizens shall remain calm whilst all the government officers shall serve the orders issued by Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat. This Proclamation shall come into force immediately. Done this 16th Day of September, Buddhist Era 2500 (1957). Sarit later admitted in a rare interview with foreign correspondent that the king had no involvement and did not acknowledge anything about the coup until it had been done successfully.
Sarit Thanarat era
During Sarit's dictatorship, the monarchy was revitalised. Bhumibol attended public ceremonies, toured the provinces and patronised development projects, he also visited the United States in June 1960, addressing Congress, and many countries in Europe, including a visit to Rome, hosted by PM Giovanni Gronchi, in September 1960.
Under Sarit, the practice of crawling in front of royalty during audiences, banned by King Chulalongkorn, was revived in certain situations and the royal-sponsored Thammayut Nikaya order was revitalised. For the first time since the absolute monarchy was overthrown, a king was conveyed up the Chao Phraya River in a Royal Barge Procession to offer robes at temples.
Other disused ceremonies from the classical period of the Chakri Dynasty, such as the royally patronised ploughing ceremony (Thai: พิธีพืชมงคล), were also revived. Bhumibol's birthday (5 December) was declared the national day, replacing the previous national day, the anniversary of the Siamese revolution of 1932 (24 June). Upon Sarit's death on 8 December 1963, an unprecedented 21 days of mourning were declared in the palace. A royal five-tier umbrella shaded his body while it lay in state. Long-time royal adviser Phraya Srivisaravacha later noted that no Prime Minister ever had such an intimate relationship with Bhumibol as Sarit.
Bhumibol biographer Paul Handley, in The King Never Smiles, writes that the dictator Sarit was Bhumibol's tool. Political scientist Thak Chaloemtiarana writes that Sarit used Bhumibol in order to build his own credibility.
Thammasat University massacre
Following Sarit's death General Thanom Kittikachorn rose to power to lead Thailand's military dictatorship, ultimately challenged by the 1973 Thai popular uprising. Bhumibol initially asked student protestors to disband. When police attacked and killed dozens of students, sparking protest riots, Bhumibol announced general Thanom's resignation and departure from Thailand.
According to William Stevenson, the king had asked the three tyrants to avoid bloodshed, although the three tyrants had agreed, they later changed their minds. Eventually, it led to the incidents of October 1973.
Bhumibol distanced himself from the Thai military after Thanom's fall. Political events in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos brought powerful guerrilla and communist movements into power or prominence, which threatened the Thai monarchy and political establishment. Fearing unrest, Bhumibol began to court the military in 1975, visiting camps throughout the country, and publicly warning of internal and external threats. At this time, Bhumibol increasingly cultivated far-right militias and paramilitary forces, including the Red Gaurs and the Village Scouts, warning that students and political dissidents planned to bring communists to power in Thailand. Finally, Bhumibol provoked outrage among students and legal groups by inviting general Thanom back into the country.
The ensuing chaos was used as a pretext for a military coup, which Bhumibol backed and described as a manifestation of the people's will. The event that catalyzed the coup was the Thammasat University massacre, carried out in the name of defending Bhumibol's throne. The victorious military junta submitted three names to the king as possible premiers: Deputy President of the king's Privy Council Prakob Hutasingh, right-wing Bangkok Governor Thamnoon Thien-ngern, and staunchly anti-communist Supreme Court judge Thanin Kraivichien. Thanin was a member of the Nawaphon monarchist paramilitary group, which had the backing of the CIA, and which Bhumibol was alleged to have sponsored. Bhumibol chose Thanin as the most suitable premier, leading student protesters to flee to join the communists in the jungle. Thanin was overthrown in a military coup in October 1977 led by General Kriangsak Chamanan.
Prem Tinsulanonda era
Kriangsak was succeeded in 1980 by the popular Army Commander-in-Chief, General Prem Tinsulanonda, who later became the Privy Council President.
Bhumibol's refusal to endorse military coups in 1981 (the April Fool's Day coup) and 1985 (the Share Rebellion) ultimately led to the victory of forces loyal to the government, despite some violence – including, in 1981, the seizure of Bangkok by rebel forces. The coups led many to believe that Bhumibol had misjudged Thai society and that his credibility as an impartial mediator between various political and military factions had been compromised.
Following the death of Emperor Hirohito of Japan in 1989, he overtook the distinction as the world's longest-reigning living monarch.
Crisis of 1992
In 1992, Bhumibol played a key role in Thailand's transition to a democratic system. The 1991 Thai coup d'état on 23 February returned Thailand to military dictatorship. After a general election in 1992, the majority parties invited General Suchinda Kraprayoon, a leader of the coup group, to be prime minister. This caused much dissent, which escalated into demonstrations called Black May that led to a large number of deaths when the military was brought in to control protesters. The situation became increasingly critical as police and military forces clashed with protesters. Violence and riots spread to many areas of the capital with rumours of a rift among the armed forces.
Amidst the fear of civil war, Bhumibol intervened. He summoned Suchinda and the leader of the pro-democracy movement, retired Major General Chamlong Srimuang, to a televised audience, and urged them to find a peaceful resolution. At the height of the crisis, the sight of both men appearing together on their knees (in accordance with royal protocol) made a strong impression on the nation. Bhumibol then signed Suchinda's amnesty decree that applied to both side of a conflict, with the reason to protect security and unity of the country. Suchinda resigned soon afterwards.
It was one of the few occasions in which Bhumibol directly and publicly intervened in a political conflict. A general election was held shortly afterward, leading to a civilian government.
Crisis of 2005–2006 and the September 2006 coup
Background to the coup
Weeks before the April 2006 legislative election, the Democrat Party-led opposition and the People's Alliance for Democracy petitioned Bhumibol to appoint a replacement prime minister and cabinet. Demands for royal intervention were met with much criticism from the public. Bhumibol, in a speech on 26 April 2006, responded, "Asking for a Royally-appointed prime minister is undemocratic. It is, pardon me, a mess. It is irrational".
After publicly claiming victory in the boycotted April parliamentary elections, Thaksin Shinawatra had a private audience with the king. A few hours later, Thaksin appeared on national television to announce that he would be taking a break from politics. Due to the election result, Bhumibol took the unprecedented step of calling the elections undemocratic.
In May 2006, the Sondhi Limthongkul-owned Manager Daily newspaper published a series of articles describing the "Finland Plot", alleging that Thaksin and former members of the Communist Party of Thailand planned to overthrow the king and seize control of the nation. No evidence was ever produced to verify the existence of such a plot, and Thaksin and his Thai Rak Thai party vehemently denied the accusations and sued the accusers.
In a rare, televised speech to senior judges, Bhumibol requested the judiciary to take action to resolve the political crisis. On 8 May 2006, the Constitutional Court invalidated the results of the April elections and ordered new elections scheduled for 15 October 2006. The Criminal Court later jailed the Election Commissioners.
On 14 July 2006, Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda addressed graduating cadets of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy, telling them that the Thai military must serve the nation and the king—not the government.
On 20 July, Bhumibol signed a royal decree endorsing new House elections for 15 October 2006. In an unprecedented act, the King wrote a note on the royal decree calling for a clean and fair election. That very day, Bhumibol underwent spinal surgery.
The coup
On the evening of 19 September, the Thai military overthrew the Thaksin government and seized control of Bangkok in a bloodless coup. The junta, led by the Sonthi Boonyaratglin, Commander of the Army, called itself the Council for Democratic Reform under the Constitutional Monarchy. It accused the deposed prime minister and his regime of crimes, including lèse majesté, and pledged its loyalty to Bhumibol. Martial law was declared, the constitution repealed and the October elections cancelled. Protests and political meetings were banned.
The king's role in the coup was the subject of much speculation among Thai analysts and the international media, although publication of such speculation was banned in Thailand. The king had an audience with Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda at the same time that special forces troops were mobilised. Anti-coup protesters claimed that Prem was the mastermind of the coup, although the military claimed otherwise and banned any discussion of the topic. In a BBC interview, Thitinan Pongsudhirak of Chulalongkorn University noted, "This coup was nothing short of Thaksin versus the King... He [the king] is widely seen as having implicitly endorsed the coup." In the same interview, social critic Sulak Sivaraksa claimed, "Without his [the king's] involvement, the coup would have been impossible." Sulak added that the king is "very skillful. He never becomes obviously involved. If this coup goes wrong, Sonthi will get the blame, but whatever happens, the King will only get praise." On Saturday, 23 September 2006, the junta warned it would "urgently retaliate against foreign reporters whose coverage has been deemed insulting to the monarchy." Prem did help secure the appointment of Surayud Chulanont, another member of the King's Privy Council, as Premier, and allegedly had a say in the appointment of Surayud's Cabinet. Critics claimed the cabinet was full of "Prem's boys".
On 20 April 2009, Thaksin claimed in an interview with the Financial Times that Bhumibol had been briefed by Privy Councillors Prem Tinsulanonda and Surayud Chulanont about their plans to stage the 2006 coup. He claimed that General Panlop Pinmanee, a leader of the People's Alliance for Democracy, had told him of the briefing. The Thai embassy in London denied Thaksin's claims.
After the coup
The junta appointed a constitutional tribunal to rule on alleged polling fraud involving the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat political parties. Guilty rulings would have dissolved both parties, Thailand's largest and oldest, respectively, and banned the parties' leadership from politics for five years. The weeks leading up to the verdicts saw rising political tensions. On 24 May 2007, about a week before the scheduled verdict, Bhumibol gave a rare speech to the Supreme Administrative Court (the president of which is also a member of the constitutional tribunal). "You have the responsibility to prevent the country from collapsing", he warned them in the speech, which was shown on all national television channels simultaneously during the evening. "The nation needs political parties... In my mind, I have a judgment but I cannot say", he said. "Either way the ruling goes, it will be bad for the country, there will be mistakes". The tribunal later acquitted the Democrat Party, but dissolved the Thai Rak Thai Party and banned 111 of its executives from politics for five years.
The junta-appointed Constitution Drafting Assembly later tried to use the King in a propaganda campaign to increase public support for its widely criticised draft constitution. The CDA placed billboards saying "Love the King. Care about the King. Vote in the referendum" throughout northeast Thailand, where opposition to the junta was greatest.
2008 crisis
The military's constitution passed the referendum, and a general election was held in December 2007. The People's Power Party (PPP), consisting of many former Thai Rak Thai Party MPs and supporters, won the majority and formed a government. The People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) refused to accept the election results and started protests, eventually laying siege to Government House, Don Mueang Airport, and Suvarnabhumi Airport. Although the PAD claimed they were defending the monarchy, Bhumibol remained silent. However, after a PAD supporter died in a clash with police, Queen Sirikit presided over her cremation. Princess Sirindhorn, when asked at a U.S. press conference whether PAD was acting on behalf of the monarchy, replied, "I don't think so. They do things for themselves." Questioning and criticism over Bhumibol's role in the crisis increased, particularly from the international press. "It is more and more difficult for them to hold the illusion that the monarchy is universally adored", says a Thai academic.
In April 2008, Bhumibol appointed alleged coup plotter General Surayud Chulanont to the Privy Council of Thailand. In the weeks leading up to the 2011 general election, Bhumibol appointed Air Chief Marshal Chalit Pukbhasuk, a leader of the 2006 military coup, to his privy council.
2013–2014 crisis
After Prayut Chan-o-cha, Commander of the Royal Thai Army launched a coup d'état, the 12th since the country's first coup in 1932, against the caretaker government, following six months of political crisis. On 24 May 2014, the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) said Bhumibol had acknowledged the coup, but stopped short of describing the response as an endorsement. However, on 26 May 2014 Bhumibol formally appointed General Prayut to run the country. In Thailand the monarchy is highly respected and royal endorsement was seen as legitimation of the takeover.
Paul Chambers said that the military is the only institution that can sustain the power of Bhumibol monarch, and Bhumibol gave legitimacy to the military and blessing each of the coups. Past two coups showed relationship between the military and the monarch. Serhat Uenaldi said that Bhumibol helped kill off democracy since last 2006 coup by endorsed a military coup against the popular Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra.
Declining health
Bhumibol suffered from lumbar spinal stenosis, and received a microsurgical decompression for the condition in July 2006. He was admitted to the hospital in October 2007 and diagnosed with a blood shortage to his brain. He received treatment for various ailments including heart problems and was released after three weeks.
Bhumibol was again admitted to Siriraj Hospital in September 2009, apparently suffering from flu and pneumonia. In 2011, it was revealed as part of WikiLeaks' leak of United States diplomatic cables that he had suffered from Parkinson's disease and depression. He was diagnosed with diverticulitis in hospital in November 2011, and was treated for the condition in January 2012. Bhumibol suffered minute subdural bleeding in the left frontal area of his brain for which he was treated in July 2012. Bhumibol left the hospital in July 2013, and travelled to Klai Kangwon Palace at Hua Hin on 2 August 2013, but returned intermittently in the following years, most recently on 1 June 2015. Bhumibol was too ill to appear for the public celebration of his birthday on 5 December 2015, but made a televised appearance on 14 December, his first in several months. The King temporarily left hospital to visit Chitralada Royal Villa on 11 January 2016 but returned later that day.
On 1 October 2016, the palace released a bulletin stating that after recovering from a fever, King Bhumibol underwent tests that revealed a blood infection and an X-ray found inflammation on his left lung, along with water in his lungs. He had been in kidney failure for some time and received dialysis. By 9 October, he had been placed on a ventilator and doctors pronounced him "not yet stable". Crowds of well-wishers, many dressed in pink symbolizing good health and luck, gathered outside Siriraj Hospital and the Grand Palace to offer prayers and support.
By 12 October, the royal children had arrived at Siriraj Hospital and Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn had met with the prime minister. There were some internal concerns about the succession of the crown prince, in that he was not perceived to be as well-respected as his father and it was speculated that some palace elites, responding to the people's admiration for Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, might try to position her to take the throne.
Death
King Bhumibol Adulyadej died in Siriraj Hospital in Bangkok, Thailand on 13 October 2016, at 15:52 local time, at the age of 88, as announced by the royal palace later that day. The following day, his body was taken by motorcade to the Grand Palace for the customary bathing rite. Thousands of the bereaved public lined the route, demonstrating their affection for their "king of kings". The royal procession arrived at the Grand Palace through Viset Chaisri Gate at 17:00. His only son and the next in line to rule the kingdom, Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn, presided over the bathing ritual at Phiman Rattaya Throne Hall.
A royal cremation ceremony took place over five days at the end of October 2017. The actual cremation, which was not broadcast on television, was held in the late evening of 26 October 2017. Following cremation his ashes were taken to the Grand Palace and were enshrined at the Chakri Maha Phasat Throne Hall (royal remains), the Royal Cemetery at Wat Ratchabophit and the Wat Bowonniwet Vihara Royal Temple (royal ashes). Following burial, the mourning period officially ended on midnight of 30 October 2017, after which Thais resumed wearing regular colours while they awaited the future coronation of King Vajiralongkorn, which was hosted between 4–6 May 2019.
Royal powers
Constitutional powers
Bhumibol retained enormous powers, partly because of his immense popularity and partly because his powers – although clearly defined in the Thai constitution – were often subject to conflicting interpretations. This was highlighted by the controversy surrounding the appointment of Jaruvan Maintaka as Auditor-General. Jaruvan had been appointed by The State Audit Commission, but in July 2004, the Constitutional Court ruled that her appointment was unconstitutional. Jaruvan refused to vacate her office without an explicit order from Bhumibol, on the grounds that she had previously been royally approved. When the Senate elected a replacement for Jaruvan, Bhumibol refused to approve him. The Senate declined to vote to override Bhumibol's veto. Finally in February 2006 the Audit Commission reinstated Jaruvan when it became clear from a memo from the Office of the King's Principal Private Secretary that King Bhumibol supported her appointment.
Bhumibol only vetoed legislation on rare occasions. In 1976, when the Parliament voted 149–19 to extend democratic elections down to district levels, Bhumibol refused to sign the law. The Parliament refused to vote to overturn the King's veto. In 1954, Bhumibol vetoed parliamentary-approved land reform legislation twice before consenting to sign it. The law limited the maximum land an individual could hold to 50 rai (), at a time when the Crown Property Bureau was the kingdom's largest land-owner. The law was not enforced as General Sarit soon overthrew the elected government in a coup and repealed the law.
Bhumibol had the constitutional prerogative to pardon criminals, although there are several criteria for receiving a pardon, including age and remaining sentence. The 2006 pardoning of several convicted child rapists, including an Australian rapist and child pornographer, caused controversy. However, under the Thai constitution, the king has the prerogative to grant pardons and all laws, royal rescripts, and royal commands relating to state affairs must be countersigned by a minister unless otherwise provided for in the constitution.
Network monarchy and extraconstitutional powers
Several academics outside Thailand, including Duncan McCargo and Federico Ferrara, noted the active but indirect political involvement of Bhumibol through a "network monarchy", whose most significant proxy is Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda. McCargo claimed that Bhumibol's conservative network worked behind the scenes to establish political influence in the 1990s, but was threatened by the landslide election victories of Thaksin Shinawatra in 2001 and 2005. Ferrara claimed, shortly before the Thai Supreme Court delivered its verdict to seize Thaksin Shinawatra's assets, that the judiciary was a well-established part of Bhumibol's network and represented his main avenue to exercise extra-constitutional prerogatives despite having the appearance of being constitutional. He also noted how, in comparison to the Constitutional Court's 2001 acquittal of Thaksin, the judiciary was a much more important part of the "network" than it was in the past.
The network's ability to exercise power is based partly on Bhumibol's popularity and strict control of Bhumibol's popular image. According to Jost Pachaly of the Heinrich Böll Foundation, Bhumibol "plays an important role behind the scenes. But the role is difficult to assess because nothing is reported about it and no one really knows anything specific", due to lese majeste laws forbidding discussion about Bhumibol's political activities. Bhumibol's popularity was demonstrated following the 2003 Phnom Penh riots in Cambodia, when hundreds of Thai protesters, enraged by rumors that Cambodian rioters had stomped on photographs of Bhumibol, gathered outside the Cambodian embassy in Bangkok. Photographs of the stomping were not published in Thailand, but were available on the internet. The situation was resolved peacefully only when Police General Sant Sarutanonda told the crowd that he had received a call from royal secretary Arsa Sarasin conveying Bhumibol's request for calm. The crowd dispersed.
Royal projects
History
Bhumibol was involved in many social and economic development projects. The nature of his involvement varied by political regime.
The government of Plaek Phibunsongkhram (1951–1957) limited Bhumibol to a ceremonial role. During that period Bhumibol produced some films and operated a radio station from Chitlada Palace using personal funds.
In the military governments of Sarit Thanarat and his successors (1958–1980), Bhumibol was portrayed as the "development King" and the inspiration for the economic and political goals of the regime. Royally ordered projects were implemented under the financial and political support of the government, including projects in rural areas and communities under the influence of the Communist Party of Thailand. Bhumibol's visits to these projects were heavily promoted by the Sarit government and broadcast in state-controlled media.
During the governments of General Prem Tinsulanonda (1981–1987), the relationship between the Thai state and the monarch was at its closest. Prem, later to become President of Bhumibol's Privy Council, officially allocated government budgets and manpower to support royal projects. Most activities in this period involved the development of large-scale irrigation projects in rural areas.
During the modern period (post-1988), the structured development of the royal projects reached its apex. Bhumibol's Chaipattana Foundation was established, promoting his "sufficiency economy" theory, an alternative to the export-oriented policies adopted by the period's elected governments. Following the 2006 coup, establishment of a "sufficiency economy" was enshrined in the constitution as being a primary goal of the government, and government financial support for royal projects was boosted.
Project samplings
'Sandwich' and 'Supersandwich' artificial rainmaking project under the Thailand Royal Rainmaking Project
Chai Pattana Waste Water Aerator, awarded gold medal by BKU (The Belgian Chamber of Inventors) at Brussels Eureka 2000
'Sufficiency Economy' Theory
New Theory of Agriculture
Rice policy, especially increasing production and improvement of germplasm collections which continues through today. For this he received the first Borlaug Medallion in 2007.
Use of Vetiver Grass for soil improvement, awarded the International Merit Award by the IECA (International Erosion Control Association)
Kaem Ling Project, formation of detention basins
Klaeng Din Project, acidic soil treatment
Fai Maeo Project, formation of check dams
Khun Dan Prakanchon Dam, Nakhon Nayok Province
Pa Sak Jolasid Dam, Lop Buri Province
Pa Sak River Basin Improvement Project
Khlong Lat Pho Project, water diversion to prevent flooding in Bangkok
Rama VIII Bridge
Ratchadaphisek Road
Bangkok Industrial Ring Road/Bhumibol Bridge
Huai Ongkod Land Rehabilitation Project, Kanchanaburi Province
Khao Hin Son Royal Development Study Centre, Chachoengsao Province
Phikun Thong Royal Development Study Centre, Narathiwat Province
Huai Sai Royal Development Study Centre, Phetchaburi Province
Royal Medical Team. Bhumibol's private physicians accompanying him on village tours were encouraged to provide medical care for local residents. In addition, the Royal Household sends letters of support to physicians who volunteer to serve in hospitals in provinces where royal palaces are present.
In honour of his work in soil science, the United Nations observes the king's birthday, 5 December, as World Soil Day. The first observance was in 2014.
60th anniversary celebrations
Also called the Diamond Jubilee, the 60th anniversary celebrations of the king's accession to the throne were a series of events marking Bhumibol's reign in June 2006. Events included a royal barge procession on the Chao Phraya River, fireworks displays, art exhibitions, and the pardoning of 25,000 prisoners, concerts, and dance performances.
Tied in with the anniversary, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented Bhumibol with the United Nations Development Programme's first Human Development Lifetime Achievement Award on 26 May 2006. National holidays were observed on 9 June and 12–13 June 2006. On 9 June, the king and queen appeared on the balcony of Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall before hundreds of thousands of people. The official royal barge procession on 12 June was attended by the king and queen and royal visitors from 26 other countries. On 13 June, a state banquet for the royal visitors was held in the newly constructed Rama IX Throne Hall at the Grand Palace, the first official function of the hall. The Chiang Mai Royal Floral Expo was also held to honour the anniversary.
On 16 January 2007, the CDRM officially declared the end of the 60th anniversary celebrations and commenced year-long celebrations of Bhumibol's 80th birthday.
Private life
Bhumibol was a painter, musician, photographer, author and translator. His book Phra Mahachanok is based on a traditional Jataka story of Buddhist scripture. The Story of Thong Daeng is the story of his dog Thong Daeng.
In his youth, Bhumibol was greatly interested in firearms. He kept a carbine, a Sten gun and two automatic pistols in his bedroom, and he and his elder brother, King Ananda Mahidol, often used the gardens of the palace for target practice.
There are two English-language books that provide extensive detail—albeit not always verifiable—about Bhumibol's life, especially his early years and then throughout his entire reign. One is The Revolutionary King (2001) by William Stevenson, the other is The King Never Smiles (2006) by Paul M. Handley. A third and earlier work, The Devil's Discus (1964), is also available in Thai and English. The latter two books are banned in Thailand, while the first has never been sold in the country due to its "inaccuracies", despite having been written with royal patronage.
Bhumibol's creativity in, among other things, music, art and invention, was the focus of a two-minute long documentary created by the government of Abhibisit Vejjajiva that was screened at all branches of the Major Cineplex Group and SF Cinema City, the two largest cinema chains in Thailand.
Music
Bhumibol was an accomplished jazz saxophone player and composer, playing Dixieland and New Orleans jazz, and also the clarinet, trumpet, guitar, and piano. It is widely believed that his father, Mahidol Adulyadej, may have inspired his passion for artistic pursuits at an early age. Bhumibol initially focused on classical music exclusively for two years but eventually switched to jazz since it allowed him to improvise more freely. It was during this time that he decided to specialize in wind instruments, especially the saxophone and clarinet. By the time Bhumibol turned 18, he started to compose his own music with the first being Candlelight Blues. He continued to compose even during his reign following his coronation in 1946. Bhumibol performed with Preservation Hall Jazz Band, Benny Goodman, Stan Getz, Lionel Hampton, and Benny Carter. Throughout his life, Bhumibol wrote a total of 49 compositions. Much of it is jazz swing but he also composed marches, waltzes, and Thai patriotic songs. His most popular compositions were Candlelight Blues, Love at Sundown, and Falling Rain which were all composed in 1946. Bhumibol's musical influences included Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet, Benny Carter, and Johnny Hodges. The Bhumibol Adulyadej (King of Thailand) Collection, 1946–1954 at the Library of Congress Music Division includes some of his compositions, including 13 music manuscripts, 100 pieces of printed music, clippings, correspondence, and other miscellaneous documents.
Bhumibol initially received general music training privately while he was studying in Switzerland, but his older brother, then King Ananda Mahidol, who had bought a saxophone, sent Bhumibol in his place. King Ananda would later join him on the clarinet. On his permanent return to Thailand in 1950, Bhumibol started a jazz band, Lay Kram, whom he performed with on a radio station he started at his palace. The band grew, being renamed the Au Sau Wan Suk Band and he would perform with them live on Friday evenings, occasionally taking telephoned requests. Bhumibol also performed with his band at Thai universities, composing anthems for the universities of Chulalongkorn, Thammasat, and Kasetsart. Bhumibol performed with Benny Goodman at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, in 1956, and later played at Goodman's home in New York in 1960. Many bands such as Les Brown and His Band of Renown, Claude Bolling Big Band, and Preservation Hall Jazz Band recorded some of Bhumibol's compositions and can still be heard in Thailand. A 1996 documentary, Gitarajan, was made about Bhumibol's music.
Bhumibol still played music with his Au Sau Wan Suk Band in later years, but was rarely heard in public. In 1964, Bhumibol became the 23rd person to receive the Certificate of Bestowal of Honorary Membership on behalf of Vienna's University of Music and Performing Arts. In 2000, he was awarded the Sanford Medal for his contribution in music from Yale School of Music. He was the first Asian in both cases to be honored as such. In 2003, the University of North Texas College of Music awarded him an honorary doctorate in music. Bhumibol's influence is widely regarded as one reason why Thailand, and Bangkok in particular, has for decades had a strong jazz and improvised music "scene" relative to other Asian nations.
Sailing
Bhumibol was an accomplished sailor and sailboat designer. He won a gold medal for sailing in the Fourth Southeast Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games in 1967, together with Princess Ubol Ratana whom he tied for points. This accomplishment was all the more remarkable given Bhumibol's lack of binocular depth perception. On 19 April 1966, Bhumibol also sailed the Gulf of Thailand from Hua Hin to Toey Ngam Harbour in Sattahip, covering in a 17-hour journey on the "Vega 1", an OK Class dinghy he built.
Like his father, a former military naval engineer, Bhumibol was an avid boat designer and builder. He produced several small sailboat designs in the International Enterprise, OK, and Moth classes. His designs in the Moth class included the "Mod", "Super Mod", and "Micro Mod".
Radio amateur
Bhumibol was a radio amateur with the call sign HS1A. He was also the patron of the Radio Amateur Society of Thailand (RAST).
Patents
Bhumibol was the only Thai monarch to hold a patent. He obtained one in 1993 for a waste water aerator named "Chai Pattana", and several patents on rainmaking after 1955: the "sandwich" rainmaking patent in 1999 and the "supersandwich" patent in 2003.
Wealth
Estimates of the post-devaluation (c. 1997–1998) wealth of the royal household and the Crown Property Bureau (CPB) range from US$10–20 billion. In August 2008, Forbes published its 2008 version of The World's Richest Royals and King Bhumibol was listed first, with an estimated wealth of US$35 billion. A few days later, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand issued a statement that the Forbes report incorrectly conflated the wealth of the CPB and that of Bhumibol. In the 2009 Forbes list, the Thai government's objections were acknowledged, but Forbes justified the continued inclusion of the CPB's assets, as the bureau is responsible for handling the Crown's property and investments. The 2009 estimate was a reduced figure of US$30 billion due to declines in real estate and stocks, and this figure was also published in April 2014 by Business Spectator, which also confirmed that the CPB is the body responsible for the management of the Crown's wealth.
The wealth and properties of Bhumibol and the royal family are managed by the Privy Purse. The CPB manages the assets of the Crown as an institution. It was established by law, but is directed without the involvement of the Thai government and reports only to the king. The CPB receives many state privileges. Although the minister of finance presides over the CPB's board of directors, final decisions were made solely by Bhumibol. During his lifetime Bhumibol was the only person who could view the CPB's annual report, which was not released to the public.
Through the CPB, the Crown owns equity in many companies and massive amounts of land, including 3,320 acres in central Bangkok, as well as 13,200 acres of rural land. The CPB owns 32 percent of Siam Cement (worth US$12.6 billion), 23 percent of Siam Commercial Bank (Thailand's largest bank), and interests in Christiani & Nielsen, Deves Insurance, and Shin Corporation.
The CPB also lets or leases about 36,000 properties to third parties, including the sites of the Anantara Siam Bangkok Hotel, the Suan Lum Night Bazaar, Siam Paragon, and the Central World Tower. The CPB spearheaded a plan to turn Bangkok's historical Ratchadamnoen Avenue into a shopping street known as the "Champs-Élysées of Asia" and in 2007, shocked longtime residents of traditional marketplace districts by serving them with eviction notices. The Crown's substantial income from the CPB, estimated to be at least five billion baht in 2004, is exempt from taxes.
King Bhumibol was the owner of the Golden Jubilee Diamond, the largest faceted diamond in the world, which is estimated to be worth between US$4–12 million in April 2014.
Criticism
Although Bhumibol was held in great respect by many Thais, he was also protected by some of the strictest lèse-majesté laws in the world. Under these laws, critics could be jailed for three to fifteen years. After the Thammasat University Massacre in 1976, the laws were toughened during the dictatorship of royalist and anti-communist Premier Thanin Kraivichien. Criticism of any member of the royal family, the royal development projects, the royal institution, the Chakri Dynasty or any previous Thai king was also banned.
During his 2005 birthday speech, Bhumibol invited criticism: "Actually, I must also be criticised. I am not afraid if the criticism concerns what I do wrong, because then I know. Because if you say the king cannot be criticised, it means that the king is not human", he claimed. "If the king can do no wrong, it is akin to looking down upon him because the king is not being treated as a human being. But the king can do wrong." A widespread barrage of criticisms resulted, followed by a sharp rise in lèse-majesté prosecutions. Lèse-majesté cases rose from five or six a year pre-2005 to 478 in 2010.
Although lèse-majesté officially only applies to current kings, in practice the laws are very broadly construed and flexible. Even after his death, Bhumibol remains protected by lèse-majesté.
Biographies
American journalist Paul Handley, who spent thirteen years in Thailand, wrote the biography The King Never Smiles. The Information and Communications Ministry banned the book and blocked the book's page on the Yale University Press website in January 2006. In a statement dated 19 January 2006, Thai National Police Chief General Kowit Wattana said the book had "contents which could affect national security and the good morality of the people". The book provided a detailed discussion of Bhumibol's role in Thai political history, and it also analyzed the factors behind Bhumibol's popularity.
William Stevenson, who had access to the royal court and the royal family, wrote the biography The Revolutionary King in 2001. An article in Time said the idea for the book was suggested by Bhumibol. Critics noted that the book displayed intimate knowledge about personal aspects of Bhumibol. However, the book was unofficially banned in Thailand and the Bureau of the Royal Household warned the Thai media about even referring to it in print. An official ban was not possible as it was written with Bhumibol's blessing. The book was criticised for factual inaccuracies, disrespecting Bhumibol (it refers to him by his personal nickname "Lek"), and proposing a controversial theory explaining the mysterious death of King Ananda. Stevenson said: "The king said from the beginning the book would be dangerous for him and for me."
Succession to the throne
Bhumibol's only son, Prince Vajiralongkorn, was given the title "Somdej Phra Boroma Orasadhiraj Chao Fah Maha Vajiralongkorn Sayam Makutrajakuman" (Crown Prince of Siam) on 28 December 1972 and made heir apparent (องค์รัชทายาท) to the throne in accordance with the Palace Law on Succession of 1924.
On 5 December 1977, Princess Sirindhorn was given the title "Siam Boromrajakumari" (Princess Royal of Siam). Her title is often translated by the English-language press as "Crown Princess", although her official English-language title is simply "Princess".
Although the constitution was later amended to allow the Privy Council to appoint a princess as successor to the throne, this would only occur in the absence of an heir apparent. This amendment is retained in Section 23 of the 1997 "People's Constitution". This effectively allowed Princess Sirindhorn to potentially be second in line to the throne, but did not affect Prince Vajiralongkorn's status as heir apparent.
Recent constitutions of Thailand have made the amendment of the Palace Law of Succession the sole prerogative of the reigning king. According to Assoc. Prof. Gothom Arya, former election commissioner, this allows the reigning king, if he so chooses, to appoint his son or any of his daughters to the throne.
Name
Bhumibol's U.S. birth certificate reads simply "Baby Songkla", as the parents had to consult his uncle, King Rama VII (Prajadhipok), then head of the House of Chakri, for an auspicious name. The king chose a name of Sanskrit origin, Bhumibol Adulyadej (Devanagari: भूमिबल अतुल्यतेज, IAST: Bhūmibala Atulyateja), a compound of Bhūmi (भूमि), meaning "Land"; Bala (बल), meaning "Strength" or "Power"; Atulya (अतुल्य), meaning "Incomparable"; and Tej (तेज), meaning "Power". Thus, Bhūmibala Atulyateja, or Bhumibol Adulyadej as it is transliterated in Thai, can be literally translated as "Strength of the Land, Incomparable Power".
Military rank
His highest rank was as a field marshal. His other ranks in the military include Admiral of the Fleet and Marshal of the Royal Thai Air Force.
Issue
Ancestors
Works
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Tongdaeng. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 2004.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Mahajanaka: Cartoon Edition. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1999.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Mahajanaka. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1997.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, Chaturong Pramkaew (Ed.). My Country Thailand...land of Everlasting Smile. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1995.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. His Majesty the King's Photographs in the Development of the Country. Photographic Society of Thailand & Thai E, Bangkok. 1992.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. Paintings by his Majesty the King: Special exhibition for the Rattanakosin Bicentennial Celebration at the National Gallery, Chao Fa Road, Bangkok, 1 April – 30 June 1982. National Gallery, Bangkok. 1982.
See also
History of Thailand (1932–1973)
History of Thailand (1973–2001)
Public holidays in Thailand
Namesakes
Bhumibol Adulyadej Hospital
Kanchanaphisek Bridge
Rama IX Bridge
References
Further reading
Biographies
(Review by Michael J. Montesano, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 34/1 (Apr 2012), pp. 128–132)
(Review by Kevin Hewison, Journal of Historical Biography, Vol. 4 (Autumn 2008), pp. 115–122)
(Review by Paul W. Chambers, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 29/3 (Dec 2007), pp. 529–532)
Death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej evokes recall of memorable 700 year old Sri Lanka – Thai ties
Other
Matthew Phillips. 2021. "Re-ordering the Cold War Cosmos: King Bhumibol's 1960 U.S. Tour." Diplomatic History.
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Thai people of Mon descent
20th-century Chakri dynasty
21st-century Chakri dynasty
Mahidol family
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Adulyadej, Bhumibol
Thai anti-communists
Thai billionaires
Thai composers
Thai jazz musicians
Thai monarchs
Thai people with disabilities
Thai saxophonists
Thai Theravada Buddhists
Thai male sailors (sport)
Heads of state of Thailand
Chief Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Collars of the Order of Civil Merit
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
3
3
3
Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Knights of the Order of Pope Pius IX
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Order of Chula Chom Klao
Order of Rama
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Direkgunabhorn
Order of the Rajamitrabhorn
Ratana Varabhorn Order of Merit
Recipients of the Bronze Wolf Award
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Recipients of the Olympic Order
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipients of the Order of the Star of Romania
Vajira Mala Order
Vallabhabhorn Order
Thai male Chao Fa
Thai male Phra Ong Chao
|
[
0.10003133118152618,
0.7629378437995911,
0.20952853560447693,
0.001344052143394947,
-0.20632892847061157,
0.3197900354862213,
0.9960947632789612,
0.2741135358810425,
-0.7600240707397461,
0.13995987176895142,
-0.5383608341217041,
-0.026850314810872078,
-0.5720445513725281,
0.1210624948143959,
-0.12006713449954987,
0.3523903787136078,
1.0516115427017212,
0.17799171805381775,
-0.1721186339855194,
-0.10686810314655304,
0.17353929579257965,
0.12239212542772293,
0.8412856459617615,
-0.2252216637134552,
0.8081789016723633,
-0.13199450075626373,
-0.1881290078163147,
0.10028260946273804,
-0.14083492755889893,
-0.39762502908706665,
0.17485688626766205,
-0.4523676931858063,
0.37883931398391724,
-0.07345929741859436,
-0.581425130367279,
-0.06313279271125793,
0.04457174986600876,
-0.3190619945526123,
-0.5836897492408752,
0.14949166774749756,
-0.386372447013855,
0.002743505872786045,
0.07167906314134598,
-0.4517327547073364,
-0.6790218353271484,
-1.4319936037063599,
-1.0090947151184082,
0.4834541082382202,
-0.21538962423801422,
-0.016633985564112663,
-0.2750509977340698,
0.4539327919483185,
-0.027238525450229645,
-0.08251023292541504,
0.7878458499908447,
0.26092761754989624,
-0.9428895711898804,
-0.13188323378562927,
-0.7655789852142334,
-0.08847910910844803,
0.5683428645133972,
0.13129298388957977,
-0.3016623258590698,
0.00018883548909798265,
-0.0669432282447815,
0.15920302271842957,
0.38708260655403137,
-0.4683331549167633,
-0.41493088006973267,
0.3045688271522522,
-0.04407346993684769,
0.7351004481315613,
0.38866540789604187,
0.7098402976989746,
-0.027331488206982613,
-1.0137038230895996,
0.13386361300945282,
0.18853279948234558,
0.22783464193344116,
-0.32345953583717346,
0.4005650281906128,
-0.21373604238033295,
0.6475206017494202,
0.692438542842865,
-0.37522250413894653,
0.12851086258888245,
-0.04558628797531128,
0.2969973683357239,
-0.3303544819355011,
-0.037667978554964066,
-0.3777100741863251,
0.5058324337005615,
0.6869292259216309,
0.12500490248203278,
-0.5738325715065002,
-0.8726957440376282,
-0.15947474539279938,
-0.060823727399110794,
-0.05182008445262909,
-0.05858749523758888,
0.14545735716819763,
-0.20233264565467834,
0.4512811303138733,
-0.3060237467288971,
-1.0455918312072754,
-0.600837230682373,
-0.4097919166088104,
0.4906642436981201,
-0.6929402351379395,
-0.22993060946464539,
-0.6006271243095398,
0.5108404755592346,
-0.005318594630807638,
0.6697783470153809,
0.2760447859764099,
0.4495147466659546,
0.29899924993515015,
-0.025347953662276268,
0.32555341720581055,
-0.21908049285411835,
0.24706099927425385,
0.11121448129415512,
0.18569475412368774,
0.30301347374916077,
-0.028141573071479797,
-0.14277032017707825,
-0.2650282680988312,
-0.07290388643741608,
-0.406575083732605,
0.09722676873207092,
0.6082035899162292,
0.4156128466129303,
-0.3572027385234833,
-0.4957957863807678,
-0.42857369780540466,
-0.3717399835586548,
0.6089422106742859,
-0.039563991129398346,
0.21223552525043488,
0.12545959651470184,
-0.4003605842590332,
-0.4370758831501007,
-0.831282913684845,
0.4850725531578064,
0.5043326616287231,
-0.019630970433354378,
0.07309084385633469,
0.3174753487110138,
-0.6269323229789734,
0.09846224635839462,
-0.06317079812288284,
-0.2142464965581894,
-0.2210732102394104,
-0.9576999545097351,
-0.3815070688724518,
0.812981367111206,
0.75471031665802,
0.13119636476039886,
-0.11931749433279037,
0.32315996289253235,
0.1003488302230835,
0.40781107544898987,
-0.32143452763557434,
-0.4035065472126007,
0.39529508352279663,
-0.1171257421374321,
-0.1738848090171814,
0.8299094438552856,
-0.2881043255329132,
-0.03714548423886299,
-0.21215477585792542,
0.13443340361118317,
-0.06629162281751633,
-0.3226524591445923,
0.2173537313938141,
0.22269253432750702,
0.5084198117256165,
-0.16470135748386383,
0.027173420414328575,
0.11814092099666595,
-0.3349854350090027,
0.31345415115356445,
-0.10200185328722,
0.48439210653305054,
0.8701039552688599,
-0.32180213928222656,
0.5607075095176697,
-0.0038657025434076786,
0.9316309690475464,
-0.28815758228302,
-0.8199175596237183,
-0.2053842842578888,
0.1051432192325592,
0.0609702542424202,
-0.01141930278390646,
0.9772253036499023,
-0.12219543009996414,
0.8163341879844666,
-0.060729268938302994,
1.0771585702896118,
0.5807472467422485,
-0.11069943755865097,
0.09676963835954666,
-0.29644617438316345,
-0.44628384709358215,
0.15599407255649567,
0.37050876021385193,
0.07166469097137451,
0.7863194346427917,
0.7286813855171204,
0.5520570278167725,
-0.49372196197509766,
-0.784372091293335,
0.02447524107992649,
-0.07619088888168335,
-0.5185312032699585,
-0.37685078382492065,
-0.18533675372600555,
-0.8855432868003845,
-0.36362695693969727,
0.21744857728481293,
0.503717303276062,
-0.6754881739616394,
0.18858318030834198,
-0.3106945753097534,
1.248116374015808,
-0.8217337727546692,
-0.46021768450737,
-0.48042723536491394,
-0.2077087014913559,
0.01155052985996008,
-0.4750615656375885,
0.46285977959632874,
-0.05376797914505005,
0.15252025425434113,
-0.07098188996315002,
0.056716810911893845,
0.16541053354740143,
0.41894423961639404,
-0.5118474364280701,
0.7470259070396423,
-0.12154555320739746,
0.041677121073007584,
0.4917446970939636,
-0.14604191482067108,
0.6351302266120911,
-0.8702378273010254,
-0.04537098482251167,
-0.7284712195396423,
0.018894579261541367,
0.0034784453455358744,
-0.07843898981809616,
0.3705729842185974,
-0.04630381241440773,
-0.26265135407447815,
-0.16271165013313293,
-0.9479971528053284,
0.16768532991409302,
-0.08888794481754303,
0.25257596373558044,
-0.05306467041373253,
-0.12806333601474762,
0.8591538667678833,
0.16692951321601868,
-0.1333811730146408,
0.08817338198423386,
0.3376597464084625,
-0.0980597510933876,
0.5242235660552979,
0.49685779213905334,
-0.3576619625091553,
-0.4819576144218445,
-0.7811223864555359,
-0.1458122581243515,
0.03442394360899925,
-0.3956182897090912,
-0.13934843242168427,
0.1296135038137436,
-0.4429209530353546,
-1.1254509687423706,
1.132944941520691,
1.0961112976074219,
-0.2153572291135788,
-0.5397287607192993,
-0.22951321303844452,
-0.14528551697731018,
-0.6690316796302795,
-0.7061708569526672,
-0.11251616477966309,
0.396435409784317,
-0.8354578614234924,
0.6012167930603027,
0.08189798891544342,
-0.5705220103263855,
-0.14389897882938385,
-0.04645610600709915,
-0.14223873615264893,
0.04481280595064163,
0.4086870551109314,
-0.4294545352458954,
-0.4881179630756378,
0.006092402618378401,
-0.3398720324039459,
0.5035250782966614,
0.8801406621932983,
-0.11902493983507156,
0.10037348419427872,
0.22063681483268738,
-5.252164840698242,
-0.34177201986312866,
0.6607306599617004,
-0.43850502371788025,
0.7247173190116882,
0.5639837980270386,
0.3892461955547333,
0.17751193046569824,
0.4864036738872528,
-0.5115380883216858,
0.4940551817417145,
-0.41610339283943176,
0.5492197275161743,
0.17679685354232788,
-0.0015564722707495093,
0.5584211945533752,
-0.11087802797555923,
-0.7713274359703064,
0.46762919425964355,
0.984131395816803,
0.46073073148727417,
-0.6157207489013672,
-0.4186966121196747,
0.2736438810825348,
0.4186626970767975,
0.11747213453054428,
-0.31878429651260376,
-0.4562714695930481,
-1.0357693433761597,
-0.30970218777656555,
-0.4438575804233551,
0.2831558287143707,
0.09605760872364044,
-0.2353287935256958,
-0.32938721776008606,
-0.19849400222301483,
0.7377622723579407,
-0.008878633379936218,
-0.13845549523830414,
-0.06730573624372482,
0.5116685628890991,
-0.892423689365387,
-0.4827546179294586,
-0.14750489592552185,
-0.20104533433914185,
0.37789520621299744,
-0.648302435874939,
-0.10128375142812729,
-0.07202865928411484,
-0.10579605400562286,
-0.09007756412029266,
0.20867958664894104,
0.07155469059944153,
-0.6566139459609985,
-0.08167823404073715,
0.4172256290912628,
-0.7957221865653992,
0.3103330731391907,
-0.7639937996864319,
0.12708771228790283,
0.5451749563217163,
-0.06697135418653488,
0.11817726492881775,
0.6623466610908508,
0.1548183262348175,
-0.49228185415267944,
0.1059800460934639,
-0.00221434747800231,
0.4377889931201935,
0.37349599599838257,
-0.0773731991648674,
0.3301614820957184,
-0.3253616988658905,
-0.4412648677825928,
-0.1285841017961502,
-0.3181227743625641,
0.080893374979496,
0.559478759765625,
0.04324144124984741,
-0.18118613958358765,
-0.3556831181049347,
0.2783515155315399,
0.056656453758478165,
0.8568804860115051,
0.45640456676483154,
-0.3884504735469818,
-0.1928376406431198,
0.12853053212165833,
0.05887337028980255,
0.397487610578537,
0.012756058014929295,
-1.0679367780685425,
-0.3740639388561249,
-0.1136053130030632,
-0.035525884479284286,
-0.3134133815765381,
-0.3031235933303833,
0.390669047832489,
0.7325587868690491,
0.02407933585345745,
0.24627257883548737,
-0.20518052577972412,
0.02329053170979023,
0.024991629645228386,
0.24306277930736542,
-0.36947596073150635,
-0.16944892704486847,
0.0026073104236274958,
0.15633951127529144,
0.15310557186603546,
-0.17522332072257996,
0.1276114583015442,
0.24634522199630737,
0.26046159863471985,
0.41115039587020874,
-0.44062772393226624,
-0.0004746159247588366,
0.020285794511437416,
0.2154322862625122,
0.07847084850072861,
-0.8440163731575012,
0.7512439489364624,
-0.3093242049217224,
0.5842892527580261,
0.779101550579071,
-0.15820953249931335,
-0.5064136385917664,
0.192239448428154,
-0.3482978343963623,
-0.37621787190437317,
0.18942737579345703,
0.4200479984283447,
0.6741095781326294,
-0.5011152625083923,
0.06059424951672554,
-0.5416261553764343,
0.3517087399959564,
-0.5312992930412292,
-0.5156735777854919,
-0.6764601469039917,
-0.5944457650184631,
-0.4230895936489105,
0.06598346680402756,
0.22245237231254578,
0.2225426882505417,
-0.5316497683525085,
0.35390225052833557,
-0.24425733089447021,
0.18267562985420227,
0.33429446816444397,
0.3443160951137543,
-0.4137422442436218,
1.299222469329834,
-0.022200267761945724,
-0.46672555804252625,
0.08374275267124176,
0.23011010885238647,
0.06711219251155853,
0.18775944411754608,
-0.08083528280258179,
-0.17746306955814362,
-0.3118504583835602,
-0.735297679901123,
-0.3133115768432617,
-0.38838738203048706,
0.16917353868484497,
0.18146470189094543,
0.2828993797302246,
-0.6910860538482666,
0.6417152881622314,
0.9185764789581299,
-0.7129999995231628,
-0.17914757132530212,
-0.1927730292081833,
0.1479973942041397,
-0.5962399840354919,
0.1513233333826065,
-0.11558473110198975,
0.31835201382637024,
0.14298635721206665,
-0.9555473327636719,
-0.25190362334251404,
-0.4415494501590729,
0.2886087894439697,
0.2339760810136795,
0.20776282250881195,
0.2671281397342682,
-1.5923738479614258,
-0.1473781019449234,
-0.2513536810874939,
-0.012691564857959747,
-0.01094448659569025,
-0.3154054284095764,
-0.30241429805755615,
-0.3975368142127991,
-0.8996874094009399,
-0.36925145983695984,
0.6180657148361206,
0.0962834507226944,
0.3100643455982208,
-0.02546556293964386,
0.4696098864078522,
0.0001395783037878573,
-0.28977832198143005,
0.5000789165496826,
-0.44521597027778625,
-0.06621874868869781,
0.4514234662055969,
0.7077792286872864,
-0.13589787483215332,
-0.2548210024833679,
-0.31563255190849304,
0.4272184669971466,
0.38256508111953735,
-0.010845308192074299,
0.028920035809278488,
-0.028442928567528725,
-0.2733977437019348,
0.057008132338523865,
-1.2665578126907349,
0.26805344223976135,
-0.3177793323993683,
-0.026058955118060112,
-0.031711429357528687,
-0.6121071577072144,
0.22872431576251984,
0.4827040135860443,
-0.40050849318504333,
0.8397514224052429,
-0.4533681273460388,
-0.061518751084804535,
0.06192344054579735,
0.14528153836727142,
0.8633533120155334,
-0.261824369430542,
-0.04094218835234642,
0.5105721354484558,
0.15797509253025055,
0.22765067219734192,
-0.15142010152339935,
0.08561264723539352,
0.707695484161377,
-0.2915852963924408,
-0.46887630224227905,
-0.2940252423286438,
0.027406077831983566,
-0.5276764631271362,
-0.23650279641151428,
0.0076671470887959,
0.36121857166290283,
0.5534560680389404,
0.18813778460025787,
-0.3922324478626251,
-0.5403622984886169,
0.2722073495388031,
-0.8732755184173584,
0.0029747651424258947,
-0.14755570888519287,
0.03592069447040558,
0.5856025218963623,
-0.16000576317310333,
0.6221794486045837,
-0.04707798361778259,
-0.103066086769104,
0.6654348969459534,
-0.20263275504112244,
-0.5882647037506104,
0.6027421355247498,
-0.1748736947774887,
-0.3479751944541931,
-0.48564568161964417,
-0.7240562438964844,
-0.7028080821037292,
-0.051721155643463135,
0.0984949842095375,
-0.0036780089139938354,
0.003331349929794669,
0.030414611101150513,
-0.15760400891304016,
0.3995398283004761,
-0.32265451550483704,
-0.24928589165210724,
-0.12604230642318726,
-0.3625120222568512,
-0.09230968356132507,
-1.4569745063781738,
0.2704766094684601,
0.04339273273944855,
-0.43129676580429077,
0.36673569679260254,
-0.9861409664154053,
0.4170844852924347,
-0.32675880193710327,
0.7315292954444885,
-0.014336996711790562,
0.7169409990310669,
0.12251850962638855,
1.263765811920166,
-0.15216366946697235,
0.04863826930522919,
-0.18368838727474213,
0.42641615867614746,
0.5952824354171753,
0.23658037185668945,
-0.5189265608787537,
-0.429034948348999,
0.6110537052154541,
-0.5991576313972473,
0.18107467889785767,
0.6749776601791382,
0.5942409038543701,
0.5862075090408325,
0.2776526212692261,
0.010070325806736946,
-0.5679828524589539,
-0.0738140344619751,
0.19582948088645935,
-0.19415488839149475,
-0.38953956961631775,
0.27315831184387207,
-0.05112546309828758,
-0.2794380784034729,
-0.09988025575876236,
-0.09115459769964218,
0.20102110505104065,
0.12941177189350128,
-0.24967731535434723,
0.005177633836865425,
0.12124069780111313,
0.031061984598636627,
-0.2283405363559723,
-0.16400551795959473,
-0.22906100749969482,
1.050155758857727,
0.31014367938041687,
-0.26962530612945557,
0.19001826643943787,
-0.29404473304748535,
0.21603935956954956,
0.7530474066734314,
0.6250746846199036,
0.8647564053535461,
-0.5975836515426636,
0.23785722255706787,
0.7123779654502869,
0.3428618907928467,
-0.08266964554786682,
0.1721971482038498,
0.25289174914360046,
-0.30038467049598694,
0.37061959505081177,
0.5141414403915405,
-0.3034687042236328,
-0.34699350595474243,
0.7866969704627991,
0.1662840098142624,
0.20436416566371918,
0.049964893609285355,
0.2462073415517807,
-0.2998253107070923,
-0.0031255586072802544,
-0.1956118792295456,
0.09439598023891449,
0.39629295468330383,
0.81331866979599,
-0.2134488821029663,
0.1495479941368103,
0.022390134632587433,
0.7260774374008179,
-0.15329234302043915,
0.2322850376367569,
0.18639688193798065,
-0.5354942679405212,
-0.43925637006759644,
-0.6653496623039246,
0.06889067590236664,
0.11932403594255447,
-0.49566787481307983,
-0.21699173748493195,
-0.8000104427337646,
-0.06410413235425949,
-0.0950721725821495,
-0.23596884310245514,
-0.585430383682251,
-0.08897475153207779,
0.9324291944503784,
0.19480003416538239,
0.6926517486572266,
-0.4375983774662018,
0.13679303228855133,
0.24236181378364563,
0.06369566917419434,
-0.21964558959007263,
-0.1627659648656845,
0.02750563994050026,
-0.15999647974967957,
-0.1966550648212433,
0.22098413109779358,
0.39922213554382324,
-0.39482614398002625,
0.4985516369342804,
0.4338785707950592,
0.18690794706344604,
0.043570537120103836,
0.1192190945148468,
-0.25297921895980835,
-0.21955163776874542,
-0.3711371421813965,
-0.854997992515564,
0.31077855825424194,
-0.23271752893924713,
0.14286836981773376,
0.005946032237261534,
-0.2045113742351532,
0.07739651203155518,
0.27304598689079285,
0.09645447880029678,
-0.8620096445083618,
-0.18080885708332062,
-0.9996583461761475,
0.29738232493400574,
-0.1546807587146759,
-0.02925696223974228,
1.0316380262374878,
-0.47729039192199707,
-0.5140380859375,
0.8593562245368958,
0.8684169054031372,
-0.018805384635925293,
0.2361731082201004,
-0.30339768528938293,
-0.1777023822069168,
-0.07414081692695618,
-0.2878890633583069,
0.06764069944620132,
-0.6294072270393372,
0.9742797613143921,
0.8440061211585999,
-0.4537639021873474,
-0.35658469796180725,
-0.8592705726623535,
0.2161029428243637,
0.4993392825126648,
0.47442570328712463,
0.3375464677810669,
-0.6837117075920105,
-0.09401354193687439,
-0.23540480434894562,
-0.7242454290390015,
-0.20044608414173126,
0.495448499917984,
0.562431812286377,
0.1976805329322815,
-0.40117430686950684,
0.46095216274261475,
-0.2035621702671051,
0.33048760890960693,
0.3036128580570221,
0.3492853045463562,
-0.07794589549303055
] |
203758
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaek%20Phibunsongkhram
|
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
|
Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram ( ; alternatively transcribed as Pibulsongkram or Pibulsonggram; 14 July 1897 – 11 June 1964), locally known as Marshal P. (;), contemporarily known as Phibun (Pibul) in the West, was a Thai military officer and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Thailand from 1938 to 1944 and 1948 to 1957.
Phibunsongkhram was a member of the Royal Siamese Army wing of Khana Ratsadon, the first political party in Thailand, and a leader of the Siamese revolution of 1932, transforming Thailand from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. Phibun became the third Prime Minister of Thailand in 1938 as Commander of the Royal Siamese Army, established a de facto military dictatorship inspired by the Italian fascist Benito Mussolini, promoted Thai nationalism and sinophobia, and allied Thailand with Imperial Japan in World War II. Phibun launched a modernization campaign known as the Thai Cultural Revolution that included a series of cultural mandates, changing the country's name from "Siam" to "Thailand", and promoting the common Thai language.
Phibun was ousted as prime minister by the National Assembly in 1944 and replaced by members of the Free Thai Movement, until returning to power in the Siamese coup d'état of 1947, led by the Coup Group. Phibun aligned Thailand with anti-communism in the Cold War, entered the Korean War under the United Nations Command, and abandoned fascism for a façade of democracy. Phibun's second term as prime minister was plagued by political instability and was subject to several attempted coup d'etats to remove him, including the Army General Staff plot in 1948, the Palace Rebellion in 1949, and the Manhattan Rebellion in 1951. Phibun attempted to transform Thailand into an electoral democracy from the mid-1950s but was overthrown in 1957 and entered exile in Japan, where he died in 1964.
Phibun is the longest-serving Prime Minister of Thailand to date, at fifteen years and one month.
Early years
Plaek Khittasangkha ( ) was born on 14 July 1897 in Mueang Nonthaburi, Nonthaburi Province in the Kingdom of Siam to Keed Khittasangkha and his wife. Plaek's paternal grandfather was said to be a Cantonese-speaking Chinese immigrant. However, the family was completely assimilated as Central Thai people and Plaek does not pass the criteria for being Chinese, which is why he could later successfully conceal and deny his Chinese roots. Plaek's parents owned a durian orchard and he received his given name – meaning 'strange' in English – because of his unusual appearance as a child. Plaek Khittasangkha studied at Buddhist temple schools, then was appointed to Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy. He graduated in 1914 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the artillery. Following World War I, he was sent to study artillery tactics in France. In 1928, as he rose in rank, he received the noble title Luang from King Prajadhipok and became known as Luang Phibunsongkhram. He would later drop his Luang title, but permanently adopted Phibunsongkhram as his surname.
1932 revolution
In 1932, Phibun was one of the leaders of the Royal Siamese Army branch of the Khana Ratsadon (People's Party), a political organization that staged a coup d'état which overthrew the absolute monarchy in Siam and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy. Phibun, at the time a lieutenant colonel, quickly rose to prominence in the military as a "man-on-horseback". The 1932 coup was followed by the nationalization of some companies and increasing state control of the economy.
The following year, Phibun and allied military officers successfully crushed the Boworadet Rebellion, a royalist revolt led by Prince Boworadet. While King Prajadhipok was not involved in the rebellion, it marked the beginning of a slide which ended in his abdication and replacement by King Ananda Mahidol in 1935. The new king was still a child studying in Switzerland, and parliament appointed Colonel Prince Anuwatjaturong, Lieutenant Commander Prince Aditya Dibabha, and Chao Phraya Yommaraj (Pun Sukhum) as his regents.
Prime Minister of Thailand
First premiership
On 16 December 1938, Phibun replaced Phraya Phahol as the Prime Minister of Thailand and as the Commander of the Royal Siamese Army. Phibun became the de facto dictator of Thailand and established a military dictatorship, consolidating his position by rewarding several members of his own army clique with influential positions in his government.
After the revolution of 1932, the Thai government of Phraya Phahol was impressed by the success of the March on Rome of Benito Mussolini's Italian Fascism movement. Phibun also seemed to be an admirer of the Italian fascism and sought to imitate the fascist Italian regime's cinema propaganda, valued as one of the most powerful propaganda instruments of Italian political power. Its main purpose was to promote the ideologies of nationalism and militarism, strengthening the unity and harmony of the state, and glorifying the policy of ruralisation in Italy and abroad. With the pro-fascist leanings of Thai political leaders, Italian propaganda films including newsreels, documentaries, short films, and full-length feature films, such as Istituto Luce Cinecittà, were shown in Thailand during the interwar period. Phibun adopted the Italian-style fascist salute, modeled on the Roman salute, and he used it during speeches. The salute was not compulsory in Thailand, and it was opposed by Luang Wichitwathakan and many cabinet members as they believed it inappropriate for Thai culture. Together with Wichitwathakan, the Minister of Propaganda, he built a leadership cult in 1938 and thereafter. Photographs of Phibun were to be found everywhere, and those of the abdicated King Prajadhipok were banned. His quotes appeared in newspapers, were plastered on billboards, and were repeated over the radio.
Thai Cultural Revolution
Phibun immediately prioritized Thai nationalism to the point of ultranationalism, and to support this policy he launched a series of major reforms known as the Thai Cultural Revolution to increase the pace of modernisation in Thailand. His goal "Aimed to uplift the national spirit and moral code of the nation and instilling progressive tendencies and a newness into Thai life". A series of cultural mandates were issued by the government. These mandates encouraged all Thais to salute the flag in public places, know the new national anthem, and use the standardized Thai language, not regional dialects or languages. People were encouraged to adopt Western attire as opposed to traditional clothing styles. Similarly, people were encouraged to eat with a Western-style eating utensils, such as fork and spoon, rather than with their hands as was customary in Thai culture at the time. Phibun saw these policies as necessary, in the interest of progressivism, to change Thailand in the minds of foreigners from an undeveloped country into a civilized and modern one.
Phibun's administration encouraged economic nationalism and espoused staunchly anti-Teochew sentiment. Sinophobic policies were imposed by the government to reduce the economic power of Siam's Teochew-Hoklo origin and encouraged the Central Thai people to purchase as many Thai products as possible. In a speech in 1938, Luang Wichitwathakan, himself of one-quarter Chinese ancestry, followed Rama VI's book Jews of the East in comparing the Teochew in Siam to the Jews in Germany, who at the time were harshly repressed.
On 24 June 1939, Phibun changed the country's official English name from "Siam" to "Thailand" at Wichitwathakan's urging. The name "Siam" was an exonym of unknown and probably foreign origin, which conflicted with Phibun's nationalist policies.
In 1941, in the midst of World War II, Phibun decreed 1 January as the official start of the new year instead of the traditional Songkran date on 13 April.
Franco-Thai War
Phibun exploited the Fall of France in June 1940 and the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in September 1940 to advance Thai interests in French Indochina following a border dispute with France. Phibun believed Thailand could recover territories ceded to France by King Rama V because the French would avoid armed confrontation or offer serious resistance. Thailand fought against Vichy France over the disputed areas from October 1940 to May 1941. The technologically and numerically superior Thai force invaded French Indochina and attacked military targets in major cities. Despite Thai successes, the French tactical victory at the Battle of Ko Chang prompted intervention from the Japanese, who mediated an armistice where the French were forced to cede the disputed territories to Thailand.
Alliance with Japan
Phibun and the Thai public viewed the outcome of the Franco-Thai War as a victory, but it resulted in the rapidly expanding Japanese gaining the right to occupy French Indochina. Although Phibun was ardently pro-Japanese, he now shared a border with them and felt threatened with a potential Japanese invasion. Phibun's administration also realised that Thailand would have to fend for itself if a Japanese invasion came, considering its deteriorating relationships with Western powers in the area.
When the Japanese invaded Thailand on 8 December 1941, (because of the international date line this occurred an hour and a half before the attack on Pearl Harbor), Phibun was reluctantly forced to order a general ceasefire after just one day of resistance and allow the Japanese armies to use the country as a base for their invasions of the British colonies of Burma and Malaya.<ref>Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War, Vol 3, The Grand Alliance, p.548 Cassell & Co. Ltd, 1950</em></ref> Hesitancy, however, gave way to enthusiasm after the Japanese rolled through the Malayan Campaign in a "Bicycle Blitzkrieg" with surprisingly little resistance. On 21 December Phibun signed a military alliance with Japan. The following month, on 25 January 1942, Phibun declared war on Britain and the United States. South Africa and New Zealand declared war on Thailand on the same day. Australia followed soon after. Phibun purged all who opposed the Japanese alliance from his government. Pridi Banomyong was appointed acting regent for the absent King Ananda Mahidol, while Direk Jayanama, the prominent foreign minister who had advocated continued resistance against the Japanese, was later sent to Tokyo as an ambassador. The United States considered Thailand to be a puppet state of Japan and refused to declare war on it. When the Allies were victorious, the United States blocked British efforts to impose a punitive peace.
Removal
In 1944, as the Japanese neared defeat and the underground anti-Japanese Free Thai Movement steadily grew in strength, the National Assembly ousted Phibun as prime minister and his six-year reign as the military commander-in-chief came to an end. Phibun's resignation was partly forced by two grandiose plans: one was to relocate the capital from Bangkok to a remote site in the jungle near Phetchabun in north central Thailand, and another was to build a "Buddhist city" in Saraburi. Announced at a time of severe economic difficulty, these ideas turned many government officers against him. After his resignation, Phibun went to stay at the army headquarters in Lopburi.
Khuang Aphaiwong replaced Phibun as prime minister, ostensibly to continue relations with the Japanese, but, in reality, to secretly assist the Free Thai Movement. At the war's end, Phibun was put on trial at Allied insistence on charges of having committed war crimes, mainly that of collaborating with the Axis powers. However, he was acquitted amid intense pressure as public opinion was still favourable to him, as he was thought to have done his best to protect Thai interests. Phibun's alliance with Japan had Thailand take advantage of Japanese support to expand Thai territory into Malaya and Burma.<ref>Aldrich, Richard J. The Key to the South: Britain, the United States, and Thailand during the Approach of the Pacific War, 1929-1942. Oxford University Press, 1993. </em></ref>
Second premiership
In November 1947, Royal Thai Army units under the control of Phibun known as the Coup Group carried out the Siamese coup d'état of 1947 which forced then-Prime Minister Thawan Thamrongnawasawat to resign. The rebels installed Khuang Aphaiwong again as prime minister as the military coup risked international disapproval. Pridi Phanomyong was persecuted but was aided by British and US intelligence officers, and thus managed to escape the country. On 8 April 1948, Phibun assumed the position of Prime Minister after the military forced Khuang out of office.
Phibun's second premiership was notably different, abandoning the fascist styling and rhetoric that characterised his first premiership, and instead promoted a façade of democracy. The beginning of the Cold War saw Phibun align Thailand with the anti-communist camp, and received large quantities of US aid following Thailand's entry into the Korean War as part of the United Nations Command's multi-national allied force against the communist forces of North Korea and the People's Republic of China. Phibun's anti-Chinese campaign was resumed, with the government restricting Chinese immigration and undertaking various measures to restrict economic domination of the Thai market by those of Chinese descent. Chinese schools and associations were once again shut down. Despite open pro-Western and anti-Chinese policies, in the late-1950s Phibun arranged to send two of the children of Sang Phathanothai, his closest advisor, to China with the intention of establishing a backdoor channel for dialogue between China and Thailand. Sirin Phathanothai, aged eight, and her brother, aged twelve, were sent to be brought up under the assistants of Premier Zhou Enlai as his wards. Sirin later wrote The Dragon's Pearl, an autobiography telling her experiences growing up in the 1950s and 1960s among the leaders of China.
Phibun was reportedly thrilled by the democracy and freedom of speech he had witnessed during a long trip abroad to the United States and Europe in 1955. Following the example of Hyde Park in London, he set up a "Speakers' Corner" at the Sanam Luang in Bangkok. Phibun began to democratize Thailand by allowing the formation of new political parties, amnestied political opponents, and planned free elections. Phibun founded and became chairman of his own new political party, the Seri Manangkhasila Party, which was dominated by the most influential in the military and the government. The Employment Act of January 1957 legalized trade unions, limited weekly working hours, regulated holidays and overtime, and instituted health and safety regulations. The International Workers' Day became a public holiday.
Power play
Phibun's second premiership was longer but plagued with political instability, and there were numerous attempts to oppose his rule and remove him from power. Unlike his first premiership, Phibun faced noticeable opposition from people connected to the Free Thai Movement due to his alliance with the Japanese, including from within the military. Additionally, Phibun was indebted to the powerful Coup Group that had returned him to power.
On 1 October 1948, the unsuccessful Army General Staff Plot was launched by members of the army general staff to topple his government, but failed when discovered by the Coup Group. As a result, more than fifty army and reserve officers and several prominent supporters of Pridi Phanomyong were arrested.
On 26 February 1949, the Palace Rebellion was another failed coup attempt against Phibun to restore Pridi Phanomyong by occupying the Grand Palace in Bangkok and declaring a new government led by Direk Jayanama, a close associate of Pridi. The civilian rebels were quickly ousted from the palace, but fighting broke out between military rebels and loyalists which lasted for over a week.
On 29 June 1951, Phibun was attending a ceremony aboard the Manhattan, a US dredge boat, when he was taken hostage by a group of Royal Thai Navy officers, who then quickly confined him aboard the warship Sri Ayutthaya. Negotiations between the government and the coup organizers swiftly broke down, leading to violent street fighting in Bangkok between the navy and the army, which was supported by the Royal Thai Air Force. Phibun was able to escape and swim back to shore when the Sri Ayutthaya was bombed by the air force, and with their hostage gone, the navy were forced to lay down their arms.
On 29 November 1951, the Silent Coup was staged by the Coup Group and it consolidated the military's hold on the country. It reinstated the Constitution of 1932, which effectively eliminated the Senate, established a unicameral legislature composed equally of elected and government-appointed members, and allowed serving military officers to supplement their commands with important ministerial portfolios.
In 1956, it became clearer that Plaek, allied to Phao, was losing to another influential group led by Sarit which consisted of "Sakdina" (royalties and royalists). Both Plaek and Phao intended to bring home Pridi Banomyong to clear his name from mystery around death of King Rama VIII. However, the US government disapproved, and they canceled the plan.
1957 coup and exile
In February 1957, public opinion turned against Phibun at the end of his second term when his party was suspected of fraudulent practices during an election, including the intimidation of the opposition, buying votes, and electoral fraud. In addition, critics of Phibun accused him of a lack of respect for the Thai monarchy, as the anti-aristocratic prime minister had always sought to limit the role of the monarchy to a constitutional minimum and had taken on religious functions that traditionally belonged to the monarch. For example, Phibun led the celebrations of the 2500th anniversary of Buddhism in 1956/57 instead of the King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who was openly critical of Phibun . On 16 September 1957, Phibun was eventually overthrown in a coup d'etat by members of the Royal Thai Army under the command of Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, who had earlier sworn to be Phibun's most loyal subordinate. Sarit was supported by many royalists who wanted to regain a foothold, and there were rumors that the United States was "deeply involved" in the coup.
Phibun was then forced into exile after the coup, first fleeing to Cambodia, but later settled in Japan after Sarit's new regime rejected his requests to allow him to return to Thailand. In 1960, Phibun briefly travelled to India to be a monk in the Buddhist temple in Bodhgaya.
Death
Phibun died on 11 June 1964 from heart failure while in exile in Sagamihara, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. After his death, Phibun's ashes were transferred to Thailand in an urn and decorated with military honors in Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (also called "The Temple of Democracy") he had founded in Bang Khen.
Honours
Noble titles
7 May 1928: Luang Phibunsongkhram (หลวงพิบูลสงคราม)
15 May 1942: Abolition of nobility
Military rank
1916 - Second lieutenant
1920 - Lieutenant
1927 - Captain
1930 - Major
1933 - Lieutenant colonel
1934 - Colonel
1939 - Major General, Rear Admiral, Air Vice Marshal
1941 - Field Marshal, Admiral of the Fleet, Marshal of the Royal Thai Air Force
1955 - Volunteer Defense Corps General
Thai decorations
Plaek Phibunsongkhram received the following royal decorations in the Honours System of Thailand:
1937 - Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand
1940 - Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant
1941 - Knight of The Ancient and Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems
1942 - Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of The Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao
1942 - The Ratana Varabhorn Order of Merit
Foreign honours
1939 - 1st Class of the Order of the German Eagle
1942 - Grand Cordon (1st Class) of the Order of the Rising Sun
1955 - Raja of the Order of Sikatuna(GCS)
1939 - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George(GCMG)
1939 - Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
1955 - Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit
1955 - Grand Cross with White Decoration of the Order of Military Merit
Academic rank
1939 Adjunct Professor of Thammasat University
See also
History of Thailand (1932–1973)
Saharat Thai Doem
Nitya Pibulsonggram
Ramwong
Thai cultural mandates
References
Bibliography
External links
Duncan Stearn:A Slice of Thai History: The Japanese invasion of Thailand, 8 December 1941 Pattaya Mail - Pattaya's First English Language Newspaper (part one) Columns (part two) Columns (part three)
1897 births
1964 deaths
Cantonese people
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Exiled politicians
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Leaders who took power by coup
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Military history of Thailand during World War II
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Refugees in Japan
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
Plaek Phibunsongkhram
World War II political leaders
|
[
-0.2577836215496063,
0.47687697410583496,
-0.5307984948158264,
-0.04390117526054382,
-0.7147415280342102,
0.5843115448951721,
0.562101423740387,
0.22067908942699432,
-0.5633834600448608,
0.3154575228691101,
-0.5622312426567078,
0.08279995620250702,
-0.2713327407836914,
0.11742956936359406,
-0.08254300057888031,
0.35415199398994446,
1.070316195487976,
0.162855863571167,
-0.43506503105163574,
-0.12330561131238937,
0.296688437461853,
0.14428195357322693,
0.04684446007013321,
0.2312011867761612,
0.7812724709510803,
0.35948312282562256,
0.23853769898414612,
0.054614245891571045,
0.6213133335113525,
-0.21081683039665222,
-0.42709168791770935,
-0.027890820056200027,
0.362293004989624,
-0.12186750769615173,
-0.5379512310028076,
0.2469666749238968,
-0.19761759042739868,
0.28063857555389404,
-0.48227235674858093,
0.21930111944675446,
-0.1869470477104187,
0.16269491612911224,
0.0521710142493248,
0.10457345098257065,
-0.033913083374500275,
-1.3194760084152222,
-1.5322624444961548,
0.0898873582482338,
-0.5957950353622437,
-0.23597747087478638,
-0.38985395431518555,
0.7172330021858215,
0.21404112875461578,
0.2563423216342926,
0.3172753155231476,
0.6665267944335938,
-0.9437459707260132,
-0.27535778284072876,
-0.5403119325637817,
-0.24488435685634613,
0.574830174446106,
0.2559366822242737,
-0.3130398690700531,
-0.011452294886112213,
0.23750625550746918,
-0.05219481140375137,
0.4687098562717438,
0.7302956581115723,
0.2505974769592285,
-0.2041945457458496,
0.28570640087127686,
0.9301775097846985,
0.5093216300010681,
0.7521826028823853,
0.17482034862041473,
-0.6235077977180481,
0.288585901260376,
0.2686552107334137,
-0.23571178317070007,
-0.7216581106185913,
0.2941528260707855,
-0.03833231329917908,
0.6186858415603638,
0.5304408073425293,
-0.039177056401968,
-0.010865170508623123,
-0.5716832280158997,
-0.1914403736591339,
-0.28777876496315,
0.10354882478713989,
-0.0991465374827385,
-0.09251521527767181,
0.5137052536010742,
-0.445819228887558,
-0.650336503982544,
-0.5871388912200928,
-0.11640650779008865,
0.3888646066188812,
-0.030816880986094475,
-0.2160598337650299,
0.16697745025157928,
-0.42777931690216064,
0.044374216347932816,
0.26598381996154785,
-0.902612566947937,
-0.24045084416866302,
-0.5296333432197571,
-0.015444344840943813,
0.03805452212691307,
-0.3676576614379883,
-0.8495538830757141,
0.15859104692935944,
0.12989996373653412,
0.06977704912424088,
0.26018714904785156,
0.4721941351890564,
0.37951794266700745,
-0.06395852565765381,
0.20926134288311005,
-0.45789802074432373,
0.3030359447002411,
0.5706223249435425,
-0.05991048738360405,
0.42381033301353455,
0.10608015954494476,
-0.17136408388614655,
0.28187790513038635,
-0.1557845026254654,
-0.6954745650291443,
0.5798358917236328,
0.24681562185287476,
0.8674983382225037,
-0.5437164902687073,
-0.6871296763420105,
-0.18412397801876068,
-0.6592326760292053,
0.7916948795318604,
0.7853874564170837,
-0.2683774530887604,
0.019581301137804985,
-0.8901610970497131,
0.014318910427391529,
-0.631709098815918,
0.210953950881958,
0.35551944375038147,
0.2769744098186493,
-0.02392587810754776,
-0.09947076439857483,
-0.7832881212234497,
-0.12229551374912262,
0.4372014105319977,
-0.27358344197273254,
0.1618441343307495,
-0.46021130681037903,
-0.8832520246505737,
1.0230289697647095,
0.3196893334388733,
0.10343999415636063,
-0.24205413460731506,
0.4882524609565735,
0.10374376177787781,
0.19035859405994415,
-0.6132237911224365,
-0.3190399408340454,
0.005265716463327408,
0.09433107078075409,
0.12737645208835602,
0.49691030383110046,
-0.6775173544883728,
0.08247314393520355,
-0.18771399557590485,
-0.16316141188144684,
-0.09554903209209442,
0.0034446155186742544,
0.5330358743667603,
1.0297819375991821,
0.30782023072242737,
0.18905362486839294,
-0.32747283577919006,
-0.4672197103500366,
-0.5422267317771912,
0.5292728543281555,
0.14130114018917084,
0.3047392964363098,
0.6328719854354858,
-0.1401733160018921,
1.042189121246338,
-0.012555687688291073,
0.3810703456401825,
0.04073164984583855,
-0.7467800378799438,
-0.29259899258613586,
0.28587284684181213,
-0.12474542111158371,
1.1180168390274048,
1.0664528608322144,
0.4971971809864044,
0.3218495547771454,
0.1577710211277008,
1.1716827154159546,
0.14391066133975983,
-0.28425049781799316,
0.779386043548584,
-0.35476770997047424,
-0.394501268863678,
0.6680619716644287,
0.15947182476520538,
0.4781058132648468,
0.6987416744232178,
0.5135025382041931,
0.7286118268966675,
-0.40480726957321167,
-0.6370950937271118,
-0.16878098249435425,
-0.11655788123607635,
-0.5920844078063965,
-0.41359880566596985,
0.014812725596129894,
-0.07049006968736649,
-0.3268781900405884,
0.030042614787817,
0.2229800522327423,
-0.6567341089248657,
1.1239594221115112,
0.23763591051101685,
1.280757188796997,
-0.7542598843574524,
-0.5135494470596313,
-0.6279022693634033,
-0.777711808681488,
0.43251949548721313,
-0.5641896724700928,
0.326482355594635,
-0.02209937572479248,
0.010326088406145573,
-0.40709158778190613,
0.22693704068660736,
-0.40434667468070984,
1.1835267543792725,
-0.7646522521972656,
0.26964664459228516,
-0.35226574540138245,
0.005403560120612383,
0.47680655121803284,
0.019227739423513412,
0.37834492325782776,
-0.766426682472229,
-0.1398089975118637,
0.0866442397236824,
0.2559072971343994,
0.08870291709899902,
-0.030485818162560463,
0.8288548588752747,
-0.7720391154289246,
-0.2735516130924225,
-0.40066492557525635,
-0.4350583553314209,
-0.2758033573627472,
0.3283522129058838,
0.1761632263660431,
0.2524113655090332,
-0.10226088017225266,
0.9554093480110168,
0.4190189242362976,
-0.4196867048740387,
-0.7760872840881348,
0.4377189874649048,
-0.13454537093639374,
0.16862909495830536,
0.15906685590744019,
-0.5393045544624329,
-0.4414452016353607,
-0.4930098354816437,
0.06821470707654953,
-0.2719089090824127,
-0.9622763395309448,
-0.0662560760974884,
0.513770580291748,
-1.1179239749908447,
-1.3723530769348145,
0.9655624628067017,
0.8729335069656372,
0.35711583495140076,
-0.25994423031806946,
-0.039807870984077454,
0.13343819975852966,
-0.8244669437408447,
0.13506454229354858,
-0.1723228245973587,
0.6222426295280457,
-0.2655423581600189,
0.5751567482948303,
-0.2926981747150421,
-0.0010384859051555395,
-0.12793850898742676,
0.04385374113917351,
-0.7780134081840515,
-0.46693286299705505,
0.7530059814453125,
-0.1340837925672531,
-0.4667879343032837,
-0.06017826125025749,
-0.5108747482299805,
0.26650628447532654,
0.49672091007232666,
-0.2518174648284912,
-0.027881795540452003,
0.05985810607671738,
-4.90371561050415,
-0.4907675087451935,
0.081382155418396,
-0.4413819909095764,
-0.012094059959053993,
0.8212892413139343,
0.015426045283675194,
-0.40998736023902893,
0.42607381939888,
-0.0038376625161617994,
0.2604028880596161,
-0.7394238710403442,
0.26071009039878845,
0.20506419241428375,
0.5809177160263062,
0.24795609712600708,
0.3109595775604248,
-0.4477751553058624,
0.49001336097717285,
0.5432246923446655,
0.43126606941223145,
-0.4866020381450653,
0.011947986669838428,
0.4314379096031189,
0.41313260793685913,
0.5180014371871948,
-0.07995954900979996,
0.02725237049162388,
-1.0677720308303833,
-0.21484631299972534,
-0.07005084306001663,
0.19290433824062347,
-0.22170591354370117,
-0.31417274475097656,
-0.8940420150756836,
-0.8891512155532837,
0.7543311715126038,
0.5298187136650085,
-0.2693386375904083,
0.0419028177857399,
0.3936295807361603,
-1.0985541343688965,
-0.3619022071361542,
-0.0037970757111907005,
0.6037611365318298,
0.19964441657066345,
-0.6937211155891418,
-0.2155488282442093,
-0.3257826864719391,
-0.24750743806362152,
0.3333870470523834,
0.13809633255004883,
0.07481827586889267,
-0.6596415042877197,
-0.33902522921562195,
0.37997111678123474,
-0.15179042518138885,
0.22545769810676575,
-0.7011909484863281,
0.4381093680858612,
0.9399758577346802,
0.20893360674381256,
-0.3276069164276123,
0.30428245663642883,
0.2474966049194336,
-0.4226857125759125,
0.43888992071151733,
-0.36602941155433655,
0.10875800997018814,
0.6072287559509277,
0.10134246200323105,
0.6420226097106934,
-0.37073951959609985,
-1.01706862449646,
-0.23034504055976868,
-0.6421631574630737,
0.07336962223052979,
0.35517990589141846,
-0.28957873582839966,
0.37729552388191223,
-0.4171582758426666,
0.28430140018463135,
-0.07622562348842621,
1.2881200313568115,
0.15264591574668884,
0.09711666405200958,
-0.21137937903404236,
0.3260093927383423,
0.11963316798210144,
0.4410465657711029,
0.011357988230884075,
-0.7675108909606934,
-0.16078278422355652,
-0.006136555224657059,
0.030038129538297653,
-0.3094126284122467,
-0.07889435440301895,
0.44889140129089355,
0.5046694278717041,
-0.5593073964118958,
-0.09030593186616898,
-0.3070196807384491,
-0.023637443780899048,
-0.4669838845729828,
0.31887179613113403,
-0.35485750436782837,
-0.4039750099182129,
-0.15971799194812775,
0.0703229010105133,
0.8030150532722473,
0.003946011886000633,
-0.10211116075515747,
0.8593258857727051,
0.5663103461265564,
-0.04528984799981117,
-0.745392382144928,
0.20718170702457428,
0.16132986545562744,
0.4256055951118469,
0.025484532117843628,
-0.881321132183075,
0.7673553228378296,
-0.2877075672149658,
-0.1072506234049797,
0.9050993919372559,
-0.5205287933349609,
-0.666654109954834,
0.047300416976213455,
0.0792989432811737,
-0.45114633440971375,
0.2627870440483093,
0.1656373143196106,
0.34971413016319275,
-0.12259966880083084,
-0.47620517015457153,
-1.0745762586593628,
0.15311771631240845,
-0.8216392993927002,
0.359509140253067,
0.3773236572742462,
-0.5837822556495667,
-0.045086029917001724,
-0.14236225187778473,
0.4021843373775482,
0.4520712196826935,
-0.0040434375405311584,
0.31701362133026123,
-0.45584020018577576,
-0.047760847955942154,
0.7765188813209534,
-0.29856836795806885,
-0.8546690940856934,
1.0426839590072632,
-0.15369349718093872,
-0.24891377985477448,
-0.4036279618740082,
-0.2037336230278015,
-0.15256373584270477,
0.20135042071342468,
0.13430801033973694,
-0.011474298313260078,
-0.25919830799102783,
-0.8398213386535645,
-0.5418665409088135,
-0.15585371851921082,
-0.0914311558008194,
0.4719235599040985,
-0.20506012439727783,
-0.3543139398097992,
0.6196345090866089,
0.6691058278083801,
-0.6122773289680481,
-0.6146023273468018,
0.08754528313875198,
0.3513801395893097,
-0.3277163803577423,
0.021371573209762573,
0.061672285199165344,
0.019914524629712105,
0.1107902079820633,
-1.2736245393753052,
-0.01115511916577816,
-0.15251724421977997,
0.6464514136314392,
0.6293705105781555,
-0.19367343187332153,
-0.08425542712211609,
-0.9139271974563599,
-0.38178855180740356,
-0.24164468050003052,
-0.2800111770629883,
0.09715814888477325,
-0.2091829776763916,
-0.6459953784942627,
-0.07040202617645264,
-0.24241366982460022,
-0.5255517363548279,
0.8175438046455383,
-0.10274922847747803,
0.16975976526737213,
-0.27355268597602844,
0.7330372929573059,
0.42969340085983276,
0.29309776425361633,
0.36553773283958435,
-0.6540493369102478,
-0.391688734292984,
0.20559976994991302,
0.09418782591819763,
0.3736799955368042,
-0.4311874508857727,
-0.4683692753314972,
0.2456672191619873,
0.14036713540554047,
-0.3009812533855438,
0.09003707021474838,
0.37594491243362427,
0.06750673800706863,
0.22083450853824615,
-1.0733072757720947,
-0.06889861822128296,
0.10961541533470154,
-0.14453962445259094,
0.14758577942848206,
-0.43643319606781006,
0.13731540739536285,
-0.07911933213472366,
-0.49285557866096497,
0.7934616804122925,
-0.8833528757095337,
-0.6915572285652161,
0.011359594762325287,
0.8116346597671509,
0.7685590386390686,
-0.0670633390545845,
-0.20867343246936798,
0.06459331512451172,
0.18480107188224792,
-0.20871344208717346,
0.14364561438560486,
-0.07977547496557236,
0.9175823330879211,
0.15782736241817474,
-0.32480743527412415,
-0.4230481684207916,
0.3009805977344513,
0.16652168333530426,
-0.4111004173755646,
-0.013769125565886497,
-0.23939506709575653,
0.46327081322669983,
-0.22227273881435394,
-1.1189035177230835,
-0.7748010158538818,
0.3098504841327667,
-0.5733562707901001,
-0.38181084394454956,
0.28761544823646545,
0.3227914869785309,
0.24858930706977844,
-0.44527876377105713,
0.4635450541973114,
-0.047330815345048904,
-0.1044328436255455,
0.293117493391037,
0.38002705574035645,
-0.8697323799133301,
0.0538170300424099,
-0.1617453545331955,
-0.10825564712285995,
-0.1399853378534317,
-0.8703960180282593,
-0.4263724982738495,
-0.04450245201587677,
0.03569357842206955,
0.08700013160705566,
-0.213200181722641,
-0.3482457399368286,
-0.01621384546160698,
-0.5612132549285889,
-0.6380869746208191,
0.07485977560281754,
0.26967355608940125,
-0.2977122664451599,
0.045775678008794785,
-1.6545411348342896,
0.14318911731243134,
-0.22129011154174805,
-0.6725527048110962,
0.693805456161499,
-0.9051348567008972,
0.7512156963348389,
-0.3906322419643402,
0.1912553906440735,
0.02911408618092537,
0.41536638140678406,
-0.17565417289733887,
1.2026225328445435,
-0.5995787978172302,
0.2014426738023758,
-0.7565740942955017,
-0.09537346661090851,
0.6228036880493164,
0.03654361143708229,
-0.32802802324295044,
0.24026288092136383,
0.5406441688537598,
-0.37665799260139465,
0.009950187988579273,
0.23117971420288086,
0.33077317476272583,
0.14381015300750732,
-0.20677883923053741,
-0.06827021390199661,
-0.44040945172309875,
-0.3594561815261841,
0.22451338171958923,
-0.8049902319908142,
-0.39160192012786865,
0.3001058101654053,
0.16696666181087494,
-0.6676231622695923,
0.4205523729324341,
0.47341325879096985,
0.26901963353157043,
0.3357851207256317,
-0.3866554796695709,
-0.3314209580421448,
0.08351346105337143,
0.18602782487869263,
-0.1708773523569107,
-0.05940067023038864,
-1.0049980878829956,
0.8598437905311584,
0.18004213273525238,
-0.1702095866203308,
0.5433900356292725,
-0.7335708141326904,
0.20088143646717072,
0.26545068621635437,
0.35544970631599426,
0.8232686519622803,
-0.0521334707736969,
-0.35969746112823486,
-0.043870847672224045,
0.6356534957885742,
0.36787110567092896,
0.18511074781417847,
0.24432379007339478,
0.10094080865383148,
0.10016103833913803,
0.7024902105331421,
-0.11507262289524078,
-0.1575029492378235,
1.0913276672363281,
0.7058950662612915,
-0.19013865292072296,
0.15246808528900146,
0.564948320388794,
0.21340103447437286,
-0.22483055293560028,
-0.7015612721443176,
-0.30028510093688965,
0.4142052233219147,
0.32788634300231934,
0.05940903723239899,
-0.1465238630771637,
-0.2165452092885971,
0.14042232930660248,
0.29122358560562134,
0.30964958667755127,
0.18774525821208954,
-0.17743118107318878,
-0.3959856629371643,
-0.602544903755188,
0.11163276433944702,
0.14875036478042603,
-0.24536000192165375,
-0.0822712853550911,
-0.5107248425483704,
0.1754010170698166,
-0.030535606667399406,
0.02440350316464901,
-0.4927000105381012,
0.7567298412322998,
0.31707608699798584,
0.3235074579715729,
0.7265025973320007,
0.1494852751493454,
0.22835220396518707,
0.5764460563659668,
-0.3794144093990326,
-0.42317458987236023,
0.3118331730365753,
0.12795080244541168,
0.03284362331032753,
-0.5405457615852356,
0.33088168501853943,
1.00614595413208,
-0.4918186366558075,
0.07046438753604889,
0.008169767446815968,
0.18668237328529358,
0.29359206557273865,
0.5119904279708862,
0.21519117057323456,
-0.6444202065467834,
0.21226558089256287,
-1.256842017173767,
0.654122531414032,
-0.7461957931518555,
0.18356290459632874,
0.06701261550188065,
0.003579010721296072,
-0.5486207008361816,
0.15216128528118134,
0.5304641127586365,
-0.9748790264129639,
-0.19126470386981964,
-0.5968078374862671,
0.10898929089307785,
-0.23608723282814026,
-0.10741914063692093,
0.3267020881175995,
-0.3380369246006012,
-0.6595625281333923,
0.5356391072273254,
0.3615038990974426,
0.3695465922355652,
0.21257595717906952,
-0.35421475768089294,
-0.319953054189682,
-0.0757325068116188,
-0.726131021976471,
0.8389739394187927,
-0.38578230142593384,
1.0443142652511597,
0.742098867893219,
-0.5447260141372681,
-0.08203961700201035,
0.06675577908754349,
-0.32865390181541443,
0.4783422350883484,
0.4319828450679779,
0.3348403871059418,
-0.0792013481259346,
0.00283135287463665,
-0.4435395300388336,
-0.35380685329437256,
0.3937833607196808,
0.4485442340373993,
0.6317757368087769,
0.584701657295227,
-0.679560661315918,
0.06044497340917587,
0.39103952050209045,
-0.6104825735092163,
0.2639100253582001,
-0.0047012073919177055,
0.006041986867785454
] |
203759
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambetta
|
Gambetta
|
Gambetta may refer to:
Gambetta (surname)
Gambetta (Paris Métro)
French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta, ship of the French Navy, 1901–1915
Léon Gambetta class cruiser, class of ships of the French Navy
|
[
0.1920686960220337,
-0.29451122879981995,
-0.3961392045021057,
0.1296370029449463,
-0.15505073964595795,
0.6215196251869202,
0.20929822325706482,
0.18589730560779572,
-0.8021268844604492,
-0.6640732288360596,
-0.2016472965478897,
0.4435487687587738,
-0.3080981969833374,
0.6467111706733704,
-0.0012605302035808563,
-0.21958574652671814,
0.3234613537788391,
0.2814525067806244,
-0.48068001866340637,
-0.26283618807792664,
-0.02863110601902008,
0.39194440841674805,
0.5187654495239258,
-0.36514565348625183,
0.1846727430820465,
-0.17880447208881378,
0.2611828148365021,
0.5487189888954163,
0.7058461904525757,
0.4402601420879364,
0.48344308137893677,
-0.003288817359134555,
0.30173933506011963,
0.3516455292701721,
-0.16380949318408966,
-0.27153700590133667,
0.2568087577819824,
-0.23592707514762878,
-0.4431668519973755,
-0.6971312761306763,
0.05157254636287689,
-0.07949376106262207,
0.25279700756073,
0.24161092936992645,
-0.009826374240219593,
0.3833579421043396,
-0.9913439750671387,
0.07264509052038193,
-0.12832233309745789,
-0.3150978982448578,
0.1436828225851059,
0.10918596386909485,
0.3042108118534088,
1.029271125793457,
-0.15818315744400024,
0.46036991477012634,
-0.8968440890312195,
-0.2904009521007538,
0.14062641561031342,
-0.8397849798202515,
0.5759621858596802,
0.5808699131011963,
0.55710768699646,
0.42728573083877563,
0.11008241772651672,
0.029546862468123436,
0.1257394254207611,
0.2795589566230774,
-0.39045095443725586,
-0.09467960894107819,
0.036050114780664444,
-0.2986240088939667,
0.10907778143882751,
-0.021380146965384483,
-0.41517767310142517,
-0.6891134977340698,
-0.3176092803478241,
-0.2273622453212738,
0.24544093012809753,
0.294373095035553,
0.1475110501050949,
-0.6442670226097107,
0.6666443943977356,
-0.12559179961681366,
0.23944251239299774,
0.777985692024231,
-0.38551002740859985,
0.05134701356291771,
-0.4672408103942871,
0.33481770753860474,
-0.49586164951324463,
-0.7168698906898499,
0.6577117443084717,
0.23383787274360657,
-0.32120591402053833,
0.5825585722923279,
0.052791982889175415,
0.4283750057220459,
-0.11156543344259262,
0.1939365714788437,
-0.2551059424877167,
0.3339884579181671,
-0.07667406648397446,
0.12217190861701965,
-0.3163188397884369,
-0.03837210312485695,
-0.2960112690925598,
0.5031842589378357,
-0.6105431914329529,
-0.0179302915930748,
-0.558290958404541,
-0.47747504711151123,
-0.6441667675971985,
-0.13246890902519226,
-0.3278484046459198,
-0.5484917759895325,
0.45248451828956604,
-0.0869925245642662,
0.10861273109912872,
0.07484973222017288,
0.017146434634923935,
0.023442599922418594,
0.34717628359794617,
0.15690000355243683,
0.1451185941696167,
0.36933839321136475,
0.6080195307731628,
0.11895095556974411,
-0.4298737049102783,
0.24760830402374268,
0.3384498357772827,
0.8140163421630859,
-0.7822000980377197,
0.18619179725646973,
-0.4734550714492798,
-0.4415242075920105,
0.1373111605644226,
0.48438748717308044,
-0.18949714303016663,
0.217507466673851,
-0.9672306776046753,
-0.24686378240585327,
-0.3291708528995514,
0.22853270173072815,
0.13352476060390472,
-0.39251428842544556,
0.01697532646358013,
0.5275335907936096,
0.2870301902294159,
-0.46563759446144104,
-0.4762474000453949,
-0.5050519704818726,
-0.004960622172802687,
0.09008863568305969,
-0.2888794541358948,
0.33175233006477356,
-0.05930522829294205,
-0.18176208436489105,
0.5253912210464478,
-0.2674480974674225,
-0.19234418869018555,
0.22559000551700592,
-0.07794323563575745,
0.525023341178894,
0.41730743646621704,
-0.35187414288520813,
0.0221085324883461,
0.05067453160881996,
-0.03077075071632862,
-0.7477954626083374,
-0.4405769109725952,
-0.04256788268685341,
-0.14695799350738525,
-0.2925488352775574,
-0.3244263529777527,
0.8711676597595215,
0.680626630783081,
-0.17899054288864136,
0.320213258266449,
-0.6259558200836182,
-0.13737837970256805,
0.013305747881531715,
0.065362848341465,
-0.06426314264535904,
0.5670614838600159,
0.09345123916864395,
0.2569847106933594,
-0.054454073309898376,
0.014920735731720924,
-0.3736213445663452,
-0.3594343066215515,
-0.5089643597602844,
0.49774301052093506,
-0.860276460647583,
0.9977579116821289,
-0.3469768762588501,
-0.7138082385063171,
0.23110933601856232,
-0.005496238823980093,
0.4143558144569397,
-0.21717488765716553,
-0.2396283596754074,
0.3820912837982178,
-0.4598182737827301,
-0.3243337571620941,
-0.00643637590110302,
0.20911450684070587,
-0.06982496380805969,
0.36990630626678467,
0.6974439024925232,
0.594741940498352,
-0.4420613944530487,
0.0946863517165184,
-0.4504905045032501,
0.18958111107349396,
0.37384650111198425,
-0.5082902312278748,
-0.22920671105384827,
0.1156114935874939,
-0.19599978625774384,
0.15328694880008698,
-0.04637408256530762,
-0.5792837738990784,
0.5030779838562012,
-0.12592017650604248,
0.8822238445281982,
-0.006261142436414957,
0.30907928943634033,
-0.06994437426328659,
-0.14059090614318848,
0.183797225356102,
0.08391548693180084,
-0.1690342128276825,
0.11210286617279053,
0.4321216940879822,
0.5159713625907898,
0.13946810364723206,
-0.5789589285850525,
0.08044593781232834,
-0.38442638516426086,
0.8466039896011353,
0.32430610060691833,
-0.2775220572948456,
0.17161396145820618,
0.5780136585235596,
-0.05579373985528946,
-0.23368586599826813,
0.22030244767665863,
-0.624538242816925,
-0.44501447677612305,
-0.13704709708690643,
0.3695031702518463,
0.7239773869514465,
0.19238050282001495,
-0.42325007915496826,
-0.7109503746032715,
0.32126927375793457,
0.027555586770176888,
-0.20381930470466614,
0.3026783764362335,
-0.10816935449838638,
0.01445345301181078,
-0.0902838408946991,
0.4069433808326721,
0.13936807215213776,
-0.15644551813602448,
-0.28558456897735596,
-0.20723094046115875,
0.5723705887794495,
0.13522115349769592,
-0.01332278735935688,
0.15986788272857666,
-0.35780665278434753,
0.1973503679037094,
0.3386991322040558,
-0.09779401123523712,
-0.18539772927761078,
0.6679524779319763,
-0.17600734531879425,
-0.43209877610206604,
-0.6278946399688721,
0.5374047160148621,
0.008454139344394207,
-0.9355102181434631,
-0.39176005125045776,
-0.28538697957992554,
0.08116602897644043,
-0.3005036413669586,
-0.09181499481201172,
0.313137412071228,
-0.1416139453649521,
-0.1585969477891922,
-0.7059814929962158,
-0.2401179075241089,
-0.431924968957901,
-0.4066859483718872,
-0.26841676235198975,
-0.13047544658184052,
0.31365326046943665,
-0.5872093439102173,
-0.5430038571357727,
0.49017009139060974,
-0.04259537160396576,
0.07946335524320602,
0.8288633227348328,
0.09178408235311508,
-0.39276382327079773,
0.5081775188446045,
-5.7853803634643555,
0.03467308729887009,
0.06892681866884232,
-0.14733664691448212,
-0.35553890466690063,
0.013135462999343872,
0.4514313340187073,
-0.06436921656131744,
-0.021998848766088486,
-0.8688039183616638,
0.051855381578207016,
0.14844374358654022,
-0.07304168492555618,
0.3328492343425751,
-0.4998123347759247,
0.26713860034942627,
0.19293199479579926,
-0.08817610889673233,
0.40655186772346497,
-0.028678521513938904,
0.24135516583919525,
-0.08935103565454483,
0.1019655242562294,
0.493610143661499,
0.20245693624019623,
0.0415082685649395,
-0.4418765902519226,
0.10999415814876556,
-0.7910618782043457,
0.07577501237392426,
0.30335700511932373,
-0.0955319032073021,
-0.055051323026418686,
0.042259495705366135,
0.04697927460074425,
-0.44308266043663025,
0.43339118361473083,
0.1546352505683899,
-0.2720692753791809,
-0.14323121309280396,
-0.14708107709884644,
0.4520627558231354,
-0.2882363498210907,
-0.2422666847705841,
0.18987606465816498,
-0.08539338409900665,
-0.5727448463439941,
0.1587199717760086,
-0.24509453773498535,
0.752396821975708,
0.1556224673986435,
-0.3937462270259857,
0.1928773671388626,
0.0849592536687851,
0.700229823589325,
-0.06988297402858734,
0.2815348207950592,
0.0246534775942564,
0.10757672786712646,
0.9238733649253845,
0.12485995888710022,
0.30131757259368896,
0.269840270280838,
-0.7993374466896057,
-0.0660046711564064,
0.33689457178115845,
-0.18980149924755096,
-0.17654544115066528,
0.18485458195209503,
0.5399436354637146,
-0.6967059969902039,
0.46924781799316406,
-0.18351924419403076,
-1.052229881286621,
-0.22888660430908203,
0.13163603842258453,
-0.4847589433193207,
0.16646844148635864,
-0.24432630836963654,
0.12907283008098602,
-0.12035281956195831,
-0.2951732873916626,
-0.35728299617767334,
-0.3462105393409729,
-0.06921141594648361,
-0.5768303275108337,
-0.06615246832370758,
-0.03987504914402962,
-0.07713188230991364,
0.27037686109542847,
0.863878071308136,
-0.3677607774734497,
0.5665307641029358,
-0.2664235532283783,
0.10483699291944504,
0.4360972046852112,
-0.7356585264205933,
0.4510294198989868,
0.33390530943870544,
-0.2950561046600342,
0.17292705178260803,
-0.4777865409851074,
0.2748474180698395,
-0.10253288596868515,
-0.09231160581111908,
-0.21743616461753845,
0.31078651547431946,
-0.035774726420640945,
0.7693670988082886,
0.10863826423883438,
-0.2927083373069763,
-0.5188879370689392,
-0.7910863161087036,
-0.753578245639801,
0.8890490531921387,
-0.6307774186134338,
0.45325449109077454,
0.4001697599887848,
0.3694160580635071,
-0.4105544984340668,
-0.11028026044368744,
0.7189106941223145,
-0.827328085899353,
-0.24108155071735382,
0.13042758405208588,
-0.20798830687999725,
0.4099746346473694,
0.20110736787319183,
0.3572196662425995,
0.03629813715815544,
-0.3592391908168793,
0.5563045144081116,
0.016091935336589813,
0.08980046212673187,
0.3706924617290497,
-0.38943442702293396,
-0.46295276284217834,
-0.9377179741859436,
0.21424157917499542,
-0.30773067474365234,
-0.45014482736587524,
-0.3099720776081085,
-0.10906092077493668,
0.18143580853939056,
0.7774255275726318,
0.5300981998443604,
0.08269119262695312,
-0.034446053206920624,
-0.15652771294116974,
0.4741859436035156,
-0.009279652498662472,
-0.2248569130897522,
0.3796912431716919,
0.05106305330991745,
-0.4922926127910614,
-0.19662213325500488,
0.10083118826150894,
0.4039838910102844,
-0.7925612330436707,
0.02533642016351223,
0.5786415934562683,
-0.43045762181282043,
-0.6401069760322571,
0.15233367681503296,
0.24624672532081604,
0.19608749449253082,
-0.09944401681423187,
-1.1191850900650024,
0.3130674958229065,
0.4618615508079529,
-0.031585875898599625,
-1.0363465547561646,
-0.4132355749607086,
-0.19634291529655457,
0.3647010326385498,
0.11045218259096146,
-0.2862524390220642,
0.25089627504348755,
-0.26697131991386414,
0.03703077882528305,
0.24057985842227936,
0.37598517537117004,
0.25012513995170593,
0.5057147145271301,
0.10370657593011856,
0.3540746867656708,
-0.3255387544631958,
0.3246060311794281,
-0.4684050977230072,
0.15832708775997162,
-0.014277591370046139,
0.8061563968658447,
0.026626592501997948,
0.3696327209472656,
-0.42986059188842773,
-0.4424152374267578,
-0.2295534610748291,
0.3663212060928345,
0.49458789825439453,
-0.38002651929855347,
-0.01994144171476364,
0.3748718202114105,
0.0271821990609169,
0.11332010477781296,
0.0370534285902977,
-0.09009355306625366,
0.6888487339019775,
-0.03264613449573517,
-0.3463191092014313,
0.20694638788700104,
-0.22878152132034302,
-0.9949552416801453,
0.43979814648628235,
0.5824047327041626,
-0.10581109672784805,
0.3594864010810852,
0.1561363935470581,
0.010085275396704674,
-0.48220840096473694,
-0.29243841767311096,
-0.24504400789737701,
-0.24712930619716644,
-0.22648076713085175,
0.0072048078291118145,
-0.42673125863075256,
0.7441803812980652,
0.6261786222457886,
-0.337247371673584,
0.4366917312145233,
0.06175558269023895,
-0.11298525333404541,
0.4090944528579712,
-0.2978762090206146,
0.04666445031762123,
-0.15331578254699707,
-0.2999911308288574,
0.6777946352958679,
0.08598146587610245,
0.33886656165122986,
0.06924353539943695,
0.4754593074321747,
0.6721099615097046,
-0.35777005553245544,
-0.1717826873064041,
0.1710854470729828,
0.40312910079956055,
0.5651538372039795,
-0.37546592950820923,
-0.2945837080478668,
0.385214626789093,
-0.334429532289505,
-0.18525369465351105,
-0.9318485856056213,
-0.4033943712711334,
0.5949246883392334,
-0.4615821838378906,
-0.4279239773750305,
-0.015412207692861557,
0.19506114721298218,
0.5173844695091248,
-0.2508857250213623,
1.0820764303207397,
-0.16967861354351044,
-0.30776020884513855,
0.0881514921784401,
0.0572294145822525,
-0.1408519446849823,
-0.31968337297439575,
0.22163976728916168,
0.002904084976762533,
0.19878661632537842,
0.13183483481407166,
0.4708375930786133,
1.177561640739441,
0.08763381838798523,
0.06580576300621033,
-0.48282262682914734,
-0.31337177753448486,
0.15434519946575165,
0.06652602553367615,
-0.7134085297584534,
0.21985909342765808,
-0.2811107635498047,
-0.41260743141174316,
0.0016881480114534497,
-0.6042920351028442,
0.07778891921043396,
-0.1360902637243271,
-0.36596763134002686,
0.3128812313079834,
0.5120842456817627,
-0.3461865186691284,
0.2960475981235504,
0.155436173081398,
-0.4779188334941864,
0.40194469690322876,
-0.5546375513076782,
-0.11149927228689194,
0.10726222395896912,
0.6123088002204895,
-0.18067367374897003,
0.43525028228759766,
0.09658107161521912,
0.0004858101310674101,
-0.08948422968387604,
0.03919588029384613,
0.2832756042480469,
-0.20300528407096863,
0.15895187854766846,
-0.2656107246875763,
0.34934815764427185,
-0.22729898989200592,
-0.21934127807617188,
0.4811631739139557,
-0.5098159313201904,
0.35211434960365295,
0.5444220900535583,
-0.36263805627822876,
-0.5888570547103882,
-0.026843532919883728,
0.4895322322845459,
0.673255205154419,
0.07085777074098587,
-0.043685682117938995,
-0.09005919843912125,
0.2313062995672226,
-0.7359058260917664,
-0.2455786168575287,
0.7272457480430603,
0.27495473623275757,
0.39226239919662476,
0.053861092776060104,
-1.0365921258926392,
0.8336097002029419,
-0.3942503333091736,
0.29068875312805176,
0.4550741910934448,
-0.46720656752586365,
-0.006978352554142475,
0.5491960048675537,
0.8198297619819641,
0.3503406047821045,
-0.6095340847969055,
0.1051713302731514,
-0.12526626884937286,
0.2374621480703354,
-0.297014057636261,
-0.024234633892774582,
0.1897786408662796,
0.2822314202785492,
0.10369233042001724,
0.19765348732471466,
0.22389835119247437,
-0.1634765863418579,
-0.07951211929321289,
0.1415896862745285,
-0.11168976128101349,
-0.023462872952222824,
-0.27656012773513794,
-0.3140476644039154,
-0.09296587109565735,
0.11951423436403275,
0.6639605760574341,
-0.3022582530975342,
-0.34074079990386963,
0.6986114382743835,
-0.8950517177581787,
-0.2567571699619293,
-0.17455357313156128,
0.2530466914176941,
0.21469704806804657,
-0.274312824010849,
-0.017820922657847404,
0.29114463925361633,
-0.08851338177919388,
0.19934166967868805,
0.2502478063106537,
0.6977389454841614,
-0.07559569180011749,
0.03232995420694351,
-0.6708841919898987,
0.6864797472953796,
-0.5042111873626709,
-0.3759039640426636,
-0.24903707206249237,
-0.21145398914813995,
-0.13596183061599731,
0.1040642037987709,
0.041072506457567215,
-0.3517782986164093,
-0.019530802965164185,
-0.37134304642677307,
-0.082938551902771,
0.1757294088602066,
-0.07886074483394623,
-0.1365315020084381,
-0.1865585446357727,
0.3480766713619232,
0.20078298449516296,
-0.7940934300422668,
0.24261470139026642,
0.30967700481414795,
-0.2630153298377991,
-0.06284286081790924,
-0.12145216763019562,
-0.22725898027420044,
-0.12627391517162323,
0.28206637501716614,
-0.37089380621910095,
0.08523789793252945,
0.1772632896900177,
-0.7157343626022339,
-0.5711973309516907,
0.23280882835388184,
-0.11482857167720795,
-0.23182053864002228,
0.11510022729635239,
-0.9066818356513977,
-0.4668942391872406,
-0.848694384098053,
0.42248770594596863,
-0.47715747356414795,
0.2276000678539276,
0.12566453218460083,
-0.2238573580980301,
-0.3282916843891144,
0.3139485716819763,
-0.28103330731391907,
-0.171998530626297,
0.0579490065574646,
0.15135645866394043,
0.27887195348739624,
-0.6643213033676147,
-0.5260560512542725,
-0.5321658253669739,
-0.24869143962860107,
1.0081217288970947,
0.35704341530799866,
0.13362173736095428,
0.14640450477600098,
0.46712690591812134,
0.2425788789987564,
0.5332226753234863,
0.34370920062065125,
-0.12160608172416687,
-0.21350882947444916,
0.22380541265010834,
-0.14869403839111328,
-0.0011698071612045169,
0.37838059663772583,
0.42401817440986633,
0.6092175245285034,
0.5272729992866516,
-0.31373411417007446,
0.8049435019493103,
-0.49676206707954407,
0.4228672385215759,
-0.9131091237068176,
-0.19720561802387238,
-0.37605467438697815
] |
203763
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20the%20Angry%20Flower
|
Bob the Angry Flower
|
Bob the Angry Flower is a webcomic that tells the exploits of an easily angered anthropomorphic flower named Bob and his interactions with the world, often in search of either global domination or love. Though the comic strip features a range of recurring characters, most strips stand alone with little or no continuity.
Characters and style
Bob has an intense hatred of the incorrect use of the apostrophe to form plurals, and is also often found in outlandish but self-inflicted predicaments. The strips themselves range from absurdist humor to dadaist "anti-humor".
Bob's two sidekicks are "Stumpy" (a talking tree stump) and "Freddie the Flying Fetus" (self-explanatory). While Stumpy's appearance and demeanour epitomise existential ennui, Freddie – as befits his tender years – is a vital and innocent spirit, insuppressibly enthusiastic and trusting; the pair provide two different counterpoints to the single-minded irascibility of the protagonist.
Other recurring minor characters include robots (and their natural enemies, bears), ninjas, Daleks (from Doctor Who) and various evil masterminds. Dick Cheney, Kofi Annan, and other world leaders have also appeared as characters on occasion.
Background
Bob the Angry Flower is the creation of Canadian cartoonist Stephen Notley, a native of Edmonton, who has been based in Seattle since early 2005. The cartoon has been carried, at different times, by several local newspapers and magazines including See magazine, Vue Weekly, the Edmonton Journal, and The Gateway. Notley also generally posts new strips to his website every Friday.
Bob the Angry Flower has had one spin-off series, Lovebot Conquers All, featuring Lovebot, a robot built by Bob and then abandoned, and who reappears occasionally in the strip to bring readers up to date on his fruitless quest for love. It appeared in black and white as a bonus feature in the collection Bob the Angry Flower: The Ultimate Book of Perfect Energy, and ran in color on the subscription site Graphic Smash.
There are currently eleven books published, mostly consisting of compiled cartoons from the weekly series, with a few extra features. They are:
In Defence of Fascism (1997) ()
Coffee with Sinistar (1999) ()
Everybody vs. Bob the Angry Flower (2001) ()
Bob the Angry Flower: The Ultimate Book of Perfect Energy!!! (2003) ()
Dog Killer (2005) ()
Pamplemousse (2008) ()
Rothgar (2010) ()
How to Operate a Chair (2012) ()
The Unthinkable (2015) ()
X (2017) ()
exciting space adventure (2019) ()
Notley is the son of politician Grant Notley, a former leader of the Alberta New Democratic Party, and the brother of Rachel Notley, the current leader of the Alberta New Democratic Party and former Premier of Alberta.
Reception
Bob the Angry Flower was referenced by science fiction writer Michael Swanwick in a September 2002 short story about an encounter with Notley. Swanwick writes, "Bob the Angry Flower experiences all emotions at exaggerated levels. He builds giant killer robots, he deploys world-destroying lasers. He is sort of like your id with an unlimited budget."
Licensing
Notley has released his Bob the Angry Flower work under an original license. The license only enables sale of T-shirts with Bob the Angry Flower material from CafePress stores, and also requires that the image is sent to Notley, and by implication the link of the relevant CafePress store. In 2006, Bob the Angry Flower was released as a collection by Tachyon Publications.
Notes
References
Review of Coffee with Sinistar, in Flak Magazine
Stephen Notley at Lambiek
Interview with Stephen Notley in ComixTalk, 10 November 2003.
Interview with Stephen Notley in Sequential Tart, July 1, 2006.
"Bob the Angry Flower wilts with love: Stephen Notley's new comic collection as hopeful as it is hostile", Edmonton Journal. November 18, 2003. page C1.
"Bob's 'explosive hope'; the angry flower wants to save the world", Edmonton Sun. November 16, 2003. page SL5.
"Bob the Angry Flower: Dog Killer". Publishers Weekly. May 22, 2006. page 38.
External links
Canadian comedy webcomics
Webcomics in print
1990s webcomics
2000s webcomics
2010s webcomics
2020s webcomics
|
[
-0.051890600472688675,
0.04705379158258438,
-0.20654255151748657,
-0.17664232850074768,
-0.3804212212562561,
0.23237471282482147,
0.6873561143875122,
0.7827154397964478,
-0.3558529317378998,
0.4174881875514984,
-0.5774346590042114,
0.07067403197288513,
-0.7882019877433777,
0.0015059495344758034,
-0.3107590675354004,
0.35996517539024353,
0.010173708200454712,
0.6509386897087097,
-0.029877271503210068,
0.16305093467235565,
-0.11808406561613083,
-0.38471245765686035,
0.17907604575157166,
-0.8221585154533386,
0.9974254965782166,
-0.21727852523326874,
0.2641580402851105,
0.25754332542419434,
-0.7552173733711243,
0.1040947362780571,
0.045131616294384,
0.04107750579714775,
0.3601858913898468,
-0.3155005872249603,
-0.2029189169406891,
-0.2696537673473358,
-0.4859573245048523,
0.16045065224170685,
-0.1822792887687683,
-0.49038803577423096,
-0.1274842917919159,
0.014274382032454014,
-0.059410180896520615,
0.16943326592445374,
0.5750513076782227,
-0.5282977223396301,
-1.5246117115020752,
0.35429006814956665,
-0.46393653750419617,
-0.01373828575015068,
-0.5811482667922974,
1.0557947158813477,
0.58566814661026,
0.09199206531047821,
0.030960364267230034,
0.6138451099395752,
-0.6363698840141296,
-0.40305235981941223,
-0.5844647884368896,
-0.2250567525625229,
0.5439455509185791,
0.05611374229192734,
0.060665857046842575,
0.20123666524887085,
0.19960205256938934,
0.5359554290771484,
-0.4013345241546631,
0.8853287696838379,
-0.06012595072388649,
-0.017703864723443985,
0.11528658866882324,
-0.49665194749832153,
-0.11318958550691605,
0.3432832360267639,
-0.020612040534615517,
-0.34755104780197144,
0.19065506756305695,
0.13491760194301605,
0.25333690643310547,
0.32886114716529846,
-0.14453668892383575,
0.7257349491119385,
0.45643749833106995,
0.13233216106891632,
0.06649701297283173,
0.13591647148132324,
0.2897706627845764,
0.6340273022651672,
-0.10915534198284149,
-0.1993897259235382,
-0.4395023286342621,
0.17238891124725342,
0.05084363371133804,
0.37331444025039673,
-0.012323196977376938,
-0.6958686113357544,
-0.3185657560825348,
-0.03102278895676136,
-0.39472681283950806,
0.46771499514579773,
-0.27256253361701965,
0.29372456669807434,
0.2547956705093384,
-0.2232283502817154,
-0.14457494020462036,
0.031064454466104507,
-0.09929445385932922,
-0.8571761250495911,
0.2821963131427765,
0.49565252661705017,
-0.5810083150863647,
0.18140177428722382,
0.27197277545928955,
-0.4690364599227905,
0.2827877998352051,
0.8425798416137695,
0.45020389556884766,
-0.2218896746635437,
-0.10255933552980423,
0.03895542025566101,
0.3755212426185608,
-0.03799625113606453,
-0.12498202919960022,
-0.1229761466383934,
-0.016861245036125183,
-0.38030096888542175,
-0.0312940739095211,
0.054334044456481934,
-0.3299533724784851,
0.33075979351997375,
0.10382091253995895,
0.6459747552871704,
-0.12437207996845245,
-0.44321075081825256,
-0.2146444320678711,
0.06020459160208702,
0.7305625081062317,
-0.39788317680358887,
0.3328830599784851,
0.12254533916711807,
-0.8073550462722778,
-0.26225611567497253,
-0.34957608580589294,
-0.2652520537376404,
-0.0249125137925148,
0.042941950261592865,
-0.14917832612991333,
-0.16826212406158447,
0.32590505480766296,
-0.5964160561561584,
-0.3190365135669708,
-0.2111436128616333,
-0.7713057994842529,
0.019975852221250534,
0.1073257252573967,
0.5023708343505859,
0.5149332880973816,
-0.5956863164901733,
0.35868680477142334,
0.3868437707424164,
0.2452726513147354,
0.37059617042541504,
-0.4429997503757477,
-0.5717806816101074,
0.20028288662433624,
-0.6398483514785767,
0.30255430936813354,
0.10323713719844818,
0.12952004373073578,
-0.26051065325737,
-0.587954580783844,
0.3983671963214874,
0.746614396572113,
0.29073473811149597,
0.8649930357933044,
0.2692660987377167,
0.9152889847755432,
-0.3366992175579071,
0.3544895350933075,
0.20446868240833282,
-0.6846981048583984,
0.2596432864665985,
-0.4350653886795044,
0.04534250125288963,
0.6430922746658325,
-0.3668094575405121,
0.3628368079662323,
-0.17611153423786163,
0.22134646773338318,
0.23431707918643951,
-1.0382225513458252,
-0.6064983606338501,
0.4499847888946533,
0.04301821067929268,
0.947218120098114,
0.010100994259119034,
-0.7382975816726685,
0.5761929154396057,
0.4688514471054077,
0.741375207901001,
-0.308146208524704,
0.3223452568054199,
-0.03539325296878815,
0.042469993233680725,
-1.0954227447509766,
-0.16337977349758148,
0.02751462161540985,
0.04857463017106056,
0.34428349137306213,
0.757825493812561,
-0.26993995904922485,
-0.21378153562545776,
0.3380882143974304,
-0.6608988046646118,
0.03225291892886162,
0.10690996050834656,
0.011072922497987747,
0.2015199214220047,
-0.6496164798736572,
-0.26970961689949036,
0.579565703868866,
-0.0007314119138754904,
-0.6164485216140747,
0.6483372449874878,
-0.3035230040550232,
0.7204375267028809,
0.358452707529068,
-0.18021264672279358,
0.7363409996032715,
-0.287778377532959,
-0.12350776046514511,
0.7190295457839966,
-0.11203654855489731,
-0.7473783493041992,
-0.8554419279098511,
0.14367376267910004,
0.3866068422794342,
-0.6646254062652588,
-0.017396623268723488,
-0.1927216649055481,
0.4402644634246826,
0.46553823351860046,
-0.5218613743782043,
0.1140184998512268,
-0.17801500856876373,
-0.003267653053626418,
-0.3080659806728363,
0.3815878629684448,
-0.569739818572998,
0.21314024925231934,
0.37771278619766235,
0.4326823353767395,
0.6694802045822144,
-0.2293214499950409,
-0.06628535687923431,
0.20815378427505493,
-0.5544601678848267,
0.05076507106423378,
0.06779730319976807,
0.3749455511569977,
-0.36395347118377686,
-0.234172523021698,
-0.25971099734306335,
0.19448117911815643,
0.1133144199848175,
-0.15625056624412537,
-0.3004392981529236,
-0.620025098323822,
0.10766444355249405,
0.3755193054676056,
0.14325036108493805,
-0.048836562782526016,
-0.8047266006469727,
0.2647443413734436,
0.12789535522460938,
-0.36833831667900085,
0.3289051353931427,
-0.4408637583255768,
0.11660901457071304,
-0.37284064292907715,
-0.1980113536119461,
0.9644087553024292,
0.19298270344734192,
-0.6186334490776062,
-0.32805687189102173,
-0.36799725890159607,
0.13310833275318146,
-0.1966579407453537,
-0.4360561668872833,
0.2544132471084595,
-0.4354059100151062,
-0.35632553696632385,
-0.10970032960176468,
0.19788451492786407,
-0.28069207072257996,
0.03731652349233627,
0.44484713673591614,
0.18432937562465668,
0.1280108541250229,
0.20548251271247864,
0.3050200045108795,
0.17264193296432495,
-0.3707471191883087,
-0.31629738211631775,
0.7237232327461243,
-0.15940721333026886,
-0.20816250145435333,
0.05665569007396698,
-5.678959846496582,
-0.04268292710185051,
-0.20104527473449707,
-0.1560802012681961,
0.15377995371818542,
0.3390292227268219,
0.7746205925941467,
-0.4027344286441803,
0.06093475967645645,
0.08607260882854462,
-0.41848087310791016,
-0.02201930060982704,
0.34278738498687744,
-0.07951915264129639,
-0.037172622978687286,
-0.031455762684345245,
0.33127570152282715,
-0.3812514841556549,
0.21155375242233276,
0.3082541525363922,
-0.23241570591926575,
0.24224506318569183,
-0.2786194980144501,
0.4844299554824829,
0.13458208739757538,
0.7661534547805786,
-0.212909996509552,
-0.09200038760900497,
0.004362841602414846,
0.3478449285030365,
0.34368833899497986,
-0.31168708205223083,
-0.29468417167663574,
0.05220174044370651,
-0.07382852584123611,
-0.10220695286989212,
0.5516565442085266,
-0.36430928111076355,
0.4255702495574951,
-0.0368635319173336,
-0.0325586274266243,
-0.12420988082885742,
0.009599843062460423,
0.3412836492061615,
0.6191794276237488,
-0.2062734067440033,
-0.46049150824546814,
-0.6738497614860535,
-0.5244420766830444,
0.1784122884273529,
0.2450852394104004,
-0.014912706799805164,
0.5002245903015137,
0.4254322052001953,
0.4712221026420593,
-0.02825891226530075,
0.2042151391506195,
-0.2238052487373352,
-0.47169092297554016,
-0.35603052377700806,
0.3989059329032898,
-0.2903389632701874,
0.010105671361088753,
0.13742999732494354,
0.23562397062778473,
-0.501552402973175,
0.30205589532852173,
-0.4510475695133209,
0.6082086563110352,
-0.06665307283401489,
-0.6397384405136108,
0.07457723468542099,
-0.4356224238872528,
-1.0919467210769653,
0.5436877608299255,
0.2353980392217636,
-0.10952968895435333,
0.30195310711860657,
0.251803994178772,
-0.3880695700645447,
-0.5343756079673767,
-0.044525500386953354,
-0.6289122104644775,
0.14323607087135315,
-0.6295210719108582,
-1.3040122985839844,
0.20407350361347198,
0.13655143976211548,
-0.401990681886673,
0.4690079689025879,
0.6755102872848511,
-0.287789523601532,
0.01916331797838211,
0.09891467541456223,
0.7431569695472717,
0.658469557762146,
0.19730952382087708,
-0.05765826255083084,
0.4173239767551422,
-0.2828780710697174,
0.5046413540840149,
-0.36397358775138855,
-0.029613438993692398,
-0.4083869755268097,
0.5195420384407043,
-0.2378099411725998,
0.008893867954611778,
0.3108958601951599,
0.4687255024909973,
0.5589763522148132,
-0.06592297554016113,
-0.22587020695209503,
-0.5252524614334106,
-0.10572527348995209,
0.4899273216724396,
0.8685312271118164,
0.167029470205307,
0.33877912163734436,
0.5070471167564392,
0.41851434111595154,
-0.6094794273376465,
0.08537808060646057,
-0.37879055738449097,
0.05691700801253319,
-0.11388388276100159,
-0.023826584219932556,
0.030033061280846596,
-0.18009904026985168,
0.5220836997032166,
-0.27259495854377747,
0.39955368638038635,
-0.2088010460138321,
-0.19290539622306824,
-0.08034873008728027,
0.24622760713100433,
-0.30603301525115967,
0.13024459779262543,
-1.0182093381881714,
-0.16887350380420685,
-0.4332211911678314,
-0.2436423897743225,
-0.1449842005968094,
-0.17795954644680023,
0.18169830739498138,
0.01910083368420601,
0.2583140730857849,
-0.31101664900779724,
0.10373545438051224,
0.23578153550624847,
0.37836602330207825,
-0.31881794333457947,
-0.31971240043640137,
0.4156988561153412,
-0.7487967610359192,
0.020123960450291634,
0.010346467606723309,
-0.3991580605506897,
0.2732962965965271,
-0.20742392539978027,
0.15842485427856445,
-0.0012006020406261086,
-0.549850344657898,
-0.9367164373397827,
-0.37169620394706726,
-0.23248419165611267,
-0.20750375092029572,
0.1879519820213318,
-0.6305171847343445,
0.2587103843688965,
0.35312917828559875,
-0.34538963437080383,
0.22604863345623016,
-0.336897075176239,
-0.00007165247370721772,
0.9440876245498657,
-0.480134516954422,
-0.003129258519038558,
-0.09856254607439041,
0.5108709335327148,
0.18983913958072662,
-0.3602012097835541,
-0.3353744447231293,
-0.00554934237152338,
0.7109581828117371,
0.9294992685317993,
-0.3924793004989624,
0.2308017760515213,
-0.05123258754611015,
-0.08202856034040451,
0.2108226716518402,
-0.1464490294456482,
1.0089600086212158,
0.4430455267429352,
0.07093728333711624,
-0.7781184315681458,
-0.24843907356262207,
-0.07304315268993378,
0.3439892828464508,
0.27818024158477783,
-0.841019332408905,
-0.2608526945114136,
0.2702852487564087,
-0.8510079979896545,
0.3766612112522125,
0.40418556332588196,
-0.724863588809967,
0.06661853939294815,
-0.24202027916908264,
-0.41497868299484253,
0.1379484087228775,
0.306007981300354,
-0.310333251953125,
-0.41928860545158386,
0.23330222070217133,
-0.5074681639671326,
0.18831996619701385,
-0.34727779030799866,
-0.3645298182964325,
-0.04077042266726494,
0.054263439029455185,
-0.724279522895813,
-0.5717441439628601,
-0.3545588254928589,
0.042498860508203506,
-0.1789267659187317,
0.05534270033240318,
0.4455861449241638,
-1.011306643486023,
0.5464022159576416,
0.010556570254266262,
0.7097529172897339,
0.29959404468536377,
0.37980854511260986,
0.46281400322914124,
-0.767664909362793,
-0.37000057101249695,
-0.20434032380580902,
0.4038144648075104,
0.22475500404834747,
0.3432515263557434,
0.04610450938344002,
0.546818196773529,
-0.23270224034786224,
-0.5005763173103333,
0.7763440608978271,
0.5622352361679077,
-0.10106454789638519,
-0.38254809379577637,
-0.3182591497898102,
-0.03123650513589382,
0.5768415927886963,
-0.056441694498062134,
0.01281852275133133,
0.028683455660939217,
0.15294119715690613,
-0.7171549797058105,
-0.14426757395267487,
-0.300006240606308,
-0.388601154088974,
-0.02996554784476757,
0.09934106469154358,
0.516555905342102,
-0.43669283390045166,
0.5467187166213989,
0.2340530902147293,
-0.2160375863313675,
0.6311836242675781,
-0.3439945578575134,
0.634541392326355,
0.020150771364569664,
-0.19928006827831268,
-0.04504694044589996,
0.34321972727775574,
0.5375518202781677,
-0.2808329463005066,
0.08463407307863235,
-0.06765809655189514,
-0.8767739534378052,
-0.38451939821243286,
0.3997363746166229,
-0.0721420869231224,
0.24256065487861633,
-0.2895362377166748,
-0.6126128435134888,
0.7680506110191345,
-0.6731280088424683,
0.5471704602241516,
-0.21423518657684326,
0.03957006335258484,
-0.06270860880613327,
-0.2068132907152176,
0.15952074527740479,
0.2926073670387268,
0.015394252724945545,
-0.09339265525341034,
0.23425143957138062,
0.31487837433815,
-0.42601916193962097,
-0.31173741817474365,
-0.5641294717788696,
-1.0334177017211914,
0.8316195011138916,
0.46685507893562317,
-0.1389046609401703,
0.23055033385753632,
0.15703196823596954,
-0.08366060256958008,
-0.11518507450819016,
-0.4637768566608429,
-0.10243634134531021,
-0.2759461998939514,
-0.16961409151554108,
-0.012848127633333206,
0.4679092764854431,
-0.41203469038009644,
0.22269415855407715,
0.04820958897471428,
-0.5829679369926453,
-0.05671946331858635,
0.1799476593732834,
0.022080646827816963,
-0.8307164907455444,
0.018427658826112747,
-0.3211418092250824,
-0.29579412937164307,
0.1923830509185791,
-0.35048747062683105,
0.2958277463912964,
0.8452656269073486,
0.03327445313334465,
0.5052056312561035,
0.32659226655960083,
-0.4598415791988373,
0.11826639622449875,
0.04836191236972809,
-0.3215404450893402,
0.7098751664161682,
-0.14549148082733154,
-0.26143237948417664,
0.41511070728302,
0.03336438164114952,
0.3071989119052887,
-0.2639087736606598,
0.29985174536705017,
-0.26374301314353943,
-0.1652778685092926,
0.4923062026500702,
0.120188407599926,
0.009140467271208763,
0.593490481376648,
-0.0321420319378376,
0.6533186435699463,
-0.11460823565721512,
-0.7930543422698975,
0.5666236877441406,
-0.4401756823062897,
-0.01113382913172245,
-0.39154189825057983,
-0.413318395614624,
0.12050848454236984,
-0.20490874350070953,
0.18797267973423004,
-0.30529043078422546,
0.349862664937973,
0.10563366115093231,
0.6565412282943726,
0.34216153621673584,
-0.1758280247449875,
0.37450653314590454,
0.20006699860095978,
0.03560855612158775,
0.07974503934383392,
-0.17467251420021057,
0.40007925033569336,
-0.09535745531320572,
0.27126017212867737,
0.7465585470199585,
0.2678318917751312,
-0.4932256042957306,
0.6603360772132874,
-0.10329972207546234,
0.5362970232963562,
-0.4818653464317322,
-0.3589431941509247,
0.371171772480011,
0.6113875508308411,
-0.13186076283454895,
0.20996592938899994,
-0.3755970895290375,
-0.6239091753959656,
0.12685884535312653,
-0.5623384118080139,
-0.1683778464794159,
0.5399190783500671,
0.23446354269981384,
-0.07373472303152084,
-0.4327506422996521,
1.0965920686721802,
0.24488095939159393,
-0.12115699797868729,
0.4285736083984375,
0.28573164343833923,
0.06743954122066498,
0.41898393630981445,
-0.585299551486969,
0.02596837654709816,
-0.45663154125213623,
-0.9679394960403442,
-1.3641685247421265,
0.5477095246315002,
-0.26362404227256775,
0.23030519485473633,
0.11046678572893143,
-0.04818253964185715,
-0.14188861846923828,
0.11879890412092209,
0.5027469396591187,
-0.714250922203064,
0.37396860122680664,
-0.5514197945594788,
0.17245137691497803,
-0.42732322216033936,
-0.15261942148208618,
0.6679425835609436,
-0.36253610253334045,
-0.4278847277164459,
0.20173977315425873,
-0.2776775658130646,
-0.37551379203796387,
0.051193494349718094,
-0.1727391928434372,
-0.15823917090892792,
0.05319713428616524,
0.3698875308036804,
-0.10991261899471283,
-0.6193506717681885,
0.563791811466217,
0.9401772618293762,
0.27973783016204834,
-0.061130303889513016,
0.531600832939148,
-0.41104525327682495,
0.11531130969524384,
0.14357832074165344,
-0.5207728743553162,
0.22418376803398132,
-0.05633881315588951,
-0.054935865104198456,
-0.1509382426738739,
-0.6341226696968079,
0.21032144129276276,
-0.2975359559059143,
-0.23638518154621124,
-0.253226637840271,
0.4373784363269806,
-0.07356142997741699,
-0.0743679478764534,
-0.25120311975479126,
0.5301836729049683,
0.24125297367572784
] |
203770
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Song%20of%20Bernadette
|
The Song of Bernadette
|
The Song of Bernadette can refer to:
The Song of Bernadette (novel), a novel by Franz Werfel
The Song of Bernadette (film), a screen adaptation of the book
"Song of Bernadette", a song by Jennifer Warnes later covered by Bette Midler
|
[
-0.38286611437797546,
0.4405063986778259,
-0.5354233384132385,
0.009200413711369038,
-0.07379952073097229,
0.26408451795578003,
0.559930145740509,
-0.10221092402935028,
-0.4292060136795044,
-0.28376975655555725,
-0.20117415487766266,
0.4625217616558075,
0.022066721692681313,
-0.009837070479989052,
0.012046139687299728,
0.4447360038757324,
0.3812183737754822,
0.34537726640701294,
-0.05295715853571892,
-1.3564321994781494,
-0.43829867243766785,
-0.06107063591480255,
0.5019422173500061,
-0.10371620208024979,
0.22495295107364655,
0.07678057998418808,
0.17795667052268982,
0.13377560675144196,
0.37242820858955383,
0.4531831443309784,
-0.5223280191421509,
0.3224543333053589,
0.4950411021709442,
-0.2229875773191452,
-0.2694932520389557,
-0.09303835034370422,
-0.2982969880104065,
-0.3079529106616974,
-0.37245944142341614,
-0.70084547996521,
0.35153836011886597,
-0.21351006627082825,
0.3781740367412567,
0.15354330837726593,
0.18863196671009064,
0.2687620222568512,
-1.4295949935913086,
0.6058369278907776,
-0.2653469443321228,
-0.31330010294914246,
0.15077224373817444,
0.33250367641448975,
0.8025920987129211,
0.7058613300323486,
0.07528432458639145,
0.3312477767467499,
-1.0876837968826294,
-0.06189222261309624,
0.03874477744102478,
-0.07681211829185486,
0.04522782564163208,
0.3624197542667389,
0.18568935990333557,
-0.08409909904003143,
0.08298904448747635,
-0.11127722263336182,
0.17487701773643494,
-0.18765856325626373,
0.28349512815475464,
-0.27131685614585876,
0.38581210374832153,
-0.08133195340633392,
-0.23425228893756866,
0.3697090148925781,
-0.41341620683670044,
-0.5264905095100403,
0.7594197392463684,
0.20038551092147827,
0.02080145664513111,
0.3640279471874237,
-0.27387022972106934,
-0.012126020155847073,
0.5460774898529053,
0.2325308471918106,
-0.1806308478116989,
-0.2751482427120209,
0.18082162737846375,
0.2267495095729828,
-0.6593083739280701,
-0.6282094120979309,
-0.876920759677887,
-0.6813102960586548,
-0.4118463695049286,
-0.031615037471055984,
-0.018146729096770287,
-0.05382991209626198,
0.3034338355064392,
0.1536731719970703,
0.0592760294675827,
0.5889097452163696,
0.05948282778263092,
0.2449573576450348,
0.58266282081604,
-0.04522992670536041,
-1.1160191297531128,
-0.3036496937274933,
0.0632379949092865,
-0.08457246422767639,
0.14943727850914001,
0.2878243029117584,
0.3172674775123596,
-0.15473294258117676,
0.1710176318883896,
0.0840129554271698,
0.4677101969718933,
0.15916942059993744,
0.24189400672912598,
-0.2443695068359375,
-0.06038261204957962,
0.2703961730003357,
0.5192623138427734,
0.142864391207695,
0.34178125858306885,
0.03925274312496185,
-0.043440986424684525,
0.2496078610420227,
0.22242994606494904,
0.27056482434272766,
-0.041283756494522095,
0.1950778365135193,
0.2177935391664505,
0.24459996819496155,
-0.6342094540596008,
0.019401120021939278,
-0.0764450877904892,
-0.6161332130432129,
0.26040366291999817,
0.22730618715286255,
0.21395108103752136,
0.560092568397522,
-0.5882551074028015,
-0.16714546084403992,
-0.42524150013923645,
-0.03494196757674217,
0.8054825067520142,
0.0733371376991272,
-0.33572617173194885,
-0.2647634446620941,
0.00277350633405149,
-0.20332545042037964,
0.06314066052436829,
-0.13549187779426575,
0.15474815666675568,
-0.026823053136467934,
-0.8523279428482056,
0.5004619359970093,
0.5463427901268005,
0.32385966181755066,
0.05841046944260597,
0.16423474252223969,
0.5273959636688232,
0.6303108930587769,
0.33593347668647766,
0.16701439023017883,
-0.06155473738908768,
-0.5000443458557129,
0.11730889230966568,
0.7839781045913696,
-0.11839519441127777,
-0.36282747983932495,
-0.3671152889728546,
0.06800676137208939,
-0.14175772666931152,
-0.2521369457244873,
-0.23009179532527924,
0.32344236969947815,
0.5073856115341187,
0.6030585169792175,
-0.035624910145998,
0.20322172343730927,
-0.8188759088516235,
0.7001164555549622,
0.0843040868639946,
-0.7373979091644287,
0.08238794654607773,
0.5808494687080383,
0.4622870087623596,
0.347758948802948,
-0.04179668053984642,
-0.03777950629591942,
-0.6599753499031067,
-0.43654295802116394,
0.9122976660728455,
-0.27620285749435425,
0.6486383676528931,
-0.042741499841213226,
0.049199335277080536,
0.08452914655208588,
-0.0729663074016571,
-0.0981450080871582,
-0.14372190833091736,
-0.2391996681690216,
0.6560385823249817,
-0.06870313733816147,
-0.17897208034992218,
-0.27854299545288086,
-0.21408440172672272,
0.08759409189224243,
0.1692066490650177,
0.47272101044654846,
0.2954658567905426,
0.3651496469974518,
0.30825474858283997,
0.4623451232910156,
-0.43683093786239624,
-0.007205531466752291,
-0.584068775177002,
0.4635416567325592,
0.6234099268913269,
-0.14525653421878815,
0.15917880833148956,
-0.001844374113716185,
-0.169250950217247,
-0.015909461304545403,
-0.09304710477590561,
0.6644770503044128,
-0.5445652604103088,
0.09179806709289551,
0.12828165292739868,
-0.5404857993125916,
-0.22913675010204315,
0.3893394470214844,
-0.3297789990901947,
-0.33694222569465637,
0.3767380714416504,
0.07151424884796143,
0.10513092577457428,
-0.24143417179584503,
-0.023994751274585724,
-0.0724828839302063,
0.636336624622345,
-0.05079442635178566,
-0.6215307116508484,
0.4231314957141876,
-0.07377786189317703,
-0.0943484753370285,
-0.10755384713411331,
-0.3353857398033142,
0.05093865841627121,
-0.656469464302063,
0.02444225549697876,
0.7427164912223816,
-0.07042635977268219,
0.1445351094007492,
-0.34556570649147034,
-0.0015980892349034548,
-0.23942425847053528,
-0.16630703210830688,
0.44072526693344116,
0.3210355043411255,
0.016557103022933006,
-0.3312516510486603,
0.28653714060783386,
0.24821214377880096,
-0.21356523036956787,
-0.667911946773529,
-0.46842995285987854,
-0.67629075050354,
0.043341170996427536,
0.6072790622711182,
0.3045028746128082,
-0.041636694222688675,
-0.4350089430809021,
0.3417403995990753,
0.5984792709350586,
0.069151371717453,
-0.3630366027355194,
0.22274096310138702,
-0.48655053973197937,
-0.4350748360157013,
0.028249265626072884,
0.5520163178443909,
0.2423628866672516,
-0.08342579007148743,
-0.48593375086784363,
-0.2731509506702423,
0.38010260462760925,
-0.2792137563228607,
-0.11755198985338211,
0.2981579005718231,
0.13969306647777557,
0.4230619966983795,
-0.04979580268263817,
-0.7101953029632568,
0.3064025044441223,
0.07530786097049713,
-0.26015689969062805,
0.2519393265247345,
0.0662853866815567,
0.06138655170798302,
-0.278732031583786,
0.14829733967781067,
-0.08602847158908844,
0.1906433403491974,
0.8209981918334961,
0.3212108016014099,
-0.139463409781456,
0.26478245854377747,
-5.813499927520752,
0.13265377283096313,
0.20354518294334412,
-0.38819241523742676,
-0.03666717931628227,
-0.04421975836157799,
0.1274452656507492,
-0.3089183568954468,
0.13055266439914703,
-0.04853279888629913,
0.0834362581372261,
-0.14648586511611938,
0.31720176339149475,
0.20455443859100342,
0.12472228705883026,
-0.14873863756656647,
-0.44059354066848755,
-1.1050379276275635,
0.2296850085258484,
0.4237358868122101,
0.4089694023132324,
-0.009646105580031872,
0.1154058650135994,
0.6367866396903992,
-0.2576475143432617,
0.1362552046775818,
0.07158017158508301,
-0.042721401900053024,
-0.6503389477729797,
0.29614123702049255,
0.13001395761966705,
-0.24427522718906403,
0.6113990545272827,
0.10932479798793793,
0.049127623438835144,
-0.29147034883499146,
0.08628461509943008,
0.3264550268650055,
0.07191058993339539,
-0.1733868420124054,
-0.42858994007110596,
-0.09720981866121292,
0.1264985054731369,
-0.20192798972129822,
0.16350793838500977,
-0.2046448290348053,
-0.26443198323249817,
-0.07686014473438263,
0.11528361588716507,
0.9587131142616272,
0.26197707653045654,
-0.2606104016304016,
0.43349042534828186,
-0.410035640001297,
0.189182847738266,
-0.12489591538906097,
0.4266810715198517,
-0.4848579466342926,
0.14239028096199036,
0.18569226562976837,
0.6031732559204102,
0.08417161554098129,
0.2440638244152069,
-0.3946453928947449,
-0.298286497592926,
-0.7267200946807861,
-0.30303964018821716,
0.06652208417654037,
-0.3734126389026642,
0.7839298248291016,
0.22092412412166595,
0.08775226771831512,
-0.0778791680932045,
-1.188681721687317,
-0.36573782563209534,
-0.3125620484352112,
-1.0499582290649414,
-0.04742665961384773,
-0.04264775663614273,
0.09121080487966537,
-0.055346276611089706,
0.004614687990397215,
0.02532419003546238,
-0.16752944886684418,
0.6516574025154114,
-0.19922421872615814,
-0.5444509387016296,
-0.055425360798835754,
-0.27274906635284424,
0.0902266874909401,
0.3993106186389923,
-0.3412468731403351,
-0.041686441749334335,
0.7970368266105652,
0.43099963665008545,
0.47807204723358154,
0.4889093041419983,
-0.07091759145259857,
0.4035734534263611,
0.1786651760339737,
-0.0053162164986133575,
-0.16216321289539337,
0.7759277820587158,
-0.20459280908107758,
0.3977842628955841,
-0.1056973859667778,
-0.16081023216247559,
0.059584204107522964,
0.665581226348877,
-0.44537192583084106,
0.08772145956754684,
-0.4366455376148224,
0.3779389262199402,
-0.6234756708145142,
0.077329620718956,
-0.6665734052658081,
0.2117234468460083,
0.24588997662067413,
0.8528575301170349,
-0.3051575720310211,
-0.2687235474586487,
0.5828818082809448,
-0.4269670844078064,
-0.13357426226139069,
0.03432408720254898,
-0.3135630190372467,
0.14197690784931183,
-0.17839670181274414,
-0.43551698327064514,
0.1941525787115097,
-0.4215169847011566,
-0.23869675397872925,
0.06920204311609268,
-0.15748965740203857,
0.15218323469161987,
-0.57373046875,
-0.5097258687019348,
-0.5417097806930542,
0.2719457149505615,
-0.05322711169719696,
-0.2841075360774994,
-0.634640634059906,
-0.5572625994682312,
0.1434195637702942,
0.8182349801063538,
-0.31952574849128723,
-0.027493460103869438,
-0.8016891479492188,
-0.29966846108436584,
0.04813883453607559,
0.16979868710041046,
0.9355484843254089,
1.104128122329712,
-0.10324511677026749,
-0.7370908260345459,
-0.803873598575592,
0.1645440310239792,
0.34077924489974976,
-0.18381118774414062,
-0.008289952762424946,
0.3652646541595459,
-0.5478954911231995,
-0.7612874507904053,
0.4167501926422119,
-0.19943243265151978,
-0.11540975421667099,
0.09029603004455566,
-0.6753363609313965,
0.2950739562511444,
0.3184521496295929,
0.3732430636882782,
-0.4219950735569,
0.24655286967754364,
0.7360062003135681,
0.03585679456591606,
-0.24450962245464325,
-0.14942225813865662,
0.01913156919181347,
-0.09593601524829865,
-0.26821622252464294,
-0.4752275347709656,
-0.316917359828949,
-0.2629650831222534,
0.3251819312572479,
0.2170318365097046,
0.057823166251182556,
-0.28540441393852234,
-0.01044665090739727,
-0.958145260810852,
-0.26251310110092163,
-0.07764745503664017,
0.49796128273010254,
-0.041054967790842056,
0.17031486332416534,
-0.7737334370613098,
-0.11227189749479294,
-0.3489358723163605,
-0.30804482102394104,
0.4123084843158722,
-0.27565568685531616,
-0.24609149992465973,
0.08659548312425613,
-0.43584513664245605,
0.0305485837161541,
0.4586277902126312,
-1.2669037580490112,
-0.040703561156988144,
-0.0012680112849920988,
-0.6721481680870056,
0.21982897818088531,
-0.22852954268455505,
-0.37953057885169983,
0.3764756917953491,
0.21338383853435516,
0.26114219427108765,
-0.21898110210895538,
0.4775941073894501,
-0.4503771960735321,
-0.5333131551742554,
0.027044065296649933,
0.48448750376701355,
-0.09413149207830429,
-0.35248062014579773,
0.38914135098457336,
-0.6120566725730896,
0.7408044338226318,
0.5721981525421143,
-0.829822301864624,
0.400930255651474,
-0.4751703143119812,
-0.42163464426994324,
0.4914887249469757,
0.06886878609657288,
-0.09411037713289261,
-0.5982401371002197,
-0.7428566813468933,
0.09232528507709503,
0.24098892509937286,
0.32916438579559326,
1.0122147798538208,
0.7455753684043884,
0.47184881567955017,
-0.1791769564151764,
0.005531348288059235,
0.1188875287771225,
0.24342212080955505,
-0.09553065896034241,
-0.8954716324806213,
-0.2827587127685547,
0.2345716506242752,
-0.3319346010684967,
0.19530627131462097,
-0.038974687457084656,
-0.5390174984931946,
0.7151257991790771,
-0.5580956339836121,
-0.5134761333465576,
-0.02937363274395466,
-0.406099408864975,
0.3199581205844879,
0.2507402300834656,
0.3067694306373596,
-0.5258435606956482,
-0.45985397696495056,
0.07940281927585602,
0.14832642674446106,
0.45949941873550415,
0.024641480296850204,
-0.4982711672782898,
0.019597724080085754,
0.04080773890018463,
-0.19641996920108795,
-0.250336617231369,
0.26487645506858826,
0.3227604627609253,
0.42371055483818054,
-0.46290791034698486,
-0.18026646971702576,
0.2813471257686615,
-0.3318638801574707,
-0.29259124398231506,
0.2729005217552185,
-0.5834822654724121,
-0.5578306913375854,
0.14856168627738953,
-0.17679287493228912,
-0.10921602696180344,
-0.24354851245880127,
-0.13977272808551788,
-0.15992848575115204,
-0.10417894273996353,
0.167875275015831,
0.3497230112552643,
0.10005157440900803,
0.43811413645744324,
0.3622615337371826,
0.08977559208869934,
-0.1872001737356186,
-0.14143213629722595,
0.05225200951099396,
-0.4534680247306824,
-0.217987060546875,
0.5668219923973083,
-0.32717567682266235,
0.05326269939541817,
-0.07546170055866241,
0.47490835189819336,
-0.9639808535575867,
-0.8648372888565063,
0.19056794047355652,
0.5192851424217224,
-0.026683853939175606,
0.13562242686748505,
0.0779716894030571,
-0.04158623144030571,
0.14833614230155945,
-0.020825421437621117,
-0.17890365421772003,
0.040615130215883255,
0.33593466877937317,
0.2743057310581207,
-0.26012852787971497,
0.867676854133606,
-0.08518856018781662,
-0.0751151368021965,
0.1568058580160141,
-0.3769088387489319,
-0.49169471859931946,
-0.2276839017868042,
-0.5618278980255127,
0.7726002931594849,
-0.08549845963716507,
-0.4669724404811859,
0.9433416128158569,
-0.1557287573814392,
0.13804370164871216,
0.13594253361225128,
-0.6169517636299133,
0.10049634426832199,
0.05336247757077217,
0.25402677059173584,
-0.25800183415412903,
-0.2681084871292114,
0.04336125776171684,
0.6046590805053711,
0.09176844358444214,
-0.22180600464344025,
-0.017788395285606384,
-0.022274374961853027,
-0.34293362498283386,
0.046518243849277496,
1.1284489631652832,
-0.22287023067474365,
-0.9122515320777893,
0.7893334031105042,
0.3375993072986603,
0.09069719910621643,
0.1913086622953415,
-0.24485044181346893,
0.50166255235672,
-0.5124526023864746,
-0.2535308599472046,
0.4632023274898529,
-0.09698294848203659,
0.006551404483616352,
0.2558520436286926,
-0.11530262231826782,
0.23157797753810883,
-0.17953802645206451,
-0.05785930156707764,
0.10522982478141785,
-0.13785551488399506,
-0.5870562791824341,
-0.38079771399497986,
0.24168819189071655,
0.010558896698057652,
-0.04357431083917618,
-0.24622641503810883,
0.7684534192085266,
-0.23282694816589355,
-0.3670521676540375,
0.15335425734519958,
-0.1248670145869255,
-0.2047473043203354,
-0.20655418932437897,
-0.29123690724372864,
-0.08344518393278122,
0.12761421501636505,
0.1419941633939743,
-0.6728267073631287,
0.5459757447242737,
-0.5990452170372009,
0.30418452620506287,
-0.004012819845229387,
-0.30170369148254395,
-0.1308535784482956,
0.012257368303835392,
1.3344550132751465,
0.21155184507369995,
-0.2145988792181015,
0.4934253394603729,
0.26512080430984497,
-0.20838379859924316,
0.30629751086235046,
-0.1833452731370926,
0.6000936627388,
-0.3548109233379364,
0.6046749949455261,
-0.562969446182251,
0.33951422572135925,
0.10922183841466904,
-0.1095883771777153,
-0.18724505603313446,
-0.02656140737235546,
-0.3649221658706665,
-0.29403916001319885,
0.6093376874923706,
0.21135710179805756,
0.33688512444496155,
-1.0269114971160889,
0.13441459834575653,
0.08236639201641083,
0.23376604914665222,
0.2113097459077835,
-0.25999829173088074,
0.06279522180557251,
-0.009837895631790161,
-0.21711719036102295,
0.09905041754245758,
0.20178987085819244,
0.47013136744499207,
0.23928779363632202,
-0.24524517357349396,
0.3435943126678467,
-0.004216463770717382,
-0.1753861904144287,
1.082057237625122,
0.3649497330188751,
-0.49945130944252014,
-0.5768600106239319,
-0.1285596340894699,
0.25706174969673157,
0.32434001564979553,
0.2527327537536621,
-0.9020841717720032,
-0.3062150478363037,
0.41403281688690186,
0.05414477363228798,
-0.46491891145706177,
0.4657800495624542,
0.340371698141098,
-0.08670938014984131,
-0.25057077407836914,
-0.44491153955459595,
-0.29095926880836487,
-0.06557809561491013,
0.30167609453201294,
-0.16665536165237427,
-0.047915782779455185,
0.08706781268119812
] |
203774
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Werfel
|
Franz Werfel
|
Franz Viktor Werfel (; 10 September 1890 – 26 August 1945) was an Austrian-Bohemian novelist, playwright, and poet whose career spanned World War I, the Interwar period, and World War II. He is primarily known as the author of The Forty Days of Musa Dagh (1933, English tr. 1934, 2012), a novel based on events that took place during the Armenian genocide of 1915, and The Song of Bernadette (1941), a novel about the life and visions of the French Catholic saint Bernadette Soubirous, which was made into a Hollywood film of the same name.
Life and career
Born in Prague (then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), Werfel was the first of three children of a wealthy manufacturer of gloves and leather goods, Rudolf Werfel. His mother, Albine Kussi, was the daughter of a mill owner. His two sisters were Hanna (born 1896) and Marianne Amalie (born 1899). His family was Jewish. As a child, Werfel was raised by his Czech Catholic governess, Barbara Šimůnková, who often took him to mass in Prague's main cathedral. Like the children of other progressive German-speaking Jews in Prague, Werfel was educated at a Catholic school run by the Piarists, a teaching order that allowed for a rabbi to instruct Jewish students for their Bar Mitzvahs. This, along with his governess's influence, gave Werfel an early interest (and expertise) in Catholicism, which soon branched out to other faiths, including Theosophy and Islam, such that his fiction, as well as his nonfiction, provides some insight into comparative religion.
Werfel began writing at an early age and, by 1911, had published his first book of poems, Der Weltfreund, which can be translated as "the friend to the world" as well as philanthropist, humanitarian, and the like. By this time, Werfel had befriended other German Jewish writers who frequented Prague's , chief among them Max Brod and Franz Kafka, and his poetry was praised by such critics as Karl Kraus, who published Werfel's early poems in Kraus's journal, Die Fackel (The Torch). In 1912, Werfel moved to Leipzig, where he became an editor for Kurt Wolff's new publishing firm, where Werfel championed and edited Georg Trakl's first book of poetry. While he lived in Germany, Werfel's milieu grew to include Else Lasker-Schüler, Martin Buber, Rainer Maria Rilke, among other German-language writers, poets, and intellectuals in the first decades of the twentieth century.
With the outbreak of World War I, Werfel served in the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Russian front as a telephone operator. His duties both exposed him to the vicissitudes of total war as well as provided him with enough of a haven to continue writing Expressionist poems, ambitious plays, and letters voluminously. His eclectic mix of humanism, confessionalism, autobiography, as well as mythology and religiosity developed further during this time. His poems and plays ranged from scenes of ancient Egypt (notably the monotheism of Akhenaton) to occult allusions (Werfel had participated in séances with his friends Brod and Kafka) and incorporate a parable from the Baháʼí Faith in the poem "Jesus and the Carrion Path". His bias for Christian subjects, as well as his antipathy for Zionism, eventually alienated many of his Jewish friends and readers, including early champions such as Karl Kraus. Others, however, stood by him, including, Martin Buber, who published a sequence of poems from Werfel's wartime manuscript, Der Gerichtstag (Judgment Day, published in 1919) in his monthly journal, Der Jude (The Jew). and wrote of Werfel in his prefatory remark:
Since I was first moved by his poems, I have opened (knowing well, I should say, it's a problem) the gates of my invisible garden [i.e., an imaginarium] to him, and now he can do nothing for all eternity that would bring me to banish him from it. Compare, if you will, a real person to an anecdotal one, a late book to an earlier, the one you see to you yourself; but I am not putting a value on a poet, only recognizing that he is one—and the way he is one.
In the summer of 1917, Werfel left the frontline for the Military Press Bureau in Vienna, where he joined other notable Austrian writers serving as propagandists, among them Robert Musil, Rilke, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, and Franz Blei. Through the latter, Werfel met and fell in love with Alma Mahler, widow of Gustav Mahler, the former lover of the painter Oskar Kokoschka, and the wife of the architect Walter Gropius, then serving in the Imperial German Army on the Western Front. Alma, who was also a composer, had already set one of Werfel's poems to music, reciprocated despite Werfel being much younger, shorter, and having Jewish features that she, being both anti-Semitic and attracted to Jewish men, initially found distasteful. Their love affair culminated in the premature birth of a son, Martin, in August 1918. Martin, who was given the surname of Gropius, died in May of the following year. Despite attempts to save his marriage to Alma, with whom he had a young daughter, Manon, Gropius reluctantly agreed to a divorce in 1920. Ironically, Alma refused to marry Werfel for the next nine years. However, Alma, more so than with her first two husbands and lovers, lent herself to the development of Werfel's career and influenced it in such a way that he became an accomplished playwright and novelist as well as poet. They married on 6 July 1929.
In April 1924, Verdi – Roman der Oper (Novel of the Opera) was published by Zsolnay Verlag, establishing Werfel's reputation as a novelist. In 1926, Werfel was awarded the Grillparzer Prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, and in Berlin, Max Reinhardt performed his play Juarez and Maximilian (depicting the struggle in 1860's Mexico between the Republican leader Benito Juárez and the French-backed Emperor Maximilian). By the end of the decade, Werfel had become one of the most important and established writers in German and Austrian literature and had already merited one full-length critical biography.
Werfel's journey (with his wife Alma) in 1930, to British ruled Palestine , and his encounter the Armenian refugee community in Jerusalem, inspired his novel The Forty Days of Musa Dagh which drew world attention to the Armenian genocide by the Ottoman government. Werfel lectured on this subject across Germany. The Nazi newspaper Das Schwarze Korps denounced him as a propagandist of "alleged Turkish horrors perpetrated against the Armenians". The same newspaper, suggesting a link between the Armenian and the later Jewish genocide, condemned "America's Armenian Jews for promoting in the U.S.A. the sale of Werfel's book".
Werfel was forced to leave the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. His books were burned by the Nazis. Werfel left Austria after the Anschluss in 1938 and went to France, where they lived in a fishing village near Marseille. Visitors to their home at this time included Bertolt Brecht and Thomas Mann. After the German invasion and occupation of France during World War II, and the deportation of French Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, Werfel had to flee again. With the assistance of Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee in Marseille, he and his wife narrowly escaped the Nazi regime, finding shelter for five weeks in the pilgrimage town of Lourdes. He also received much help and kindness from the Catholic orders that staffed the shrine. He vowed to write about the experience and, safe in America, he published The Song of Bernadette in 1941.
Fry organized a secret crossing over the Pyrenees on foot. Assisted by Justus Rosenberg, they went to Madrid and then traveled on to Portugal. They stayed in Monte Estoril, at the Grande Hotel D'Itália, between 8 September and 4 October 1940. On the same day they checked out, they boarded the S.S. Nea Hellas headed for New York City, arriving on 13 October.
Werfel and his family settled in Los Angeles, where they met other German and Austrian emigrants, such as Mann, Reinhardt, and Erich Wolfgang Korngold. In southern California, Werfel wrote his final play, Jacobowsky and the Colonel (Jacobowsky und der Oberst) which was made into the 1958 film Me and the Colonel starring Danny Kaye; Giselher Klebe's opera Jacobowsky und der Oberst (1965) is also based on this play. Before his death, he completed the first draft of his last novel Star of the Unborn (Stern der Ungeborenen), which was published posthumously in 1946.
Franz Werfel died of heart failure in Los Angeles in 1945 and was interred there in the Rosedale Cemetery. However, his body was returned in 1975 to Vienna for reburial in the Zentralfriedhof.
Honours and awards
1926 Grillparzer Prize
1927 Czechoslovak State Award
1930 Schiller Prize
1937 Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
1949 Naming of Werfelstrasse in Hernals (Vienna)
1975 Grave of honor () in the Zentralfriedhof (Vienna)
1990 Stamp Austria, Franz Werfel 1890–1945
1995 Stamp Germany, Franz Werfel, 50th anniversary of Werfel's death
1995 Stamp Armenia, Franz Werfel and 40 Days of Musa Dagh Hero
2000 monument on Schillerplatz in Vienna
2006 Posthumous Award of Armenian Honorary Citizenship; the plaque was presented to the Austrian National Library.
Bibliography
In English (some of these titles are out of print):
Mirror-Man: A Magic Trilogy (Spiegelmensch: Magische Trilogie) (1920), play
The Trojans (1922) Play Published by Kurt Wolff as Die Troerinnen.
Verdi. Novel of the Opera (1924), novel
Juarez and Maximilian (1925), play
Paul Among the Jews: A Tragedy (1926), play
The Man Who Conquered Death (Der Tod des Kleinbürgers) (1928), short story
Class Reunion (Der Abituriententag) (1928), novel (translated into English by Whittaker Chambers)
The Forty Days of Musa Dagh (1933; revised and expanded edition, 2012), novel
Hearken Unto the Voice, or Listen to the Voice, or Jeremiah (Höret die Stimme, or Jeremias) (1937), novel
Embezzled Heaven (Der veruntreute Himmel) (1939), novel
The Song of Bernadette (1941), novel
Pale Blue Ink in a Lady's Hand (Eine blass-blaue Frauenschrift) (1941; 2012), novella
Jacobowsky und der Oberst (1944), play
Star of the Unborn (1945/46), science-fiction novel
Verdi: The Man and His Letters, with Paul Stefan. New York, Vienna House 1973
Totentanz: 50 zeitlose Gedichte, editor Martin Werhand. Melsbach, Martin Werhand Verlag 2016
Filmography
Juarez, directed by William Dieterle (1939, based on the play Juarez and Maximilian)
The Song of Bernadette, directed by Henry King (1943, based on the novel The Song of Bernadette)
Me and the Colonel, directed by Peter Glenville (1958, based on the play )
, directed by Ernst Marischka (West Germany, 1958, based on the novel Embezzled Heaven)
Die wahre Geschichte vom geschändeten und wiederhergestellten Kreuz, directed by (West Germany, 1963, TV film, based on the eponymous story)
Jacobowsky and the Colonel, directed by (West Germany, 1967, TV film, based on the play )
The Man Who Conquered Death, directed by Hans Hollmann (West Germany/Austria, 1974, TV film, based on the story )
Class Reunion, directed by (West Germany, 1974, TV film, based on the novel Class Reunion)
Cella oder Die Überwinder, directed by (West Germany/Austria, 1978, TV film, based on the unfinished novel Cella oder Die Überwinder)
, directed by (East Germany, 1978, TV film, based on the eponymous story)
The Forty Days of Musa Dagh, directed by Sarky Mouradian (1982, based on the novel The Forty Days of Musa Dagh)
, directed by Axel Corti (Austria, 1984, TV film, based on the story )
Jacobowsky and the Colonel, directed by Martin Huba (Czechoslovakia, 1987, TV film, based on the play )
Embezzled Heaven, directed by Ottokar Runze (Germany, 1990, TV film, based on the novel Embezzled Heaven)
Class Reunion, directed by (Czech Republic, 2000, TV film, based on the novel Class Reunion)
See also
Witnesses and testimonies of the Armenian genocide
Exilliteratur
Franz Werfel Human Rights Award
References
Further reading
External links
Mahler-Werfel papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.
Franz Werfel Papers at UCLA
Franz Werfel Family Papers at the Leo Baeck Institute, NY
A small album of miscellaneous photographs
Franz Werfel author profile
Jeremiah – Symphony No. 3 (1997) by Bertold Hummel after the novel Jeremias by Franz Werfel
1890 births
1945 deaths
Writers from Prague
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
Austro-Hungarian writers
Austrian male dramatists and playwrights
German male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century German dramatists and playwrights
Austrian historical novelists
Austrian male short story writers
American male short story writers
American short story writers
American writers in German
20th-century Austrian poets
German male poets
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Jewish novelists
Jewish poets
Jewish American writers
Austrian World War I poets
World War II poets
20th-century German male writers
Exilliteratur writers
Expressionist poets
Jewish emigrants from Austria to the United States after the Anschluss
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
German male novelists
20th-century German novelists
Austrian male poets
20th-century short story writers
Austrian science fiction writers
20th-century Austrian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American Jews
|
[
-0.12081748247146606,
0.7259746789932251,
-0.49675771594047546,
-0.1010538786649704,
-0.12501387298107147,
1.127545952796936,
0.6474169492721558,
-0.2082921713590622,
0.17105291783809662,
-0.7783922553062439,
-0.3934122323989868,
-0.03140760585665703,
0.12959446012973785,
0.27050989866256714,
0.33427751064300537,
-0.19012129306793213,
-0.3815065920352936,
-0.12902629375457764,
-0.3244273066520691,
-0.4452103078365326,
-0.4526303708553314,
-0.33734554052352905,
0.32329168915748596,
0.22324447333812714,
-0.09622238576412201,
-0.063970647752285,
0.18660499155521393,
-0.45795875787734985,
0.1150682345032692,
0.15182842314243317,
0.09696914255619049,
0.5818657875061035,
0.0648183673620224,
-0.23359797894954681,
-0.6747814416885376,
0.19326084852218628,
-0.9715112447738647,
-0.18424636125564575,
0.5933737754821777,
0.05178326368331909,
-0.24070443212985992,
0.6728224158287048,
0.4956037998199463,
-0.56037837266922,
0.04716445133090019,
-0.5578618049621582,
-1.9465022087097168,
0.5396128296852112,
-0.8911681175231934,
-0.03796432912349701,
0.051284462213516235,
0.23089049756526947,
1.2194010019302368,
0.2555144131183624,
-0.4164847731590271,
0.41203558444976807,
-0.7991641163825989,
-0.3541291356086731,
0.36925458908081055,
-0.38245996832847595,
0.41586217284202576,
-0.037128597497940063,
0.44520437717437744,
-0.21771012246608734,
0.5880962014198303,
0.3823985457420349,
-0.15778866410255432,
0.20755437016487122,
0.1418991982936859,
-0.043155279010534286,
-0.19332054257392883,
0.183401420712471,
0.41603150963783264,
0.01338149979710579,
0.2630463242530823,
-0.6768137216567993,
0.4232074022293091,
0.015594704076647758,
-0.33536696434020996,
0.28136974573135376,
-0.42675381898880005,
-0.12470502406358719,
0.9650858044624329,
0.36272042989730835,
0.4059138000011444,
-0.3015078008174896,
-0.14461255073547363,
0.18285025656223297,
-0.6922968029975891,
-0.5315788388252258,
-0.32607829570770264,
-0.806304931640625,
-0.08598746359348297,
-0.3138613700866699,
0.05311538651585579,
0.2998655140399933,
0.03701663762331009,
0.5544747710227966,
-0.5861193537712097,
-0.07305728644132614,
0.1031348779797554,
0.20848852396011353,
0.3373577892780304,
-0.03872161731123924,
-0.6869357228279114,
-0.017881257459521294,
-0.07696068286895752,
-0.25027212500572205,
0.38969478011131287,
-0.010531751438975334,
-0.3778008818626404,
0.12674149870872498,
-0.40810349583625793,
0.27476269006729126,
0.4372153580188751,
0.32312238216400146,
-0.1430167555809021,
-1.1825637817382812,
-0.337616503238678,
0.04550541937351227,
-0.2330622524023056,
-0.07973699271678925,
0.2561338543891907,
0.3420957028865814,
-0.6212340593338013,
-0.42772120237350464,
-0.28130054473876953,
0.17123711109161377,
-0.4755834937095642,
0.41269227862358093,
0.527461588382721,
1.1857374906539917,
0.1024668887257576,
-0.4945313036441803,
-0.06698513776063919,
0.06585796177387238,
0.3953324854373932,
-0.12417292594909668,
-0.14406409859657288,
0.6870365738868713,
-0.3262846767902374,
-0.010490098968148232,
-0.5089710354804993,
-0.24848949909210205,
0.3364584445953369,
-0.35236284136772156,
0.031873635947704315,
-0.2147674411535263,
0.07567795366048813,
-0.5465154647827148,
-0.2080281525850296,
-0.04381687939167023,
0.1213662400841713,
-0.18407385051250458,
-0.3032705783843994,
0.5403487086296082,
0.4730568826198578,
0.6500829458236694,
0.5287879705429077,
-0.2376343309879303,
0.7707259058952332,
0.5179443955421448,
-0.35299211740493774,
0.1989569216966629,
0.11937631666660309,
-0.4844270646572113,
0.3074783980846405,
0.1969510167837143,
-0.5173006057739258,
0.10655955225229263,
-0.0065140798687934875,
0.13002356886863708,
0.24358175694942474,
0.09021063148975372,
-0.3216129243373871,
0.6765052080154419,
0.5204178690910339,
0.20934711396694183,
0.08660119026899338,
-0.12050430476665497,
-0.9312076568603516,
0.310997873544693,
-0.6420933604240417,
-0.12093637883663177,
0.19487009942531586,
0.2312784194946289,
0.03344876319169998,
-0.19389066100120544,
0.6949942111968994,
-0.4035828709602356,
-0.6616472601890564,
-0.6658061146736145,
0.3210511803627014,
-0.3253922462463379,
1.2244149446487427,
0.41966500878334045,
-0.5013324022293091,
0.941131591796875,
0.06641876697540283,
0.1737993210554123,
-0.16346660256385803,
-0.42636922001838684,
-0.18590496480464935,
0.11304871737957001,
0.11146058142185211,
0.26210352778434753,
0.07588893175125122,
0.14988870918750763,
-0.30382490158081055,
0.11885165423154831,
0.7154788374900818,
-0.05781751126050949,
0.3453703224658966,
0.3333985507488251,
-0.536632776260376,
-0.38175734877586365,
-0.394005686044693,
0.04481297731399536,
-0.17950943112373352,
0.03070429340004921,
0.45313841104507446,
-0.373842716217041,
0.16590023040771484,
0.5409851670265198,
0.016082139685750008,
0.5874442458152771,
0.08625597506761551,
0.20320171117782593,
0.02112339437007904,
-0.8206508159637451,
-0.0944017767906189,
0.24520881474018097,
-0.012133401818573475,
-0.5714297890663147,
0.31989192962646484,
0.3330439329147339,
0.38447970151901245,
0.1344967782497406,
0.20106804370880127,
-0.28049615025520325,
0.42585402727127075,
0.416564404964447,
-0.053122520446777344,
0.001807452761568129,
0.25117695331573486,
0.28290149569511414,
0.054682716727256775,
-0.0582367405295372,
-0.4706535041332245,
0.1709454506635666,
0.0080350860953331,
0.8173472285270691,
0.09776721149682999,
-0.17019136250019073,
-0.6061814427375793,
-0.3380427360534668,
0.3083049952983856,
0.033817023038864136,
0.7395849823951721,
0.3166428506374359,
0.6041927933692932,
-0.24673616886138916,
0.5696082711219788,
-0.0598374679684639,
-0.06150498241186142,
-0.45334845781326294,
0.032989781349897385,
-0.9569302797317505,
0.09577199816703796,
0.0900602638721466,
0.323090136051178,
-0.18472662568092346,
-0.27518951892852783,
0.4308813512325287,
0.5276843905448914,
-0.2825498580932617,
-0.2597496211528778,
-0.11326119303703308,
-0.47890108823776245,
-0.4580221176147461,
-0.09224206209182739,
0.5627106428146362,
-0.02178112231194973,
-0.26397445797920227,
0.12826526165008545,
0.0018853138899430633,
0.07531283050775528,
-0.006530888844281435,
0.45402052998542786,
0.2069009393453598,
-0.28785479068756104,
1.1850271224975586,
-0.2790074646472931,
-0.1698809713125229,
-0.26550808548927307,
0.4962070882320404,
-0.5174592137336731,
-0.6906603574752808,
-0.20085448026657104,
0.08975595980882645,
-0.4839586317539215,
0.23085518181324005,
-0.3152041435241699,
0.4066644608974457,
0.6096582412719727,
0.43373507261276245,
-0.3953632414340973,
0.28220775723457336,
-5.582019805908203,
-0.18857179582118988,
0.1502583771944046,
-0.5132299661636353,
-0.16271674633026123,
0.39407190680503845,
0.31816139817237854,
-0.07924555242061615,
-0.16521263122558594,
-0.6082272529602051,
0.28566819429397583,
-0.20828640460968018,
-0.2042999118566513,
0.8402286767959595,
0.49091652035713196,
0.17138971388339996,
-0.3803870379924774,
-0.043886758387088776,
-0.28587210178375244,
0.1761610209941864,
-0.2720259130001068,
-0.04997963458299637,
0.20870892703533173,
0.39460524916648865,
0.5130060911178589,
-0.39955392479896545,
-0.5876525640487671,
0.163100004196167,
-0.7606920003890991,
-0.21562302112579346,
0.5797794461250305,
-0.11676470190286636,
0.2191830724477768,
-0.1742769032716751,
0.3733346462249756,
-0.2398853600025177,
0.19869013130664825,
0.5997549891471863,
0.1484055519104004,
0.7283355593681335,
-0.2538270354270935,
0.5558281540870667,
-0.7794578075408936,
-0.4181447923183441,
0.03174445033073425,
0.12758205831050873,
-0.5641471743583679,
0.21943435072898865,
-0.5263760089874268,
0.5701740980148315,
0.5370728373527527,
-0.6931321024894714,
0.14575637876987457,
0.1403975933790207,
0.5313820838928223,
0.5472908616065979,
-0.18704669177532196,
-0.4222031533718109,
-0.945770800113678,
-0.1242673322558403,
0.16946721076965332,
0.029837826266884804,
-0.1307830810546875,
-0.34046670794487,
-0.33718910813331604,
-0.40815800428390503,
0.007185411639511585,
0.029947888106107712,
-0.03513161465525627,
-0.38698622584342957,
-0.11672952771186829,
0.7778700590133667,
0.18180611729621887,
-1.1317553520202637,
-0.37355443835258484,
-0.7909777164459229,
-0.40839260816574097,
-0.4497927725315094,
-0.748771071434021,
0.20647835731506348,
-0.06300476938486099,
-0.5771452188491821,
-0.4109534025192261,
0.4137563705444336,
1.2346911430358887,
0.3544144630432129,
-0.25540691614151,
0.11985208094120026,
-0.6867385506629944,
-0.1802930235862732,
-0.19578661024570465,
-0.4754176735877991,
0.0991230458021164,
-0.03550132364034653,
-0.24185527861118317,
0.4204278588294983,
-0.36823657155036926,
0.22934065759181976,
0.10919880121946335,
0.6403350234031677,
-0.48330458998680115,
-0.26956668496131897,
0.027496838942170143,
-0.008395559154450893,
0.6661162972450256,
0.27635657787323,
0.1478162556886673,
0.19850409030914307,
1.0907392501831055,
-0.008593633770942688,
0.038058776408433914,
0.6966198682785034,
-0.19732217490673065,
-0.634006679058075,
-0.09612511843442917,
-0.402736634016037,
0.15122824907302856,
0.05531798675656319,
0.15828245878219604,
0.31415557861328125,
-0.2065589725971222,
0.2870561480522156,
-0.01693055033683777,
-0.28523358702659607,
0.21221671998500824,
-0.13691385090351105,
-0.08088836073875427,
-0.5363881587982178,
0.039625901728868484,
-0.042921602725982666,
-0.29141777753829956,
0.7820563316345215,
-0.03145626187324524,
-0.03865088149905205,
0.301398903131485,
-0.10829038918018341,
-0.5329635143280029,
-0.2935902178287506,
-0.009444708935916424,
0.05442249774932861,
0.30027449131011963,
-0.10807986557483673,
-0.1814921498298645,
0.3261403441429138,
0.2790156900882721,
-0.37990596890449524,
-0.47763949632644653,
0.24555066227912903,
-0.607720673084259,
0.269259512424469,
-0.023123741149902344,
0.7488206624984741,
0.6785016059875488,
-0.009170723147690296,
-0.7841330170631409,
0.19944600760936737,
-0.5731404423713684,
0.52891606092453,
0.03048418089747429,
0.10466667264699936,
0.044240232557058334,
-0.22761406004428864,
-0.8985531330108643,
-0.26030388474464417,
-0.0904315859079361,
0.054165974259376526,
-0.06258630752563477,
-0.17285971343517303,
-0.359068363904953,
0.2648662030696869,
0.13800548017024994,
-0.601055383682251,
-0.20439693331718445,
0.36267784237861633,
-0.07473323494195938,
-0.13837242126464844,
-0.41754060983657837,
-0.2110389918088913,
0.26846760511398315,
0.35665780305862427,
-0.040602248162031174,
0.20555919408798218,
-0.6169891357421875,
0.04890337958931923,
0.41751328110694885,
-0.37959036231040955,
-0.2018444836139679,
-0.2438095510005951,
-0.5102351307868958,
0.021432967856526375,
-0.1062001958489418,
-0.23689556121826172,
0.39334845542907715,
0.45532384514808655,
-0.25567248463630676,
-0.24298976361751556,
-0.23592649400234222,
-0.3024415671825409,
-0.3412040174007416,
-0.2118912786245346,
0.06655894964933395,
0.1432783603668213,
-0.2543962001800537,
-0.5552088618278503,
0.2566581666469574,
-1.109017252922058,
-0.013577054254710674,
-0.34965524077415466,
0.03832007572054863,
0.9387965202331543,
-0.5279037952423096,
-0.630307674407959,
0.010113689117133617,
0.5477466583251953,
-0.15215647220611572,
0.37445205450057983,
0.6577361226081848,
-0.07217645645141602,
-0.8144148588180542,
-0.10263676196336746,
0.0668644830584526,
-0.2318229377269745,
-0.659298300743103,
-0.13272324204444885,
-0.4018048644065857,
0.2772325873374939,
-0.06721992790699005,
-0.30633607506752014,
0.6180349588394165,
-0.18502414226531982,
0.3361920714378357,
0.019828440621495247,
0.012701366096735,
0.03011806681752205,
-0.16253402829170227,
-0.3496677577495575,
0.38329553604125977,
-0.17870576679706573,
0.0041015190072357655,
0.25781476497650146,
0.47287821769714355,
0.7677925825119019,
0.5419308543205261,
0.30660730600357056,
0.4411506950855255,
0.3530822694301605,
0.24752599000930786,
-0.6423495411872864,
-0.19380199909210205,
0.2743740975856781,
0.17595891654491425,
0.0006931563257239759,
-0.48223671317100525,
-0.4657360315322876,
0.9168761968612671,
0.2835155129432678,
-0.3511854112148285,
0.5030498504638672,
-0.04533923417329788,
0.6589962840080261,
0.24507388472557068,
0.2336452603340149,
0.4560990631580353,
0.03650660440325737,
-0.06787695735692978,
0.15573503077030182,
0.16082274913787842,
-0.005278000608086586,
-0.2000650316476822,
-0.3622228503227234,
-0.09100744128227234,
0.04817277938127518,
-0.4489302337169647,
0.16752377152442932,
-0.0905042290687561,
0.30674874782562256,
-0.048241302371025085,
-0.43942251801490784,
-0.04807734116911888,
-0.46730250120162964,
-0.6189006567001343,
-0.08462722599506378,
-0.25149622559547424,
-0.570420503616333,
-0.7838817238807678,
-0.39187926054000854,
-0.1133485808968544,
-0.24006371200084686,
-0.3730067312717438,
0.2534243166446686,
-0.5001041889190674,
-0.012793212197721004,
0.012956035323441029,
0.28280001878738403,
0.4666004776954651,
0.0883493423461914,
-0.2027900665998459,
0.4279283285140991,
-0.3763083815574646,
-0.10478048026561737,
-0.19265104830265045,
-0.13999371230602264,
0.6984775066375732,
-0.3300526440143585,
0.6606255769729614,
0.07152536511421204,
-0.3522088825702667,
-0.1356252133846283,
-0.4372975826263428,
0.4057849645614624,
0.5205819010734558,
-0.18899904191493988,
0.16200944781303406,
0.3263339400291443,
-0.03386453166604042,
0.3635745048522949,
0.2724664807319641,
-0.276895672082901,
-0.20116166770458221,
-0.16928987205028534,
0.30024346709251404,
-0.017139365896582603,
0.893469512462616,
-0.935418426990509,
-0.13117653131484985,
0.7262949347496033,
0.27194643020629883,
0.2688544690608978,
-1.0749717950820923,
0.21072787046432495,
0.3540557622909546,
-0.5084654092788696,
-0.2638094425201416,
0.18491333723068237,
0.11662324517965317,
-0.30730733275413513,
0.3080208897590637,
0.023383673280477524,
-0.24763238430023193,
-0.004196098539978266,
-0.2385513186454773,
0.7268019318580627,
-0.2927004396915436,
0.31048667430877686,
0.44540935754776,
-0.38627418875694275,
-0.10856257379055023,
0.8209506273269653,
-0.07497111707925797,
0.1655319184064865,
1.095420241355896,
0.501361072063446,
0.10309406369924545,
-0.5316365957260132,
0.08928245306015015,
0.17598316073417664,
0.6827241778373718,
-0.2709417939186096,
-0.34722229838371277,
0.3673681616783142,
0.001153895747847855,
-0.36779364943504333,
0.982329785823822,
-0.16689032316207886,
0.14953474700450897,
0.1354440152645111,
-0.17570734024047852,
-0.623184323310852,
-0.1622798591852188,
-0.080228790640831,
0.38171783089637756,
-0.07778721302747726,
-0.658547580242157,
0.2905750572681427,
0.2574504315853119,
-0.09915091842412949,
0.7123222947120667,
-0.16238008439540863,
0.2293350249528885,
0.2724275588989258,
-0.7124008536338806,
0.08495256304740906,
0.13081933557987213,
-0.008590662851929665,
0.6974939107894897,
-0.3769541084766388,
0.2843463718891144,
-0.33675822615623474,
0.5289092063903809,
-0.5072756409645081,
0.12038907408714294,
-0.3515373170375824,
-0.06613021343946457,
0.4786733388900757,
-0.6581692099571228,
0.1628503054380417,
-0.4584098160266876,
1.2662452459335327,
-0.25911879539489746,
-0.6248564720153809,
-0.10431649535894394,
-0.04754497855901718,
-0.1617005467414856,
-0.05659133568406105,
-0.3166039288043976,
0.3570563793182373,
-0.6371694207191467,
-0.19822333753108978,
-0.7026217579841614,
0.465455025434494,
0.2047341763973236,
0.4333612322807312,
-0.3364357650279999,
0.7363129258155823,
-0.26471737027168274,
-0.10558515787124634,
0.5108917355537415,
0.10366633534431458,
0.18875734508037567,
-0.3039986491203308,
0.402377188205719,
0.25253474712371826,
0.2649909555912018,
-0.38699743151664734,
-0.41463297605514526,
0.5471944808959961,
0.09904222935438156,
0.02567136101424694,
-0.018040869385004044,
0.4094814956188202,
-0.5084004998207092,
0.25247418880462646,
-0.36095020174980164,
0.22230666875839233,
-0.3152591288089752,
-0.17632251977920532,
0.6464467644691467,
0.5249602794647217,
0.07503007352352142,
-0.7147672772407532,
0.6510528922080994,
0.0077007063664495945,
0.1420162171125412,
-0.4226667881011963,
0.1266709566116333,
0.07495550811290741,
-0.31776782870292664,
0.003624152624979615,
-0.20316846668720245,
0.0167906042188406,
-0.12507681548595428,
-0.2893078029155731,
0.2013200968503952,
-0.5070579648017883,
0.12652505934238434,
0.3688950836658478,
-0.07398009300231934,
-0.22723861038684845,
0.7677569389343262,
-0.5225231051445007
] |
203779
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vesuvius
|
USS Vesuvius
|
USS Vesuvius may refer to:
, a bomb ketch operated during the first decade of the 19th century
, a bomb brig saw action during the Mexican–American War
Tippecanoe, a Canonicus-class monitor, was renamed Vesuvius on 15 June 1869 and subsequently renamed Wyandotte on 10 August 1869
, a dynamite gun cruiser which bombarded Cuba during the Spanish–American War
, an ammunition ship that saw action during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War
The 1806 ship was named for the volcano namesake and all others named after the 1806 ship.
United States Navy ship names
|
[
-0.2372036576271057,
0.0642331913113594,
-0.4089619815349579,
0.3208766579627991,
-0.4775541424751282,
0.49925172328948975,
1.0795525312423706,
-0.02036687545478344,
-0.5443109273910522,
0.2608710825443268,
-0.09485957771539688,
0.3176991641521454,
-0.26486897468566895,
1.2559078931808472,
0.24948911368846893,
-0.23594285547733307,
0.6984971761703491,
0.8531691431999207,
-0.14043265581130981,
-0.45915687084198,
0.16687406599521637,
0.05511165037751198,
0.8416049480438232,
-0.11135115474462509,
0.10839680582284927,
0.015394032932817936,
-0.30673015117645264,
-0.40194815397262573,
0.3853592276573181,
0.21162909269332886,
-0.020913206040859222,
0.5723986625671387,
-0.023933278396725655,
0.2857453227043152,
-0.7612736821174622,
-0.19133810698986053,
0.00299503980204463,
-0.09393656253814697,
-0.09618222713470459,
-0.4249192178249359,
-0.4335804581642151,
-0.21386149525642395,
0.5707914233207703,
-0.3310793340206146,
-0.5374118685722351,
0.14486289024353027,
-1.3830721378326416,
0.2542155683040619,
-0.05087672546505928,
0.025046072900295258,
-0.21852542459964752,
-0.34249553084373474,
0.13200940191745758,
0.6555917263031006,
-0.3942549526691437,
0.5848948359489441,
-0.7887349724769592,
0.0670439749956131,
-0.01709004119038582,
-1.236312747001648,
0.0776580348610878,
0.22945080697536469,
0.5493331551551819,
0.21129223704338074,
-0.3510637879371643,
0.04619711637496948,
0.2097737193107605,
0.6650550365447998,
-0.4847814440727234,
-0.414126455783844,
0.12583237886428833,
-0.2851138114929199,
0.36260679364204407,
0.1955636888742447,
-0.21914434432983398,
-0.4109613001346588,
-0.3666234016418457,
-0.2558195888996124,
0.09050345420837402,
0.6467427015304565,
0.07745851576328278,
-0.07697021216154099,
0.6385531425476074,
-0.021159376949071884,
-0.49078553915023804,
0.28010571002960205,
-0.35196298360824585,
-0.09248833358287811,
-0.504460871219635,
0.45931801199913025,
-0.4890132546424866,
-0.46841496229171753,
0.7546488642692566,
0.5438722372055054,
0.058671098202466965,
0.19457603991031647,
0.04193046689033508,
0.20515500009059906,
0.31104177236557007,
0.3237009346485138,
-0.4333272874355316,
0.3193933367729187,
0.4794619381427765,
0.33224067091941833,
-0.5005704164505005,
0.3102854788303375,
-0.10615746676921844,
-0.6316828727722168,
-0.11752955615520477,
-0.09719479084014893,
0.37644603848457336,
-0.19725416600704193,
-0.2850463092327118,
0.4437161982059479,
-0.3094084560871124,
-0.10741940140724182,
0.30305325984954834,
-0.7329804301261902,
-0.04558857902884483,
-0.5960569977760315,
0.3837227523326874,
0.7511125802993774,
-0.1366688460111618,
-0.25706225633621216,
0.09646772593259811,
0.4558066427707672,
0.48310938477516174,
0.17414632439613342,
-0.43984082341194153,
0.3252386748790741,
0.12026430666446686,
0.7691328525543213,
-0.30723094940185547,
0.4138472378253937,
-0.736116349697113,
-0.2787032425403595,
0.13109090924263,
0.5076067447662354,
0.1984887570142746,
0.3272230625152588,
-0.8082792162895203,
-0.43136221170425415,
-0.9463603496551514,
-0.09543978422880173,
0.6369069814682007,
-0.22738464176654816,
0.1556825339794159,
0.07097678631544113,
-0.4945043623447418,
-0.5267594456672668,
0.08856061100959778,
-0.34769728779792786,
-0.004885877016931772,
0.35649335384368896,
0.04203445091843605,
0.12734656035900116,
0.34750252962112427,
-0.16914355754852295,
0.9259350895881653,
0.2780589759349823,
-0.44117337465286255,
0.3618040084838867,
-0.10110918432474136,
0.6600792407989502,
-0.3821948766708374,
0.0002213585830759257,
0.461007684469223,
0.11748023331165314,
-0.4286157488822937,
-0.5959632396697998,
-0.2079584002494812,
0.06401488184928894,
0.38484615087509155,
0.23454703390598297,
-0.11398863047361374,
0.7054679989814758,
0.8078031539916992,
-0.03172796592116356,
0.37365248799324036,
-0.5511000752449036,
-0.49037545919418335,
0.5499505996704102,
0.20607128739356995,
-0.24448831379413605,
0.27270883321762085,
0.04199588671326637,
0.23317718505859375,
-0.04697367176413536,
0.2880118787288666,
0.024110669270157814,
-0.5179525017738342,
-0.014573316089808941,
-0.3559707701206207,
-0.2709692120552063,
1.5305542945861816,
0.5522795915603638,
-0.8658977150917053,
0.4752501845359802,
0.591257631778717,
0.4793190658092499,
0.35115110874176025,
-0.17152853310108185,
0.14836491644382477,
-0.18988394737243652,
-0.8253008127212524,
0.06727176904678345,
0.3869134783744812,
0.4504081904888153,
0.14562655985355377,
0.6504654288291931,
-0.15555377304553986,
-0.4522246718406677,
0.513965904712677,
-0.19093482196331024,
-0.11155954003334045,
0.08103889226913452,
-0.5285937786102295,
-0.2663481533527374,
0.25274184346199036,
-0.8792822360992432,
0.27134332060813904,
-0.18783307075500488,
-0.2411280870437622,
0.12414605170488358,
-0.1527499258518219,
0.41922953724861145,
-0.22687947750091553,
0.06613340973854065,
-0.07777594029903412,
-0.4092636704444885,
0.2796592116355896,
0.06367559731006622,
0.06116959825158119,
-0.07118427008390427,
0.5059679746627808,
0.39735740423202515,
0.34716448187828064,
-0.3855295479297638,
0.6412515044212341,
-0.4080912172794342,
0.5339440703392029,
0.4554523527622223,
-0.09963454306125641,
0.7980176210403442,
0.4852212369441986,
0.20830713212490082,
0.727142333984375,
-0.48253050446510315,
-0.6863202452659607,
-0.6451666355133057,
0.35876643657684326,
0.5754501223564148,
0.19321775436401367,
0.0431293249130249,
-0.017009444534778595,
-0.4774455726146698,
-0.00788623932749033,
0.08731872588396072,
0.28518956899642944,
0.3214591443538666,
-0.11627857387065887,
0.09798059612512589,
-0.12795351445674896,
0.34895169734954834,
0.9411426186561584,
0.04261859133839607,
-0.2474036067724228,
-0.47559306025505066,
0.23061488568782806,
0.1333618015050888,
0.557968258857727,
-0.07630358636379242,
0.02466590888798237,
0.023075027391314507,
0.1934211552143097,
0.07249047607183456,
-0.11205711215734482,
0.12495912611484528,
-0.6719570755958557,
-0.5846595168113708,
-0.10930267721414566,
0.658852756023407,
-0.41328001022338867,
-0.9034304618835449,
-0.35198214650154114,
-0.7692720293998718,
-0.030541349202394485,
-0.3445940613746643,
-0.27887600660324097,
-0.09173813462257385,
-0.1111084520816803,
-0.9446048140525818,
-0.03429662436246872,
0.5373147130012512,
-0.5439508557319641,
0.4221932888031006,
-0.047080740332603455,
0.2059905230998993,
0.08173296600580215,
-0.08764883130788803,
-0.8368169665336609,
0.010868064127862453,
-0.729600191116333,
0.07877527922391891,
0.48878806829452515,
-0.5171129703521729,
-0.04898935928940773,
0.45866018533706665,
-5.478779315948486,
-0.09982392936944962,
-0.2678168714046478,
-0.0904427096247673,
-0.319747656583786,
0.13811655342578888,
-0.02607533521950245,
-0.01604306325316429,
-0.39077991247177124,
-0.22791612148284912,
1.3169740438461304,
0.8330999612808228,
0.20411087572574615,
0.15933038294315338,
0.18000657856464386,
0.1495395451784134,
0.7745838165283203,
-0.14274829626083374,
-0.03129081055521965,
-0.2545211911201477,
0.145568385720253,
0.13935281336307526,
0.22628425061702728,
0.09360457211732864,
0.1434788703918457,
-0.18661729991436005,
-0.37019112706184387,
0.3490668535232544,
-0.5164138674736023,
0.22627107799053192,
-0.03516225516796112,
0.2221715748310089,
0.11762800812721252,
0.07099185883998871,
-0.2640867829322815,
-0.13739919662475586,
0.5985163450241089,
-0.2752339243888855,
0.1981184333562851,
-0.3695511817932129,
-0.045167770236730576,
-0.012729568406939507,
-0.139016792178154,
-0.7508313059806824,
0.37856125831604004,
-0.3502212166786194,
-0.13987797498703003,
0.7340319752693176,
0.3429912328720093,
0.6687189340591431,
0.2646823525428772,
-0.20600156486034393,
-0.029398994520306587,
0.45159995555877686,
0.2712705731391907,
-0.18631276488304138,
-0.11387290060520172,
-0.07924018055200577,
-0.7487315535545349,
0.014012440107762814,
0.17093563079833984,
-0.04527052491903305,
-0.16637451946735382,
-0.3805554509162903,
-0.0004896550090052187,
-0.13706670701503754,
-0.5532081127166748,
-0.04709624499082565,
0.27941522002220154,
0.08332572132349014,
0.12032441794872284,
1.2353795766830444,
-0.18561364710330963,
-1.0695499181747437,
0.07576987147331238,
-0.7122600078582764,
0.05451648682355881,
-0.09621739387512207,
-0.48925963044166565,
0.5164964199066162,
-0.4854135811328888,
-0.0138277318328619,
-0.318492591381073,
0.34319308400154114,
0.20690403878688812,
-0.1828496903181076,
-0.2635374665260315,
0.1490306854248047,
-0.45780083537101746,
-0.21537843346595764,
0.24692165851593018,
0.09769152849912643,
0.38776740431785583,
0.5747736692428589,
0.26710858941078186,
0.34744158387184143,
-0.45549118518829346,
0.6149424910545349,
0.5928383469581604,
-0.24709640443325043,
0.28526443243026733,
-0.6404578685760498,
0.5077918767929077,
0.263489693403244,
0.2992727756500244,
-0.37831729650497437,
-0.33033403754234314,
-0.06878603994846344,
0.8436558842658997,
-0.0034742094576358795,
-0.09384672343730927,
-0.13878661394119263,
-0.1968456208705902,
-0.4915217161178589,
0.485065221786499,
-0.24236267805099487,
0.4209156632423401,
0.7961608171463013,
0.9590035080909729,
0.07310526818037033,
0.24740834534168243,
0.9960604906082153,
-0.25077903270721436,
-0.4337490200996399,
-0.4133141040802002,
-0.5802053809165955,
0.06059389188885689,
-0.34681883454322815,
-0.16048432886600494,
-0.0417584590613842,
0.12457669526338577,
0.03596486523747444,
0.2785617411136627,
0.41919374465942383,
0.20226353406906128,
-0.527360737323761,
-0.4345861077308655,
-0.6298762559890747,
-0.3296077251434326,
-0.042948853224515915,
-0.39316830039024353,
-0.0007463389774784446,
-0.9877266883850098,
0.0026460501831024885,
0.9191851615905762,
0.6562374830245972,
0.09959811717271805,
-0.5031346678733826,
-0.1024753525853157,
0.8471984267234802,
-0.6063480377197266,
-0.7770468592643738,
0.06102754920721054,
-0.5625605583190918,
-0.1343991458415985,
0.009994451887905598,
0.3763650059700012,
0.46544191241264343,
-0.25826114416122437,
0.176513209939003,
0.01202609483152628,
-0.24538946151733398,
-0.33689868450164795,
-0.5881154537200928,
0.07689394056797028,
0.17582473158836365,
0.054172322154045105,
-0.6615631580352783,
0.1261390894651413,
0.5001094937324524,
0.38208842277526855,
-0.3054056167602539,
-0.6369252800941467,
0.02305680885910988,
0.007488198112696409,
0.5464644432067871,
-0.25691697001457214,
-0.3093174397945404,
0.1884765774011612,
-0.07301867753267288,
-0.026798836886882782,
0.1301318109035492,
-0.49123644828796387,
0.27814212441444397,
0.25492367148399353,
0.15325133502483368,
-0.23263922333717346,
-0.25321662425994873,
-0.47216665744781494,
0.2810988426208496,
-0.4671551585197449,
0.04979197308421135,
0.3068679869174957,
0.46261557936668396,
-0.8677678108215332,
0.046820707619190216,
-0.4296967089176178,
0.47078606486320496,
0.7659082412719727,
-0.7155608534812927,
0.3449118733406067,
0.12745368480682373,
-0.9923798441886902,
-0.18331345915794373,
-0.49335241317749023,
-0.6807144284248352,
0.16044242680072784,
-0.23213237524032593,
0.05353747308254242,
0.45258450508117676,
0.21301721036434174,
-0.42069122195243835,
0.41832220554351807,
0.9648242592811584,
0.4414692521095276,
-0.20831267535686493,
0.17159609496593475,
0.025044666603207588,
-0.27083566784858704,
-0.8577702641487122,
-0.09380801022052765,
-0.01713625341653824,
-0.4918653666973114,
-0.7198954224586487,
-0.2541510760784149,
0.6178486347198486,
-0.034836482256650925,
-0.7200276255607605,
0.7081995606422424,
-0.33553749322891235,
-0.5220231413841248,
0.10279431194067001,
-0.5426297187805176,
0.29199305176734924,
0.4404109716415405,
-0.254792183637619,
0.37256884574890137,
-0.33568641543388367,
-0.10086063295602798,
0.32846149802207947,
0.7624064683914185,
0.6172671914100647,
-0.24699167907238007,
-0.38954785466194153,
-0.49390286207199097,
0.18210828304290771,
0.1462254375219345,
-0.3942488729953766,
-0.5626427531242371,
-0.09549340605735779,
-0.4321027100086212,
-0.6036245226860046,
-0.5483875870704651,
-0.4306088984012604,
1.2898619174957275,
-0.8136024475097656,
0.2662431299686432,
-0.3286593556404114,
-0.19471637904644012,
0.11960368603467941,
-0.44826018810272217,
0.6443495154380798,
-0.9986521601676941,
0.34258270263671875,
0.4077806770801544,
0.22583113610744476,
-0.38494017720222473,
-0.12066011875867844,
-0.14459966123104095,
-0.22417253255844116,
0.22427420318126678,
0.5080864429473877,
0.15237466990947723,
0.38270872831344604,
0.006273053120821714,
0.43947240710258484,
-0.2165960669517517,
-0.4668280780315399,
0.4429346024990082,
-0.05943939462304115,
-0.5971338748931885,
0.16207601130008698,
-0.742618203163147,
-0.424279123544693,
-0.5227329730987549,
-0.513755202293396,
-0.017001349478960037,
-0.7387924194335938,
-0.20717716217041016,
0.04276524856686592,
0.34162455797195435,
-0.0037100068293511868,
0.04937012866139412,
-0.49190396070480347,
-0.27784597873687744,
0.24335114657878876,
-0.562352180480957,
0.4044393301010132,
-0.5809392333030701,
0.5839418172836304,
-0.5709238648414612,
0.5387016534805298,
-0.15660293400287628,
-0.5447409749031067,
0.04728052765130997,
0.23427815735340118,
0.18190822005271912,
0.1246521919965744,
-0.20575551688671112,
-0.5843538045883179,
0.32932794094085693,
-0.48430460691452026,
0.10142333805561066,
0.19659072160720825,
-0.09386724978685379,
0.1624632030725479,
0.8462798595428467,
-0.25601935386657715,
-0.5399594902992249,
0.08840693533420563,
0.6216089725494385,
-0.3198474645614624,
0.6466301083564758,
-0.018557701259851456,
-0.04864055663347244,
0.2486991584300995,
-0.637374222278595,
-0.4423162341117859,
0.1851087063550949,
0.7004778385162354,
0.006799756549298763,
-0.7637116312980652,
-0.8331288695335388,
0.6329226493835449,
-0.42806676030158997,
0.07444339990615845,
0.4063953161239624,
-0.6656628847122192,
-0.865470290184021,
0.7417753338813782,
0.5179054737091064,
0.6585593223571777,
0.15945814549922943,
-0.4174969792366028,
-0.27502432465553284,
0.420771062374115,
-0.3097213804721832,
-0.08460621535778046,
0.12307232618331909,
-0.24223487079143524,
0.32853907346725464,
0.26469334959983826,
0.20263974368572235,
-0.09648288786411285,
0.35075250267982483,
0.15138451755046844,
0.23815223574638367,
-0.23974700272083282,
-0.23067063093185425,
-0.6147119998931885,
-0.13966770470142365,
-0.15039101243019104,
0.6327934861183167,
-0.3243769109249115,
-0.09254779666662216,
-0.0691535621881485,
-0.28374171257019043,
0.40074923634529114,
-0.19478270411491394,
-0.03967690095305443,
0.7300100922584534,
0.3157498836517334,
-0.21502293646335602,
0.15636716783046722,
0.30361559987068176,
0.9092761874198914,
0.46341782808303833,
0.2650156021118164,
0.37485063076019287,
-0.18809427320957184,
-0.711868405342102,
0.5357147455215454,
-0.08962398767471313,
-0.2738148272037506,
0.1371375322341919,
-0.16526338458061218,
0.026423925533890724,
0.3574552834033966,
0.46507853269577026,
-0.45522207021713257,
0.34442153573036194,
-0.5171228051185608,
-0.4763200283050537,
-0.2274838536977768,
0.18194183707237244,
0.19704291224479675,
0.41904863715171814,
0.6350609660148621,
0.3187696933746338,
-0.1389188915491104,
0.04292236268520355,
0.20799240469932556,
0.34380725026130676,
-0.061487071216106415,
-0.35086122155189514,
0.19894255697727203,
-0.5922467708587646,
0.41252580285072327,
-0.13268887996673584,
0.12416043132543564,
-0.030883578583598137,
-0.6104592084884644,
-0.6419552564620972,
-0.154035747051239,
-0.7347291111946106,
-0.21930073201656342,
0.6048866510391235,
-0.6864343285560608,
-0.3043229579925537,
-0.510122537612915,
-0.42988768219947815,
0.4312486946582794,
-0.10888630151748657,
0.4585001468658447,
-0.3958708643913269,
-0.43125414848327637,
0.008335224352777004,
-0.33696338534355164,
-0.28576719760894775,
0.09506959468126297,
0.5089921355247498,
0.0010370977688580751,
-0.322522908449173,
0.50395268201828,
-0.508771538734436,
-0.506363034248352,
0.04811185970902443,
0.19854003190994263,
0.17035545408725739,
-0.4033271372318268,
0.05057898163795471,
-0.44426465034484863,
0.21008530259132385,
-0.17728884518146515,
0.38060927391052246,
0.277923047542572,
-0.11560922861099243,
-0.44327008724212646,
0.5175575017929077,
0.8651517629623413,
0.6650596857070923,
0.20033526420593262,
0.33351588249206543,
-0.4721633493900299,
0.6977434158325195,
-0.26657506823539734,
0.5819504261016846,
-0.4776500463485718,
0.36786210536956787,
0.05956677347421646
] |
203785
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning%20Man
|
Burning Man
|
Burning Man is an event focused on community, art, self-expression, and self-reliance held annually in the western United States. The name of the event comes from its culminating ceremony: the symbolic burning of a large wooden effigy, referred to as the Man, that occurs on the penultimate night of Burning Man, which is the Saturday evening before Labor Day. The event has been located since 1991 at Black Rock City in northwestern Nevada, a temporary city erected in the Black Rock Desert about north-northeast of Reno. As outlined by Burning Man co-founder Larry Harvey in 2004, the event is guided by ten principles: radical inclusion, gifting, decommodification, radical self-reliance, radical self-expression, communal effort, civic responsibility, leaving no trace, participation, and immediacy.
The event originated on June 22, 1986, on Baker Beach in San Francisco as a small function organized by Larry Harvey and Jerry James, the builders of the first Man. It has since been held annually, spanning the nine days leading up to and including Labor Day. Over the event's history, attendance has generally increased. In 2019, 78,850 people participated in the event. In 2021, the unofficial event had an estimated 20,000 attendees.
NPR said about Burning Man, "Once considered an underground gathering for bohemians and free spirits of all stripes, Burning Man has since evolved into a destination for social media influencers, celebrities and the Silicon Valley elite." At Burning Man, the participants design and build all the art, activities, and events. Artwork at Burning Man includes experimental and interactive sculptures, buildings, performances and art cars, among other media. These contributions are inspired by a theme that is chosen annually by the Burning Man Project. An anonymous attendee once elaborated that "Burning Man is about 'why not' overwhelming 'why. Participation is a key precept for the community, so there is much controversy in the community over the problem of non-participatory influencers and elite at the event.
Burning Man is organized by the Burning Man Project, a non-profit organization that, in 2013, succeeded Black Rock City LLC, a for-profit limited liability company. Black Rock City LLC was formed in 1999 to represent the event's organizers and is now considered a subsidiary of the non-profit organization. The Burning Man Project endorses multiple smaller regional events guided by the Burning Man principles, both in the United States and internationally. The organization provides the essential infrastructure of Black Rock City and works year-round to bring Burning Man culture to the world through programs such as Burners Without Borders, Black Rock Solar, and Global Arts Grants.
History
1980s
Burning Man began as a bonfire ritual on the summer solstice. Sculptor Mary Grauberger, a friend of Larry Harvey's girlfriend, Janet Lohr, held solstice bonfire gatherings on Baker Beach for several years prior to 1986, some of which Harvey attended. When Grauberger stopped organizing it, Harvey "picked up the torch", with Grauberger's permission, and ran with it. He and Jerry James built the first wooden effigy on the afternoon of June 21, 1986, cobbled together using scrap wood, to be torched later that evening. On June 22, 1986 Larry Harvey, Jerry James, and a few friends met on Baker Beach in San Francisco and burned an tall wooden man as well as a smaller wooden dog. Harvey later described his inspiration for burning these effigies as a spontaneous act of "radical self-expression". In 1987, the Man grew to tall, and by 1988, it had grown to .
By 1988, Larry Harvey formally named the summer solstice ritual "Burning Man", by titling flyers for the happening as such; to ward off references such as "wicker man", referring to the practice of burning live sacrifices in wicker cages. Harvey has stated that he had not seen the 1973 cult film The Wicker Man until many years after and that it did not inspire the action.
1990 to 1996
In 1990, a separate event was planned by Kevin Evans and John Law on the remote and largely unknown dry lake or playa known as Black Rock Desert, about 110 miles north of Reno, Nevada. Evans conceived it as a dadaist temporary autonomous zone with sculpture to be burned and situationist performance art. He asked John Law, who also had experience on the dry lake and was a defining founder of Cacophony Society, to take on central organizing functions. In the Cacophony Society's newsletter, it was announced as Zone Trip No. 4, A Bad Day at Black Rock (inspired by the 1955 film of the same name).
Meanwhile, the beach burn was interrupted by the park police for not having a permit. After striking a deal to raise the Man but not to burn it, event organizers disassembled the Man and returned it to the vacant lot where it had been built. Shortly thereafter, the legs and torso of the Man were chain-sawed and the pieces removed when the lot was unexpectedly leased as a parking lot. The Man was reconstructed, led by Dan Miller, Harvey's then-housemate of many years, just in time to take it to Zone Trip No. 4.
Michael Mikel, another active Cacophonist, realized that participants unfamiliar with the environment of the dry lake would be helped by knowledgeable persons to ensure they did not get lost in the deep dry lake and risk dehydration and death. He took the name Danger Ranger and created the Black Rock Rangers. Thus Black Rock City began as a fellowship, organized by Law and Mikel, based on Evans' and Grauberger's ideas, along with Harvey and James' symbolic man. Drawing on experience in the sign business and with light sculpture, John Law prepared custom neon tubes for the Man starting in 1991 so it could be seen as a beacon to aid navigation at night long before there were any planned roads.
In its early years, the community grew by word of mouth alone, all were considered (and generally not invited until they could be expected to be) participants under their contribution to the cacophonous situationist vibe. There were no paid or scheduled performers or artists, no separation between art and life nor art-space and living-space, no rules other than "Don't interfere with anyone else's immediate experience" and "no guns in central camp."
1991 marked the first year that the event had a legal permit, through the BLM (the Bureau of Land Management). 1991 was also the year that art model and fire dancer (and later Burning Man's first art director) Crimson Rose attended the event. 1992 saw the birth of a smaller, intensive (about 20 participants the first year; about 100 in years two and three) near-by event named "Desert Siteworks", conceived and directed by William Binzen and co-produced (in 1993 and '94) with Judy West. The annual, several weeks-long event, was held over summer Solstice at various fertile hot springs surrounding the desert. Participants built art and participated in self-directed performances. Some key organizers of Burning Man were also part of Desert Siteworks (John Law, Michael Mikel) and William Binzen was a friend of Larry Harvey. Hence, the two events saw much cross-pollination of ideas and participants. The Desert Siteworks project ran for three years (1992–1994). 1996 was the first year a formal partnership was created to own the name "Burning Man" and was also the last year that the event was held in the middle of the Black Rock Desert with no fence around it.
Before the event opened to the public in 1996, a worker named Michael Furey was killed in a motorcycle crash while riding from Gerlach, Nevada, to the Burning Man camp in the Black Rock Desert. Harvey insisted that the death had not occurred at Burning Man, since the gates were not yet open. Another couple were run over in their tent by an art car driving to "rave camp", which was at that time distant from the main camp. After the 1996 event, co-founder and partner John Law broke with Burning Man and publicly said the event should not continue.
1997 to 2013
1997 marked another major pivotal year for the event. The location had to be moved because the permit for Black Rock was denied for the 1997 event. After all, a team conducting land speed trials had a conflicting permit that took precedence. Fly Ranch, with the smaller adjoining Hualapai dry lake-bed, just west of the Black Rock desert, was chosen as the alternate location. This moved Burning Man from Pershing County/federal BLM land into the jurisdiction of Washoe County, which brought a protracted list of permit requirements.
To comply with the new requirements and to manage the increased liability load, the organizers formed Black Rock City LLC, with the assistance of "Biz Babe" Dana Harrison. Will Roger Peterson and Flynn Mauthe created the Department of Public Works (DPW) to build the "city" grid layout (a requirement so that emergency vehicles could be directed to an "address") designed by Rod Garrett, an architect. Rod continued as the city designer until his death, in 2011, at the age of 76. He is also credited with the design of all of the Man bases from 2001 through 2012, the center camp café and first camp. 1998 saw a return to the Black Rock desert, although not to the deep playa, along with a temporary perimeter fence. The event has remained there since.
As the population of Black Rock City grew, and more restrictions were added by the BLM, and changes were made in how people were invited to the event (notably the addition of publicized online ticket sales to all comers), further rules were established concerning its survival. Some critics of the later phase of the event cite the imposition of these rules as impinging on the original freedoms and principles, diminishing the scope of the experience unacceptably, while many newer attendees find the increased level of activity more than balances out the changes.
A grid street structure.
A speed limit of .
A ban on driving, except for approved "mutant vehicles" and service vehicles.
Safety standards on mutant vehicles.
Burning of any art must be done on an approved burn platform.
A ban on fireworks.
A ban on animals.
Another notable restriction to attendees is the 9.2-mile (14.8 km) long temporary plastic fence that surrounds the event and defines the pentagon of land used by the event on the southern edge of the Black Rock dry lake. This 4-foot (1.2-meter) high barrier is known as the "trash fence" because its initial use was to catch wind-blown debris that might escape from campsites during the event. Since 2002, the area beyond this fence has not been accessible to Burning Man participants during the week of the event.
One visitor who was accidentally burned at the 2005 event unsuccessfully sued Black Rock City LLC in San Francisco County Superior Court. On June 30, 2009, the California Court of Appeal for the First District upheld the trial court's grant of summary judgment to Black Rock City LLC on the basis that people who deliberately walk towards The Man after it is ignited assume the risk of getting burned by such an hazardous object.
2013 to 2019
In December 2013, Black Rock City LLC was made a subsidiary of a new non-profit entity known as the Burning Man Project, though this was a controversial move among the founders.
On September 3, 2017, a 41-year-old man, Aaron Joel Mitchell, fought his way past a safety cordon of volunteers and firefighters and threw himself into the flames of the Man. Mitchell died the next day due to cardiac arrest, bodily shock, and third-degree burns to 98% of his body. While a reputable member of the DPW claims this was the result of a dare to run through the flames, his death was ruled a suicide.
2020 to 2021
On April 10, 2020, the Burning Man Project announced that Burning Man was canceled for 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, making 2020 the first year Burning Man would not happen since its inception. They then decided to offer ticket refunds despite the tickets being sold explicitly as non-refundable.
On September 7, 2020, an estimated 1,000 Burners celebrated on San Francisco's Ocean Beach. San Francisco Mayor London Breed tweeted about the event, "This was reckless and selfish. You aren't celebrating, but are putting people's lives and our progress at risk. No one is immune from spreading the virus." Several thousand also showed up in the Black Rock desert for an unofficial event and some described it as a return to the "old days".
The 2021 event was canceled on April 27, 2021 due to the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite progress on vaccination, organizers stated that "uncertainties that need to be resolved are impossible to resolve in the time we have." On May 14, 2021, the Burning Man Project released tickets on their website for online events slated between August 22 and September 7.
The unofficial event was larger than 2020 with an estimated 20,000 attending. It was loosely coordinated by a variety of groups including Black Rock Plan B and Rogue Burn. The Bureau of Land Management implemented restrictions including no structures other than shade structures and no fires other than campfires. There was a massive illuminated Drone display outlining the Man instead of the burning of a Man effigy.
Event timeline
The statistics below illustrate the growth in both the scale and scope of Burning Man in terms of location, height of the central Man sculpture, population, ticket price, and several registered camps and art.
After starting at and growing taller each of the next three years, the height of the titular Man remained at between 1989 and 2013. During those years, changes in the size and form of the base on which the wooden Man stood accounted for the differing heights of the overall structures. In 2014 the construction of the Man changed to a tall figure standing directly on the ground with no base. From 2015 to 2019 the Man returned to in height.
Principles
Because of the variety of goals fostered by participatory attendees, known as "Burners", Burning Man does not have a single focus. Features of the event are subject to the participants and include community, artwork, absurdity, decommodification and revelry. Participation is encouraged.
The Burning Man event and its affiliated communities are guided by 10 principles that are meant to evoke the cultural ethos that has emerged from the event. They were originally written by Larry Harvey in 2004 as guidelines for regional organizing, then later became a universal criterion of the general culture of the multifaceted movement. They are:
radical inclusion
gifting
decommodification
radical self-reliance
radical self-expression
communal effort
civic responsibility
leaving no trace
participation
immediacy
The descriptions in quotes are the actual text:
Radical inclusion
"Anyone may be a part of Burning Man. We welcome and respect the stranger. No prerequisites exist for participation in our community."
This was written with a broad stroke for general organizing, meaning anyone is welcome to the Burning Man culture. Prerequisites for the Burning Man event are; participants are expected to provide for their own basic needs, follow the guidelines stated in the annually updated event "survival guide", and purchase a $475 ticket to get in.
Gifting
"Burning Man is devoted to acts of gift-giving. The value of a gift is unconditional. Gifting does not contemplate a return or an exchange for something of equal value."
Instead of cash, participants at the Burning Man event in the Black Rock Desert are encouraged to rely on a gift economy, a sort of potlatch. In the earliest days of the event, an underground barter economy also existed, in which burners exchanged "favours" with each other. While this was originally supported by the Burning Man organization, this is now largely discouraged. Instead, burners are encouraged to give gifts to one another unconditionally.
Decommodification
"To preserve the spirit of gifting, our community seeks to create social environments that are unmediated by commercial sponsorships, transactions, or advertising. We stand ready to protect our culture from such exploitation. We resist the substitution of consumption for participatory experience."
No cash transactions are permitted between attendees of the Burning Man event in the Black Rock Desert. Cash can be used for a select few charity, fuel, and sanitation vendors as follows:
Café beverages such as coffee, chai, lemonade, etc., which are sold at Center Camp Café, operated by the organizers of the event.
Ice sales benefit the local Gerlach-Empire school system.
Tickets for the shuttle bus to the nearest Nevada communities of Gerlach and Empire which is operated by a contractor not participating in the event: Green Tortoise.
A re-entry wristband, which allows a person to leave and re-enter the event and may be purchased at the gate upon exit.
An airport use fee, payable at the airport upon first entry.
Diesel and biodiesel sold by third-party contractors.
RV dump service and camp graywater disposal service.
Private portable toilets and servicing, which can be arranged with the official contractor.
Radical self-reliance
"Burning Man encourages the individual to discover, exercise and rely on his or her inner resources."
The event's harsh environment and remote location require participants to be responsible for their subsistence. Since the LLC forbids most commerce, participants must be prepared and bring all their own supplies with the exception of the items stated in Decommodification.
Radical self-expression
"Radical self-expression arises from the unique gifts of the individual. No one other than the individual or a collaborating group can determine its content. It is offered as a gift to others. In this spirit, the giver should respect the rights and liberties of the recipient."
Participants at the Burning Man event in the Black Rock Desert are encouraged to express themselves in a number of ways through various art forms and projects. The event is clothing-optional and public nudity is common, though not practiced by the majority.
Communal effort
"Our community values creative cooperation and collaboration. We strive to produce, promote and protect social networks, public spaces, works of art, and methods of communication that support such interaction."
Participants at the Burning Man event in the Black Rock Desert are encouraged to work with and help fellow participants.
Civic responsibility
"We value civil society. Community members who organize events should assume responsibility for public welfare and endeavour to communicate civic responsibilities to participants. They must also assume responsibility for conducting events in accordance with local, state and federal laws."
Leave no trace
"Our community respects the environment. We are committed to leaving no physical trace of our activities wherever we gather. We clean up after ourselves and endeavour, whenever possible, to leave such places in a better state than when we found them."
Participation
"Our community is committed to a radically participatory ethic. We believe that transformative change, whether in the individual or in society, can occur only through the medium of deeply personal participation. We achieve being through doing. Everyone is invited to work. Everyone is invited to play. We make the world real through actions that open the heart." People are encouraged to participate, rather than observe.
Immediacy
"Immediate experience is, in many ways, the most important touchstone of value in our culture. We seek to overcome barriers that stand between us and a recognition of our inner selves, the reality of those around us, participation in society, and contact with a natural world exceeding human powers. No idea can substitute for this experience."
The Temple
The Temple is the secondary major recurring art installation at Burning Man after the Man, and is considered just as important to the event culture. According to the Burning Man Project, "The Temple is a community shared space that is an important part of Black Rock City. It is not a temple in recognition of any religion; it’s a neutral, non-denominational spiritual space where everyone can gather to share in the experience of remembering the past, honoring or cursing the present, and pondering the future to come."
The prime function of the Temple is to be a canvas upon which people can leave words and objects behind to be burned, and to serve as "a place of contemplation, a place to rest, a place of reflection, a place of rituals, weddings, reunions, etc." During the event, 400 volunteer Temple Guardians monitor the Temple 24-hours a day. The Temple is burned on the eighth and final night of the festival, following the "Man burn" on the previous night.
Timeline
Source:
Art
A hallmark of Burning Man is large-scale interactive installation art inspired by the intersection of maker culture, technology, and nature. Many works invite participation through climbing, touch, technological interfaces, or motion. At night much of the artwork is illuminated by fire or LEDs. Creative expression through art is encouraged at Burning Man in many forms. Music, performance art, and guerrilla theatre are art forms commonly presented within the camps and developed areas of the city. Artwork is placed in the open playa beyond the streets of the city. Each year hundreds of works of art, ranging from small to very large-scale, are brought to Black Rock City.
Art on the playa is assisted by a department of the Burning Man Project called the Artery, which helps artists place their art in the desert and ensures lighting (to prevent collisions), burn platform (to protect the integrity of the dry lake bed) and that fire safety requirements are met. Art grants are, however, available to participants via a system of curation and oversight, with application deadlines early in the year. Grants are intended to help artists produce work beyond the scope of their own means, and are generally intended to cover only a portion of the costs associated with creation of the pieces, usually requiring considerable reliance on an artist's community resources. Aggregate funding for all grants varies depending on the number and quality of the submissions (usually well over 100) but amounts to several percent (on the order of $500,000 in recent years) of the gross receipts from ticket sales. In 2006, 29 pieces were funded.
Various standards regarding the nature of the artworks eligible for grants are set by the Art Department, but compliance with the theme and interactivity are important considerations. This funding has fostered artistic communities, most notably in the Bay Area of California, the region that has historically provided a majority of the event's participants. There are active and successful outreach efforts to enlarge the regional scope of the event and the grant program.
No Spectators: The Art of Burning Man
In 2018, the Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C. brought art from Burning Man to the nation's capital. The exhibition took over the entire Renwick Gallery building and surrounding neighborhood. The exhibit featured room-sized installations, costumes, and jewelry, while photographs and archival materials from the Nevada Museum of Art trace Burning Man's growth and its bohemian roots.
Large-scale installations form the core of the exhibition. Individual artists and collectives featured in the exhibit include David Best, Candy Chang, Marco Cochrane, Duane Flatmo, Michael Garlington and Natalia Bertotti, Five Ton Crane Arts Collective, FoldHaus Art Collective, Scott Froschauer, HYBYCOZO, (Yelena Filipchuk and Serge Beaulieu), Android Jones, Aaron Taylor Kuffner, Christopher Schardt, Richard Wilks, and Leo Villareal.
In addition, multiple large-scale public Burning Man art installations were exhibited throughout the neighborhood surrounding the museum, for an extension of the show No Spectators: Beyond the Renwick, which included works by Jack Champion, Mr. and Mrs. Ferguson, HYBYCOZO, Laura Kimpton, Kate Raudenbush, and Mischell Riley. All outdoor works had been installed as honorarium artwork at Burning Man in years past, except for the artwork by Hybycozo. This outdoor exhibition was co-produced by a first ever collaboration with the Golden Triangle BID (Business Improvement District in Washington DC), curated by Karyn Miller.
Mutant vehicles
Mutant Vehicles are purpose-built or creatively altered motorized vehicles. The term "Mutant Vehicle" was coined by organizers of the Burning Man event to delineate a type of "Art Car" that was more dramatically modified than simply decorating an existing vehicle.
Burning Man participants who wish to bring motorized mutant vehicles must submit their designs in advance to the event's own DMV or "Department of Mutant Vehicles" for consideration. If a vehicle design meets the "Mutant Vehicle Criteria, the vehicle is invited to the event for a final physical inspection and licensing at the event. Not all designs and proposals are accepted. The event organizers, and in turn the DMV, have set the bar high for what it deems an acceptable MV each year, in effect capping the number of Mutant Vehicles. This is in response to constraints imposed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, which grants permits to hold the event on federal property, and to participants who want to maintain a pedestrian-friendly environment. Vehicles that are minimally altered, and/or whose primary function is to transport participants, are discouraged and not invited. One of the criteria the DMV employs to determine whether an application for a proposed Mutant Vehicle is approved is "can you recognize the base vehicle". For example, if a 1967 VW van covered with glitter, dolls' heads, and old cooking utensils can still be recognized as a VW van, the DMV would consider it an "Art Car", but it would not be sufficiently altered to meet the Mutant Vehicle Criteria.
There were over six hundred approved Mutant Vehicles at the event in 2010.
Bicycles
Bicycles and tricycles are popular for getting around on the dry lake. Mountain bikes are generally preferred over road bikes for riding on the dried silt, which is normally hard but becomes loose with traffic. Participants often decorate their bikes to make them unique. Since lighting on the bikes is critically important for safety at night, many participants incorporate the lighting into their decorations, using electroluminescent wire (a thin, flexible tube that glows with a neon-like effect when energized with electricity) to create intricate patterns over the frame of the bike. Every night during Burning Man, thousands of people on their bikes and art cars, illuminated sculptures and stages create a unique visual effect.
Theme camps
Electronic music
Camps focusing on electronic music, often played by live DJs, began to appear in 1992, an influence of the rave culture of the San Francisco area. Terbo Ted was identified as having been the first ever DJ in Burning Man history, opening with a Jean Michel Jarre song played off a vinyl record. DJs typically occupied an area on the outskirts of the Playa nicknamed the "Techno Ghetto". In later years, designated spokes of the main camp were designated for "sound camps", with limits on volume and speaker positioning (angled away from the center of Black Rock City). To work around the rules, mutant vehicles with live DJs and large sound systems began to appear as well. A number of major electronic music camps have been well-known returnees at Burning Man, including Opulent Temple and Robot Heart. Major producers and DJs representing various eras and genres have performed at Burning Man, including Armin van Buuren, Carl Cox, Markus Schulz, Paul Oakenfold, François Kevorkian and Freq Nasty among others.
In recent years, concerns began to surface among attendees that a growing number of "mainstream" electronic dance music acts (such as Skrillex and Diplo's Jack Ü in 2014) had begun to appear. In 2015, organizers established a new area known as the "Deep Playa Music Zone" (or DMZ), to serve as a new host for sound trucks featuring live DJs.
Black Rock City
Black Rock City, often abbreviated to BRC, is the name of the temporary city created by Burning Man participants. Much of the layout and general city infrastructure is constructed by Department of Public Works (DPW) volunteers who often reside in Black Rock City for several weeks before and after the event. The remainder of the city including theme camps, villages, art installations and individual camping are all created by participants.
City planning
The developed part of the city is currently arranged as a series of concentric streets in an arc composing, since 1999, two-thirds of a 1.5-mile (2.4-km) diameter circle with the Man at the very center. Radial streets, sometimes called Avenues, extend from the Man to the outermost circle. The outlines of these streets are visible on aerial photographs.The innermost street is named the Esplanade, and the remaining streets are given names to coincide with the overall theme of the burn, and ordered in ways such as alphabetical order or stem to stern, to make them easier to recall. For example, in 1999, for the "Wheel of Time" theme, and again in 2004 for "The Vault of Heaven" theme, the streets were named after the planets of the solar system. The radial streets are usually given a clock designation, for example, 6:00 or 6:15, in which the Man is at the center of the clock face and 12:00 is in the middle of the third of the arc lacking streets (usually at a bearing of 60° true from the Man). These avenues have been identified in other ways, notably in 2002, in accordance with "The Floating World" theme, as the degrees of a compass, for example 175 degrees, and in 2003 as part of the Beyond Belief theme as adjectives ("Rational, Absurd") that caused every intersection with a concentric street (named after concepts of belief such as "Authority, Creed") to form a phrase such as "Absurd Authority" or "Rational Creed". However, these proved unpopular with participants due to difficulty in navigating the city without the familiar clock layout.
The Black Rock City Airport is constructed adjacent to the city, typically on its southern side. See Transportation section below.
Center Camp
Center Camp is located along the midline of Black Rock City, facing the Man at the 6:00 position on the Esplanade. This area serves as a central meeting place for the entire city and contains the Center Camp Cafe, Camp Arctica and a number of other city institutions.
Villages and theme camps
Villages and theme camps are located along the innermost streets of Black Rock City, often offering entertainment or services to participants.
Theme camps are usually a collective of people representing themselves under a single identity. Villages are usually a collection of smaller theme camps which have banded together in order to share resources and vie for better placement.
Theme camps and villages often form to create an atmosphere in Black Rock City that their group envisioned. As Burning Man grows every year it attracts an even more diverse crowd. Subcultures form around theme camps at Black Rock City similar to what can be found in other cities.
Volunteers
The Burning Man event is heavily dependent on a large number of volunteers.
Safety, policing and regulations
Black Rock City is patrolled by various local and state law enforcement agencies as well as the Bureau of Land Management Rangers. The local police issue $1,500 fines for drug use and serving alcohol to minors. Burning Man also has its own in-house group of volunteers, the Black Rock Rangers, who act as informal mediators when disputes arise between participants.
Firefighting, emergency medical services (EMS), mental health, and communications support is provided by the volunteer Black Rock City Emergency Services Department (ESD). Three "MASH"-like stations are set up in the city: station 3, 6 and 9. Station 6 is staffed by physicians and nurses working with a contracted state licensed ALS Medical provider, while Stations 3 and 9 are staffed by Black Rock City ESD personnel. While Station 3 and 9 provide emergency services and basic life support, the volunteers are generally doctors, nurses, EMTs/paramedics, and firefighters. Both station 3 and 9 have a small fire engines available in addition to a Hazardous material/Rescue truck and quick response vehicle for medical emergencies.
In documents from February 2013 first made public on August 29, 2015, it was revealed that in August 2010, the FBI had sent a memo to its field offices in Nevada stating that it would patrol Burning Man to "aid in the prevention of terrorist activities and intelligence collection". Although a threat assessment performed by the FBI determined that drug usage and crowd control were the only major threats to Burning Man, the Bureau still sent an unspecified number of undercover officers to the event, with "no adverse threats or reactions".
Black Rock City design evolution
1986–1991
From the very beginning on Baker Beach, to 1991 when Burning Man was set into its desert home, there was no real organizational structure to the city. According to Rod Garret, designer of Black Rock City, "The original form of the camp was a circle. This was not particularly planned, but formed instinctively from the traditional campfire circle and the urge to 'circle the wagons' against the nearly boundless space." This would not work for much longer, as attendance was reaching into the hundreds, and such a large gathering would require some planning.
1992–1995
The Bureau of Land Management took notice of the event, and required that plans be drawn up to maintain safety. They also required the Burn to be registered as an official event. In response, four cardinal roads were added emanating from center camp. The Man was located West of Center camp, due to the camp being oriented with the path of the sun across the sky, as opposed to North-to-South. The center circle from the birth of the event was maintained.
In 1993, the first sound camp was opened. It was known as the Techno Ghetto, and it was located 2 miles north of Center Camp. It was not a usual theme camp, but was instead a mini hub on its own; There was a small "center camp" with a message board and Port-a-potties. The center was surrounded by a circle of camping area across. Six massive sound systems faced out from the circle. The Techno Ghetto was placed separately to keep the 'rave' out of the main event, yet as time has progressed, music has become more and more closely tied into the core culture of Burning man, even spawning a unique genre known as Playa Tech.
1996
With the population growing to 8,000 in 1996, more structure was essential to both appease the Bureau of Land Management, and to maintain safety. A ring around Center Camp, aptly named Ring Road, was added to provide for a second circle of theme camps. In addition, the eastern section of the circle around Center camp in a cone shape was declared a "No Man's Land", devoid of all art installations and campsites. The goal was to provide a picturesque view from Center Camp of the Man in the distance. In addition to the camps circling the center, there were also camps lining the outside of the No Man's Land cone.
The techno ghetto would remain for one last year in 1996, and it wouldn't return. Regardless, the spark of music had ignited, and many other sound camps would follow.
1997
In 1997 Burning Man was relocated. The event moved off of the Playa to the Hualapai Flat, due to political problems with Washoe County. Black Rock City truly became a city in 1997, with formal, labeled streets, zoning, and registration for vehicles and theme camps. Rod Garret was brought on board as the lead designer of Black Rock City from then on. In his design, Center Camp remained the starting point, with two angular arms reaching out on either side to form a shallow "V" shape around the Man. These main arms consisted of six annular roads, and two outlying plazas. 1997 is the first year of a Ranger-patrolled perimeter, and also the first year of one entry gate.
1998
Burning Man returned to the playa in 1998, and the basis of the modern layout was implemented. The idea was to "recreate some of the intimacy of our original camping circle, but on a much larger civic scale." Rod Garret's design smoothed out the angular "V" from 1997 and implemented the arc, although in 1998, it stretched less than half-way around the circle. The radial streets were numbered North 1–20 and South 1–20, instead of the modern clock face system of names such as 11:30 or 5:15. There were four large plazas, each occupied by a major theme camp.
1999–2010
In 1999, for the Wheel of Time theme, the great arc of the city was expanded to the full 240° (⅔ of a circle) that it is today. The streets were re-numbered to correspond to a clock face, with the Man in the center, Center Camp at 6:00, and streets every 30 minutes (15°) 2:00 through 10:00.
2000 saw the introduction of the Temple as a fixture on the playa, and it has grown to be easily as important as the Man. It was placed at 12:00 out in the deep playa in the open third of the circle. 2000 also marked the year that the concept of a loud side and a quiet side was replaced by the rule that large scale sound camps would be placed at the 10:00 and 2:00 edges, facing out into the deep playa.
Extra annular streets have been added as need has increased.
2011–present
In 2011, extra radial streets were added from G street out to make outer-city navigation easier. These streets were added at intervals of fifteen minutes.
Transportation
Road access
Highway 34 provides access to the main entrance to Black Rock City. The highway connects to Highway 447 north of Gerlach, which then runs south to Highway 427 in Wadsworth near Interstate 80.
Vehicles then proceed from the Highway 34 entrance north to the main gate via Gate Road, a desert dirt road with a speed limit of 10 mph. All vehicles driving into the city must have the appropriate vehicle pass, and all occupants are required to have valid ticket, in order to get in. Vehicles are also searched for any items that are prohibited in the city. For those who have their tickets held at Will Call, the booths are located between the Highway 34 entrance and the main gate. All tickets and vehicle passes must be bought in advance; they are not directly sold outside the gate or at the Will Call booths. Furthermore, unless they have a valid early arrival pass for the pre-event set up, any vehicle who arrives before the gate opens is turned away and told to go back to Reno, and not to wait along the side of the road on either Highways 34 or 447 (which would be a safety hazard), nor stay in Gerlach (and overcrowd the small town).
When the Burning Man ends, and the mass exodus out of Black Rock City begins, a road traffic control procedure called "Pulsing" is used to direct vehicles out of the city. At regular intervals (usually an hour during the peak periods), all vehicles are "pulsed" forward all at once for about a mile along Gate Road. This allows vehicles to stop and turn off their engines, while those at southernmost mile of the multi-lane Gate Road slowly merge and then turn onto the two-lane Highway 34.
Commercial airports
The airport with regular commercial service closest to the event is the Reno-Tahoe International Airport in Reno, Nevada, over two hours' drive away. According to an airport spokesperson, in 2018 an estimated 18,000 burners arrived and departed through Reno's airport for the event, thereby giving the airport an $11 million boost. Inside the airport that year, a Burning Man-specific information table was created and placed near the baggage claim area.
San Francisco International Airport, nearly six hours away by car, is the nearest airport with a high volume of international service. Other prominent airports, albeit with less international passenger traffic and more domestic services, are Sacramento International Airport, which is 4.5 hour drive from Black Rock City, as well as other Bay Area airports such as Oakland International Airport and San Jose International Airport.
Salt Lake City International Airport, serving Salt Lake City, Utah, and McCarran International Airport, serving Las Vegas, Nevada, are both a respective 8.5 hour drive to Black Rock City.
Temporary airstrip
A section of the Playa is used for a non-permanent airport, which is set up before each event and completely erased afterward. It serves both general aviation and charter flights. Pilots began camping there about 1995, and once compelled to add structure, it was established in a form acceptable to the BLM in 1999 through the efforts of Tiger Tiger (Lissa Shoun) and LLC board member Mr. Klean (Will Roger). In 2009 it was recognized by the FAA as a private airport and designated 88NV. It is found on the Klamath Falls Sectional, using a CTAF of 122.9 MHz. Black Rock UNICOM and the airport are operational on that frequency from 6:00 am to 7:30 pm PDT each day during the event. The runway is simply a compacted strip of playa, and is not lighted. Because of the unique air traffic and safety issues associated with the airport, pilots are strongly encouraged to familiarize themselves with published information and procedures provided by, for example, AOPA. Because of the changes of the surface each year, information about the airport is subject to change.
Shuttles
There are prepaid shuttles, originating in Reno and San Francisco, that move participants to and from the event. During the event there was also a paid shuttle between the event and the nearby towns of Gerlach and Empire, but this has been discontinued. Exiting and reentering the event requires an additional fee, and is highly discouraged.
Other
Participants also share rides and hitchhike although walking or bicycling into the event is not allowed.
"Leave No Trace" policy
Burning Man takes place in the middle of a large playa, and while not inhabited by humans itself, the area around the playa is home to many animals and plants. Supporters of Burning Man point out that participants are encouraged to leave no trace (LNT) of their visit to Black Rock City (BRC) and not to contaminate the area with litter, commonly known as MOOP (Matter Out of Place). Despite the BLM and LLC's insistence on the practice of LNT, the amount of residual trash at the site has increased over the years,
[t]he number of items per plot in the City consistently increased over the 2006 to 2009 ... Although the observed trend was not statistically significant, regression analysis indicated that the predicted trend explained over 97% of the variance in the data.
While fire is a primary component of many art exhibits and events, materials must be burned on a burn platform. From 1990 through 1999, burning was allowed to take place directly on the surface of the playa, but this left burn scars (fired pinkish clay-like playa surface). When it was finally determined that they did not dissipate with the annual winter rains and flooding, in 2000, the organization declared that fires had to be elevated from the playa surface for its protection. When it was discovered by two of the founders of the Friends of Black Rock / High Rock (Garth Elliott & Sue Weeks) and BLM Winnemucca district director Terry Reid that Burn scars from prior sites (numbering 250) still remained, they were finally eradicated in 2000 by the DPW clean up crew headed by Dan Miller.
On the last day of the event, public shared burn areas are prepared for participants to use. It is an ongoing educational process each year to inform the public not to burn toxic materials for the protection of the environment and participants.
Even gray water is not to be dumped on the playa, and used shower water must be captured and either evaporated off, or collected and carried home with each participant or disposed of by roving septic-pumping trucks, which also service RVs. Methods used for evaporating water normally include a plastic sheet with a wood frame.
The Bureau of Land Management, which maintains the desert, has very strict requirements for the event. These stipulations include trash cleanup, removal of burn scars, dust abatement, and capture of fluid drippings from participant vehicles. For four weeks after the event has ended, the Black Rock City Department of Public Works (BRC – DPW) Playa Restoration Crew remains in the desert, cleaning up after the temporary city in an effort to make sure that no evidence of the event remains.
Criticism
Negative effects on the environment
Burning Man's carbon footprint is primarily from transportation to the remote area. The CoolingMan organization has estimated that the 2006 Burning Man was responsible for the generation of 27,000 tons of carbon dioxide, with 87% being from transportation to and from the remote location. The Sierra Club has criticized Burning Man for the "hundreds of thousands" of plastic water bottles that end up in landfills, as well as ostentatious displays of flames and explosions.
Burning Man's 2007 theme, "Green Man", received criticism for the artwork Crude Awakening, a 99-foot oil derrick that consumed 900 gallons of jet fuel and 2,000 gallons of liquid propane to blast a mushroom cloud 300 feet high into the sky.
In an attempt to offset some of the event's carbon footprint, 30- and 50-kilowatt solar arrays were constructed in 2007 as permanent artifacts, providing an estimated annual carbon offset of 559 tons. The Burn Clean Project is a volunteer organization that has helped replace the use of fossil fuel with biodiesel.
Gentrification
Burning Man has attracted a number of billionaires and celebrities, many of them from Silicon Valley and Hollywood. It has become a networking event for them, with Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk once stating that Burning Man "is Silicon Valley".
These billionaires have paid for more luxurious camps to be set up in recent years. Derisively nicknamed "plug-n-play" or "turnkey" camps, they in general consist of lavish RVs and luxury restroom trailers that are driven into the city and connected together to form de facto gated areas. These billionaires then fly in to the airport on private planes, are driven to their camps, served by hired help (nicknamed "sherpas"), and sleep in air-conditioned beds. One venture capitalist billionaire threw a $16,500-per-head party at his camp. In 2017, Google employees shipped a box of lobsters to the playa for a meal.
Despite allowing the rich to participate in Burning Man per the "radical inclusion" principle, many traditional attendees have spoken out against their exclusive practices. Larry Harvey wrote that they also conflict with the "radical self-reliance" and other principles, but has also stated that permitting the wealthy to attend is still beneficial for Burning Man. Vandalism that occurred at the White Ocean sound camp in 2016 was said to have been a "revolution" against these attendees, describing them as being a "parasite class" or "rich parasites".
Meanwhile, the regular admission price has increased over the years. In addition, Nevada lawmakers have modified the state's entertainment and sales tax code to include such nonprofit organizations like Burning Man that sell more than 15,000 tickets. As a result, an individual ticket (including taxes) cost $424 in 2016. Even tickets sold under Burning Man's low income program are subject to these taxes. Including transportation, food, camp fees, clothing and costumes, and gifts, CNBC estimated in 2016 that the total cost of attending could range from $1,300 up to $20,000. In 2017, Money magazine estimated an average total cost of $2,348 to attend.
According to the racial makeup of Burning Man attendees in 2014, 87% of them identified themselves as white, 6% as Hispanic / Latino, 6% as Asian, 2% as Native American, and 1% as black (figures rounded). When interviewed by The Guardian about these figures, Harvey replied, "I don't think black folks like to camp as much as white folks ... We're not going to set racial quotas ... This has never been, imagined by us, as a utopian society."
While there has been criticism that Burning Man has "jumped the shark", this proposition was criticized by cultural anthropologist Graham St John, who said that Burning Man was never a utopia in the first place.
Photography restrictions
The terms of the Burning Man ticket require that participants wishing to use photo and video-recording equipment share a joint copyright of their images of Black Rock City with Burning Man, and forbid them from using their images for commercial purposes. This has been criticized by many, including the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF).
A Burning Man spokeswoman replied that the policies are not new, were written by a former head of the EFF, were used when suing to block pornographic videos, and ultimately arose from participant concerns: "We're proud that Black Rock City (a private event held on public land) is widely acknowledged as a bastion of creative freedom. [B]ut that protection [of participants' freedoms] does necessitate the acceptance of some general terms of engagement when it comes to cameras ... EFF seems to think that anyone attending any event somehow has an absolute right to take photographs, and then to do whatever they want with those images without any effective restriction or manner of enforcement. While we believe that such rights do make sense for any of us taking pictures in purely public spaces, this is not true in the private space of Burning Man – if it were it would mean that Burning Man couldn't protect participant privacy or prevent commercialization of imagery."
The Burning Man organization has since worked with the EFF and with Creative Commons and other parties, and has revised and clarified the photography policies.
Regional events
The popularity of Burning Man has encouraged other groups and organizations to hold events similar to Burning Man, some of which serve as an epilogue for participants.
Burners have created smaller regional events modeled on Burning Man, such as Burning Flipside in Texas; Apogaea in Colorado; Playa del Fuego in Delaware; Firefly in New England; Kiwiburn in New Zealand; Blazing Swan in Australia; Transformus in West Virginia; AfrikaBurn in South Africa; NoWhere near Zaragoza in Spain; Midburn in Israel; and many others.
Some of the events are officially affiliated with the Burning Man organization via the Burning Man Regional Network. This official affiliation usually requires the event to conform to the 10 principles and certain standards outlined by the Burning Man organization and to be accompanied by a "Burning Man Regional Contact", a volunteer with an official relationship to the Burning Man Project via a legal Letter of Agreement. In exchange for conforming to these standards, the event is granted permission to officially communicate itself as a Burning Man Regional Event. Also, the regional event organizers are enabled to exchange best practices with each other on a global level via online platforms and in-person conferences, which are partly sponsored by the Burning Man Project.
In popular culture
The Man Burns Tonight: A Black Rock City Mystery, a 2005 novel by Donn Cortez [Don DeBrandt], is set at Burning Man 2003.
The South Park episode "Coon vs. Coon and Friends" features Cartman manipulating the Dark Lord Cthulhu to do his bidding, which includes destroying Burning Man.
Cory Doctorow's 2013 novel Homeland opens at a near-future Burning Man.
The 2016 video game Watch Dogs 2 features the characters visiting a Burning Man-themed event.
The Simpsons episode "Blazed and Confused" features "Blazing Guy", an event based on Burning Man, with one character even referencing "Burning Man" before correcting herself to "Blazing Guy".
The first Google Doodle, a playful adaptation of the Google logo, announced the founders' attendance at Burning Man in 1998.
The plot of the Malcolm in the Middle episode "Burning Man" takes place during the event.
The Xavier: Renegade Angel episode "Escape from Squatopian Freedom" features protagonist Xavier going to an event known as "Burning Person".
The 2020 song "Burningman" By Jeff Wittek, Simon Rex and Jonah.
The festival is one of the major settings of the French language novel Tuer le père (literally: Killing the Father) by Belgian writer Amélie Nothomb.
Films
Dust & Illusions, a 2009 documentary about 30 years of Burning Man history from the perspective of 20 interviewees.
Taking My Parents to Burning Man, a 2014 film documenting the adventures and misadventures as Bryant Boesen takes his parents on their first Burn.
Spark: A Burning Man Story, a 2013 documentary about Burning Man, which includes behind-the-scenes footage and interviews with the founders.
See also
Festival gatherings
Böögg
Holika Dahan
Lohri
Rainbow Gathering
Rubber Tramp Rendezvous
Saint John's Eve
Vijayadashami
Zozobra
Music festivals
Boom Festival
Boomtown
Creamfields
Fusion Festival
Glastonbury Festival
Mysteryland
Ozora Festival
Psy-Fi
Tomorrowland (festival)
Transformational festival
Yoga festivals
Bhakti Fest
Wanderlust Festival
Places
Arcosanti
Auroville
Temporary Autonomous Zone
Others
Wicker man
Folk festivals in the United States
Hexayurt
References
Further reading
Bőnner, Bertine 2005. Das Burning Man Projekt – Religiosität und Spiritualität in Black Rock City? Eine ethnologische Perspektive. Magisterarbeit. Grin Verlag
Bowditch, Rachel. 2010. On the edge of utopia: Performance and ritual at Burning Man. Seagull books.
Chen, Katherine K. 2009. “Authenticity at Burning Man.” Contexts 8(3): 65–67.
Chen, Katherine K. 2012. “Artistic Prosumption: Cocreative Destruction at Burning Man.” American Behavioral Scientist 56(4): 570–595.
Cortez, Donn 2005. The Man Burns Tonight: A Black Rock City Mystery.
Doherty, Brian. 2004. This is Burning Man. The Rise of a New American Underground. Boston/New York: Little, Brown and Company.
Diehl, Ronny. 2010. The American Frontier in Acoustic Space. MA Thesis. Humboldt-University of Berlin. Grin Verlag.
Gauthier, François. 2013. "The Enchantments of Consumer Capitalism: Beyond Belief at the Burning Man Festival" in Religion in Consumer Society, ed. François Gauthier. Ashgate, 143–158.
Gilmore, Lee and Mark Van Proyen, eds. 2005. AfterBurn: Reflections on Burning Man. New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press.
Hockett, Jeremy 2004. Reckoning Ritual and Counterculture in the Burning Man Community: Communication, Ethnography, and the Self in Reflexive Modernism. Dissertation. Albuquerque, New Mexico: The University of New Mexico.
Kreuter, Holly. 2002. Drama in the Desert: The Sights and Sounds of Burning Man. San Francisco: Raised Barn Press.
Kristen, Christine. "Reconnecting art and life at Burning Man" in: Raw Vision, Nr. 57 (Winter 2006), S. 28–35.
Morehead, John W. 2007. Burning Man Festival as Life-Enhancing, Post-Christendom 'Middle Way'. MA Thesis. Salt Lake City, Utah: Salt Lake Theological Seminary.
Nash, A. Leo. 2007. Burning Man: Art in the Desert, Introduction by Daniel Pinchbeck. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Pike, Sarah M. 2001. Desert Goddesses and Apocalyptic Art. Making Sacred Space at the Burning Man Festival. In: Mazur, Eric Michael/McCarthy, Kate (Hrsg.): God in the Details. American Religion in Popular Culture. London/New York: Routledge, 155–176.
Post, George P. 2012. Dancing with the Playa Messiah: A 21-Year Burning Man Photo Album. Richmond, CA: Dragon Fotografix.
Roberts, Adrian, ed. "Burning Man Live: 13 years of Piss Clear, Black Rock City's alternative newspaper" San Francisco: RE/Search Publications.
St John, Graham. 2017. Blazing Grace: The Gifted Culture of Burning ManNANO: New American Notes Online, 11.
St John, Graham. 2018. The Big Empty Aeon, 10 September.
White, Carolyn L. 2020. The Archaeology of Burning Man: The Rise and Fall of Black Rock City. University of New Mexico Press.
External links
Burning Man page Annual coverage from SFGate.com and the San Francisco Chronicle
FBI file on Burning Man
1986 establishments in California
1986 in San Francisco
Articles containing video clips
Black Rock Desert
Cacophony Society
Clothing-optional events
Counterculture festivals
Culture of San Francisco
Festivals in Nevada
Intentional communities in the United States
New Age in popular culture
Recurring events established in 1986
Rituals
Traditions involving fire
Transformational festivals
|
[
0.6818514466285706,
0.2259528636932373,
-0.8274224400520325,
0.29160866141319275,
-0.6092067360877991,
-0.36877861618995667,
0.8735151886940002,
0.2149733155965805,
-0.03073422983288765,
-0.06013670563697815,
-0.3029091954231262,
-0.17909763753414154,
-0.4529549479484558,
0.5973097085952759,
-0.4317367672920227,
0.3216260075569153,
0.27096736431121826,
0.21361128985881805,
-0.36812299489974976,
0.39153409004211426,
-0.1539355367422104,
-0.8038103580474854,
0.4860234260559082,
0.0005091761704534292,
-0.014140616171061993,
-0.12743254005908966,
0.2488093227148056,
-0.1052451804280281,
-0.38961172103881836,
0.6448984146118164,
-0.16501519083976746,
0.43189772963523865,
0.39032718539237976,
-0.6125865578651428,
0.17847129702568054,
0.13336916267871857,
-0.08241235464811325,
-0.48295313119888306,
0.06611459702253342,
-0.1004667729139328,
0.2204480916261673,
0.04622148349881172,
0.14385057985782623,
0.44035789370536804,
0.6718443036079407,
0.03815264254808426,
-1.1693845987319946,
0.34230926632881165,
-0.6489889025688171,
0.24620512127876282,
-0.7560253143310547,
0.13550503551959991,
0.04708961024880409,
0.748133659362793,
-0.0647943988442421,
0.4956236183643341,
-0.36308228969573975,
0.23359061777591705,
-0.3161124289035797,
-0.48591041564941406,
0.21672560274600983,
0.11677877604961395,
-0.08684909343719482,
0.2684241235256195,
0.15021540224552155,
0.0015365559374913573,
-0.38987213373184204,
0.628727376461029,
0.26581525802612305,
-0.0919843390583992,
-0.36604198813438416,
-0.25322774052619934,
-0.13104408979415894,
0.2422477751970291,
0.1707908809185028,
-0.1656896471977234,
0.38346171379089355,
-0.34294742345809937,
-0.28742098808288574,
0.11784514039754868,
-0.415270060300827,
0.3000960052013397,
0.13832488656044006,
0.07420819997787476,
0.703018307685852,
-0.16968943178653717,
-0.0440693125128746,
0.19417962431907654,
-0.03943026438355446,
0.41089290380477905,
0.10782651603221893,
-0.20378944277763367,
0.6341525912284851,
0.05782327055931091,
0.16975660622119904,
0.052968818694353104,
0.7011524438858032,
-0.2194751352071762,
0.22554929554462433,
-0.14526304602622986,
0.1825598031282425,
0.10788343101739883,
0.4988105297088623,
0.4211256206035614,
-0.26305004954338074,
-0.1321735680103302,
0.12034130096435547,
-0.624163031578064,
1.0046695470809937,
-0.591012179851532,
0.07329157739877701,
0.8004893660545349,
-0.050355661660432816,
-0.30122673511505127,
0.11879786849021912,
0.2657012641429901,
0.21466225385665894,
-0.3749676048755646,
-0.07538750767707825,
-0.3466827869415283,
0.04869459569454193,
0.9006466865539551,
-0.49622368812561035,
0.38274288177490234,
-0.8874965310096741,
0.2677114009857178,
1.082844614982605,
0.5163566470146179,
-0.7380902171134949,
0.1307743489742279,
0.10905855149030685,
0.10260886698961258,
0.37737399339675903,
-1.1257765293121338,
-0.2891545593738556,
0.12365364283323288,
0.47684964537620544,
-0.23433782160282135,
0.5130278468132019,
0.301698237657547,
-0.28555378317832947,
-0.505085289478302,
-1.018043875694275,
0.17577528953552246,
0.5800420641899109,
0.0011533983051776886,
0.06156426668167114,
-0.4021255671977997,
-0.023875998333096504,
0.11094604432582855,
0.06374074518680573,
0.15368512272834778,
-0.21313326060771942,
0.027682224288582802,
-0.42158111929893494,
0.3261144757270813,
0.09704596549272537,
-0.3663870394229889,
0.3987216651439667,
0.1866523176431656,
0.14688004553318024,
-0.15085558593273163,
0.6130509376525879,
-0.15284974873065948,
-0.04430430009961128,
0.23950257897377014,
-0.09662256389856339,
0.3641159236431122,
-0.2164050191640854,
-0.40327563881874084,
-0.25778165459632874,
0.4193563759326935,
0.27821284532546997,
-0.4230613708496094,
0.01886000484228134,
-0.0557425357401371,
0.6605033278465271,
0.3179066479206085,
0.09371554851531982,
0.5145918726921082,
-0.5523564219474792,
-0.29160046577453613,
0.1672406643629074,
-0.005130396224558353,
0.06323105096817017,
-0.6189481616020203,
-0.22052939236164093,
0.09356328845024109,
-0.2786957025527954,
0.4820218086242676,
-0.6128243207931519,
-0.3073159158229828,
0.29303431510925293,
-0.5884911417961121,
1.1396113634109497,
0.10329705476760864,
-0.37912750244140625,
0.33345580101013184,
0.09693298488855362,
0.13469669222831726,
-0.39041516184806824,
-0.03941949084401131,
0.29145750403404236,
-0.3401845395565033,
-0.9565691351890564,
0.6046261787414551,
0.03704182803630829,
0.1231599748134613,
0.21293355524539948,
-0.146887868642807,
0.015024976804852486,
-0.5782780051231384,
0.44951650500297546,
0.5874620079994202,
0.10192883014678955,
0.09308263659477234,
-0.4925127327442169,
0.2073611170053482,
-0.017306052148342133,
-0.22184798121452332,
0.6801484227180481,
0.24643628299236298,
-0.21904660761356354,
0.17212042212486267,
-0.1452818065881729,
0.37037697434425354,
-0.012467443943023682,
0.026627641171216965,
0.5316702723503113,
-0.5961086750030518,
0.0628189668059349,
0.9644048810005188,
-0.17087386548519135,
-0.514800488948822,
0.01588345877826214,
-0.045502010732889175,
0.4159294366836548,
-0.4999995231628418,
0.369125634431839,
-0.559612512588501,
-0.04958116635680199,
0.3801334500312805,
0.010769752785563469,
0.6996366381645203,
-0.3215225040912628,
0.5431087017059326,
0.0986056923866272,
0.41051214933395386,
-0.09112327545881271,
0.28976133465766907,
0.05744585022330284,
0.6203532814979553,
0.20229701697826385,
-0.5086714625358582,
0.008938590995967388,
0.07470414787530899,
0.05748279392719269,
-0.3795575201511383,
0.2846645712852478,
-0.5155829787254333,
0.2440120279788971,
-0.2674907445907593,
-0.47749704122543335,
0.32994747161865234,
-0.06329639256000519,
-1.1535018682479858,
-0.3218400478363037,
-0.08604269474744797,
-0.027883263304829597,
0.08760466426610947,
0.9065403342247009,
0.1673135757446289,
0.23643630743026733,
-0.7413915395736694,
-0.06916467100381851,
-0.2363438904285431,
-0.011629624292254448,
0.5535898208618164,
-0.13715766370296478,
-0.42022207379341125,
-0.37593597173690796,
0.6262325644493103,
0.18767309188842773,
-0.5678791403770447,
0.09829442203044891,
-0.01200797874480486,
0.3012399673461914,
-0.07582216709852219,
-0.23013457655906677,
0.51884526014328,
0.13855397701263428,
0.05799032002687454,
0.664976179599762,
0.2766610085964203,
-0.08434730768203735,
0.16525255143642426,
-0.44140002131462097,
-0.18459805846214294,
-0.22619004547595978,
0.08026597648859024,
-0.3517439663410187,
-0.5402241945266724,
-0.8167822360992432,
0.078047975897789,
-0.015530948527157307,
-0.0006881269509904087,
-0.396727591753006,
-0.1504219025373459,
-5.798747539520264,
0.35506147146224976,
-0.36647191643714905,
-0.051620565354824066,
-0.4530603885650635,
0.025693584233522415,
0.5990073084831238,
-0.3269680440425873,
-0.24894987046718597,
-0.04666954651474953,
0.0808715969324112,
-0.006574018858373165,
-0.006754441652446985,
0.37348195910453796,
-0.047552984207868576,
0.30987218022346497,
0.41949552297592163,
0.0576421320438385,
0.11033687740564346,
0.04282497242093086,
-0.1222381666302681,
0.45723265409469604,
-0.07720666378736496,
0.4235309660434723,
0.5126816034317017,
0.18165847659111023,
-0.43616706132888794,
0.28714126348495483,
0.0871642455458641,
-0.08533920347690582,
0.5865496397018433,
-0.12265840172767639,
-0.10685139894485474,
0.36029118299484253,
0.13870565593242645,
0.26758602261543274,
0.17184099555015564,
0.06898245960474014,
-0.08037175983190536,
0.034520041197538376,
-0.3178027868270874,
0.24466556310653687,
-0.7144741415977478,
0.3310140371322632,
0.9225208759307861,
-0.08213663101196289,
-0.4328620731830597,
-0.6308712363243103,
-0.06776665896177292,
0.26231223344802856,
0.5081785917282104,
-0.28806832432746887,
0.8588467836380005,
-0.13624854385852814,
0.10027536004781723,
-0.2651306390762329,
0.4400556981563568,
-0.20205417275428772,
-0.06226225197315216,
-0.13617761433124542,
0.3985491991043091,
0.1478937268257141,
0.22257080674171448,
-0.27066969871520996,
-0.11626230925321579,
-0.4236079156398773,
-0.052463699132204056,
-0.4339021146297455,
0.286239355802536,
-0.1983669400215149,
0.09325125068426132,
0.4894629120826721,
-0.6980511546134949,
-1.127321481704712,
0.10481394082307816,
-0.30536800622940063,
0.03594379499554634,
-0.11451883614063263,
0.28933945298194885,
-0.13409830629825592,
-0.4156211018562317,
0.05600395053625107,
-0.3047516942024231,
-0.4157590866088867,
-0.074822336435318,
0.054237693548202515,
0.1191549301147461,
0.16525135934352875,
-0.13433896005153656,
-0.2167998105287552,
0.6863651275634766,
0.044866759330034256,
0.11296416819095612,
0.23060478270053864,
0.44903525710105896,
0.711101770401001,
0.48983484506607056,
-0.13023076951503754,
0.18189704418182373,
0.2717096507549286,
0.1553281545639038,
-0.4277142286300659,
-0.2847821116447449,
-0.2831796705722809,
-0.5022099614143372,
0.07441229373216629,
0.08993489295244217,
0.5771576166152954,
0.980438232421875,
-0.10523542016744614,
0.10868848860263824,
0.6591620445251465,
-0.19618043303489685,
-0.30346885323524475,
0.16930294036865234,
-0.07656717300415039,
-0.43832507729530334,
0.53597491979599,
0.41900667548179626,
0.2168697714805603,
0.5358868837356567,
0.4060487151145935,
-0.5733015537261963,
0.055942900478839874,
0.13588805496692657,
-0.10723032802343369,
-0.30930405855178833,
0.24612808227539062,
0.3485254645347595,
-0.05277566239237785,
0.6199014782905579,
0.30129513144493103,
0.2459435760974884,
0.00851584505289793,
0.3316896855831146,
-0.12660828232765198,
-0.15117110311985016,
-0.45191168785095215,
-0.09501120448112488,
0.09728646278381348,
0.14793430268764496,
0.19939182698726654,
-0.3174649775028229,
0.5105506777763367,
0.14364147186279297,
0.5778756737709045,
-0.3889334797859192,
-0.2446327805519104,
-0.4388417899608612,
0.6459446549415588,
-0.38067254424095154,
-0.04694535583257675,
0.02533777803182602,
-0.6421872973442078,
0.11743570119142532,
-0.048448339104652405,
-0.14712947607040405,
0.1540406197309494,
0.09377264976501465,
-0.1288633942604065,
-0.22051045298576355,
-0.3653707504272461,
-1.3786282539367676,
-0.058978356420993805,
-0.10932455956935883,
-0.827196478843689,
0.006037650629878044,
-0.1471480429172516,
-0.5468844771385193,
-0.2041059136390686,
-0.22544635832309723,
-0.24946632981300354,
0.04687053710222244,
-0.261758029460907,
0.4275369942188263,
-0.39439132809638977,
0.14471811056137085,
-0.07580848038196564,
0.18141083419322968,
-0.4236147105693817,
0.22103652358055115,
-0.05789770558476448,
-0.625626802444458,
0.025554988533258438,
0.32046425342559814,
-0.9777120351791382,
-0.12630197405815125,
0.060678400099277496,
0.07095957547426224,
0.30268731713294983,
0.3846932053565979,
0.21505683660507202,
-0.03868231549859047,
0.4639076888561249,
-0.3162115514278412,
-0.6597439050674438,
0.1644936054944992,
-0.15517498552799225,
-0.11349968612194061,
-0.25381481647491455,
0.5035054683685303,
-0.12678863108158112,
-1.0369199514389038,
0.5717473030090332,
0.025368455797433853,
-0.6248205900192261,
0.10273826867341995,
-0.0062713222578167915,
-0.6116288304328918,
-0.25550127029418945,
0.06294844299554825,
0.08765982836484909,
-0.4315299391746521,
0.4826712906360626,
-0.21570995450019836,
0.001570540596731007,
0.04969291016459465,
-0.39919817447662354,
-0.04675011709332466,
-0.14814667403697968,
0.27815091609954834,
0.2849861979484558,
-0.4796251952648163,
-0.020632779225707054,
-0.3202363848686218,
0.6290093660354614,
0.06500191241502762,
-0.601531445980072,
-0.4768797755241394,
-0.5642096400260925,
0.051193006336688995,
0.12775859236717224,
-0.4695541560649872,
-0.019879432395100594,
-0.009609485976397991,
-0.10219951719045639,
0.13378192484378815,
0.011340489611029625,
-0.48851317167282104,
0.3935788869857788,
0.12515833973884583,
0.30379921197891235,
0.37490731477737427,
-0.3171478509902954,
-0.3542124629020691,
0.061255957931280136,
-0.3164631128311157,
0.08248889446258545,
-0.35089197754859924,
-0.24710804224014282,
0.04886958375573158,
-0.6131895780563354,
-0.3229943811893463,
0.08988319337368011,
0.31129178404808044,
-0.3956078886985779,
-0.23587264120578766,
-0.12445362657308578,
-0.03336929902434349,
-0.2661287784576416,
0.20142967998981476,
-0.32477179169654846,
-0.5830462574958801,
0.33837828040122986,
-0.047079283744096756,
0.02308865264058113,
-0.31858617067337036,
-0.6361498236656189,
-0.4530167579650879,
-0.7159717679023743,
-0.1261344999074936,
0.48957914113998413,
0.29210782051086426,
0.3348750174045563,
-0.1386650651693344,
-0.060960810631513596,
-0.39780133962631226,
-0.4357110857963562,
-0.27491986751556396,
0.031752485781908035,
0.5720548629760742,
-0.28384265303611755,
-0.16544295847415924,
0.054591499269008636,
0.5381601452827454,
-0.8684676289558411,
0.195823535323143,
-0.42934444546699524,
-0.7107738852500916,
-0.5686414837837219,
-0.03914136439561844,
-0.5345585346221924,
0.191384956240654,
0.11153343319892883,
-0.06458622217178345,
-0.04769618809223175,
0.2532278895378113,
0.019001590088009834,
-0.42086997628211975,
0.2217201292514801,
-0.8307746648788452,
0.6534410119056702,
0.13017790019512177,
-0.4338250458240509,
0.5251100659370422,
-0.29939335584640503,
-0.35560357570648193,
0.05073747783899307,
0.12018411606550217,
0.059256430715322495,
0.2174081951379776,
0.035334281623363495,
0.02557600475847721,
0.9679843187332153,
-0.6161949634552002,
0.10926571488380432,
0.1911521852016449,
-0.20761500298976898,
0.7843823432922363,
0.0030315439216792583,
-0.21294523775577545,
-0.10894719511270523,
0.5863357782363892,
0.142424538731575,
0.5350283980369568,
0.44550734758377075,
-0.19952519237995148,
-0.0887952446937561,
0.3155578076839447,
-0.12093767523765564,
0.4892178475856781,
-0.12752985954284668,
-0.084867924451828,
0.26652607321739197,
-0.3321249186992645,
-0.08816821873188019,
-0.1257801353931427,
-0.03523913025856018,
-1.0657036304473877,
0.0598067007958889,
0.2642054557800293,
0.014838162809610367,
-0.28217437863349915,
0.4430517852306366,
0.12436381727457047,
0.4507872760295868,
-0.03627839311957359,
0.22952908277511597,
0.02952074259519577,
0.3840387463569641,
0.3671494126319885,
-0.45284304022789,
-0.06915725022554398,
-0.10157115012407303,
0.4329109191894531,
-0.5279783606529236,
0.38322341442108154,
0.5603424906730652,
-0.10672630369663239,
-0.31750425696372986,
0.7059497833251953,
-0.04208634793758392,
0.015756307169795036,
-0.024185996502637863,
0.2619197368621826,
-0.12408755719661713,
-0.6630041003227234,
-0.44674620032310486,
-0.29002925753593445,
0.4203193485736847,
0.4209791421890259,
0.2981807291507721,
-0.13180527091026306,
0.26278188824653625,
0.5512312650680542,
0.16454748809337616,
0.34613582491874695,
0.01351937372237444,
0.13546116650104523,
0.17120157182216644,
-0.23973393440246582,
-0.10810021311044693,
-0.43932655453681946,
-0.17769679427146912,
0.07970475405454636,
-0.0235108844935894,
-0.23044376075267792,
0.4934210777282715,
-0.7445647716522217,
-0.341299444437027,
-0.07627510279417038,
0.6527529954910278,
-0.2259293496608734,
0.1672831028699875,
-0.17960023880004883,
-0.09481069445610046,
-0.017619963735342026,
0.34366685152053833,
-0.2972954213619232,
0.20284044742584229,
-0.04358658567070961,
-0.05949299409985542,
0.20107081532478333,
0.5859108567237854,
-0.5882500410079956,
0.20197230577468872,
-0.47852087020874023,
-0.41417405009269714,
-0.796429455280304,
0.7238149046897888,
0.31786614656448364,
-0.2864373028278351,
0.5059586763381958,
0.14364854991436005,
-0.17179135978221893,
0.09952554106712341,
0.8273277878761292,
-0.1441398411989212,
0.48817282915115356,
-0.10524500906467438,
0.19756416976451874,
-0.6279219388961792,
0.035434540361166,
0.7388511300086975,
-0.5151441097259521,
-0.8049381971359253,
0.6881046891212463,
-0.3001314699649811,
0.006010265089571476,
0.3478851318359375,
-0.08575257658958435,
-0.04449797794222832,
-0.6611720323562622,
0.20044958591461182,
-0.4432467222213745,
-0.8048651814460754,
0.2900976538658142,
0.9693015217781067,
0.6118906140327454,
-0.1416417509317398,
0.4964343309402466,
-0.6866894364356995,
-0.5139923691749573,
-0.4979040026664734,
-1.830299973487854,
0.3769807517528534,
0.001156780170276761,
0.10088609904050827,
-0.14698027074337006,
0.9486621618270874,
0.23648853600025177,
0.07883001863956451,
-0.17158252000808716,
-0.23601892590522766,
-0.028225285932421684,
0.06400973349809647,
0.5035319328308105,
-0.20136086642742157,
0.6294760704040527,
-0.028942877426743507
] |
203792
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%B6gyam%20Trungpa
|
Chögyam Trungpa
|
Chögyam Trungpa (Wylie: Chos rgyam Drung pa; March 5, 1939 – April 4, 1987) was a Tibetan Buddhist meditation master and holder of both the Kagyu and Nyingma lineages of Tibetan Buddhism, the 11th of the Trungpa tülkus, a tertön, supreme abbot of the Surmang monasteries, scholar, teacher, poet, artist, and originator of a radical re-presentation of Tibetan Buddhist teachings and the myth of Shambhala as an enlightened society that was later called Shambhala Buddhism.
Recognized both by Tibetan Buddhists and by other spiritual practitioners and scholars as a preeminent teacher of Tibetan Buddhism, he was a major figure in the dissemination of Buddhism in the West, founding Vajradhatu and Naropa University and establishing the Shambhala Training method.
Among his contributions are the translation of numerous Tibetan Buddhist texts, and the introduction of the Vajrayana teachings to the West. Trungpa coined the term crazy wisdom. Some of his teaching methods and actions, particularly his heavy drinking, womanizing, and the physical assault of a student and his wife, caused controversy during his lifetime and afterward.
Biography
Early years
Born in the Nangchen region of Tibet in March 1939, Chögyam Trungpa was eleventh in the line of Trungpa tülkus, important figures in the Kagyu lineage, one of the four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Among his three main teachers were Jamgon Kongtrul of Sechen, HH Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, and Khenpo Gangshar.
The name Chögyam is a contraction of Chökyi Gyamtso (), which means "Ocean of Dharma". Trungpa () means "attendant". He was deeply trained in the Kagyu tradition and received his khenpo degree at the same time as Thrangu Rinpoche; they continued to be very close in later years. Chögyam Trungpa was also trained in the Nyingma tradition, the oldest of the four schools, and was an adherent of the ri-mé ("nonsectarian") ecumenical movement within Tibetan Buddhism, which aspired to bring together and make available all the valuable teachings of the different schools, free of sectarian rivalry.
At the time of his escape from Tibet, Trungpa was head of the Surmang group of monasteries.
Escape from Tibet
On April 23, 1959, twenty-year-old Trungpa set out on an epic nine-month escape from his homeland. Masked in his account in Born in Tibet to protect those left behind, the first, preparatory stage of his escape had begun a year earlier, when he fled his home monastery after its occupation by the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA). After spending the winter in hiding, he decided definitively to escape after learning that his monastery had been destroyed. Trungpa started with Akong Rinpoche and a small party of monastics, but as they traveled people asked to join until the party eventually numbered 300 refugees, from the elderly to mothers with babies – additions which greatly slowed and complicated the journey. Forced to abandon their animals, over half the journey was on foot as the refugees journeyed through an untracked mountain wilderness to avoid the PLA. Sometimes lost, sometimes traveling at night, after three months’ trek they reached the Brahmaputra River. Trungpa, the monastics and about 70 refugees managed to cross the river under heavy gunfire, then, eating their leather belts and bags to survive, they climbed 19,000 feet over the Himalayas before reaching the safety of Pema Ko. After reaching India, on January 24, 1960 the party was flown to a refugee camp.
Between 2006 and 2010, independent Canadian and French researchers using satellite imagery tracked and confirmed Trungpa’s escape route. In 2012, five survivors of the escape in Nepal, Scotland and the U.S. confirmed details of the journey and supplied their personal accounts. More recent analysis has shown the journey to be directly comparable to such sagas as Shackleton’s 1914/17 Antarctic Expedition. In 2016 accumulated research and survivors’ stories were published in a full retelling of the story, and later in the year preliminary talks began on the funding and production of a movie.
Early teachings in the West
Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa was known for seeing the future and made plans accordingly. In 1954, shortly after giving the monastic vows, Karmapa turned to Trungpa and said, "In the future you will bring Dharma to the West." At the time, his students wondered what in the world could he be talking about.
In exile in India, Trungpa began his study of English. In collaboration with Freda Bedi, who had initiated the project, Trungpa and Akong Tulku founded the Young Lamas Home School and, after seeking endorsement from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, were appointed its spiritual head and administrator respectively.
In 1963, with the assistance of sympathetic Westerners, Trungpa received a Spalding sponsorship to study comparative religion in Oxford. He later said that he attended St Antony's College, Oxford University. In 1967, upon the departure of the western Theravadan monk Anandabodhi, Trungpa and Akong Rinpoche were invited by the Johnstone House Trust in Scotland to take over a meditation center, which then became Samye Ling, the first Tibetan Buddhist monastery in the West (future actor and musician David Bowie was one of Trungpa's meditation pupils there). In 1970, after a break with Akong, Trungpa moved to the United States at the invitation of several students.
Shortly after his move to Scotland, a variety of experiences, including a car accident that left him partially paralyzed on the left side of his body, led Trungpa to give up his monastic vows and work as a lay teacher. He drank, smoked, slept with students, and often kept students waiting for hours before giving teachings. Much of his behavior has been construed as deliberately provocative and sparked controversy. In one account, he encouraged students to give up smoking marijuana, claiming that the smoking was not of benefit to their spiritual progress and that it exaggerated neurosis. Students were often angered, unnerved and intimidated by him, but many remained fiercely loyal, committed, and devoted.
Upon moving to the United States in 1970, Trungpa traveled throughout North America, gaining renown for his ability to present the essence of the highest Buddhist teachings in a form readily understandable to Western students. During this period, he conducted 13 Vajradhatu Seminaries, three-month residential programs at which he presented a vast body of Buddhist teachings in an atmosphere of intensive meditation practice. The seminaries also had the important function of training his students to become teachers themselves.
Introduction of the Vajrayana
Trungpa was one of the first teachers to introduce the esoteric practice of the Vajrayana to the West. According to Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso, "The one who mainly spread the Vajrayana in the West was Trungpa Rinpoche." In contrast to its traditional presentation in Tibet, where the esoteric practices are largely the domain of the monastic sangha, in the US Trungpa introduced the Vajrayana to the lay sangha.
The presentation of these teachings gave rise to some criticism. According to Trungpa's former student Stephen Butterfield, "Trungpa told us that if we ever tried to leave the Vajrayana, we would suffer unbearable, subtle, continuous anguish, and disasters would pursue us like furies".
Butterfield noted "disquieting resemblances" to cults: "to be part of Trungpa's inner circle, you had to take a vow never to reveal or even discuss some of the things he did." He states, "This personal secrecy is common with gurus, especially in Vajrayana Buddhism," and that "a mere cult leaves you disgusted and disillusioned, wondering how you could have been a fool. I did not feel that charlatans had hoodwinked me into giving up my powers to enhance theirs. On the contrary, mine were unveiled."
Meditation and education centers
In 1973, Trungpa established Vajradhatu, encompassing all his North American institutions, headquartered in Boulder, Colorado. Trungpa also founded more than 100 meditation centers throughout the world. Originally known as Dharmadhatus, these centers, now more than 150 in number, are known as Shambhala Meditation Centers. He also founded retreat centers for intensive meditation practice, including Shambhala Mountain Center in Red Feather Lakes, Colorado, Karmê Chöling in Barnet, Vermont and Gampo Abbey in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.
In 1974, Trungpa founded the Naropa Institute, which later became Naropa University, in Boulder, Colorado. Naropa was the first accredited Buddhist university in North America. Trungpa hired Allen Ginsberg to teach poetry and William Burroughs to teach literature.
Trungpa had a number of notable students, among whom were Pema Chödrön, Allen Ginsberg, Peter Orlovsky, Anne Waldman, Diane di Prima, Peter Lieberson, John Steinbeck IV, José Argüelles, David Nichtern, Ken Wilber, David Deida, Francisco Varela, and Joni Mitchell, who portrayed Trungpa in the song "Refuge of the Roads" on her 1976 album Hejira. Ginsberg, Waldman, and di Prima also taught at Naropa University, and in the 1980s Marianne Faithfull taught songwriting workshops.
Lesser-known students Trungpa taught in England and the US include Alf Vial, Rigdzin Shikpo (né Michael Hookham), Jigme Rinzen (né P. Howard Useche), Ezequiel Hernandez Urdaneta (known as Keun-Tshen Goba after setting up his first meditation center in Venezuela), Miguel Otaola (aka Dorje Khandro), Francisco Salas Roche, and Francesca Fremantle. Rigdzin Shikpo promulgated Trungpa's teachings from a primarily Nyingma rather than Kagyü point of view at the Longchen Foundation.
Shambhala vision
In 1976, Trungpa began giving a series of secular teachings, some of which were gathered and presented as the Shambhala Training, inspired by his vision of the legendary Kingdom of Shambhala. Trungpa actually started writing about Shambhala before his 1959 escape from Tibet to India, but most of those writings were lost during the escape.
In his view not only was individual enlightenment not mythical, but the Shambhala Kingdom, an enlightened society, could in fact be actualized. The practice of Shambhala vision is to use mindfulness/awareness meditation as a way to connect with one's basic goodness and confidence. It is presented as a path that "brings dignity, confidence, and wisdom to every facet of life." Trungpa proposed to lead the Kingdom as sakyong (Tib. earth protector) with his wife as queen-consort or sakyong wangmo.
Shambhala vision is described as a nonreligious approach rooted in meditation and accessible to individuals of any, or no, religion. In Shambhala terms, it is possible, moment by moment, for individuals to establish enlightened society. His book, Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior, provides a concise collection of the Shambhala views. According to Trungpa, it was his intention to propagate the kingdom of Shambala that provided the necessary inspiration to leave his homeland and make the arduous journey to India and the West.
Work with arts and sciences
From the beginning of his time in the US, Trungpa encouraged his students to integrate a contemplative approach into their everyday activities. In addition to making a variety of traditional contemplative practices available to the community, he incorporated his students' already existing interests (especially anything relating to Japanese culture), evolving specialized teachings on a meditative approach to these various disciplines. These included kyūdō (Japanese archery), calligraphy, ikebana (flower arranging), Sadō (Japanese tea ceremony), dance, theater, film, poetry, photography, health care, and psychotherapy. His aim was, in his own words, to bring "art to everyday life." He founded the Nalanda Foundation in 1974 as an umbrella organization for these activities.
Death
Trungpa visited Nova Scotia for the first time in 1977. In 1983 he established Gampo Abbey, a Karma Kagyü monastery in Cape Breton. The following year, 1984–85, he observed a yearlong retreat at Mill Village and in 1986 he moved his home and Vajradhatu's international headquarters to Halifax.
By then he was in failing health due to the auto accident in 1969 and years of heavy alcohol use. On September 28, 1986, he suffered cardiac arrest, after which his condition deteriorated, requiring intensive care at the hospital, then at his home and finally, in mid-March 1987, back at the hospital, where he died on April 4, 1987.
In 2006 his wife, Diana Mukpo, wrote, "Although he had many of the classic health problems that develop from heavy drinking, it was in fact more likely the diabetes and high blood pressure that led to abnormal blood sugar levels and then the cardiac arrest". But in a November 2008 interview, when asked "What was he ill with? What did he die of?," Trungpa's doctor, Mitchell Levy, replied, "He had chronic liver disease related to his alcohol intake over many years." One of Trungpa's nursing attendants reported that he suffered in his last months from classic symptoms of terminal alcoholism and cirrhosis, yet continued drinking heavily. She added, "At the same time there was a power about him and an equanimity to his presence that was phenomenal, that I don't know how to explain."
His body was packed in salt, laid in a wooden box, and conveyed to Karmê Chöling. Acolytes claimed that his cremation there on May 26, 1987, was accompanied by rainbows, circling eagles, and a cloud in the shape of an Ashe as symbolic of enlightenment.
Continuation of the Shambhala lineage
Upon Trungpa's death, the leadership of Vajradhatu was first carried on by his American disciple, appointed regent and Dharma heir, Ösel Tendzin (Thomas Rich). In 1989 it was revealed that Ösel Tendzin had contracted HIV and knowingly continued to have unsafe sex with his students without informing them for nearly three years. Some of these students later died of AIDS. Others close to Tendzin, including Vajradhatu's board of directors, knew for two years that Tendzin was HIV-positive and sexually active but kept silent. This damaged Shambhala and Tibetan Buddhism in general in the United States. The leadership of Shambhala then passed on to Trungpa's eldest son and Shambhala heir, Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche.
Acclaim
Major lineage holders of Trungpa's Tibetan Buddhist traditions and many other Buddhist teachers supported his work.
In 1974, Trungpa invited the 16th Karmapa, head of the Karma Kagyu lineage, to come to the West and offer teachings. Based on this visit, the Karmapa proclaimed Trungpa one of the principal Kagyu lineage holders in the west:
The ancient and renowned lineage of the Trungpas, since the great siddha Trungmase Chökyi Gyamtso Lodrö, possessor of only holy activity, has in every generation given rise to great beings. Awakened by the vision of these predecessors in the lineage, this my present lineage holder, Chökyi Gyamtso Trungpa Rinpoche, supreme incarnate being, has magnificently carried out the vajra holders' discipline in the land of America, bringing about the liberation of students and ripening them in the dharma. This wonderful truth is clearly manifest.
Accordingly, I empower Chögyam Trungpa Vajra Holder and Possessor of the Victory Banner of the Practice Lineage of the Karma Kagyu. Let this be recognized by all people of both elevated and ordinary station.
In 1981, Trungpa and his students hosted the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in his visit to Boulder, Colorado. Of Trungpa, the Dalai Lama later wrote, "Exceptional as one of the first Tibetan lamas to become fully assimilated into Western culture, he made a powerful contribution to revealing the Tibetan approach to inner peace in the West."
Trungpa also received support from one of his own main teachers, Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, head of the Nyingma lineage. In addition to numerous sadhanas and poems dedicated to Trungpa, Khyentse Rinpoche wrote a supplication after Trungpa's death specifically naming him a mahasiddha. Among other Tibetan lamas to name Trungpa a mahasiddha are the Sixteenth Karmapa, Thrangu Rinpoche, Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso Rinpoche and Tai Situpa.
The Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche said, "As taught in the Buddhist scriptures, there are nine qualities of a perfect master of buddhadharma. The eleventh Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche possessed all nine of these."
Suzuki Roshi, founder of the San Francisco Zen Center and Tassajara Zen Mountain Center, and another important exponent of Buddhism to western students, described Trungpa in the context of a talk about emptiness:
The way you can struggle with this is to be supported by something, something you don't know. As we are human beings, there must be that kind of feeling. You must feel it in this city or building or community. So whatever community it may be, it is necessary for it to have this kind of spiritual support.
That is why I respect Trungpa Rinpoche. He is supporting us. You may criticize him because he drinks alcohol like I drink water, but that is a minor problem. He trusts you completely. He knows that if he is always supporting you in a true sense you will not criticize him, whatever he does. And he doesn't mind whatever you say. That is not the point, you know. This kind of big spirit, without clinging to some special religion or form of practice, is necessary for human beings.
Gehlek Rinpoche, who lived with Trungpa when they were young monks in India and later visited and taught with him in the U.S., remarked:
He was a great Tibetan yogi, a friend, and a master. The more I deal with Western Dharma students, the more I appreciate how he presented the dharma and the activities that he taught. Whenever I meet with difficulties, I begin to understand – sometimes before solving the problem, sometimes afterward – why Trungpa Rinpoche did some unconventional things. I do consider him to be the father of Tibetan Buddhism in the United States. In my opinion, he left very early – too early. His death was a great loss. Everything he did is significant.
Diana Mukpo, his wife, stated:
First, Rinpoche always wanted feedback. He very, very much encouraged his students’ critical intelligence. One of the reasons that people were in his circle was that they were willing to be honest and direct with him. He definitely was not one of those teachers who asked for obedience and wanted their students not to think for themselves. He thrived, he lived, on the intelligence of his students. That is how he built his entire teaching situation.
From my perspective, I could always be pretty direct with him. Maybe I was not hesitant to do that because I really trusted the unconditional nature of our relationship. I felt there was really nothing to lose by being absolutely direct with him, and he appreciated that.
Controversies
Among the forebears formally acknowledged by the Trungpa lineage, and referred to by Trungpa, were the Indian mahasiddha Ḍombipa (also known as Ḍombi Heruka; his name may have stemmed from his consorting with Dhombis, outcast women) and Drukpa Künlek (also Kunley), the Mad Yogi of Bhutan, who converted Bhutan to Buddhism and was famous for his fondness for beer and women.
Trungpa's own teaching style was often unconventional. He said, "When we talk about compassion, we talk in terms of being kind. But compassion is not so much being kind; it is being creative to wake a person up." He did not encourage his students to imitate his own behavior, and was allegedly troubled by those who felt empowered by his example to do whatever they wanted and manipulate people. Jamgön Kongtrül told Trungpa's students, "You shouldn't imitate or judge the behavior of your teacher, Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche, unless you can imitate his mind."
Trungpa's sexuality has been one of the sources of controversy, as he cultivated relations with a number of his female students. Tenzin Palmo, who met him in 1962 while he was still at Oxford, did not become one of his consorts, refusing his advances because he had presented himself as "a pure monk." Trungpa formally renounced his monastic vows in 1969.
Trungpa was also known for smoking tobacco and liberally using alcohol; many who knew him characterized him as an alcoholic. He began drinking occasionally shortly after arriving in India. Before coming to the US, Trungpa drove a sports car into a joke shop in Gateshead in North-East England, May 1969. While his companion was not seriously injured, Trungpa was left partially paralyzed. Later, he described this event as a pivotal moment that inspired the course of his teachings. Some accounts ascribe the accident to drinking. Others suggest he may have had a stroke. According to Trungpa himself, he blacked out.
Trungpa often combined drinking with teaching. David Chadwick recounts:
Suzuki [Roshi] asked Trungpa to give a talk to the students in the zendo the next night. Trungpa walked in tipsy and sat on the edge of the altar platform with his feet dangling. But he delivered a crystal-clear talk, which some felt had a quality – like Suzuki's talks – of not only being about the dharma but being itself the dharma.
In some instances Trungpa was too drunk to walk and had to be carried. Also, according to his student John Steinbeck IV and his wife, on a couple of occasions Trungpa's speech was unintelligible. One woman reported serving him "big glasses of gin first thing in the morning."
The Steinbecks wrote The Other Side of Eden, a sharply critical memoir of their lives with Trungpa in which they claim that, in addition to alcohol, he spent $40,000 a year on cocaine, and used Seconal to come down from the cocaine. The Steinbecks said the cocaine use was kept secret from the wider Vajradhatu community.
An incident that became a cause célèbre among some poets and artists was the Halloween party at Snowmass Colorado Seminary in 1975, held during a 3-month period of intensive meditation and study of the Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism. The poet W. S. Merwin had arrived at the Naropa Institute that summer and been told by Allen Ginsberg that he ought to attend the seminary. Although he had not gone through the several years' worth of study and preparatory mind training required, Merwin insisted on attending and Trungpa eventually granted his request – along with Merwin's girlfriend. At seminary the couple kept to themselves. At the Halloween party, after many, including Trungpa himself, had taken off their clothes, Merwin was asked to join the event but refused. On Trungpa's orders, his Vajra Guard forced entry into the poet's locked and barricaded room; brought him and his girlfriend, Dana Naone, against their will, to the party; and eventually stripped them of all their clothes, with onlookers ignoring Naone's pleas for help and for someone to call the police.
The next day Trungpa asked Merwin and Naone to remain at the Seminary as either students or guests. They agreed to stay for several more weeks to hear the Vajrayana teachings, with Trungpa's promise that "there would be no more incidents" and Merwin's that there would be "no guarantees of obedience, trust, or personal devotion to him." They left immediately after the last talk. In a 1977 letter to members of a Naropa class investigating the incident, Merwin concluded,
My feelings about Trungpa have been mixed from the start. Admiration, throughout, for his remarkable gifts; and reservations, which developed into profound misgivings, concerning some of his uses of them. I imagine, at least, that I've learned some things from him (though maybe not all of them were the things I was "supposed" to learn) and some through him, and I'm grateful to him for those. I wouldn't encourage anyone to become a student of his. I wish him well.
The incident became known to a wider public when Tom Clark published "The Great Naropa Poetry Wars". The Naropa Institute later asked Ed Sanders and his class to conduct an internal investigation, resulting in a lengthy report.
Eliot Weinberger commented on the incident in a critique aimed at Trungpa and Allen Ginsberg in The Nation on April 19, 1980. He stated that the fascination of some of the best minds of his generation with Trungpa's presentation of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan theocracy created a dangerous exclusivity and elitism.
Author Jeffery Paine wrote of this incident, "[s]eeing Merwin out of step with the rest, Trungpa could have asked him to leave, but decided it was kinder to shock him out of his aloofness." Paine also noted the outrage felt in particular by poets such as Robert Bly and Kenneth Rexroth, who began calling Trungpa a fascist.
Trungpa's choice of Westerner Ösel Tendzin as his dharma heir was controversial, as Tendzin was the first Western Tibetan Buddhist lineage holder and Vajra Regent. This was exacerbated by Tendzin's own behavior as lineage holder. While knowingly HIV-positive, Tendzin was sexually involved with students, one of whom became infected and died.
Chronology
1940: Born in Kham, Eastern Tibet. Enthroned as eleventh Trungpa Tulku, Supreme Abbot of Surmang Monasteries, and Governor of Surmang District. Some put his birth in 1939.
1944–1959: Studies traditional monastic disciplines, meditation, and philosophy, as well as calligraphy, thangka painting, and monastic dance.
1947: Ordained as a shramanera (novice monk).
1958: Receives degrees of Kyorpön (Master of Studies) and Khenpo (Doctor of Divinity). Ordained as a bhikshu (full monk).
1959–1960: Follows the Fourteenth Dalai Lama to India during the 1959 Tibetan uprising, which failed to overthrow the Chinese government.
1960–1963: By appointment of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, serves as spiritual advisor to the Young Lamas' Home School in Dalhousie, India.
1962: Fathers first son, Ösel Rangdröl (Mukpo), by a nun later referred to as Lady Kunchok Palden (or Lady Konchok Palden).
1963–1967: Attends Oxford on a Spalding scholarship, studying comparative religion, philosophy, and fine arts. Receives instructor's degree of the Sogetsu School of ikebana (Japanese flower arrangement).
1967: Co-founds, with Akong Rinpoche, Kagyu Samyé Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre, in Dumfriesshire, Scotland.
1968: Travels to Bhutan and goes on solitary retreat. Receives terma text while on retreat in Paro Taktsang, a sacred cliffside monastery in Bhutan.
1969: Becomes a Tibetan British subject, 10 February. Injured in a car accident, leaving him partially paralyzed. Accident reported in Newcastle Evening Chronicle, May 6, to have happened on May 5.
1970: Renounces his monastic vows. Claims that the dharma needs to be free of cultural trappings to take root.
1970: Marries wealthy 16-year-old English student Diana Judith Pybus.
1970: Arrives in North America. Establishes Tail of the Tiger, a Buddhist meditation and study center in Vermont, now Karmê Chöling. Establishes Karma Dzong, a Buddhist community in Boulder, Colorado.
1971: Begins teaching at University of Colorado. Establishes Rocky Mountain Dharma Center, now Shambhala Mountain Center, near Fort Collins, Colorado.
1972: Initiates Maitri, a therapeutic program that works with different styles of neurosis using principles of the five Buddha families. Conducts the Milarepa Film Workshop, a program that analyzes the aesthetics of film, on Lookout Mountain, Colorado.
1973: Founds Mudra Theater Group, which stages original plays and practices theater exercises, based on traditional Tibetan dance. Incorporates Vajradhatu, an international association of Buddhist meditation and study centers, now known as Shambhala International. Establishes Dorje Khyung Dzong, a retreat facility in southern Colorado. Conducts first annual Vajradhatu Seminary, a three-month advanced practice and study program.
1974: Incorporates Nalanda Foundation, a nonprofit, nonsectarian educational organization to encourage and organize programs in the fields of education, psychology, and the arts. Hosts the first North American visit of The Sixteenth Gyalwang Karmapa, head of the Karma Kagyü lineage. Founds The Naropa Institute, a contemplative studies and liberal arts college, now fully accredited as Naropa University. Forms the organization that will become the Dorje Kasung, a service group entrusted with the protection of Buddhist teachings and the welfare of the community.
1975: Forms the organization that will become the Shambhala Lodge, a group of students dedicated to fostering enlightened society. Founds the Nalanda Translation Committee for the translation of Buddhist texts from Tibetan and Sanskrit. Establishes Ashoka Credit Union.
1976: Hosts the first North American visit of Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, meditation master and scholar of the Nyingma lineage. Hosts a visit of Dudjom Rinpoche, head of the Nyingma lineage. Empowers Thomas F. Rich as his dharma heir, known thereafter as Vajra Regent Ösel Tendzin. Establishes the Kalapa Court in Boulder as his residence and a cultural center for the Vajradhatu community. Receives the first of several Shambhala terma texts. These comprise the literary source for the Shambhala teachings. Founds Alaya Preschool in Boulder.
1977: Bestows the Vajrayogini abhisheka for the first time in the West for students who have completed ngöndro practice. Establishes the celebration of Shambhala Day. Observes a yearlong retreat in Charlemont, Massachusetts. Founds Shambhala Training to promote a secular approach to meditation practice and an appreciation of basic human goodness. Visits Nova Scotia for the first time.
1978: Conducts the first annual Magyal Pomra Encampment, an advanced training program for members of the Dorje Kasung. Conducts the first annual Kalapa Assembly, an intensive training program for advanced Shambhala teachings and practices. Conducts the first Dharma Art seminar. Forms Amara, an association of health professionals. Forms the Upaya Council, a mediation council providing a forum for resolving disputes. Establishes the Midsummer's Day festival and Children's Day.
1979: Empowers his eldest son, Ösel Rangdröl Mukpo, as his successor and heir to the Shambhala lineage. Founds the Shambhala School of Dressage, an equestrian school under the direction of his wife, Diana Mukpo. Founds Vidya Elementary School in Boulder.
1980–1983: Presents a series of environmental installations and flower arranging exhibitions at art galleries in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Denver, and Boulder.
1980: Forms Kalapa Cha to promote the practice of traditional Japanese Tea Ceremony. With the Nalanda Translation Committee, completes the first English translation of The Rain of Wisdom.
1981: Hosts the visit of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama to Boulder. Conducts the first annual Buddhist-Christian Conference in Boulder, exploring the common ground between Buddhist and Christian contemplative traditions. Forms Ryuko Kyūdōjō to promote the practice of Kyūdō under the direction of Shibata Kanjuro Sensei, bow maker to the Emperor of Japan. Directs a film, Discovering Elegance, using footage of his environmental installation and flower arranging exhibitions.
1982: Forms Kalapa Ikebana to promote the study and practice of Japanese flower arranging.
1983: Establishes Gampo Abbey, a Karma Kagyü monastery in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, for Western students wishing to enter into traditional monastic discipline. Creates a series of elocution exercises to promote precision and mindfulness of speech.
1984–1985: Observes a yearlong retreat in Mill Village, Nova Scotia.
1986: Moves his home and the international headquarters of Vajradhatu to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
1987: Dies in Halifax; cremated May 26 at Karmê Chöling. (His followers have constructed a chorten or stupa, The Great Stupa of Dharmakaya, near Red Feather Lakes, Colorado, for his remains.)
1989: The child recognized as his reincarnation, Chokyi Sengay, is born in Derge, Tibet; recognized two years later by Tai Situ Rinpoche.
Bibliography
Born in Tibet (1966). An autobiography relating his escape from Tibet.
Meditation in Action (1969)
Mudra (1972)
Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism (1973)
The Dawn of Tantra. Co-authored with Herbert V. Guenther. (1975)
Glimpses of Abhidharma (1975)
The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo. Translated with commentary by Francesca Fremantle and Chögyam Trungpa (1975)
Visual Dharma: The Buddhist Art of Tibet (1975)
The Myth of Freedom and the Way of Meditation (1976)
The Rain of Wisdom (1980)
Journey without Goal: The Tantric Wisdom of the Buddha (1981)
The Life of Marpa the Translator (1982)
First Thought Best Thought: 108 Poems (1983)
Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior (1984)
Crazy Wisdom (1991)
The Heart of the Buddha (1991)
Orderly Chaos: The Mandala Principle (1991)
Secret Beyond Thought: The Five Chakras and the Four Karmas (1991)
The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra (1992)
Transcending Madness: The Experience of the Six Bardos (1992)
Training the Mind and Cultivating Loving Kindness (1993)
Glimpses of Shunyata (1993)
The Art of Calligraphy: Joining Heaven and Earth (1994)
Illusion's Game: The Life and Teaching of Naropa (1994)
The Path Is the Goal: A Basic Handbook of Buddhist Meditation (1995)
Dharma Art (1996)
Timely Rain: Selected Poetry of Chögyam Trungpa (1998)
Great Eastern Sun: The Wisdom of Shambhala (1999)
Glimpses of Space: The Feminine Principle and Evam (1999)
The Essential Chögyam Trungpa (2000)
Glimpses of Mahayana (2001)
Glimpses of Realization (2003)
The Collected Works of Chögyam Trungpa Published in eight volumes. (2003)
True Command: The Teachings of the Dorje Kasung (2004)
The Sanity We Are Born With: A Buddhist Approach to Psychology (2005)
The Teacup & the Skullcup: Chogyam Trungpa on Zen and Tantra (2007)
The Mishap Lineage: Transforming Confusion into Wisdom (2009)
Smile at Fear: Awakening the True Heart of Bravery (2010)
The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation (2010)
Work, Sex, Money. Real Life on the Path of Mindfulness (2011)
The Profound Treasury of the Ocean of Dharma (2013)
The Path of Individual Liberation (2013)
The Bodhisattava Path of Wisdom and Compassion (2013)
The Tantric Path of Indestructible Wakefulness (2013)
Training the Mind and Cultivating Loving-Kindness (2013)
Devotion and Crazy Wisdom: Teachings on the Sadhana of Mahamudra (2015)
Glimpses of the Profound: Four Short Works (2016)
Mindfulness in Action: Making Friends with Yourself through Meditation and Everyday Awareness (2016)
Milarepa: Lessons from the Life and Songs of Tibet's Great Yogi (2017)
The Future Is Open: Good Karma, Bad Karma, and Beyond Karma (2018)
Cynicism and Magic: Intelligence and Intuition on the Buddhist Path (2021)
See also
Buddhism in the United States
Charles H, Percy
Ken Keyes, Jr.
List of deaths through alcohol
Miksang (contemplative photography)
Reginald Ray
Samaya
Shambhala Buddhism
Tulku (documentary film by Trungpa's son Gesar Mukpo)
Notes
References
Butterfield, Stephen T. The Double Mirror: A Skeptical Journey into Buddhist Tantra. North Atlantic Books, 1994.
Chadwick, David (1999). Crooked Cucumber: The Life and Zen Teachings of Shunryu Suzuki.
Clark, Tom (1980). The Great Naropa Poetry Wars.
Coleman, James William. The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition (2001) Oxford University Press.
Das, Bhagavan (1997). It's Here Now (Are You?) Broadway.
Eldershaw, Lynn P. "Collective identity and the post-charismatic fate of Shambhala International" 2004 Ph.D. thesis, University of Waterloo; an article drawn from this thesis was published in Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, (2007) Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 72–102, ISSN 1092-6690
Fields, Rick (3rd ed., 1992). How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America.
Hayward, Jeremy (2008). Warrior-King of Shambhala: Remembering Chögyam Trungpa.
Kashner, Sam. When I Was Cool: My Life at the Jack Kerouac School. HarperCollins, 2004. .
Mackenzie, Vicki (1999). Cave in the Snow: Tenzin Palmo's Quest for Enlightenment.
MacLean, Grant (2016). "From Lion's Jaws: Chögyam Trungpa's Epic Escape To The West".
Marin, Peter. "Spiritual Obedience: The Transcendental Game of Follow the Leader." In Harpers Magazine. February 1979.
Midal, Fabrice (2001). Chögyam Trungpa: His Life and Vision.
Midal, Fabrice (2005). Recalling Chögyam Trungpa.
Miles, Barry (1989). Ginsberg: A Biography.
Paine, Jeffery (2004) Re-Enchantment: Tibetan Buddhism Comes to the West
Rigdzin Shikpo (2007). Never Turn Away.
Sanders, Ed (ed.) (1977). The Party: A Chronological Perspective on a Confrontation at a Buddhist Seminary. (no ISBN)
Steinbeck, John Steinbeck IV and Nancy (2001). The Other Side of Eden: Life with John Steinbeck Prometheus Books.
Trungpa, Chogyam (2004). "The Collected Works of Chogyam Trungpa, Volume Eight".
Weinberger, Eliot (1986). Works on Paper.
Zweig, Connie; Jeremiah Abrams (eds.) (1991). Meeting the Shadow.
Further reading
Feuerstein, Georg. Holy Madness: The Shock Tactics and Radical Teachings of Crazy-Wise Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus. Paragon House, 1991.
Feuerstein, Georg. Holy Madness: Spirituality, Crazy-Wise Teachers, And Enlightenment (revised and expanded edition of Feuerstein, 1991). Hohm Press, 2006.
Marin, Peter. "Spiritual Obedience" in Freedom & Its Discontents, Steerforth Press, 1995,
Midal, Fabrice. Chögyam Trungpa: His Life and Vision. Shambhala, 2004.
Mukpo, Diana J. Dragon Thunder: My Life with Chögyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2006.
Perks, John. The Mahasiddha and His Idiot Servant. Crazy Heart Publishers.
Chögyam Trungpa/Dorje Dradül of Mukpo: Great Eastern Sun: The Wisdom of Shambhala (1999), 2nd edition 2001, , Shambhala Root Text.
External links
Peer-Reviewed Biography of Chögyam Trungpa on The Treasury of Lives
Chögyam Trungpa – Shambhala
Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche Straight Up!
The Chronicles of Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche
Videos of Chögyam Trungpa
Dragon Thunder: My Life with Chögyam Trungpa by Diana J. Mukpo with Carolyn Rose Gimian
Married to the Guru by Steve Silberman
L'Ecole Occidentale de Méditation – Chögyam Trungpa (French & Swiss Sangha)
Encountering the Shadow in Buddhist America Katy Butler (1990)
Crazy Wisdom: The Life & Times of Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche directed by Johanna Demetrakas
The Great Naropa Poetry Wars
From Lion's Jaws: Chögyam Trungpa's Epic Escape To The West
Touch And Go: Chogyam Trungpa's Epic Journey to the West Video documentary
Review of The Double Mirror
Repository of teachings, photos and artwork of Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche
1939 births
1987 deaths
Buddhist artists
Scholars of Buddhism from Tibet
Tibetan painters
Rinpoches
Nyingma tulkus
Nyingma lamas
Kagyu tulkus
Kagyu lamas
Tertöns
Tibetan Buddhism writers
Tibetan Buddhists from Tibet
Shambhala vision
Ngagpa
Alcohol-related deaths in Canada
American people of Tibetan descent
Deaths from cirrhosis
20th-century lamas
20th-century Tibetan painters
|
[
-0.2711538076400757,
0.5830620527267456,
-0.5380920767784119,
-0.2913552522659302,
-0.6062771677970886,
0.5724074840545654,
0.6490982174873352,
0.002201550640165806,
-0.44352173805236816,
0.2505796551704407,
-0.7100332975387573,
-0.18824030458927155,
-0.44296795129776,
0.008339832536876202,
-0.1380385160446167,
-0.1259271502494812,
0.97988361120224,
-0.4519937336444855,
-0.1555478423833847,
-0.1409025937318802,
-0.22737117111682892,
-0.29314368963241577,
-0.25488555431365967,
0.33115971088409424,
0.20049463212490082,
0.4495460093021393,
-0.11457440257072449,
0.05303465947508812,
-0.17168624699115753,
0.06294320523738861,
0.21293655037879944,
0.2547629475593567,
0.5583336353302002,
-0.11823522299528122,
-0.21347559988498688,
0.4488818347454071,
-0.15460821986198425,
0.12719905376434326,
-0.5944479703903198,
-0.005250957794487476,
-0.039921656250953674,
0.32057511806488037,
0.17239192128181458,
0.4312593340873718,
0.03708634898066521,
-0.6212466955184937,
-0.8576709032058716,
0.7372347712516785,
-0.6937198042869568,
-0.3431054353713989,
-0.7462500333786011,
0.5637698173522949,
0.19570305943489075,
0.13240577280521393,
0.010618751868605614,
0.39002370834350586,
-0.9869607090950012,
0.43429240584373474,
-0.16536928713321686,
-0.40571361780166626,
0.09524386376142502,
0.044034261256456375,
0.2631407082080841,
-0.25892624258995056,
-0.24724805355072021,
-0.0827290490269661,
-0.4818670153617859,
0.042587604373693466,
-0.057759542018175125,
-0.34684789180755615,
0.30482953786849976,
0.3482428789138794,
0.10980550199747086,
0.6342750787734985,
0.20375391840934753,
-0.5994808077812195,
0.20795086026191711,
-0.3658835291862488,
0.3229619860649109,
-0.4767293632030487,
0.18032106757164001,
0.27694252133369446,
0.4989811182022095,
0.5789344906806946,
0.04281778633594513,
-0.36190691590309143,
-0.2868298590183258,
0.27035456895828247,
-0.3163164556026459,
0.1480804830789566,
0.04008021950721741,
-0.37833577394485474,
0.2301795333623886,
0.01710744947195053,
-0.8150722980499268,
-0.04960418492555618,
-0.019909139722585678,
0.5647185444831848,
-0.496776282787323,
-0.5686222910881042,
0.527300238609314,
0.24087202548980713,
0.6270296573638916,
-0.25493958592414856,
-0.7278566956520081,
-0.2759622037410736,
0.016772529110312462,
-0.23578141629695892,
-0.41089585423469543,
-0.20437026023864746,
-1.2395650148391724,
0.20403772592544556,
-0.15029488503932953,
-0.005818232893943787,
0.5560836791992188,
0.7059285640716553,
-0.5338634848594666,
-0.7841812372207642,
-0.089162178337574,
-0.339525431394577,
0.26259440183639526,
0.4182938039302826,
0.04405248537659645,
0.4618784785270691,
0.23594796657562256,
-0.11826007813215256,
0.03928949683904648,
0.5367236733436584,
-0.6415223479270935,
0.5591819286346436,
-0.04389546066522598,
0.5101397633552551,
-0.2955995202064514,
-0.6408006548881531,
-0.3033362329006195,
0.17169731855392456,
1.2146326303482056,
-0.21938595175743103,
-0.08343572914600372,
0.5156461000442505,
-0.905669093132019,
0.1664426624774933,
-0.5539131760597229,
0.023684732615947723,
0.27530384063720703,
-0.0419965498149395,
0.0031847539357841015,
0.24916568398475647,
-0.28450140357017517,
-0.6279647350311279,
-0.32302531599998474,
-0.23332667350769043,
0.27602508664131165,
-0.1883324831724167,
0.22648736834526062,
1.2392383813858032,
0.2284538447856903,
0.3002084195613861,
0.2793087363243103,
-0.3379218280315399,
0.43069589138031006,
-0.21822889149188995,
-0.34029272198677063,
0.22183391451835632,
0.47731900215148926,
-0.4199824631214142,
-0.3333333134651184,
0.21528297662734985,
-0.6821392774581909,
0.05476752296090126,
-0.19331200420856476,
-0.07941310107707977,
-0.1517033874988556,
-0.4334598481655121,
-0.2381495237350464,
0.6351029276847839,
0.01600370556116104,
0.14751818776130676,
-0.4398055970668793,
-0.0021688088309019804,
-0.7115001678466797,
0.46642592549324036,
-0.16966421902179718,
-0.2202734351158142,
0.2872616946697235,
0.07575610280036926,
0.5939298868179321,
0.37134695053100586,
0.6118867993354797,
0.22406992316246033,
-0.8900327086448669,
-0.27847057580947876,
0.3373844623565674,
0.20763583481311798,
0.6289308071136475,
0.4037849009037018,
0.24853087961673737,
0.37346404790878296,
0.22813764214515686,
0.7147156000137329,
0.01606675609946251,
-0.4667755663394928,
-0.1684228479862213,
-0.188938170671463,
-0.06906382739543915,
0.5094597935676575,
-0.216294527053833,
0.30311426520347595,
0.6946271061897278,
0.20443686842918396,
0.44449079036712646,
-0.6363416910171509,
-0.1911107897758484,
0.45706334710121155,
-0.528097927570343,
-0.1173638328909874,
-0.5067125558853149,
-0.10652992129325867,
0.11696074157953262,
-0.5820590257644653,
0.6298701167106628,
0.39810362458229065,
-0.09936956316232681,
0.3899599313735962,
0.23881711065769196,
1.1489986181259155,
-0.4464200735092163,
-0.06016211211681366,
0.09606766700744629,
0.026143532246351242,
-0.3155307471752167,
-0.18103830516338348,
0.0985461100935936,
0.13741712272167206,
0.44279590249061584,
-0.46076175570487976,
-0.05370528995990753,
-0.697516918182373,
0.7202736735343933,
-0.7174052596092224,
0.24840740859508514,
-0.2653566896915436,
-0.1633189469575882,
-0.031417116522789,
0.019284790381789207,
0.5210216045379639,
-0.42282524704933167,
0.2814895510673523,
-0.6093829274177551,
0.23856554925441742,
-0.0792139396071434,
0.7181095480918884,
0.45569321513175964,
-0.10008960217237473,
-0.42100897431373596,
-0.077749103307724,
-0.6435829997062683,
-0.030222252011299133,
0.15625186264514923,
0.1459682583808899,
0.49296674132347107,
-0.08359065651893616,
0.17559540271759033,
0.12965942919254303,
-0.2664339542388916,
-0.5070128440856934,
0.1357450783252716,
-0.4299051761627197,
0.7728152275085449,
-0.45774754881858826,
0.09005244821310043,
-0.9155274033546448,
-0.7284380197525024,
0.07777690887451172,
-0.17276707291603088,
-1.2672396898269653,
0.20980346202850342,
0.13766644895076752,
-0.852019727230072,
-0.6566739082336426,
0.5355495810508728,
0.752164900302887,
0.4302532970905304,
-0.4202258288860321,
-0.5522942543029785,
0.1452760249376297,
-0.25870293378829956,
-0.1537562608718872,
0.5876562595367432,
0.3948846161365509,
0.2783104479312897,
0.9480234980583191,
0.08572543412446976,
-0.4809996783733368,
-0.3976137042045593,
0.5162960886955261,
-0.17375344038009644,
-0.01950174570083618,
0.025498589500784874,
0.14745976030826569,
-0.2515011429786682,
0.061760999262332916,
0.07860783487558365,
0.7542362809181213,
0.14192511141300201,
0.37101855874061584,
-0.35843610763549805,
-0.0697302594780922,
-5.708662033081055,
-0.16547243297100067,
0.020988360047340393,
-0.33919021487236023,
-0.29542285203933716,
0.47570469975471497,
0.585204541683197,
0.24980370700359344,
-0.023441988974809647,
-0.6038017868995667,
-0.27178722620010376,
-0.48922640085220337,
0.31598803400993347,
0.13481225073337555,
0.2016938179731369,
0.4509783983230591,
0.11165355145931244,
0.17837581038475037,
0.49715086817741394,
0.8719639182090759,
0.24594998359680176,
-0.44823548197746277,
0.12226556241512299,
0.41317665576934814,
-0.3593701720237732,
0.6293355226516724,
-0.6038599610328674,
0.14739733934402466,
-0.5274137854576111,
-0.5724432468414307,
-0.24369941651821136,
-0.11965809017419815,
-0.33830395340919495,
0.1435086727142334,
-0.24844548106193542,
-0.03160395845770836,
0.5337759852409363,
0.25812864303588867,
-0.055547863245010376,
0.2708240747451782,
0.25240659713745117,
-0.40527933835983276,
-0.029607130214571953,
0.22885960340499878,
0.5433865785598755,
0.02337457984685898,
-0.6513031721115112,
-0.5125684142112732,
-0.4176320433616638,
0.3490833044052124,
0.16309048235416412,
-0.27949854731559753,
0.8021344542503357,
-0.3237515091896057,
0.3256601393222809,
0.042211636900901794,
-0.17180277407169342,
0.5563060641288757,
-0.8879268765449524,
0.33911004662513733,
0.06682207435369492,
0.02748178131878376,
0.1981882005929947,
-0.33298206329345703,
0.18465550243854523,
0.4020515978336334,
0.09898339211940765,
-0.4735068380832672,
-0.05579008907079697,
0.41662484407424927,
-0.3992626368999481,
1.0695576667785645,
-0.22239786386489868,
-0.8813029527664185,
-0.3721136152744293,
-1.019193172454834,
-0.24421940743923187,
0.0434381403028965,
-0.135141521692276,
0.09772395342588425,
-0.10745758563280106,
-0.10831622034311295,
0.17820826172828674,
0.5257562398910522,
0.4565398395061493,
-0.07367662340402603,
-0.2061062902212143,
0.11008147895336151,
-0.011945392936468124,
0.9553993940353394,
-0.1329769641160965,
-0.004272432532161474,
-0.30664852261543274,
0.5100427865982056,
0.5422892570495605,
-0.1113416776061058,
0.08248362690210342,
0.2616710364818573,
0.5618011951446533,
0.12456386536359787,
0.1049923226237297,
-0.6361621618270874,
0.078217513859272,
-0.16551125049591064,
-0.6110746264457703,
-0.0867508202791214,
-0.16216492652893066,
0.3585629463195801,
1.1054521799087524,
-0.031976860016584396,
0.0312696173787117,
-0.12790103256702423,
0.33142709732055664,
-0.07307150959968567,
0.3720134198665619,
0.1174750030040741,
0.24818715453147888,
0.14554694294929504,
-0.2286064326763153,
-0.12402396649122238,
-0.07540900260210037,
0.3300701379776001,
-0.13138419389724731,
-0.2894318103790283,
0.10554224997758865,
-0.15764905512332916,
-0.09927033632993698,
0.003825175343081355,
-0.34585070610046387,
-0.11335395276546478,
0.18679200112819672,
0.03790787234902382,
0.4105908274650574,
-0.12334273010492325,
-0.12187433242797852,
0.001009760657325387,
-0.320303738117218,
-0.7609546184539795,
-0.09080314636230469,
-0.03508899360895157,
-0.47383150458335876,
0.06970604509115219,
0.17973929643630981,
0.5437805652618408,
0.0014603615272790194,
-0.2624521851539612,
-0.3351972699165344,
-0.3377749025821686,
0.09560353308916092,
0.36239945888519287,
0.516127347946167,
-0.22537872195243835,
0.5694568753242493,
-0.2634514272212982,
-0.6565189361572266,
-0.411553293466568,
-0.6581875681877136,
-0.04604988172650337,
0.3742468059062958,
0.21197089552879333,
0.24901428818702698,
-0.7309531569480896,
-0.7697846293449402,
-0.5250057578086853,
-0.014868008904159069,
-0.23603087663650513,
0.011133107356727123,
-0.3568199574947357,
-0.5549505949020386,
0.0795304924249649,
0.4141552746295929,
-0.8229551911354065,
-0.3932346701622009,
-0.004966798238456249,
0.5739104747772217,
-0.03523069620132446,
0.14695078134536743,
0.09180594235658646,
-0.038578156381845474,
0.4320884346961975,
-0.4969470798969269,
0.0630781278014183,
-0.10796535015106201,
0.3168903887271881,
0.39766940474510193,
-0.0656019076704979,
-0.42136842012405396,
-0.7523949146270752,
-0.07155593484640121,
0.21268349885940552,
0.15669503808021545,
0.13571424782276154,
0.03450961038470268,
0.4100339710712433,
-0.2295166403055191,
-0.2729586064815521,
-0.30373334884643555,
-0.007114437874406576,
0.061075299978256226,
0.23347261548042297,
0.4001324772834778,
0.08560028672218323,
0.2323060780763626,
0.0019999174401164055,
0.7553109526634216,
-0.5502457618713379,
-0.1597863733768463,
0.35732102394104004,
0.0467754602432251,
0.4562450349330902,
-0.07079847902059555,
-0.5986323952674866,
0.06532183289527893,
0.13462480902671814,
-0.0753394067287445,
0.1722404509782791,
0.4095202386379242,
-0.606826663017273,
-0.3990635573863983,
-0.6507232189178467,
0.05468921363353729,
-0.11952221393585205,
-0.1814400553703308,
0.09532584995031357,
-0.11385893076658249,
-0.03806981444358826,
0.1341579109430313,
0.091073177754879,
0.3887125253677368,
-0.8170047998428345,
-0.3940514624118805,
0.017818508669734,
-0.12399986386299133,
0.022733505815267563,
-0.22004999220371246,
-0.026853719726204872,
0.40773582458496094,
0.5316337943077087,
0.10960077494382858,
0.2079058289527893,
0.10232660919427872,
1.1266295909881592,
-0.021589726209640503,
-0.36659273505210876,
-0.07279863208532333,
0.1833745539188385,
0.4043014645576477,
-0.6574851274490356,
-0.059515681117773056,
-0.010085985995829105,
0.512677013874054,
0.035012707114219666,
-0.7983022928237915,
-0.47120335698127747,
0.9502933025360107,
-0.5240194797515869,
-0.17169798910617828,
-0.21427853405475616,
0.4322482645511627,
0.09432003647089005,
-0.09419466555118561,
0.20947815477848053,
0.49752089381217957,
-0.6877859234809875,
-0.0773644894361496,
0.5984311103820801,
-0.21089287102222443,
-0.3785853385925293,
0.0420224703848362,
-0.6547398567199707,
-0.1421913057565689,
-0.6679438948631287,
-0.15362600982189178,
0.30198320746421814,
-0.17927081882953644,
0.5085206031799316,
-0.4994756281375885,
-0.11719610542058945,
-0.40178683400154114,
0.020352980121970177,
-0.2889161705970764,
-0.2804335951805115,
0.23278561234474182,
0.3510272204875946,
0.20618818700313568,
-0.7869277000427246,
0.493144690990448,
-0.3171822726726532,
-0.4716416299343109,
0.047118354588747025,
-1.1019361019134521,
0.4973739683628082,
0.15665799379348755,
0.1133020669221878,
-0.09277721494436264,
0.5317447185516357,
-0.002054898301139474,
0.32233142852783203,
-0.6003569960594177,
-0.4268522560596466,
-0.11435424536466599,
-0.3106684982776642,
0.6058629155158997,
0.10480561852455139,
-0.23936741054058075,
-0.010700208134949207,
0.26732686161994934,
-0.5344918370246887,
0.1388188898563385,
0.3471382260322571,
0.5668370723724365,
-0.04504464194178581,
0.23707018792629242,
0.6368627548217773,
-0.5411770939826965,
0.04909015819430351,
0.3012149930000305,
-0.09003981947898865,
-0.4472956955432892,
-0.017671287059783936,
0.5698819160461426,
0.1164153665304184,
0.4719301760196686,
0.26324737071990967,
0.0028567456174641848,
0.3175000846385956,
-0.44771823287010193,
-0.26240459084510803,
-0.15306474268436432,
0.3605828285217285,
-0.13902229070663452,
0.2941698133945465,
-0.05120459944009781,
0.6706432700157166,
0.25003811717033386,
-0.30720028281211853,
-0.09959753602743149,
-0.35221973061561584,
-0.1414889097213745,
0.08544445037841797,
0.2534487843513489,
0.6483561992645264,
-0.18379317224025726,
0.44319599866867065,
-0.22070421278476715,
0.13291916251182556,
0.42114517092704773,
0.7282730937004089,
-0.03514350578188896,
0.2859506905078888,
-0.07774047553539276,
0.4804970622062683,
0.11393188685178757,
-0.2749332785606384,
0.4502980709075928,
0.44320374727249146,
-0.11612395942211151,
0.22966046631336212,
0.0437706857919693,
0.06514499336481094,
-0.3675503134727478,
0.1460477113723755,
0.14030109345912933,
0.23745080828666687,
0.07352116703987122,
0.028817936778068542,
-0.44336390495300293,
-0.8053756952285767,
0.316614031791687,
0.27995482087135315,
-0.04302675649523735,
0.1080322340130806,
-0.0872548446059227,
0.35709673166275024,
-0.2684176564216614,
-0.2112765610218048,
0.8222087025642395,
0.24614787101745605,
-0.10150517523288727,
-0.1655849665403366,
-0.2168947011232376,
-0.33554086089134216,
0.12834781408309937,
-0.5151048302650452,
0.5015313029289246,
0.20442897081375122,
0.014461279846727848,
-0.004873004276305437,
-0.2030889391899109,
0.4612939953804016,
0.09452027082443237,
-0.2802467942237854,
-0.4633924067020416,
0.5935646891593933,
0.16506801545619965,
0.4340563118457794,
-0.6551780700683594,
0.5525680780410767,
0.45110252499580383,
-0.20040147006511688,
-0.019297143444418907,
0.19933900237083435,
0.11703776568174362,
0.43331408500671387,
0.12602970004081726,
0.19220857322216034,
-0.48265886306762695,
-0.2989288568496704,
-1.0195728540420532,
0.4105418622493744,
-0.5657587051391602,
0.22370384633541107,
-0.24720889329910278,
0.7132924795150757,
-0.3960515558719635,
0.5174844861030579,
0.4911956787109375,
0.0554015077650547,
0.0731038898229599,
-0.6609962582588196,
-0.2891055643558502,
-0.18599773943424225,
0.06656582653522491,
0.17244575917720795,
0.13450224697589874,
-0.19498136639595032,
-0.1139523908495903,
0.03439236059784889,
-0.6130801439285278,
0.23545458912849426,
-0.16729356348514557,
-0.39988481998443604,
-0.20399826765060425,
-0.25346639752388,
0.11657359451055527,
-0.44231554865837097,
0.8224197626113892,
0.7366200089454651,
-0.30557769536972046,
-1.1439985036849976,
-0.056126248091459274,
-0.1278628408908844,
0.05929681286215782,
0.34945935010910034,
0.3307395577430725,
0.2931731343269348,
-0.23157908022403717,
-0.31280317902565,
-0.7100792527198792,
0.5270783305168152,
0.15501515567302704,
0.004757931921631098,
0.38042542338371277,
-1.2636759281158447,
0.13331380486488342,
-0.03489582985639572,
0.2064763307571411,
0.3248441517353058,
0.41118156909942627,
-0.13743636012077332
] |
203793
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Defence%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
|
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
|
The Ministry of Defence (MOD or MoD) is the British government department responsible for implementing the defence policy set by Her Majesty's Government, and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces.
The MOD states that its principal objectives are to defend the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its interests and to strengthen international peace and stability. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the MOD does not foresee any short-term conventional military threat; rather, it has identified weapons of mass destruction, international terrorism, and failed and failing states as the overriding threats to Britain's interests. The MOD also manages day-to-day running of the armed forces, contingency planning and defence procurement.
The expenditure, administration and policy of the MOD are scrutinised by the Defence Select Committee, except for Defence Intelligence which instead falls under the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament.
History
During the 1920s and 1930s, British civil servants and politicians, looking back at the performance of the state during the First World War, concluded that there was a need for greater co-ordination between the three services that made up the armed forces of the United Kingdom: the Royal Navy, the British Army and the Royal Air Force. The formation of a united ministry of defence was rejected by the coalition government of David Lloyd George in 1921, but the Chiefs of Staff Committee was formed in 1923, for the purposes of inter-service co-ordination. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence. Lord Chatfield held the post until the fall of Neville Chamberlain's government in 1940. His success was limited by his lack of control over the existing Service departments, and his lack of political influence.
On forming his government in 1940, Winston Churchill created the office of Minister of Defence, to exercise ministerial control over the Chiefs of Staff Committee and to co-ordinate defence matters. The post was held by the Prime Minister of the day until Clement Attlee's government introduced the Ministry of Defence Act of 1946. After 1946, the three posts of Secretary of State for War, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Secretary of State for Air were formally subordinated to the new Minister of Defence, who had a seat in the Cabinet. The three service ministers — Admiralty, War, Air — remained in direct operational control of their respective services, but ceased to attend Cabinet.
From 1946 to 1964, five Departments of State did the work of the modern Ministry of Defence: the Admiralty, the War Office, the Air Ministry, the Ministry of Aviation, and an earlier form of the Ministry of Defence. Those departments merged in 1964, and the defence functions of the Ministry of Aviation Supply were merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1971. The unification of all defence activities under a single ministry was motivated by a desire to curb interservice rivalries and followed the precedent set by the American National Security Act of 1947.
Ministerial team
The Ministers in the Ministry of Defence are as follows:
Senior military officials
Chiefs of the Defence Staff
The Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) is the professional head of the British Armed Forces and the most senior uniformed military adviser to the Secretary of State for Defence and the Prime Minister.
The CDS is supported by the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff (VCDS) who deputises and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the armed services aspect of the MOD through the Central Staff, working closely alongside the Permanent Secretary. They are joined by the professional heads of the three British armed services (Royal Navy, British Army and Royal Air Force) and the Commander of Strategic Command. All personnel sit at OF-9 rank in the NATO rank system.
Together the Chiefs of Staff form the Chiefs of Staff Committee with responsibility for providing advice on operational military matters and the preparation and conduct of military operations.
The current Chiefs of Staff are as follows.
Chief of the Defence Staff – Admiral Sir Tony Radakin
Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff – Admiral Sir Timothy Fraser
First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff – Admiral Sir Ben Key (Head of the Royal Navy)
Chief of the General Staff – General Sir Mark Carleton-Smith (Head of the British Army)
Chief of the Air Staff – Air Chief Marshal Sir Mike Wigston (Head of the Royal Air Force)
Commander of Strategic Command – General Sir Patrick Sanders
Other senior military officers
The Chief of Staff is supported by several Deputy Chief of the Defence Staffs and senior officers at OF-8 rank.
Chief of Defence People – Lieutenant General James Swift
Deputy Chief of Defence Staff (Military Strategy and Operations) – Lieutenant-General Roland Walker
Deputy Chief of Defence Staff (Financial and Military Capability) – Air Marshal Richard Knighton
Chief of Joint Operations – Lieutenant-General Charles Stickland, based at Northwood Headquarters
Defence Senior Adviser Middle East – Air Marshal Martin Sampson
Chief of Defence Intelligence – Lieutenant-General James Hockenhull
Director-General of the Defence Safety Authority – Air Marshal Sue Gray
Additionally, there are a number of Assistant Chiefs of Defence Staff, including the Defence Services Secretary in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom, who is also the Assistant Chief of Defence Staff (Personnel).
Senior management
Permanent Secretary and other senior officials
The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by several civilian, scientific and professional military advisors. The Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence (generally known as the Permanent Secretary) is the senior civil servant at the MOD. Their role is to ensure that it operates effectively as a government department and has responsibility for the strategy, performance, reform, organisation and the finances of the MOD.
The role works closely with the Chief of the Defence Staff in leading the organisation and supporting Ministers in the conduct of business in the Department across the full range of responsibilities.
Permanent Under-Secretary of State – David Williams
Director General Finance – Charlie Pate
Director General Nuclear – Vanessa Nicholls
Director General Security Policy - Dominic Wilson
Director General Strategy and International – Angus Lapsley
MOD Chief Scientific Adviser Dame Angela McLean
MOD Chief Scientific Adviser (Nuclear) – Professor Robin Grimes
Lead Non-Executive Board Member – Lord Grimstone
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Audit Committee – Simon Henry
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Equipment and Support Board – Paul Skinner
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the People Committee – Danuta Gray
Defence policy
The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a defence policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces:
Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK and Overseas Territories.
Provide the nuclear deterrent.
Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the global defence network.
Reinforce international security and the collective capacity of our allies, partners and multilateral institutions.
The review stated the Armed Forces will also contribute to the government's response to crises by being prepared to:
Support humanitarian assistance and disaster response, and conduct rescue missions.
Conduct strike operations.
Conduct operations to restore peace and stability.
Conduct major combat operations if required, including under NATO Article 5.
Governance and departmental organisation
Governance
Defence is governed and managed by several committees.
The Defence Council provides the formal legal basis for the conduct of defence in the UK through a range of powers vested in it by statute and Letters Patent. It too is chaired by the Secretary of State, and its members are ministers, the senior officers and senior civilian officials.
The Defence Board is the main MOD corporate board chaired by the Secretary of State oversees the strategic direction and oversight of defence, supported by an Investment Approvals Committee, Audit Committee and People Committee. The board's membership comprises the Secretary of State, the Armed Forces Minister, the Permanent Secretary, the Chief and Vice Chief of the Defence Staff, the Chief of Defence Materiel, Director General Finance and three non-executive board members.
Head Office and Corporate Services (HOCS), which is made up of the Head Office and a range of corporate support functions. It has two joint heads the Chief of the Defence Staff and the Permamant Secretary who are the combined TLB holders for this unit they are responsible for directing the other TLB holders.
Departmental organisation
The following organisational groups come under the control of the MOD.
Top level budgets
The MOD comprises seven top-level budgets. The head of each organisation is personally accountable for the performance and outputs of their particular organisation. These are:
Navy Command - Royal Navy
Army Command - British Army
Air Command - Royal Air Force
Strategic Command
Defence Nuclear Organisation
Defence Infrastructure Organisation
Head Office and Corporate Services
Bespoke trading entity
Defence Equipment and Support (DE&S)
Executive agencies
Defence Electronics and Components Agency (DECA)
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl)
UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) – also has trading fund status.
Submarine Delivery Agency (SDA)
Executive non-departmental public bodies
National Museum of the Royal Navy
National Army Museum
Royal Air Force Museum
Single Source Regulations Office (SSRO)
Advisory non-departmental public bodies
Advisory Committee on Conscientious Objectors
Advisory Group on Military Medicine
Armed Forces Pay Review Body
Defence Nuclear Safety Committee
Independent Medical Expert Group
National Employer Advisory Board
Nuclear Research Advisory Council
Scientific Advisory Committee on the Medical Implications of Less-Lethal Weapons
Veterans Advisory and Pensions Committees
Ad-hoc advisory group
Central Advisory Committee on Compensation
Other bodies
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Defence Academy of the United Kingdom
Defence Sixth Form College
Defence and Security Media Advisory Committee
Fleet Air Arm Museum
Independent Monitoring Board for the Military Corrective Training Centre (Colhester)
Reserve Forces' and Cadets' Associations
Royal Hospital Chelsea
Royal Marines Museum
Royal Navy Submarine Museum
Service Complaints Ombudsman
Service Prosecuting Authority
United Kingdom Reserve Forces Association
Public corporations
The Oil and Pipelines Agency (OPA)
Enabling organisation
Defence Business Services (DBS)
In addition, the MOD is responsible for the administration of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus.
Property portfolio
The Ministry of Defence is one of the United Kingdom's largest landowners, owning 227,300 hectares of land and foreshore (either freehold or leasehold) at April 2014, which was valued at "about £20 billion". The MOD also has "rights of access" to a further 222,000 hectares. In total, this is about 1.8% of the UK land mass. The total annual cost to support the defence estate is "in excess of £3.3 billion".
The defence estate is divided as training areas & ranges (84.0%), research & development (5.4%), airfields (3.4%), barracks & camps (2.5%), storage & supply depots (1.6%), and other (3.0%). These are largely managed by the Defence Infrastructure Organisation.
Main Building
The headquarters of the MOD are in Whitehall and is known as MOD Main Building. This structure is neoclassical in style and was originally built between 1938 and 1959 to designs by Vincent Harris to house the Air Ministry and the Board of Trade. A major refurbishment of the building was completed under a Private Finance Initiative contract by Skanska in 2004. The northern entrance in Horse Guards Avenue is flanked by two monumental statues, Earth and Water, by Charles Wheeler. Opposite stands the Gurkha Monument, sculpted by Philip Jackson and unveiled in 1997 by Queen Elizabeth II. Within it is the Victoria Cross and George Cross Memorial, and nearby are memorials to the Fleet Air Arm and RAF (to its east, facing the riverside).
Henry VIII's wine cellar at the Palace of Whitehall, built in 1514–1516 for Cardinal Wolsey, is in the basement of Main Building, and is used for entertainment. The entire vaulted brick structure of the cellar was encased in steel and concrete and relocated nine feet to the west and nearly deeper in 1949, when construction was resumed at the site after the Second World War. This was carried out without any significant damage to the structure.
Controversies
Fraud
The most notable fraud conviction has been that of Gordon Foxley, Director of Ammunition Procurement at the Ministry of Defence from 1981 to 1984. Police claimed he received at least £3.5m in total in corrupt payments, such as substantial bribes from overseas arms contractors aiming to influence the allocation of contracts.
Germ and chemical warfare tests
A government report covered by The Guardian newspaper in 2002 indicated that between 1940 and 1979, the Ministry of Defence "turned large parts of the country into a giant laboratory to conduct a series of secret germ warfare tests on the public" and many of these tests "involved releasing potentially dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms over vast swathes of the population without the public being told." The Ministry of Defence claims that these trials were to simulate germ warfare and that the tests were harmless. However, families who have been in the area of many of the tests are experiencing children with birth defects and physical and mental handicaps and many are asking for a public inquiry. The report estimated these tests affected millions of people, including during one period between 1961 and 1968 where "more than a million people along the south coast of England, from Torquay to the New Forest, were exposed to bacteria including e.coli and bacillus globigii, which mimics anthrax." Two scientists commissioned by the Ministry of Defence stated that these trials posed no risk to the public. This was confirmed by Sue Ellison, a representative of the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory at Porton Down who said that the results from these trials "will save lives, should the country or our forces face an attack by chemical and biological weapons."
Territorial Army cuts
In October 2009 the MOD was heavily criticised for withdrawing the bi-annual non-operational training £20m budget for the Territorial Army (TA), ending all non-operational training for 6 months until April 2010. The government eventually backed down and restored the funding. The TA provides a small percentage of the UK's operational troops. Its members train on weekly evenings and monthly weekends, as well as two-week exercises generally annually and occasionally bi-annually for troops doing other courses. The cuts would have meant a significant loss of personnel and would have had adverse effects on recruitment.
Overspending
In 2013 it was found that the Ministry of Defence had overspent on its equipment budget by £6.5bn on orders that could take up to 39 years to fulfil. The Ministry of Defence has been criticised in the past for poor management and financial control.
Specific examples of overspending include:
Eight Boeing Chinook HC3 were ordered in 1995 as dedicated special forces helicopters. The aircraft were to cost £259 million and the forecast in-service date was November 1998. However, although delivered in 2001, the Mk3 could not receive airworthiness certificates as it was not possible to certify the avionics software, and would not enter service until 2017. The procurement was described by Edward Leigh, then Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee, as "one of the most incompetent procurements of all time" and the National Audit Office issued a scathing report on the affair, stating that the whole programme was likely to cost £500 million.
In 2010 the Nimrod MRA4 maritime patrol aircraft procurement was cancelled after £3.4 billion had been spent on the programme. In addition there were termination costs which were not disclosed. In January 2011 it was reported by the Financial Times that when the decision was taken to scrap the aircraft, "[it] was still riddled with flaws".
See also
Defence Review
The Lancaster House Treaties (2010)
Stabilisation Unit
United Kingdom budget
UK National Defence Association
References
Bibliography
Chester, D. N and Willson, F. M. G. The Organisation of British Central Government 1914–1964: Chapters VI and X (2nd edition). London: George Allen & Unwin, 1968.
External links
How Defence Works: the defence operating model
1964 establishments in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom, Defence
Military of the United Kingdom
Military units and formations established in 1964
United Kingdom
British landowners
|
[
0.8189243078231812,
0.1614612638950348,
0.3751581013202667,
-0.7648347020149231,
-0.18701942265033722,
0.14575956761837006,
0.25402894616127014,
0.18519455194473267,
-0.5480876564979553,
-0.07426554709672928,
-0.7876003384590149,
0.5684856176376343,
0.3310447931289673,
0.2011360079050064,
-0.08522096276283264,
0.3082832098007202,
0.5523795485496521,
0.3454771041870117,
0.4385475814342499,
-0.02416345104575157,
-0.28125327825546265,
-0.035140059888362885,
-0.1263372004032135,
-0.03650561347603798,
0.6124964952468872,
-0.27555423974990845,
0.7734692692756653,
0.17711441218852997,
-0.17385654151439667,
-0.32995274662971497,
0.3530409038066864,
-0.6413231492042542,
-0.276746928691864,
-0.153407484292984,
0.23021291196346283,
-0.03998774290084839,
0.14293161034584045,
-0.30720704793930054,
-0.2528883218765259,
-0.7330580949783325,
-0.42492663860321045,
-0.012852390296757221,
0.02548908069729805,
-0.08672166615724564,
-0.6881458759307861,
-0.6149205565452576,
-0.6601958870887756,
0.47270384430885315,
0.06250853091478348,
0.638494610786438,
-0.7292658090591431,
0.4291544556617737,
0.13155023753643036,
-0.4412948787212372,
0.35524308681488037,
0.08460438251495361,
-0.5082046985626221,
-0.11366413533687592,
-0.20778122544288635,
-0.49366211891174316,
0.3249213695526123,
0.08387314528226852,
0.2965100407600403,
0.4946768879890442,
0.5227097272872925,
-0.15954557061195374,
0.30576011538505554,
0.1532229334115982,
-0.7950202226638794,
-0.27011966705322266,
-0.4834709167480469,
0.12252818793058395,
0.0340832956135273,
-0.060174353420734406,
-0.8001243472099304,
-0.2494894415140152,
0.413556307554245,
-0.24322281777858734,
0.11471635103225708,
0.19990326464176178,
0.43261054158210754,
0.17515406012535095,
0.27117159962654114,
-0.14348065853118896,
0.04902603477239609,
0.19555045664310455,
-0.3158419728279114,
0.26569458842277527,
-0.26860716938972473,
0.9113439321517944,
0.33644983172416687,
0.15433678030967712,
0.6904036998748779,
-0.3633352220058441,
0.2611982822418213,
-0.3009864091873169,
0.5573790669441223,
-0.07918401807546616,
-0.14295241236686707,
0.11309655755758286,
0.1635264754295349,
0.31710755825042725,
-0.043884314596652985,
-0.5666182041168213,
-0.4682201147079468,
-0.18916988372802734,
-0.4601964056491852,
-0.8533958792686462,
-0.639650821685791,
0.36894702911376953,
-0.18981750309467316,
-0.26983246207237244,
-0.19726571440696716,
0.25542980432510376,
0.036829978227615356,
0.5426842570304871,
0.12419109791517258,
-0.010383504442870617,
-0.2152692973613739,
0.28262585401535034,
0.605935275554657,
-0.03766462206840515,
-0.05097620561718941,
-0.41377368569374084,
0.36795082688331604,
-0.06355001777410507,
0.3568401038646698,
-0.151346817612648,
-0.27468782663345337,
-0.6147317290306091,
0.3215681314468384,
0.498171329498291,
-0.8021553158760071,
0.16022077202796936,
-0.01295471377670765,
-0.38485726714134216,
0.30921250581741333,
0.060478709638118744,
0.6876065731048584,
0.5384935140609741,
-0.366917222738266,
-0.13757452368736267,
-0.17577363550662994,
-0.3207215368747711,
0.30535319447517395,
-0.8036975264549255,
-0.2172790765762329,
-0.4210204482078552,
-0.497220903635025,
0.24994656443595886,
0.14396323263645172,
0.16615228354930878,
-0.28705933690071106,
-0.037965111434459686,
-0.4675499200820923,
0.2390712946653366,
0.8853573203086853,
0.1160225048661232,
0.2821405529975891,
0.33185842633247375,
0.2300957590341568,
-0.13531209528446198,
0.08794153481721878,
0.339893639087677,
0.023339547216892242,
0.3955554664134979,
0.14073871076107025,
0.23514607548713684,
0.11674502491950989,
-0.28851118683815,
-0.5069707036018372,
-0.09180314838886261,
0.8444440960884094,
0.3621777892112732,
0.29266613721847534,
0.10933607071638107,
0.3685561418533325,
0.20019613206386566,
0.5014722347259521,
0.08707781881093979,
-0.2610892057418823,
-0.03985428065061569,
0.1994761973619461,
0.13493506610393524,
0.4358910620212555,
-0.012122771702706814,
0.22928071022033691,
-0.565675675868988,
0.06012041121721268,
-0.04818836599588394,
-0.5218673348426819,
-0.5828962922096252,
0.2161225825548172,
-0.7343208193778992,
1.0631508827209473,
-0.3028715252876282,
-0.7341318130493164,
0.715842604637146,
-0.6642888188362122,
0.5403645038604736,
0.35624590516090393,
-0.2520134747028351,
0.2898794710636139,
-0.3200066387653351,
-0.039621252566576004,
-0.28115883469581604,
0.4104042053222656,
0.12286312133073807,
0.5037499070167542,
0.21245691180229187,
0.2838219106197357,
-0.9042161703109741,
-0.09663351625204086,
-0.2157958298921585,
0.3397778570652008,
-0.2417098432779312,
-0.47900426387786865,
-0.03911736235022545,
0.004631031770259142,
-0.3121909499168396,
0.6951061487197876,
0.39760661125183105,
-0.19150373339653015,
0.7201473712921143,
-0.20573778450489044,
-0.55660080909729,
-0.2526509165763855,
0.1986323893070221,
0.12901027500629425,
-0.6911821961402893,
0.2905404567718506,
-0.04824180528521538,
-0.14361950755119324,
0.26520323753356934,
-0.2140040099620819,
0.18190477788448334,
-0.3383300006389618,
0.458387166261673,
0.017517106607556343,
-0.5629096031188965,
-0.036422986537218094,
0.1674877405166626,
-0.47294819355010986,
0.6295050978660583,
-0.17832961678504944,
0.33892184495925903,
0.10821045190095901,
0.16276805102825165,
-0.2568339705467224,
0.05927132070064545,
-0.011141348630189896,
0.015824174508452415,
0.5686653852462769,
0.15341904759407043,
0.22308984398841858,
-0.5467787384986877,
0.095587357878685,
0.5201199650764465,
0.2774113416671753,
0.5699558854103088,
-0.476931095123291,
-0.03268425911664963,
-0.18959371745586395,
0.812111496925354,
-0.13392794132232666,
-0.19683989882469177,
-0.5401676893234253,
-0.13932231068611145,
0.3073651194572449,
0.2782019078731537,
0.006481286603957415,
-0.21363140642642975,
-0.2129119634628296,
-0.30402451753616333,
0.6358517408370972,
-0.2887161374092102,
0.3988017439842224,
0.5166345238685608,
0.20922565460205078,
-0.2944786548614502,
0.07512586563825607,
0.682077944278717,
0.04164888337254524,
-0.4721788763999939,
-0.07035265117883682,
-0.6646422743797302,
0.26315072178840637,
-0.7147400975227356,
-0.16475410759449005,
0.7439972758293152,
-0.5122078657150269,
-0.11055630445480347,
-0.05996205657720566,
-0.16991375386714935,
-0.7301098704338074,
0.006643445696681738,
-0.06302899122238159,
0.017096709460020065,
0.16128802299499512,
-0.3413805067539215,
-0.09266087412834167,
0.6315269470214844,
0.0014012163737788796,
0.06939931213855743,
0.30551302433013916,
-0.5294599533081055,
-0.38494932651519775,
-0.2313491553068161,
-5.782345294952393,
-0.35480958223342896,
-0.2794754207134247,
-0.6009443402290344,
0.6713227033615112,
0.09014678001403809,
-0.22806620597839355,
-0.23764480650424957,
0.005384583026170731,
-0.6528452038764954,
0.12867997586727142,
-0.1685137301683426,
0.5872988104820251,
0.47760796546936035,
0.5482165217399597,
0.3372843563556671,
0.729227602481842,
-0.13978363573551178,
0.6958925724029541,
0.2654872536659241,
0.02503172867000103,
-0.10007423907518387,
0.6302987933158875,
0.16759470105171204,
0.2525559961795807,
0.03122144564986229,
-0.40220019221305847,
-0.26390713453292847,
-0.289271742105484,
-0.2632894217967987,
0.43918153643608093,
-0.09916934370994568,
0.03758149966597557,
-0.19988064467906952,
0.3445991277694702,
-0.5392630100250244,
0.2584961950778961,
0.4829527735710144,
-0.03713634982705116,
-0.8748006820678711,
0.34451112151145935,
0.2642521262168884,
-0.13201135396957397,
0.1113177165389061,
0.2880067229270935,
-0.33008357882499695,
-0.4377300441265106,
-0.3075741231441498,
-0.4607854187488556,
0.7076482176780701,
-0.48518702387809753,
0.6050487160682678,
0.2793143093585968,
-0.6792994141578674,
-0.1735203117132187,
-0.390320360660553,
-0.09883519262075424,
0.4223270118236542,
-0.2879256308078766,
-0.3835993707180023,
-0.10056941211223602,
-0.4947715103626251,
-0.3385559022426605,
0.10769949108362198,
0.21008072793483734,
0.044544532895088196,
-0.9568573236465454,
-0.45573192834854126,
0.7339814901351929,
0.08650486916303635,
-0.46643346548080444,
-0.4254075288772583,
-0.34948083758354187,
-0.8525107502937317,
0.305520623922348,
-0.8464853763580322,
0.44195571541786194,
-0.092450812458992,
0.6788826584815979,
-0.5407487154006958,
-0.267254114151001,
0.12184319645166397,
-0.34712308645248413,
-0.08481939882040024,
-0.345390647649765,
-0.8298600316047668,
-0.03509991243481636,
0.33202064037323,
0.1972566694021225,
-0.2456381618976593,
0.1562003344297409,
-0.5305678844451904,
0.25293204188346863,
0.2751806378364563,
0.43507102131843567,
0.22015619277954102,
0.15038836002349854,
0.3203846216201782,
0.19941574335098267,
-1.0647823810577393,
0.35260507464408875,
0.3247855305671692,
-0.11698567867279053,
-0.8313624262809753,
0.2041383534669876,
-0.4122776687145233,
0.012078407220542431,
0.10117705166339874,
0.43317291140556335,
-0.7588657736778259,
-0.3961647152900696,
-0.34534960985183716,
-0.5719127655029297,
-0.25109466910362244,
-0.2534814476966858,
-0.5615244507789612,
-0.4099930226802826,
0.6127787828445435,
0.3856162130832672,
0.1886013299226761,
-0.42387863993644714,
0.2785382568836212,
0.3554268181324005,
0.05130170285701752,
-0.23717708885669708,
0.32477229833602905,
0.053589221090078354,
-0.5654402375221252,
0.1094207614660263,
-0.08517401665449142,
0.6512075662612915,
0.08940286189317703,
0.1926560401916504,
0.16072922945022583,
0.4260694980621338,
-0.05699704959988594,
0.06196286901831627,
0.6474373936653137,
0.09306767582893372,
-0.13098286092281342,
0.4248735010623932,
-0.07047174870967865,
0.19810554385185242,
0.3570499122142792,
0.2732504904270172,
0.2590015232563019,
-0.3807980716228485,
0.4082317650318146,
0.22154280543327332,
0.3094150424003601,
0.2070206254720688,
0.22733080387115479,
0.2068779021501541,
-0.705974280834198,
0.18412214517593384,
-0.6066517233848572,
-0.044014960527420044,
0.10270300507545471,
-0.3917655646800995,
-0.49039915204048157,
-0.3890573978424072,
-0.3864876627922058,
-0.7746224999427795,
0.02467508614063263,
0.8423321843147278,
-0.13342513144016266,
-0.7469781041145325,
-0.03855385631322861,
0.23287835717201233,
0.6662879586219788,
0.15131524205207825,
-0.5882124304771423,
-0.7162395715713501,
-0.37287014722824097,
-0.26986244320869446,
0.4052426218986511,
0.08975942432880402,
0.26615068316459656,
0.11401772499084473,
0.4881332814693451,
0.05574319139122963,
-0.20516321063041687,
0.12248392403125763,
0.07022427767515182,
-0.049604956060647964,
-0.12244874238967896,
-0.07627136260271072,
-0.2604733109474182,
0.3210148811340332,
-0.37824758887290955,
0.5704381465911865,
-0.11214260011911392,
0.0789889469742775,
-0.03180252015590668,
-0.7773328423500061,
-0.29037293791770935,
-0.3944379687309265,
0.5672208666801453,
-0.3903188705444336,
-0.44529837369918823,
0.44604232907295227,
0.7680837512016296,
-0.497741162776947,
-0.0286247618496418,
-0.1659022867679596,
-0.09831012785434723,
0.35486531257629395,
0.32828766107559204,
0.2912040054798126,
0.4308038055896759,
-0.30488380789756775,
-0.45229795575141907,
-0.2363162636756897,
0.6129722595214844,
-0.6566023826599121,
-0.8913090229034424,
-0.52984219789505,
-0.14603590965270996,
0.11944461613893509,
-0.43676185607910156,
-0.38089296221733093,
-0.1095014214515686,
-0.0799332857131958,
0.6083444356918335,
-0.24176600575447083,
-0.14027370512485504,
0.257977157831192,
-0.9999728798866272,
0.2745162844657898,
-0.38660281896591187,
0.048993803560733795,
0.2447330504655838,
0.04955821856856346,
0.06278978288173676,
0.00035012158332392573,
-0.11934757232666016,
0.05659816414117813,
0.25585275888442993,
0.7233985662460327,
0.3681117594242096,
-0.29170235991477966,
0.7264973521232605,
-0.24931040406227112,
-0.722479522228241,
0.0633663684129715,
0.6798152327537537,
0.6959493160247803,
-0.7818348407745361,
-0.5036953687667847,
0.41513267159461975,
0.1877700686454773,
-0.2674452066421509,
-0.1215362623333931,
-0.0703396126627922,
0.17557285726070404,
-0.5616395473480225,
-0.10256210714578629,
0.1526503711938858,
-0.07022037357091904,
-0.441691517829895,
0.02085486240684986,
-0.06540106236934662,
-0.011624389328062534,
-0.05689653381705284,
0.8497830033302307,
-0.36575111746788025,
-0.8145797848701477,
-0.39410844445228577,
-0.14699503779411316,
-0.22343625128269196,
-0.20560131967067719,
-0.04357681795954704,
0.44368040561676025,
0.6046361327171326,
0.6919598579406738,
-0.38904035091400146,
0.15475574135780334,
-0.12577036023139954,
0.2493549883365631,
0.16950689256191254,
-0.14992648363113403,
0.10055028647184372,
0.035240769386291504,
-0.38777416944503784,
0.9039328098297119,
-1.37457275390625,
0.2192283570766449,
0.12174978107213974,
-0.0645529106259346,
-0.16342298686504364,
0.06660458445549011,
-0.34089839458465576,
-0.2389017790555954,
0.2961595058441162,
-0.8255770802497864,
0.5177373886108398,
-0.14799469709396362,
0.0092933876439929,
0.5008832812309265,
0.1792784184217453,
-0.349481463432312,
0.4563705623149872,
-0.2792201042175293,
0.029179593548178673,
0.2702728509902954,
0.4028856158256531,
0.1015201285481453,
-0.5825676918029785,
0.01674940064549446,
-0.1660349816083908,
-0.008701840415596962,
-0.09310256689786911,
0.35025787353515625,
0.5337786078453064,
0.037217844277620316,
0.0663704052567482,
0.5794327259063721,
-0.7956235408782959,
0.06519165635108948,
0.3709198832511902,
-0.21528756618499756,
0.20147964358329773,
-0.05987672507762909,
0.19751107692718506,
-0.17460180819034576,
0.7079647779464722,
-0.05189768224954605,
0.004870436619967222,
0.5153284668922424,
-0.17296087741851807,
0.22708365321159363,
0.00362657499499619,
-0.203792542219162,
0.48077329993247986,
-0.25428861379623413,
-0.6439504027366638,
0.7683842778205872,
0.11865557730197906,
0.18991924822330475,
0.6868600249290466,
0.5091439485549927,
0.3492721617221832,
-0.39055848121643066,
0.136084645986557,
-0.12986965477466583,
0.35516542196273804,
0.43776199221611023,
0.19619406759738922,
-0.16270175576210022,
0.34434905648231506,
0.3920787274837494,
-0.11054499447345734,
0.5072130560874939,
0.06918634474277496,
0.0030713221058249474,
-0.3049352467060089,
0.3012559413909912,
-0.4319983720779419,
0.4198421835899353,
-0.5514406561851501,
-0.27364158630371094,
-0.14280539751052856,
0.10408114641904831,
0.08513925224542618,
0.20354142785072327,
0.15178821980953217,
0.3606487214565277,
-0.25959470868110657,
0.2658156156539917,
0.41674184799194336,
0.05940845236182213,
0.5243211388587952,
-0.4308612048625946,
-0.46084296703338623,
-0.3521886169910431,
-0.32910969853401184,
0.3775560259819031,
0.01996680721640587,
0.3796665668487549,
-0.4362024962902069,
-0.5360276699066162,
0.3951707184314728,
-0.406162828207016,
-0.8941844701766968,
0.22760401666164398,
0.4086199402809143,
-0.21764151751995087,
0.042191848158836365,
-0.5979533791542053,
0.3787630498409271,
0.37539854645729065,
-0.08235971629619598,
-0.34675872325897217,
0.007286885753273964,
-0.18264028429985046,
-0.2686498165130615,
0.4626001715660095,
0.5118800401687622,
0.2922150194644928,
-0.03971894085407257,
0.18723836541175842,
1.166098952293396,
-0.14763151109218597,
0.00193497771397233,
0.1838715672492981,
0.1541011929512024,
-0.0034544221125543118,
-0.09906212985515594,
-0.1530851125717163,
-0.11638537049293518,
0.14868323504924774,
-0.4054916203022003,
-0.3824770748615265,
-0.12995876371860504,
-0.3883940875530243,
0.28877827525138855,
0.690342128276825,
-0.5037745833396912,
0.3440510630607605,
-0.27696219086647034,
0.1111021339893341,
-0.08167403191328049,
0.40030544996261597,
0.6159860491752625,
-0.08472703397274017,
-0.6597386598587036,
0.7766066789627075,
0.41838890314102173,
-0.3333929479122162,
0.6371459364891052,
-0.5262797474861145,
-0.32681065797805786,
-0.13776235282421112,
-0.14761021733283997,
-0.26341527700424194,
0.02842174656689167,
0.4052211344242096,
0.9144234657287598,
-0.2969660758972168,
-0.7870664596557617,
-0.2903331220149994,
0.25269749760627747,
0.7860934138298035,
-0.11338279396295547,
0.1859673708677292,
-0.3111896514892578,
-0.15039445459842682,
-0.3866778314113617,
-0.6754994988441467,
0.2404647022485733,
0.34014227986335754,
-0.7026932239532471,
0.41074517369270325,
-0.5399013161659241,
0.13404931128025055,
-0.04626239836215973,
0.4746900200843811,
-0.15745775401592255,
0.10587887465953827,
0.5419167876243591
] |
203794
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma%20Mahler
|
Alma Mahler
|
Alma Maria Mahler Gropius Werfel (born Alma Margaretha Maria Schindler; 31 August 1879 – 11 December 1964) was an Austrian composer, author, editor, and socialite. At 15, she was mentored by Max Burckhard. Musically active from her early years, she was the composer of nearly fifty songs for voice and piano, and works in other genres as well. Only 17 songs are known to survive.
In her early years, she had an affair with composer and conductor Alexander von Zemlinsky, but their relationship did not last long. She became the wife of composer Gustav Mahler, who was not interested in her compositions. Eventually she fell into depression from being artistically stifled. While her marriage was struggling, she had an affair with Walter Gropius. Gustav started to encourage Alma's composing and helped prepare some of her compositions for publication, but died soon after this attempted reconciliation in 1911. Alma married Gropius in 1915 and the couple had a daughter together, Manon Gropius. During her marriage to Gropius, Alma had an affair with Franz Werfel. Alma and Werfel were eventually married after Alma separated from Gropius.
In 1938, after the Anschluss, Werfel and Alma were forced to flee Austria as it was unsafe for Jews. Eventually the couple settled in Los Angeles. In later years, her salon became part of the artistic scene, first in Vienna, then in Los Angeles and in New York.
Early years
Alma Maria Schindler was born on 31 August 1879 in Vienna, Austria (then Austria-Hungary) to the famous landscape painter Emil Jakob Schindler and his wife Anna Sofie. She was tutored at home and brought up in the Catholic Church. In 1886, Crown Prince Rudolf found interest in Emil Jakob Schindler's paintings and commissioned Schindler to take a trip with his family to the Adriatic coast to produce landscape paintings. In 1892, the family also traveled to the North Sea island of Sylt, where Emil Schindler died.
After her father's death, Alma focused on the piano. She studied composition and counterpoint with Josef Labor, a blind organist who introduced her to a "great deal of literature". At 15, she was sent to school but attended for only a few months. As she grew older, a case of childhood measles left her with decreased hearing. Max Burckhard, friend of Emil Schindler and director of Vienna's Burgtheater theater, became Alma's mentor. On Alma's 17th birthday, Burckhard gave her two laundry baskets full of books. In 1895, Anna Schindler, Alma's mother, married Carl Moll, Emil Schindler's student. In 1899 they had a daughter together named Maria.
Alma met Gustav Klimt through Carl Moll. Moll and Klimt were both founding members of the Vienna Secession, "a group organized for the purpose of breaking with Vienna's tradition-bound Imperial Academy of the visual arts". Klimt fell in love with Alma. While she initially was interested in Klimt, her desire cooled soon after. Klimt and Alma were friends until Klimt's death. In fall 1900, Alma began studying composition with Alexander von Zemlinsky. Zemlinsky and Alma fell in love and kept their relationship a secret.
Alma teased Zemlinsky about what she thought were his ugly features, saying she could easily have "ten others" to replace him. She also noted that to marry Zemlinsky would mean she would "bring short, degenerate Jew-children into the world". As the relationship grew strained, Zemlinsky visited her less and less. On 7 November 1901, she attended Zuckerkandl's salon where she began a flirtation with Gustav Mahler. In the month of November, while still in a relationship with Zemlinsky, she started an affair with Mahler. By 8 December, Mahler and Alma secretly were engaged; however, it was not until 12 December that she wrote to Zemlinsky about her engagement. The engagement was formally announced on 23 December.
Marriage to Gustav Mahler
On 9 March 1902, she married Gustav Mahler, who was 19 years her senior and the director of the Vienna Court Opera. With him she had two daughters, Maria Anna (1902–1907), who died of scarlet fever or diphtheria, and Anna (1904–1988), who later became a sculptor. Gustav was not interested in Alma's composition, desiring for her to abandon composing. However, it is disputed among scholars whether or not Gustav outright forbade Alma Mahler to compose. Despite this scholarly confusion, she did artistically stifle herself and embraced the role of a loving wife and supporter of her husband's music.
In June 1910, after becoming severely depressed in the wake of Maria's death, Alma began an affair with the young architect Walter Gropius (later head of the Bauhaus), whom she met during a rest at a spa. Gustav sought advice from Sigmund Freud in August. The 2010 film Mahler on the Couch suggests that Gustav's consultations with Freud might have focused on his curtailing of Alma's musical career as a major marital obstacle, but the actual content of them is not known.
Following the emotional crisis in their marriage after Gustav's discovery of Alma's affair with Gropius, Gustav began to take a serious interest in Alma's musical compositions, regretting his earlier dismissive attitude and taking promotional actions. Gustav edited some of her songs (Die stille Stadt, In meines Vaters Garten, Laue Sommernacht, Bei dir ist es traut, Ich wandle unter Blumen). Upon his urging, and under his guidance, Alma prepared five of her songs for publication (they were issued in 1910, by Gustav's own publisher, Universal Edition).
In February 1911, Gustav fell severely ill with an infection related to a heart defect that had been diagnosed several years earlier. He died on 18 May.
Relationship with Walter Gropius
After Gustav's death, Alma did not immediately resume contact with Gropius. Between 1912 and 1914 she had a tumultuous affair with the artist Oskar Kokoschka, who created works inspired by his relationship with her, including his painting The Bride of the Wind. Kokoschka's possessiveness wore on Alma, and the emotional vicissitudes of the relationship tired them both.
With the coming of World War I, Kokoschka enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army. Alma subsequently distanced herself from Kokoschka and resumed contact with Walter Gropius, who was also serving in combat at that time. She and Gropius married on 18 August 1915 in Berlin during one of his military leaves. They had a daughter together, Manon Gropius (1916–1935), who grew up being friends with Maria Altmann. After Manon died of polio at the age of 18, composer Alban Berg dedicated his newly composed Violin Concerto to her, "In Memory of an Angel".
Alma became pregnant and gave birth to a son, Martin Carl Johannes Gropius (1918–1919). Gropius at first believed that the child was his, but Alma's ongoing affair with Franz Werfel was common knowledge in Vienna by this time. Within a year, Alma and Gropius agreed to a divorce. In the meantime, Martin, who had been born prematurely, developed hydrocephalus and died at the age of 10 months. Alma's divorce from Gropius became final in October 1920.
Relationship with Franz Werfel
While Gropius's military duties were still keeping him absent, Alma met and began an affair with Prague-born poet and writer Franz Werfel in the fall of 1917. She and Werfel began openly living together from that point on. However, she postponed marrying Werfel until 1929, after which she took the name Alma Mahler-Werfel.
In 1938, following the Anschluss, Alma and Werfel, who was Jewish, were forced to flee Austria for France; they maintained a household in Sanary-sur-Mer on the French Riviera from the summer of 1938 until the spring of 1940. With the German invasion and occupation of France during World War II, and the deportation of Jews and political adversaries to Nazi concentration camps, the couple was no longer safe in France and frantically sought to secure their emigration to the United States. In Marseille, they were contacted by Varian Fry, an American journalist and emissary of the Emergency Rescue Committee, a private American relief organization that aided refugee intellectuals and artists at that time.
As exit visas could not be obtained, Fry arranged for the Werfels to journey on foot across the Pyrenees into Spain, to evade the Vichy French border officials. From Spain, Alma and Franz traveled on to Portugal. They stayed in Monte Estoril, at the Grande Hotel D'Itália, between 8 September and 4 October 1940. On the same day, they boarded the S.S. Nea Hellas headed for New York City, arriving on 13 October.
Eventually they settled in Los Angeles, where Alma continued her role as a hostess, bringing together Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Thomas Mann, and many other artists. Werfel, who had enjoyed moderate renown in the U.S. as an author, achieved popular success with his novel The Song of Bernadette, and the science fiction novel Star of the Unborn, published after his death. Werfel, who had experienced serious heart problems throughout his exile, died of a heart attack in California in 1945.
Cultural icon in the U.S.
In 1946, Mahler-Werfel became a U.S. citizen. Several years later she moved to New York City, where she remained a cultural figure. Leonard Bernstein, who was a champion of Gustav Mahler's music, stated in his Charles Eliot Norton lectures of 1973 that Mahler-Werfel had attended some of his rehearsals. Benjamin Britten, considering her to be a "living" link to both Mahler and Alban Berg, dedicated his Nocturne for Tenor and Small Orchestra to her.
Death
Alma Mahler-Werfel died 11 December 1964 in New York City. She was buried on 8 February 1965 in the Grinzing Cemetery of Vienna in the same grave as her daughter Manon Gropius and a few steps away from Gustav Mahler.
Nazi-looted art
In 1999, the granddaughter of Mahler-Werfel requested that five artworks seized under the Nazis be restituted to the family. The paintings were “A summer's night on the beach” (1902) by Edvard Munch and three landscapes by her great-grandfather Emil Jakob Schindler. Alma Werfel had loaned the paintings to the Oesterreichische Galerie before fleeing the Nazis; Carl Moll, a militant Nazi, gained control of them, selling the Munch to the Oesterreichische Galerie in 1940 and keeping the others until, fearing retribution from the Red Army, he committed suicide. Mahler-Werfel filed claims after the war but was able to recover only the Kokoschka self-portrait. When Austria modified its extremely restrictive restitution laws, the granddaughter revived the claims. Austria initially rejected the claim. After a restitution battle that lasted six decades, Austria finally agreed to restitute the stolen Munch in 2006.
The Alma Problem
Mahler-Werfel's two books on Gustav Mahler influenced studies of the latter. As an articulate, well-connected, and influential woman who outlived her first husband by more than 50 years, Mahler-Werfel was for decades treated as the main authority on the mature Gustav Mahler's values, character, and day-to-day behavior, and her various publications quickly became the central source material for Mahler scholars and music-lovers alike. As scholars investigated her depiction of Mahler and her relationship with him, her accounts have increasingly been revealed as unreliable, false, and misleading. Nevertheless, the deliberate distortions have had a significant influence on several generations of scholars, interpreters, and music-lovers.
Citing the serious contradictions between Alma's accounts and other evidence, including her own diaries, several historians and biographers have begun to speak of the Alma Problem. According to Hugh Wood: "Often she is the only witness, and the biographer has to depend on her while doubting with every sentence her capacity for telling the truth. Everything that passed through her hands must be regarded as tainted".
As a composer
Alma played the piano from childhood and in her memoirs ("Mein Leben"), reports that she first attempted composing in the beginning of 1888 on the Greek island of Corfu. She studied composition with Josef Labor beginning in 1894 or 1895 and until 1901. She met Alexander von Zemlinsky in early 1900, began composition lessons with him that fall, and continued as his student until her engagement to Gustav Mahler in December 1901, after which she ceased composing. Until this time, she had composed or sketched mostly Lieder, but around 20 piano pieces and a small number of chamber music works, and a scene from an opera. She briefly resumed composing in 1910, but stopped in 1915. The chronology of her compositions is difficult to establish because she did not date her manuscripts and destroyed many of them herself. Attempts to establish a chronological list of her works have been made by Susanne Rode-Breymann in 1999 and 2014, and by Knud Martner in 2018.
A total of 17 songs by her survive. Fourteen were published during her lifetime in three publications dated 1910, 1915, and 1924. The first two volumes appeared under the name Alma Maria Schindler-Mahler, and the last volume was published as "Fünf Gesänge" by Alma Maria Mahler; the cover of the 1915 set was illustrated by Oskar Kokoschka. Three additional songs were discovered in manuscript posthumously; two of them were published in the year 2000, edited by Dr. Susan M. Filler, and one published in 2018, edited by Barry Millington. Her personal papers, including music manuscripts, are held at the University of Pennsylvania, the Austrian National Library in Vienna, and the Bavarian State Library in Munich. These songs have been performed and recorded regularly since the 1980s. Orchestral versions of the accompaniments have been produced. Seven songs were orchestrated by David and Colin Matthews (published by Universal Edition), and all 17 songs were orchestrated by Julian Reynolds, and by Jorma Panula.
Works
Compositions cited from Mahler, A Complete Songs unless otherwise noted.
Five Songs for voice and piano (published in January 1911)
(i) Die stille Stadt (The Quiet Town; Richard Dehmel)
(ii) In meines Vaters Garten (In My Father's Garden; Erich Otto Hartleben)Note: The original poem is entitled Französisches Wiegenlied or Volkslied, and was composed between May and August 1899.
(iii) Laue Sommernacht (Mild Summer's Night; Bierbaum)Note: The original title of the poem is Gefunden.
(iv) Bei dir ist es traut (With You It Is Pleasant; Rilke)
(v) Ich wandle unter Blumen (I Stroll Among Flowers; Heine)
Four Songs for voice and piano (published in June 1915)
(i) Licht in der Nacht (Light in the Night; Bierbaum)
(ii) Waldseligkeit (Woodland Bliss; Dehmel)
(iii) Ansturm (Storm; Dehmel)
(iv) Erntelied (Harvest Song; Gustav Falke)The original title is Gesang am Morgen (Song at Dawn).
Five Songs for voice and piano (published in April 1924)
(i) Hymne (Hymn; Novalis)
(ii) Ekstase (Ecstasy; Bierbaum)
(iii) Der Erkennende (The Recognizer; Werfel)
(iv) Lobgesang (Song of Praise; Dehmel)
(v) Hymne an die Nacht (Hymn to the Night; Novalis)
Posthumously published
Leise weht ein erstes Blühn (Softly Drifts a First Blossom; Rilke), for voice and piano (published 2000 by Susan M. Filler)
Kennst du meine Nächte? (Do You Know My Nights?; Leo Greiner), for voice and piano (published 2000 by Susan M. Filler)
Einsamer Gang (Lonely Walk, Leo Greiner), for voice and piano (published London 2018 by Barry Millington)
In popular culture
American satirist Tom Lehrer described her obituary as “the juiciest, spiciest, raciest obituary it has ever been my pleasure to read”. It prompted him to write the ballad, "Alma", portraying her as "the loveliest girl in Vienna ... the smartest as well" who became a difficult, temperamental companion to the work-absorbed Mahler, Gropius, and Werfel as each in turn came under her "spell". Of her relationship to Mahler he sang: "Their marriage, however, was murdah/ He'd scream to the heavens above/ 'I'm writing Das Lied von der Erde/ and she only vants to make love!
In the 1974 film Mahler, by director Ken Russell, Gustav Mahler, while on his last train journey, remembers the important events of his life, such as his relationship with his wife, the deaths of his brother and young daughter, and his trouble with the muses. In the film, Alma was portrayed by Georgina Hale and Gustav by Robert Powell.
In 1996, Israeli writer Joshua Sobol and Austrian director Paulus Manker created the polydrama Alma. It played in Vienna for six successive seasons and toured with over 400 performances to Venice, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Petronell, Berlin, Semmering, Jerusalem, and Prague—all places where Mahler-Werfel had lived. The show was made into a three-part TV miniseries in 1997.
Mohammed Fairouz set the words of Alma Mahler in his song cycle Jeder Mensch. It premiered in a coupling with songs of Alma Mahler by mezzo-soprano Kate Lindsey in 2011.
A treatment of Mahler-Werfel's life was presented in the 2001 Bruce Beresford film Bride of the Wind, in which Alma was played by Australian actress Sarah Wynter. Gustav Mahler was portrayed by British actor Jonathan Pryce. Swiss actor Vincent Pérez portrayed Oskar Kokoschka.
In 1998, extracts from Alma's diaries were published, covering the years from 1898 to 1902, until the time she married Mahler. In the 2001 novel The Artist's Wife by Max Phillips, she tells her story from the afterlife, focusing on her complicated relationships.
In 2010, the German filmmaker Percy Adlon and his son Felix Adlon released their film Mahler auf der Couch (Mahler on the Couch), which relates Gustav Mahler's tormented relationship with his wife Alma and his meeting with Sigmund Freud in 1910. In the film's introduction, the directors state, "That it happened is fact. How it happened is fiction."
References
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
Alma Mahler, My Life, My Loves: Memoirs of Alma Mahler Vermilon Books, reprint edition (February 1989)
Alma Mahler-Werfel, Diaries 1898–1902 (ed. and translator, Antony Beaumont and Susanne Rode-Breymann) Faber and Faber (1 February 1999)
Alma Mahler-Werfel, 'And the bridge is love' Hutchinson of London, first published September 1959,third impression April 1960
Gustav Mahler, Letters to his Wife [1901–11]. Edited by Henry-Louis de La Grange and Günther Weiss, in Collaboration with Knud Martner. First complete edition, revised and translated by Antony Beaumont (Faber and Faber, London 2004)
Susanne Rode-Breymann, Die Komponistin Alma Mahler-Werfel (Hanover, 1999)
Susanne Rode-Breymann, Alma Mahler-Werfel. Muse, Gattin, Witwe (C. H. Beck, Munich 2014)
Susanne Keegan, The Bride of the Wind. The Life and Times of Alma Mahler-Werfel. (Houghtin Mifflin Company, Boston 1983; Secker & Warburg, London 1984,348 pages).
"Walter Gropius" in Nicholas Fox Weber, The Bauhaus Group: Six Masters of Modernism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.) The chapter opens with her story. pp. 1–5; 11–15; 27–42
Jörg Rothkamm, "'A husband and wife who are both composers'? An unpublished song version of the so-called "Erntelied" ("Gesang am Morgen") in the hand of Gustav Mahler in light of the correspondence between Alma Mahler and Walter Gropius." In: News about Mahler Research 72, 2018, pp. 7–34.
External links
Finding aid to the Mahler-Werfel papers at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries
Franz Werfel Family papers at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York
Free recordings of her works at the Sophie database
, by Tom Lehrer, ''That Was the Year That Was (1965)
1879 births
1964 deaths
19th-century classical composers
20th-century American women musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Austrian women artists
Austrian artists' models
Austrian classical composers
Austrian emigrants to the United States
Austrian women classical composers
Alma
Muses
Musicians from Vienna
Models from Vienna
20th-century women composers
19th-century women composers
Austro-Hungarian expatriates in Germany
Harold B. Lee Library-related rare books articles
Emigrants from Austria to the United States after the Anschluss
Jewish art collectors
|
[
-0.35963964462280273,
0.6456517577171326,
-0.18811006844043732,
-0.23068095743656158,
-0.2457336187362671,
0.6583157777786255,
0.1916217803955078,
-0.3226381242275238,
0.07763978838920593,
-0.34727218747138977,
-0.282555490732193,
-0.28787705302238464,
0.02474576234817505,
0.4562886357307434,
-0.41712287068367004,
-0.0701293796300888,
0.06583104282617569,
-0.004308352246880531,
-0.7078675031661987,
-0.30332151055336,
-0.0762397050857544,
-0.2810954749584198,
0.38209861516952515,
0.4716276526451111,
-0.06103707477450371,
-0.14293380081653595,
0.010195874609053135,
-0.11014510691165924,
0.46459701657295227,
0.02893843501806259,
0.05635422095656395,
0.6628272533416748,
0.6451857089996338,
-0.2156347930431366,
-0.7619860172271729,
0.5799304842948914,
-0.02070961333811283,
0.3265293538570404,
0.2740139365196228,
0.04394823685288429,
-0.5268742442131042,
0.20260530710220337,
0.46567246317863464,
-0.08393052965402603,
-0.09878939390182495,
-0.41487956047058105,
-2.1165642738342285,
0.6771687865257263,
-0.716819703578949,
-0.5877640247344971,
-0.4625660181045532,
0.22177769243717194,
1.0471932888031006,
0.9041534662246704,
-0.46393999457359314,
-0.19892604649066925,
-0.7327666878700256,
-0.3086867332458496,
0.0512605682015419,
0.07208847254514694,
0.5418141484260559,
0.20115715265274048,
0.3747316300868988,
-0.20166239142417908,
0.5094934701919556,
0.21121402084827423,
-0.2629750072956085,
0.2573842704296112,
0.12144031375646591,
-0.10547827184200287,
-0.38396155834198,
0.38992416858673096,
0.3281314969062805,
-0.45408546924591064,
-0.3773866295814514,
-0.6494491696357727,
0.45445483922958374,
-0.2129082977771759,
0.3877939283847809,
0.18303994834423065,
0.016006045043468475,
-0.2785024344921112,
0.7156866788864136,
0.14688146114349365,
-0.00869681965559721,
-0.04075060412287712,
-0.373153954744339,
-0.009352830238640308,
-0.7609615921974182,
-0.17565332353115082,
-0.5700253844261169,
-1.1464850902557373,
0.42738378047943115,
0.16569696366786957,
0.19288909435272217,
0.4530809819698334,
0.686809241771698,
0.3281157612800598,
-0.26374977827072144,
-0.024796484038233757,
-0.2090180516242981,
0.07167591899633408,
-0.11102749407291412,
-0.18856161832809448,
-0.34929123520851135,
0.09807337820529938,
-0.1563148945569992,
0.02161100134253502,
0.019057463854551315,
0.5125459432601929,
-0.4967345893383026,
-0.33765512704849243,
-0.20473340153694153,
0.08476520329713821,
-0.15472707152366638,
-0.020577477291226387,
-0.13091948628425598,
-0.6036763191223145,
-0.3458781838417053,
0.06574136018753052,
0.6711616516113281,
0.22916792333126068,
0.3442450165748596,
-0.5033525824546814,
-0.6788302063941956,
-0.12447075545787811,
0.2349347621202469,
0.33177947998046875,
-0.29233384132385254,
0.319926381111145,
0.09759731590747833,
0.7417587041854858,
-0.05080374702811241,
-0.32975712418556213,
0.3431168496608734,
-0.3014340400695801,
0.30353543162345886,
-0.40431928634643555,
-0.36393487453460693,
0.4932730495929718,
-0.43475422263145447,
0.09732075780630112,
-0.8775244951248169,
-0.0695122629404068,
0.3779992163181305,
-0.32000890374183655,
-0.3774318993091583,
-0.16184671223163605,
0.19355134665966034,
-0.3161401152610779,
-0.18371616303920746,
-0.0982874184846878,
-0.25311192870140076,
-0.4445257782936096,
-0.44231581687927246,
0.41100555658340454,
0.4889611601829529,
0.19822999835014343,
0.39050230383872986,
0.13590092957019806,
0.41346773505210876,
0.12213213741779327,
-0.19528499245643616,
-0.2559897303581238,
-0.10980046540498734,
-0.30870041251182556,
0.46815022826194763,
0.7122023701667786,
-0.600059986114502,
0.00357834342867136,
-0.5230311751365662,
0.19245673716068268,
0.22017866373062134,
0.3191628158092499,
-0.517790675163269,
0.5153931975364685,
0.20923714339733124,
-0.0009630554122850299,
-0.2798079550266266,
-0.11062537878751755,
-0.8363810777664185,
0.1625899225473404,
-0.2992438077926636,
0.43123859167099,
0.38255900144577026,
0.6127182245254517,
-0.00845898874104023,
0.21140173077583313,
0.7269174456596375,
-0.5177464485168457,
-0.25897735357284546,
-0.7484728097915649,
0.5812687873840332,
0.7059504985809326,
0.9649638533592224,
0.5591808557510376,
-0.22625383734703064,
0.2309112697839737,
0.000023117157979868352,
-0.09076541662216187,
-0.16496926546096802,
-0.04578382521867752,
0.0481332428753376,
-0.1924881786108017,
0.28466424345970154,
0.07294297218322754,
0.049740470945835114,
-0.29927927255630493,
-0.2783585786819458,
-0.08333540707826614,
0.12997734546661377,
-0.13582651317119598,
0.4197826385498047,
0.550952136516571,
-0.42818140983581543,
-0.20994839072227478,
-0.7737991809844971,
0.016769254580140114,
0.32365453243255615,
-0.1628151386976242,
0.47855111956596375,
0.1785460263490677,
-0.46986961364746094,
0.24534371495246887,
0.10091657191514969,
0.7574647068977356,
-0.04252507537603378,
0.25097957253456116,
-0.11716869473457336,
-0.010092281736433506,
0.08750592172145844,
0.26316362619400024,
0.4810185134410858,
-0.25923311710357666,
0.6266695857048035,
0.3259137272834778,
-0.16348321735858917,
0.3155803382396698,
0.4570647180080414,
-0.6824334263801575,
0.5680357813835144,
0.5117292404174805,
-0.31817200779914856,
0.4917472302913666,
-0.33467307686805725,
-0.05332709476351738,
-0.4418509006500244,
-0.37379714846611023,
-0.11230279505252838,
0.2736862003803253,
0.32469356060028076,
0.2621711790561676,
-0.10112504661083221,
0.6007336974143982,
-0.2778817117214203,
-0.27599287033081055,
0.2734030783176422,
-0.04299543425440788,
0.7243272066116333,
0.10398964583873749,
0.7862180471420288,
-0.008704710751771927,
0.5653817653656006,
-0.17770607769489288,
-0.07222317159175873,
-0.8244661092758179,
0.3627958595752716,
-0.4344327747821808,
0.11782033741474152,
0.13783803582191467,
0.23406872153282166,
0.26766109466552734,
0.041211772710084915,
0.8219058513641357,
0.13985687494277954,
-0.08611247688531876,
-0.6854676604270935,
0.007254754193127155,
-0.34269750118255615,
-0.7293538451194763,
0.22158707678318024,
0.522884726524353,
-0.42072489857673645,
-0.2708505094051361,
-0.8180366158485413,
0.2967338562011719,
0.3220767378807068,
0.10624931752681732,
0.08426912128925323,
0.6538073420524597,
-0.26621517539024353,
1.2876712083816528,
-0.5274751782417297,
-0.3279682695865631,
-0.04409177228808403,
0.5841506123542786,
-0.5409367680549622,
-0.5842307209968567,
-0.28160345554351807,
-0.41673415899276733,
-0.862596333026886,
0.12759815156459808,
-0.2268238216638565,
0.05842132866382599,
-0.05596553161740303,
0.2407306730747223,
-0.44400209188461304,
0.2598607838153839,
-5.465760707855225,
-0.021704453974962234,
0.11191854625940323,
-0.7767435908317566,
-0.4788168966770172,
0.5237399935722351,
-0.3681579530239105,
-0.2988480031490326,
0.007594812661409378,
0.04210035875439644,
0.548664391040802,
0.21638654172420502,
-0.5675784349441528,
0.9396787881851196,
0.2875640392303467,
-0.05744973197579384,
-0.6683635115623474,
-0.13673071563243866,
-0.43536779284477234,
0.2485101968050003,
0.16139182448387146,
-0.49301934242248535,
0.3577485680580139,
0.3335910737514496,
0.29294076561927795,
-0.7658061385154724,
-0.25998494029045105,
-0.1911134272813797,
-0.7434626817703247,
-0.7715005874633789,
0.5870572328567505,
-0.1919899433851242,
-0.42124420404434204,
0.2101617157459259,
0.5758692622184753,
0.13277693092823029,
0.22612808644771576,
0.46637091040611267,
0.18464596569538116,
0.06740643829107285,
0.125030055642128,
-0.0461462065577507,
-0.24537087976932526,
-0.09553131461143494,
-0.19611132144927979,
0.12757322192192078,
-0.2510661482810974,
0.4017268419265747,
-0.46032190322875977,
0.8949031829833984,
0.532795786857605,
-0.4483257830142975,
-0.0012313512852415442,
-0.2790590822696686,
-0.26437366008758545,
0.17772920429706573,
-0.17475560307502747,
-0.3584176003932953,
-0.4798506498336792,
0.25619664788246155,
0.5787579417228699,
-0.003969861660152674,
0.1463371068239212,
-0.1739354431629181,
-0.7461885213851929,
0.002800882561132312,
-0.1893111765384674,
0.24822014570236206,
-0.04916514828801155,
-0.06600634008646011,
0.2894164025783539,
0.3708341419696808,
0.4984937608242035,
-1.2838979959487915,
-0.5475875735282898,
-0.6662492752075195,
-0.15630359947681427,
-0.38927629590034485,
-0.8327986598014832,
0.4662002921104431,
0.208934485912323,
-0.779624342918396,
0.0007954451139084995,
0.49937471747398376,
0.9588178992271423,
0.2930583357810974,
-0.385314017534256,
0.25776129961013794,
-0.25201889872550964,
-0.17449192702770233,
-0.1819324493408203,
-0.6000884771347046,
0.007636575028300285,
0.3904600739479065,
-0.027655070647597313,
0.2744613587856293,
-0.08935822546482086,
0.05936172232031822,
0.6875990033149719,
0.7028257250785828,
-0.4478823244571686,
-0.3986641764640808,
0.2245827168226242,
0.20919625461101532,
0.8677372932434082,
-0.0754108726978302,
-0.07634888589382172,
-0.37193435430526733,
1.238155722618103,
-0.15470200777053833,
0.15639634430408478,
0.2699246108531952,
0.3446188271045685,
-0.7964158058166504,
0.06788839399814606,
-1.2503465414047241,
0.24280966818332672,
0.693769097328186,
0.17702578008174896,
0.0174779761582613,
-0.1280161738395691,
-0.1654023379087448,
0.26034054160118103,
-0.34392479062080383,
-0.11181696504354477,
0.17374920845031738,
0.18789489567279816,
-0.24581383168697357,
-0.7595961689949036,
0.2092667520046234,
-0.21170979738235474,
0.33890500664711,
-0.18345706164836884,
-0.01868118904531002,
0.38998571038246155,
0.037549637258052826,
-0.7033004760742188,
-0.15433348715305328,
0.1759403645992279,
-0.509985625743866,
0.23247861862182617,
-0.18507488071918488,
-0.5190249085426331,
0.03824993968009949,
0.37682023644447327,
-0.24974565207958221,
-0.2607322037220001,
-0.5729690790176392,
-0.7520488500595093,
-0.25635579228401184,
-0.06136479601264,
0.34465548396110535,
0.7738021016120911,
-0.19702914357185364,
-0.6987428069114685,
0.007395483553409576,
-0.05100614205002785,
0.3130215108394623,
-0.5189234614372253,
0.15677033364772797,
-0.00040410851943306625,
-0.2945074737071991,
-0.8698515892028809,
-0.21102359890937805,
-0.24358662962913513,
0.4470512866973877,
0.022716494277119637,
0.011156383901834488,
-0.020960666239261627,
0.40562984347343445,
0.2198626697063446,
-0.596204400062561,
0.025030551478266716,
0.15634508430957794,
0.13425953686237335,
0.10108891129493713,
-0.33945977687835693,
-0.48313355445861816,
0.08323127031326294,
0.17763705551624298,
-0.494172602891922,
-0.6516755223274231,
-0.9849611520767212,
-0.15769530832767487,
-0.11418900638818741,
0.3446671664714813,
-0.7383570671081543,
-0.17776256799697876,
-0.08455197513103485,
-0.10520154237747192,
-0.2914086580276489,
-0.23127950727939606,
-0.0006863056332804263,
0.5520464777946472,
-0.19837747514247894,
-0.26878389716148376,
0.25717541575431824,
-0.07391013950109482,
-0.22463838756084442,
-0.5871948003768921,
-0.24313002824783325,
-0.04310213774442673,
-0.35234013199806213,
-0.2824056148529053,
0.43953555822372437,
-1.3428775072097778,
-0.04550537094473839,
-0.06425460427999496,
-0.38465747237205505,
1.0266945362091064,
-0.3545244038105011,
-0.5384538173675537,
0.5522135496139526,
0.8768847584724426,
-0.07436533272266388,
0.449968159198761,
-0.02898288518190384,
0.04911591112613678,
-0.7333966493606567,
-0.004629919771105051,
-0.4922735393047333,
-0.035881031304597855,
-0.6041799783706665,
-0.07042401283979416,
-0.6071513295173645,
-0.03840905427932739,
-0.16347889602184296,
-0.2816319763660431,
0.422201544046402,
-0.5805131793022156,
0.40966710448265076,
0.5319626927375793,
-0.12026771903038025,
-0.05225123092532158,
-0.1774074286222458,
-0.7696194648742676,
0.03503989428281784,
0.23405039310455322,
-0.6489136815071106,
0.42243844270706177,
0.8540415167808533,
0.5825496315956116,
0.4011865556240082,
0.5210477709770203,
0.05405445769429207,
0.33255696296691895,
-0.1362331509590149,
0.018884774297475815,
0.16516119241714478,
0.23435896635055542,
0.03643864020705223,
0.011444410309195518,
-0.5105828046798706,
-0.4175301790237427,
0.7421454191207886,
-0.1664159595966339,
0.2601158320903778,
0.11296797543764114,
0.02564295195043087,
0.39983057975769043,
0.24277792870998383,
0.11231256276369095,
0.9053734540939331,
-0.0976061150431633,
-0.3486710786819458,
0.6219505667686462,
0.3262854516506195,
-0.3082292973995209,
-0.2371271401643753,
0.08666034787893295,
0.40632957220077515,
0.07686302810907364,
-0.41278737783432007,
0.029548009857535362,
-0.21801045536994934,
0.8178524971008301,
-0.07645414024591446,
-0.29381391406059265,
0.22507157921791077,
-0.13089311122894287,
-0.08879971504211426,
0.11521419882774353,
-0.25774356722831726,
-0.813201367855072,
-0.3232991397380829,
-0.5372177958488464,
-0.39296460151672363,
-0.20265182852745056,
-0.4177938401699066,
0.037991974502801895,
-0.2800508737564087,
0.3365213871002197,
0.22025097906589508,
0.8322077989578247,
0.3834328353404999,
0.35762935876846313,
-0.16417279839515686,
0.48736119270324707,
-0.047465622425079346,
-0.463211327791214,
-0.1841757744550705,
0.08486092835664749,
0.6745355725288391,
0.06706980615854263,
0.30769070982933044,
-0.030388478189706802,
0.07433608919382095,
-0.5586490631103516,
-0.55545973777771,
-0.012265829369425774,
0.21669933199882507,
0.010282525792717934,
-0.03139207512140274,
0.8246181607246399,
-0.36819636821746826,
0.3404620587825775,
0.3323105275630951,
0.038845013827085495,
0.20114442706108093,
0.34847748279571533,
0.24937064945697784,
-0.4086906909942627,
1.0827168226242065,
-0.01439524907618761,
-0.12606392800807953,
0.3633979856967926,
0.24503664672374725,
0.5843223333358765,
-0.348838746547699,
0.4400518238544464,
0.23829877376556396,
-0.38478657603263855,
0.039738770574331284,
0.8997199535369873,
0.02383098006248474,
-0.5565304160118103,
0.007080926559865475,
-0.2679153382778168,
-0.3907860815525055,
-0.24358202517032623,
0.3652220666408539,
0.5623384714126587,
0.09430941939353943,
0.09762480109930038,
0.345783531665802,
0.06128642335534096,
-0.29940271377563477,
1.0503922700881958,
-0.5242815613746643,
-0.2172863930463791,
0.35559627413749695,
0.6410977840423584,
0.22959892451763153,
-0.4685611426830292,
0.19064566493034363,
0.6576799154281616,
0.9558790922164917,
-0.00683044595643878,
-0.12496025115251541,
0.412763774394989,
0.09791794419288635,
-0.5383772253990173,
1.1934822797775269,
-0.23523303866386414,
-0.3655950725078583,
-0.3261849582195282,
-0.22244589030742645,
-0.4181174635887146,
-0.1359671950340271,
-0.3564634919166565,
-0.06443675607442856,
-0.09476371854543686,
-0.5185672640800476,
0.9155936241149902,
0.4129278063774109,
-0.0717194676399231,
0.4161929786205292,
-0.38008803129196167,
0.41894975304603577,
0.0033105891197919846,
-0.4796994924545288,
0.10670725256204605,
0.4520874619483948,
-0.458753764629364,
0.01787157915532589,
-0.8987351655960083,
0.28789371252059937,
-0.6535598039627075,
0.6304647326469421,
-0.7148070931434631,
0.5996931791305542,
-0.16443704068660736,
0.5514219999313354,
-0.019622288644313812,
-0.25617745518684387,
-0.4064018726348877,
-0.16513662040233612,
0.32197168469429016,
-0.17650163173675537,
-0.32791537046432495,
0.15558932721614838,
0.5805808901786804,
0.25796544551849365,
-0.09938209503889084,
-0.40821462869644165,
0.3383982181549072,
-0.3529207706451416,
0.19769854843616486,
-0.33707547187805176,
0.1791614294052124,
-0.11062125116586685,
0.21413086354732513,
-0.21727748215198517,
0.35764816403388977,
-0.3132691979408264,
0.23701903223991394,
0.7736657857894897,
0.1232525035738945,
0.005956501234322786,
-0.3287141025066376,
0.49933257699012756,
-0.06179611757397652,
0.24871492385864258,
-0.4521229565143585,
-0.1414037048816681,
0.6409651041030884,
-0.03979517146945,
-0.6027359366416931,
-0.06758169084787369,
0.3950234651565552,
-0.44516825675964355,
0.7074409127235413,
-0.3100244402885437,
0.21326473355293274,
-0.24540960788726807,
-0.08557388186454773,
0.338873952627182,
-0.031590595841407776,
0.07934786379337311,
-0.587057888507843,
0.42605355381965637,
0.07985230535268784,
-0.19963102042675018,
-0.12198114395141602,
0.4085080027580261,
0.8726620078086853,
-0.04362376034259796,
-0.2695600688457489,
-0.29091575741767883,
0.6631210446357727,
-0.17077860236167908,
-0.39189693331718445,
0.2850630283355713,
-0.8419392108917236,
0.11056971549987793,
-0.0834350511431694,
0.1842540055513382,
-0.39494195580482483,
0.3446335792541504,
-0.04872700944542885
] |
203795
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama%20I
|
Rama I
|
Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok Maharaj (, 20 March 1737 – 7 September 1809), personal name Thongduang (), also known as Rama I, was the founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom and the first monarch of the reigning Chakri dynasty of Siam (now Thailand). His full title in Thai is Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paramoruracha Mahachakkriborommanat Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok (). He ascended the throne in 1782, following the deposition of King Taksin of Thonburi. He was also celebrated as the founder of Rattanakosin (now Bangkok) as the new capital of the reunited kingdom.
Rama I was born from a Mon male line descent family, great grandson of Kosa Pan. His father served in the royal court of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, and had served King Taksin in wars against the Burmese Konbaung dynasty and helped him in the reunification of Siam. During this time he emerged as Siam's most powerful military leader. Thongduang was the first Somdet Chao Phraya, the highest rank the nobility could attain, equaled to that of royalty. In 1782, he took control of Siam and crowned himself as the monarch. The most famous event in his reign was the Burmese–Siamese War of 1785–86, which was the last major Burmese assault on Siam.
Name
Like other high-ranking figures of old Siam, Rama I's name changed several times during his lifetime, depending on his respective position, and even posthumously. His name at birth was Thongduang (also spelled Thong Duang ทองด้วง), family names had not yet been introduced in Siam at that time.
When Thongduang served as deputy governor of Ratchaburi Province during the rule of King Ekkathat of Ayutthaya, he bore the title of Luang Yokkrabat. After the demise of Ayutthaya, the new king Taksin to whom he served as an important military commander, awarded him successively the titles of Phra Ratcharin Chao Krom Phra Tamruat (head of the police department), Phraya Aphaironnarit, Phraya Yommarat, Phraya Chakri and Chaophraya Chakri (minister of the northern provinces). Finally Taksin created him the title of Somdet Chaophraya Maha Kasatsuek, a noble title as high as no Siamese official had born before him, making him quasi-royalty.
When he ascended to the throne in 1782, he took the name Ramathibodi, just like the founder of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. His full title was much longer (Phra Borommarachathirat Ramathibodi Sisin Borommaha Chakkraphat Rachathibodin etc.), intended to demonstrate his universal claim to power like of earlier Siamese kings.
After his death, the people referred to him simply as Phaendin Ton ("the first reign"), to his son as Phaendin Klang ("the middle reign"). Continuing this system consequently, his grandson Rama III would have been "the last reign". To avoid this inauspicious title, he ended this practice by donating two Buddha statues that were placed to the sides of the Emerald Buddha at Wat Phra Kaeo and dedicated one each to his father and grandfather. He demanded to refer to his two predecessors using the names of these Buddha statues. The one dedicated to the first Chakri king was named Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok ("the Buddha on top of the sky and the crown of the worlds"). This is how this king is still referred to in Thai history books.
His descendant Vajiravudh (Rama VI) who had studied in England, realised that most Siamese kings' names were difficult to reproduce and remember for Westerners. He therefore disposed to use for all kings of the Chakri dynasty the name Rama together with the respective ordinal number. So this king is Rama I in Western literature. In 1982, 200 years after his accession, the Thai cabinet decided to award him the epithet Maharat ("The Great").
Early life
An Ayuttayan aristocrat
Thongduang was born in 1737 in the reign of King Boromakot of Ayutthaya. His father was Thongdi, a Mon noble serving the royal court (posthumously raised to Somdet Phra Prathom Borommahachonnok – "the grand primordial father") who was Phra Akson Sunthonsat (Royal Secretary of northern Siam, Keeper of the Royal Seal). Phra Akson Sunthonsat was also a descendant of Kosa Pan, the leader of King Narai's embassy to the French court. His mother, Daoreung (original name Yok), was part-Chinese. Thongduang had six other siblings.
Thongduang at a young age entered the Royal Palace as one of the royal pages of King Uthumphon, where he met his childhood friend Taksin. In 1757, aged 21, he became a monk temporarily, in accordance with Siamese custom. In 1760, he married Nak, daughter of a town patron in Samut Sakorn. He was later appointed the Luang Yokkrabat (deputy governor) of Ratchaburi Province by King Ekkathat in 1758.
Service under Taksin
On the eve of the fall of Ayutthaya, Phraya Wachiraprakan (later King Taksin) had foreseen that the fall of the city was certain. Wachiraprakan decided to break the siege of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese army and establish a new base outside. Phraya Ratchaburi also joined this venture. In 1767, Ayutthaya under King Ekkathat fell to Burmese invaders, the city was completely destroyed; burned and looted. Local warlords rose up to establish their supremacy in the absence of a central authority.
Despite the fall of Ayutthaya, Taksin and his men in the same year managed to capture Chantaburi and Trat. During this time Phraya Ratchaburi became one of Taksin's six ministers and together with Phraya Pichai they were regarded by Taksin as his two most valuable generals.
Military leader
Swiftly Taksin made a strategic plan and under it recaptured Ayutthaya in one year. In 1768 Taksin crowned himself and founded the Kingdom of Thonburi on the west bank of the mouth of the Chao Phraya river, using Thonburi as a new capital. Under the new Thonburi regime, Thongduang was appointed head of the royal police department, bearing the title Phra Ratcharin. After subjugating the warlord of Phimai with his brother Bunma (at that time called Phra Mahamontri, the future Maha Sura Singhanat), he was raised to Phraya Aphairanarit.
After the campaign to subdue the lord of Fang in 1769, Thongduang was raised to Phraya Yommarat and in the next year became Chao Phraya Chakri – the Samuhanayok (chief minister of the northern provinces). Chakri commanded the Siamese troops in the wars against Burma and went on to subjugate Cambodia. His brother Bunma (who by that time held the title of Phraya Anuchit Raja), accompanied him in various campaigns. Chakri and his brother were sent to the north to Lan Na in 1774 to free the kingdom from Burmese rule with the help of Phraya Kawila, a prince from Lampang. In 1776, he conquered Khmer Pa Dong (around modern Surin). He was assigned the task of conquering Lao kingdoms in 1778 and all the three kingdoms (Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Champasak) fell to the Siamese in the same year. He was eventually raised to Somdet Chao Phraya Maha Kasatsuek, the first official to ever hold this rank.
Ascension as King
In 1781, he went on the campaigns against Cambodia, only to return prematurely due to the instability of Thonburi. The rebellion of Phraya Sun had broken out and the rebels deposed King Taksin. Some sources report that Taksin was consigned to a monastery. After arriving in Thonburi in 1782, Chao Phraya defeated the Phraya Sun with his forces. Later sources widely reported that the general eventually executed the ousted Taksin, contradicting to some earlier sources. He then seized power and made himself King, establishing the Chakri Dynasty, which continues to rule Thailand to this day.
General Maha Kasatsuek crowned himself on 6 April 1782. Soon after, he decided to move the capital of Siam to the east bank of the Chao Phraya river for several reasons, including its better strategic location and a desire to promote his legitimacy by starting from a clean slate. He decided to name his new capital "Rattanakosin" ("Keeping place of the Emerald Buddha"). Rama I also raised various members of his family to royalty. He appointed his brother Surasi (Anuchit Raja) or Maha Sura Singhanat as the "Front Palace" (conventional title of the viceroy and heir apparent) and his nephew Thong-In or Anurak Devesh as the "Rear Palace".
The King had 42 children. Ten of these were born to Queen Amarinda, the others by various concubines. The Queen's children included Prince Isarasundhorn, later King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (Rama II) (whom the King appointed as Front Palace after the death of Maha Sura Singhanat in 1803), Prince Maha Senanurak and Prince Maha Sakdi Polsep.
Foreign policy and war
Vietnam and Cambodia
In 1784–1785, the last of the Nguyễn Lords, Nguyễn Ánh, convinced Rama I to give him forces to attack Vietnam, which was then under the control of the Tây Sơn brothers. However, the joint Nguyễn-Siam fleet was destroyed in the Battle of Rach Gam–Xoai Mut in the Mekong Delta region. Nguyễn's appeal for Siamese assistance enabled the Siamese to exert considerable political influence over Nguyễn's court. Mac Tu Sinh, the son of Mạc Thiên Tứ and his Siamese wife, was raised among the Siamese, and held office as the governor of Hà Tiên until his death in 1787. Ngo Ma, a general of Siamese descent, was appointed as its acting governor in Mac's place. Nguyễn Ánh also took refuge in Siam at the King's court waiting for the opportunities to defeat Tây Sơn. These episodes demonstrated Rama I's willingness to extend Siamese power beyond his Kingdom.
In Cambodia, King Reamraja (Ang Non II) was deposed in 1779 and the throne was given to the young prince Ang Eng. However, the pro-Vietnamese policies of certain Cambodian aristocrats under Ang Eng alarmed Rama I. As a result, Rama I had Ang Eng captured and deported to Bangkok, where Rama adopted him as his son, the purpose of which was to impose pro-Siamese sentiments on him. Rama I also imposed Chao Phraya Abhaya Bhubet as the Regent of Cambodia.
Nguyễn Ánh secretly left for Vietnam in 1787, leaving Rama I a note. Nguyen managed to recapture Saigon by 1788 and later ascended as Emperor Gia Long in 1802.
In 1794, upon Ang Eng's majority, Rama I reinstalled him as the Neareay Reachea III. The area around Siemreap and Battambang was annexed by Siam, and were governed by Abhaya Bhubet. However, Rama I allowed these territories to be ruled in accordance with Cambodian traditions.
Wars with Burma
Soon King Bodawpaya of Burma started to pursue his ambitious campaigns to expand his dominions over Siam. The Burmese–Siamese War (1785–1786), also known in Siam as the "Nine Armies War" because the Burmese came in nine armies, broke out. The Burmese soldiers poured into Lanna and Northern Siam. Siamese forces, commanded by Kawila, Prince of Lampang, put up a brave fight and delayed the Burmese advance, all the while waiting for reinforcements from Bangkok. When Phitsanulok was captured, Anurak Devesh the Rear Palace, and Rama I himself led Siamese forces to the north. The Siamese relieved Lampang from the Burmese siege.
In the south, Bodawpaya was waiting at Chedi Sam Ong ready to attack. The Front Palace was ordered to lead his troops to the south and counter-attack the Burmese coming to Ranong through Nakhon Si Thammarat. He brought the Burmese to battle near Kanchanaburi. The Burmese also attacked Thalang (Phuket), where the governor had just died. Chan, his wife, and her sister Mook gathered the local people and successfully defended Thalang against the Burmese. Today, Chan and Mook are revered as heroines because of their opposition to the Burmese invasions. In their own lifetimes, Rama I bestowed on them the titles Thao Thep Kasattri and Thao Sri Sunthon.
The Burmese proceeded to capture Songkhla. Upon hearing the news, the governors of Phatthalung fled. However, a monk named Phra Maha encouraged the citizens of the area to take up arms against the Burmese; his campaign was also successful. Phra Maha was later raised to the nobility by Rama I.
As his armies were destroyed, Bodawpaya retreated. The next year, he attacked again, this time constituting his troops as a single army. With this force Bodawpaya passed through the Chedi Sam Ong pass and settled in Tha Din Daeng. The Front Palace marched the Siamese forces to face Bodawpaya. The fighting was very short and Bodawpaya was quickly defeated. This short war was called the Tha Din Daeng campaign.
Death and legacy
King Rama I died on 7 September 1809 after a short but acute illness; he was succeeded by his son Prince Isarasundhorn as Buddha Loetla Nabhalai or Rama II.
Siam during the reign of Rama I reached a new height of power not seen since the sixteenth century. Militarily Siam was able to successfully repel Burmese invasions and exerted control over Laos and Cambodia and Vietnam. Culturally Rama I also encouraged cultural works to rehabilitate people after the successive series of wars and built many temples and monuments during his reign. His policies laid the foundation for Siam to expand within the next decades.
In memoriam
"Chakri Memorial Day", a public holiday, is celebrated on 6 April, observed to commemorate the founder of the Chakri dynasty.
A statue of Rama I in front of the Memorial Bridge (Phra Phutthayotfa Memorial Bridge).
The 500 baht banknote, Series 16, issued in 2014, depicts images of the King Rama I monument, Wat Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklararm Rajwaramahaviharn (Wat Pho), and Phra Sumen Fort on its back side.
See also
List of people with the most children
References
Rama 01
1737 births
1809 deaths
18th-century Chakri dynasty
19th-century Chakri dynasty
Rama 01
1782 crimes
Regicides
Founding monarchs
1782 establishments in Siam
Thai people of Mon descent
Thai people of Chinese descent
People from Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province
1780s in Siam
1790s in Siam
1800s in Siam
18th-century monarchs in Asia
19th-century monarchs in Asia
18th-century Thai people
19th-century Thai people
Samuhanayok
|
[
-0.29185420274734497,
0.26196154952049255,
0.20979714393615723,
0.2688494324684143,
-0.13204331696033478,
0.37574100494384766,
0.8672428131103516,
0.07574554532766342,
-0.7519825100898743,
-0.16522972285747528,
-0.309340238571167,
0.05896582081913948,
-0.5039726495742798,
-0.03966744244098663,
-0.649262011051178,
0.045730337500572205,
0.8963253498077393,
0.008547556586563587,
0.2612866461277008,
0.03020152822136879,
-0.16730742156505585,
0.33225831389427185,
0.4163645803928375,
0.14202940464019775,
0.5675233602523804,
-0.17471429705619812,
0.2096433788537979,
-0.39356592297554016,
0.12224086374044418,
-0.3683677911758423,
0.23961284756660461,
-0.1238621324300766,
0.15853586792945862,
-0.20112508535385132,
-0.514555811882019,
-0.31196922063827515,
0.09861219674348831,
0.1562688797712326,
-0.538930356502533,
0.1426769196987152,
-0.5860735177993774,
-0.003411264391615987,
0.14386223256587982,
-0.38438838720321655,
-0.32715144753456116,
-1.1557748317718506,
-0.9627448916435242,
0.35456663370132446,
-0.07190625369548798,
0.0509224496781826,
-0.501216471195221,
0.33309802412986755,
-0.029408665373921394,
-0.10143472254276276,
0.5427089333534241,
0.3471054434776306,
-0.7837878465652466,
0.0759042277932167,
-0.7520387768745422,
0.13814839720726013,
0.40572357177734375,
0.3878246247768402,
-0.007417156361043453,
-0.09906924515962601,
-0.00342138041742146,
0.31550168991088867,
0.2586982846260071,
-0.03754730522632599,
0.4051706790924072,
-0.051597725600004196,
0.20206105709075928,
0.827701985836029,
0.14018183946609497,
0.5751100182533264,
0.126428484916687,
-0.7866067290306091,
0.2409551441669464,
-0.07965376228094101,
0.4299905002117157,
-0.5130719542503357,
-0.10178525745868683,
-0.2895525395870209,
0.7856720685958862,
0.4038700461387634,
-0.1437467783689499,
-0.2668229937553406,
-0.03570426627993584,
-0.0009821299463510513,
-0.14004114270210266,
-0.12990351021289825,
-0.1366141438484192,
0.735596239566803,
0.7875589728355408,
-0.06499835848808289,
-0.6374892592430115,
-0.5423135757446289,
-0.3514695167541504,
0.025399409234523773,
0.36748820543289185,
-0.33623984456062317,
-0.0037471200339496136,
-0.07281554490327835,
0.19429443776607513,
-0.41046276688575745,
-0.9966241121292114,
-0.2950040400028229,
-0.3942051827907562,
0.47325974702835083,
-0.5952531695365906,
-0.27797654271125793,
-0.3163313567638397,
0.477489709854126,
-0.005983259528875351,
0.3646433353424072,
0.32718363404273987,
0.705553412437439,
-0.0032628527842462063,
-0.4394925832748413,
0.11326438933610916,
-0.2822185456752777,
0.03813634440302849,
0.16876822710037231,
0.2932997941970825,
0.23516952991485596,
0.010414952412247658,
0.09388654679059982,
0.04591543599963188,
-0.08031725883483887,
-0.24704454839229584,
0.008880880661308765,
0.4114827513694763,
0.3999823033809662,
-0.34249773621559143,
-0.3595673441886902,
-0.2984461486339569,
-0.3069702982902527,
0.822062611579895,
0.12498173117637634,
-0.15676936507225037,
-0.1926983892917633,
-0.20841558277606964,
-0.4697749614715576,
-0.4139164090156555,
0.6805017590522766,
-0.025504034012556076,
0.26294317841529846,
0.23591212928295135,
-0.05851728841662407,
-0.34156855940818787,
-0.11583324521780014,
-0.21560274064540863,
0.060689765959978104,
-0.2103802114725113,
-0.5753540992736816,
-0.25530436635017395,
0.7189522385597229,
0.3248681426048279,
0.19733701646327972,
-0.13090719282627106,
0.24726057052612305,
-0.01612662523984909,
0.5225493311882019,
-0.27489426732063293,
-0.15367338061332703,
0.6089456677436829,
-0.316100537776947,
-0.10405283421278,
0.6610493063926697,
-0.3240969181060791,
-0.11778679490089417,
-0.26081839203834534,
0.020209483802318573,
-0.31801071763038635,
0.04597704857587814,
-0.01555982232093811,
0.24398407340049744,
0.20704376697540283,
0.006402307655662298,
-0.030009793117642403,
-0.4230044186115265,
-0.36060792207717896,
0.3803803324699402,
-0.20528417825698853,
0.2911013066768646,
0.5653729438781738,
0.14139798283576965,
0.766291618347168,
-0.07505770772695541,
0.36428818106651306,
-0.4202598035335541,
-0.48731088638305664,
-0.17830947041511536,
-0.06832097470760345,
-0.12161608040332794,
0.787992537021637,
0.9849623441696167,
-0.07461954653263092,
0.7163425087928772,
0.17344078421592712,
0.8784804344177246,
0.504644513130188,
-0.26777562499046326,
0.32968640327453613,
-0.23960036039352417,
-0.15239159762859344,
0.1495215892791748,
-0.40924760699272156,
0.5831305384635925,
1.145599603652954,
0.957897424697876,
0.468101441860199,
-0.12088512629270554,
-0.8282290697097778,
-0.12367216497659683,
-0.433413028717041,
-0.15590418875217438,
-0.39518237113952637,
0.0706818625330925,
-0.10067193955183029,
-0.26035571098327637,
0.39134296774864197,
0.15586629509925842,
-0.38351672887802124,
0.5987717509269714,
0.1133282482624054,
1.3740043640136719,
-0.3356170058250427,
-0.19139432907104492,
-0.057930637151002884,
-0.3434875011444092,
-0.44255173206329346,
-0.7147426605224609,
0.4883914291858673,
0.19180083274841309,
0.3930383622646332,
-0.2641066312789917,
-0.08027495443820953,
-0.060220371931791306,
0.23707932233810425,
-0.36275428533554077,
0.6749227643013,
-0.2594355642795563,
0.1748344600200653,
0.5351235866546631,
-0.09269378334283829,
0.5796599388122559,
-0.8442054390907288,
-0.5460969805717468,
-0.7478317022323608,
0.09171326458454132,
0.23877380788326263,
0.035395681858062744,
0.4117325246334076,
0.1301766037940979,
-0.21592572331428528,
-0.4735325574874878,
-0.7909951210021973,
0.14359456300735474,
0.1046820729970932,
0.5038460493087769,
-0.006597909610718489,
-0.018388943746685982,
0.6739998459815979,
0.5147063136100769,
0.1559557318687439,
0.23830509185791016,
-0.01952618919312954,
-0.2990417182445526,
0.1771005094051361,
0.6086047887802124,
-0.024016262963414192,
-0.6080175638198853,
-0.6182113885879517,
-0.31713083386421204,
0.15513724088668823,
-0.7896850109100342,
0.08185197412967682,
0.3306099474430084,
-0.26747700572013855,
-1.1455867290496826,
0.7346828579902649,
0.6628274321556091,
-0.29149118065834045,
-0.4978979527950287,
-0.24202488362789154,
-0.45143207907676697,
-0.6849841475486755,
-0.26497483253479004,
0.10939452052116394,
0.2887105941772461,
-0.09606444090604782,
0.8149546980857849,
-0.12278193235397339,
-0.5762554407119751,
-0.09339848160743713,
0.35143163800239563,
-0.48001328110694885,
0.09150511026382446,
0.6059644222259521,
-0.05807799473404884,
-0.9015607833862305,
0.09577122330665588,
-0.31471049785614014,
0.5896182060241699,
0.3075142204761505,
-0.1893901824951172,
0.12798842787742615,
0.036370474845170975,
-5.591946125030518,
-0.5923575162887573,
0.7319913506507874,
-0.5182310342788696,
0.2911720275878906,
0.2843668758869171,
0.8472936749458313,
0.4819560647010803,
0.665704071521759,
-0.24364668130874634,
0.6670663952827454,
-0.21198315918445587,
0.32086217403411865,
0.09730363637208939,
-0.05745526775717735,
0.46858832240104675,
-0.07288341969251633,
-0.25731247663497925,
0.41932639479637146,
0.9122354984283447,
0.3371700942516327,
-0.49003374576568604,
-0.09316160529851913,
0.519188642501831,
0.06434458494186401,
-0.11613687127828598,
-0.019687972962856293,
-0.28461796045303345,
-0.9620561599731445,
-0.36628732085227966,
-0.47902652621269226,
-0.02081482671201229,
0.4705197513103485,
-0.7133479714393616,
-0.17461632192134857,
-0.2923040986061096,
0.5421621203422546,
0.1681167185306549,
-0.3758636713027954,
0.07300630956888199,
0.2696998417377472,
-0.9155700206756592,
-0.28523120284080505,
-0.3494524359703064,
-0.025192882865667343,
-0.0681651383638382,
-0.46403762698173523,
0.21210169792175293,
-0.1607603281736374,
0.1824188530445099,
-0.1292993724346161,
0.10115263611078262,
0.2473791092634201,
-0.6781411170959473,
-0.10899588465690613,
0.402906209230423,
-0.6206739544868469,
0.5456154942512512,
-0.7470694780349731,
0.3972890079021454,
0.472941517829895,
0.016923967748880386,
-0.17928102612495422,
0.21971513330936432,
0.5344569683074951,
-0.4034987986087799,
-0.09841837733983994,
0.0698004886507988,
0.1590876579284668,
0.7438754439353943,
-0.11068660765886307,
0.10858040302991867,
-0.054526351392269135,
-0.5282250642776489,
-0.1976737082004547,
-0.31078413128852844,
0.13068388402462006,
0.45663872361183167,
0.46707287430763245,
-0.106660857796669,
-0.25254127383232117,
0.31068336963653564,
-0.10594967752695084,
1.100746989250183,
0.2486766129732132,
-0.012875816784799099,
-0.18327972292900085,
0.030776290223002434,
0.03096873313188553,
0.23496104776859283,
0.43738943338394165,
-1.0424094200134277,
-0.5782358050346375,
0.18718720972537994,
0.12685993313789368,
-0.07576553523540497,
-0.06499454379081726,
0.09048902243375778,
0.5063065886497498,
-0.40715184807777405,
0.05533190444111824,
0.10035213083028793,
-0.052184611558914185,
-0.04432814195752144,
-0.07910773158073425,
-0.020000793039798737,
-0.21372267603874207,
-0.059348419308662415,
0.5692558288574219,
0.1276790350675583,
-0.059905100613832474,
-0.18235549330711365,
0.33900120854377747,
0.10853373259305954,
0.23162223398685455,
-0.38707855343818665,
0.20204025506973267,
-0.32271647453308105,
0.12016333639621735,
-0.2532178461551666,
-0.5278177857398987,
0.6839701533317566,
-0.2413121908903122,
0.5382364392280579,
0.6451771259307861,
0.11680147051811218,
0.022516243159770966,
0.2501004636287689,
-0.13382607698440552,
-0.49439024925231934,
0.10085178911685944,
-0.11547227203845978,
0.4298661947250366,
-0.0783907026052475,
0.19737876951694489,
-0.5252582430839539,
0.172090545296669,
-0.5045874118804932,
-0.24774233996868134,
-0.11397974193096161,
-1.0690218210220337,
-0.4205992817878723,
-0.012151679955422878,
0.61309814453125,
-0.03896348923444748,
-0.29801473021507263,
0.19488020241260529,
-0.3976915180683136,
0.09235358983278275,
0.326058566570282,
0.03266224265098572,
-0.34704911708831787,
1.2927783727645874,
0.2137439250946045,
-0.4064517319202423,
0.1788078248500824,
0.16645845770835876,
-0.025767046958208084,
0.10092396289110184,
0.1656360924243927,
-0.17077307403087616,
-0.11268390715122223,
-0.631828784942627,
-0.30753079056739807,
-0.21305592358112335,
0.4486350417137146,
-0.3035604953765869,
0.25251680612564087,
-0.06633724272251129,
0.28942325711250305,
1.0615779161453247,
-0.6838181614875793,
-0.13490518927574158,
0.09828539192676544,
0.04641537368297577,
0.06700678914785385,
-0.1605350524187088,
0.10842553526163101,
-0.29287639260292053,
0.0680680200457573,
-0.6880959272384644,
-0.14383721351623535,
-0.638306736946106,
0.545978307723999,
0.04323878511786461,
0.07514537870883942,
-0.03170904517173767,
-1.340264081954956,
-0.05767979472875595,
0.010836424306035042,
0.10574164241552353,
0.03518960252404213,
-0.40672656893730164,
-0.312391996383667,
-0.3164139688014984,
-0.8667258620262146,
-0.3442646563053131,
0.4348002076148987,
0.3494958281517029,
0.2632356286048889,
-0.15679040551185608,
0.34125128388404846,
0.09409177303314209,
-0.3444908857345581,
0.014609861187636852,
-0.5990792512893677,
-0.0655805692076683,
0.21512477099895477,
0.6435837745666504,
0.35748374462127686,
-0.06404054164886475,
-0.607119619846344,
0.2860407531261444,
0.45449379086494446,
-0.05790182575583458,
0.1710798293352127,
-0.024034179747104645,
-0.3085203766822815,
0.39594370126724243,
-1.1454176902770996,
0.19518786668777466,
-0.10381253808736801,
-0.42740246653556824,
-0.39570489525794983,
-0.26201876997947693,
0.6659207344055176,
0.19803476333618164,
-0.361294686794281,
0.3445514738559723,
-0.38896647095680237,
-0.2563817501068115,
0.3108733594417572,
0.17902511358261108,
0.4547419548034668,
-0.3949309289455414,
-0.04997812956571579,
0.7183481454849243,
0.3490690290927887,
0.426222026348114,
0.3224008083343506,
-0.31108835339546204,
0.8625573515892029,
-0.4073382318019867,
0.06442969292402267,
0.23530146479606628,
-0.044562771916389465,
-0.47403937578201294,
-0.13187679648399353,
0.038784824311733246,
0.27229228615760803,
-0.06577826291322708,
0.16007359325885773,
-0.26392337679862976,
-0.6199783682823181,
0.5935384035110474,
-0.917646586894989,
0.10826053470373154,
0.046095795929431915,
-0.07199019938707352,
-0.02400360442698002,
-0.4938865303993225,
0.6751664280891418,
-0.09632467478513718,
-0.450043261051178,
0.4683157503604889,
0.16088849306106567,
-0.5026754140853882,
0.3783015012741089,
-0.06880640238523483,
-0.546595573425293,
-0.2723188102245331,
-1.394797921180725,
-0.47752678394317627,
0.03269826993346214,
0.08267073333263397,
-0.05444192513823509,
-0.42050546407699585,
-0.23618470132350922,
0.10579930245876312,
-0.01728057861328125,
-0.3095545768737793,
-0.3489563465118408,
0.048642028123140335,
-0.21910899877548218,
-0.16839686036109924,
-1.1738920211791992,
-0.11617060005664825,
-0.17091438174247742,
-0.49204307794570923,
0.3099114000797272,
-1.2803983688354492,
0.3706405460834503,
-0.21107125282287598,
0.4842914342880249,
-0.018373476341366768,
0.6362195014953613,
-0.015106070786714554,
1.0295424461364746,
-0.2773362696170807,
-0.037481728941202164,
-0.12127996236085892,
-0.18714526295661926,
0.40786051750183105,
0.3713698089122772,
-0.5416872501373291,
-0.1657426655292511,
0.39515677094459534,
-0.5293641090393066,
0.06856071949005127,
0.5664464235305786,
0.4781394898891449,
0.13973598182201385,
0.4086710810661316,
-0.6071626543998718,
-0.5652324557304382,
0.007382750511169434,
0.2952682375907898,
-0.5277870297431946,
-0.2747919261455536,
0.1615528166294098,
0.009561547078192234,
-0.20414425432682037,
-0.14303795993328094,
0.16535496711730957,
0.2284783273935318,
-0.20814259350299835,
-0.5228841304779053,
0.07015860825777054,
-0.09325233846902847,
0.019860094413161278,
-0.06906995922327042,
-0.04229608550667763,
-0.5595864653587341,
1.0551965236663818,
0.08202667534351349,
-0.20605860650539398,
0.3327735960483551,
-0.570684015750885,
-0.020779132843017578,
0.45961448550224304,
0.5720829963684082,
0.5872761011123657,
-0.3574041426181793,
-0.05557061359286308,
0.5143119096755981,
-0.0017833762103691697,
0.09424731880426407,
0.14393079280853271,
0.42189890146255493,
0.15118597447872162,
0.4006975293159485,
0.13173100352287292,
0.2739809453487396,
-0.611503005027771,
0.6282745599746704,
0.4778836965560913,
0.18097485601902008,
0.23606634140014648,
0.763457179069519,
-0.4879307746887207,
-0.11489339917898178,
-0.812652051448822,
0.044008418917655945,
0.13139626383781433,
0.5312970876693726,
0.29790234565734863,
0.013718156144022942,
-0.17938704788684845,
0.2996280789375305,
0.020382782444357872,
0.29500648379325867,
0.05325043201446533,
-0.470737487077713,
-0.38862890005111694,
-0.5847638249397278,
-0.13813209533691406,
0.04545937106013298,
-0.14237169921398163,
0.09288188070058823,
-0.8365072011947632,
0.01620062068104744,
0.057153668254613876,
0.3370208442211151,
-1.0738236904144287,
-0.25329533219337463,
0.6634419560432434,
0.2796873152256012,
0.36853888630867004,
-0.558994472026825,
0.10706202685832977,
0.07057347148656845,
-0.1165422722697258,
0.009380516596138477,
-0.0826530009508133,
0.09341655671596527,
0.3327624499797821,
-0.4635666310787201,
0.29308444261550903,
0.4193539023399353,
-0.28126028180122375,
0.4592512249946594,
0.4648683965206146,
0.26334935426712036,
0.1557941883802414,
0.5274543762207031,
0.5441710352897644,
-0.5592284202575684,
-0.40396010875701904,
-0.4671404957771301,
-0.02845904789865017,
-0.26887577772140503,
0.24901947379112244,
-0.016848668456077576,
-0.3860459327697754,
-0.19539910554885864,
0.11299102008342743,
0.08228065073490143,
-1.040865421295166,
-0.2926749587059021,
-0.5265816450119019,
-0.18389268219470978,
-0.0660349652171135,
0.09301750361919403,
0.46642324328422546,
-0.25597405433654785,
-0.8549451231956482,
0.6552025675773621,
0.8825849294662476,
0.10156931728124619,
0.48563408851623535,
0.08019673079252243,
-0.3822975158691406,
-0.12840192019939423,
-0.29206955432891846,
0.06089841201901436,
-0.5853772163391113,
0.9471502900123596,
0.4274444580078125,
-0.2659236490726471,
-0.4361506402492523,
-0.3310891389846802,
0.3656812608242035,
0.7097663283348083,
0.6868829727172852,
0.36503154039382935,
-0.6067426800727844,
0.21335545182228088,
-0.3057677447795868,
-0.889218270778656,
0.2657569646835327,
0.554689884185791,
0.280308336019516,
0.010276686400175095,
-0.36168959736824036,
0.31657174229621887,
-0.04152684658765793,
0.22501611709594727,
0.11441051214933395,
0.12490592151880264,
0.056567832827568054
] |
203798
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20on%20Tall%20Buildings%20and%20Urban%20Habitat
|
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
|
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) is an international body in the field of tall buildings and sustainable urban design. A non-profit organization based at the Monroe Building in the city of Chicago, Illinois, United States, the CTBUH announces the title of "The World's Tallest Building" and is widely considered to be an authority on the official height of tall buildings. Its stated mission is to study and report "on all aspects of the planning, design, and construction of tall buildings." The Council was founded at Lehigh University in 1969 by Lynn S. Beedle, where its office remained until October 2003 when it moved to the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago.
Ranking tall buildings
The CTBUH ranks the height of buildings using three different methods:
Height to architectural top: This is the main criterion under which the CTBUH ranks the height of buildings. Heights are measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the top of the building, inclusive of spires but excluding items such as flagpoles and antennae.
Highest occupied floor: Height to the floor level of the highest floor that is occupied by residents, workers or other building users on a consistent basis.
Height to tip: Height to the highest point of the building, including antennae, flagpoles, and technical equipment.
A category measuring to the top of the roof was removed from the ranking criteria in November 2009. This is because flat-topped skyscrapers are not as common in the modern era as skyscrapers with intricate spire designs and parapet features atop their roofs, making it more difficult to define the roof of a building.
The CTBUH insist that a building should only be added to the official tallest list when it is (i) topped out structurally and architecturally, (ii) fully clad, and (iii) open for business, or at least partially open. This became the CTBUH official definition of a building's "completion".
The CTBUH maintains an extensive database (named The Skyscraper Center) of the tallest buildings in the world, organized by various categories. Buildings under construction are also included, although not ranked until completion. The CTBUH also produces an annual list of the ten tallest buildings completed in that particular year. Topping the 2008 list was the Shanghai World Financial Center in Shanghai, the then tallest building in the world according to the criteria of highest occupied floor, and home to the world's highest observation deck. Second on the 2008 list was the Almas Tower in Dubai, third was the Minsheng Bank Building in Wuhan which stands at , whilst fourth was The Address Downtown Burj Dubai (). All in all, six of the ten tallest buildings completed in 2008 are located in Asia, three in the Middle East and one in North America.
Events
The CTBUH also hosts annual conferences and a World Congress every three to five years. The 2012 World Congress was held in Shanghai from September 19 to 21 . The next World Congress was held in Chicago between 28 October and 2 November 2019.
The CTBUH also bestows Tall Building Awards each year, with four regional awards to the Americas, Europe, Africa and the Middle East, and Asia and Australasia. Among these four regional awards, one is given the "Best Tall Building Award Overall." There are also two lifetime achievement awards. Starting in 2010, these awards are presented at a symposium and dinner held on the Illinois Institute of Technology's campus. In 2012 the CTBUH added two new awards for Innovation and Performance.
Publications
In addition to the monthly newsletter and daily updated global news archive, the CTBUH publishes a quarterly CTBUH Journal. The Journal includes peer-reviewed technical papers, in-depth project case studies, book reviews, interviews with prominent persons in the tall building industry, and much more.
The CTBUH also publishes guidebooks, reference manuals, and monographs related to the tall building industry. In 2006 it published the book 101 of the World's Tallest Buildings in conjunction with author and CTBUH member Georges Binder, a reference to 101 of the world's tallest skyscrapers. It includes photos, plans, details on architects, engineers and stakeholders, and comprehensive technical data on each building. Since 2008 it has published a Best Tall Buildings book to accompany that year's awards.
Awards
The CTBUH grants several awards every year.
Best Tall Building Overall Award
2007: Beetham Tower, Manchester, UK
2008: Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai, China
2009: Linked Hybrid, Beijing, China
2010: Broadcasting Place, Leeds, UK.
2010: Global Icon award, Burj Khalifa is the first recipient of this award announced on 25 October 2010., Dubai, UAE.
2011: KfW Westarkade, Frankfurt, Germany.
2012: Doha Tower, Doha, Qatar.
2013: CCTV Headquarters, Beijing, China.
2014: One Central Park, Sydney, Australia.
2015: Bosco Verticale, Milan, Italy.
2016: Shanghai Tower, Shanghai, China
2018: Oasia Hotel Downtown, Singapore
2019: Salesforce Tower, San Francisco, USA
2021: Vancouver House, Vancouver, Canada
Research
The CTBUH works with institutions of higher-education from around the world in researching projects related to tall building design.
Building as used on the CTBUH's www.skyscrapercenter.com
See also
CTBUH Skyscraper Award
Emporis
Vanity height
References
External links
Australian chapter of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
CTBUH Skyscraper Center Database
CTBUH Technical Papers
CTBUH Global Tall Building News Archive
CTBUH Newsletter Archive
CTBUH Design Research
Urban planning organizations
Lehigh University
Organizations established in 1969
1969 establishments in Illinois
Organizations based in Chicago
|
[
1.067476511001587,
0.4818238914012909,
-0.014144140295684338,
0.1252022534608841,
-0.5368003845214844,
-0.07929908484220505,
0.08260548114776611,
-0.056965138763189316,
-0.08274029195308685,
-0.4742133319377899,
-0.6182012557983398,
0.5232789516448975,
-0.005907194688916206,
0.2945559322834015,
-0.055731162428855896,
0.12495936453342438,
0.7640460729598999,
0.22705602645874023,
-0.02349124103784561,
-0.06559722125530243,
0.01261699665337801,
-0.610454797744751,
0.19220520555973053,
-0.12486216425895691,
-0.034647632390260696,
0.4606805741786957,
0.6996285319328308,
0.6085274815559387,
0.1266879290342331,
-0.12219996005296707,
0.8038496971130371,
0.4918096363544464,
-0.08124718070030212,
-0.5458602905273438,
0.6502822637557983,
-0.20701704919338226,
0.08220304548740387,
-0.40215447545051575,
-0.5915074944496155,
-0.7756289839744568,
0.44261065125465393,
0.56441730260849,
0.5818232893943787,
0.8605760335922241,
-0.1542564332485199,
-0.6603548526763916,
-1.1123669147491455,
-0.20963163673877716,
-0.9189668893814087,
-0.4102226793766022,
-0.22284287214279175,
0.43736734986305237,
0.3355726897716522,
0.12047048658132553,
0.7047339677810669,
0.8009433150291443,
-0.5060809254646301,
-0.7799093127250671,
0.026043152436614037,
-0.3242722153663635,
-0.31398114562034607,
-0.16178512573242188,
-0.30466222763061523,
0.27995115518569946,
0.33182910084724426,
0.004002970643341541,
0.17712000012397766,
-0.4043959379196167,
-0.08479349315166473,
-0.08727726340293884,
-0.4111919403076172,
-0.1360251009464264,
0.2552962899208069,
0.5429685115814209,
-0.8497185707092285,
-0.132003515958786,
0.11913939565420151,
0.19191069900989532,
0.4220094084739685,
-0.39608246088027954,
0.12771952152252197,
0.08846177905797958,
-0.11896295845508575,
-0.010497123003005981,
0.4007300138473511,
0.5574244856834412,
-0.08222033828496933,
-0.1983519047498703,
-0.9423515796661377,
1.1827250719070435,
0.14751558005809784,
-0.3364550471305847,
0.7369027137756348,
0.6694731712341309,
0.6670244336128235,
0.13598664104938507,
0.23045846819877625,
-0.18631106615066528,
-0.08729372173547745,
0.5464292764663696,
0.3200177848339081,
0.620015561580658,
-0.029696203768253326,
-0.12461501359939575,
-0.17999090254306793,
-0.5627667307853699,
-1.2645460367202759,
-0.6127988696098328,
-0.05297783389687538,
-0.17129108309745789,
0.14995886385440826,
0.15284566581249237,
-0.10968800634145737,
0.22736431658267975,
0.7442917823791504,
1.072931170463562,
0.3995211124420166,
0.11080452054738998,
-0.5730910897254944,
0.013752405531704426,
-0.12144481390714645,
0.8289828300476074,
-0.4589974880218506,
0.11775564402341843,
-0.17675423622131348,
0.4292221665382385,
0.6735867261886597,
0.28769683837890625,
-1.0599021911621094,
0.3116162121295929,
-0.06601037085056305,
0.2494717687368393,
-0.6703212261199951,
-0.5679544806480408,
-0.5474626421928406,
-0.28460052609443665,
0.4618886709213257,
-0.1360142081975937,
0.6559306383132935,
0.5644939541816711,
-0.6022881269454956,
-0.7918939590454102,
0.20104657113552094,
-0.4980525076389313,
0.6477984189987183,
-0.19357973337173462,
0.020383331924676895,
-0.7156338691711426,
-0.35502612590789795,
0.2416313886642456,
0.9726503491401672,
0.3995169699192047,
-0.4968121349811554,
-0.07359019666910172,
-0.13205447793006897,
0.585146427154541,
0.8581852316856384,
-0.0581560879945755,
0.2906551659107208,
0.36815136671066284,
-0.2808906137943268,
0.00724541861563921,
0.156035378575325,
0.2656921446323395,
0.08935779333114624,
-0.19095377624034882,
-0.4671713411808014,
-0.17475683987140656,
-0.0904817134141922,
0.7275465130805969,
-0.024511845782399178,
-0.23878197371959686,
-0.03397178277373314,
-0.848212480545044,
0.6154276132583618,
-0.34302666783332825,
1.162404179573059,
0.3701644241809845,
-0.3218015730381012,
0.2831664979457855,
-0.7439804077148438,
0.24710199236869812,
0.4584839642047882,
0.10267327725887299,
0.8246703147888184,
-0.3639476001262665,
0.5698185563087463,
0.19630198180675507,
-0.5248273611068726,
-0.18845142424106598,
-0.3224159777164459,
-0.3180091679096222,
0.7563736438751221,
-0.9072853922843933,
0.7162632346153259,
-0.3645704388618469,
0.18382292985916138,
0.46948811411857605,
-0.46747517585754395,
0.19040216505527496,
-0.06949375569820404,
0.08721490204334259,
0.20955030620098114,
0.3067058026790619,
-0.9109526872634888,
0.47081291675567627,
0.5662998557090759,
0.16717810928821564,
-0.10226511210203171,
0.2317596971988678,
0.6236591339111328,
-0.7738494873046875,
0.1582300364971161,
-0.3222673237323761,
0.12880992889404297,
-1.0036940574645996,
-0.12328076362609863,
0.7913575172424316,
-0.2811274528503418,
-0.22829453647136688,
1.602425456047058,
0.10762394219636917,
-0.36811721324920654,
0.6592376828193665,
-0.0650244876742363,
-0.3758522868156433,
-0.21588000655174255,
-0.03138819336891174,
0.39536818861961365,
-0.017475739121437073,
0.4423980712890625,
0.4280967116355896,
-0.026127688586711884,
-0.5953457951545715,
-0.3735699951648712,
-0.0012316621141508222,
-0.3500077426433563,
-0.020355448126792908,
0.7727320790290833,
-0.5819218158721924,
-0.35588911175727844,
-0.4921843707561493,
-0.6916609406471252,
-0.08596596121788025,
0.03467555716633797,
-0.14105159044265747,
-0.09640657901763916,
0.04891958087682724,
-0.7842272520065308,
0.6099953055381775,
1.027947187423706,
0.026436852291226387,
0.8170853853225708,
-0.4615745544433594,
-0.06479915231466293,
-0.27899062633514404,
-0.5143570303916931,
-0.6325717568397522,
0.5863776206970215,
-0.2264259308576584,
0.01010697241872549,
0.09406065195798874,
0.5365990996360779,
-0.2027977555990219,
0.32264024019241333,
-1.0304319858551025,
0.2745324671268463,
-0.7957093715667725,
-0.04973175749182701,
-0.3063967823982239,
0.14144696295261383,
0.20442837476730347,
-0.2657412886619568,
-0.07155932486057281,
-0.12944602966308594,
-0.3278104066848755,
0.26812928915023804,
0.47786271572113037,
0.05265609920024872,
-0.31711050868034363,
0.04945607855916023,
0.5323773622512817,
0.006422786507755518,
-1.0446090698242188,
0.07975886017084122,
0.2972263693809509,
-0.08996450901031494,
-0.09760472178459167,
-0.5288619995117188,
-0.02223937213420868,
-0.08920902013778687,
-0.18098707497119904,
0.028929779306054115,
-0.13976499438285828,
0.1840214878320694,
0.6298047304153442,
-0.6287475228309631,
0.11340111494064331,
-0.10249293595552444,
0.08125920593738556,
0.5381914377212524,
0.42593058943748474,
-0.015776773914694786,
0.05414025858044624,
0.16588909924030304,
0.03417561575770378,
-1.0062172412872314,
-0.5286154747009277,
-5.117157936096191,
-0.1740858107805252,
-0.3455507457256317,
0.21647204458713531,
-0.2548805773258209,
-0.12163306027650833,
0.8434560298919678,
-0.48692646622657776,
-0.1512630581855774,
-0.12710875272750854,
-0.23573507368564606,
-0.6811133027076721,
0.4874478876590729,
0.7395696043968201,
0.4107498228549957,
0.4510367810726166,
-0.1338985562324524,
-0.6593270897865295,
0.29458674788475037,
0.05586235597729683,
0.7338503003120422,
-0.6063893437385559,
-0.42089319229125977,
-0.2179555594921112,
0.5037617683410645,
-0.24980735778808594,
-0.8620073795318604,
0.40000882744789124,
-0.6417277455329895,
0.1972389966249466,
0.379616916179657,
0.24252848327159882,
-0.34288638830184937,
-0.22848062217235565,
0.09412068873643875,
0.5511760115623474,
0.5143411755561829,
0.6148996353149414,
-0.6182910799980164,
-0.5627191662788391,
-0.10016507655382156,
0.5785660743713379,
0.19052551686763763,
0.07541017234325409,
0.4949946999549866,
-0.14797089993953705,
-0.2977692782878876,
0.04345649853348732,
-0.5588075518608093,
0.6260541677474976,
0.30730199813842773,
0.6192092299461365,
0.5791496634483337,
0.39753657579421997,
-0.826680600643158,
-0.38498160243034363,
0.967174232006073,
-0.1616939902305603,
-0.09573457390069962,
-0.14036308228969574,
0.13477282226085663,
-0.7840264439582825,
0.7816073894500732,
-0.6223112940788269,
0.27498528361320496,
-0.15528765320777893,
-0.9286240339279175,
-0.39809584617614746,
-0.20140720903873444,
-0.4898170828819275,
0.20235955715179443,
0.21833811700344086,
-0.5831814408302307,
-0.7410190105438232,
0.06635011732578278,
-0.865679144859314,
0.540504515171051,
0.043509215116500854,
0.1747988909482956,
0.002292520133778453,
0.43845513463020325,
-0.5098168849945068,
-0.3633275628089905,
0.3306719660758972,
0.03603053838014603,
-0.7326590418815613,
0.28149452805519104,
0.8657552003860474,
-0.7116853594779968,
-0.6376739144325256,
0.31791195273399353,
-0.5244234204292297,
-0.10312972217798233,
0.37111371755599976,
0.8191421031951904,
-0.2193896323442459,
0.16495908796787262,
-0.03229419142007828,
0.40013015270233154,
-0.17355450987815857,
-0.22291100025177002,
-0.3665858209133148,
-0.2355699986219406,
-0.15664081275463104,
0.012741032987833023,
-0.4536155164241791,
-0.10583538562059402,
0.4030565321445465,
0.5376189947128296,
0.14896224439144135,
-0.23143325746059418,
-0.19394458830356598,
-0.514201819896698,
-0.06401190161705017,
0.6283389925956726,
-0.19450561702251434,
-0.46363401412963867,
0.44287192821502686,
0.13420470058918,
0.3630127012729645,
-0.27699339389801025,
0.5665600299835205,
0.634614884853363,
0.26522958278656006,
-0.31519678235054016,
-0.2514766752719879,
-0.2781261205673218,
0.07340151071548462,
-0.6209378242492676,
-0.27828556299209595,
-0.3663034439086914,
0.7459298968315125,
-0.3595057725906372,
-0.19870945811271667,
-0.14148563146591187,
0.2416873723268509,
-0.6817300915718079,
-0.0744817778468132,
-0.5214273929595947,
-0.005249587818980217,
0.10364381968975067,
0.23636837303638458,
0.4670989513397217,
0.29212287068367004,
1.0168347358703613,
0.31329384446144104,
-0.32076022028923035,
0.446280837059021,
-0.42711156606674194,
0.7046396136283875,
-0.16356295347213745,
-0.19465282559394836,
0.28467413783073425,
-0.6737614870071411,
0.04046974331140518,
-0.12589412927627563,
0.27384650707244873,
0.3807450234889984,
0.3882155120372772,
-0.8842285871505737,
0.15700601041316986,
0.47890758514404297,
-0.7557721734046936,
-0.15729950368404388,
0.3102162480354309,
0.07207144051790237,
-0.3694302439689636,
-0.44417431950569153,
-0.8463965058326721,
0.6623988747596741,
0.3217065930366516,
0.3514968454837799,
-0.9103201627731323,
-0.8006338477134705,
-0.07337640225887299,
-0.3200805187225342,
0.24868233501911163,
0.09642593562602997,
-0.2562749981880188,
0.10440891236066818,
0.09898490458726883,
-0.04768204689025879,
-0.22294364869594574,
-0.11242344230413437,
0.8360762596130371,
-0.21827535331249237,
-0.07380326837301254,
-0.2553381323814392,
-0.0463397279381752,
-0.2852863371372223,
0.2517949938774109,
0.5248019695281982,
0.5843964219093323,
0.33270972967147827,
-0.5440804362297058,
-1.0641125440597534,
0.04457174986600876,
-0.03047107346355915,
-0.48823124170303345,
-0.6466258764266968,
0.09239392727613449,
0.5282450318336487,
-1.0064839124679565,
0.9242361187934875,
0.22953267395496368,
-0.6659334301948547,
0.35421809554100037,
-0.2191077470779419,
-0.4492799639701843,
0.14880886673927307,
-0.4686957895755768,
-0.6573238372802734,
-0.1333104521036148,
0.2572287917137146,
-0.653704047203064,
-0.5071556568145752,
0.08487141877412796,
-0.17765451967716217,
-0.700983464717865,
-0.46468374133110046,
0.592278003692627,
-0.3352756202220917,
-0.13467048108577728,
-0.40457746386528015,
-1.0449879169464111,
0.5218052268028259,
0.12827768921852112,
0.22366365790367126,
-0.29262182116508484,
-0.4282241463661194,
-0.7678626179695129,
0.3442873954772949,
0.22721610963344574,
0.047542788088321686,
-0.6714029908180237,
0.03744834288954735,
-0.8724679350852966,
-0.18875719606876373,
0.3327266275882721,
0.6986050009727478,
-0.337354838848114,
1.0036636590957642,
0.564048171043396,
-1.2366663217544556,
-0.2718278169631958,
0.6580937504768372,
0.08437082171440125,
0.05638575926423073,
-0.6248635053634644,
-0.6603732109069824,
-0.13148008286952972,
-0.6168822646141052,
-0.7214000821113586,
-0.30478110909461975,
0.295739084482193,
-0.09272632002830505,
-0.48412615060806274,
-0.32123273611068726,
0.17891347408294678,
-0.3264184892177582,
0.11866174638271332,
-0.5620043277740479,
-0.3376564085483551,
0.4694537818431854,
0.16939523816108704,
0.01798119768500328,
-0.1708758920431137,
-0.3084418773651123,
-0.365883469581604,
-0.4691428542137146,
0.15027141571044922,
-0.25627681612968445,
0.7428895831108093,
0.6505088210105896,
0.011397621594369411,
-0.4596216082572937,
0.20185530185699463,
-1.0725260972976685,
0.22949844598770142,
-0.37419864535331726,
-0.21822404861450195,
0.40332716703414917,
0.22009141743183136,
-0.014885962940752506,
0.25287729501724243,
-0.4874665141105652,
-0.07226401567459106,
0.15270790457725525,
-0.757851243019104,
-0.612625002861023,
-0.43924063444137573,
-0.4992167353630066,
-0.46125754714012146,
0.7768901586532593,
-0.18985719978809357,
0.017642585560679436,
0.10446691513061523,
0.18967598676681519,
0.36901745200157166,
0.20231866836547852,
-0.3561611771583557,
1.2165905237197876,
0.3333868086338043,
-0.4217775762081146,
0.592899739742279,
0.08954344689846039,
0.20878718793392181,
-0.22504794597625732,
0.44106948375701904,
-0.2393803894519806,
-0.1574709117412567,
0.0679979994893074,
0.4496248960494995,
1.0644886493682861,
-0.5078027844429016,
0.031729549169540405,
0.0224095918238163,
-0.6763162016868591,
0.9570561647415161,
0.6914771199226379,
0.18941116333007812,
0.08279895037412643,
0.6158717274665833,
-0.03254709392786026,
0.1314452886581421,
0.28218501806259155,
-0.5921961665153503,
-0.2707226276397705,
0.49366846680641174,
0.42119234800338745,
0.06466025114059448,
0.4455610513687134,
-0.29239585995674133,
0.19001635909080505,
-0.19921375811100006,
0.031181324273347855,
0.27176618576049805,
-0.3354209065437317,
-0.5265066027641296,
0.14325779676437378,
0.7042170763015747,
0.4737565219402313,
-0.2506677806377411,
0.33048099279403687,
-0.53449547290802,
0.09606792032718658,
-0.43761321902275085,
0.4988042116165161,
0.26699769496917725,
0.600793182849884,
0.7880147695541382,
-0.28572338819503784,
0.248895063996315,
-0.3657688498497009,
0.49201804399490356,
-0.03273353725671768,
0.20033077895641327,
0.20218059420585632,
0.5264519453048706,
-0.05756262317299843,
-0.2806113362312317,
0.256788045167923,
-0.015060515142977238,
-0.17986147105693817,
-0.228360116481781,
0.1431800276041031,
0.6379163265228271,
-0.5997524261474609,
0.3027293086051941,
0.4776802659034729,
0.3756612241268158,
0.6076253056526184,
-0.3526081144809723,
0.7741819620132446,
0.26718515157699585,
0.23926657438278198,
-0.19112002849578857,
-0.3843593895435333,
0.1299879103899002,
-0.01040433719754219,
-0.0642642080783844,
0.22434262931346893,
-0.10448726266622543,
-0.29797840118408203,
-0.14146238565444946,
-0.014288992621004581,
-0.3829352855682373,
0.9340055584907532,
-0.023628676310181618,
-0.15482981503009796,
-0.13929018378257751,
-0.10182041674852371,
-0.029112868010997772,
0.31548625230789185,
-0.5375126004219055,
-0.20431552827358246,
0.13578446209430695,
0.9952185750007629,
-0.060223545879125595,
0.10100045055150986,
-0.2773189842700958,
0.10931839048862457,
0.050378087908029556,
0.21410547196865082,
0.13008449971675873,
0.2526862323284149,
-0.48033952713012695,
0.08681471645832062,
-0.4678862690925598,
0.6520660519599915,
0.34216687083244324,
-0.188137948513031,
-0.2748216986656189,
0.7159362435340881,
-0.6252601742744446,
1.0796905755996704,
0.3040293753147125,
0.16357062757015228,
-0.31035101413726807,
-0.27681487798690796,
0.31521183252334595,
-0.31637683510780334,
0.19771084189414978,
-0.2544096112251282,
-0.005135961342602968,
-0.17568743228912354,
0.45098790526390076,
0.02204529382288456,
0.07010876387357712,
0.6496152877807617,
0.07850506156682968,
-0.20518586039543152,
-0.4085134267807007,
0.45351436734199524,
-1.0458282232284546,
0.37964579463005066,
0.2953060269355774,
0.8328976035118103,
0.0998249426484108,
0.09657100588083267,
0.25731465220451355,
-0.6211895942687988,
0.09946547448635101,
-0.11114911735057831,
-0.4612208902835846,
0.1259276568889618,
-0.2138964831829071,
-0.14586716890335083,
-0.4365876019001007,
0.11695947498083115,
0.591198742389679,
-1.3029048442840576,
-0.13467592000961304,
-0.6365067362785339,
0.28715407848358154,
-0.2447812408208847,
0.06181039661169052,
-0.7530659437179565,
0.28329819440841675,
0.00793317798525095
] |
203800
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skynet%20%28satellite%29
|
Skynet (satellite)
|
Skynet is a family of military communications satellites, now operated by Airbus Defence and Space on behalf of the United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence (MoD). They provide strategic and tactical communication services to the branches of the British Armed Forces, the British intelligence agencies, some UK government departments and agencies, and to allied governments. Since 2015 when Skynet coverage was extended eastward, and in conjunction with an Anik G1 satellite module over America, Skynet offers near global coverage.
The Skynet contract allow Airbus Defence and Space to sell surplus bandwidth, through the Skynet partner programme, to NATO and allied governments, including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance members (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States). As of 2020, seven Skynet satellites are operating, plus Anik G1.
The Skynet 1 to 4 series were developed and operated by the Signals Research and Development Establishment, Royal Signals and Radar Establishment and Royal Air Force until 2003. It was subsequently operated with Skynet 5 by Paradigm Secure Communications until October 2012, when the organisation was rebranded to Astrium Services then through merger in 2015 became Airbus Defence and Space.
The MoD is currently specifying a new architecture for Skynet to replace the Skynet 5 system, whose funding programme ends in August 2022. The vision for Skynet 6 is a flexible system architecture that combines UK government, allied and commercial satellites, including the current Skynet 5 satellites. Skynet is the large part of the MoD Future Beyond Line of Sight Satellite Communications programme (FBLOS), which extends to 2041, with expected transition costs of about £6 billion.
History
In the 1960s, only two countries utilised communications satellites, the United States and the Soviet Union. The United Kingdom created Skynet as its own military communications satellite system, because of inadequate undersea cable availability and to increase flexibility, reliability, data capacity and security. The Signals Research and Development Establishment led the development of Skynet 1 and 2, and its successor Royal Signals and Radar Establishment carried out research for the development of the subsequent satellites and ground terminals.
The MoD space communications research programme began in 1962, initially considering Moon and space debris bounce techniques, before considering a UK satellite. In 1964, it was decided Skynet should be in geostationary orbit over the Indian Ocean, significantly to support East of Suez deployments, and have a transponder with two channels permitting communications between two types of ground station. This would be an advance over the ongoing U.S. Interim Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP). In 1965, the U.S. invited the MoD to participate in their IDCSP programme, and to participate Marconi were contracted to build three 40 foot diameter air transportable ground stations for the launch of the first IDCSP satellites in 1966. As Britain had insufficient industry expertise to build satellites, a contact was placed with U.S. Philco Ford to build Skynet 1, but with the assistance of Marconi to improve UK expertise for Skynet 2.
Nine ground stations were initially planned, which could also communicate with sub-geostationary U.S. IDCSP satellites:
three principal stations at RAF Oakhanger, Cyprus and Singapore with 40 foot dishes and 20 kW transmitters
two stations at RAF Bahrain and RAF Gan (Indian Ocean) with air transportable 20 foot dishes and 5kw transmitters called SKYNET V
two additional air-transportable stations
two Royal Navy ship stations with 6 foot dishes and 5kw transmitters, initially installed on and but movable to and as required
Skynet 1A was the first military satellite in geostationary orbit, in 1969. The Royal Air Force displayed a model of the Skynet satellite on the children's television show Blue Peter in 1969, the show also described the new British satellite control centre at RAF Oakhanger.
The Skynet satellites provided secure and encrypted facilities, though expensively, for the British armed forces and intelligence agencies. It enables an important sovereign command and control service. The largest user of the Skynet satellites during the Cold War was the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), who were responsible for over 80% of traffic at some locations such as Cyprus. Despite the enormous communications capability of Skynet, GCHQ still found the capacity provided by Skynet to be inadequate. In 1972, GCHQ was still the satellite's largest funder, and argued for the purchase of an American built Type-777 (DSCS II) satellite instead. GCHQ would later plan their own secret signals intelligence satellite, Zircon, which was subsequently cancelled. The circumstances around the reporting of Zircon's existence would become known as the Zircon affair.
Skynet has throughout all its models had a good degree of interoperability with U.S. and NATO military communications satellites and ground stations.
In 2010, the Civil Contingencies Secretariat of the Cabinet Office launched an emergency communications service based on Skynet, called High Integrity Telecommunications System, for use by UK police and other emergency services, primarily for use at Strategic Command Centres and at major events and emergencies. It replaced the earlier Emergency Communications Network.
In 2021, when fully operational UK Space Command will take responsibility for the Skynet system, taking over from Strategic Command (previously known as Joint Forces Command).
Models
Skynet 1
There were two Skynet 1 satellites (1A and 1B); Skynet 1A was launched on a Delta M on 22 November 1969, but the satellite failed after about 18 months when all of its Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTAs) had failed, probably due to soldered high voltage joints failing under thermal cycling. Skynet 1B was launched on a Delta M on 19 August 1970. Skynet 1B was placed in a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) and was abandoned in transfer orbit (270 x 36058 km) due to a failure of the Thiokol Star 17A apogee kick motor.
Skynet 1 series satellites had an orbit mass of , were spin-stabilised with a single despun antenna with 3 watts of output on two channels (2 MHz and 20 MHz). The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO 2A and NATO 2B satellites, launched 1970 and 1971, were identical except for an antenna shaped to only cover NATO countries.
Skynet 2
Following the operational failure of the Skynet 1A satellite, the timetable for the launch of the Skynet 2 communications satellite was delayed. Skynet 2A was launched on the Delta 2313 by NASA for the United Kingdom on 19 January 1974. A short circuit in an electronics package circuit board (on second stage) left the upper stages and satellite in an unstable low orbit (96 x 3406 km x 37.6°) that rapidly decayed. An investigation revealed that a substandard coating had been used on the circuit board.
Despite being in an unstable orbit, the ground stations successfully located and tracked Skynet 2A and were able to use telemetry readings from the solar panels to determine its alignment. Based on this analysis, it was decided to use the alignment thrusters to deorbit the unit, and it was destroyed when it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 24 January 1974.
Skynet 2B was successfully launched on the Delta 2313 by NASA for the United Kingdom on 23 November 1974. It was positioned in geostationary orbit above Kenya to give coverage of Europe, Africa and a substantial part of Asia as far east at the Philippines. It could support about ten simultaneous users. Major ground stations used a 40-foot diameter dish, while in the field or at sea a 2 m diameter dish was used.
Skynet 2 satellites had an orbit mass of , with a single antenna with 16 watts of output.
The Skynet 2 series satellites were assembled and tested at the Marconi Space and Defence Systems establishment in Portsmouth, England, and were the first non-amateur communication satellites built outside the U.S. and USSR. The Signals Research and Development Establishment (SRE) led the development, and performed initial in-orbit testing. Subsequently, the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment supported Skynet satellites, including developing ground terminals and modems, at RAF Defford which was also a backup for the primary ground station at RAF Oakhanger. The Skynet 2B system was very successful for its time, and remained in service for 20 years although only having 2 communications channels.
Skynet 3
Skynet 3 series satellites was cancelled as the UK withdrew East of Suez, and instead the capability it was intended to offer was delivered via U.S. and NATO assets. This dependence on U.S. assets was identified as a weakness during the Falklands War and was one of the contributing factors for the emergence of the Skynet 4 series satellites tranche of space vehicles. Technology improvements created the possibility of tactical satellite communications using smaller terminals, creating a new requirement beyond Skynet 3 strategic headquarters communications. The Royal Navy was also concerned that the high frequency radio alternative enabled location tracking by the Soviet Union Ocean Surveillance System.
Skynet 4
Skynet 4 series satellites have few similarities to the earlier generations, being based on the British Aerospace European Communications Satellite. The cylindrical body of Skynet 1 and 2 was replaced by a large square body housing antennas with deployable solar-cell arrays. This marks the technological improvement from spin-stabilisation, used in earlier cylindrical satellites, to three-axis stabilisation using momentum wheels and reaction wheels controlling the satellite gyroscopically. Each satellite had a design operational life of 7 years.
Skynet 4 manufacture was carried out by British Aerospace Dynamics (BAe Dynamics) with Matra Marconi Space (MMS) providing the Communications payload. NATO adapted the design for the NATO IVA and IVB communication satellites, also manufactured by BAe Dynamics. The programme timescales were delayed, as initially Skynet 4 was designed to be launched from the Space Shuttle (STS), with chosen RAF officers to be part of each Shuttle Crew. However, following the 1986 Challenger disaster (STS 51-L), the programme slowed and all the Skynet 4 series satellites had to be modified to suit the changes needed to go on a disposable launch vehicle. As Skynet 4A build was advanced it needed significant modification, and its completion was overtaken by Skynet 4B which had not progressed as far, and hence more easily converted. Consequently, Skynet 4B was finished first and launched in 1988, with Skynet 4A next in early 1990, and Skynet 4C later the same year. As of 2020, Skynet 4C is still in operation, providing service to the U.S. Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station for up to six hours a day because its orbital inclination has increased to 10.3°.
The Stage 1 satellites (4A, 4B and 4C) have multi-frequency capability and considerable operational flexibility, with selectable channels, gain and four antenna types of differing widths to support varying requirements, Ultra high frequency (UHF), Super high frequency (SHF) and experimental Extremely high frequency (EHF) channels are available. They are hardening against electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and have anti-jamming capability, with an un-degraded 1600 watts power supply. The satellites have a dry mass of , with three reaction wheels and hydrazine thrusters for station keeping.
The improved Stage 2 satellites (4D, 4E and 4F) were built by Matra Marconi Space and Astrium to replace the earlier versions. Improvements included increased power and resistance to electronic jamming. Skynet 4D was launched in 1998, Skynet 4E in 1999 and Skynet 4F in 2001. Skynet 4D was parked in a non-operational supersynchronous orbit on 28 January 2008.
Skynet 4 provides Ultra high frequency and Super high frequency services using Earth cover, wide area and spot beam coverage.
Skynet 5
Skynet 5 is the next generation of satellites, replacing the existing Skynet 4 Stage 2 satellites. It was contracted via Private Finance Initiative (PFI) to a partnership between
Paradigm Secure Communications and EADS Astrium, a European spacecraft manufacturer. EADS Astrium was responsible for the build and delivery of Skynet 5 series satellites in orbit, whilst subsidiary company Paradigm was responsible for the provision of service to the Ministry of Defence (MoD). In 2010, the PFI contract was extended by two years to 2022, to a total cost of £3.66 billion over the course of the contract, with Paradigm able to sell bandwidth in excess of the capacity of 1.1 Skynet satellites to other allied countries. Paradigm had 220 staff and about 100 sub-contractors working on Skynet. Serco is a major subcontractor on the PFI programme. This was the biggest ever outsourced military satellite communications contract.
The Skynet 5 satellite is based on the Eurostar E3000 satellite bus design, weighs about , has two solar panels each about fifteen metres long, and has a power budget of five kilowatts. It has four steerable transmission dishes, and a phased-array receiver designed to allow jamming signals to be cancelled out. They will also resist attempts to disrupt them with high-powered lasers.
Astrium described in 2010 the Skynet 5 system as:
Skynet 5A was launched by an Ariane 5 launch vehicle at 22:03 UTC on 11 March 2007, in a launch shared with the Indian INSAT 4B civil communications satellite, and entered full service on 10 May 2007. The launch was delayed from 10 March 2007 due to malfunction of a launch pad deluge system. Skynet 5A successfully separated from its launch vehicle and telemetry was acquired by its dedicated Control Centre approximately 40 minutes after launch.
Skynet 5B was launched at 22:06 UTC on 14 November 2007, from Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, in French Guiana, aboard an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle. This launch was delayed from 9 November 2007 due to problems with the electronics on one of the Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB), and 12 November 2007 due to a fuelling problem with the launch pad. At time of launch, the Ariane 5ECA launcher set a new record on this mission, deploying a total payload of more than .
Skynet 5C was launched at 22:05:09 UTC on 12 June 2008, from Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, in French Guiana, aboard an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle. The launch had been delayed twice. Originally scheduled for 23 May 2008, more checks were carried out on the launch vehicle and the launch was rescheduled for 30 May 2008. A problem with the launch software during pre-launch checks led Arianespace to reschedule the launch for a second time to 12 June 2008.
Skynet 5D was launched at 21:49:07 UTC on 19 December 2012, from Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, in French Guiana, aboard an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle. Skynet 5D provides more than double the UHF channels of the previous satellites, which are in demand as they support "comms on the move" for soldiers with backpack radios. The Ministry of Defence described the satellite as having a "key role in gathering intelligence on operations", as well as communications. Skynet 5D has larger fuel tanks enabling it to be repositioned more frequently if necessary.
The programme marks a change of approach in the UK from traditional defence procurement methods to a services-based contract which also includes provision of leased ground terminals, Reacher vehicles, the Satellite Communications Onboard Terminal (SCOT) for ships, and the associated baseband equipment.
Initially two Skynet 5 satellites were to be built, with insurance covering any launch loss; the MoD later decided to have a third satellite built in advance, and later still to have the third satellite launched to serve as an on-orbit spare, as well as a option to a fourth satellite, as a cheaper alternative to insurance.
The satellites are managed from a site named Hawthorn, a few hundred metres north of MoD Corsham, in partnership with MoD's Defence Digital (previously Information Systems & Services) who are based at MoD Corsham.
Expansion to near global coverage
In 2010, Paradigm announced it would lease the X-band (SHF) module on the Anik G1 commercial satellite at 107.3° West over the Pacific Ocean, covering the Americas and as far west as Hawaii, to complement Skynet system coverage. The three-channel, wide-beam X-band payload has performance similar to a Skynet 5 satellite, but without the military hardening. Anik G1 launched on 16 April 2013, improving the constellation's X-band capacity to 2.2 GHz of throughput.
In 2015, Skynet 5A was moved from 6° East, where it reinforced Middle East coverage, to 95° East, near West Sumatra. This move was to extend the Skynet coverage eastward in the Indian Ocean and to the western Pacific Ocean. With this move and Anik G1, Skynet offers near global coverage, from 178° West to 163° East.
In 2016, a new Australian ground station was opened at Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, managed by Airbus in partnership with SpeedCast, an Australian provider for over 25 years which works with the Australian military at that base. This complements Airbus's existing chain of ground stations in France, Germany, Norway, United Kingdom and the United States. The British High Commissioner Menna Rawlings said at the opening ceremony "Territorial disputes over uninhabited rocks and reefs have the potential to generate enough friction in international affairs to spark a confrontation", alluding to the territorial disputes in the South China Sea.
Airbus Defence and Space signed a further three partners, Hughes Network Systems, Inmarsat and SpeedCast, into its Skynet partner programme who offer third-party Skynet services. The Skynet contract also allow Airbus to sell surplus bandwidth to NATO and allied governments, including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States).
Technical specifications
The fleet of military X-band satellites have been specifically designed to support smaller, low powered, tactical terminals. Each Skynet 5 satellite is equipped with:
High power 160W TWTAs on all transponders, giving 56 dBW peak EIRP in each transmit spot beam and 41 dBW peak EIRP in each global beam per transponder
15 active SHF / EHF transponders ranging in bandwidth from 20 GHz to 40 GHz
Up to 9 UHF channels
Multiple fully steerable downlink spot beams
On Board Active Receive Antenna (OBARA) capable of generating multiple shaped uplink beams
Flexible switching capability allowing connectivity between any uplink beam and at least two downlink beams
Nuclear hardening, anti-jamming countermeasures and laser protection
Skynet 6
As of 2018, the MoD was specifying the replacement of Skynet 5, whose PFI programme ends in August 2022. Airbus Defence and Space will build a non-competitively sourced Skynet 6A satellite planned for a 2025 launch, as a transition to a new architecture. As of 2017, the PFI project was viewed as unlikely to be extended, as PFI contracting was then seen as generally poor value for taxpayers, and it had depleted MoD of satellite expertise which made specifying its replacement difficult.
Skynet 6A is based on the Airbus Eurostar Neo satellite bus, using electric orbit raising and station keeping propulsion, and built at Airbus Stevenage and Portsmouth, England. It uses more radio frequencies for communication, and will have more capacity and versatility than Skynet 5 satellites. A contract for over £500 million was agreed in July 2020, including launch, testing and related ground operations improvements. Due to the delay in agreeing the Skynet 6A contract, preliminary contracts for initial design and to manufacture long lead items had been agreed earlier to prevent end-date slippage. Manufacture of 6A started in October 2021, and a Falcon 9 launch was booked with SpaceX for 2025.
The vision for Skynet 6 is a flexible system architecture that combines UK government, allied and commercial satellites. The MoD has become a user of U.S. military constellations Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) and the Wideband Global Satcom (WGS) systems, and may become a partner in the Mobile User Objective System (MUOS). Part of the enhanced capability would be to support data links to unmanned aerial vehicles and F-35B Lightning II aircraft.
As of 2019, Skynet is the large part of the MoD Future Beyond Line of Sight Satellite Communications programme (FBLOS), which extends to 2041, and has four elements:
Skynet 6A, a single transition satellite
Service Delivery Wrap, a support contract to manage and control the Skynet constellation and ground infrastructure
Skynet 6 Enduring Capability, to provide and operate communication satellites and ground infrastructure into the future
Secure Telemetry, Tracking and Command (STT&C), to provide assured UK control and management of satellites and their payloads into the future
As of December 2019, the MoD was processing requests for information from potential bidders for the Skynet 6 Service Delivery Wrap contract.
On 3 July 2020, the UK Government announced that it had acquired a 45% stake in the OneWeb low Earth orbit satellite communications company, for US$500 million including a golden share to give it control over any future ownership sale. Analysts believe OneWeb will be incorporated into the Skynet 6 architecture. OneWeb satellites are already manufactured by a joint venture including Airbus Defence and Space, which positions the current Skynet operator well for future involvement in Skynet 6.
In 2021, a one year transition is expected to start from the Airbus PFI contract to the new Service Delivery Wrap contract which will operate ground stations until a new generation of satellites under an Enduring Capability contract are launched from about 2028. This transition is expected to cost about £6 billion.
Information assurance
In early 1999, Reuters reported that the Skynet system was breached by a group of hackers who issued blackmail threats against the MoD. Duncan Campbell reported that the wire reports were wrong.
Satellite summary
See also
British Army communications and reconnaissance equipment § Satellite communications
British space programme
Defence Intelligence Fusion Centre
Defense Satellite Communications System
Reacher Satellite Ground Terminal
Syracuse (satellite)
Notes
References
External links
Airbus Secure Communications
www.skyrocket.de
www.astronautix.com
Astrium Ltd - manufacturer
Paradigm Secure Communications
UK Skynet ground terminal locations
Satlaunch.org - Satellites M to S
1969 establishments in the United Kingdom
Military communications of the United Kingdom
Military satellites
Satellites of the United Kingdom
Space programme of the United Kingdom
|
[
0.5397099852561951,
-0.3682013154029846,
0.5815669298171997,
0.011722707189619541,
0.2983998656272888,
0.2798011302947998,
0.00875875074416399,
0.03883197531104088,
-0.11440630257129669,
-0.34659042954444885,
-0.7505800724029541,
0.16967059671878815,
-0.14697542786598206,
-0.2505650222301483,
0.024401428177952766,
-0.18243704736232758,
0.39607444405555725,
0.6142697334289551,
-0.0996369794011116,
-0.553830087184906,
-0.3516896367073059,
0.35013723373413086,
0.09920279681682587,
-0.4187271296977997,
-0.08310545980930328,
0.0999760776758194,
-0.07610875368118286,
0.12908624112606049,
0.6570324301719666,
0.1892080157995224,
0.44086241722106934,
0.34636300802230835,
-0.4900851845741272,
-0.23064634203910828,
0.12142858654260635,
-0.44456416368484497,
-0.3123350739479065,
0.38174960017204285,
-0.7465659379959106,
-0.5995095372200012,
-0.3402186334133148,
-0.12340124696493149,
0.08869002759456635,
-0.07047030329704285,
-0.38081371784210205,
0.1396549493074417,
-1.1102045774459839,
0.26488086581230164,
0.029502620920538902,
0.5630808472633362,
-0.8557651042938232,
0.18508484959602356,
0.28762227296829224,
0.07365571707487106,
0.8379201292991638,
0.3888956606388092,
-0.529840886592865,
-0.09105917066335678,
-0.12842702865600586,
-0.10429110378026962,
0.28533855080604553,
0.2643851935863495,
-0.229704812169075,
-0.17589013278484344,
-0.10644848644733429,
-0.34772989153862,
0.4199889004230499,
-0.048634376376867294,
-0.28750425577163696,
-0.3491843044757843,
0.06067972630262375,
-0.6351060271263123,
-0.09223191440105438,
0.5064666271209717,
-0.17647060751914978,
-0.5879020690917969,
0.41413986682891846,
-0.03923681005835533,
0.6863573789596558,
0.3624313473701477,
0.48877525329589844,
0.34724679589271545,
0.26332539319992065,
0.11317876726388931,
-0.300465852022171,
0.44160032272338867,
-0.6224191784858704,
0.034731313586235046,
-0.5207698941230774,
0.3999694883823395,
-0.17143093049526215,
-0.1738053560256958,
0.9109336733818054,
0.151078999042511,
0.3607770502567291,
0.08473249524831772,
-0.22995851933956146,
-0.012211661785840988,
0.7599897384643555,
-0.17148475348949432,
-0.2916359305381775,
-0.05405785143375397,
0.07067760080099106,
-0.9096017479896545,
-0.06346718966960907,
-0.414549320936203,
-0.37717583775520325,
-0.4237223267555237,
-0.4639248847961426,
0.09350509941577911,
-0.6172903180122375,
0.09707071632146835,
0.15779271721839905,
0.2537761628627777,
-0.5129497051239014,
0.44341960549354553,
0.10259804874658585,
-0.0007329660002142191,
0.18839265406131744,
0.09472936391830444,
0.4365384578704834,
0.954314649105072,
-0.04685388505458832,
-0.12797458469867706,
0.09022350609302521,
0.34505319595336914,
0.6175868511199951,
0.16344118118286133,
-0.5178993940353394,
-0.38703060150146484,
0.3734086751937866,
0.9366269111633301,
-0.7928896546363831,
0.18847090005874634,
-0.018169285729527473,
-0.15205012261867523,
0.7178096771240234,
-0.07415073364973068,
0.6214601993560791,
0.6739165782928467,
-0.809185802936554,
-0.33609506487846375,
-0.4180976450443268,
-0.30180418491363525,
0.5291272401809692,
0.3893125653266907,
0.03583190217614174,
-0.3624151349067688,
-0.5441786050796509,
-0.23983478546142578,
-0.4321560859680176,
-0.1879560649394989,
-0.13574202358722687,
0.2534864842891693,
-0.4317769706249237,
0.07420500367879868,
0.28964975476264954,
0.05334791913628578,
0.2406592220067978,
-0.010631327517330647,
0.23140347003936768,
0.20026181638240814,
-0.19270813465118408,
0.1374426633119583,
0.28545552492141724,
0.16651487350463867,
0.32396039366722107,
-0.000931242888327688,
0.4630560874938965,
-0.20576903223991394,
0.09448780864477158,
-0.08715709298849106,
0.4575559198856354,
-0.10897518694400787,
0.23775379359722137,
-0.21280597150325775,
0.49986958503723145,
0.09898639470338821,
0.34919804334640503,
0.26834964752197266,
-0.7593374848365784,
0.06190626323223114,
0.2490706443786621,
-0.5669160485267639,
0.22376205027103424,
0.1171187087893486,
0.4292820692062378,
0.32028093934059143,
-0.13433565199375153,
0.17331111431121826,
-1.0830531120300293,
-0.4153763949871063,
0.5076145529747009,
-0.6461567282676697,
0.8302733898162842,
-0.6005433201789856,
-0.08460769802331924,
0.467557817697525,
-0.29365697503089905,
0.08105240017175674,
0.10366459935903549,
0.14118851721286774,
0.3670537769794464,
-0.41058066487312317,
-0.27235186100006104,
-0.2475806176662445,
-0.0453273169696331,
-0.2999236583709717,
-0.08474722504615784,
0.012021778151392937,
0.1904672533273697,
-0.7294536232948303,
0.2519698143005371,
-0.1952860951423645,
0.35120803117752075,
-0.29497161507606506,
-0.7672639489173889,
0.11000953614711761,
-0.2418566644191742,
-0.06256609410047531,
0.8847631216049194,
0.11689525097608566,
0.28748273849487305,
0.12148118764162064,
-0.3556279242038727,
0.6408816576004028,
0.29770776629447937,
-0.09742801636457443,
0.28428709506988525,
-0.23567378520965576,
-0.5043003559112549,
-0.14461326599121094,
-0.5340899229049683,
-0.6754260659217834,
0.08874191343784332,
0.07634967565536499,
0.16535542905330658,
-0.451316773891449,
0.4671141505241394,
-0.2053970843553543,
0.22804976999759674,
0.254605233669281,
-0.4975951313972473,
-0.12689447402954102,
0.5194787979125977,
0.03260078653693199,
0.22931015491485596,
0.029508087784051895,
0.013488530181348324,
-0.2919824421405792,
-0.13802465796470642,
0.3972506523132324,
-0.12011939287185669,
-0.39545193314552307,
-0.036554720252752304,
-0.08643367886543274,
0.07286854088306427,
0.29557570815086365,
0.027893148362636566,
0.4272098243236542,
-0.3235453963279724,
0.14395728707313538,
0.14263956248760223,
0.6039352416992188,
0.21170224249362946,
-0.7520039081573486,
-0.7527802586555481,
-0.7837162017822266,
0.4156545400619507,
0.12252884358167648,
0.7482799291610718,
-0.829026460647583,
-0.03824058920145035,
-0.0482376404106617,
-0.3251931965351105,
-0.2629367709159851,
0.10148721933364868,
0.557270348072052,
-0.2014494091272354,
-0.6680386066436768,
0.5169106721878052,
0.19887910783290863,
0.36083725094795227,
-0.05328816547989845,
0.007219343446195126,
0.03601038455963135,
0.4320320785045624,
-0.22030891478061676,
-0.6479482054710388,
0.08787130564451218,
0.18558862805366516,
0.08297256380319595,
-0.4104827642440796,
0.21045111119747162,
-0.140594020485878,
0.317386269569397,
0.41287392377853394,
-0.042151082307100296,
-0.026378948241472244,
-0.2152169644832611,
-0.06966880708932877,
0.5276232957839966,
-0.30680689215660095,
-0.26842427253723145,
0.23381544649600983,
-0.473308265209198,
0.12731440365314484,
-0.22993770241737366,
-5.847232818603516,
-0.1770993173122406,
-0.10121167451143265,
-0.054980888962745667,
0.321760892868042,
0.15761572122573853,
0.17954015731811523,
-0.2017190307378769,
-0.02469313144683838,
-0.2878841757774353,
0.4032638370990753,
0.028763432055711746,
0.18259185552597046,
-0.12120158225297928,
0.10717055946588516,
0.7103893756866455,
0.38531413674354553,
-0.009648988954722881,
0.9139928221702576,
0.05668189376592636,
0.07722505927085876,
-0.30245399475097656,
0.3824942409992218,
0.08278616517782211,
-0.32221534848213196,
-0.26248106360435486,
-0.35183918476104736,
0.03696873039007187,
-0.49779191613197327,
-0.023292437195777893,
0.06776107847690582,
-0.24784013628959656,
-0.07857950776815414,
-0.11944470554590225,
-0.2073085606098175,
-0.5360713005065918,
0.7317583560943604,
0.0160800963640213,
0.18444345891475677,
-0.3821406662464142,
0.18369531631469727,
0.3176679313182831,
-0.20642106235027313,
0.0462375171482563,
0.36111530661582947,
-0.30361831188201904,
-0.33042821288108826,
0.041358549147844315,
-0.03201030567288399,
1.043916940689087,
-0.09481494128704071,
0.4887789785861969,
0.08897427469491959,
-0.05569757521152496,
0.10169187933206558,
-0.13592728972434998,
-0.30521059036254883,
0.5973582863807678,
-0.21715453267097473,
0.6771807670593262,
0.0349472351372242,
0.3899974524974823,
-0.03796923905611038,
-0.8144424557685852,
0.042246852070093155,
0.14022384583950043,
-0.7010089755058289,
-0.29143115878105164,
0.28463003039360046,
-0.41907504200935364,
-0.5049540996551514,
0.27865299582481384,
0.12057768553495407,
-0.6862789392471313,
0.6310219168663025,
-0.5866807103157043,
0.7211615443229675,
0.1469430923461914,
-0.3261198401451111,
0.2925673723220825,
0.13568241894245148,
-0.6801319122314453,
-0.05376182496547699,
-0.3124447464942932,
-0.07824809849262238,
-0.7606709003448486,
-0.6705365180969238,
-0.19454053044319153,
0.4255639612674713,
0.09072920680046082,
0.865035355091095,
-0.6815852522850037,
0.2831282913684845,
0.7395932078361511,
1.0144693851470947,
0.012594771571457386,
-0.01848333515226841,
0.5175758600234985,
0.6542614102363586,
-0.3530603051185608,
0.1508868783712387,
0.09333579987287521,
0.16808190941810608,
-0.5583589673042297,
-0.1225082278251648,
-0.38874873518943787,
-0.12009642273187637,
0.007786546368151903,
0.5411202311515808,
0.20600810647010803,
0.306416392326355,
-0.33983564376831055,
-0.510813295841217,
-0.1669796258211136,
-0.241093710064888,
-0.027073176577687263,
-0.5992202162742615,
0.4505733251571655,
0.5529058575630188,
-0.27729231119155884,
-0.6270760297775269,
0.38163530826568604,
0.4913204610347748,
-0.20587144792079926,
-0.3637089431285858,
-0.457023561000824,
-0.4058144688606262,
-0.0861535593867302,
0.14263971149921417,
-0.16274864971637726,
-0.018224693834781647,
0.5530064702033997,
0.05084376782178879,
0.11994846165180206,
-0.06958751380443573,
-0.46373435854911804,
-0.2476203888654709,
0.13880454003810883,
0.37448084354400635,
-0.019836919382214546,
-0.13601352274417877,
0.05891456454992294,
-0.06321482360363007,
0.37681329250335693,
0.5320649147033691,
0.5805796384811401,
-0.3760697543621063,
-0.003315921640023589,
0.33393990993499756,
0.656431257724762,
0.38068994879722595,
-0.382522314786911,
0.36753755807876587,
-0.4193686246871948,
0.06134182959794998,
0.05149603635072708,
0.29991814494132996,
-0.11160308122634888,
-0.23904763162136078,
-0.348457396030426,
0.7008861303329468,
0.1030363067984581,
-0.679225742816925,
-0.010350403375923634,
0.4651862382888794,
0.11918910592794418,
-0.5981535315513611,
-0.7633796334266663,
-0.025107836350798607,
-0.07289823889732361,
0.07608446478843689,
-0.8934171199798584,
-0.4505741596221924,
0.052631933242082596,
0.5338882803916931,
0.7677195072174072,
-0.23495225608348846,
-0.14242857694625854,
0.028411470353603363,
0.16774725914001465,
-0.007353071589022875,
0.2819329798221588,
-0.542218804359436,
0.4814628064632416,
0.1384606659412384,
-0.30717721581459045,
-0.2833409011363983,
-0.27075883746147156,
0.05363491550087929,
-0.20397572219371796,
0.1776326596736908,
0.4407111704349518,
0.14998184144496918,
0.559374988079071,
0.04051140695810318,
-0.32115817070007324,
-0.4536038637161255,
0.3095058500766754,
0.1257300227880478,
-0.7527069449424744,
-0.2338450700044632,
0.3769030272960663,
-0.0808221772313118,
0.2802563011646271,
-0.19939005374908447,
-0.35482892394065857,
0.17379321157932281,
0.3142874240875244,
0.4247820973396301,
0.18975390493869781,
-0.4740223288536072,
-1.0330344438552856,
0.00012910085206385702,
0.5398745536804199,
-0.5759225487709045,
0.2075081765651703,
-0.264736145734787,
0.10623804479837418,
-0.4944141209125519,
-0.7651296257972717,
-0.16601097583770752,
-0.07082521170377731,
-0.561883807182312,
-0.23678582906723022,
-0.8422304391860962,
0.8517271876335144,
0.04616064205765724,
-0.8516298532485962,
0.30016040802001953,
-0.3982418179512024,
-0.4536365866661072,
0.3797311782836914,
-0.31813281774520874,
0.10081041604280472,
0.17311552166938782,
0.4200647473335266,
0.0045427000150084496,
-0.0322289913892746,
0.3185165524482727,
0.34330594539642334,
0.21893621981143951,
0.8509641885757446,
-0.2749197483062744,
-0.45950376987457275,
-0.34754592180252075,
0.652341365814209,
0.9048838019371033,
-0.5189407467842102,
-0.562191367149353,
-0.4325658679008484,
-0.029304470866918564,
-0.43707096576690674,
-0.04269590973854065,
0.026104165241122246,
1.2648978233337402,
-0.8634375929832458,
0.1120256632566452,
-0.27817875146865845,
-0.2950616180896759,
-0.7000662088394165,
-0.03792332112789154,
-0.2492523491382599,
-0.79702228307724,
-0.20692379772663116,
0.5444077253341675,
-0.0721634030342102,
-0.22936420142650604,
-0.24111691117286682,
0.0025512701831758022,
-0.0369056835770607,
0.2809835374355316,
-0.051129527390003204,
0.283812940120697,
0.7736108303070068,
0.3531697392463684,
-0.006191220134496689,
0.482418030500412,
-0.109312504529953,
0.03159387409687042,
0.3327500820159912,
-0.6336554288864136,
-0.04929915443062782,
-0.16670891642570496,
-0.7809659242630005,
0.0925140306353569,
-0.2936190962791443,
0.5349227786064148,
0.23851491510868073,
0.13033531606197357,
0.12749381363391876,
-0.11739654093980789,
0.21498671174049377,
-0.5242758989334106,
0.0016931738937273622,
-0.12736286222934723,
0.15084631741046906,
-0.037728581577539444,
-0.2405218631029129,
0.5098894238471985,
-0.07405294477939606,
-0.4153980314731598,
-0.15267056226730347,
0.10108267515897751,
-0.4037630558013916,
-0.010675566270947456,
0.06595990061759949,
0.1091596707701683,
-0.4277057945728302,
0.5829054117202759,
-0.09448323398828506,
0.27486178278923035,
-0.3895358741283417,
0.14635339379310608,
0.5274900197982788,
-0.4170391261577606,
0.27972984313964844,
0.3260514438152313,
-0.15914520621299744,
0.15638500452041626,
0.14606936275959015,
0.1434018313884735,
0.5451409816741943,
-0.011069582775235176,
0.03996400162577629,
-0.7466397285461426,
0.6295909881591797,
-0.3725883364677429,
-0.09352227300405502,
-0.043843336403369904,
-0.023237157613039017,
0.34882593154907227,
0.062184352427721024,
-0.1556343287229538,
0.8330866694450378,
0.08726770430803299,
-0.3215380907058716,
0.4802001714706421,
-0.18077456951141357,
-0.1772877722978592,
0.5510194897651672,
0.10821107774972916,
0.16942934691905975,
0.026810824871063232,
-0.04837791249155998,
-0.6625416278839111,
0.708282470703125,
-0.026649892330169678,
0.6361135244369507,
0.36951062083244324,
0.49510180950164795,
0.06301586329936981,
0.4480184316635132,
0.206693634390831,
-0.12315310537815094,
-0.25060734152793884,
-0.021079376339912415,
-0.10514181852340698,
-0.6158257722854614,
0.43078991770744324,
-0.2721220850944519,
0.25467851758003235,
0.48620790243148804,
0.46229010820388794,
0.10368960350751877,
-0.8489000797271729,
0.12159661948680878,
0.05193652957677841,
-0.8728026151657104,
0.5490371584892273,
0.08444583415985107,
-0.05685688555240631,
0.842780590057373,
-0.28688159584999084,
0.2519642412662506,
-0.4914111793041229,
0.12068521976470947,
0.0901750922203064,
0.5131988525390625,
-0.006653116550296545,
-0.2903320789337158,
-0.40022408962249756,
0.0770411342382431,
-0.056629810482263565,
-0.48733755946159363,
-0.4867410957813263,
0.1988110989332199,
-0.5139158964157104,
0.28627216815948486,
0.24850250780582428,
0.49254491925239563,
0.12028110027313232,
-0.6036503911018372,
-0.22463247179985046,
0.04111602157354355,
-0.24427202343940735,
0.03209111839532852,
0.38859671354293823,
0.2865241467952728,
0.16192683577537537,
0.16624531149864197,
0.4169085919857025,
0.3548886477947235,
0.3343062698841095,
-0.43234091997146606,
0.16219079494476318,
0.13506482541561127,
-0.2994963526725769,
0.0271751806139946,
-0.6966129541397095,
0.08097498118877411,
0.39624953269958496,
-0.06404703855514526,
0.17404697835445404,
-0.21207407116889954,
-0.03043891303241253,
0.04637950658798218,
0.8268595933914185,
-0.15237681567668915,
-0.15882959961891174,
0.10943777114152908,
0.018602022901177406,
-0.303567111492157,
0.06744608283042908,
-0.36813610792160034,
-0.04331522062420845,
-0.2955302298069,
0.4643622934818268,
0.22954389452934265,
-0.3380451202392578,
0.8179590106010437,
-0.026808906346559525,
-0.3481065332889557,
-0.6918883919715881,
0.16171593964099884,
-0.6900235414505005,
-0.4996506869792938,
-0.2945859134197235,
0.6036533713340759,
0.467791348695755,
-0.4610264003276825,
0.0829024389386177,
0.007479698862880468,
0.5152265429496765,
-0.06873072683811188,
0.4063606560230255,
-0.521499752998352,
0.29471057653427124,
-0.5669586658477783,
-1.0064568519592285,
0.4267815947532654,
0.21577982604503632,
-0.45021820068359375,
0.40436282753944397,
-0.722682774066925,
0.13800686597824097,
0.08667267113924026,
0.7590979337692261,
-0.18354010581970215,
0.0014232820831239223,
-0.2277602255344391
] |
203801
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei%20101
|
Taipei 101
|
Taipei 101 (; stylized as TAIPEI 101), formerly known as the Taipei World Financial Center, is a skyscraper in Taipei, Taiwan. This building was officially classified as the world's tallest from its opening in 2004 until the 2009 completion of the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE. Upon completion, it became the world's first skyscraper to exceed a height of half a kilometer.
The elevators that transport passengers from the 5th to the 89th floor in 37 seconds (attaining ) set speed records. In 2011 Taipei 101 received a Platinum rating under the LEED certification system, becoming the tallest and largest green building in the world. The structure regularly appears as an icon of Taipei in international media, and the Taipei 101 fireworks displays are a regular feature of New Year's Eve broadcasts.
Taipei 101's postmodernist architectural style evokes traditional Asian aesthetics in a modern structure employing industrial materials. Its design incorporates a number of features that enable the structure to withstand the Pacific Ring of Fire's earthquakes and the region's tropical storms. The tower houses offices, restaurants, and indoor and outdoor observatories. The tower is adjoined by a multilevel shopping mall that has the world's largest ruyi symbol as an exterior feature.
Taipei 101 is owned by Taipei Financial Center Corporation. The skyscraper opened on 31 December 2004 to celebrate New Year's Eve.
History
Development
In 1997, led by developer Harace Lin, the Taipei Financial Center Corporation, a team of several Taiwan banks and insurance companies, won the rights to lease the site for 70 years and develop a building, placing the winning bid of NT$20,688,890,000 for the Build Operate Transfer agreement with the city government. The property will return to the city in 2067.
The Taipei Financial Center Corporation (TFCC) announced plans on 2 November 2009 to make Taipei 101 "the world's tallest green building" by summer of 2011 as measured by LEED standards. The structure is already designed to be energy-efficient, with double-pane windows blocking external heat by 50 percent and recycled water meeting 20–30 percent of the building's needs. LEED certification would entail inspections and upgrades in wiring, water and lighting equipment at a cost of NT$60 million (US$1.8 million). Estimates show the savings resulting from the modifications would pay for the cost of making them within three years. The project was carried out under the guidance of an international team composed of Siemens Building Technologies, architect and interior designer Steven Leach Group and the LEED advisory firm EcoTech International. The company applied for a platinum-degree certification with LEED in early 2011. On 28 July 2011, Taipei 101 received LEED platinum certification under "Existing Buildings: Operations and Maintenance". It displaced the Bank of America Tower in Manhattan as the world's tallest and highest-use green building in addition to the Environmental Protection Agency building in Florida as the world's largest green building. Although the project cost NT$60 million (US$2.08 million), it is expected to save 14.4 million kilowatt-hours of electricity, or an 18 percent energy-saving, equivalent to NT$36 million (US$1.2 million) in energy costs each year. In 2012, the shopping center at the base is expected to be remodeled. In 2019, it was named among the 50 most influential skyscrapers in the world by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.
On 4 January 2020, the building had a condolence message in lights for the victims of a helicopter crash, which included a number of senior government officials. On 8 February 2020, the press said that some passengers of the Diamond Princess cruise liner, quarantined for the coronavirus outbreak of 2019, had visited Taipei 101 on 31 January at which point none exhibited symptoms. On 1 April 2020, the Taipei 101 shopping center said it was reducing business hours due to the Coronavirus pandemic, making the "nation's first to cut back operations due to the pandemic." It had started checking shopper's temperatures in February. On 21 May the building said it would resume normal business hours in June, as the country had effectively limited the spread of COVID-19.
Milestone
Important dates in the planning and construction of Taipei 101 include:
Construction
Planning for Taipei 101 began in July 1997 during Chen Shui-bian's term as Taipei mayor. Talks between merchants and city government officials initially centered on a proposal for a 66-story tower to serve as an anchor for new development in Taipei's 101 business district. Planners were considering taking the new structure to a more ambitious height only after an expat suggested it, along with many of the other features used in the design of the building. It wasn't until the summer of 2001 that the city granted a license for the construction of a 101-story tower on the site. In the meantime, construction proceeded and the first tower column was erected in the summer of 2000.
A major earthquake took place in Taiwan during 31 March 2002 destroying a construction crane at the rooftop, which was at floor number 47. The crane fell down onto the Xinyi Road beneath the tower, crushing several vehicles and causing five deaths—two crane operators and three workers who were not properly harnessed. However, an inspection showed no structural damage to the building, and construction work was able to restart within a week.
Taipei 101's roof was completed three years later on 1 July 2003. Ma Ying-jeou, in his first term as Taipei mayor, fastened a golden bolt to signify the achievement. The formal opening of the tower took place on New Year's Eve 2004. President Chen Shui-bian, Taipei Mayor Ma Ying-jeou and Legislative Speaker Wang Jin-pyng cut the ribbon. Open-air concerts featured a number of popular performers, including singers A-Mei and Stefanie Sun. Visitors rode the elevators to the Observatory for the first time. A few hours later the first fireworks show at Taipei 101 heralded the arrival of a new year.
Events
Taipei 101 is the site of many special events. Art exhibits, as noted above, regularly take place in the Observatory. A few noteworthy dates since the tower's opening include these.
On 28 February 2005, former President of the United States Bill Clinton visited and signed copies of his autobiography. On 19 April 2005, the tower displayed the formula "E=mc2" in lights to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the publication of Einstein's theory of relativity. The display, the largest of 65,000 such displays in 47 countries, was part of the international celebration Physics Enlightens the World. On 20 October 2006, the tower displayed a pink ribbon in lights to promote breast cancer awareness. The ten-day campaign was sponsored by Taipei 101's ownership and Estée Lauder.
On 25 December 2004, French rock and urban climber Alain Robert made an authorized climb to the top of the pinnacle in four hours. On 12 December 2007, Austrian base jumper Felix Baumgartner survived an unauthorized parachute jump from the 91st floor. On 20 November 2005, the First annual Taipei 101 Run Up featured a race up the 2,046 steps from floors 1 to 91. Proceeds were to benefit Taiwan's Olympic teams. The men's race was won by Paul Crake of Australia (10 minutes, 29 seconds), and the women's race by Andrea Mayr of Austria (12 minutes, 38 seconds). On 15 June 2008, Taipei 101 Run Up featured 2,500 participants. The men's race was won by Thomas Dold of Germany (10 minutes, 53 seconds); 2007 champion Marco De Gasperi of Italy finished second and Chen Fu-tsai of Taiwan finished third. The women's race was won by Lee Hsiao-yu of Taiwan (14 minutes, 53 seconds). On 6 December 2014, Japanese idol group HKT48 held a small concert on the 91st-floor observatory as the premiere of their tour in Taiwan.
New Year's Eve fireworks displays
The New Year's Eve show in Taipei is hosted at the Taipei City Hall, which also provides a view of Taipei 101 which is lit up with fireworks. Another popular location for crowds to gather to see the fireworks display is the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall. For the first three years (2004–2006), the annual fireworks show at Taipei 101 was preceded by the sequential display of numerals in lights on each section on huge panels displays to count down the last eight seconds to midnight. Since 2007 the building has been completely darkened, then fireworks begin to launch sequentially from the lower to upper sections.
2003–2004: Building still under construction. Spinning lights on the Outdoor Observatory (floor 91) provided a display of sound and lights, but no fireworks were launched.
2004–2005: Grand opening of Taipei 101 celebrated with the first fireworks display. The show lasted 35 seconds. Rockets were launched from section balconies. Festivities included all-day performances by famous entertainers and ceremonial visits by national dignitaries.
2005–2006: Show extended to 128 seconds. Sony sponsored the show, which concluded with a display of the brand name in lights.
2006–2007: Show extended to 188 seconds; 9,000 rockets were launched. This was Sony's second time sponsoring the event.
2007–2008: Show same length but featuring 12,000 rockets. Event Sponsor Taiwan Tourism Bureau ended the show with a display, in lights, of a heart over the word 'Taiwan'.
2008–2009: A conspicuously more modest show than those which preceded it. The theme was "Love Taiwan With Your Heart in 2009". The show ended with the four sides of the building displaying lights in four colors (red, blue, green, and yellow) to represent happiness, vision, sustainability and passion.
2009–2010: The display regained some of the dazzle of 2005–2008 shows but remained more brief in duration. The theme was "Taiwan Up".
2010–2011: Show extended to 288 seconds (100 sec. for flash effects and 188 sec. for fireworks), and designed by Cai Guo-Qiang, the artist also responsible for Beijing Olympics and World Expo Shanghai's fireworks. The theme was "100 ROC" (100th anniversary of the Republic of China) which extended on the "Love Taiwan" theme. 2010 was also the year the Floral Expo was held in Taipei, and at Dajia Riverside Park there was another New Year's Eve event. It was a VIP event, but was broadcast simultaneously with the City Hall event. The display on the building was accompanied by fireworks going off other buildings in the Xinyi financial district. One concept was for fireworks to spiral up and down the building like dragon crawling, but technical difficulties caused some disappointment with what was anticipated (reported by the media to be more like "a worm"). It also took 30 seconds for the host to realize the fireworks were over.
2011–2012: The show was shortened to 202 seconds and was considered to be more conservative than that of the previous year, but featuring the largest number of rockets launched to date, totaling 30,000. The theme coincided with the 101st anniversary of the ROC. It also gained attention on YouTube, where viewers noticed an apparent "UFO" in the seconds before the fireworks started, later determined to be a radio-controlled glider with flashing lights.
2012–2013: The show was designed by the French pyrotechnics company Groupe F and was 198 seconds in length, featuring 22,000 rockets launched to an adaptation of Igor Stravinsky's The Firebird. The theme was "Swing for the Future". The words "Time for Taiwan" (both in English and Mandarin Chinese) were displayed in lights at the building to promote Taiwan Tourism Bureau's current advertising campaign.
2013–2014: The show lasted 218 seconds and a thematic music was created for the first time by local musicians to commemorate Taipei 101's 10th anniversary.
2014–2015: Marked 10th anniversary since the official opening on 31 December 2004. The show performed for 218 seconds. iSee Taiwan Foundation sponsored the fireworks to promote the beauty of Taiwanese culture and creativity. The firework music was arranged by Taiwanese Golden Melody award winner—Mr. Lee, Che-Yi, blended with the famous classical song The four seasons by Vivaldi and many Taiwanese folk music. Performed and recorded by Taipei Symphony Orchestra.
2015–2016: It's the fourth time Group F designed the firework show for Taipei 101, with a green theme "Nature is Future" this year. The 238-second display was considered the longest performance ever. In addition to the most various and natural patterns of flowers, birds, seahorses, fish, etc. were projected, 30,000 effects were one of the most to show. It's also the first time to have professional climbers to settle the firework racks onto the building façades. Mr. Lee, Chi-Yi once again arranged the music mixed with international and Taiwanese rhythms reflecting the nature-related theme and Evergreen Symphony Orchestra played the role of performance. A young Taiwanese IT design company BungBungame became the exclusive sponsor supporting a symbolic event showing Taiwan to the world.
2020: Taipei 101 displayed a show with the theme of "Light of Hope, Taiwan", launching 16,000 fireworks at midnight.
Architecture
Height
Taipei 101 comprises 101 floors above ground, as well as five basement levels. The first building to break the half-kilometer mark in height, it was the world's tallest building from 31 March 2004 to 10 March 2010. , it is still the world's largest and tallest green building.
Taipei 101 was the world's tallest building, at as measured to its architectural top (spire), exceeding that of the Petronas Towers, which were previously the tallest skyscraper at . The height to the top of the roof, at , and highest occupied floor, at , surpassed the previous records of the Willis Tower: and , respectively. It also surpassed the 85-story, Tuntex Sky Tower in Kaohsiung as the tallest building in Taiwan and the 51-story, Shin Kong Life Tower as the tallest building in Taipei. Taipei 101 claimed the official records for the world's tallest sundial and the world's largest New Year's Eve countdown clock.
Various sources, including the building's owners, give the height of Taipei 101 as , roof height and top floor height as and . This lower figure is derived by measuring from the top of a platform at the base. CTBUH standards, though, include the height of the platform in calculating the overall height, as it represents part of the man-made structure and is above the level of the surrounding pavement. Taipei 101 displaced the Petronas Towers as the tallest building in the world by . The record it claimed for greatest height from ground to pinnacle was surpassed by the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, which is in height. Taipei 101's records for roof height and highest occupied floor briefly passed to the Shanghai World Financial Center in 2008, which in turn yielded these records as well to the Burj.
Overall, Taipei 101 was the tallest building in the world for six years, being surpassed by the Burj Khalifa in 2010. For 12 years it also had the fastest elevator, at 38 miles per hour. It also has the largest wind damper in the world, at 18 feet across. Taipei 101 is currently the eleventh-tallest building in the world, according to the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat's official rankings.
Structural design
The Taipei 101 is designed to withstand typhoon winds and earthquake tremors that are common in the area in the east of Taiwan. Evergreen Consulting Engineering, the structural engineer, designed Taipei 101 to withstand gale winds of , (), as well as the strongest earthquakes in a 2,500-year cycle.
Taipei 101 was designed to be flexible as well as structurally resistant, because while flexibility prevents structural damage, resistance ensures comfort both for the occupants and for the protection of the glass, curtain walls, and other features. Most designs achieve the necessary strength by enlarging critical structural elements such as bracing. Because of the height of Taipei 101, combined with the surrounding area's geology—the building is located just away from a major fault line—Taipei 101 used high-performance steel construction and 36 columns, including eight "mega-columns" packed with concrete. Outrigger trusses, located at eight-floor intervals, connect the columns in the building's core to those on the exterior.
These features, combined with the solidity of its foundation, made Taipei 101 one of the most stable buildings ever constructed. The foundation is reinforced by 380 piles driven into the ground, extending as far as into the bedrock. Each pile is in diameter and can bear a load of . During construction, on 31 March 2002, a 6.8-magnitude earthquake rocked Taipei; two construction cranes from the 56th floor, the highest floor at the time, toppled. Five people died in the accident, but an inspection showed no structural damage to the building, and construction soon resumed.
RWDI designed a steel pendulum that serves as a tuned mass damper, at a cost of NT$132 million (US$4 million). Suspended from the 92nd to the 87th floor, the pendulum sways to offset movements in the building caused by strong gusts. Its ball, the largest damper ball in the world, consists of 41 circular steel plates of varying diameters, each thick, welded together to form a ball. Two additional tuned mass dampers, each weighing , are installed at the tip of the spire which help prevent damage to the structure due to strong wind loads. On 8 August 2015, strong winds from Typhoon Soudelor swayed the main damper by —the largest movement ever recorded by the damper.
The damper has become such a popular tourist attraction that the city contracted Sanrio to create a mascot: the Damper Baby. Four versions of the Damper Baby ("Rich Gold", "Cool Black", "Smart Silver" and "Lucky Red") were designed and made into figurines and souvenirs sold in various Taipei 101 gift shops. Damper Baby has become a popular local icon, with its own comic book and website.
Structural facade
Taipei 101's characteristic blue-green glass curtain walls are double paned and glazed, offer heat and UV protection sufficient to block external heat by 50 percent, and can sustain impacts of . The facade system of glass and aluminum panels installed into an inclined movement-resisting lattice contributes to overall lateral rigidity by tying back to the mega-columns with one-story high trusses at every eighth floor. This facade system is, therefore, able to withstand up to of seismic lateral displacements without damage. The facade system is also known as a Damper.
The original corners of the cade were tested at RWDI in Ontario, Canada. A simulation of a 100-year storm at RWDI revealed a vortex that formed during a 3-second wind at a height of 10 meters, or equivalent to the lateral tower sway rate causing large crosswind oscillations. A double chamfered step design was found to dramatically reduce this crosswind oscillation, resulting in the final design's "double stairstep" corner facade. Architect C.Y. Lee also used extensive facade elements to represent the symbolic identity he pursued. These facade elements included the green tinted glass for the indigenous slender bamboo look, eight upper outwards inclined tiers of pagoda each with eight floors, a Ruyi and a money box symbol between the two facade sections among others.
Taipei 101's own roof and facade recycled water system meets 20 to 30 percent of the building's water needs. In July 2011, Taipei 101 was certified "the world's tallest green building" under LEED standards.
Symbolism
The height of 101 floors commemorates the renewal of time: the new century that arrived as the tower was built (100+1) and all the new years that follow (1 January = 1-01). It symbolizes lofty ideals by going one better on 100, a traditional number of perfection. The number also evokes the binary numeral system used in digital technology.
The main tower features a series of eight segments of eight floors each. In Chinese-speaking cultures the number eight is associated with abundance, prosperity and good fortune.
The repeated segments simultaneously recall the rhythms of an Asian pagoda (a tower linking earth and sky, also evoked in the Petronas Towers), a stalk of bamboo (an icon of learning and growth), and a stack of ancient Chinese ingots or money boxes (a symbol of abundance). Popular humor sometimes likens the building's shape to a stack of take-out boxes as used in Western-style Chinese food; of course, the stackable shape of such boxes is likewise derived from that of ancient money boxes. The four discs mounted on each face of the building where the pedestal meets the tower represent coins. The emblem placed over entrances shows three gold coins of ancient Chinese design with central holes shaped to imply the Arabic numerals 1-0-1. The structure incorporates many shapes of squares and circles to reach a balance between yin and yang.
Curled ruyi figures appear throughout the structure as a design motif. Though the shape of each ruyi at Taipei 101 is traditional, its rendering in industrial metal is plainly modern. The ruyi is a talisman of ancient origin associated in art with heavenly clouds. It connotes healing, protection and fulfillment. It appears in celebrations of the attainment of new career heights. The sweeping curved roof of the adjoining mall culminates in a colossal ruyi that shades pedestrians. Each ruyi ornament on the exterior of the Taipei 101 tower stands at least tall.
At night the bright yellow gleam from its pinnacle casts Taipei 101 in the role of a candle or torch upholding the ideals of liberty and welcome. From 6 to 10 p.m., the tower's lights display one of seven colors, according to a weekly schedule.
Starting on 26 February 2022, the typical colors were replaced by blue and yellow in solidarity with Ukraine in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
The adjoining Taipei 101 on the east side connects the landmark further with the symbolism of time. The design of the circular park doubles as the face of a giant sundial. The tower itself casts the shadow to mark afternoon hours for the building's occupants. The park's design is echoed in a clock that stands at its entrance. The clock runs on energy drawn from the building's wind shear.
Taipei 101, like many of its neighboring buildings, exemplifies the influence of feng shui philosophy. An example appears in the form of a large granite fountain at the intersection of Songlian Road and Xinyi Road near the tower's east entrance. A ball at the fountain's top spins toward the tower. As a work of public art the fountain offers a contrast to the tower in texture even as its design echoes the tower's rhythms. The fountain also serves a practical function in feng shui philosophy. A T intersection near the entrance of a building represents a potential drain of positive energy, or ch'i, from the structure and its occupants. Placing flowing water at such spots is thought to help redirect the flow of ch'i.
Interior
Taipei 101 is the first record-setting skyscraper to be constructed in the 21st century. It exhibits a number of technologically advanced features as it provides a center for business and recreation.
The original 2004 fiber-optic and satellite Internet connections permitted transfer speeds up to a gigabit per second.
The double-deck elevators built by the Japanese Toshiba Elevator and Building Systems Corporation (TELC) set a new record in 2004 with the fastest ascending speeds in the world. At per hour, per second, or 1,010 m/min, the speed of Taipei 101's elevators is 34.7 percent faster than the previous record holders of the Yokohama Landmark Tower elevator, Yokohama, Japan, which reaches speeds of per second (45 km/h, 28 mph). Taipei 101's elevators sweep visitors from the fifth floor to the 89th-floor observatory in only 37 seconds. Each elevator features an aerodynamic body, full pressurization, state-of-the art emergency braking systems, and the world's first triple-stage anti-overshooting system. The cost for each elevator is NT$80 million (US$2.4 million).
A tuned mass damper (TMD), located between the 87th and 91st floors, stabilizes the tower against movements caused by high winds. The damper can reduce up to 40 percent of the tower's movements. The TMD is visible to all visitors on the 87th through 91st floors.
Two restaurants have opened on the 85th floor: Diamond Tony's, which offers European-style seafood and steak, and Shin Yeh 101 (欣葉), which offers Taiwanese Hokkien cuisine. Occupying all of the 86th floor is Taiwanese restaurant Ding Xian 101. Din Tai Fung, several international dining establishments and retail outlets also operate in the adjoining mall. The multistory retail mall adjoining the tower is home to hundreds of fashionable stores, restaurants, clubs and other attractions. The mall's interior is modern in design even as it makes use of traditional elements. The curled ruyi symbol is a recurring motif inside the mall. Many features of the interior also observe feng shui traditions.
Floor directory
A tenant directory is posted in the first floor's lobby (visible from the Xinyi entrance).
The number 4 is considered an unlucky number in Chinese culture, so what would have been the 44th floor has been replaced by Level 43, with 42A replacing the actual 43 to compensate for the skipped floor number.
As of 1 January 2011, the highest occupied office floor (excluding the observatory and restaurants) was 75. The building appears to be at least 70 percent occupied at this point.
There is a freight elevator that stops at every level from B5 to 91, with a button for every floor.
The 92nd through 100th floors are officially designated as communication floors, although it's unknown if there are any radio or TV stations currently broadcasting from the top of Taipei 101. The 101st floor indoor/outdoor rooftop observatory opened to the public on 14 June 2019.
The top 10 floors are to have stated on their website to contain a radio and television relay station, Emergency system receiving/signaling relay station, telecommunications stations, and an outdoor antenna frame on 96F, which offers power, fire protection, telecom systems, and security related systems, according to their website.
The 101st floor is home to a private VIP club named Summit 101, according to the observatory brochure. Before 2014, no information about this club was ever made public. In 2014, photos of the exclusive club were shown on TV for the first time. A Taipei Financial Center Corporation spokesman said that only foreign dignitaries, Hollywood film actors, and high spenders in the Taipei 101 Mall (over NT $1 million in purchases) had been invited to the VIP club.
Access to the 101st floor requires two elevator transfers on the 89th and 93rd floors, respectively. There is only one service elevator that facilitates access to the top nine floors (93–101). The 101st floor is divided into three levels: 101F (lower), 101MF (mezzanine) and 101RF (roof). The VIP club exists on the lower level, while 101RF, a mechanical floor, provides access to the 60-meter tall spire, which has 24 levels (numbered R1 through R24) that can only be accessed via ladder.
Elevator
The Taipei 101 includes two high-speed observatory single deck elevators manufactured by Toshiba in cooperation with Kone, which manufactured the machines in almost all of its elevators. Their highest speed is 1,010 meters per minute (about 60.6 kilometers per hour). It only takes 37 seconds to travel from the fifth floor to the 89th floor of the skyscraper. In 2016, the title for the fastest elevator was taken away by the Shanghai Tower in Shanghai. Shortly after, the title for the world's fastest elevator was passed on yet again to the Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre. The shuttle double deck elevators only serves 35F/36F and 59F/60F.
Floor plan
Observation deck
Taipei 101 features an indoor observation deck on the 88th and 89th floors, and two outdoor observation decks (91st floor and 101st floor), all offering 360-degree views and attract visitors from around the world. The Indoor Observatory stands above ground, offering a comfortable environment, large windows with UV protection, recorded voice tours in eight languages, and informative displays and special exhibits. Here, one may view the skyscraper's main damper, which is the world's largest and heaviest visible damper, and buy food, drinks and gift items. Two more flights of stairs take visitors up to the Outdoor Observatory. The Outdoor Observatories, at and above ground, is the second-highest observation deck ever provided in a skyscraper and the highest such platform in Taiwan.
The Indoor Observatory is open thirteen hours a day (9:00 am–10:00 pm) throughout the week as well as on special occasions; the Outdoor Observatory is open during the same hours as weather permits. Tickets may be purchased on site in the shopping mall (5th floor) or in advance through the Observatory's website. Tickets cost NT$600 (US$19.42, as of 20 October 2018) and allow access to the 88th through 91st floors via high-speed elevator.
In 2019, its 101 top floor opened for the first time to the public, starting 14 June with only 36 people given access each day. The 91st-floor observatory used to be the highest floor that open to the public until 14 June 2019 when it was announced by the building's management team that the 101st floor (at 460 m above sea level) will be opened to the general public, with a quota of 36 people per day and is subject to prior booking. Going onto the outdoor viewing platform requires safety equipment, such as a safety belt buckled to the railing.
Art
Many works of art appear in and around Taipei 101. These include: German artist Rebecca Horn's Dialog between Yin and Yang in 2002 (steel, iron), American artist Robert Indiana's 1-0 in 2002 and Love in 2003 (aluminum), French artist Ariel Moscovici's Between Earth and Sky in 2002 (rose de la claret granite), Taiwanese artist Chung Pu's Global Circle In 2002 (black granite, white marble), British artist Jill Watson's City Composition in 2002 (Bronze), and Taiwanese artist Kang Mu Hsiang's Infinite Life in 2013 (aluminum). Moreover, the Indoor Observatory hosts a regular series of exhibitions. The artists represented have included Wu Ching (gold sculpture), Ping-huang Chang (traditional painting) and Po-lin Chi (aerial photography).
Gallery
See also
List of tallest buildings in Taiwan
List of tallest buildings in Taipei
Taipei Nan Shan Plaza
List of tourist attractions in Taipei
List of most expensive buildings
References
External links
2013 Taipei 101 New Year Fireworks
Taipei 101 Official Website
Taipei 101 Official Website – Observatory
Taipei 101 Official Website – Mall
YouTube – Taipei 101 New Year Fireworks 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008
National Geographic Channel – Richard Hammond examines Taipei 101
Consulting services by RWDI (wind engineering and emergency ventilation) and Motioneering (tuned mass damper)
Megastructure Supports Taipei's 508-Meter 'Megatower' by Engineering News-Record, a weekly magazine by McGraw-Hill Construction of McGraw-Hill
LEED Official Site
C. Y. Lee Architects Office Official Website
2004 establishments in Taiwan
Buildings and structures completed in 2004
Skyscrapers in Taipei
Tourist attractions in Taipei
Shopping malls in Taipei
Shopping malls established in 2004
Expressionist architecture
Former world's tallest buildings
Skyscraper office buildings in Taiwan
Xinyi Special District
|
[
0.5061452388763428,
0.0357496552169323,
0.5264672040939331,
0.04691009223461151,
0.5116968750953674,
0.22344906628131866,
-0.08183246850967407,
0.43534883856773376,
0.07825261354446411,
-0.6171494126319885,
-0.4778411090373993,
0.15611284971237183,
-0.4862183928489685,
-0.19217459857463837,
-0.27139532566070557,
-0.584696352481842,
0.4975135028362274,
0.18729744851589203,
-0.15566712617874146,
-0.594984233379364,
-0.358927458524704,
-0.04897288605570793,
0.39288628101348877,
-0.3786754012107849,
0.26064956188201904,
-0.278776079416275,
0.21923494338989258,
0.4649437367916107,
0.143130823969841,
0.28761178255081177,
-0.11719902604818344,
0.1855059564113617,
-0.04553010314702988,
-0.2884885370731354,
-0.06789269298315048,
-0.018138347193598747,
-0.1634426862001419,
-0.2658916413784027,
-0.5381490588188171,
-0.006844517309218645,
-0.13683873414993286,
-0.2963572144508362,
-0.0481007844209671,
0.35863110423088074,
0.3684421479701996,
-0.579896092414856,
-2.234107494354248,
-0.5069341659545898,
-1.0587294101715088,
0.025286484509706497,
0.05059047415852547,
0.6516225337982178,
-0.48572108149528503,
0.5311319231987,
0.20337645709514618,
0.5514965653419495,
-1.0144490003585815,
-0.47590014338493347,
0.2398470640182495,
-0.11207038909196854,
0.5155584812164307,
-0.2988262176513672,
0.05129830911755562,
0.504481315612793,
0.9904434680938721,
0.07011344283819199,
0.4137389361858368,
0.17063087224960327,
0.21807022392749786,
-0.31754153966903687,
0.5426732897758484,
0.349528431892395,
0.30788353085517883,
-0.2620328366756439,
-0.784109354019165,
-0.4963929057121277,
-0.8675092458724976,
0.16269460320472717,
-0.12280526012182236,
0.4470946788787842,
0.21071383357048035,
-0.3706859350204468,
0.2940032482147217,
0.25243523716926575,
0.13858552277088165,
-0.043309785425662994,
-0.46758416295051575,
-0.08411417156457901,
-0.2520328164100647,
0.4723002314567566,
-1.1086251735687256,
0.01514916680753231,
0.15100251138210297,
0.23973797261714935,
-0.3351210653781891,
-0.08412491530179977,
-0.4469554126262665,
0.4043448269367218,
0.20776833593845367,
-0.07084573060274124,
-0.27479708194732666,
0.3418070375919342,
0.0367487370967865,
-0.1579943299293518,
-0.00262677064165473,
-0.5132091045379639,
-0.2519337832927704,
-0.4259151220321655,
0.13413996994495392,
0.17339231073856354,
-0.9970443844795227,
-0.08846328407526016,
-0.20962855219841003,
0.3726712167263031,
-0.0661977007985115,
0.5145594477653503,
0.42937150597572327,
-0.05483267456293106,
-0.3295869827270508,
-0.354167640209198,
0.47918474674224854,
-0.15349742770195007,
-0.07695377618074417,
0.48462051153182983,
0.47124987840652466,
0.4735904335975647,
-0.6283139586448669,
0.596091628074646,
-0.04263077303767204,
0.5356789231300354,
-0.29555490612983704,
0.6607081294059753,
-0.3502040505409241,
-0.03399400785565376,
0.4517101049423218,
-0.051626283675432205,
-0.08410724252462387,
-0.2689344584941864,
0.4401159882545471,
-0.13255444169044495,
-0.6964296102523804,
-0.13751691579818726,
0.04992786422371864,
-0.16511252522468567,
-0.2138604074716568,
0.5985115766525269,
-0.15179206430912018,
-0.6013795733451843,
-0.4181889295578003,
-0.3131905794143677,
0.19231440126895905,
0.2774193584918976,
-0.5391514301300049,
-0.003831256181001663,
-0.16748853027820587,
0.3482164442539215,
1.3683109283447266,
0.30359429121017456,
-0.08777912706136703,
0.0491519570350647,
-0.5382888913154602,
-0.029680117964744568,
-0.07956220209598541,
0.12910909950733185,
0.09313694387674332,
-0.32017433643341064,
0.8740348219871521,
0.25554054975509644,
0.2013401836156845,
0.15099197626113892,
-0.4971010386943817,
-0.43935251235961914,
0.06218380481004715,
0.7722040414810181,
0.2033846229314804,
-0.6009701490402222,
0.49223530292510986,
-0.2485182136297226,
0.42790719866752625,
0.14267690479755402,
-0.7020435929298401,
0.897709310054779,
0.5679163932800293,
0.21596744656562805,
1.302754282951355,
0.21592599153518677,
0.18838150799274445,
0.48577407002449036,
-0.17735859751701355,
0.3719336688518524,
0.49866876006126404,
-0.6016175150871277,
0.16873475909233093,
-0.010255206376314163,
-0.07978156954050064,
-0.21457333862781525,
-0.22527647018432617,
1.109362244606018,
-0.23972995579242706,
0.8535189628601074,
-0.2492799609899521,
-0.09800485521554947,
1.0705673694610596,
0.0652785524725914,
-0.42123961448669434,
-0.05541239678859711,
0.34894588589668274,
0.5635507106781006,
0.15427570044994354,
0.34740278124809265,
0.3264652490615845,
-0.21406443417072296,
-0.1366163194179535,
0.40323957800865173,
0.23309075832366943,
-0.7791080474853516,
-0.6243895292282104,
-0.15329687297344208,
-0.2089567929506302,
0.384368360042572,
1.6720693111419678,
0.2443331480026245,
0.4745294451713562,
0.41466012597084045,
-0.08256306499242783,
0.6246459484100342,
0.026242000982165337,
0.23670576512813568,
0.2097155600786209,
0.5469328761100769,
-0.04793751984834671,
0.3595829904079437,
0.3289232850074768,
-0.12029391527175903,
0.405214786529541,
0.37619009613990784,
0.09863587468862534,
-0.5516929626464844,
0.636738121509552,
-0.3462012708187103,
-0.0636402890086174,
-0.48959824442863464,
-0.348256915807724,
-0.06706583499908447,
0.5936741828918457,
-0.19755466282367706,
-0.3632603883743286,
-0.09237769991159439,
-0.4873385429382324,
-0.32607170939445496,
-0.5142602324485779,
-0.7086195945739746,
-0.05173007398843765,
-0.08452048152685165,
0.2044372260570526,
-0.6126472353935242,
-0.25176912546157837,
0.2957967221736908,
0.08460733294487,
-0.08625549077987671,
-0.3422005772590637,
-0.2616332471370697,
0.24780528247356415,
0.1779288947582245,
-0.4150654971599579,
-0.19345006346702576,
0.26607415080070496,
0.6437158584594727,
0.6176075339317322,
-0.18751230835914612,
-0.16531160473823547,
0.0980602502822876,
-0.29924049973487854,
0.2026938945055008,
-0.25762373208999634,
-0.7869358062744141,
-0.2923210561275482,
0.31933164596557617,
-0.042758211493492126,
-0.3835645616054535,
0.46355724334716797,
0.6169778108596802,
0.38025835156440735,
-0.6248224377632141,
0.36719444394111633,
0.4117714464664459,
-0.6995812058448792,
-0.7214564085006714,
-0.4760626256465912,
-0.51140958070755,
-0.6413256525993347,
0.074242502450943,
-0.5933235883712769,
-0.22095444798469543,
0.19828084111213684,
0.24775156378746033,
0.37135136127471924,
-0.20528647303581238,
0.3612267076969147,
-0.1629296839237213,
0.1580451875925064,
0.5015471577644348,
0.02208331599831581,
-0.1466771364212036,
0.12753698229789734,
0.03679854795336723,
0.3244720995426178,
-0.3974858522415161,
-5.470456600189209,
0.497931569814682,
0.07013797760009766,
0.23834484815597534,
-0.5240210890769958,
0.011719508096575737,
0.7441703081130981,
0.05294694006443024,
0.18596912920475006,
-0.5148633718490601,
-0.4881303608417511,
-0.7969784140586853,
0.6113600730895996,
0.11693891882896423,
-0.04676323011517525,
0.19815191626548767,
0.13006839156150818,
-0.0029592530336230993,
0.5593948364257812,
0.004896836820989847,
0.06147448718547821,
-0.9012112021446228,
-0.0865946114063263,
0.497768372297287,
0.47938376665115356,
0.10354357212781906,
0.20585034787654877,
0.05157634988427162,
-0.5319707989692688,
-0.6239610314369202,
-0.10964015126228333,
0.1488747000694275,
-0.28519049286842346,
0.03659164905548096,
0.38987627625465393,
0.06446607410907745,
0.5910007953643799,
-0.35520458221435547,
0.29770973324775696,
-0.058048322796821594,
0.579507052898407,
-0.016306834295392036,
0.2739119231700897,
-0.3423669636249542,
0.2787817716598511,
-0.14453700184822083,
-0.024388249963521957,
0.12977302074432373,
-0.9649388194084167,
0.41935232281684875,
0.4196881651878357,
0.6061851978302002,
-0.14504046738147736,
-0.391271710395813,
0.05250963941216469,
0.4191783368587494,
-0.32650384306907654,
0.06895442306995392,
-0.5094780325889587,
0.7705441117286682,
0.24987633526325226,
-0.2822575569152832,
0.13520532846450806,
-0.2213359773159027,
-0.05329550802707672,
-0.4240158200263977,
-0.3651040196418762,
0.3368174135684967,
0.32928383350372314,
-0.31787699460983276,
-0.4504272937774658,
-0.07069205492734909,
-0.24099494516849518,
-1.1388002634048462,
-0.25529569387435913,
-0.5598405003547668,
-0.2294425517320633,
0.15430784225463867,
-0.4092404842376709,
-0.11714349687099457,
0.1407710760831833,
-0.6935645341873169,
-0.5788533687591553,
0.3786287307739258,
0.1725490689277649,
-0.534520149230957,
0.10247460752725601,
0.9262927770614624,
-0.11615220457315445,
0.2707330882549286,
0.29435715079307556,
-0.1529274433851242,
0.19447003304958344,
-0.01991995796561241,
0.1424323320388794,
-0.24067571759223938,
0.28629353642463684,
-0.13715922832489014,
0.08138179779052734,
-0.19583143293857574,
0.4892464280128479,
-0.2695632576942444,
-0.09164243191480637,
0.10587408393621445,
0.05914369970560074,
-0.9208329319953918,
0.35406672954559326,
0.6213228702545166,
0.16706062853336334,
-0.3778190612792969,
-0.07173892855644226,
-0.11009931564331055,
-0.14951294660568237,
-0.18628287315368652,
1.0781644582748413,
-0.040696464478969574,
-0.2889322340488434,
-0.24363863468170166,
-0.012761418707668781,
-0.02567053586244583,
-0.36488476395606995,
0.32444679737091064,
-0.2142454832792282,
-0.19574296474456787,
-0.5808201432228088,
0.14932042360305786,
-0.5700031518936157,
0.6533985733985901,
-0.19937068223953247,
-0.32993337512016296,
0.9753090143203735,
0.495258629322052,
0.5169093012809753,
-0.08776766061782837,
-0.22755593061447144,
-0.06234484165906906,
-0.29296445846557617,
-0.6681908965110779,
0.31347396969795227,
0.28641408681869507,
-0.13961666822433472,
0.38022610545158386,
0.3430483937263489,
0.471735417842865,
0.9052911400794983,
-0.0913776084780693,
-0.3686981797218323,
-0.28741464018821716,
-0.6847964525222778,
-0.3111877739429474,
-0.2544880211353302,
-1.1274243593215942,
-0.000807992008049041,
-0.3001362085342407,
-0.051440585404634476,
0.6133190393447876,
-0.12048998475074768,
0.2686053514480591,
-0.158199280500412,
-0.15732407569885254,
0.6840830445289612,
-0.10943901538848877,
0.10164307057857513,
-0.09267102181911469,
-0.08077995479106903,
-0.15847942233085632,
-0.13208577036857605,
-0.08214471489191055,
-0.5313169956207275,
0.5692858695983887,
1.0616533756256104,
-0.5481367111206055,
-0.5728089809417725,
-0.508074939250946,
0.3940288722515106,
0.16337502002716064,
-0.10936536639928818,
-0.21893849968910217,
0.7679163217544556,
-0.03494563326239586,
-0.25427642464637756,
-0.01980678364634514,
-0.4484012722969055,
0.40308400988578796,
0.7667723894119263,
-0.3794936537742615,
-0.050171270966529846,
0.193348228931427,
0.1715773046016693,
0.016894828528165817,
0.38122546672821045,
-0.9338356852531433,
-0.4254637062549591,
0.15714295208454132,
0.33001628518104553,
-0.9649926424026489,
0.27620601654052734,
0.6878262162208557,
-0.6797246336936951,
0.34277305006980896,
-0.7461930513381958,
0.5551815032958984,
-0.31599926948547363,
0.21257133781909943,
0.37030863761901855,
-0.3826102614402771,
0.7968398928642273,
0.5675897598266602,
0.25067201256752014,
-0.23070697486400604,
-0.7360368371009827,
-0.8557358980178833,
0.07685571908950806,
0.10952476412057877,
-0.445350706577301,
0.29746901988983154,
0.12418226152658463,
-0.6091177463531494,
-0.8498055338859558,
-0.5148338675498962,
-0.08437390625476837,
0.4202752709388733,
-0.5576050281524658,
-0.6182057857513428,
-0.32951292395591736,
-0.012796416878700256,
-0.20970407128334045,
-0.3337954878807068,
-0.029051022604107857,
-0.4525526463985443,
-0.4319789707660675,
0.09700383991003036,
0.7211483716964722,
0.43859708309173584,
-0.09835301339626312,
-0.4045456349849701,
-0.06460205465555191,
-0.1612675040960312,
0.3977315425872803,
0.12781457602977753,
-0.38130584359169006,
0.11418415606021881,
0.33436495065689087,
-0.6835985779762268,
-0.13688808679580688,
0.5707002282142639,
0.32285937666893005,
0.5138674974441528,
-0.6581434607505798,
0.3146774172782898,
0.037238359451293945,
-0.6404550075531006,
0.04305892810225487,
-0.4682610034942627,
0.032521624118089676,
-1.007189393043518,
0.12354552745819092,
-0.1127951443195343,
0.1426146924495697,
0.004323717672377825,
-0.6492041349411011,
-0.9025537967681885,
-0.015435591340065002,
0.19404900074005127,
0.1660158485174179,
0.20771238207817078,
-0.631255567073822,
-0.5356144905090332,
-0.4654935300350189,
-0.781104326248169,
0.03069903887808323,
-0.612571120262146,
0.011132289655506611,
0.16184285283088684,
0.3350997269153595,
-0.1327362358570099,
0.33159947395324707,
-0.6441793441772461,
-0.5333725214004517,
-0.2197532206773758,
-0.32123661041259766,
0.0006993597489781678,
-0.37262392044067383,
-0.41409581899642944,
-0.1539660096168518,
-0.8319656848907471,
-0.09362021833658218,
0.26401716470718384,
-0.26039475202560425,
0.837613582611084,
-0.8007883429527283,
-0.08279042690992355,
-0.22465291619300842,
0.015319653786718845,
-0.2282717376947403,
0.3599453568458557,
0.9602662920951843,
0.7965871095657349,
-0.2392096221446991,
0.03280915692448616,
-0.2781374752521515,
0.021488722413778305,
0.08576001971960068,
0.12541627883911133,
0.21903687715530396,
0.2030925303697586,
0.2284180074930191,
-0.1697075217962265,
0.43790772557258606,
1.0125329494476318,
-0.38611701130867004,
-0.24397927522659302,
0.6932946443557739,
0.9599827527999878,
-0.5336078405380249,
0.031631313264369965,
0.6301253437995911,
-0.35827329754829407,
-0.44952693581581116,
0.3535197675228119,
0.026209650561213493,
0.003557861316949129,
0.21116994321346283,
0.5896357297897339,
-0.3922780454158783,
0.20851263403892517,
-0.4374566674232483,
0.17503342032432556,
-0.2665068209171295,
0.6203645467758179,
0.3732481896877289,
0.3305152654647827,
-0.24225319921970367,
0.18708087503910065,
-0.5342819690704346,
-0.627072811126709,
-0.2324007749557495,
-0.7859886288642883,
0.20801709592342377,
0.371552050113678,
0.5909534096717834,
0.3661826550960541,
-0.21481171250343323,
0.3586592972278595,
0.11768653988838196,
0.16660623252391815,
0.12806586921215057,
0.03221023082733154,
0.0939471647143364,
0.2351631224155426,
0.2051158994436264,
0.24374660849571228,
-0.13025058805942535,
-0.7160988450050354,
0.3309163451194763,
-0.22760477662086487,
-0.6783495545387268,
-0.2886941134929657,
0.22824738919734955,
-0.18139056861400604,
-0.07670075446367264,
0.8809041976928711,
0.40700387954711914,
-0.17035923898220062,
-0.7662227749824524,
0.23621442914009094,
0.6024629473686218,
-0.05695528909564018,
0.10577932745218277,
0.2787208557128906,
0.058196060359478,
0.7461360692977905,
-0.7303373217582703,
0.3792012333869934,
0.43247565627098083,
0.1254691630601883,
0.0811660885810852,
0.06384143233299255,
0.03297882899641991,
0.02084483578801155,
0.37497082352638245,
0.28522318601608276,
-0.1420575976371765,
-0.23485825955867767,
0.3055724799633026,
0.2553670108318329,
-0.12276513129472733,
0.03897758945822716,
-0.648375391960144,
-0.356088787317276,
0.030443547293543816,
-0.10388246178627014,
0.6602015495300293,
0.34218329191207886,
-0.2995604872703552,
-0.05287426337599754,
-0.09083291888237,
-0.14315201342105865,
-0.42728185653686523,
0.3368741571903229,
-0.14155235886573792,
0.10522665828466415,
0.31188273429870605,
0.1940879374742508,
-0.5610317587852478,
0.630210816860199,
-0.07358667254447937,
0.14605410397052765,
-0.3593914806842804,
0.0414731428027153,
0.18006733059883118,
0.6558224558830261,
0.19002237915992737,
0.4671533703804016,
-0.3354554772377014,
0.6501901745796204,
0.49858176708221436,
0.5792056322097778,
-0.14096064865589142,
0.0440591424703598,
-0.6493415236473083,
-0.8241102695465088,
0.20573517680168152,
0.036223869770765305,
-0.28888797760009766,
-0.30563804507255554,
-0.05952788516879082,
0.06431859731674194,
0.11917152255773544,
0.7024932503700256,
-0.11116867512464523,
-0.4552215337753296,
-0.2620207667350769,
0.5532324910163879,
-0.6329067945480347,
-0.38869401812553406,
0.40774619579315186,
0.6011645793914795,
0.42481398582458496,
-0.5082769393920898,
0.2589947581291199,
0.4338272511959076,
-0.14956814050674438,
0.38619348406791687,
0.24106498062610626,
0.44143882393836975,
-0.12816762924194336,
-0.20118746161460876,
-0.49659159779548645,
-0.15571804344654083,
0.18297116458415985,
-0.12100871652364731,
0.3139113783836365,
-0.5100857019424438,
0.25883159041404724,
-0.3420756459236145,
-0.059722770005464554,
0.155995711684227,
0.4720945358276367,
-0.14459781348705292
] |
203802
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Norway
|
List of political parties in Norway
|
This article lists political parties in Norway.
Norway has a multi-party system with numerous political parties, in which no party can easily gain a majority of the 169 legislative seats. Parties may cooperate to form coalition governments.
History
1884–1905
The oldest political party in Norway is the Liberal Party, which was formed in 1884. Shortly afterwards, the Conservative Party was formed in opposition. The main political cleavage at the time was the issue of parliamentarism, with Liberals in favor and Conservatives in opposition. Until 1903, Norway was, for all intents and purposes, a two-party system; the smaller Moderate Liberal Party joined the Conservatives in a de facto permanent electoral coalition from the 1881 election.
1905–1945
During the first years of the 20th century, major electoral shifts took place. In 1903, the leftist Labour Party gained its first 5 MPs, after having captured 10% of the national vote. For the 1921 elections, the former two-round, single-member district system was replaced with proportional representation, allowing for further gains for medium-sized parties such as Labour and the Farmers' Party, which had been formed the previous year. In 1927, Labour surged to first place nationally, a position it has held in every single election since then. In 1928, they formed their first government, ending the decades-long power-alteration between Liberals and Conservatives. This government, headed by Christopher Hornsrud, was short-lived, however; it lasted a mere 18 days. The Farmers' Party followed suit, sitting in government briefly from 1931 to 1933, under Peder Kolstad and Jens Hundseid. Despite the surge of previously minor parties, the Liberals and Conservatives retained significance, with Johan Ludwig Mowinckel (1933–1935) serving as the last Liberal prime minister to date. With the onset of World War II, Johan Nygaardsvold from the Labour Party served as de jure prime minister for a decade, from 1935 to 1945.
During the Nazi occupation of Norway, political opposition to the collaborationist regime of Vidkun Quisling and the Nasjonal Samling party was silenced and prosecuted; Nygaardsvold's cabinet went into exile in London in 1940, and did not return before 1945.
1945–2001
From the first post-war elections in 1945 until the 1961 elections, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in parliament, with its Einar Gerhardsen serving as prime minister for, in total, 17 years and 17 days. For most of this period, Norway was generally regarded as a dominant-party system, with the divided opposition, consisting of Liberals, Conservatives, Centrists, Christian Democrats and occasionally Communists, unable to match Labour. It was first in 1963, in the aftermath of the Kings Bay Affair, that the Conservative John Lyng was able to take power with support from the other non-socialist groups. With the gradual decline of the Labour Party, opposition figures such as Per Borten (Centrist), Lars Korvald (Christian Democrat) and Kåre Willoch served as prime ministers at various points during the latter half of the 20th century. 1973 saw the advent of anti-establishment parties such as Anders Lange's Party and the Socialist Electoral League, which would later become the right-wing Progress Party and Socialist Left, respectively. Both of these groups remained relatively isolated on the political scene for the subsequent decades; the Socialist Left did not enter government before 2005, while the Progress Party was not included in a centre-right pact before in 2013.
2001–present day
The parliamentary election in 2001 saw the collapse of the Labour Party's traditionally constantly large lead over non-socialist parties; they took a mere 24% of votes – a loss of 11 points – against 21% for the Conservatives of Jan Petersen. The short-lived Cabinet Stoltenberg I, a Labour government in office since 2000, stepped down in favor of a centre-right coalition of Liberals, Conservatives and Christian Democrats, led by the latter's Kjell Magne Bondevik. Following the 2005 election, the centre-left Red-Green Coalition won a majority in parliament, with Jens Stoltenberg returning as prime minister, and serving until 2013.
The 2013 election provided the bloc of the Conservative Erna Solberg a clear parliamentary majority, with 96 of the 169 seats in parliament. She formed a government with the Progress Party of Siv Jensen, breaking the latter's decades-long isolation from the other centre-right parties. Four years later the centre-right parties managed to retain the majority in parlament with 88 of the 169 seats. Solberg contiued to serve as prime minister, with different combinations of government coalition partners, all four parties at some time were part of Solberg Cabinet. In the most recent election of 2021, the result swung in strong favour of the centre-left parties who gathered 100 of 169 seats in the Storting. This led to a new government with Jonas Gahr Støre as prime minister, consisting of the Labour party and the Centre party.
Political parties
Parties currently in Parliament
Non-parliamentary parties
Defunct parties
Major/parliamentary parties
Centre (Centrum) (1893–1903)
Coalition Party (Samlingspartiet) (1903–09)
Free-minded Liberal Party (Frisinnede Venstre) (1909–45)
Future for Finnmark (Framtid for Finnmark) (1989–93)
Labour Democrats/Radical People's Party (Arbeiderdemokratene/Radikale Folkeparti) (1906–36)
Liberal People's Party (Det Liberale Folkepartiet) (1972–88)
Liberal People's Party (Det Liberale Folkepartiet) (1992-2017)
Moderate Liberal Party (Moderate Venstre) (1888–1906)
Nasjonal Samling (1933–45), collaborationist party, only legal party 1940–45, banned
Red Electoral Alliance (Rød Valgallianse) (1973–2007)
Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway (Norges Socialdemokratiske Arbeiderparti) (1921–27)
Socialist People's Party (Sosialistisk Folkeparti) (1961–76)
Society Party (Samfundspartiet) (1932–49)
Minor parties
National Socialist Workers' Party of Norway (Norges Nasjonalsocialistiske Arbeiderparti) (1930–40), extraparliamentary
Fatherland League (Fedrelandslaget) (1933–40 as political party)
Democratic Party of Norway (Norges Demokratiske Parti) (1965–c.79)
Workers' Communist Party (Arbeidernes Kommunistparti) (1973–2007), extraparliamentary
Reform Party (Reformpartiet) (1974–75)
Norwegian Front/National People's Party (Norsk Front/Nasjonalt Folkeparti) (1975–91), extraparliamentary
Stop Immigration (Stopp Innvandringen) (1987–95), Anti-immigration
Christian Conservative Party (Kristent Konservativt Parti) (1989–98)
National Democrats (Nasjonaldemokratene) (1990–c.91), Anti-immigration
Fatherland Party (Fedrelandspartiet) (1990–2008), county representation, Euroscepticism, Anti-immigration
Natural Law Party (Naturlovpartiet) (1993, last active 2001)
New Future Coalition Party (Samlingspartiet Ny Fremtid) (1993–98)
White Electoral Alliance (Hvit Valgallianse) (1995–97), Anti-immigration
Non-Partisan Deputies (Tverrpolitisk folkevalgte) (1997, last active 2009)
Norwegian People's Party (Norsk Folkeparti) (1999, last active 2003), Anti-immigration
National Alliance (Norway) (1999-2006), Anti-immigration
The Political Party (Det Politiske Parti) (2001)
Reform Party (Reformpartiet) (2004–09)
Abortion Opponents' List (Abortmotstandernes Liste) (c.2005, last active 2009)
Norwegian Patriots (2007–08), Anti-immigration
Vigrid (2008–09 as political party)
See also
List of political parties by country
Parliament of Norway
Politics of Norway
References
External links
w2.brreg.no
NSD: European Election Database - Political parties of Norway
Norway
Political parties
Political parties
Norway
|
[
0.15182121098041534,
0.4764746427536011,
-0.5554978847503662,
0.021443186327815056,
-1.0025718212127686,
0.1848030537366867,
0.49783968925476074,
0.8312498331069946,
-1.1994426250457764,
-0.28881776332855225,
0.42336463928222656,
-0.3571275770664215,
-0.29432520270347595,
0.47916045784950256,
0.280622661113739,
0.14259444177150726,
-0.17920608818531036,
1.0645579099655151,
0.12024497985839844,
0.05162123218178749,
0.3522559106349945,
0.19280442595481873,
-0.03769196197390556,
-0.3329484164714813,
-0.2777218520641327,
-0.27208173274993896,
0.779895007610321,
-0.0032375750597566366,
-0.180210679769516,
-0.042052000761032104,
-0.1902388334274292,
0.5960020422935486,
-0.13726860284805298,
0.27409085631370544,
0.04955698177218437,
-0.6666857600212097,
0.39464765787124634,
-0.4420492351055145,
0.1532483696937561,
0.11828567832708359,
-0.7127938270568848,
-0.6292336583137512,
0.22997678816318512,
0.38282081484794617,
0.7039845585823059,
-0.5776864886283875,
-1.0665826797485352,
-0.32025057077407837,
-0.6164880990982056,
0.7351393103599548,
-0.4472041130065918,
-0.1961694359779358,
0.06853312999010086,
0.5501953959465027,
0.5405747294425964,
0.2633628845214844,
-0.6795853972434998,
0.6370307803153992,
-0.10015929490327835,
0.6626659631729126,
0.02775319293141365,
0.10074087977409363,
-0.3889930248260498,
-0.7095423340797424,
0.8498515486717224,
0.2464093565940857,
0.018244780600070953,
0.6051701307296753,
-0.46621444821357727,
-0.563909113407135,
-0.15732993185520172,
-0.17213788628578186,
0.0030134329572319984,
0.24104450643062592,
0.9062322378158569,
0.059640564024448395,
-0.0781434178352356,
-0.18051472306251526,
-0.052747488021850586,
-0.6494178175926208,
-0.09886914491653442,
0.2951000928878784,
0.7992700934410095,
0.3632349371910095,
0.24401356279850006,
0.016456522047519684,
-0.33446556329727173,
-0.43957582116127014,
-0.6707400679588318,
0.5578499436378479,
-0.09135248512029648,
-0.6135900616645813,
0.7081949710845947,
-0.18804605305194855,
-0.39301156997680664,
0.2082616537809372,
0.2131408005952835,
0.42353951930999756,
-0.09266006201505661,
0.28773221373558044,
0.5788503885269165,
0.36900365352630615,
0.5970101356506348,
-0.23559942841529846,
-0.5803986191749573,
-0.3308206796646118,
-0.5616381168365479,
0.10966591536998749,
-0.20504219830036163,
-1.4891695976257324,
-0.8594485521316528,
0.5449243783950806,
-0.23359175026416779,
0.2099280208349228,
-0.4148048460483551,
0.05917777493596077,
-0.06156676635146141,
-0.5866546034812927,
0.2524082660675049,
-0.254357248544693,
-0.3167131543159485,
0.772598147392273,
-0.09845497459173203,
0.4636317491531372,
-0.2232276201248169,
0.426223486661911,
0.3867162764072418,
0.3240310847759247,
0.2948392629623413,
0.8694515824317932,
0.5285537242889404,
0.5894719362258911,
-0.08959296345710754,
0.08989042788743973,
-0.09622153639793396,
-0.8586174249649048,
0.5404732823371887,
0.41935965418815613,
0.007696750573813915,
0.5812992453575134,
-0.5904150009155273,
-0.2912726104259491,
-1.5311533212661743,
-0.018952224403619766,
-0.03340521827340126,
-0.7393032312393188,
-0.7905012369155884,
-0.18579499423503876,
-0.5005300045013428,
-0.007413782179355621,
0.4322349429130554,
-0.3187064528465271,
0.4815463423728943,
0.5896071195602417,
-0.24975740909576416,
0.8287123441696167,
0.9731833934783936,
-0.1874619722366333,
0.8609091639518738,
0.5453138947486877,
0.669462263584137,
-0.026754435151815414,
0.4095994830131531,
0.019363174214959145,
0.7181681394577026,
0.04099114239215851,
0.10119620710611343,
0.389292448759079,
0.7352410554885864,
-0.02242586389183998,
-0.445139616727829,
-0.205349862575531,
0.5804288983345032,
-0.322448194026947,
0.3519996702671051,
-0.27856141328811646,
0.17637036740779877,
0.24874161183834076,
-0.010439257137477398,
0.38696566224098206,
-0.8360130786895752,
-0.3712870478630066,
0.5212972164154053,
-0.007995571941137314,
-0.18695808947086334,
0.20190928876399994,
-0.09769660979509354,
0.6237075924873352,
0.032249566167593,
0.15379391610622406,
-0.4225020706653595,
-0.4832985997200012,
0.947378396987915,
-0.04468640685081482,
1.2185544967651367,
-0.06479401141405106,
-0.24468454718589783,
-0.44403189420700073,
0.08770549297332764,
0.14822617173194885,
-0.3000054359436035,
-0.8196481466293335,
-0.1540461778640747,
-0.27187418937683105,
-0.05446826294064522,
1.9166125059127808,
-0.0043450575321912766,
0.1661335676908493,
-0.2782242000102997,
0.5759146809577942,
0.2256355583667755,
-0.23789158463478088,
0.045063626021146774,
0.3480531871318817,
-0.11841263622045517,
0.0337170846760273,
-0.5045881867408752,
-0.05241017043590546,
-0.20152144134044647,
-0.030322352424263954,
0.4517529308795929,
0.3422037363052368,
0.0003293008776381612,
0.3821758031845093,
0.1636691391468048,
0.3948599398136139,
0.10706261545419693,
0.720549464225769,
0.45767325162887573,
-0.3203902244567871,
0.980308473110199,
0.35254359245300293,
0.33613720536231995,
-0.16624708473682404,
-0.2424318492412567,
-0.275041788816452,
-0.13670013844966888,
0.4512421488761902,
0.4623759090900421,
-0.3265253007411957,
0.39347609877586365,
0.1843477487564087,
-0.4279692471027374,
0.35875406861305237,
0.14813558757305145,
0.7878247499465942,
-0.5984480977058411,
0.058801911771297455,
0.006621812004595995,
0.09115466475486755,
0.10108835250139236,
-0.4667273759841919,
-0.3934720456600189,
-0.435386598110199,
-0.41246727108955383,
-0.023641668260097504,
0.30238935351371765,
-0.1470375508069992,
0.040723491460084915,
0.17899058759212494,
0.040600281208753586,
0.17534969747066498,
-0.024300841614603996,
0.1322481781244278,
-0.2598918080329895,
-0.2536984384059906,
-0.49869224429130554,
-0.9234043955802917,
0.1509692519903183,
-0.2821003496646881,
0.244034081697464,
-0.07498157024383545,
-0.4476609230041504,
-1.8725759983062744,
0.1659204363822937,
0.053833916783332825,
-0.3165375292301178,
0.07331019639968872,
-0.5859184861183167,
-0.25819161534309387,
-0.6797252297401428,
0.38640135526657104,
-0.2908158600330353,
-0.38406068086624146,
-0.7792931199073792,
-0.10625007003545761,
0.8410181403160095,
0.4382748305797577,
0.012927754782140255,
0.04827162250876427,
-0.23008695244789124,
-0.00942741334438324,
-0.5207180380821228,
-0.029103530570864677,
0.44521501660346985,
0.16351434588432312,
0.8203758001327515,
0.4510505199432373,
0.05757448449730873,
-0.656995952129364,
-0.37004098296165466,
0.3083927631378174,
-0.07892996817827225,
-0.3278643488883972,
-0.48572707176208496,
-0.43392014503479004,
-0.25780752301216125,
-0.737773597240448,
-4.228394508361816,
-0.17942342162132263,
-0.38567182421684265,
-0.06267798691987991,
-0.5990467071533203,
-0.1428399384021759,
0.1215168759226799,
-0.5569214820861816,
0.027544159442186356,
-0.28917407989501953,
0.20112884044647217,
-0.17167872190475464,
0.42094507813453674,
1.3338139057159424,
0.4928588271141052,
1.0490704774856567,
1.1195957660675049,
0.3999670147895813,
0.17502669990062714,
-0.4833860993385315,
-0.12816640734672546,
-0.12366987764835358,
-0.4697580337524414,
-0.19919730722904205,
0.27459070086479187,
1.1651136875152588,
-0.42425480484962463,
-0.3133835196495056,
-0.23522081971168518,
-0.030519889667630196,
0.20255473256111145,
0.05851928889751434,
0.2593677341938019,
-0.3715750277042389,
-0.3696053624153137,
0.1421172320842743,
0.2807832360267639,
0.928860068321228,
0.3995705842971802,
-0.4732288718223572,
-0.11870268732309341,
1.294884204864502,
-0.08995504677295685,
0.10892525315284729,
0.6585028171539307,
0.1906193345785141,
-0.7919836640357971,
-0.20505675673484802,
-1.2609974145889282,
1.0896903276443481,
-0.3962779939174652,
-0.282384991645813,
0.9701381921768188,
-0.041132230311632156,
-0.14961686730384827,
-0.16774415969848633,
0.03516719490289688,
-0.7720600962638855,
-0.10539139062166214,
0.3921363651752472,
-0.12743745744228363,
0.13420835137367249,
-0.22257722914218903,
-1.1222004890441895,
-0.3261866569519043,
-0.12401225417852402,
-0.4366719722747803,
0.03252517431974411,
-0.05041583999991417,
-0.29095524549484253,
-0.3850214183330536,
0.19725361466407776,
-0.32098299264907837,
-0.5368074178695679,
0.1903490573167801,
-0.7140765190124512,
-0.03945225104689598,
-0.1722034364938736,
0.541266918182373,
-0.10724884271621704,
-0.6278870701789856,
-0.5802621245384216,
-0.2869177758693695,
0.7605294585227966,
0.3028590977191925,
0.08325707167387009,
0.02147618494927883,
-0.3711564540863037,
-0.5433850884437561,
-1.0202101469039917,
0.03910880535840988,
-0.3393760323524475,
0.10000387579202652,
0.7996482253074646,
-0.08741231262683868,
0.67718905210495,
0.5877150893211365,
-0.647564709186554,
0.3147822618484497,
-0.6657299399375916,
0.5767486691474915,
-0.13963833451271057,
-0.2936457097530365,
-0.3997214138507843,
-0.32618197798728943,
-0.4268190562725067,
0.1667429655790329,
0.4758126437664032,
-0.3241015374660492,
-0.4204089641571045,
0.017171641811728477,
-0.6138451099395752,
-0.7520173192024231,
-0.353759765625,
0.7981863617897034,
-0.5048726797103882,
-0.310090035200119,
1.469463586807251,
-0.001194195938296616,
0.0941600427031517,
0.7870047092437744,
0.14999504387378693,
0.5493595004081726,
-0.48845574259757996,
-1.044577956199646,
-0.46599501371383667,
-0.9674602150917053,
-0.19370771944522858,
0.0019467334495857358,
0.5374878644943237,
0.05211853235960007,
0.42639848589897156,
-0.26927706599235535,
0.12994268536567688,
0.406271755695343,
-0.00599653972312808,
-0.4639573097229004,
0.07905782014131546,
0.018667545169591904,
-0.8459520936012268,
0.3402486741542816,
0.07938361912965775,
-0.08252988010644913,
0.5884056091308594,
-0.39858144521713257,
0.3803911507129669,
0.05935896560549736,
-0.30336183309555054,
-0.6273254752159119,
0.6172745823860168,
-1.0653681755065918,
-0.428082138299942,
0.6647458076477051,
-0.8324769735336304,
0.3796728849411011,
0.56883704662323,
0.1707739681005478,
0.28418824076652527,
-0.4657347500324249,
-0.29050740599632263,
0.2455374151468277,
-0.23917193710803986,
-0.9972956776618958,
0.7379311323165894,
0.3729207515716553,
-0.8180567026138306,
-0.4408451020717621,
0.001265354105271399,
-0.3955371677875519,
0.8062744736671448,
-0.3557220697402954,
-0.1737704575061798,
-0.32255592942237854,
-0.2535249888896942,
0.2712371051311493,
-1.2628140449523926,
0.37519198656082153,
0.5637798309326172,
-0.4364871084690094,
0.14355085790157318,
-0.23680174350738525,
0.4620501399040222,
-0.28201255202293396,
0.7161851525306702,
0.5138633251190186,
-0.184926837682724,
-0.33219268918037415,
-0.2062387615442276,
-0.042228687554597855,
-0.015813177451491356,
0.6214728355407715,
0.08823508769273758,
0.44905218482017517,
-0.5082156658172607,
-1.0115100145339966,
-0.4298355281352997,
-0.5271474719047546,
-0.2861862778663635,
0.03721461817622185,
-0.06469900161027908,
0.477591872215271,
0.482206791639328,
-0.16418440639972687,
0.0499422624707222,
0.23127010464668274,
-0.40974628925323486,
0.5802748799324036,
0.3747543692588806,
-0.7051785588264465,
0.2697047293186188,
-0.5034922957420349,
-0.47450268268585205,
-0.8800404071807861,
0.07177861034870148,
0.016356632113456726,
0.15580148994922638,
0.5716503262519836,
-0.19962619245052338,
-0.3602994978427887,
-0.24698317050933838,
-0.4625090956687927,
-0.32358911633491516,
-0.34706637263298035,
-0.2954283356666565,
-0.27850157022476196,
0.01490708440542221,
0.21116919815540314,
-0.1956329345703125,
0.11099553853273392,
-0.25599515438079834,
0.1498645544052124,
-0.10446250438690186,
-0.3822941482067108,
-0.4360584616661072,
-0.3288149833679199,
0.37670159339904785,
-0.21193045377731323,
0.3600206673145294,
0.3716298043727875,
0.6537206172943115,
0.635103166103363,
0.5935221910476685,
0.8182769417762756,
-0.4910445511341095,
-0.06740802526473999,
0.3001650273799896,
0.5118324756622314,
-0.6828310489654541,
-0.2799566388130188,
0.3359275162220001,
0.23558983206748962,
0.09159910678863525,
-0.6885769963264465,
-0.7483772039413452,
1.6680476665496826,
-0.10017470270395279,
-0.2141989767551422,
0.6376557946205139,
0.030123088508844376,
-0.07525049895048141,
-0.2935328483581543,
-0.11111538112163544,
-0.38151779770851135,
0.8716764450073242,
0.7702112197875977,
-0.017590031027793884,
0.1578662395477295,
-0.441513329744339,
0.27480578422546387,
0.06384655088186264,
-1.024101972579956,
-0.19010433554649353,
-0.09391243010759354,
0.012789768166840076,
-0.08713139593601227,
0.21929997205734253,
0.21874895691871643,
-0.3344026505947113,
0.3132205605506897,
-0.07093378901481628,
0.7111616134643555,
0.19245828688144684,
0.41845834255218506,
-0.1358182728290558,
0.3450395464897156,
-0.38997721672058105,
-0.43546262383461,
-0.2044338434934616,
-0.6430931687355042,
-0.16325275599956512,
0.05093686282634735,
-0.45119237899780273,
-0.42137888073921204,
0.18604408204555511,
0.5221825242042542,
0.6006314754486084,
0.17301832139492035,
0.5158052444458008,
-0.19300797581672668,
-0.061217062175273895,
-0.4376309812068939,
1.1816376447677612,
-0.11255169659852982,
-0.3030470013618469,
0.20242024958133698,
0.3274676203727722,
-0.14610785245895386,
-0.7028329372406006,
-0.49475598335266113,
0.19957733154296875,
0.4218304753303528,
0.46217530965805054,
-0.18582755327224731,
0.896599292755127,
0.02672146074473858,
0.4033891558647156,
0.8309361934661865,
-0.6141685247421265,
0.11917589604854584,
-0.0034289550967514515,
0.043052688241004944,
-0.2583440840244293,
-0.034008387476205826,
0.43858468532562256,
0.12556424736976624,
0.8941574096679688,
0.23712503910064697,
-0.08205406367778778,
0.38990074396133423,
-0.16638019680976868,
0.20619474351406097,
0.05452601984143257,
-0.7074388861656189,
0.5282875895500183,
-0.938507080078125,
-0.2120620161294937,
-0.36654478311538696,
-0.13665138185024261,
-0.45895329117774963,
0.11447126418352127,
-0.4378999173641205,
0.49974390864372253,
-0.4730372130870819,
-0.16047240793704987,
0.12289471179246902,
-0.19340860843658447,
-0.4394264221191406,
-0.3009585440158844,
0.0780697837471962,
0.3470104932785034,
0.23093008995056152,
-0.20055419206619263,
0.16104549169540405,
0.12627266347408295,
-0.07093239575624466,
-0.3074539303779602,
0.22044594585895538,
0.034753669053316116,
0.43630364537239075,
-1.5386415719985962,
0.11809714883565903,
-0.159789577126503,
-0.08024811744689941,
0.5615131855010986,
-0.2936444580554962,
-0.2682214081287384,
-0.010473568923771381,
0.4952467083930969,
-0.2161773294210434,
0.4074435532093048,
0.40961912274360657,
-0.11716943234205246,
0.22412945330142975,
-0.3569738566875458,
-0.5225083827972412,
0.20837342739105225,
0.005310933571308851,
-0.5306527018547058,
-0.24878442287445068,
-0.1668998897075653,
-0.8521583676338196,
0.7066971659660339,
-0.25785431265830994,
-0.7378705739974976,
0.565766453742981,
-0.044833894819021225,
-0.5430154800415039,
0.1482117623090744,
-0.10057972371578217,
0.42761266231536865,
0.194545716047287,
-0.08441974967718124,
0.6921801567077637,
0.3215334415435791,
-0.24302515387535095,
0.22510488331317902,
-0.6127973198890686,
0.7267729043960571,
1.0919814109802246,
-0.6595035195350647,
-0.5804032683372498,
0.49572107195854187,
0.10853102803230286,
0.6827458143234253,
0.3123146593570709,
0.1169540286064148,
-0.7747793793678284,
-0.11752964556217194,
0.24464955925941467,
0.1688825786113739,
0.08594214916229248,
1.0259751081466675,
-0.09778225421905518,
0.5339407324790955,
-0.6446996927261353,
-0.4869134724140167,
0.8279227018356323,
-0.5011293292045593,
-0.2267540842294693,
0.4349444508552551,
-0.06950799375772476,
-0.5193235278129578,
0.44884178042411804,
0.4777565002441406,
0.028828268870711327,
-0.5513824224472046,
-0.061662767082452774,
0.40475189685821533,
-0.40044867992401123,
0.4459350109100342,
-0.7533671259880066,
0.03407425805926323,
0.4791492819786072,
-0.58107590675354,
-0.38257941603660583,
0.6319179534912109,
0.49044832587242126,
0.7574281096458435,
0.5348073840141296,
-0.290099561214447,
0.0838760957121849,
0.04686656966805458,
0.23423734307289124,
0.33122703433036804,
-3.8551478385925293,
0.1695185750722885,
-0.3960207402706146,
-0.3893078863620758,
-0.6559292674064636,
-0.052797138690948486,
0.42928582429885864,
0.11544647812843323,
0.4417268633842468,
-0.20905916392803192,
0.38460081815719604,
-0.53123939037323,
0.815524697303772,
-0.3027496933937073,
0.6707252264022827,
0.42831921577453613
] |
203806
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimaris
|
Kimaris
|
Kimaris, also known by the alternate names Cimeies, Cimejes and Cimeries, is most widely known as the 66th demon of the first part of the Lemegeton (popularly known as the Ars Goetia).
Description
He is described in the Lemegeton as a godly warrior riding a black horse, and possesses the abilities of locating lost or hidden treasures, teaching trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric) and making a man into a warrior of his own likeness. He holds the rank of marquis, and is served by 20 legions. Much the same description is found in the earlier text of Johann Weyer's catalog of demons, Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (published 1563). Earlier still is the Munich Handbook of Necromancy (Clm 849) which lists an entity named Tuvries with much the same characteristics, except that he has 30 legions of servitors, and can cause a person to cross seas and rivers quickly.
Other mentions
Kimaris, as Cimeries, is also found on Anton LaVey's list of infernal names, although it is not known why LaVey chose Kimaris as one of the comparatively few Goetic daimons included. Aleister Crowley, in 777, gives Kimaris the Hebrew spelling KYMAVR and attributes him to the four of disks and the third decan of Capricorn by night. KYMAVR may allude to "Khem-our" (black light), a form of Horus mentioned in H. P. Blavatsky's Secret Doctrine. In Sepher Sephiroth, he is listed as KYTzAVR, with a gematria of 327, although KYMAVR=277.
In Harleian Ms. 6482, entitled "The Rosie Crucian Secrets", Thomas Rudd lists Cimeries as the 26th spirit made use of by King Solomon. He also attributes an angel Cimeriel to one of Dee's Enochian Ensigns of Creation, the tablet of 24 mansions. The earliest mention of Chamariel is in Rossi's Gnostic tractate. It is probable that the earliest mention of Kimaris is also Coptic, found in the London oriental mss 6796 where the name "Akathama Chamaris" appears. In this text, the entity in question does not appear to be evil; rather, he is addressed as a godlike helping spirit.
Derivation of the name
Wade Baskin's Dictionary of Satanism speculates that Cimeries is derived from Cimmerians, a warlike people mentioned in the works of several classical authors as dwelling totally in darkness.
See also
The Lesser Key of Solomon
Chimera (mythology)
Sources
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: .
Notes
Goetic demons
|
[
0.016345826908946037,
0.15257355570793152,
-0.7221155762672424,
-0.043011944741010666,
-0.3831506371498108,
0.9882786273956299,
0.7962645888328552,
-0.10453751683235168,
-0.21238528192043304,
-0.0641685202717781,
-0.7848997116088867,
0.42201074957847595,
-0.5252077579498291,
0.011651596054434776,
0.049633756279945374,
0.37602952122688293,
0.6097453832626343,
0.23122461140155792,
-0.579643189907074,
-0.7232231497764587,
0.060919973999261856,
-0.17477673292160034,
0.21786972880363464,
-0.6069750785827637,
0.3798977732658386,
0.36226886510849,
-0.09563431888818741,
0.4476541578769684,
0.13929341733455658,
0.14258502423763275,
-0.013562943786382675,
0.6144317388534546,
0.3409026563167572,
-0.3799824118614197,
0.8786363005638123,
0.3431668281555176,
-0.09396708756685257,
-0.7829651832580566,
0.20811958611011505,
0.009106140583753586,
0.5622677803039551,
0.20144259929656982,
0.03092433325946331,
0.09561655670404434,
-0.6214688420295715,
-0.09673804044723511,
-1.4142627716064453,
0.05136093124747276,
-0.7873311042785645,
0.11555436998605728,
0.2461833655834198,
0.07453057914972305,
-0.42839720845222473,
0.2793944776058197,
0.15732528269290924,
0.13280647993087769,
-0.9988104701042175,
0.1164964884519577,
0.2963814437389374,
0.21146412193775177,
0.32417136430740356,
-0.15960407257080078,
0.12063988298177719,
0.5184364914894104,
-0.00836628582328558,
0.16705720126628876,
0.22496047616004944,
0.6662003993988037,
-0.45546755194664,
-0.18794256448745728,
-0.20015904307365417,
0.4657319486141205,
-0.2843055725097656,
0.31862330436706543,
-0.3526668846607208,
-0.32055675983428955,
-0.19416311383247375,
-0.14274045825004578,
0.3200721740722656,
0.3740518391132355,
-0.32151564955711365,
0.8740052580833435,
0.43749257922172546,
0.2854118049144745,
0.04785710945725441,
-0.33254724740982056,
-0.017743492498993874,
0.22775280475616455,
-0.37773916125297546,
0.12595362961292267,
0.2436194270849228,
-0.2810610830783844,
0.2989901900291443,
0.34008103609085083,
-0.8291685581207275,
-0.12733958661556244,
0.05223076045513153,
-0.1089167669415474,
-0.15907984972000122,
-0.5287784337997437,
-0.02459813840687275,
0.5393380522727966,
-0.052611056715250015,
-0.5389954447746277,
-0.547957718372345,
0.13430359959602356,
0.19560249149799347,
-0.6580494046211243,
-0.45106473565101624,
0.026587121188640594,
-1.1151667833328247,
0.21772469580173492,
0.3264623284339905,
0.18547825515270233,
0.08046803623437881,
-0.04469506815075874,
-0.028551561757922173,
-0.325015127658844,
-0.3368999660015106,
0.013435500673949718,
0.18871210515499115,
0.395620197057724,
0.2841636538505554,
0.7113431692123413,
0.24246814846992493,
-0.6805756092071533,
0.11325374245643616,
0.5316966772079468,
-0.36849477887153625,
0.14836016297340393,
0.5107316374778748,
0.5836637020111084,
-0.20150898396968842,
0.22522465884685516,
-0.2490757554769516,
0.21793361008167267,
-0.1645343005657196,
0.24503012001514435,
0.6740971207618713,
0.8080901503562927,
-1.0075559616088867,
-0.4770883619785309,
-1.119615912437439,
0.249223530292511,
-0.15310661494731903,
-0.4255259037017822,
-0.16808922588825226,
0.4562046527862549,
-0.4311699867248535,
0.10520445555448532,
0.04838404804468155,
0.09864877164363861,
0.38800665736198425,
0.019151607528328896,
-0.2389855682849884,
-0.04422180354595184,
0.13044409453868866,
0.1201595664024353,
-0.05067500099539757,
-0.22363008558750153,
-0.19954334199428558,
-0.4407404959201813,
-0.5276110172271729,
0.01677752286195755,
-0.21847258508205414,
0.29285088181495667,
-0.09385299682617188,
-0.0535292774438858,
-0.16733787953853607,
-0.14469373226165771,
-0.02057201787829399,
-0.5093293190002441,
0.219596266746521,
-0.052885156124830246,
-0.16828367114067078,
-0.07284069061279297,
0.8621001243591309,
0.2789885699748993,
0.17822392284870148,
-0.7004951238632202,
-0.617798388004303,
-0.228337362408638,
-0.15936243534088135,
-0.32424595952033997,
-0.06814395636320114,
0.07495031505823135,
0.060609858483076096,
0.42228925228118896,
0.039801184087991714,
-0.31125617027282715,
-0.43389442563056946,
-0.36775046586990356,
0.15523196756839752,
0.22022970020771027,
0.8574685454368591,
-0.22974149882793427,
-0.29707837104797363,
-0.13517379760742188,
0.24620407819747925,
0.08027675747871399,
-0.5207566618919373,
-0.37764936685562134,
0.6335062384605408,
0.07076510787010193,
-0.616860568523407,
0.5123600363731384,
-0.40629735589027405,
0.4057486951351166,
0.534139096736908,
0.31454238295555115,
0.1347813904285431,
-0.40091758966445923,
0.2249397337436676,
-0.33847615122795105,
-0.02410849556326866,
-0.20635825395584106,
-0.24344635009765625,
-0.04374972730875015,
0.3988984227180481,
-0.5877501964569092,
0.11854562163352966,
-0.5856211185455322,
-0.17240704596042633,
-0.3859846889972687,
-0.46464481949806213,
0.5446621179580688,
0.6295911073684692,
-0.20011919736862183,
0.23009701073169708,
-0.5657702684402466,
-0.08332578092813492,
-0.04903268441557884,
0.11094026267528534,
0.0353320948779583,
-0.7196282744407654,
-0.15819817781448364,
0.3216610550880432,
-0.6171916723251343,
0.2949456572532654,
-1.2076283693313599,
0.18961429595947266,
-0.22590605914592743,
-0.12083505839109421,
-0.3051481246948242,
0.6120011210441589,
-0.30464500188827515,
-0.31596729159355164,
0.23435823619365692,
-0.35666194558143616,
0.1882314383983612,
-0.4478176534175873,
0.18411408364772797,
0.10311442613601685,
-0.4488018751144409,
0.3750256299972534,
0.14107714593410492,
0.47971659898757935,
0.16078858077526093,
0.4782574474811554,
-0.40738537907600403,
-0.8194403648376465,
0.09718000143766403,
0.22885197401046753,
-0.6813972592353821,
0.08695706725120544,
-0.27575206756591797,
0.08473646640777588,
0.18624618649482727,
0.7458382248878479,
-0.22780214250087738,
0.6010503768920898,
-0.13731630146503448,
-0.49723541736602783,
-0.07559426128864288,
-0.5928347706794739,
-0.7403439879417419,
0.9876613020896912,
0.054331645369529724,
0.05911741033196449,
-0.5622901916503906,
0.08966231346130371,
0.3640032112598419,
0.1329895406961441,
-0.17370915412902832,
0.24019046127796173,
-0.18249653279781342,
0.3858400881290436,
-0.8380257487297058,
0.7319429516792297,
-0.28886449337005615,
0.14845013618469238,
0.8254897594451904,
-0.21332280337810516,
-0.1612352877855301,
-0.26531606912612915,
-0.23994967341423035,
-0.17992371320724487,
0.7225099205970764,
-0.02944384329020977,
-0.35075509548187256,
0.12040307372808456,
-0.38520297408103943,
0.24565225839614868,
0.4544801414012909,
0.3899194896221161,
-0.09663290530443192,
-0.04778298735618591,
0.8454849720001221,
-5.616832733154297,
0.013223831541836262,
-0.4001326858997345,
-0.058502767235040665,
0.5453072190284729,
0.5525326728820801,
0.4097013771533966,
-0.3475878834724426,
0.3578875660896301,
-0.45717141032218933,
-0.4069576561450958,
-0.24879443645477295,
0.21838311851024628,
0.36821144819259644,
-0.16232982277870178,
-0.053908176720142365,
-0.18889133632183075,
-0.3502136468887329,
0.2397272139787674,
0.2988642454147339,
0.41942098736763,
-0.001935217180289328,
-0.8557303547859192,
0.8787229061126709,
-0.23237812519073486,
-0.05742696672677994,
-0.4287487268447876,
-0.2758650481700897,
-0.3920053243637085,
-0.32690712809562683,
-0.2677956223487854,
-0.6149240136146545,
0.026875769719481468,
0.1682843714952469,
-0.03592521697282791,
-0.5043055415153503,
0.5307210683822632,
-0.13508935272693634,
-0.12852874398231506,
-0.25855639576911926,
-0.294534832239151,
-0.15668344497680664,
0.5196579098701477,
-0.37163078784942627,
0.7264376282691956,
-0.14503782987594604,
-0.3332444131374359,
-0.5771101713180542,
-0.2738501727581024,
0.4426594078540802,
0.17854765057563782,
-0.25483059883117676,
-0.2126585692167282,
0.5850920081138611,
0.5321198105812073,
0.05821991711854935,
0.5585500597953796,
0.3109027147293091,
0.38626614212989807,
0.2026723474264145,
0.5488864779472351,
-0.8735455274581909,
0.0554426945745945,
-0.29485687613487244,
-0.20223042368888855,
0.28564029932022095,
-0.14949427545070648,
-0.09104494750499725,
0.47327542304992676,
0.3020973801612854,
-0.5419962406158447,
0.17729055881500244,
-0.3558286726474762,
-0.9929466247558594,
0.26003405451774597,
0.5215933918952942,
-0.5008068084716797,
0.2149972915649414,
-0.5270069241523743,
0.42939332127571106,
-0.23988662660121918,
-0.6108275651931763,
-0.15032678842544556,
-0.07668913155794144,
0.28450390696525574,
-0.9745088815689087,
-0.12247239798307419,
0.4150443971157074,
-0.01164295058697462,
0.16885019838809967,
0.6054145097732544,
-0.3197242319583893,
-0.0070555866695940495,
0.31836798787117004,
0.5298296213150024,
0.8955629467964172,
-0.3715057969093323,
0.754461944103241,
0.9531919360160828,
0.7296457290649414,
0.4637649953365326,
-0.16233853995800018,
0.1908535361289978,
0.2534950077533722,
-0.19068346917629242,
-0.11803422123193741,
-0.05294963717460632,
-0.06150493770837784,
0.3889557421207428,
-0.25450631976127625,
0.22251397371292114,
0.07734781503677368,
0.0159028060734272,
-0.15609492361545563,
0.43544846773147583,
0.047258682548999786,
0.2383263260126114,
0.7849551439285278,
0.6570724248886108,
-0.03989700227975845,
-0.3282088339328766,
0.02886280231177807,
-1.059118628501892,
-0.11720792204141617,
-0.10649219155311584,
-0.1236572191119194,
-0.5089842677116394,
0.2277124673128128,
0.20042285323143005,
-0.008688993752002716,
0.5083832144737244,
-0.42313534021377563,
0.6151175498962402,
-0.42148080468177795,
0.17352551221847534,
-0.4871629476547241,
0.4090311527252197,
0.08104747533798218,
-0.7009882926940918,
-0.3240951597690582,
-0.2403869479894638,
-0.6558336615562439,
0.1504211723804474,
0.31804442405700684,
0.2661648094654083,
-0.16990084946155548,
0.06731310486793518,
-0.6810120940208435,
-0.4000571668148041,
0.5908633470535278,
0.3763706088066101,
-0.06014223024249077,
1.2049787044525146,
-0.5172449350357056,
-0.2744477391242981,
0.168582022190094,
0.008879437111318111,
0.7428857088088989,
-0.1718382090330124,
-0.2120956927537918,
-0.373089998960495,
-0.874976396560669,
-1.2309001684188843,
-0.5224905610084534,
0.06455793976783752,
-0.272397518157959,
-0.21449103951454163,
-0.7614035606384277,
-0.2567523419857025,
0.3069697618484497,
-0.25992757081985474,
0.02850574441254139,
-0.2553008496761322,
0.5944761037826538,
0.5358971357345581,
-0.5976114273071289,
0.1479485183954239,
0.40139514207839966,
-0.7543864250183105,
0.21349777281284332,
-0.19962097704410553,
0.2755175828933716,
0.30457308888435364,
-0.2012847661972046,
0.7613255381584167,
-0.25852590799331665,
-0.2940811514854431,
-0.48911139369010925,
-0.6175540089607239,
-0.11731770634651184,
0.22164398431777954,
0.020009780302643776,
-0.3302731215953827,
0.18692703545093536,
-0.31659141182899475,
0.04257284104824066,
-0.2301701158285141,
0.49172481894493103,
0.2841958701610565,
-0.03185521438717842,
0.27401968836784363,
0.12808920443058014,
-0.0864018052816391,
0.10518654435873032,
0.7849271297454834,
-0.6374475955963135,
0.7890278697013855,
-0.06794102489948273,
0.3196006119251251,
-0.18579860031604767,
-0.31396540999412537,
-0.05419193208217621,
-0.6258354187011719,
0.1740691065788269,
-0.2892867624759674,
-0.12684249877929688,
0.011581226252019405,
-0.5941561460494995,
-0.4264495372772217,
-0.9774311184883118,
0.07917701452970505,
-0.2946769595146179,
0.08554275333881378,
0.15092937648296356,
-0.08578415215015411,
-0.32891127467155457,
0.5016045570373535,
-0.5075725317001343,
0.6209110021591187,
-0.028723707422614098,
0.34443238377571106,
-0.22098278999328613,
0.006551295518875122,
0.34220463037490845,
-0.006925270892679691,
-0.3828182518482208,
0.24264106154441833,
0.18532924354076385,
0.17863966524600983,
0.6363169550895691,
0.12481973320245743,
0.1633095145225525,
-0.004877332132309675,
0.019485298544168472,
-0.21905739605426788,
0.4622633159160614,
-0.1061844676733017,
-0.7779249548912048,
-0.29234278202056885,
-0.07553804665803909,
0.11409791558980942,
0.3644895553588867,
0.10728318989276886,
-0.302593469619751,
1.4049046039581299,
-0.41037777066230774,
0.1121213361620903,
-0.11199105530977249,
0.00243943277746439,
0.2023688405752182,
0.15837138891220093,
-0.17755027115345,
-0.06570238620042801,
0.16136296093463898,
-0.3453659117221832,
0.4969305992126465,
-0.6850307583808899,
0.10078170150518417,
0.4152378439903259,
-0.500381588935852,
-0.23512405157089233,
0.04991981387138367,
0.26942381262779236,
0.0418713241815567,
-0.017699895426630974,
0.12444465607404709,
-0.3330802917480469,
-0.7322383522987366,
0.008864548057317734,
0.09877374768257141,
-0.2255805879831314,
-0.18792803585529327,
-0.1723029613494873,
0.5326697826385498,
0.4281555414199829,
-0.6456783413887024,
0.17311784625053406,
-0.02021346241235733,
-0.04694199562072754,
-0.048640284687280655,
0.28166747093200684,
0.8300389647483826,
0.40717849135398865,
0.3481270670890808,
-0.1979248821735382,
0.25097915530204773,
0.5638648271560669,
0.36128437519073486,
0.4477475881576538,
-0.08269695937633514,
-0.4445711672306061,
-0.29771894216537476,
0.5578470230102539,
0.11913447082042694,
-0.3522411286830902,
0.08816784620285034,
0.4046185612678528,
0.007439604494720697,
-0.8207029700279236,
0.4734726846218109,
0.5322803854942322,
0.2589300274848938,
0.48088690638542175,
0.31269410252571106,
-0.07834469527006149,
-0.22678124904632568,
0.5065789818763733,
-0.4249684810638428,
-0.06823530048131943,
0.2927740812301636,
0.5582330226898193,
0.3995762765407562,
0.014016062021255493,
0.1420898586511612,
-0.5168466567993164,
0.21936841309070587,
-0.35938337445259094,
0.021475544199347496,
0.6517545580863953,
0.441285640001297,
0.7497971057891846,
-0.08537659049034119,
-0.29584255814552307,
0.6307618618011475,
0.10147607326507568,
-0.9134513139724731,
-0.08227046579122543,
-0.715941309928894,
0.21288739144802094,
0.8782605528831482,
1.0462298393249512,
0.5020695328712463,
-0.591616153717041,
0.4623279571533203,
-0.1684970110654831,
0.7359964847564697,
0.11147842556238174,
-0.7492732405662537,
-0.01764800399541855,
0.7685383558273315,
0.0024979065638035536,
-0.0220942385494709,
0.11169867217540741,
-0.47383981943130493,
0.6338855624198914,
0.48360729217529297,
0.009855708107352257,
-0.19523853063583374,
-0.4715838134288788,
-0.04407806321978569,
-0.001633293111808598,
0.09928657114505768,
0.06285018473863602,
0.362964004278183,
-0.4114595949649811,
0.13386604189872742,
-0.5299514532089233,
-0.6579559445381165,
-0.39180052280426025,
-0.33059391379356384,
-0.09969013184309006,
-0.0971369817852974,
-0.7651458978652954,
-0.16666193306446075,
0.37586653232574463,
0.37850627303123474,
0.7190953493118286,
0.1450694054365158,
-0.0752919465303421,
-0.3010614216327667,
-0.43751469254493713,
-0.6858232617378235,
0.0039008776657283306,
-0.2612060308456421,
0.5340887308120728,
0.7211575508117676,
0.5562589168548584,
-0.025251029059290886,
-0.7545074820518494,
0.306733101606369,
0.1781516671180725,
0.12345243245363235,
0.40714433789253235,
-0.38699275255203247,
0.1357640027999878,
0.35460156202316284,
-0.14626923203468323,
0.48183199763298035,
-0.12693370878696442,
0.4161584675312042,
0.1875389963388443,
-0.017917104065418243,
-0.23705925047397614,
-0.12719018757343292,
-0.46991249918937683,
0.027016382664442062,
-0.010444045066833496,
-0.41737642884254456,
-0.672276496887207,
-0.1816418170928955,
0.7352195382118225,
0.4399268627166748,
0.613645076751709,
-0.014927081763744354,
0.28366994857788086,
0.023378970101475716,
0.5466905832290649,
-0.3103552460670471,
0.2735845744609833,
-0.053974442183971405,
0.029172256588935852,
0.05639360845088959,
-0.22452312707901,
0.37092089653015137,
-0.3481733202934265,
0.42886584997177124,
0.2840786576271057,
-0.2610653340816498,
-0.7461169362068176,
0.39685332775115967,
0.3846161961555481,
0.02073613926768303,
-0.5370509028434753,
-0.05718003213405609,
-0.14806410670280457,
-0.6052241921424866,
0.2946002781391144,
0.1507694274187088,
-0.11538629978895187,
-0.730595588684082,
0.007898754440248013,
-0.22790686786174774,
-0.37232673168182373,
0.2461455911397934,
-0.3565092980861664,
0.23407691717147827,
-0.15539096295833588,
-0.750383198261261,
-0.1761668175458908,
0.4098767936229706,
-0.007525390014052391,
-0.6057522892951965,
0.05639588460326195,
0.041946858167648315,
-0.41285958886146545,
0.047806624323129654,
0.5536731481552124,
0.2872594892978668,
0.5893985033035278,
0.08028395473957062
] |
203807
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%E2%80%93Neumann%20series
|
Liouville–Neumann series
|
In mathematics, the Liouville–Neumann series is an infinite series that corresponds to the resolvent formalism technique of solving the Fredholm integral equations in Fredholm theory.
Definition
The Liouville–Neumann (iterative) series is defined as
which, provided that is small enough so that the series converges, is the unique continuous solution of the Fredholm integral equation of the second kind,
If the nth iterated kernel is defined as n−1 nested integrals of n operators ,
then
with
so K0 may be taken to be .
The resolvent (or solving kernel for the integral operator) is then given by a schematic analog "geometric series",
where K0 has been taken to be .
The solution of the integral equation thus becomes simply
Similar methods may be used to solve the Volterra equations.
See also
Neumann series
References
Mathews, Jon; Walker, Robert L. (1970), Mathematical methods of physics (2nd ed.), New York: W. A. Benjamin,
Fredholm theory
Mathematical series
Mathematical physics
|
[
-0.5716599822044373,
-0.0771552324295044,
-0.048645272850990295,
-0.16919536888599396,
-0.36077940464019775,
0.36268067359924316,
0.2346237450838089,
-0.5483487248420715,
-0.49432826042175293,
-0.6492695808410645,
-0.34466421604156494,
0.07250573486089706,
-0.30528023838996887,
0.4697766900062561,
0.32181185483932495,
0.30011916160583496,
0.30342069268226624,
0.1857593059539795,
-0.29009512066841125,
-0.5557779669761658,
0.5701543688774109,
0.18067102134227753,
0.30961641669273376,
-0.3648216128349304,
-0.4806220531463623,
-0.07996493577957153,
-0.11641193181276321,
0.10556445270776749,
0.5932289361953735,
0.5737146735191345,
-0.33491161465644836,
0.6811129450798035,
0.22210614383220673,
-0.050407472997903824,
0.24742284417152405,
-0.24231237173080444,
0.3630625903606415,
0.04676521196961403,
0.33261215686798096,
-0.06613921374082565,
0.556925892829895,
-0.564769446849823,
-0.014139492996037006,
-0.30557599663734436,
-0.4244364798069,
-0.7371187806129456,
-1.185593843460083,
-0.6142004728317261,
-0.4243827760219574,
-0.8290601968765259,
-0.16680550575256348,
0.2360832244157791,
0.8534971475601196,
1.0292521715164185,
-0.19397689402103424,
0.4116358757019043,
-0.4552638828754425,
-0.7329131960868835,
0.7792444229125977,
-0.04092097282409668,
0.1267906129360199,
0.01264150533825159,
0.41939759254455566,
0.19297802448272705,
0.09734972566366196,
1.0583012104034424,
-0.0514083094894886,
0.08394122123718262,
-0.48908329010009766,
-0.1453683227300644,
-0.13598176836967468,
-0.20152784883975983,
0.1068384125828743,
0.12083237618207932,
-0.2615891098976135,
0.04138176515698433,
0.10063725709915161,
0.020185694098472595,
0.27217569947242737,
0.1978360414505005,
-0.5571640133857727,
0.2981448471546173,
0.5110035538673401,
0.023715805262327194,
0.14990216493606567,
0.47945716977119446,
-0.5643653869628906,
0.1138671413064003,
-0.7254630923271179,
0.21795554459095,
0.19892604649066925,
-0.39225438237190247,
0.11044548451900482,
-0.4617563486099243,
0.05785007029771805,
0.6745036840438843,
0.6406145095825195,
-0.4383982717990875,
0.5250145792961121,
0.3222680389881134,
0.0643954873085022,
0.015154097229242325,
0.051612455397844315,
-0.7315305471420288,
-0.4109974503517151,
-0.66096031665802,
-0.25387030839920044,
-0.34631630778312683,
0.030394934117794037,
-0.5567575097084045,
-1.1439008712768555,
0.2834451198577881,
0.1526332050561905,
-0.13052675127983093,
-0.3970471918582916,
-0.23540614545345306,
-0.2774730920791626,
-0.15921375155448914,
-0.09035638719797134,
0.6447502374649048,
-0.12792342901229858,
0.07031209021806717,
0.09298574179410934,
0.855858325958252,
-0.42620450258255005,
0.1271628439426422,
0.6610354781150818,
0.854778528213501,
-0.938709020614624,
0.05204970762133598,
0.1460818350315094,
0.6538336277008057,
0.4765322506427765,
0.24329237639904022,
0.06398653239011765,
-0.6420925259590149,
-0.27981510758399963,
-0.15158486366271973,
-0.6776605844497681,
0.32251209020614624,
-0.4548706114292145,
0.0057127028703689575,
-0.3935182988643646,
-0.004338548518717289,
0.04258260503411293,
0.02331610769033432,
-0.40433210134506226,
-0.21186517179012299,
-0.04409322142601013,
-0.43140989542007446,
0.057768743485212326,
0.11823511868715286,
-0.28188222646713257,
-0.4329322576522827,
-0.16205665469169617,
0.20385687053203583,
0.6125957369804382,
0.3475209176540375,
0.21591277420520782,
0.29325154423713684,
-0.1574907749891281,
0.07765655964612961,
-0.2404870092868805,
-0.28966468572616577,
0.255508154630661,
-0.634300708770752,
0.8111571073532104,
0.4074208438396454,
-0.09014339745044708,
0.48414328694343567,
0.03420155495405197,
-0.3171072006225586,
0.1787051260471344,
-0.5196405053138733,
-0.17608782649040222,
-0.26891911029815674,
0.5783017873764038,
0.29241082072257996,
0.5870076417922974,
-0.5497617721557617,
-0.9186888337135315,
0.2920277416706085,
0.06574369221925735,
-0.3097582161426544,
0.35427412390708923,
0.6451388597488403,
0.3252143859863281,
0.41606003046035767,
0.13591733574867249,
0.24118192493915558,
-0.6933040022850037,
0.17313341796398163,
0.4212913513183594,
-0.41028574109077454,
1.2369394302368164,
0.36732953786849976,
-0.5700075626373291,
0.14148563146591187,
-0.49214375019073486,
0.5469540357589722,
-0.5325265526771545,
-0.3566380739212036,
0.20890285074710846,
0.4320758283138275,
-0.5183560252189636,
0.8433347940444946,
-0.452772855758667,
-0.2606235146522522,
-0.12917077541351318,
0.6334786415100098,
0.456967294216156,
-0.265839546918869,
0.2978408634662628,
-0.07941126078367233,
0.05376027524471283,
0.058584753423929214,
-0.5362599492073059,
-0.08326847851276398,
-0.2299545705318451,
0.23925486207008362,
0.7502284646034241,
0.040764015167951584,
0.3211483359336853,
0.6291857361793518,
-0.3993096351623535,
0.5874870419502258,
1.1767749786376953,
0.6184185743331909,
0.46358388662338257,
-0.48465287685394287,
-0.5203245282173157,
0.055663496255874634,
0.055396102368831635,
-0.3055245578289032,
0.26544228196144104,
0.07138458639383316,
0.4032813310623169,
-0.7022262811660767,
0.12042408436536789,
-0.7176884412765503,
0.18705105781555176,
0.4503886103630066,
-0.07057294249534607,
0.018522009253501892,
0.012595494277775288,
-0.3491256833076477,
-0.4667801260948181,
0.02874048985540867,
-0.3098621368408203,
-0.5329622626304626,
-0.6490087509155273,
0.7164945602416992,
-0.3390851318836212,
-0.1788448691368103,
0.039160531014204025,
0.15298062562942505,
0.690874457359314,
0.16469624638557434,
0.5321897864341736,
0.4250055253505707,
0.22329115867614746,
-0.1956222951412201,
-0.033346470445394516,
-0.24992404878139496,
-0.27677643299102783,
-0.5581885576248169,
-0.48583677411079407,
-0.47382596135139465,
0.749451220035553,
0.5474599003791809,
0.025547556579113007,
-0.3968082070350647,
-0.7118110656738281,
-0.21842160820960999,
-0.7153930068016052,
-0.8403825759887695,
-0.7384403944015503,
0.06740077584981918,
-0.8917877078056335,
-0.27482038736343384,
0.3372049629688263,
0.7176241278648376,
0.2436356246471405,
-0.12871922552585602,
-0.4636841416358948,
-0.1837657243013382,
-0.12921613454818726,
0.02531825192272663,
0.7433380484580994,
-0.5158616304397583,
-0.2731848657131195,
-0.055979616940021515,
-0.3386678397655487,
-0.4532274603843689,
0.18866419792175293,
0.6504009366035461,
-0.044736336916685104,
-0.6126545071601868,
0.27484381198883057,
-0.11402680724859238,
-0.9634726047515869,
-0.15071313083171844,
-0.24381956458091736,
-0.18347105383872986,
-0.162575826048851,
0.06445365399122238,
-0.22501656413078308,
0.41875794529914856,
-5.418403148651123,
0.006437850184738636,
-0.5721467733383179,
0.07079354673624039,
-0.17759670317173004,
0.5358096957206726,
0.7507647275924683,
-0.02497735247015953,
-0.6262211203575134,
-0.3058505356311798,
0.3974993824958801,
-0.4284578561782837,
-0.8146966695785522,
0.8075386881828308,
0.07208764553070068,
0.04227333888411522,
0.14312990009784698,
0.3822329044342041,
0.6826955676078796,
0.2527707517147064,
-0.20559057593345642,
-0.16231051087379456,
-0.2468496859073639,
0.12479192018508911,
0.20378844439983368,
0.7271541357040405,
0.02975504659116268,
0.2845273017883301,
-0.5823584794998169,
0.0842759981751442,
-0.44202688336372375,
-0.15600892901420593,
-0.012599612586200237,
-0.2889130711555481,
-0.4440920054912567,
0.07565508037805557,
0.5015048980712891,
-0.12459994852542877,
0.13688449561595917,
-0.3319815993309021,
-0.29648593068122864,
0.7938162684440613,
0.0023058655206114054,
0.15769460797309875,
0.078698068857193,
0.12482932955026627,
-0.09428991377353668,
0.41825810074806213,
-0.17239214479923248,
0.7040473818778992,
-0.6564793586730957,
-0.005175177473574877,
0.1808166354894638,
-0.26164963841438293,
-0.01472631935030222,
-0.06682808697223663,
0.05948122218251228,
-0.1412009447813034,
-0.09145466238260269,
0.60993492603302,
0.8683972358703613,
-0.4367338716983795,
0.4485956132411957,
-0.7307573556900024,
-0.6624925136566162,
-0.30032309889793396,
-0.9270991086959839,
-0.09926427155733109,
0.3600786030292511,
-0.14478269219398499,
-0.32003098726272583,
-0.0446966178715229,
-0.012976717203855515,
-0.780356228351593,
-0.07444477826356888,
-0.37698572874069214,
0.04103243350982666,
0.38464605808258057,
0.024000613018870354,
0.34813812375068665,
-0.18238864839076996,
-0.4250783324241638,
-0.7453237771987915,
0.2201565057039261,
0.5257596969604492,
-0.29159674048423767,
-0.6552916765213013,
-0.27717021107673645,
-0.2391015589237213,
-0.37849706411361694,
0.19698868691921234,
-0.2650754451751709,
0.7691977024078369,
0.5047299861907959,
0.6920010447502136,
0.2821345627307892,
0.17191404104232788,
0.7524461150169373,
0.3017467260360718,
-0.41265663504600525,
0.07957535982131958,
-0.3171978294849396,
0.4492473006248474,
-0.18460063636302948,
-0.13986404240131378,
0.08994990587234497,
-0.46519705653190613,
0.8614722490310669,
0.21664920449256897,
0.19056440889835358,
-0.4528348445892334,
-0.5522933602333069,
-0.611815869808197,
-0.6132142543792725,
0.5112088322639465,
-0.16993460059165955,
-0.7621307373046875,
0.6124690175056458,
0.9126425981521606,
0.09331349283456802,
-0.06341690570116043,
0.680971086025238,
0.05285925790667534,
-0.2918204069137573,
0.13399969041347504,
0.48004719614982605,
-0.17379924654960632,
0.1572239100933075,
-0.08883894234895706,
-0.17756567895412445,
-0.14949139952659607,
0.6547810435295105,
-0.06691969186067581,
0.23063917458057404,
0.5929067134857178,
-0.47520655393600464,
-0.48762887716293335,
-0.1738574504852295,
0.09402187913656235,
-0.23936840891838074,
0.9356343150138855,
0.1660444587469101,
-0.38677677512168884,
-0.1896142065525055,
0.4450843036174774,
0.43107685446739197,
0.28896191716194153,
-0.6581628918647766,
-0.40841102600097656,
0.8626394271850586,
0.166087344288826,
-0.886305570602417,
1.1015230417251587,
-0.527776300907135,
0.3997551500797272,
0.44586071372032166,
-0.26881203055381775,
0.21271777153015137,
-0.053022921085357666,
-0.28583645820617676,
0.19673554599285126,
-0.2051553577184677,
-0.7839421629905701,
0.015759410336613655,
0.08607038110494614,
-0.13850471377372742,
-0.8170923590660095,
0.07892872393131256,
-0.8306058645248413,
0.3633739948272705,
0.03924953565001488,
0.0005424789851531386,
0.0447266548871994,
-0.2542896270751953,
-0.07227838784456253,
0.08247152715921402,
0.2947525978088379,
0.4383234977722168,
0.18730972707271576,
-0.8708584308624268,
0.07091911882162094,
-0.316127210855484,
-0.3302135169506073,
0.7735902070999146,
1.0682940483093262,
-0.14954587817192078,
0.27701207995414734,
0.18117186427116394,
-0.812521755695343,
-0.22516793012619019,
0.920513391494751,
0.14564159512519836,
0.02533406764268875,
-0.060600463300943375,
-0.47623056173324585,
-0.462247371673584,
0.267387330532074,
0.2067027986049652,
-0.1993483006954193,
-0.5105255246162415,
-0.336140900850296,
0.24951228499412537,
0.007865184918045998,
0.8095749616622925,
0.780743420124054,
-0.6294828653335571,
-0.06908480077981949,
-0.27620476484298706,
-0.44397881627082825,
0.2711619734764099,
-0.5046929121017456,
-0.4800908863544464,
-0.33419662714004517,
-0.17825442552566528,
-0.5437930226325989,
0.44670626521110535,
0.9121741056442261,
-0.3523635268211365,
-0.2227587103843689,
-0.16922789812088013,
0.07675549387931824,
-0.5988246202468872,
-0.1579125076532364,
-0.4382059872150421,
-0.40831512212753296,
0.1976088285446167,
0.10593291372060776,
-0.5263190269470215,
0.581085741519928,
-0.14562799036502838,
-0.5161644220352173,
-0.572919487953186,
-0.24183449149131775,
-0.38281071186065674,
-0.4011852443218231,
-0.5593509078025818,
-0.19224470853805542,
0.03637831285595894,
-0.6997470855712891,
-0.19342032074928284,
0.26038607954978943,
0.01944587007164955,
0.19081942737102509,
-0.6517441272735596,
0.020376751199364662,
0.32166171073913574,
0.8819336295127869,
-0.3945178687572479,
0.22392356395721436,
0.2637094557285309,
-0.04483786225318909,
0.1530967503786087,
-0.5738394856452942,
-0.22645974159240723,
0.9072932600975037,
0.7696101069450378,
-0.282195121049881,
-0.8577131032943726,
0.5614055395126343,
-0.029638206586241722,
-0.2030724585056305,
-0.3184219002723694,
-0.29656001925468445,
-0.18680568039417267,
0.06349550187587738,
0.46026611328125,
0.054656192660331726,
0.41496390104293823,
0.40577077865600586,
0.020700940862298012,
-0.16582465171813965,
-0.44811517000198364,
0.2374424785375595,
0.6643739938735962,
-0.2747906744480133,
0.604412853717804,
-0.07619070261716843,
0.2873583436012268,
-0.32200732827186584,
-0.1816314160823822,
-0.2906327247619629,
0.009236662648618221,
-0.18227508664131165,
-0.5500519871711731,
0.35053685307502747,
0.04580893740057945,
-0.006221028510481119,
0.529979944229126,
0.1527293473482132,
0.6559018492698669,
-0.8920429348945618,
-0.44341418147087097,
-0.14643937349319458,
0.4413175880908966,
0.05601849779486656,
0.6144328713417053,
0.07994308322668076,
0.24569246172904968,
-0.17840318381786346,
-0.19113042950630188,
-0.12478194385766983,
0.35699447989463806,
-0.4127843379974365,
-0.019502408802509308,
0.45400890707969666,
0.5783029198646545,
0.140973299741745,
-0.07599002122879028,
0.061206720769405365,
-0.004658182617276907,
0.6150921583175659,
0.170635387301445,
-0.24792666733264923,
0.30093052983283997,
-0.4595901370048523,
-0.09414416551589966,
0.3613233268260956,
-0.32670682668685913,
0.03715604916214943,
0.4384898543357849,
-0.18236517906188965,
0.5219771862030029,
0.5581031441688538,
-0.5220549702644348,
-1.0172594785690308,
0.47795596718788147,
-0.15793047845363617,
-0.24348308145999908,
-0.23107187449932098,
0.3331305980682373,
0.7846693396568298,
0.27847224473953247,
-0.8167574405670166,
0.4031333029270172,
-0.33090636134147644,
-0.3594757318496704,
-0.3382989168167114,
-0.266577810049057,
0.5476380586624146,
0.3384420573711395,
1.0746350288391113,
0.7747462391853333,
-0.4025030732154846,
0.4655439257621765,
0.00528666703030467,
0.11057340353727341,
-0.09949608892202377,
0.07249314337968826,
0.15458153188228607,
0.020375045016407967,
0.13587231934070587,
-0.06040988489985466,
0.5165011286735535,
-0.35826927423477173,
0.2231796681880951,
-0.08016233146190643,
0.18882973492145538,
-0.4447338879108429,
0.7166843414306641,
0.03899414837360382,
0.08395463228225708,
0.07091843336820602,
0.0888860821723938,
0.0771864578127861,
0.2224125862121582,
0.29548612236976624,
0.26440510153770447,
-0.13579876720905304,
0.005708152428269386,
-0.5964511036872864,
0.2518741190433502,
0.19688110053539276,
0.13334187865257263,
0.2052554190158844,
0.31495586037635803,
-0.49539557099342346,
-0.17949262261390686,
-0.06414103507995605,
-0.32557782530784607,
-0.14903795719146729,
0.5726994276046753,
-0.05343230441212654,
0.14736950397491455,
-0.34562408924102783,
0.22242625057697296,
-0.23515911400318146,
0.2628175616264343,
-0.2158382534980774,
-0.10491593182086945,
0.06980723142623901,
0.7345994114875793,
-0.622404158115387,
-0.1856563836336136,
0.28911489248275757,
-0.20538771152496338,
0.5585147142410278,
-0.7640478610992432,
1.2746113538742065,
0.8628183007240295,
-0.27290579676628113,
0.07887326180934906,
-0.36763036251068115,
0.34317153692245483,
0.015487774275243282,
-0.6630682945251465,
0.08376559615135193,
-0.24371808767318726,
0.6006612181663513,
-0.8689895272254944,
0.37956157326698303,
0.2316667139530182,
0.02099085971713066,
0.09690112620592117,
0.35760459303855896,
-0.2914033532142639,
-0.4278833568096161,
0.15822254121303558,
-0.10926326364278793,
-0.01595092937350273,
-0.19287364184856415,
-0.07814130187034607,
-0.3033319115638733,
0.26334235072135925,
-0.07334384322166443,
-0.008804893121123314,
-0.03505351021885872,
0.19221965968608856,
-0.3253686726093292,
0.38324281573295593,
0.1341162770986557,
0.09955394268035889,
0.4585852324962616,
-0.3460794985294342,
0.23336957395076752,
-0.18627290427684784,
-0.37531113624572754,
0.7445972561836243,
0.15952573716640472,
0.31728681921958923,
-0.5268394351005554,
0.1496821492910385,
0.036989595741033554,
-0.6835188269615173,
1.230607032775879,
-0.5038862824440002,
0.29592129588127136,
-0.3026871085166931,
-0.8930058479309082,
-0.44596385955810547,
0.29476237297058105,
0.581158459186554,
0.12416908890008926,
-0.0034319984260946512,
-0.6723027229309082,
-0.04220956563949585,
-0.023070164024829865,
0.6201921105384827,
-0.29085078835487366,
-0.010523137636482716,
0.3318229913711548
] |
203808
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme%20pool
|
Meme pool
|
A meme pool is the sum total of all memes (transmittable units of cultural ideas, practices, symbols) present in a given human population. The term is analogous to gene pool. The meme pool is in essence the matrix of the whole of the culture of a population. Because the memes of instruction of production of material culture are included, then the entire culture, including material culture and interactions between individuals is determined by information held within the meme pool. The state of a meme pool determines what sort of memes will be reproductive, and in this way it may be thought of as the meme-logical environment.
Examples of meme pools may include large Internet communities such as imageboards, online forums, and wikis. More tangibly, large shopping malls, schools, and other social institutions may be included in the definition of a meme pool.
The term was coined by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene.
References
Pool
|
[
0.36605918407440186,
0.03769075870513916,
-0.21794907748699188,
0.3532516360282898,
-0.09945963323116302,
0.36770719289779663,
0.18827326595783234,
0.38085028529167175,
0.14436230063438416,
-0.5834876298904419,
-0.30674371123313904,
0.24968166649341583,
-0.24201035499572754,
0.42751654982566833,
0.256960928440094,
0.013542921282351017,
0.3328709006309509,
0.3706547021865845,
0.39088696241378784,
-0.05678022280335426,
-0.6534398198127747,
0.44092604517936707,
-0.16320720314979553,
-0.7468218207359314,
0.36766698956489563,
-0.109967902302742,
0.19398203492164612,
0.27396687865257263,
0.14940540492534637,
-0.10743031650781631,
-0.12918531894683838,
0.5996847748756409,
0.10782306641340256,
0.10350805521011353,
0.04547377675771713,
-0.3993891477584839,
-0.5929955244064331,
-0.2135128676891327,
-0.36838164925575256,
-0.44827789068222046,
-0.22605262696743011,
0.1686900556087494,
-0.34492024779319763,
0.47425374388694763,
-0.9713566303253174,
-0.37557801604270935,
-1.7282768487930298,
0.07457792013883591,
-0.8919599652290344,
0.4117461144924164,
-0.2588941752910614,
0.22840727865695953,
0.10024955868721008,
0.39568954706192017,
-0.21556541323661804,
0.5590855479240417,
-0.5735585689544678,
-0.45234414935112,
0.1964680403470993,
-0.24665133655071259,
0.3548552691936493,
-0.2888132333755493,
0.032704439014196396,
-0.2537129819393158,
0.23447711765766144,
-0.0309941116720438,
0.26592838764190674,
0.06121570244431496,
-0.24471943080425262,
-0.5878759026527405,
-0.07114172726869583,
-0.13006484508514404,
-0.0952637642621994,
0.7408808469772339,
-0.9933983087539673,
-0.09311743825674057,
0.22759003937244415,
0.06189010664820671,
-0.28001537919044495,
0.1523752361536026,
-0.9836152195930481,
0.787162721157074,
0.8130184412002563,
-0.41346311569213867,
0.608614981174469,
-0.3478817939758301,
-0.12310720980167389,
0.43114063143730164,
-0.8230966329574585,
0.5753265619277954,
0.46537598967552185,
-0.29278573393821716,
0.4149479269981384,
-0.08566328883171082,
0.2264586240053177,
0.16718687117099762,
-0.007251660339534283,
-0.26438331604003906,
-0.026627687737345695,
0.17697691917419434,
-0.48225873708724976,
-0.007671610452234745,
0.094452403485775,
-0.17310208082199097,
-0.6608000993728638,
0.33716481924057007,
0.06855866312980652,
-0.8007339239120483,
0.4576849639415741,
-0.16057255864143372,
-0.3260563313961029,
0.4572252631187439,
-0.2443535178899765,
0.1092638149857521,
-0.003077796660363674,
0.45936617255210876,
0.4210068881511688,
0.14507383108139038,
-0.2535945475101471,
0.07632595300674438,
0.20380863547325134,
0.659436047077179,
0.721510648727417,
-0.5926111340522766,
-0.0026198828127235174,
-0.13373756408691406,
0.28947576880455017,
-0.1345863938331604,
-0.29550275206565857,
0.2927062213420868,
0.0850955918431282,
0.3362388014793396,
0.07400703430175781,
0.07843609899282455,
-0.05464126542210579,
-0.31945177912712097,
0.2998499870300293,
0.40773648023605347,
0.405514121055603,
0.1163083016872406,
-0.440628319978714,
-0.5435916781425476,
-0.7183336019515991,
0.0827406719326973,
0.7391340732574463,
-0.1604931801557541,
0.12819544970989227,
-0.3351387679576874,
-0.22228558361530304,
-0.04178936406970024,
-0.16297680139541626,
0.3359912037849426,
0.22917531430721283,
0.010905477218329906,
-0.16999250650405884,
0.09026049077510834,
-0.14093655347824097,
0.6186489462852478,
0.09791784733533859,
0.31469619274139404,
0.32894372940063477,
0.3108723759651184,
-0.31130674481391907,
-0.461930513381958,
-0.009316668845713139,
-0.403423011302948,
0.5595070123672485,
0.8492960333824158,
0.15394531190395355,
0.14158675074577332,
0.16601431369781494,
-0.3685542345046997,
0.5296316742897034,
-0.03460021689534187,
-0.22272828221321106,
-0.0976475328207016,
0.21529620885849,
-0.006746828556060791,
0.62811678647995,
-0.008734258823096752,
-0.5791670083999634,
-0.21645626425743103,
0.18189983069896698,
-0.2010039985179901,
0.26759111881256104,
-0.5590518712997437,
0.388414204120636,
0.22799694538116455,
0.020817916840314865,
-0.18070966005325317,
-0.3606908619403839,
-0.44686540961265564,
-0.0990002304315567,
-0.5649416446685791,
0.9520705938339233,
-0.1254153847694397,
0.00190564279910177,
0.23730838298797607,
0.36786261200904846,
-0.34084779024124146,
-0.017977409064769745,
-0.35248711705207825,
0.38843098282814026,
-0.3167020380496979,
-0.5136208534240723,
-0.16312047839164734,
0.12453381717205048,
-0.1676899939775467,
-0.31280872225761414,
0.1476740688085556,
0.057895731180906296,
-0.026903066784143448,
0.25442665815353394,
-0.6449829936027527,
-0.348253458738327,
0.1646147519350052,
-0.30766239762306213,
0.6912031173706055,
-0.11091481894254684,
-0.05501186102628708,
1.1555904150009155,
-0.41493576765060425,
0.12946267426013947,
0.39264777302742004,
-0.5546652674674988,
0.8729099631309509,
0.4000401198863983,
-0.06203576922416687,
1.12810218334198,
-0.916999101638794,
0.1744467318058014,
-0.47838807106018066,
0.38276442885398865,
-0.583143949508667,
-0.08443313091993332,
0.29181742668151855,
0.29498806595802307,
-0.3793911635875702,
0.02196766994893551,
-0.22029000520706177,
-0.1734355241060257,
0.17902764678001404,
-0.6047917008399963,
0.05180985853075981,
0.2838650941848755,
0.20629556477069855,
-0.18885305523872375,
-0.17349165678024292,
-0.4553964138031006,
0.15559829771518707,
-0.14189472794532776,
0.43054482340812683,
0.27193760871887207,
-0.540489912033081,
0.11318589746952057,
-0.171426460146904,
0.09335563331842422,
-0.0336231030523777,
0.45907062292099,
-0.17171049118041992,
-0.5086289048194885,
0.3090088367462158,
0.1466306447982788,
0.3951048254966736,
0.014118802733719349,
-0.8381295800209045,
-0.471646249294281,
-0.3358924984931946,
0.06385760009288788,
0.5305076837539673,
1.175254464149475,
-0.15327179431915283,
-0.17707747220993042,
-0.0018432458164170384,
-0.3270895183086395,
-0.6463530659675598,
0.5989387631416321,
-0.20643945038318634,
-0.2885362207889557,
-0.9423799514770508,
-0.22649364173412323,
0.32947859168052673,
0.13770490884780884,
-0.4813690781593323,
0.2031117081642151,
-0.956434965133667,
-0.23984812200069427,
0.025557592511177063,
0.31496456265449524,
-0.07137370109558105,
-0.47406789660453796,
0.38512468338012695,
-0.1775163859128952,
-0.1591745913028717,
0.13688555359840393,
0.036393217742443085,
-0.004112673457711935,
0.03244585171341896,
-0.05424097925424576,
0.12653984129428864,
-0.3689088225364685,
-0.24152211844921112,
-0.5732210874557495,
0.2324468195438385,
0.09065936505794525,
-0.2837774455547333,
0.09041360020637512,
0.7950317859649658,
-5.800323963165283,
0.2199484258890152,
0.0830753818154335,
0.19597338140010834,
0.19319622218608856,
0.643802285194397,
0.8146767020225525,
0.03954559937119484,
-0.18779797852039337,
0.012516696937382221,
-0.3107987940311432,
-0.4097585678100586,
-0.017355194315314293,
0.5938385128974915,
0.5572925209999084,
-0.13725757598876953,
0.12040985375642776,
0.18303418159484863,
0.005242554936558008,
0.14592604339122772,
-0.4712793827056885,
0.07487643510103226,
-0.13413508236408234,
0.6276609897613525,
-0.1830071359872818,
-0.3181859850883484,
-0.5406991839408875,
-0.1395820677280426,
-0.07510817050933838,
0.11578752845525742,
0.07304698973894119,
-0.27019861340522766,
-0.12614090740680695,
-0.390509694814682,
0.03351983055472374,
0.34518054127693176,
0.2126210778951645,
-0.0073487889021635056,
-0.244279146194458,
-0.9455199241638184,
0.09311795979738235,
0.46532008051872253,
-0.09282074868679047,
-0.39422544836997986,
0.4371664524078369,
0.45030924677848816,
-0.35722973942756653,
-0.21205861866474152,
-0.22866787016391754,
0.11232315003871918,
-0.31655070185661316,
-0.15945759415626526,
0.29304924607276917,
-0.22447657585144043,
0.49448078870773315,
-0.00836600735783577,
0.5606948733329773,
-0.21422190964221954,
-0.5994879603385925,
0.11261557787656784,
0.872822642326355,
-0.49107977747917175,
0.3178604543209076,
-0.25542590022087097,
-0.22620007395744324,
0.022245995700359344,
-1.0102224349975586,
-0.15571603178977966,
0.4292937219142914,
0.1692321002483368,
-0.4812256991863251,
0.1410485804080963,
-0.32683512568473816,
-0.7532068490982056,
0.0661170557141304,
0.04054916277527809,
0.11129694432020187,
0.23678813874721527,
0.22272051870822906,
-0.042901914566755295,
-0.44290921092033386,
-0.36223992705345154,
-0.557659387588501,
0.11508334428071976,
-0.127548947930336,
-0.7501915693283081,
-0.23352119326591492,
-0.0015086974017322063,
-0.5027831196784973,
-0.13757596909999847,
0.579389214515686,
0.23509013652801514,
0.6311167478561401,
0.19304388761520386,
0.5278637409210205,
0.08630815148353577,
0.20566903054714203,
0.5271689891815186,
0.2658178508281708,
0.05205659568309784,
0.9284113049507141,
-0.3946996331214905,
-0.42799410223960876,
-0.749401867389679,
-0.31414011120796204,
0.3924214243888855,
-0.8283156752586365,
0.3546993136405945,
0.8971382975578308,
-0.28073641657829285,
-0.0693541169166565,
0.5259777307510376,
-0.3827705383300781,
-0.34351062774658203,
0.22040151059627533,
0.26837196946144104,
-0.5660327076911926,
0.38308483362197876,
0.9353308081626892,
-0.1592346876859665,
0.2638692557811737,
0.5537973046302795,
0.0583912692964077,
-0.3866735100746155,
-0.22489765286445618,
-0.8016588091850281,
0.13940788805484772,
-0.11247240751981735,
-0.23295211791992188,
-0.6937501430511475,
0.800618588924408,
0.4016163945198059,
-0.45640426874160767,
-0.24100330471992493,
0.13243819773197174,
-0.522315263748169,
0.06706109642982483,
0.01878470368683338,
-0.21466733515262604,
-0.622349202632904,
0.8595290184020996,
-0.4498978555202484,
0.7186094522476196,
0.1950487345457077,
0.449232816696167,
0.021364465355873108,
-0.07279030233621597,
-0.3312232196331024,
-0.18578316271305084,
0.17397278547286987,
0.224580779671669,
-0.35300686955451965,
0.424010306596756,
-0.3094981014728546,
-0.0015567524824291468,
0.2281845062971115,
0.32362136244773865,
-0.0030011723283678293,
0.27207151055336,
-0.488381952047348,
0.28324025869369507,
-0.20874696969985962,
-0.9287363290786743,
0.12401428818702698,
-0.3658228814601898,
-0.2817510962486267,
-0.725574791431427,
0.5604387521743774,
0.2121276706457138,
0.4894149899482727,
-0.05936705321073532,
-0.46013161540031433,
-0.4310641288757324,
-0.09730876237154007,
-0.28450658917427063,
-0.2169824242591858,
-0.08172430098056793,
0.4780232608318329,
0.011433495208621025,
-0.002338946796953678,
-0.20438101887702942,
-0.0007498592603951693,
-0.36681637167930603,
0.3239120841026306,
0.770728349685669,
0.12284854799509048,
0.1517297774553299,
0.7541142106056213,
-0.6401140093803406,
-0.25581490993499756,
-0.20153310894966125,
0.45716342329978943,
0.2662571370601654,
-0.2787933349609375,
-0.1837364137172699,
-0.29198676347732544,
-0.04173259437084198,
0.5184774994850159,
-0.32838472723960876,
-0.4674614369869232,
0.47218021750450134,
0.17010365426540375,
-0.6550012230873108,
-0.09749734401702881,
0.5920577645301819,
-0.9218263030052185,
-0.004402754362672567,
-0.24161146581172943,
-0.1529499888420105,
0.09415903687477112,
-0.4523385763168335,
-0.2505989372730255,
-0.6849238276481628,
-0.2237728089094162,
0.03724398463964462,
-0.2127552479505539,
-0.17637036740779877,
-0.6683292388916016,
0.034545328468084335,
-0.2934970557689667,
0.4878990054130554,
0.4358695447444916,
0.024429798126220703,
0.39551639556884766,
-0.13871777057647705,
0.35959142446517944,
0.4261727035045624,
-0.28229576349258423,
-0.2613424062728882,
-0.019327186048030853,
-0.24455925822257996,
-0.2262682169675827,
0.13088175654411316,
0.29774096608161926,
-0.2137807011604309,
-0.8127337098121643,
-0.003216177923604846,
0.24740368127822876,
0.05644936114549637,
0.10787513852119446,
-0.33628061413764954,
0.5269942283630371,
-0.23458105325698853,
-0.12693659961223602,
0.04005228728055954,
0.7659573554992676,
0.03609241917729378,
-0.5584998726844788,
-0.617729663848877,
-0.2321128398180008,
0.2291475385427475,
-0.362958163022995,
-0.3306030333042145,
0.11378920823335648,
0.9145613312721252,
0.07661145180463791,
-0.26508569717407227,
-0.747938871383667,
-0.0023141440469771624,
0.07799588888883591,
-0.04660683870315552,
-0.6077855229377747,
-0.3227057158946991,
0.12463638931512833,
0.6575668454170227,
-0.3863694667816162,
-0.33276596665382385,
0.45572882890701294,
0.18977467715740204,
-0.582846462726593,
0.33370766043663025,
-0.07631022483110428,
-0.06388746947050095,
0.509778618812561,
0.3444494903087616,
-0.1981886774301529,
0.2003592997789383,
-0.14440833032131195,
-0.3223377764225006,
-0.256632924079895,
-0.24934430420398712,
0.03272975981235504,
0.3233652710914612,
0.2380945384502411,
0.6877569556236267,
-0.3190237879753113,
0.10252337902784348,
-0.5575547218322754,
-0.31998154520988464,
-0.07360140979290009,
-0.12995298206806183,
0.06259076297283173,
-0.15561462938785553,
0.6318152546882629,
-0.05025146156549454,
-0.001088326214812696,
0.3486809730529785,
0.25020352005958557,
-0.08361946791410446,
0.2843095660209656,
-0.2206551879644394,
0.1376904845237732,
0.6422761082649231,
-0.722305953502655,
0.6162098050117493,
0.03330523148179054,
0.2382153421640396,
-0.6388347744941711,
-0.02015693113207817,
-0.5939615368843079,
0.31891968846321106,
0.3869892656803131,
0.44101327657699585,
0.2316136509180069,
-0.6338273286819458,
-0.018909983336925507,
0.0046389163471758366,
-0.4845583736896515,
0.6883501410484314,
0.2681766450405121,
0.173313170671463,
-0.31416967511177063,
0.5175511240959167,
0.3473834991455078,
0.2978591024875641,
0.24140551686286926,
-0.06265084445476532,
-0.14497482776641846,
0.230699822306633,
0.23920989036560059,
0.8343964219093323,
0.2625734806060791,
-0.32029464840888977,
0.344723105430603,
-0.13384348154067993,
-0.2532297968864441,
-0.4742714464664459,
0.1305428147315979,
-0.36277130246162415,
0.8500853180885315,
0.5166558623313904,
0.4350903630256653,
-0.3040558993816376,
0.3840952217578888,
-0.20948606729507446,
0.13546183705329895,
0.3640431761741638,
0.39197292923927307,
0.07920757681131363,
0.7190905213356018,
0.229997918009758,
-0.003072257386520505,
0.6099365949630737,
0.11281535774469376,
-0.2201235592365265,
-0.4598669111728668,
0.00741529231891036,
-0.24541181325912476,
-0.26680371165275574,
0.1026029884815216,
-0.06531603634357452,
0.650179922580719,
-0.0355728380382061,
0.2705022394657135,
0.13725514709949493,
0.16938453912734985,
-0.21291831135749817,
-0.33378326892852783,
0.38746047019958496,
0.223490372300148,
0.6373010873794556,
0.6613495349884033,
-0.46090972423553467,
0.5195896625518799,
-0.12265307456254959,
0.14342796802520752,
0.31798791885375977,
0.05515587329864502,
-0.2089589238166809,
-0.380740761756897,
-0.09486908465623856,
0.10138345509767532,
0.12151560932397842,
-0.4205334186553955,
0.5000002980232239,
0.34932711720466614,
-0.09438405185937881,
0.27734842896461487,
-0.03424607217311859,
0.24634438753128052,
0.24366164207458496,
-0.6026444435119629,
0.24644510447978973,
-0.34715184569358826,
-0.3838862478733063,
0.3715088963508606,
-0.14892882108688354,
0.45507973432540894,
0.4355516731739044,
-0.36574724316596985,
-0.10357706993818283,
-0.32915574312210083,
0.22164566814899445,
0.4320189654827118,
-0.4037545919418335,
0.6915308833122253,
-0.6780653595924377,
-0.502917468547821,
-0.34368860721588135,
0.5791118144989014,
0.971176028251648,
-0.23234577476978302,
-0.16354548931121826,
0.2348768264055252,
0.17248749732971191,
0.6952602863311768,
0.35705527663230896,
-0.28093862533569336,
-0.1362248957157135,
-0.35174453258514404,
-0.03427330404520035,
0.02149677276611328,
0.07826675474643707,
0.23622342944145203,
-0.031392715871334076,
-0.03580040857195854,
0.49399277567863464,
0.06765308231115341,
-0.47619757056236267,
0.20808815956115723,
-0.4367194175720215,
0.29842737317085266,
-0.4189702272415161,
0.3837210536003113,
-0.5175666213035583,
-0.10445549339056015,
-0.010723520070314407,
0.2812386751174927,
0.000554820813704282,
0.043618228286504745,
-0.4362199902534485,
-0.4588848948478699,
0.039386775344610214,
0.12564091384410858,
-0.51058030128479,
0.12367091327905655,
0.4542505741119385,
-0.4166852533817291,
-1.048403263092041,
-0.1285417228937149,
0.029034512117505074,
-0.2308773547410965,
-0.34988996386528015,
0.05419900268316269,
-0.5568490624427795,
0.8047177195549011,
0.5934330224990845,
-0.5427361130714417,
-0.28187716007232666,
0.7393189072608948
] |
203812
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20crested%20grebe
|
Great crested grebe
|
The great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) is a member of the grebe family of water birds noted for its elaborate mating display.
Taxonomy
The great crested grebe was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Colymbus cristatus. The great crested grebe is now the type species of the genus Podiceps that was erected by the English naturalist John Latham in 1787. The type locality is Sweden. The scientific name comes from Latin: the genus name Podiceps is from , "vent" and , "foot", and is a reference to the placement of a grebe's legs towards the rear of its body; the species name, cristatus, means "crested".
Three subspecies are recognised:
P. c. cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) – Eurasia
P. c. infuscatus Salvadori, 1884 – Africa
P. c. australis Gould, 1844 – Australia, Tasmania, South Island of New Zealand
Description
The great crested grebe is the largest member of the grebe family found in the Old World, with some larger species residing in the Americas. They measure long with a wingspan and weigh . It is an excellent swimmer and diver, and pursues its fish prey underwater. The adults are unmistakable in summer with head and neck decorations. In winter, this is whiter than most grebes, with white above the eye, and a pink bill.
The young are distinctive because their heads are striped black and white. They lose these markings when they become adults.
Distribution
The great crested grebe breeds in vegetated areas of freshwater lakes. The subspecies P. c. cristatus is found across Europe and east across the Palearctic. It is resident in the milder west of its range, but migrates from the colder regions. It winters on freshwater lakes and reservoirs or the coast. The African subspecies P. c. infuscatus and the Australasian subspecies P. c. australis are mainly sedentary.
Behaviour
Breeding
The great crested grebe has an elaborate mating display. Like all grebes, it nests on the water's edge. The nest is built by both sexes. The clutch averages four chalky white eggs which average in size and weigh . Incubation is by both parents and begins as soon as the first egg is laid. The eggs hatch asynchronously after 27 to 29 days. The precocial young are cared for and fed by both parents.
Young grebes are capable of swimming and diving almost at hatching. The adults teach these skills to their young by carrying them on their back and diving, leaving the chicks to float on the surface; they then re-emerge a few feet away so that the chicks may swim back onto them.
Feeding
The great crested grebe feeds mainly on fish, but also small crustaceans, insects small frogs and newts.
Relationship to humans
This species was hunted almost to extinction in the United Kingdom in the 19th century for its head plumes, which were used to decorate ladies' hats and garments. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was set up to help protect this species, which is again a common sight.
The great crested grebe and its behaviour was the subject of one of the landmark publications in avian ethology: Julian Huxley's 1914 paper on The Courtship‐habits of the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus).
Gallery
References
Sources
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Great Crested Grebe Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
BTO BirdFacts – Great-crested Grebe
great crested grebe
Birds of Africa
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Oceania
great crested grebe
Birds of Nepal
great crested grebe
|
[
-0.6756502985954285,
0.7498387098312378,
-1.0307968854904175,
-0.205806702375412,
-0.5858855843544006,
0.7014848589897156,
0.9699699282646179,
0.600720226764679,
-0.6754442453384399,
-0.25389784574508667,
-0.4114950895309448,
0.24877458810806274,
-0.4726063907146454,
0.21108399331569672,
-0.11172182857990265,
1.051450252532959,
0.5561473369598389,
0.13458317518234253,
0.5275717973709106,
-0.8151370286941528,
-0.09555833786725998,
-0.7678964138031006,
0.49281612038612366,
-0.8432106375694275,
1.0292407274246216,
0.4731783866882324,
0.38910025358200073,
0.4551185965538025,
-0.0447746179997921,
0.2238684594631195,
0.17958220839500427,
1.0887476205825806,
0.46091946959495544,
0.3087257146835327,
-0.5595862865447998,
0.03573552891612053,
-0.029622504487633705,
-0.7447788715362549,
-0.04614384099841118,
-0.8855817317962646,
0.7216454744338989,
-0.4201650023460388,
0.2672332227230072,
-0.21595190465450287,
-0.6317992806434631,
-0.3173852860927582,
-1.5056620836257935,
-0.18108044564723969,
-0.6117815375328064,
-0.1509964019060135,
-0.5447578430175781,
1.1174966096878052,
-0.5508487820625305,
0.769179105758667,
0.15868979692459106,
0.1646409034729004,
-0.7854076027870178,
0.2241264134645462,
0.04346231743693352,
-0.7796429395675659,
-0.06287474185228348,
0.6391692161560059,
-0.39771273732185364,
0.18742635846138,
0.4256212115287781,
0.5902094841003418,
0.37517669796943665,
0.2029159516096115,
-0.5624843835830688,
0.005227068904787302,
-0.3478563129901886,
-0.6073640584945679,
0.02211695909500122,
0.3956029713153839,
-0.8777753114700317,
0.11498161405324936,
0.007082868833094835,
-0.04570365697145462,
0.44169512391090393,
-0.3090536296367645,
0.6479947566986084,
0.07627186179161072,
0.5319933295249939,
0.08289028704166412,
-0.6168147325515747,
0.5759730935096741,
-0.10350607335567474,
0.006981889717280865,
-0.6846526265144348,
0.19348669052124023,
-0.6915950179100037,
-0.4143991470336914,
0.19817236065864563,
0.2035544216632843,
0.006392932031303644,
-0.5510086417198181,
-0.37904223799705505,
-0.09262128174304962,
0.5640493035316467,
-0.4717658758163452,
-0.08252711594104767,
-0.24928875267505646,
0.24783049523830414,
0.5110368728637695,
-0.9940710663795471,
-0.264034241437912,
-0.3294375240802765,
-0.413864403963089,
-0.2893888056278229,
0.31038767099380493,
-0.546904444694519,
-0.2897430956363678,
-0.14623692631721497,
0.3598114848136902,
0.08712999522686005,
0.5461781620979309,
0.11066222190856934,
-0.02981419675052166,
-0.0991993322968483,
-0.6299945116043091,
0.8332080245018005,
0.17679084837436676,
-0.29821643233299255,
-0.0739610493183136,
-0.217551589012146,
0.5197429060935974,
0.3034633994102478,
0.8934592008590698,
-0.1429992914199829,
0.435010701417923,
0.5578474402427673,
0.5060977935791016,
0.45480838418006897,
0.4578738212585449,
-0.18654364347457886,
-0.44503945112228394,
-0.008497213944792747,
-0.7916828989982605,
0.20157960057258606,
0.871258556842804,
-0.9605827331542969,
0.22085373103618622,
-0.6291955709457397,
-0.2351587861776352,
0.7086277604103088,
0.3621443510055542,
0.19094882905483246,
-0.08360616862773895,
-0.4904515743255615,
-0.2695220410823822,
0.37424322962760925,
0.02651040628552437,
-0.47573575377464294,
-0.058602474629879,
0.07096753269433975,
-0.10824590176343918,
0.4771459102630615,
-0.8758844137191772,
0.6886962056159973,
0.030821748077869415,
0.24868790805339813,
0.4864620864391327,
-0.5587396621704102,
0.5990598797798157,
0.036008622497320175,
-0.6420593857765198,
0.18311312794685364,
-0.009478236548602581,
-1.0089727640151978,
0.04321390762925148,
-0.12025635689496994,
0.31376975774765015,
0.7583345770835876,
0.5736947655677795,
-0.5210611820220947,
-0.915093719959259,
0.2734842598438263,
0.31277862191200256,
0.6749232411384583,
0.18001897633075714,
-0.8549822568893433,
0.037072401493787766,
0.33044224977493286,
-0.28474000096321106,
0.5814158320426941,
0.45435819029808044,
0.4783417880535126,
0.07046124339103699,
-0.38047081232070923,
-0.8188567161560059,
-0.6934964656829834,
-0.5044043064117432,
0.18040743470191956,
-0.18434426188468933,
0.6732807755470276,
0.2076379954814911,
-0.4689771831035614,
0.061358239501714706,
0.5233469009399414,
0.290473610162735,
-0.3952370882034302,
-0.4112657904624939,
0.36728155612945557,
0.2359914481639862,
-1.334105372428894,
0.643304169178009,
-0.20295366644859314,
0.3956061601638794,
0.028329601511359215,
0.1510266363620758,
-0.29167789220809937,
-0.22957758605480194,
0.14810322225093842,
-0.276067852973938,
-0.2780415713787079,
-0.2813889682292938,
0.08887054771184921,
0.17376510798931122,
-0.43709036707878113,
-0.5521358251571655,
1.065750241279602,
0.154763326048851,
-0.5910497903823853,
0.10676633566617966,
0.14869137108325958,
0.4890732765197754,
-0.09056682139635086,
-0.4480692148208618,
0.04377751797437668,
-0.05675627291202545,
-0.35292693972587585,
0.4774567484855652,
0.504836916923523,
-0.3618766665458679,
-0.19588179886341095,
-0.31747397780418396,
0.0020872042514383793,
-0.3725479245185852,
0.6560813784599304,
0.32521411776542664,
-0.007494355086237192,
-0.0671936646103859,
-0.15040625631809235,
0.7503594160079956,
-0.13675306737422943,
-0.20296791195869446,
0.21840594708919525,
0.8742842078208923,
-0.8575330376625061,
-0.31859833002090454,
0.29970842599868774,
0.5199611186981201,
0.2034161537885666,
0.10741371661424637,
0.7054628729820251,
0.4703682065010071,
-0.2241179645061493,
-0.26394420862197876,
0.10809635370969772,
0.11145126819610596,
-0.3539738655090332,
-0.09460552036762238,
-0.100491464138031,
0.27217087149620056,
-0.17825734615325928,
-0.5930321216583252,
-0.18627943098545074,
-0.0036808305885642767,
0.6899577379226685,
0.4966477155685425,
0.5201615691184998,
0.21781499683856964,
-0.43686461448669434,
0.3000525236129761,
-0.00812520831823349,
0.25224941968917847,
-0.07101138681173325,
-0.8106110095977783,
-0.4708751142024994,
-0.7990767359733582,
0.3752952814102173,
1.05348801612854,
0.050047535449266434,
-0.42496490478515625,
-0.0019355056574568152,
-0.5165156722068787,
0.31279948353767395,
-0.6839125752449036,
-0.07993464916944504,
-1.3599801063537598,
-0.08665672689676285,
0.280799925327301,
0.264655739068985,
0.1207888200879097,
-0.8105608224868774,
0.5034090876579285,
0.13742198050022125,
1.0766818523406982,
0.6094634532928467,
-0.1936936229467392,
-0.17859035730361938,
0.27806392312049866,
0.07671071588993073,
0.17853596806526184,
1.041099190711975,
-0.47642508149147034,
0.06290073692798615,
0.22149039804935455,
-4.925320625305176,
0.1870773732662201,
0.42809298634529114,
-0.19888542592525482,
0.29028645157814026,
0.44204047322273254,
0.45394086837768555,
-0.19715441763401031,
-0.2015582025051117,
0.1226625144481659,
0.4195425510406494,
-0.05410696566104889,
-0.2211761176586151,
0.2816433012485504,
0.7646781802177429,
-0.30081021785736084,
0.2772255837917328,
-0.2827935814857483,
0.34091508388519287,
-0.1020163893699646,
0.2947612404823303,
0.11477403342723846,
-0.2538997530937195,
0.16895189881324768,
0.4836746156215668,
0.016761375591158867,
-0.20131923258304596,
-0.2715747058391571,
-0.2450253963470459,
0.11416120082139969,
0.40637749433517456,
-0.0374118946492672,
-0.4021795988082886,
-0.0838700383901596,
0.41335833072662354,
-0.3736475706100464,
0.5284948348999023,
0.33913251757621765,
0.6139945387840271,
-0.38385915756225586,
-0.38133713603019714,
0.004575475584715605,
-0.054768577218055725,
0.17258542776107788,
0.3843424320220947,
-0.022026652470231056,
0.2088204026222229,
-0.25172126293182373,
0.35609617829322815,
0.46002885699272156,
0.023683402687311172,
-0.11416079849004745,
-0.16085097193717957,
0.5665863752365112,
0.593697726726532,
-0.05687475949525833,
-0.4114483892917633,
0.45275259017944336,
-0.3898085653781891,
0.4970523416996002,
0.42752373218536377,
-0.624286413192749,
-0.5534093976020813,
-0.7062720060348511,
0.0752229169011116,
-0.14217522740364075,
-0.8563142418861389,
0.20789304375648499,
0.09045349061489105,
0.1875307708978653,
0.27674636244773865,
0.04230411723256111,
-0.44794201850891113,
-0.8692717552185059,
0.9597160816192627,
-0.9814773797988892,
0.25577977299690247,
0.024641012772917747,
-0.1577622890472412,
0.24437977373600006,
-0.40004655718803406,
-0.822773277759552,
-0.2571459710597992,
-0.07384074479341507,
0.14881956577301025,
-0.8050704002380371,
-0.8179583549499512,
-0.006234781816601753,
0.154809832572937,
-1.0836706161499023,
0.19396980106830597,
-0.3107460141181946,
0.06993422657251358,
0.49241921305656433,
0.747411847114563,
0.9592322707176208,
0.09984701126813889,
0.3475382626056671,
0.7907286882400513,
-0.15054716169834137,
0.3817331790924072,
-0.05195343866944313,
0.13309217989444733,
0.08423693478107452,
0.20604579150676727,
-0.7520616054534912,
-0.1731070876121521,
0.2879282534122467,
0.9036997556686401,
-0.4949485957622528,
0.5448378324508667,
-0.31751471757888794,
-0.8676897883415222,
-0.07854974269866943,
0.23240257799625397,
0.48496270179748535,
0.2937149107456207,
0.18950238823890686,
0.7436226010322571,
0.36167624592781067,
0.3676210045814514,
0.07408808171749115,
-0.6004895567893982,
-0.06227537617087364,
-0.6066370606422424,
-0.2771304249763489,
0.22220855951309204,
0.13816247880458832,
-1.2463730573654175,
-1.1056243181228638,
0.33605271577835083,
0.10704290121793747,
-0.1954030990600586,
-0.4620097577571869,
0.26631662249565125,
0.01793375425040722,
0.13590580224990845,
0.2048667073249817,
0.024321945384144783,
-0.4167076051235199,
-0.315574049949646,
-0.06890133768320084,
-0.3783118426799774,
-0.09285198897123337,
0.25037962198257446,
0.25790828466415405,
-0.7029968500137329,
-0.600501298904419,
0.25982382893562317,
0.8635181188583374,
-0.2403770536184311,
-0.42117974162101746,
-0.35136860609054565,
-0.5292631387710571,
0.4851195514202118,
-0.017071666195988655,
0.48614588379859924,
0.44817423820495605,
-0.15943509340286255,
-0.29208940267562866,
-0.5576322078704834,
-0.36619576811790466,
-0.929924726486206,
-0.42741918563842773,
0.2912074327468872,
-0.09121644496917725,
-0.4895082116127014,
-0.39677268266677856,
0.5088577270507812,
0.320945680141449,
0.5019183158874512,
0.23973552882671356,
-0.32409894466400146,
0.4207562506198883,
-0.35193467140197754,
-0.233335942029953,
-0.33234167098999023,
0.2060372531414032,
-0.10390038788318634,
-0.04144245758652687,
-0.4624250531196594,
0.5484533905982971,
0.31735917925834656,
0.048881951719522476,
0.1423036903142929,
-0.012082449160516262,
-0.08673954010009766,
0.61794114112854,
0.4156549572944641,
-0.3756493031978607,
-0.09274103492498398,
-0.07214517146348953,
0.40924564003944397,
0.059385035187006,
-0.59617680311203,
-0.038337040692567825,
-0.3813442289829254,
0.7384593486785889,
-0.08728146553039551,
-0.6202844977378845,
-0.20347055792808533,
-0.01883072219789028,
0.17787578701972961,
-0.3907243609428406,
-0.012013032101094723,
-0.6998109221458435,
0.9393792748451233,
-0.6215871572494507,
-1.1801522970199585,
0.6792305707931519,
0.10158336907625198,
-0.3400692343711853,
0.25925931334495544,
1.3381290435791016,
-0.542769730091095,
-0.521027147769928,
0.016834748908877373,
0.12205879390239716,
-0.146884486079216,
0.6249914169311523,
-0.30504679679870605,
-0.2584119737148285,
-0.10223227739334106,
-0.6551545262336731,
-0.8747230768203735,
-0.4845428764820099,
0.20313984155654907,
-0.12656643986701965,
0.8767103552818298,
-1.1293182373046875,
0.11219658702611923,
0.12152167409658432,
-0.00046086631482467055,
0.18363487720489502,
-0.02605799026787281,
0.22087030112743378,
0.13608522713184357,
-0.07244348526000977,
0.1102113351225853,
0.23720216751098633,
0.8418563604354858,
0.6048105359077454,
0.4403811991214752,
0.24215306341648102,
-0.27087655663490295,
0.2799854576587677,
-0.47538506984710693,
-0.0839790478348732,
-0.9637200236320496,
-0.37373417615890503,
0.38343697786331177,
0.28184834122657776,
-0.32143664360046387,
0.5291027426719666,
0.36617282032966614,
0.08020512759685516,
-0.11323096603155136,
-0.3976461589336395,
-0.3436385691165924,
0.7678710222244263,
0.5306262373924255,
0.8027297854423523,
-0.6583794951438904,
0.4213128089904785,
-0.030660511925816536,
-0.20939642190933228,
-0.7986767292022705,
0.35198941826820374,
-0.17674466967582703,
0.31585490703582764,
0.4060318171977997,
-0.12438490241765976,
-0.054873254150152206,
-0.2635040283203125,
0.20973311364650726,
0.5842061042785645,
-0.05681712180376053,
-1.0259535312652588,
0.105658158659935,
0.6899993419647217,
0.1288597285747528,
-0.0042241960763931274,
0.6702857613563538,
-0.25890129804611206,
-0.1779329776763916,
-0.6793314218521118,
-0.487930029630661,
-0.3843322694301605,
0.10245008766651154,
-0.4691900908946991,
-0.30590111017227173,
-0.44194209575653076,
-0.834023118019104,
-0.38932448625564575,
0.37615838646888733,
0.29122716188430786,
0.2383057326078415,
0.33743131160736084,
-0.18442635238170624,
0.5412607789039612,
-0.8212912082672119,
0.8863179683685303,
-0.04075273871421814,
-0.7312971949577332,
0.6500073671340942,
0.3216579258441925,
-0.34208568930625916,
0.04792403802275658,
-0.06383968144655228,
-0.5705633163452148,
0.2603895366191864,
-0.509378969669342,
-0.299823135137558,
0.7225931882858276,
-0.2624341547489166,
0.19691388309001923,
0.29605814814567566,
-0.21878482401371002,
0.55614173412323,
1.0476609468460083,
0.07986676692962646,
-0.6174474358558655,
1.0955320596694946,
0.634469211101532,
-0.3376036584377289,
0.1575217992067337,
-0.5874274969100952,
-0.19467611610889435,
0.8817422986030579,
1.1285276412963867,
0.5864855647087097,
0.13528741896152496,
-0.19758640229701996,
0.0733877494931221,
0.1554497480392456,
-0.34400197863578796,
-0.06486419588327408,
-0.5208330154418945,
-0.586004376411438,
1.03516685962677,
0.7076624035835266,
-0.33267688751220703,
0.4951692223548889,
0.07751447707414627,
0.022224530577659607,
0.08700799196958542,
-0.4950033128261566,
0.5050474405288696,
-0.2867288589477539,
-0.07107791304588318,
0.0662008598446846,
-0.07039729505777359,
0.1066613644361496,
-0.13407833874225616,
0.20199580490589142,
-0.3210809826850891,
0.34717056155204773,
0.2650928497314453,
-0.9345402121543884,
0.014335131272673607,
0.1637459248304367,
0.44176337122917175,
-0.052752841264009476,
0.007051202468574047,
-1.083000898361206,
0.49812471866607666,
-0.07156721502542496,
-0.18118467926979065,
0.28149333596229553,
-0.02495221234858036,
-0.035584378987550735,
0.11200553923845291,
-0.10885220766067505,
0.13536027073860168,
0.379642516374588,
0.054873477667570114,
-0.3479103147983551,
-0.06893615424633026,
0.20864412188529968,
-0.4621846079826355,
-0.684518575668335,
-0.0834544226527214,
-0.05871424451470375,
-0.9913878440856934,
0.21644143760204315,
-0.32752907276153564,
0.15046657621860504,
-0.36029139161109924,
-0.32605305314064026,
-0.03701137378811836,
-0.11492719501256943,
-0.5002846717834473,
0.04564949497580528,
-0.09042147547006607,
-0.022018056362867355,
-1.1702179908752441,
0.616950273513794,
0.896862804889679,
-0.25256016850471497,
-0.1641388088464737,
0.756885290145874,
0.28966084122657776,
-0.04183001071214676,
0.07565262913703918,
0.21983499825000763,
0.2030978500843048,
-0.4745723307132721,
-0.08568394184112549,
-0.49773648381233215,
-0.0005379132344387472,
0.6918827891349792,
0.0766938328742981,
-0.2644366919994354,
0.34362202882766724,
0.19825997948646545,
0.09246368706226349,
0.4029967486858368,
0.1660362184047699,
0.08406203985214233,
-0.48267996311187744,
-0.29770365357398987,
0.22763195633888245,
0.7512325644493103,
0.23847596347332,
0.49155429005622864,
0.027470441535115242,
0.754126250743866,
-0.5675934553146362,
-0.8500741720199585,
0.7229416966438293,
-0.6231223344802856,
0.7102645635604858,
-0.6132641434669495,
-0.32178017497062683,
-0.6354661583900452,
-1.166300654411316,
0.4222141206264496,
-0.01680608280003071,
-0.31337782740592957,
-0.03999747335910797,
0.026498597115278244,
-0.3906247317790985,
0.9205356240272522,
-0.08557099848985672,
-0.484435498714447,
-0.2243272066116333,
-0.015146192163228989,
-1.02054762840271,
-0.6909490823745728,
-0.11548719555139542,
0.5484122037887573,
0.2909903824329376,
-0.18824708461761475,
-0.1496221423149109,
-0.3004884719848633,
-0.0759250819683075,
0.3714292049407959,
-0.38756462931632996,
-0.04200352728366852,
0.17371463775634766
] |
203813
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-necked%20grebe
|
Red-necked grebe
|
The red-necked grebe (Podiceps grisegena) is a migratory aquatic bird found in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Its wintering habitat is largely restricted to calm waters just beyond the waves around ocean coasts, although some birds may winter on large lakes. Grebes prefer shallow bodies of fresh water such as lakes, marshes or fish-ponds as breeding sites.
The red-necked grebe is a nondescript dusky-grey bird in winter. During the breeding season, it acquires the distinctive red neck plumage, black cap and contrasting pale grey face from which its name was derived. It also has an elaborate courtship display and a variety of loud mating calls. Once paired, it builds a nest from water plants on top of floating vegetation in a shallow lake or bog.
Like all grebes, the Red-necked is a good swimmer, a particularly swift diver, and responds to danger by diving rather than flying. The feet are positioned far back on the body, near the tail, which makes the bird ungainly on land. It dives for fish or picks insects off vegetation; it also swallows its own feathers, possibly to protect the digestive system. The conservation status of its two subspecies—P. g. grisegena found in Europe and western Asia, and the larger P. g. holboelii (formerly Holbœll grebe), in North America and eastern Siberia—is evaluated as Least Concern, and the global population is stable or growing.
Taxonomy
The red-necked grebe was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1781 in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Colymbus grisegena in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées. The type locality was subsequently designated as France. The red-necked grebe is now placed in the genus Podiceps that was erected by the English naturalist John Latham in 1787. The genus name Podiceps comes from Latin podicis, "vent" or "anus", and pes, "foot", and is a reference to the placement of a grebe's legs towards the rear of its body. The species name grisegena is from Latin griseus (grey) and gena (cheek) and refers to the face pattern of the breeding adult.
Grebes are small to medium-large water birds with lobed, rather than webbed, toes. There are several genera, of which the most widespread is Podiceps with nine species, one recently extinct. The red-necked grebe's closest relative is the fish-eating great crested grebe of Europe and western Asia. It is possible that the red-necked grebe originally evolved in North America and later spread to Europe, where a change of diet to include more insects helped to reduce competition with its larger cousin. Fossils of the species dating to the middle Pleistocene have been found in Italy.
The red-necked grebe has two subspecies, the nominate subspecies P. g. grisegena in Europe and western Asia, and P. g. holboelii (Holboell's grebe, named for Danish explorer of Greenlandic birds Carl Peter Holbøll) in North America and eastern Siberia. The east Asian birds have slightly smaller bills than the American form, although the differences are too small to merit separation as a third subspecies.
Description
The red-necked grebe is a medium-large grebe, smaller than the great crested grebe of Eurasia, and the western and Clark's grebes of North America, but noticeably larger than other northern grebe species. The adult of the nominate European subspecies is long with a average wingspan, and weighs . In breeding plumage, it has a black cap that extends below the eye, very pale grey cheeks and throat, a rusty red neck, dark grey back and flanks, and white underparts. The eyes are dark brown and the long, pointed bill is black with a yellow base.
The winter plumage of the red-necked grebe is duskier than that of other grebes; its dark grey cap is less defined, and merges into the grey face, and a pale crescent that curves around the rear of the face contrasts with the rest of the head. The front of the neck is whitish or light grey, the hind neck is darker grey, and the yellow of the bill is less obvious than in summer. Although the red-necked grebe is unmistakable in breeding plumage, it is less distinctive in winter and can be confused with similar species. It is larger than the Slavonian (horned) grebe, with a relatively larger bill and a grey, rather than white face. It is closer in size to the Eurasian great crested grebe, but that species is longer-necked, has a more contrasting head pattern, and always shows white above the eye.
The sexes are similar in appearance, although the male averages heavier than the female. Chicks have a striped head and breast, and older juveniles have a striped face, diffuse blackish cap, pale red neck and extensive yellow on the bill.
The subspecies P. g. holboelii is larger than the nominate race at length, with a wingspan, and a weight of . The plumages are the same as those of the nominate race, although the adult's bill is more extensively yellow. The difference in size between the sexes is greater than for this subspecies that for P. g. grisegena.
The red-necked grebe flies with its long neck extended and its large feet trailing behind the body, which gives it a stretched-out appearance. The relatively small wings are grey with white secondaries, and beat very rapidly. Its small wing area means that the grebe is unable to take off from land, and needs a lengthy run across water to gain the speed needed for take-off. Like all grebes, the red-necked is an expert swimmer; it uses its feet for propulsion underwater, and steers by rotating its legs, since its tail is too short for this purpose.
This is one of the most vocal grebes during the breeding season, but, like its relatives, it is mainly silent for the rest of the year. It has a loud, wailing or howling display call uooooh, given by a single bird or a pair in duet, by night or during the day, and often from cover. Long sequences of up to 60 consecutive notes may be delivered during singing encounters between rival territorial birds. A great variety of quacking, clucking, hissing, rattling and purring calls are also given, with much individual variation.
Distribution and habitat
Breeding takes place in shallow freshwater lakes, bays of larger lakes, marshes, and other inland bodies of water, often less than in extent and less than deep. The red-necked grebe shows a preference for waters in forested areas or, further north, in shrub tundra, and favours sites with abundant emergent vegetation, such as reedbeds. The best breeding habitat is fish-ponds, which have an abundance of food in addition to meeting the other requirements. The American subspecies is less tied to a high aquatic plant density, and sometimes breeds on quite open lakes.
All populations are migratory and winter mainly at sea, usually in estuaries and bays, but often well offshore where fish are within diving reach near shallow banks or islands. The preferred passage and wintering habitat is water less than deep with a sand or gravel bottom, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed. During winter, birds typically feed alone and rarely aggregate into flocks, but on migration, concentrations of over 2000 individuals may occur at favoured staging sites. Migration is usually at night, but may occur during the day, especially when over water. This is particularly noticeable in autumn on the Great Lakes, when up to 18,000 birds may pass Whitefish Point on Lake Superior; these are thought to be Canadian breeders heading for the Atlantic Ocean to winter. This easterly route is longer than that to the Pacific, but avoids the Rockies.
The breeding range of the red-necked grebe overlaps with that of the Slavonian grebe, although the latter species tends to be displaced from sites suited to both. The red-necked grebe prefers an inland temperate climate, and is less successful near coasts and in subarctic and warm temperate zones. It is usually a lowland bird, breeding below , although has nested at up to in Turkey.
The nominate subspecies breeds from southern Sweden and Denmark through central and eastern Europe east to western Siberia, and winters mainly in the North and Baltic Seas, with smaller numbers in the Adriatic, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Mediterranean and on inland lakes. P. g. holboelii breeds in North America in Alaska, western and central Canada, and the northern US east to Minnesota; in Asia it nests in eastern Siberia from Kamchatka south to Hokkaido and west to Mongolia. The Asian birds winter at sea from Japan to the East China Sea, and American breeders winter in the Pacific, mainly from southern Alaska to British Columbia (with smaller numbers south to California), and in the Atlantic from Newfoundland and Labrador to Florida. Some birds remain on the Great Lakes if they are sufficiently ice-free. This species occurs as a rare winter vagrant in Afghanistan, Pakistan and parts of northern and western India.
Behaviour
Breeding and survival
Red-necked grebes usually nest as isolated pairs with more than between neighbouring nests, although semi-colonial nesting may occur in suitable sites, where up to 20 pairs each defend a linear territory. Semi-colonial breeding is more likely to occur in prime locations, such as large floating mats of vegetation with no connection to the shoreline. Such sites, safe from most predators and large enough to provide some wind and wave protection, have grebes nesting much closer than shoreline breeders, down to . Pairs nesting in these colonies produce larger clutches of eggs, which hatch earlier in the season and result in larger broods. The territory is defended with various threat displays, including wing-spreading, hunching, and bill-thrusting; pairs breeding in colonies are more aggressive, less likely to leave the nest unguarded and show a greater tendency to move out of sight of the colony when not incubating. Breeding is often in loose association with gulls or other colonial water birds.
The monogamous pair forms in April or May on migration or at the breeding water, and a highly vocal courtship ritual commences. The elaborate breeding performance includes head-shaking, a head-lowered "cat" display, parallel rushes in an upright position and mutual presentations of green weeds, and culminates in a "penguin" dance in which pair members raise the whole body upright, breast to breast.
Like all grebes, the red-necked grebe nests near water into which it can escape, since the position of the legs far back on the body prevents fast movement on land. It often breeds further within reed beds than other grebes. The nest is a floating platform of plant matter anchored to submerged or emergent vegetation, in water deep, and with the bulk of nest below the water line. Egg-laying mainly takes place from mid-April to May in Europe, and somewhat later, from mid-May to June, in North America. Parents may leave the nest for significant periods of time during the night, possibly to evade nocturnal predators. It is unclear whether this is for self-protection or to protect the eggs by diverting attention from the nest; the clutch does not appear to suffer from this temporary abandonment, whatever the reason.
The red-necked grebe lays four or five (range one to nine) dull white or pale blue eggs, which average in breadth, in length, and weigh about , of which 10% is shell. Parents take turns to incubate the eggs for 21–33 days until the precocial downy chicks hatch; they immediately climb onto the parent's back, where they spend most of their time until they are 10–17 days old. The young may be fed by the parents for up to 54 days after fledging, and can fly at 50–70 days. The parents do not interfere with the feeding of their chicks when they are still being carried. Later they care for the younger chicks for longer, and are aggressive with the older offspring. This equalises the post-fledging survival of all chicks, and encourages their independence. The brood may be split, so that each parent feeds only some of the chicks. This spreads the feeding demand equally between the parents.
After breeding the adults moult their wing feathers and are temporarily flightless; migration commences once the flight feathers have regrown. The red-necked grebe is normally single-brooded, although second broods and re-nesting after a clutch has been lost may extend nesting into July or August.
Eggs may be destroyed and chicks killed by a range of predators, including the raccoon in North America and the carrion crow in Europe. Pike may take swimming chicks. On average, for each adult, 0.65 young birds are still alive by their fourth month, although the mortality rate for the adult is unknown. Red-necked grebes attempt to evade birds of prey by diving; when feeding, dives average less than 30 seconds, although escape dives are more prolonged.
Feeding
On the breeding grounds, the red-necked grebe feeds mainly on invertebrates including adult and larval aquatic insects, such as water beetles and dragonfly larvae, crayfish and molluscs. Fish (such as smelt) may be important locally or seasonally, especially for the American subspecies, and crustaceans can constitute up to 20% of the grebe's diet. Birds breeding at the coast often make foraging flights to inland lakes or offshore areas to feed.
Aquatic prey is obtained by diving or by swimming on surface with the head submerged, and terrestrial insects and their larvae are picked off vegetation. A line slanting downward from the eye to the tip of the opened lower mandible may be used for sighting on prey before diving or when swimming under water. The grebe probably opens its bill and looks down the eye-line toward its target.
European breeders, which have to compete with the larger great crested grebe for fish, eat a greater proportion of invertebrates than the longer-billed American subspecies, although both races eat mainly fish in winter. Birds of the nominate subspecies from the northernmost breeding populations in Finland and Russia, beyond the range of great crested grebe, have a longer and more slender bill than those further south, reflecting a greater proportion of fish in the diet where their main competitor is absent. If food is scarce, parents may desert unhatched eggs, or allow the smallest chicks to starve, although the latter strategy appears not to be particularly efficient in protecting the older chicks.
Like other grebes, the red-necked grebe ingests large quantities of its own feathers, which remain in the bird's stomach. Feathers are not only swallowed by adults, mainly during self-preening, but are often fed to the young, sometimes within a day of hatching. These feathers soon decompose into a felt-like, amorphous mass. The function of the feathers in the stomach is unknown, although it has been suggested that they help to protect the lower digestive tract from bones and other hard, indigestible material.
Status
The red-necked grebe has a large range, estimated at 1–10 million square kilometres (0.4–3.8 million square miles), and a global population of 150,000–370,000 individuals, with P. g. holboellii about twice as numerous as the nominate race. The population trend has not been quantified, but it is not believed to meet the thresholds for the population decline criterion (declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations) of the IUCN Red List. For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
The red-necked grebe is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Parties to the Agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies which are describes in a detailed action plan. The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation.
The Red-necked Grebe was hunted by humans in northern Europe in the Mesolithic and Paleolithic periods, but there is no evidence that there is any significant level of hunting at the present time. In North America, there are potential threats from pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides such as DDT which cause reduced reproductive success due to egg sterility and eggshell thinning. Breeding areas may be threatened by the modification and degradation of lakes and by human disturbance from water-based recreational activities. There is no evidence to suggest that these threats could result in a significant risk to the overall population; more than 70% of North American red-necked grebes breed in Canada, where the population is stable or increasing.
Notes
References
Root, Terry Louise. (1988). Atlas of Wintering North American Birds: An Analysis of Christmas Bird Count Data. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
External links
Red-necked Grebe - Podiceps grisegena - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Flicker Field Guide Birds of the World Photographs
red-necked grebe
Holarctic birds
red-necked grebe
Taxa named by Pieter Boddaert
|
[
-0.3135581314563751,
0.31892338395118713,
-0.5331854820251465,
-0.22174575924873352,
-0.23695527017116547,
0.7480956315994263,
0.44596487283706665,
1.0018999576568604,
-0.7016556859016418,
-0.13491502404212952,
-0.47320792078971863,
0.11632563173770905,
-0.4351734519004822,
0.061887625604867935,
0.17063087224960327,
0.8972689509391785,
0.2076154351234436,
0.33406007289886475,
0.4597090482711792,
-0.294759601354599,
-0.22161023318767548,
-0.7755197882652283,
-0.06963559240102768,
-0.7517707943916321,
0.8205618858337402,
-0.13687236607074738,
0.3230474293231964,
0.41690340638160706,
-0.43480342626571655,
0.3716025948524475,
0.139801025390625,
0.8948372602462769,
0.36097458004951477,
0.27394166588783264,
0.04871807247400284,
0.21770116686820984,
-0.6144910454750061,
-0.7806200385093689,
-0.03643645718693733,
-0.6521976590156555,
0.19981034100055695,
-0.2989062964916229,
0.3981175124645233,
0.1861051470041275,
-0.1543378233909607,
-0.3045414388179779,
-1.2430208921432495,
0.3135967552661896,
-0.1274992823600769,
0.18251504004001617,
-0.6821931600570679,
0.6659033894538879,
-0.48556971549987793,
0.5337967276573181,
0.2712894082069397,
0.21054323017597198,
-0.846488356590271,
-0.18042641878128052,
-0.13807393610477448,
-0.32846134901046753,
-0.00884617306292057,
0.4248560070991516,
-0.3970310688018799,
0.5752924084663391,
-0.14321297407150269,
0.7060947418212891,
-0.019025230780243874,
0.04396224766969681,
-0.9118138551712036,
-0.24254851043224335,
-0.19516487419605255,
-0.18456342816352844,
-0.319852352142334,
0.47169217467308044,
-0.6090490221977234,
-0.4631938636302948,
0.20975777506828308,
0.23025880753993988,
0.2981294095516205,
-0.09903879463672638,
0.7038145661354065,
0.5250979065895081,
0.6978448629379272,
0.20934700965881348,
-0.024016542360186577,
0.07614145427942276,
-0.7094292640686035,
-0.03517549857497215,
-0.5421018004417419,
0.0768536627292633,
-0.7955498099327087,
-0.000991822686046362,
-0.026386352255940437,
0.10707790404558182,
-0.42823973298072815,
-0.5239517688751221,
-0.12041328847408295,
-0.1440451741218567,
0.503217339515686,
-0.19089515507221222,
-0.37749621272087097,
-0.01246710866689682,
0.5171446204185486,
0.4779849648475647,
-0.6332005858421326,
0.27164381742477417,
-0.5354962348937988,
-0.41027361154556274,
-0.07298807054758072,
0.396902471780777,
-0.18026481568813324,
0.04475738853216171,
0.12011142820119858,
-0.016672490164637566,
0.3097326457500458,
0.6741562485694885,
-0.11837700009346008,
-0.12009164690971375,
0.024385403841733932,
-0.24966895580291748,
0.6857205629348755,
0.2249273806810379,
-0.2358163446187973,
0.04272598400712013,
-0.21448515355587006,
0.5554764866828918,
0.3153465986251831,
0.37056976556777954,
-0.5174200534820557,
-0.10612335801124573,
0.4800291359424591,
0.8969871997833252,
-0.09997459501028061,
0.2528339922428131,
-0.3899524211883545,
-0.10664516687393188,
0.04262297600507736,
-0.5384325385093689,
0.27576038241386414,
0.6057610511779785,
-0.8502078056335449,
0.017408384010195732,
-0.5174230337142944,
-0.4113158583641052,
0.7176938056945801,
0.5544533729553223,
0.1170225515961647,
-0.677581250667572,
-0.13187704980373383,
-0.5144893527030945,
0.386131227016449,
-0.010485892184078693,
-0.16528135538101196,
-0.19926831126213074,
-0.601426362991333,
-0.08715885132551193,
0.29315876960754395,
-0.4918504059314728,
0.5864672064781189,
-0.08238141238689423,
0.14333803951740265,
0.6375026106834412,
-0.17931152880191803,
0.12988099455833435,
-0.20605698227882385,
-0.3376515209674835,
-0.028650451451539993,
0.32029175758361816,
-0.8405447006225586,
0.059087708592414856,
-0.011913619004189968,
0.49427545070648193,
1.3392943143844604,
0.21127070486545563,
-0.10075440257787704,
-0.47502368688583374,
-0.4967220723628998,
0.16512484848499298,
0.45982638001441956,
0.26587146520614624,
-0.7806118130683899,
0.3725903332233429,
0.366901159286499,
-0.18721149861812592,
-0.24299664795398712,
-0.18248090147972107,
0.2284664660692215,
0.035689182579517365,
0.044050369411706924,
-0.040145378559827805,
-0.626488447189331,
-0.2707445025444031,
-0.003125598421320319,
-0.1793527901172638,
0.37810230255126953,
0.22546818852424622,
-0.35706138610839844,
0.2006252259016037,
-0.15452054142951965,
0.5292477607727051,
-0.6296250224113464,
-0.3361983299255371,
0.8918814063072205,
0.016498442739248276,
-0.8581305146217346,
0.8768048882484436,
-0.10331711173057556,
0.5180069804191589,
0.4326151907444,
0.2488974630832672,
-0.08517248183488846,
-0.0885482132434845,
0.20076721906661987,
0.333182156085968,
-0.08739975094795227,
-0.357522577047348,
0.039913322776556015,
0.053799647837877274,
-0.4524799883365631,
-0.22013580799102783,
1.075528860092163,
0.6472741961479187,
-0.5788490176200867,
0.1511676162481308,
-0.04675497114658356,
0.45609310269355774,
0.3172115385532379,
-0.06228737160563469,
0.45052433013916016,
0.02395491674542427,
-0.026737790554761887,
0.2596868574619293,
0.3124381899833679,
-0.6026080250740051,
-0.5968823432922363,
-0.254577100276947,
0.2815883159637451,
-0.2943493127822876,
0.38227543234825134,
0.442926824092865,
0.24704493582248688,
-0.12191959470510483,
0.22395092248916626,
0.6381050944328308,
0.1445058137178421,
-0.30363497138023376,
0.28391748666763306,
0.903191864490509,
-0.4417894184589386,
-0.04110350087285042,
0.3085373044013977,
1.1309725046157837,
0.046388544142246246,
-0.2318393588066101,
0.3309400975704193,
0.7462282180786133,
0.30233514308929443,
0.2671051621437073,
-0.03422960638999939,
0.04536611959338188,
-0.278744637966156,
0.3632018268108368,
-0.2649186849594116,
0.06147752329707146,
-0.027883678674697876,
-0.4039597511291504,
-0.4416687786579132,
0.2445114105939865,
0.49812957644462585,
0.22173143923282623,
0.22252939641475677,
-0.0818866640329361,
-0.5852898359298706,
0.5044820308685303,
-0.44283556938171387,
-0.25925371050834656,
-0.034451328217983246,
-0.679813027381897,
-0.3819084167480469,
-0.5993198752403259,
0.1371792107820511,
0.5599810481071472,
-0.27341586351394653,
-0.4612044394016266,
-0.01730346865952015,
-0.2965461313724518,
0.11916343867778778,
-0.39856329560279846,
-0.04005071148276329,
-0.8520042300224304,
0.06888505816459656,
0.19399933516979218,
0.5492041707038879,
0.593853771686554,
-0.9761051535606384,
0.06340198963880539,
0.13601888716220856,
0.8839476704597473,
0.8008284568786621,
-0.2837793231010437,
0.040350332856178284,
0.10088340193033218,
0.4040375351905823,
0.22706079483032227,
0.7702570557594299,
-0.448395699262619,
0.04117391258478165,
0.4139191508293152,
-5.374987602233887,
0.39530155062675476,
0.12131129205226898,
-0.3138705790042877,
0.3636839687824249,
0.2870955169200897,
0.30708199739456177,
-0.11380787193775177,
-0.41535136103630066,
-0.31269317865371704,
0.27085238695144653,
-0.041862159967422485,
-0.5029311776161194,
-0.0022069276310503483,
0.4168565571308136,
-0.4899426996707916,
-0.1200793981552124,
0.06894256174564362,
-0.05671091005206108,
0.04577796533703804,
-0.3306981921195984,
0.3659810721874237,
0.18766029179096222,
0.20888297259807587,
-0.035840969532728195,
-0.26384133100509644,
-0.3400726914405823,
-0.6958068013191223,
-0.24271467328071594,
-0.38470515608787537,
-0.05700141564011574,
-0.22225137054920197,
-0.060675185173749924,
-0.17998231947422028,
0.4143427610397339,
-0.47839051485061646,
0.4737817049026489,
0.4551069140434265,
0.2537810206413269,
-0.302845299243927,
-0.2622247338294983,
-0.2273784726858139,
-0.2038908451795578,
0.04063642770051956,
0.1829351782798767,
0.06986603885889053,
0.22401292622089386,
-0.39816516637802124,
0.04303951933979988,
0.5505697131156921,
-0.11863552778959274,
-0.11158040165901184,
0.09090724587440491,
0.6143440008163452,
0.21073618531227112,
-0.13206900656223297,
-0.3584860861301422,
0.2320909947156906,
-0.3391665816307068,
0.025077709928154945,
1.0441479682922363,
-0.04502405971288681,
-0.36451956629753113,
-0.7944492101669312,
-0.30397167801856995,
-0.03732243552803993,
-0.8036481142044067,
-0.041805464774370193,
0.49964913725852966,
0.10058724880218506,
0.08489007502794266,
0.2468569278717041,
-0.1705355942249298,
-0.8441207408905029,
0.6062599420547485,
-0.9833227396011353,
-0.1434413492679596,
-0.370284765958786,
0.05537048354744911,
0.07717086374759674,
0.3470548689365387,
-0.6593190431594849,
-0.07625651359558105,
0.11054348200559616,
-0.10433930158615112,
-1.1198028326034546,
-0.4153248369693756,
0.0030420240946114063,
0.07001695036888123,
-0.7314305901527405,
0.6075214147567749,
-0.83271324634552,
0.024210428819060326,
0.05164841189980507,
0.5320756435394287,
0.7290517687797546,
0.13552895188331604,
0.11794271320104599,
0.18937236070632935,
-0.1629561334848404,
0.9915348887443542,
-0.15193243324756622,
-0.4000386893749237,
-0.29741188883781433,
0.022468455135822296,
-0.7288523316383362,
-0.07159436494112015,
0.8309534788131714,
0.8577670454978943,
-0.3398776054382324,
0.5878881216049194,
-0.5621564388275146,
-0.2845327854156494,
-0.10316915810108185,
0.1900317668914795,
0.6433086395263672,
0.4114949703216553,
-0.05099068209528923,
0.6271978616714478,
0.31372538208961487,
0.3810690939426422,
-0.14895647764205933,
-0.18798699975013733,
0.06283589452505112,
-0.05721538886427879,
-0.11849294602870941,
0.20992490649223328,
-0.023552127182483673,
-1.2863126993179321,
-0.5792394280433655,
0.10262741148471832,
-0.3675440549850464,
-0.09968745708465576,
-0.4461849331855774,
0.3164178133010864,
-0.032509151846170425,
-0.07562044262886047,
0.17959970235824585,
0.33431994915008545,
-0.29587262868881226,
-0.597661018371582,
-0.42356666922569275,
-0.2337421327829361,
-0.04940740764141083,
0.3849356770515442,
0.5523146390914917,
-0.6413387656211853,
-0.41289547085762024,
-0.02299039252102375,
0.8358628153800964,
-0.1453048139810562,
-0.10886679589748383,
-0.2297007143497467,
-0.10026475787162781,
0.4280012249946594,
-0.495512455701828,
0.49420812726020813,
0.10967311263084412,
0.33763816952705383,
-0.275718092918396,
-0.059485647827386856,
-0.37702661752700806,
-0.802233099937439,
-0.4730757474899292,
0.3387865424156189,
0.22667214274406433,
-0.24716594815254211,
-0.3039577305316925,
0.49433764815330505,
0.4334784746170044,
0.02902553603053093,
0.4433082044124603,
-0.3858225345611572,
0.2222425788640976,
-0.01621220074594021,
0.0767195001244545,
-0.626728355884552,
0.2783454656600952,
0.19711405038833618,
-0.03636712208390236,
-0.4107501208782196,
0.5712368488311768,
-0.1452459692955017,
-0.11312279850244522,
0.508095383644104,
-0.6767653822898865,
-0.0686485543847084,
0.2547147274017334,
-0.06272025406360626,
-0.06790807098150253,
0.48077014088630676,
0.6453836560249329,
0.09523297101259232,
0.2436714917421341,
-0.8195940256118774,
-0.2041160613298416,
-0.3264034390449524,
1.1697450876235962,
0.0788770467042923,
-0.22748707234859467,
0.1511470079421997,
0.05644824728369713,
0.18131330609321594,
-0.13184091448783875,
-0.30957257747650146,
-0.5702219605445862,
0.8201936483383179,
-0.11038944870233536,
-0.8769551515579224,
0.2607060968875885,
0.23872695863246918,
-0.723080575466156,
-0.40962597727775574,
1.1664481163024902,
-0.39412766695022583,
-0.13360358774662018,
-0.16960211098194122,
-0.016440516337752342,
-0.33187851309776306,
1.007771372795105,
-0.8583909869194031,
-0.3884820342063904,
0.19720886647701263,
-0.16218622028827667,
-0.7144295573234558,
-0.35602644085884094,
-0.0354069247841835,
-0.011811264790594578,
0.49334314465522766,
-0.4416489601135254,
0.12892906367778778,
0.017384150996804237,
0.4560806453227997,
-0.1944131702184677,
-0.0031076278537511826,
-0.057898830622434616,
-0.20546548068523407,
-0.17765848338603973,
-0.18063081800937653,
0.6291062831878662,
0.7488341927528381,
0.793637752532959,
0.6107288002967834,
-0.3038650155067444,
-0.22391876578330994,
0.15643659234046936,
-0.2502581775188446,
0.050135232508182526,
-0.7008675336837769,
-0.5523382425308228,
0.48769643902778625,
0.28437480330467224,
-0.011312673799693584,
0.4529382586479187,
0.18648269772529602,
0.23539671301841736,
-0.18621574342250824,
-0.18748599290847778,
-0.1314486563205719,
0.3063431680202484,
0.7883497476577759,
0.2790728211402893,
-0.20934081077575684,
0.622478723526001,
-0.054325170814991,
-0.3990752696990967,
-0.9229801297187805,
0.030555687844753265,
-0.12006483227014542,
0.16087381541728973,
-0.00011600980360526592,
-0.169877827167511,
0.5804470181465149,
0.19447079300880432,
0.10481702536344528,
0.6155729293823242,
-0.07578230649232864,
-0.9148028492927551,
0.2717011570930481,
0.05007220804691315,
-0.3133338987827301,
-0.325714647769928,
0.28598254919052124,
-0.05567736178636551,
-0.19827795028686523,
-0.1501498967409134,
-0.3100748360157013,
-0.4118681848049164,
0.07555162906646729,
-0.8915814757347107,
-0.30979058146476746,
-0.17369934916496277,
-0.45654118061065674,
0.19858673214912415,
-0.0648636594414711,
0.0820675939321518,
0.1913902908563614,
0.48846232891082764,
-0.07676860690116882,
-0.10066284984350204,
-0.9783662557601929,
0.2958688735961914,
-0.07127338647842407,
-0.5881535410881042,
0.6024292707443237,
-0.22025775909423828,
-0.08757997304201126,
0.04840025678277016,
-0.108908511698246,
-0.4616399109363556,
0.5450816750526428,
-0.46581295132637024,
-0.5375803709030151,
0.5434021353721619,
0.11868426948785782,
0.48091620206832886,
0.014754309318959713,
-0.3972349464893341,
0.9054926037788391,
1.03690505027771,
0.40321239829063416,
-0.05889764428138733,
0.4223637282848358,
0.4328467845916748,
-0.3813852071762085,
0.4332166314125061,
-0.5856313705444336,
0.14633703231811523,
0.8552811741828918,
0.9473562836647034,
0.1285584270954132,
-0.1866668164730072,
-0.23630698025226593,
-0.2231791764497757,
-0.024391930550336838,
0.10146981477737427,
0.2103647142648697,
-0.6955915093421936,
-0.5594187378883362,
0.62590092420578,
0.9140457510948181,
0.31416085362434387,
0.30542677640914917,
0.09157051891088486,
0.1272399127483368,
0.0003205118700861931,
-0.7064907550811768,
0.2684680223464966,
-0.017351925373077393,
-0.34723740816116333,
0.4674193561077118,
-0.1250259131193161,
0.4327771067619324,
-0.35710087418556213,
0.2924835681915283,
0.05929455906152725,
0.08141712099313736,
0.34549397230148315,
-0.8755541443824768,
-0.25344547629356384,
0.02224535495042801,
0.41592973470687866,
-0.21663062274456024,
-0.2691164016723633,
-1.0945920944213867,
0.4419825077056885,
-0.08857746422290802,
-0.5668832659721375,
-0.3361743092536926,
-0.19734042882919312,
-0.29530584812164307,
0.2239677757024765,
0.06250683218240738,
-0.5104327201843262,
0.46113473176956177,
0.07504525780677795,
-0.0874318778514862,
0.29331350326538086,
-0.13975726068019867,
0.3361433744430542,
-1.0069881677627563,
0.18156884610652924,
0.4634864926338196,
-0.622921347618103,
0.34949785470962524,
-0.1127660721540451,
-0.43004319071769714,
-0.6908736824989319,
-0.5746955871582031,
0.11251182854175568,
-0.4276502728462219,
-0.7553600072860718,
0.10532842576503754,
-0.03412676602602005,
0.2148800790309906,
-0.9120410680770874,
0.5022794008255005,
0.9447414875030518,
0.3696480989456177,
-0.35977903008461,
0.4728131890296936,
0.21317091584205627,
-0.38306212425231934,
-0.027855806052684784,
-0.11786618828773499,
0.2936951518058777,
-0.3960171639919281,
0.4147665798664093,
-0.20722053945064545,
0.8926649689674377,
0.3798428177833557,
0.3424917161464691,
-0.30315014719963074,
0.16459310054779053,
-0.19013911485671997,
0.12391999363899231,
1.0812441110610962,
-0.046259067952632904,
0.030424602329730988,
-0.1518765389919281,
-0.03642396256327629,
0.0053850216791033745,
0.15563826262950897,
0.12679852545261383,
0.24695725739002228,
0.06782467663288116,
0.14109182357788086,
0.1772845834493637,
-1.1735013723373413,
0.5278492569923401,
-0.6391525864601135,
0.3271805942058563,
-0.874271035194397,
0.07437428832054138,
-0.6308814287185669,
-0.6735621094703674,
0.2503843605518341,
0.01968151330947876,
-0.18434685468673706,
-0.08493048697710037,
0.5351126790046692,
-0.11400965601205826,
0.5262535214424133,
-0.4874916970729828,
-0.04825572669506073,
-0.03358571231365204,
0.17721402645111084,
-0.8138677477836609,
-0.7720646858215332,
-0.04920150712132454,
0.7123138308525085,
-0.43819567561149597,
-0.29609858989715576,
-0.4268307685852051,
-0.02518640272319317,
0.05967803671956062,
0.13983893394470215,
-0.3964526057243347,
0.3850574195384979,
0.07829738408327103
] |
203814
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horned%20grebe
|
Horned grebe
|
The horned grebe or Slavonian grebe (Podiceps auritus) is a relatively small waterbird in the family Podicipedidae. There are two known subspecies: P. a. auritus, which breeds in the Palearctic, and P. a. cornutus, which breeds in North America. The Eurasian subspecies is distributed over most of northern Europe and the Palearctic, breeding from Greenland to western China. The North American subspecies spans most of Canada and some of the United States. The species got its name from large patches of yellowish feathers located behind the eyes, called "horns", that the birds can raise and lower at will.
Description
Horned grebes can be easily recognised by its red-and-black alternate (breeding) plumage, its black-and-white basic (non-breeding) plumage, and its characteristic "horns". It is 31–38 cm long, has a wingspan 55–74 cm wide and weighs 300–570 g. It has a moderately long neck, flat forehead and a rear crown of black feathers. Its beak is straight and pointy with a white tip. Both subspecies are physically similar, with P. a. auritus (Palearctic) appearing darker than P. a. cornutus (North America), which has light grey feathers on its back, which are inconspicuous or absent in P. a. auritus. The horned grebe is often confused with the black-necked grebe, which is similar in size and colouring but differentiates by a steeper forehead, a more slender bill and a fluffier rump.
The alternate (breeding) plumage of the horned grebe has bright erectable "horns", black fan-shaped cheek feathers and an overall red-and-black colour. The neck, flanks, lores and upper-chest are chestnut brown, while the crown and back are black. The belly is a dull white. Males are slightly larger and brighter than females but are generally indistinguishable.
The basic (non-breeding) plumage is overall black and white. The neck, chest and cheeks are white, while the back and crown are a dull black-grey. The border between the crown and the cheeks extend in a straight line behind the eyes. The basic plumage does not have the "horns".
Juveniles appear similar to a non-breeding adult except they are a slightly duller shade of white and their back is tinged with brown. The line separating the cheeks and crown is less distinct and their beak is paler. The chicks are fluffy, with a dull grey back, a white belly and interesting black-and-white facial striping.
Taxonomy
Subspecies
P. a. auritus, (Linnaeus, 1758), temperate Eurasia
P. a. cornutus, (Gmelin, 1789), North America
Related species
Black-necked grebe (Podiceps nigricollis)
Red-necked grebe (Podiceps grisegena)
Distribution and habitat
The horned grebe is distributed in Eurasia and North America. In Eurasia, it breeds in a few isolated locations in Greenland (uncommon), Iceland, Scotland and northwestern Norway, while extensively from southeastern Norway to western China. It winters along the coasts of Iceland, Norway and the British Isles down towards the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. In eastern Asia, the horned grebe winters along the coasts of China, Korea and Japan.
In North America, it is restricted to the northwestern region of the continent, with 92% of its distribution located in Canada. The total North American range spans from south-central Alaska to northwestern Ontario. It breeds as far north as the Yukon and southern Nunavut to northwestern states, from Washington to Minnesota. Additionally, there is a small population who breed annually on the Magdalene Islands of Quebec. Its wintering range is also primarily coastal from southern Alaska down to the northern Gulf of California. Its eastern overwintering range is from southern Nova Scotia, down to the Florida Keys and sometimes west to Texas.
Horned grebes breed primarily in temperate zones, including prairies and parklands, but are also seen in boreal and subarctic regions. They breed in small to moderately sized (0.5-10 ha) shallow freshwater ponds, marshes and shallow bays on lake edges with beds of emergent vegetation. They prefer areas with sedges, rushes, and cattails along with large areas of open water. This habitat provides a suitable site for nest material, anchorage, concealment and protection for young.
During migration, they will stop along lakes, rivers and marshes. Following migration, they winter in marine environments of estuaries and bays or inland on large lakes, although in Norway, large concentrations congregate on inland lakes.
Behaviour
Vocalisation
Young begin calling for begging purposes in a slightly trilled peeping noise, similar to that of a domestic chick. As they mature, their song changes to a more adult-like chittering. Their typical advertising call is loud and nasally "aaarrh" descending in a pitch and ending in a trill. They use other calls during copulation, alarm and breeding ceremonies that are slightly variable from the advertising call. Horned grebes are extremely vocal during breeding, territory establishment and defence. Their song is subdued during autumn migration and at wintering sites.
Diet
Horned grebes dive underwater using their large feet for agile manoeuvrability to feed on aquatic arthropods, fish and crustaceans. They will also catch airborne insects on the water's surface. Underwater they swallow or capture large prey and re-emerging at the surface to manipulate the fish headfirst. They usually feed solitarily or in small groups of up to 5 individuals. During the summer, aquatic and airborne arthropods are preferred, whereas winter selection favours fish and crustaceans.
The horned grebe has a unique adaptation for swallowing fish whole. They will eat their own feathers from a young age, so that their stomach has a matted plug that functions as a filter to hold fish bones until digestion.
Reproduction
Horned grebes are monogamous and develop their relationship through elaborate mating routines. There are four pair bonding ceremonies; discovery ceremony, weed ceremony, head-shaking ceremony and triumph ceremony. The discovery ceremony begins with advertising displays, which include an upright posture, erect "horns" and sounding of their advertising call. Then, both male and female engage in bouts of penguin dance and preening. This initial pair bonding ceremony is to ensure correct species identification, sex and compatibility. The weed ceremony follows the completion of a successful discovery ceremony. The male and female will dive, retrieve weeds and rise in synchronisation. The pair will come breast-to-breast with their weeds then turn side by side to continue swimming. This weed-rush can continue multiple times until both individuals are satisfied. Finally, the head-shaking ceremony and triumph ceremony are performed for primarily established pairs. Once copulation is to take place, it always occurs on a platform nest built by the pair.
Horned grebes usually arrive at breeding grounds in pairs or solitarily to seek out a mate, between April and August. Within a typical breeding colony there are approximately 20 breeding pairs, who nest solitarily. During nesting, horned grebes are known to defend their nests very aggressively. Those nests are built from plant matter and are most commonly affixed to emergent vegetation otherwise built on land or in shallow open water. In June, females lay a single clutch of three to eight eggs, which are coloured white, brownish or blueish green. These eggs measure on average. Both males and females share incubation time for 22 to 25 days. When the young hatch, they can swim and dive within the first few days, although they must be kept warm by their parents for up to 14 days. During this time, the juvenile chicks can often be seen riding on the backs of their swimming parents right in-between the wing and the back. Later the horned grebe will take their first flight at 55–60 days old. The species finally reaches sexual maturity at 2 years old.
Population trends
The total western population is estimated at between 200,000 and 500,000 individuals and the Eurasian population at 12,900 to 18,500 mature individuals. The global population has declined by 30% over the last three decades and by 79% within North America. This is due primarily to human disturbance, forestry operations around breeding sites, fluctuating water levels, and stocking of lakes with rainbow trout that compete for aquatic insects. They are also frequently caught in nets, vulnerable to oil spills and diseases. Between 1985 and 2001, grassland and wetland drainage amounted to 5% global habitat loss. The Canadian western population is listed as being of special concern and the breeding population on Magdalene Islands is listed as endangered. Due to global declines, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has uplisted the horned grebe's status from least concern to vulnerable, resulting in conservation and research action plans.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20161019025539/http://www.arkive.org/horned-grebe/podiceps-auritus/video-09b.html Video of the horned grebe mating display.
https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Horned_Grebe/sounds Sounds of the horned grebe: call, pair bonding, adults with chicks, chick calls and copulation calls.
horned grebe
Holarctic birds
horned grebe
horned grebe
|
[
-0.2186819612979889,
0.4653415381908417,
-0.7132420539855957,
-0.16739709675312042,
-0.47019585967063904,
1.0721189975738525,
0.6372513175010681,
0.8816208839416504,
-0.5220797061920166,
-0.5877529382705688,
0.09898437559604645,
0.3341361880302429,
-0.5996096134185791,
0.14811702072620392,
0.22095316648483276,
0.6851088404655457,
0.6123966574668884,
0.09161599725484848,
0.12504753470420837,
-0.6973128914833069,
0.11522118747234344,
-0.6048683524131775,
0.6285225749015808,
-0.5606181025505066,
0.56671142578125,
0.18951137363910675,
0.2550013065338135,
0.4603765606880188,
-0.4114059805870056,
0.05537475273013115,
-0.3758417069911957,
1.4833734035491943,
0.4476200342178345,
0.24739806354045868,
-0.3486626446247101,
0.23446793854236603,
-0.3350957930088043,
-0.6059728860855103,
-0.17034991085529327,
-0.6927791237831116,
0.5013359785079956,
-0.18601711094379425,
0.010210017673671246,
0.4210529327392578,
-0.6212289333343506,
-0.20613448321819305,
-1.2910947799682617,
0.2776113450527191,
-0.7598419785499573,
-0.347233384847641,
-0.34522926807403564,
0.9626407623291016,
-0.5417229533195496,
0.7747361660003662,
-0.05890229344367981,
-0.0984509214758873,
-0.5655888319015503,
-0.101700559258461,
0.316146582365036,
-0.36959025263786316,
-0.26275643706321716,
0.3995633125305176,
-0.27098721265792847,
0.21172240376472473,
0.37622037529945374,
0.40912583470344543,
-0.15864843130111694,
0.4698488414287567,
-0.8886443972587585,
0.029696431010961533,
-0.46801522374153137,
-0.44372251629829407,
-0.06713319569826126,
0.44400227069854736,
-0.13514354825019836,
-0.21723073720932007,
0.22801940143108368,
-0.08582787960767746,
0.30702313780784607,
-0.13350388407707214,
0.4893428087234497,
0.2751549780368805,
0.6866039633750916,
0.0697336345911026,
-0.0006310683093033731,
0.2860410511493683,
-0.4881693124771118,
0.2884506583213806,
-0.657745897769928,
0.19992153346538544,
-0.04646296054124832,
-0.4837782680988312,
0.0709032490849495,
0.23959839344024658,
-0.21464970707893372,
-0.10442782193422318,
0.022417914122343063,
0.05623244121670723,
0.2503942847251892,
-0.24544453620910645,
0.04291949048638344,
0.13735561072826385,
0.5247063040733337,
0.17648710310459137,
-0.5294625759124756,
0.0749816969037056,
-0.3421308994293213,
0.08576390147209167,
-0.02966970019042492,
0.4663694500923157,
-0.27384334802627563,
0.49609753489494324,
-0.16156597435474396,
0.3094562292098999,
0.43329447507858276,
0.8214874863624573,
0.11040186136960983,
-0.07282055914402008,
-0.3554871082305908,
-0.17739488184452057,
0.24032850563526154,
0.5090844631195068,
-0.1524064540863037,
0.21947816014289856,
-0.30629146099090576,
0.35887137055397034,
-0.022206207737326622,
0.36339786648750305,
-0.22570008039474487,
0.33804023265838623,
0.5742489695549011,
0.8871983289718628,
0.27222490310668945,
0.3869462013244629,
-0.5137858986854553,
-0.1757284253835678,
-0.1868802160024643,
-0.28941982984542847,
0.4219425618648529,
0.7614824175834656,
-1.3966972827911377,
-0.05715039744973183,
-0.7307204008102417,
-0.38942351937294006,
0.4143168330192566,
0.5886551737785339,
0.024011747911572456,
-0.2540659010410309,
-0.21697266399860382,
-0.04848943278193474,
0.2384166568517685,
-0.0126060014590621,
0.2369193583726883,
-0.14668165147304535,
-0.26957085728645325,
-0.15101169049739838,
0.08656415343284607,
-0.5393750071525574,
0.3270846903324127,
-0.13006171584129333,
0.022236358374357224,
0.49803152680397034,
-0.36679431796073914,
0.22455176711082458,
-0.14459380507469177,
-0.8476144671440125,
-0.0012122566113248467,
-0.21953709423542023,
-0.1637292206287384,
0.1786244809627533,
-0.10670509189367294,
0.0966816172003746,
0.9701521992683411,
0.1265650987625122,
-0.21411150693893433,
-0.6062866449356079,
0.601468026638031,
0.1406964510679245,
0.8020415902137756,
0.0026529617607593536,
-0.762541651725769,
0.029952066019177437,
0.5868179798126221,
-0.4210876226425171,
0.14878620207309723,
0.08332181721925735,
0.6178978681564331,
0.08811359107494354,
-0.20843340456485748,
-0.5374395847320557,
-0.6474449634552002,
-0.44228410720825195,
0.21290402114391327,
0.3869418799877167,
1.0414257049560547,
0.047896988689899445,
-0.16451986134052277,
-0.43997207283973694,
0.00893285870552063,
0.01292190607637167,
-0.41533201932907104,
-0.45194435119628906,
0.6901045441627502,
-0.02552316151559353,
-0.9371654987335205,
0.9707450270652771,
-0.03521452471613884,
0.33185482025146484,
0.25857892632484436,
0.43953371047973633,
-0.11773616820573807,
-0.5107409954071045,
0.025918731465935707,
-0.1017392948269844,
-0.2691969871520996,
-0.23629571497440338,
0.05042919144034386,
0.11552238464355469,
-0.06893714517354965,
-0.2516825497150421,
1.0801959037780762,
-0.01732802577316761,
-0.282735675573349,
-0.11317795515060425,
-0.06481972336769104,
0.1366836130619049,
0.14978381991386414,
0.07662343978881836,
0.180281862616539,
-0.2648342251777649,
0.005979859735816717,
0.5553093552589417,
0.37396302819252014,
-0.4935941994190216,
-0.4073610305786133,
-0.11706292629241943,
-0.17379766702651978,
-0.3096569776535034,
0.18708834052085876,
0.20040108263492584,
0.10496971011161804,
0.1358220875263214,
-0.3016805052757263,
0.27719762921333313,
0.2565673887729645,
-0.031368739902973175,
0.027572909370064735,
0.9858441352844238,
-0.3521823585033417,
-0.5120759010314941,
0.07881394773721695,
0.5832269191741943,
0.05360724776983261,
-0.18219853937625885,
0.5147107243537903,
0.4569074511528015,
0.29515981674194336,
-0.031053422018885612,
0.3998504877090454,
0.13725169003009796,
-0.6967505216598511,
0.412639856338501,
-0.13704097270965576,
-0.0734206810593605,
0.11731106042861938,
-0.25494077801704407,
-0.3079425096511841,
-0.15139272809028625,
0.30572620034217834,
0.2548424303531647,
0.6875201463699341,
0.18609197437763214,
-0.5732488036155701,
0.3795880675315857,
-0.002638261765241623,
0.14207123219966888,
0.2990996539592743,
-0.5706218481063843,
-0.8383793234825134,
-0.834260880947113,
-0.041354741901159286,
0.6817581057548523,
0.22753314673900604,
-0.2258865237236023,
0.11332401633262634,
-0.6545015573501587,
0.12174998223781586,
-0.4292587339878082,
0.340940922498703,
-1.3858050107955933,
-0.4398120641708374,
1.1889389753341675,
0.0975680872797966,
0.4158076047897339,
-0.6536518335342407,
0.19079390168190002,
0.19902896881103516,
0.4009692370891571,
0.8015103340148926,
-0.31996703147888184,
-0.4357302188873291,
0.31193187832832336,
0.046212032437324524,
0.335174024105072,
0.5590166449546814,
-0.430253803730011,
0.08078277111053467,
0.14382252097129822,
-5.3412580490112305,
0.5748847723007202,
0.1524386703968048,
-0.2547146677970886,
0.9137013554573059,
0.4406522512435913,
0.1503651738166809,
-0.4393137991428375,
-0.17264991998672485,
0.04618331417441368,
0.0202292762696743,
0.3344501852989197,
-0.6309803128242493,
0.2540046274662018,
0.5745306015014648,
-0.03652073070406914,
-0.09027829021215439,
0.1675693839788437,
0.14028775691986084,
-0.17178405821323395,
0.19095365703105927,
0.07221225649118423,
-0.12382625788450241,
0.20929685235023499,
0.35057517886161804,
0.08400044590234756,
-0.31885814666748047,
-0.23060858249664307,
-0.18631970882415771,
-0.17364062368869781,
0.11892030388116837,
-0.4477345645427704,
-0.04062219709157944,
-0.31119707226753235,
0.03695900738239288,
-0.3228566646575928,
0.6454052925109863,
0.8242142200469971,
0.3022580146789551,
-0.4232242703437805,
-0.7297304272651672,
0.23740115761756897,
0.003788648173213005,
0.007390066049993038,
0.5537161231040955,
0.0484609417617321,
0.0374961793422699,
-0.4823622405529022,
0.19260898232460022,
0.7282498478889465,
0.17460854351520538,
-0.4635874032974243,
-0.05918622016906738,
0.2853946089744568,
0.46699249744415283,
0.03916295990347862,
-0.11005314439535141,
0.7090888023376465,
-0.27702653408050537,
0.2834778130054474,
0.4837052822113037,
-0.5166333317756653,
-0.8811832666397095,
-0.6263145208358765,
-0.1701156198978424,
0.08504690229892731,
-0.5979470610618591,
0.557079017162323,
0.6042162775993347,
0.10784175246953964,
0.09896289557218552,
0.7089135646820068,
-0.27127382159233093,
-0.7374556660652161,
0.7633078098297119,
-0.5456128120422363,
-0.0855892226099968,
0.08231106400489807,
-0.40769070386886597,
0.19885863363742828,
-0.42968398332595825,
-0.5361096262931824,
0.2961256802082062,
-0.1946442872285843,
0.47495126724243164,
-0.5729326605796814,
-0.7644680738449097,
-0.13744430243968964,
-0.07208288460969925,
-0.8469133973121643,
0.21431662142276764,
-1.020738959312439,
0.12049633264541626,
0.3081076443195343,
0.5577948093414307,
0.8712619543075562,
0.3217180371284485,
0.2773462235927582,
0.41898488998413086,
-0.018194276839494705,
0.39430883526802063,
-0.1997697800397873,
-0.0695723295211792,
0.0031477564480155706,
-0.04902833700180054,
-0.6939080357551575,
-0.49118492007255554,
0.8466060161590576,
1.0052217245101929,
-0.1461220532655716,
0.7644196152687073,
0.27925753593444824,
-0.63270103931427,
-0.32773545384407043,
0.23611114919185638,
0.7024773359298706,
0.050567690283060074,
0.14228934049606323,
0.545907735824585,
-0.142207533121109,
0.31470873951911926,
0.0005992205115035176,
-0.16986094415187836,
-0.3754136562347412,
-0.8656438589096069,
-0.2120862454175949,
0.4626581370830536,
0.273039311170578,
-1.014121413230896,
-0.6737886071205139,
-0.3761586844921112,
-0.05563538148999214,
-0.25791144371032715,
-0.469817191362381,
0.03133859112858772,
-0.07743439823389053,
-0.4931633472442627,
0.4404742419719696,
0.5390748977661133,
-0.1380397528409958,
-0.3062302768230438,
-0.8410348296165466,
-0.0669776052236557,
-0.2664940655231476,
0.36064594984054565,
0.013057603500783443,
-0.5184345841407776,
-0.16626881062984467,
-0.3524317145347595,
0.12100294977426529,
0.1713610291481018,
0.15612371265888214,
-0.25551164150238037,
-0.3153840899467468,
0.5910995006561279,
-0.13996060192584991,
0.48138710856437683,
0.37134695053100586,
0.3017498850822449,
-0.8491682410240173,
-0.0015707984566688538,
-0.5596795082092285,
-0.9507070779800415,
-0.21012255549430847,
0.21573230624198914,
-0.18906651437282562,
-0.060732968151569366,
-0.3870895802974701,
0.3995491564273834,
0.5030381083488464,
0.3280688524246216,
-0.021943550556898117,
-0.4376053214073181,
-0.03369630500674248,
0.0345606803894043,
-0.3130124807357788,
-0.4883229434490204,
0.18984869122505188,
-0.21465454995632172,
0.1464184671640396,
-0.2628343403339386,
0.4830847382545471,
-0.02238914929330349,
-0.45174071192741394,
0.24953487515449524,
-0.27710726857185364,
-0.13275329768657684,
0.42264652252197266,
-0.19404110312461853,
-0.39001092314720154,
-0.02087707258760929,
-0.09459783136844635,
0.46845707297325134,
0.35209402441978455,
-0.3660135269165039,
-0.3387306034564972,
-0.44547125697135925,
0.7322966456413269,
0.054048992693424225,
-0.6118011474609375,
-0.21552440524101257,
-0.17034700512886047,
0.29616355895996094,
-0.2412903755903244,
0.16825902462005615,
-0.6818069815635681,
0.39451947808265686,
-0.7991151213645935,
-0.908913791179657,
0.6630699038505554,
-0.2750606834888458,
-0.5818957686424255,
-0.040398262441158295,
1.2728768587112427,
-0.46827003359794617,
-0.5452793836593628,
0.26245757937431335,
0.3426474332809448,
-0.3129284381866455,
0.11207031458616257,
-0.5814180970191956,
-0.09698258340358734,
-0.08215688169002533,
-0.2412465512752533,
-0.6173351407051086,
0.0023787792306393385,
0.4180237352848053,
-0.09812988340854645,
0.37883442640304565,
-0.7615679502487183,
-0.0352238304913044,
-0.04897220432758331,
0.2472245991230011,
0.02514900639653206,
-0.02901187166571617,
0.14131775498390198,
0.14396247267723083,
-0.000581588945351541,
0.30224108695983887,
0.7245021462440491,
1.02506685256958,
0.7168658971786499,
0.5075826644897461,
-0.11166656017303467,
-0.24590964615345,
0.2710666358470917,
-0.1939544975757599,
-0.06582681089639664,
-0.7352235317230225,
-0.4087162911891937,
0.6042836904525757,
0.29517829418182373,
-0.3469357490539551,
0.5241493582725525,
0.9439795017242432,
-0.538500189781189,
-0.12551279366016388,
-0.21840541064739227,
-0.39720213413238525,
0.4512987434864044,
0.41192319989204407,
0.20288531482219696,
-0.06622354686260223,
0.53764808177948,
-0.23726049065589905,
-0.47849035263061523,
-0.4239618480205536,
0.18058748543262482,
0.2533373236656189,
-0.0896863117814064,
0.00900825671851635,
0.005846548825502396,
0.26923632621765137,
0.1265285611152649,
0.1945468634366989,
0.1566370576620102,
0.005684508476406336,
-1.0080249309539795,
0.42264947295188904,
0.47830554842948914,
-0.4003058075904846,
-0.16549669206142426,
0.3482600450515747,
-0.03547637537121773,
-0.3722449243068695,
-0.5223821997642517,
-0.2751549184322357,
-0.2878277003765106,
0.4359898567199707,
-0.6680399775505066,
-0.34107381105422974,
-0.17113786935806274,
-0.8633886575698853,
-0.11986397206783295,
0.1400844156742096,
0.016342267394065857,
-0.1057976633310318,
0.22691333293914795,
-0.026210224255919456,
0.05748934671282768,
-1.2696040868759155,
0.5751569867134094,
0.1244785264134407,
-1.0120394229888916,
0.5520938038825989,
-0.18324239552021027,
-0.39478641748428345,
0.10409919917583466,
-0.2983658015727997,
-0.5643273591995239,
0.5391953587532043,
-0.44070589542388916,
-0.1278195083141327,
0.8629944920539856,
0.007509914226830006,
-0.18622884154319763,
-0.3366023898124695,
-0.4855785667896271,
0.2704663872718811,
0.7361060976982117,
0.3249569833278656,
0.26877981424331665,
0.62763911485672,
0.48198652267456055,
-0.5255294442176819,
0.5270944237709045,
-0.4416605830192566,
-0.09132927656173706,
0.40548500418663025,
0.45283156633377075,
0.3190517723560333,
-0.0472862608730793,
-0.3140571117401123,
-0.2508305013179779,
0.28960689902305603,
0.045233722776174545,
0.259712815284729,
-0.7272395491600037,
-0.003197758924216032,
1.0957235097885132,
-0.05333084240555763,
-0.03723692148923874,
0.3738207221031189,
0.4419108033180237,
-0.07420854270458221,
0.42867258191108704,
-0.7955962419509888,
-0.21338097751140594,
0.12933051586151123,
-0.21879370510578156,
0.36420905590057373,
-0.13297230005264282,
-0.030222821980714798,
-0.2590439021587372,
-0.05337820202112198,
0.018206672742962837,
0.05262835696339607,
0.0012784352293238044,
-1.2601659297943115,
0.2306670844554901,
0.34699487686157227,
0.48855945467948914,
-0.02898441255092621,
-0.13263428211212158,
-1.170161485671997,
0.3830558955669403,
-0.24763067066669464,
-0.6413841247558594,
-0.12723687291145325,
-0.02830268256366253,
0.07638734579086304,
-0.08501029014587402,
-0.13974639773368835,
0.22426772117614746,
0.27433475852012634,
0.18072296679019928,
0.20128965377807617,
0.5617210268974304,
0.11823442578315735,
-0.10993348062038422,
-0.46389511227607727,
-0.04972291737794876,
0.2191331833600998,
-0.49981728196144104,
0.1138094887137413,
-0.4719952344894409,
-0.10850947350263596,
-0.7251710891723633,
0.11342333257198334,
0.03707405924797058,
-0.7314305901527405,
-0.6603605151176453,
0.28834667801856995,
-0.08082015067338943,
-0.2674131989479065,
-1.2653895616531372,
0.8110675811767578,
1.1088060140609741,
-0.21324774622917175,
0.0031432551331818104,
0.5486222505569458,
0.03696601837873459,
-0.26933377981185913,
0.07409746199846268,
0.06403154879808426,
0.5001296401023865,
-0.1669429987668991,
0.5350174307823181,
-0.013478511944413185,
0.5580448508262634,
0.9043964147567749,
0.09863654524087906,
-0.06364823877811432,
0.12351378053426743,
0.20641815662384033,
0.03390703350305557,
0.33476412296295166,
0.3713342845439911,
0.1243540495634079,
-0.5486034750938416,
-0.0023966911248862743,
0.13746324181556702,
0.48465970158576965,
-0.25447362661361694,
0.5100087523460388,
0.20058417320251465,
0.3249128758907318,
-0.21127308905124664,
-0.8497315645217896,
0.3919631540775299,
-0.8107038140296936,
0.4323156774044037,
-1.142980694770813,
-0.3912471532821655,
-0.39981943368911743,
-0.2536519467830658,
0.3053516149520874,
-0.22026598453521729,
-0.31121930480003357,
-0.2685469686985016,
0.2886771857738495,
-0.41964802145957947,
0.5786324739456177,
-0.004000761546194553,
-0.4969928562641144,
0.007648704573512077,
-0.2257034331560135,
-0.6885724663734436,
-0.5321140885353088,
0.2688634395599365,
0.26944276690483093,
-0.23593316972255707,
-0.1544872671365738,
0.059023912996053696,
-0.2525361180305481,
-0.3555929660797119,
0.3292580544948578,
-0.21739746630191803,
0.4231962561607361,
-0.2821780741214752
] |
203821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-necked%20grebe
|
Black-necked grebe
|
The black-necked grebe or eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) is a member of the grebe family of water birds. It was described in 1831 by Christian Ludwig Brehm. There are currently three accepted subspecies, including the nominate subspecies. Its breeding plumage features a distinctive ochre-coloured plumage which extends behind its eye and over its ear coverts. The rest of the upper parts, including the head, neck, and breast, are coloured black to blackish brown. The flanks are tawny rufous to maroon-chestnut, and the abdomen is white. When in its non-breeding plumage, this bird has greyish-black upper parts, including the top of the head and a vertical stripe on the back of the neck. The flanks are also greyish-black. The rest of the body is a white or whitish colour. The juvenile has more brown in its darker areas. The subspecies californicus can be distinguished from the nominate by the former's usually longer bill. The other subspecies, P. n. gurneyi, can be differentiated by its greyer head and upper parts and by its smaller size. P. n. gurneyi can also be told apart by its lack of a non-breeding plumage. This species is present in parts of Africa, Eurasia, and the Americas.
The black-necked grebe uses multiple foraging techniques. Insects, which make up the majority of this bird's diet, are caught either on the surface of the water or when they are in flight. It occasionally practices foliage gleaning. This grebe dives to catch crustaceans, molluscs, tadpoles, and small frogs and fish. When moulting at saline lakes, this bird feeds mostly on brine shrimp. The black-necked grebe makes a floating cup nest on an open lake. The nest cup is covered with a disc. This nest is located both in colonies and by itself. During the breeding season, which varies depending on location, this species will lay one (sometimes two) clutch of three to four eggs. The number of eggs is sometimes larger due to conspecific brood parasitism. After a 21-day incubation period, the eggs hatch, and then the nest is deserted. After about 10 days, the parents split up the chicks between themselves. After this, the chicks become independent in about 10 days, and fledge in about three weeks.
Although it generally avoids flight, the black-necked grebe travels as far as during migration. In addition, it becomes flightless for two months after completing a migration to reach an area where it can safely moult. During this moult, the grebe can double in weight. The migrations to reach these areas are dangerous, sometimes with thousands of grebe deaths. In spite of this, it is classified as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is likely that this is the most numerous grebe in the world. There are potential threats to it, such as oil spills, but these are not likely to present a major risk to the overall population.
Taxonomy
This species was first described by Carl Ludwig Hablitz in 1783 as Colymbus caspicus, from a bird in Bandar-e Anzali. This was originally thought to be a synonym for the horned grebe, until Erwin Stresemann discovered that the description applied more to the black-necked grebe in 1948. Before this, the earliest description was thought to be by Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1831, who gave this bird its current scientific name of Podiceps nigricollis from a German bird. To resolve this, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature suppressed the name C. caspicus. The genus name Dytes is sometimes used for this species, a placement which was formalized by Robert Ridgway in 1881.
This bird is closely related to the silvery grebe and the Junin grebe. The extinct Colombian grebe is sometimes considered to be a subspecies of this species, in addition to three other extant subspecies:
P. n. nigricollis – (Brehm, CL, 1831): nominate, is found from western Europe to western temperate Asia (wintering to the south and west), in central and eastern Asia, and in eastern Africa
P. n. gurneyi – (Roberts, 1919): is found in southern Africa
P. n. californicus – (Heermann, 1854): is found from southwestern Canada through the western U.S. It winters as far south as Guatemala
The generic name, Podiceps, comes from two Latin words: podicis, meaning "vent" or "anus" and pes meaning "foot". This is a reference to the attachment point of the bird's legs—at the extreme back end of its body. The specific epithet nigricollis is Latin for "black-necked": niger means "black" and collis means "neck". The subspecies epithet californicus comes from "California", while gurneyi comes from the name of British ornithologist John Henry Gurney Sr.
"Black-necked grebe" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithological Committee (IOC). Both common names for this species refer to features visible when the bird is in its breeding plumage; in such plumage, it has an all-black neck and a spray of golden plumes on each side of its head. The name "eared grebe" is nearly a century older than the name "black-necked grebe". The latter was first used in 1912 by Ernst Hartert, in an effort to bring the common name of the species in line with its scientific name. The name "eared grebe" is still used in North America to refer to this bird.
Description
The black-necked grebe usually measures between in length and weighs . The bird has a wingspan range of 20.5-21.6 in (52-55 cm). The nominate subspecies in breeding plumage has the head, neck, breast, and upper parts coloured black to blackish brown, with the exception of the ochre-coloured fan of feathers extending behind the eye over the eye-coverts and sides of the nape. This eye is mostly red, with a narrow and paler yellow ring on the inner parts of the eye and an orange-yellow to pinkish-red . The thin, upturned bill, on the other hand, is black, and is connected to the eye by a blackish line starting at the . Sometimes, the foreneck can be found to be mostly tinged brown. The is blackish to drab brown in colour and has a white patch formed by the secondaries and part of the inner primaries. The flanks are coloured tawny rufous to maroon-chestnut and have the occasional blackish fleck. The and abdomen is white, with an exception to the former being the dark tertials and the mostly pale grey-brown outer primaries. The legs are a dark greenish grey. The sexes are similar.
In non-breeding plumage, the nominate has greyish-black upper parts, cap, nape, and hindneck, with the colour on the upper portion of the latter being contained in a vertical stripe. The dark colour of the cap reaches below the eye and can be seen, diffused, to the ear-coverts. Behind the ear-coverts on the sides of the neck, there are white ovals. The rest of the neck is grey to brownish-grey in colour and has white that varies in amount. The breast is white, and the abdomen is whitish. The flanks are coloured in a mix of blackish-grey with white flecks. The colour of the bill when not breeding differs from that of the breeding plumage, with the former being significantly more grey.
The juvenile black-necked grebe is similar to the non-breeding adult. There are differences, however, including the fact that the dark areas are usually more brownish in the juvenile, with less black. The are often tinged pale grey, with whitish marks behind the eye. On the sides of the head and upper neck, there is a buffy or tawny tinge. The chick is downy and has a blackish-grey head with stripes and spots that are white or pale buff-grey. The throat and foreneck are largely pale. The upper parts are mostly dark grey in colour, and the abdomen is white.
The subspecies californicus usually has a longer bill compared to the nominate, and has brown-grey inner primaries during the breeding season. When not breeding, the nominate has diffuse and pale lores less often than Podiceps nigricollis californicus. The other subspecies, P. n. gurneyi, is the smallest of the three subspecies, in addition to having a greyer head and upper parts. The adult of this subspecies also has a rufous-brown tinge on its lesser wing-coverts. It also lacks a non-breeding plumage, in addition to the tufts on the side of its head being paler.
Vocalizations
When breeding, the black-necked grebe gives a quiet "ooeek" that ascends in pitch from an already high pitch. This call is also used as a territorial call, in addition to a low and fast trill, which itself is also used during courtship. Another call is a short "puuii" or "wit". This grebe is silent when it is not the breeding season and when it is feeding or resting.
Distribution and habitat
This species breeds in vegetated areas of freshwater lakes across Europe, Asia, Africa, northern South America and the southwest and western United States. After breeding, this bird migrates to saline lakes to moult. Then, after completing the moult and waiting for sometimes several months, it migrates to winter in places such as the south-western Palearctic and the eastern parts of both Africa and Asia. It also winters in southern Africa, another place where it breeds. In the Americas, it winters as far south as Guatemala, although the wintering population there is mainly restricted to islands in the Gulf of California, the Salton Sea, and Baja California. When not breeding, its habitat is primarily saline lakes and coastal estuaries.
Behaviour
This grebe is highly gregarious, usually forming large colonies when breeding and large flocks when not.
Breeding
This species builds its floating nest in the usually shallow water of open lakes. The nest itself is anchored to the lake by plants. It is built by both the male and the female and made out of plant matter. Most of it is submerged, with the bottom of the shallow cup usually being level with the water. Above the cup, there is a flat disc. This grebe nests both in colonies and by itself. When it does not nest by itself, it will often nest in mixed-species colonies made up of black-headed gulls, ducks, and various other waterbirds. The space between the nests in these colonies is often . Whether it nests in colonies or not has an effect on the dimensions of the nest. When the bird is not in a colony, the nest has an average diameter of , although this can vary, with nests ranging from about to over . This is compared to nests in colonies, which have an average diameter of about . It is suggested that rarely some pairs of this grebe will steward over multiple nests when in colonies.
Pair formation in the black-necked grebe usually starts during pauses in the migration to the breeding grounds, although it occasionally occurs before, in wintering pairs. This pair formation continues after this grebe has arrived to its breeding grounds. Courtship occurs when it arrives at the breeding lake. The displays are performed in the middle of the lake. There is no territory involved in courting; individuals used the whole area of the lake. When advertising for a mate, a black-necked grebe will approach other black-necked grebes with its body fluffed out and its neck erect. It closes its beak to perform a call, poo-eee-chk, with the last note only barely audible. Courtship generally stops at the start of nesting.
In the Northern Hemisphere, this bird breeds from April to August. In east Africa, the breeding season is at least from January to February, while in southern Africa, the breeding season is from October to April.
The black-necked grebe is socially monogamous. Conspecific or intraspecific brood parasitism, where the female lays eggs in the nest of others of their own species is common with nearly 40% of nests being parasitized on average. In terms of territory, this grebe will defend only its nest site.
This grebe lays a clutch, and sometimes two clutches, of three to four chalky greenish or bluish eggs. Nests that have been parasitized, however, will have two more eggs on average, even though the number the host lays is about the same no matter if it has been parasitized or not. The eggs, although initially immaculate, do get stained by plant matter that the nest is built out of. The eggs measure on average and are incubated by both parents for about 21 days. The laying date of the eggs is somewhat synchronized, with birds in small colonies having the laying dates spread out by just a few days, compared to large colonies, where the laying date is spread out over more than 10 days.
After the chicks hatch, the birds will desert their nest. Even though the young can swim and dive during this time, they rarely do, instead staying on the parents' backs for four days after hatching. This behaviour is present in all grebes, and is likely to have evolved because it reduces travel costs, specifically those back to the nest to brood the chicks and give them food. After about 10 days, the parents split the chicks up, with each parent taking care of about half of the brood. After this split, the chicks are independent in about 10 days, and fledge in about three weeks.
When disturbed while incubating, this bird usually (just under 50% of the time) partly covers its eggs with nest material when the disruption is not sudden, but a bird with an incomplete clutch usually does not attempt to cover the eggs. When the disruption is sudden, on the other hand, the black-necked grebe usually (just under 50% of the time) does not cover its eggs. In comparison, other species of grebes cover up their eggs when leaving the nest. Predation is usually not the primary cause of egg loss, with most nesting failures occurring after the chicks have hatched. A major cause of this is the chilling of the young.
Feeding
The black-necked grebe forages mainly by diving from the water, with dives usually lasting less than 30 seconds. These dives are usually shorter in time when in more shallow water. In between dives, this grebe rests for an average of 15 seconds. When feeding on brine shrimp at hypersaline lakes, it likely uses its large tongue to block the oral cavity. It is hypothesized that it then crushes prey against its palate to remove excess water. It also forages by gleaning foliage, plucking objects off of the surface of water, having its head submerged while swimming, and sometimes capturing flying insects.
This grebe eats mostly insects, of both adult and larval stages, as well as crustaceans, molluscs, tadpoles, and small frogs and fish. When moulting at lakes with high salinity, although, this bird feeds mostly on brine shrimp. The behaviour of black-necked grebes changes in response to the availability of brine shrimp; bodies of water with more shrimp have more grebes, and grebes spend more time foraging when the amount of shrimp and the water temperature decreases.
The young are fed one at a time by the parents, with one bird carrying the young while the other feeds it. The young take food by grabbing it, with their beaks, from their parents, or by grabbing food dropped into the water. When a young bird cannot grab the food, then the adults submerge their bill into the water and shake their bill to break up the food.
Moult and migration
When breeding is over, the black-necked grebe usually partakes in a moult migration to saline lakes. It especially prefers lakes with large numbers of invertebrate prey, so it can fatten up while moulting and before going on its winter migration. Some birds, although, moult when on the breeding grounds, but most do not moult until the end of the moult migration. This migration is dangerous, with hundreds and sometimes thousands of birds being killed by snowstorms when traveling to places such as Mono Lake.
When it finishes its moult migration, this bird moults its remiges between August and September, which makes it unable to fly. This moult is preceded by an increase in weight. During the moult, the breast muscles atrophy. When the moult is completed, this grebe continues to gain weight, often more than doubling its original weight. This additional fat is used to power the black-necked grebe's overnight fall migration to its wintering grounds. The fat is most concentrated in the abdomen, second most in the thorax, and least in the chest. This bird usually starts its migration earlier when shrimp is more abundant and when the moulting lake is at a higher than average temperature. It generally leaves on a clear night with lower than average surface temperatures.
Movement
This grebe is one of the most inefficient fliers among birds. Generally, it avoids flying at all costs and reserves long-distance flight exclusively for migration. This is combined with the fact that this bird is flightless for two months of the year during its moult. However, when migrating, it travels as much as to reach rich feeding areas that are exploited by few other species. In flight, the shape of this grebe is like a loon: straight neck, legs trailing, and wings beating often.
When diving, this bird pulls its head back and then arches it forward into the water, with the body following and a slight springing. The legs start moving only after they are underwater. When swimming on the surface of the water, the body of this grebe is relatively high, although none of the underparts are seen. The neck is held straight up in a relaxed manner, with the bill being held forward and parallel to the water. Each of the feet perform strong alternating strokes.
Disease
Large-scaled deaths (such as 150,000 birds on the Salton Sea in 1992) from erysipelas, avian cholera, avian botulism, and West Nile virus have been recorded in the past. In 2013 at the Great Salt Lake, for example, there was an outbreak of West Nile virus that could be the largest recorded in birds in the US. The cause of the outbreak and modes of transmission are unknown, but there has been speculation about the latter. Since West Nile virus is able to survive in brine shrimp and, for a temporary time, the water of the Great Salt Lake around the temperature it was when the die-off happened. Thus, it is likely that grebes could become infected by eating diseased shrimp or being in contaminated water. It is also theorized that West Nile virus could be transmitted among grebes through contact with the excrement of an infected grebe. Avian cholera, another disease that can cause large scale die-offs in this grebe, can be brought on by unknown biotoxins, pathogens, and problems with feather waterproofing.
Status
As of 2016, the black-necked grebe is classified as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The trend of the population is uncertain, as some populations are decreasing, whereas others are stable, have an uncertain trend, or are increasing. The justification for the current classification of this species is its very large population (estimated around 3.9–4.2 million individuals) combined with a large estimated extent of occurrence (about 155 million km2 (60 million sq mi)). This grebe is probably the most numerous grebe in the world.
Unknown biotoxins, pathogens, and the impairment of feather waterproofing can lead to hypothermia and avian cholera. Since this grebe usually winters on the coast, it is also vulnerable to oil pollution. Large-scale disease, such as avian cholera, could threaten the species. These and other factors, such as human disturbance, including collisions with power transmission lines, contribute to declining populations in certain areas. This species used to be threatened in North America by the millinery industry, which helped facilitate the hunting of the birds, and egg collectors. Although this is true, this grebe is hunted in the Gilan Province in Iran, for both commercial and recreational purposes. However, there is no evidence suggesting that these threats could result in a significant risk for the overall population.
References
Bibliography
External links
Eared Grebe Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
black-necked grebe
Birds of Africa
black-necked grebe
Birds of Nepal
black-necked grebe
Holarctic birds
|
[
-0.15775661170482635,
0.4485553801059723,
-0.8240424394607544,
-0.3244534134864807,
-0.040505893528461456,
0.9079002737998962,
0.11759302765130997,
0.7946087718009949,
-0.521169900894165,
-0.5331063270568848,
-0.4124322831630707,
0.3802587389945984,
-0.7467514276504517,
0.18879319727420807,
0.21064557135105133,
0.7314032912254333,
0.6167937517166138,
0.0759628415107727,
0.1504233330488205,
-0.8509155511856079,
-0.13278310000896454,
-0.7137821316719055,
0.17727559804916382,
-0.5583450794219971,
0.7912445068359375,
0.4196549355983734,
0.37083569169044495,
0.45554304122924805,
-0.18684114515781403,
0.25660231709480286,
0.08877759426832199,
0.9122164845466614,
0.4048251211643219,
0.09098348021507263,
-0.10842153429985046,
-0.04166223853826523,
-0.48767900466918945,
-0.5283823609352112,
-0.06703386455774307,
-0.6007372140884399,
0.19320634007453918,
0.1150507926940918,
0.2967492640018463,
0.11492009460926056,
-0.3733072280883789,
-0.4072156250476837,
-1.189481496810913,
0.10425896942615509,
-0.6200789213180542,
0.025040971115231514,
-0.3281320333480835,
0.7105545401573181,
-0.18652130663394928,
0.6366758942604065,
0.022021904587745667,
0.05218890681862831,
-0.8925225734710693,
-0.12893587350845337,
-0.00031989518902264535,
-0.4041220247745514,
0.172035813331604,
0.36561357975006104,
-0.32447993755340576,
0.4301292896270752,
0.21839362382888794,
0.7501690983772278,
-0.05275445431470871,
0.003566838800907135,
-0.8746181726455688,
0.29830679297447205,
0.1374439150094986,
-0.12265592068433762,
-0.30055317282676697,
0.2422095090150833,
-0.6761455535888672,
-0.014110143296420574,
-0.05359918624162674,
0.15532326698303223,
0.2789401710033417,
-0.12364812940359116,
0.46931761503219604,
0.07346037775278091,
0.7180958986282349,
0.14190036058425903,
-0.060722872614860535,
0.22323016822338104,
-0.747843325138092,
0.13045071065425873,
-0.39741891622543335,
0.17560073733329773,
-0.3826742172241211,
-0.28894832730293274,
-0.17288611829280853,
0.19579188525676727,
-0.46775442361831665,
-0.2811953127384186,
-0.2057952582836151,
0.061071645468473434,
0.40535345673561096,
-0.003807380562648177,
-0.2753962278366089,
-0.3910784423351288,
0.9272990822792053,
0.4311245381832123,
-0.8179729580879211,
0.3373715877532959,
-0.5073447823524475,
-0.3813183307647705,
-0.194231316447258,
0.6737869381904602,
-0.4532843232154846,
0.2938627302646637,
-0.008401159197092056,
-0.014929014258086681,
0.11713366210460663,
0.5200554728507996,
0.13305902481079102,
-0.040348347276449203,
-0.03592055290937424,
-0.28744396567344666,
0.29984888434410095,
0.3896298408508301,
-0.030146481469273567,
0.4391095042228699,
-0.018231572583317757,
0.42790812253952026,
0.21232464909553528,
0.8136834502220154,
-0.5312659740447998,
0.1471618264913559,
0.5893157124519348,
1.137605905532837,
0.13273358345031738,
0.6583674550056458,
-0.5034791231155396,
-0.0032260597217828035,
-0.05428134649991989,
-0.4228484630584717,
0.10911408066749573,
0.48108500242233276,
-1.0422229766845703,
0.06731853634119034,
-0.9344802498817444,
-0.21978169679641724,
0.27046361565589905,
0.20411205291748047,
-0.03840883821249008,
-0.5169652104377747,
-0.19347304105758667,
-0.29906708002090454,
0.28982287645339966,
-0.3033801317214966,
-0.1497955322265625,
-0.4964887499809265,
-0.3358815908432007,
-0.3724265992641449,
0.29090678691864014,
-0.5759701728820801,
0.5060837864875793,
-0.0642305389046669,
-0.08884838968515396,
0.5290120244026184,
-0.5687469244003296,
0.15251636505126953,
0.10137615352869034,
-0.3741426169872284,
0.0250179972499609,
-0.2939683198928833,
-0.7373349070549011,
0.48120754957199097,
0.15800747275352478,
0.4472520351409912,
1.1038533449172974,
0.05389906093478203,
-0.22119049727916718,
-0.5924147963523865,
-0.07396874576807022,
0.14388549327850342,
0.4771411120891571,
-0.031225841492414474,
-0.8445912003517151,
-0.12407989799976349,
0.14792369306087494,
-0.18951645493507385,
-0.00296757067553699,
0.11230406165122986,
0.08543895930051804,
0.08550640940666199,
-0.288597971200943,
-0.411467969417572,
-0.8131906390190125,
-0.43686017394065857,
0.0820639431476593,
-0.019524388015270233,
0.6178227663040161,
0.04683456942439079,
-0.023585950955748558,
0.04181075468659401,
-0.0427023209631443,
-0.09679379314184189,
-0.618113100528717,
-0.30188727378845215,
0.5558183789253235,
0.04681664705276489,
-1.1260528564453125,
0.920526921749115,
0.18076497316360474,
0.545466959476471,
0.2609938383102417,
0.13423651456832886,
-0.085186667740345,
-0.29975640773773193,
0.1735030561685562,
0.15142729878425598,
0.02995648793876171,
-0.2636452317237854,
-0.04312552139163017,
-0.0524325929582119,
-0.10580610483884811,
-0.21946373581886292,
1.1764603853225708,
0.1554780751466751,
-0.25652876496315,
0.07386063784360886,
-0.24498498439788818,
0.3738638460636139,
0.1594417542219162,
-0.18021756410598755,
0.47672659158706665,
-0.23920674622058868,
-0.17039154469966888,
0.14198218286037445,
0.40146660804748535,
-0.476046621799469,
-0.39860999584198,
-0.0011030525201931596,
0.05557454004883766,
-0.7480631470680237,
0.45776933431625366,
0.26011818647384644,
0.29672566056251526,
-0.1964503675699234,
-0.08462915569543839,
0.5189294815063477,
0.523579478263855,
-0.16432428359985352,
0.1442740261554718,
0.9025807976722717,
-0.3006671071052551,
0.033820364624261856,
0.1158168837428093,
0.9237548112869263,
0.22830791771411896,
-0.341598242521286,
0.06785045564174652,
0.58233243227005,
0.22618915140628815,
0.03150781989097595,
-0.037005893886089325,
-0.02833179570734501,
-0.19250693917274475,
0.5221652388572693,
0.15672567486763,
0.1364869475364685,
-0.03434169664978981,
-0.21486929059028625,
-0.4450176954269409,
0.26884299516677856,
0.6078572869300842,
0.2784470021724701,
0.29677942395210266,
0.17840906977653503,
-0.8419738411903381,
0.6643208861351013,
-0.03013523854315281,
-0.15939369797706604,
0.011416143737733364,
-0.49357348680496216,
-0.5083436965942383,
-0.8956674337387085,
0.1663762629032135,
0.7936258316040039,
0.05612247437238693,
-0.48435965180397034,
-0.0624251514673233,
-0.36864179372787476,
0.43258556723594666,
-0.3863859176635742,
0.07984857261180878,
-1.010656476020813,
-0.34720471501350403,
0.5729721188545227,
0.3851515054702759,
0.1261007934808731,
-0.6968257427215576,
0.27049511671066284,
0.14977595210075378,
1.0674225091934204,
0.5660645961761475,
-0.642572820186615,
-0.09597568958997726,
0.21600279211997986,
0.21408811211585999,
0.3127020597457886,
0.5914141535758972,
-0.5448477864265442,
0.059258196502923965,
0.3855958878993988,
-5.255548477172852,
0.5532987117767334,
0.2850874960422516,
-0.15829849243164062,
0.48217180371284485,
0.5573660731315613,
0.29079338908195496,
-0.5058593153953552,
-0.4134666919708252,
-0.2672770321369171,
0.1827247142791748,
-0.004631941672414541,
-0.08572187274694443,
0.1233411431312561,
0.3706221878528595,
-0.4837351143360138,
-0.17848972976207733,
0.08764408528804779,
-0.044185008853673935,
0.001992839854210615,
0.10480403155088425,
0.39313411712646484,
-0.037595201283693314,
-0.11755633354187012,
0.27666613459587097,
-0.06581584364175797,
-0.22921499609947205,
-0.5856329202651978,
-0.20024685561656952,
-0.4330958425998688,
0.08598838001489639,
-0.39503026008605957,
-0.027447465807199478,
-0.14763152599334717,
0.24174025654792786,
-0.789889931678772,
0.21900005638599396,
0.5117756128311157,
0.23662880063056946,
-0.1252628117799759,
-0.5169152617454529,
0.2720634937286377,
-0.1410859227180481,
-0.05198976397514343,
0.3809509873390198,
-0.1285443902015686,
0.19055576622486115,
-0.788390040397644,
0.2218216359615326,
0.40102970600128174,
-0.3444148898124695,
-0.18746300041675568,
-0.07842816412448883,
0.7021239399909973,
0.37013188004493713,
0.016815543174743652,
-0.6429411768913269,
0.4145925045013428,
-0.37430498003959656,
0.4710503816604614,
0.718683123588562,
-0.5440337657928467,
-0.45978236198425293,
-0.8480868935585022,
-0.1815624237060547,
0.02271198108792305,
-0.8993654251098633,
0.23202648758888245,
0.7747398614883423,
0.38030099868774414,
0.542341947555542,
0.379573255777359,
-0.2541082501411438,
-0.8404108881950378,
0.5985226631164551,
-0.7452409267425537,
-0.01112851407378912,
-0.32211819291114807,
-0.28831884264945984,
-0.05001312121748924,
0.1556314378976822,
-0.6156482100486755,
0.15434564650058746,
0.2476828694343567,
-0.191962331533432,
-0.9220008254051208,
-0.598816990852356,
-0.10002496838569641,
-0.10954102873802185,
-1.0364354848861694,
0.15791931748390198,
-0.7598655223846436,
-0.1526004523038864,
0.1052091121673584,
0.6927092671394348,
0.5649397969245911,
0.008439278230071068,
0.2576659619808197,
0.6030219793319702,
-0.05131296068429947,
0.8898320198059082,
-0.2577461302280426,
-0.15694954991340637,
-0.48576873540878296,
0.06269992887973785,
-0.5834305286407471,
0.00655176118016243,
0.8577775955200195,
0.8092274069786072,
-0.27149683237075806,
0.45018866658210754,
-0.44207242131233215,
-0.6468154788017273,
0.06356417387723923,
0.17181473970413208,
0.2785630524158478,
0.054678045213222504,
-0.4806472659111023,
0.6653398871421814,
0.2713218033313751,
0.6132568120956421,
-0.003078155918046832,
-0.21632589399814606,
-0.08711512386798859,
-0.6729934215545654,
-0.4722162187099457,
0.3951161801815033,
-0.1467474400997162,
-1.3739556074142456,
-0.8720139861106873,
-0.028786486014723778,
-0.05895695835351944,
-0.2865276038646698,
-0.5160627961158752,
0.28109025955200195,
-0.15006574988365173,
-0.19468215107917786,
0.3477669954299927,
0.3537362515926361,
0.04507649317383766,
-0.3117106854915619,
-0.5841807723045349,
-0.014844084158539772,
-0.15691807866096497,
0.5190420746803284,
0.5295101404190063,
-0.8072760701179504,
-0.5386571288108826,
-0.09845764935016632,
0.7434372901916504,
-0.30620431900024414,
-0.6075150370597839,
-0.02165653556585312,
-0.47003427147865295,
0.6716440320014954,
-0.37877434492111206,
0.48123276233673096,
0.15850262343883514,
0.2968967854976654,
-0.6817474961280823,
0.06490962952375412,
-0.24433748424053192,
-0.8558769226074219,
-0.11949558556079865,
0.42941251397132874,
-0.13822303712368011,
-0.5336170196533203,
-0.22233156859874725,
0.40784648060798645,
0.2883237898349762,
0.33866867423057556,
0.03512785583734512,
-0.25308263301849365,
0.10899273306131363,
-0.3295365273952484,
-0.11636638641357422,
-0.6808516383171082,
0.6074983477592468,
-0.24422499537467957,
0.17618995904922485,
-0.38411322236061096,
0.7505192756652832,
0.19724203646183014,
-0.05546450987458229,
0.6503547430038452,
-0.4201694428920746,
-0.033627260476350784,
0.555504322052002,
-0.1546088308095932,
-0.3025410771369934,
0.32006776332855225,
0.2656794786453247,
0.32342827320098877,
0.4401826560497284,
-0.5521072149276733,
-0.36223334074020386,
-0.4092768728733063,
0.9914554357528687,
0.012076393701136112,
-0.5990819334983826,
-0.043382998555898666,
0.09641476720571518,
0.32973262667655945,
0.047359831631183624,
-0.29818692803382874,
-0.4186074137687683,
0.6575208306312561,
-0.4074994921684265,
-1.0143436193466187,
0.48739930987358093,
-0.05531114339828491,
-0.787217378616333,
-0.249588742852211,
1.2815924882888794,
-0.4971315860748291,
0.07008522748947144,
0.23427574336528778,
0.22570963203907013,
0.014059195294976234,
0.41425812244415283,
-0.5675773024559021,
-0.28307104110717773,
0.2374255210161209,
0.016348810866475105,
-0.6144151091575623,
0.08128276467323303,
-0.1039440929889679,
0.11556615680456161,
0.6712206602096558,
-0.7724345326423645,
-0.2160133719444275,
-0.10898255556821823,
0.46883758902549744,
0.06703636795282364,
-0.283625066280365,
0.022831205278635025,
0.029990551993250847,
-0.39162755012512207,
0.03074759431183338,
0.34278571605682373,
0.786331832408905,
0.8315921425819397,
0.5461549758911133,
0.02409808523952961,
-0.08902880549430847,
0.34995341300964355,
-0.18802616000175476,
0.2966611385345459,
-0.6016716361045837,
-0.41292881965637207,
0.8223447203636169,
0.2565120756626129,
-0.21032093465328217,
0.36818698048591614,
0.411530077457428,
0.20718900859355927,
-0.07083453983068466,
0.02093564160168171,
-0.2601437568664551,
0.5801134705543518,
0.5699966549873352,
0.6601409912109375,
-0.4600631296634674,
0.39130815863609314,
0.0069984435103833675,
-0.33195430040359497,
-0.7831847071647644,
0.17077991366386414,
0.12036599218845367,
0.06383214145898819,
0.01376153714954853,
0.003796149278059602,
0.2584453523159027,
0.10873326659202576,
0.1663806289434433,
0.7520899772644043,
-0.34889325499534607,
-1.0646493434906006,
0.1510390043258667,
0.3366239070892334,
-0.5664590001106262,
-0.22060558199882507,
0.3974570333957672,
-0.37894749641418457,
-0.27022603154182434,
-0.008083249442279339,
-0.2777203619480133,
-0.23304936289787292,
0.2271968424320221,
-1.0149478912353516,
-0.4513327479362488,
-0.4887440800666809,
-0.5228416323661804,
0.10997361689805984,
-0.03133895620703697,
0.003261117497459054,
-0.011046195402741432,
0.4461848735809326,
0.13586588203907013,
0.1949780434370041,
-0.8719348907470703,
0.3585577607154846,
0.03121616132557392,
-0.4379543960094452,
0.7334495782852173,
-0.14812980592250824,
-0.2869291305541992,
0.12678489089012146,
-0.11503633111715317,
-0.4679233133792877,
0.663361668586731,
-0.4104369282722473,
-0.5177571773529053,
0.6394787430763245,
-0.30097097158432007,
0.2223881334066391,
-0.02250635251402855,
-0.4630981981754303,
0.6301727890968323,
0.6122792959213257,
0.37461933493614197,
-0.06869319826364517,
0.7496712803840637,
0.9068178534507751,
-0.527934193611145,
0.16718420386314392,
-0.6235782504081726,
-0.1315254122018814,
1.043186068534851,
0.7076874375343323,
0.0948849618434906,
0.17915567755699158,
-0.3911222219467163,
-0.2524392306804657,
-0.044204216450452805,
0.2979186475276947,
0.10167036950588226,
-0.8068328499794006,
-0.22208136320114136,
1.2174596786499023,
0.7262474298477173,
0.27813875675201416,
0.41803741455078125,
0.10968273878097534,
-0.13165108859539032,
0.10655790567398071,
-0.6573664546012878,
0.07611853629350662,
0.08958674222230911,
-0.32416823506355286,
0.07007987052202225,
-0.16862109303474426,
0.08213880658149719,
-0.5113281607627869,
0.2782171070575714,
0.4767467677593231,
0.23944786190986633,
0.23687800765037537,
-0.765024721622467,
0.2171231061220169,
-0.13395079970359802,
0.5735560059547424,
0.01604955829679966,
-0.12833786010742188,
-1.2365081310272217,
0.8255059123039246,
-0.3944576680660248,
-0.534361720085144,
-0.27136027812957764,
0.10941237211227417,
-0.1756099909543991,
0.103845976293087,
0.0497765950858593,
-0.5287206172943115,
0.5207334756851196,
0.3938177525997162,
-0.28513234853744507,
0.7628080248832703,
-0.0855521634221077,
0.10461241006851196,
-0.5146526098251343,
0.11850731819868088,
0.4852711260318756,
-0.6669294834136963,
0.4826371371746063,
-0.35387852787971497,
-0.3364954888820648,
-0.738651692867279,
-0.32037633657455444,
-0.20478157699108124,
-0.48612579703330994,
-1.1247130632400513,
0.013668405823409557,
-0.014095020480453968,
0.0525292232632637,
-1.0053585767745972,
0.6998459100723267,
1.226829171180725,
0.20656730234622955,
-0.1753556877374649,
0.42901208996772766,
0.27221715450286865,
-0.2940269410610199,
0.17075079679489136,
0.13116797804832458,
0.3202967941761017,
-0.457027792930603,
0.6776579022407532,
-0.22779548168182373,
0.4114724397659302,
0.4518950879573822,
0.42301422357559204,
-0.42180004715919495,
0.4561268091201782,
0.09777461737394333,
0.1384885609149933,
0.7555558681488037,
0.056576430797576904,
-0.27181658148765564,
-0.004621785134077072,
-0.16442149877548218,
0.011310791596770287,
0.2758936882019043,
0.035290803760290146,
0.31700071692466736,
-0.08831413090229034,
0.25170162320137024,
-0.15232586860656738,
-0.6957550644874573,
0.48499804735183716,
-0.6649710536003113,
0.38162267208099365,
-0.9049901962280273,
-0.1941702663898468,
-0.5386934280395508,
-0.48539987206459045,
0.5820656418800354,
0.15092439949512482,
-0.2909049689769745,
-0.17023921012878418,
0.4036474823951721,
-0.14736628532409668,
0.5692903995513916,
-0.1830093115568161,
-0.34245729446411133,
0.05667506903409958,
0.0722661092877388,
-0.7657153010368347,
-0.7193456292152405,
0.08339571207761765,
0.4051249027252197,
-0.3246396780014038,
-0.006249505095183849,
-0.032338012009859085,
-0.21686536073684692,
0.19011102616786957,
0.19376230239868164,
-0.3120346963405609,
0.15851160883903503,
-0.022030659019947052
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.