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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20harrier
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Northern harrier
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The northern harrier (Circus hudsonius) is a bird of prey.
It breeds throughout the northern parts of the northern hemisphere in Canada and the northernmost USA. While many taxonomic authorities split the northern harrier and the hen harrier into distinct species, others consider them conspecific.
It migrates to more southerly areas in winter with breeding birds in more northerly areas moving to the southernmost USA, Mexico, and Central America. In milder regions in the southern US, they may be present all year, but the higher ground is largely deserted in winter. This bird inhabits prairies, open areas, and marshes.
Description
The northern harrier is long with a wingspan. It resembles other harriers in having distinct male and female plumages. The sexes also differ in weight, with males weighing , with an average of , and females weighing , with an average of . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is and the tarsus is . It is relatively long winged and long tailed, having the longest wing and tail relative to its body size of any raptor occurring in North America.
The northern harrier has been split from the hen harrier by some taxonomists based on genetic analysis. It breeds in North America and its closest relative is the Cinereous Harrier (C. cinereus). The male's plumage is darker grey than that of the hen harrier and the female is also darker and more rufous. The adult male is sometimes nicknamed the "Grey Ghost", because of his striking plumage and spectral aura.
The female gives a whistled piih-eh when receiving food from the male, and her alarm call is chit-it-it-it-it-et-it. The male calls chek-chek-chek, with a more bouncing chuk-uk-uk-uk during his display flight.
Behaviour
This medium-sized raptor breeds on moorland, bogs, prairies, farmland coastal prairies, marshes, grasslands, swamps and other assorted open areas. A male will maintain a territory averaging , though male territories have ranged from .
These are one of the few raptorial birds known to practice polygyny – one male mates with several females. Up to five females have been known to mate with one male in a season. The nest is built on the ground or on a mound of dirt or vegetation. Nests are made of sticks and are lined inside with grass and leaves. Four to eight (exceptionally 2 to 10) whitish eggs are laid. The eggs measure approximately . The eggs are incubated mostly by the female for 31 to 32 days. When incubating eggs, the female sits on the nest while the male hunts and brings food to her and the chicks. The male will help feed chicks after they hatch, but does not usually watch them for a greater period of time than around 5 minutes. The male usually passes off food to the female, which she then feeds to the young, although later the female will capture food and simply drop into the nest for her nestlings to eat. The chicks fledge at around 36 days old, though breeding maturity is not reached until 2 years in females and 3 years in males.
Hunting behavior
This is a typical harrier, which hunts on long wings held in a shallow V in its low flight during which the bird closely hugs the contours of the land below it. Northern or hen harriers hunt primarily small mammals, as do most harriers. Preferred prey species can include voles, cotton rats and ground squirrels. Up to 95% of the diet comprises small mammals. However, birds are hunted with some regularity as well, especially by males. Preferred avian prey include passerines of open country (i.e. sparrows, larks, pipits), small shorebirds and the young of waterfowl and galliforms. Supplementing the diet occasionally are amphibians (especially frogs), reptiles and insects (especially orthopterans). The species has been observed to hunt bats if these are available. Larger prey, such as rabbits and adult ducks are taken sometimes and harriers have been known to subdue these by drowning them in water. Harriers hunt by surprising prey while flying low to the ground in open areas, as they drift low over fields and moors. The harriers circle an area several times listening and looking for prey. Harriers use hearing regularly to find prey, as they have exceptionally good hearing for diurnal raptors, this being the function of their owl-like facial disc. This harrier tends to be a very vocal bird while it glides over its hunting ground.
Mortality and competition
Little information is available on longevity in northern harriers. The longest lived known bird is 16 years and 5 months. However, adults rarely live more than 8 years. Early mortality mainly results from predation. Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons, skunks, badgers, foxes, crows and ravens, dogs and owls. Fledglings are also predated regularly, especially by great horned owls. Both parents attack potential predators with alarm calls and striking with talons. Short-eared owls are natural competitors of this species that favor the same prey and habitat, as well as having a similarly broad distribution. Occasionally, both harriers and short-eared owls will harass each other until the victim drops its prey and it can be stolen, a practice known as kleptoparasitism. Most commonly, the harriers are the aggressors pirating prey from owls.
Status
This species has a large range, and there is evidence of a population decline, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). It is therefore classified as "least concern".
Relationship with humans
Some Native American tribes believe that seeing a hawk on your wedding day is a sign of a long, happy marriage. Unlike many raptors, hen or northern harriers have historically been favorably regarded by farmers because they eat mice that damage crops and predators of quail eggs. Harriers are sometimes called "good hawks" because they pose no threat to poultry as some hawks do. Heavy pesticide use in the 1970s and 1980s caused a decline in harrier populations.
References
External links
Northern Harrier Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
northern harrier
Birds of prey of North America
Birds of the Dominican Republic
northern harrier
northern harrier
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203838
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter%2C%20New%20Hampshire
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Exeter, New Hampshire
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Exeter is a town in Rockingham County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 16,049 at the 2020 census, up from 14,306 at the 2010 census. Exeter was the county seat until 1997, when county offices were moved to neighboring Brentwood. Home to Phillips Exeter Academy, a private university-preparatory school, Exeter is situated where the Exeter River becomes the tidal Squamscott River.
The urban center of town, where 10,109 people resided at the 2020 census, is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as the Exeter census-designated place.
History
The area was once the domain of the Squamscott people, a sub-tribe of the Pennacook nation, which fished at the falls where the Exeter River becomes the tidal Squamscott, the site around which the future town of Exeter would grow. On April 3, 1638, the Reverend John Wheelwright and others purchased the land from Wehanownowit, the sagamore. Wheelwright had been exiled by the Massachusetts Bay Colony, a Puritan theocracy, for sharing the dissident religious views of his sister-in-law, Anne Hutchinson. The minister took with him about 175 individuals to found the town he named after Exeter in Devon, England. Local government was linked with Massachusetts until New Hampshire became a separate colony in 1679, but counties weren't introduced until 1769.
One of the four original townships in the province, Exeter originally included Newmarket, Newfields, Brentwood, Epping and Fremont. On July 4, 1639, 35 freemen of Exeter signed the Exeter Combination, a document written by Reverend Wheelwright to establish their own government. The settlers hunted, planted and fished. Others tended cattle and swine, or made shakes and barrel staves.
Thomas Wilson established the town's first grist mill on the eastern side of the island in the lower falls. This mill was established within the first season of settling in Exeter, and his son Humphrey assumed control of the mill in 1643, when Thomas died.
Some early Exeter settlers came from Hingham, Massachusetts, including the Gilman, Folsom and Leavitt families. In 1647, Edward Gilman, Jr. established the first sawmill, and by 1651 Gilman had his own 50-ton sloop with which to conduct his burgeoning business in lumber, staves and masts. Although he was lost at sea in 1653 while traveling to England to purchase equipment for his mills, his family later became prominent as lumbermen, shipbuilders, merchants and statesmen.
The Gilman Garrison House, a National Historic Landmark, and the American Independence Museum were both former homes of the Gilman family. The Gilman family also donated the land on which Phillips Exeter Academy stands, including the academy's original Yard, the oldest part of campus. The Gilmans of Exeter also furnished America with one of its founding fathers, Nicholas Gilman, and the state of New Hampshire with treasurers, a governor, representatives to the General Assembly and judges to the General Court.
The Gilman family began trading as far as the West Indies with ships they owned out of Portsmouth. It was a high-stakes business. In an 1803 voyage, for instance, the 180-ton clipper Oliver Peabody, owned by Gov. John Taylor Gilman, Oliver Peabody, Col. Gilman Leavitt and others, was boarded by brigs belonging to the Royal Navy under command of Admiral Horatio Nelson. Enforcing a blockade against the French, Nelson offered ship Captain Stephen Gilman of Exeter a glass of wine and paid him for his cargo in Spanish dollars. The trip demonstrates how far afield the ambitious merchants of Exeter reached in their trading forays.
Exeter suffered its last Indian raid in August 1723, and by 1725 the tribes had left the area. In 1774 the rebellious Provincial Congress began to meet in the Exeter Town House after colonial Governor John Wentworth banned it from the colonial capitol at Portsmouth. In July 1775, the Provincial Congress had the provincial records seized from royal officials in Portsmouth and brought to Exeter as well. And so Exeter became New Hampshire's capital, an honor it held for 14 years.
Exeter had a significant Black community at this time. In 1790, at the first census, Exeter had a community of 81 free Blacks (in 14 households, 11 of which they owned), and two enslaved Blacks. This was the highest percentage of Blacks in the state at 4.7%. Many Blacks, such as Jude Hall (namesake of Jude's Pond on Drinkwater Road), earned their freedom fighting in the Revolutionary War, and many settled near the west bank of the Squamscott River after the war. Jude Hall is buried in the Winter Street cemetery. Reverend Thomas Paul of the African Meeting House in Boston was born in Exeter near this time, and later in 1822 the abolitionist poet James Monroe Whitfield, a nephew of Jude Hall. In the late 1800s, two men had two dry goods stores on Water Street, John Garrison Cutler and George Harris. The net worth of both men were in the top tiers of Exeter at the time.
In 1827, the Exeter Manufacturing Company was established beside the river, using water power to produce cotton textiles. Other businesses would manufacture shoes, saddles, harnesses, lumber, boxes, bricks, carriages and bicycles. In 1836, the last schooner was launched at Exeter. In 1840, the Boston & Maine Railroad entered the town.
According to former governor Hugh Gregg, the United States Republican Party was born in Exeter on October 12, 1853, at the Squamscott Hotel at a secret meeting of Amos Tuck with other abolitionists. At this meeting, Tuck proposed forming a new political party to be called Republican. Upon learning of Tuck's meeting, in December 1853 Horace Greeley said, "I think 'Republican' would be the best name, it will sound both Jeffersonian and Madisonian, and for that reason will take well." Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican president, visited Exeter in 1860. His son, Robert Todd Lincoln, was attending Phillips Exeter Academy, the college preparatory school founded in 1781 by Dr. John Phillips. The town was also once home to the Robinson Female Seminary, established in 1867 and previously known as the Exeter Female Academy (established in 1826). Its landmark Second Empire schoolhouse, completed in 1869, burned in 1961.
In September 1965, Exeter earned a place in UFO history when local teenager Norman Muscarello and two Exeter police officers, Eugene Bertrand and David Hunt, witnessed a bright red UFO at close range. Their sighting attracted national publicity and became the focus of a bestselling book, Incident at Exeter, by journalist John G. Fuller. The Air Force eventually admitted that it had been unable to identify the strange object, and it is still considered by many UFO buffs to be one of the most impressive UFO sightings on record.
Exeter has a considerable inventory of structures by prominent architects. Arthur Gilman, descendant of one of Exeter's founding families, designed the Old Town Hall of 1855. The Old Public Library of 1894, which now is home to the Exeter Historical Society, was designed by the Boston firm of Rotch & Tilden. Ralph Adams Cram, who trained with Rotch & Tilden, designed both Phillips Church, built in 1897, and Tuck High School, built in 1911. His firm of Cram & Ferguson designed the entire Phillips Exeter Academy campus between 1908 and 1950. More recent is the noted Academy Library, built in 1971 to the design of Louis I. Kahn. Daniel Chester French, sculptor and Exeter native, created the town's war memorial in 1922. He is best known for his statue of Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C. at the Lincoln Memorial, which was designed by Henry Bacon, who also designed in 1916 the Swasey Pavilion at Exeter's town square.
Other features of the town include the Swasey Parkway, which replaced wharves and warehouses along the Squamscott River, and the Ioka Theatre of 1915 on Water Street. The latter was built by Edward Mayer, an Exeter judge and resident. Mayer's opening feature was The Birth of a Nation, by D. W. Griffith. The theatre's curious name was proposed in a contest by a young woman with an enthusiasm for Scouting. Ioka was a Native American word meaning "playground".
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of , of which are land and are water, comprising 1.80% of the town. Exeter is drained by the Exeter River, which feeds the tidal Squamscott River in the center of town. Exeter's highest point is above sea level, on Great Hill at the town's southwest corner. Exeter lies fully within the Piscataqua River (Coastal) watershed.
Adjacent municipalities
Newfields, New Hampshire (north)
Stratham, New Hampshire (east)
Hampton, New Hampshire (southeast)
Hampton Falls, New Hampshire (southeast)
Kensington, New Hampshire (south)
East Kingston, New Hampshire (southwest)
Kingston, New Hampshire (southwest)
Brentwood, New Hampshire (west)
Epping, New Hampshire (northwest)
Demographics
As of the 2010 census, there were 14,306 people, 6,114 households, and 3,729 families residing in the town. The population density was 729.9 people per square mile (281.1/km). There were 6,496 housing units at an average density of 331.4 per square mile (127.6/km). The racial makeup of the town was 95.5% White, 0.6% African American, 0.1% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 0.2% some other race, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.77% of the population.
There were 6,114 households, out of which 29.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.5% were headed by married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families. 32.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28, and the average family size was 2.92.
In the town, the age distribution of the population was 22.6% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 22.5% from 25 to 44, 30.8% from 45 to 64, and 18.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.
For the period 2007-11, the estimated median annual income for a household in the town was $68,777, and the median income for a family was $95,435. Male full-time workers had a median income of $64,632 versus $41,088 for females. The per capita income for the town was $38,018. About 2.5% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.2% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
The Amtrak Downeaster stops at Exeter, providing passenger rail service to Portland and Boston.
Exeter is served by four exits (9–12) from Route 101, and Interstate 95 is about to the east. Routes 27, 85, 108, 111, and 111A meet at the town's center, and Route 88 is on the east side of the town.
Economy
In 1990 the SIGARMS, Inc. company moved to Exeter. When it was bought by Michael Lüke and Thomas Ortmeier in October 2000, the name was changed to SIG Sauer Inc. Today, SIG Sauer is one of the world's largest firearms manufacturing entities.
Bauer Hockey's global headquarters is in Exeter.
Notable people
Sites of interest
American Independence Museum
Congregational Church in Exeter, founded 1638
Exeter Historical Society & Museum
Phillips Exeter Academy
See also
List of newspapers in New Hampshire: Exeter
Exeter Inn
References
Further reading
Cross-Grained & Wiley Waters: A Guide to the Piscataqua Maritime Region, Jeffrey W. Bolster, Editor; Peter Randall Publisher, Portsmouth, 2001
Exeter New Hampshire 1888-1988, Nancy C. Merrill; Peter E. Randall, Publisher, Exeter, NH 1988
History of Exeter, New Hampshire, Charles H. Bell, Exeter, NH 1888; Reprinted by Heritage Books, 1990
Images of America: Exeter, Carol Walker Aten; Arcadia Publishers, Dover, NH, 1996, reprint 1998
Ports of Piscataqua: Soundings in the Maritime History of the Portsmouth, N.H., Customs District from the Days of Queen Elizabeth and the Planting of Strawberry Banke to the Times of Abraham Lincoln and the Waning of the American Clipper, William Gurdon Saltonstall, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1941
Postcards from Exeter, Carol Walker Aten; Arcadia Publishers, Dover, NH, 2003
The Exeter-Squamscott: River of Many Uses, Olive Tardiff; Peter E. Randall, Publisher, Exeter, NH 1986, 2004
External links
Exeter Historical Society
SAU 16, Exeter Area School District
Exeter Public Library
New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile
Exeter LitFest: Literary Trail Walking Maps
New Hampshire
Towns in Rockingham County, New Hampshire
Towns in New Hampshire
1638 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Populated places established in 1638
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starship%20Troopers%20%28film%29
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Starship Troopers (film)
|
Starship Troopers is a 1997 American military science fiction action film directed by Paul Verhoeven and written by Edward Neumeier, based on Robert A. Heinlein's 1959 novel of the same name. The story follows a young soldier named Johnny Rico and his exploits in the Mobile Infantry, a futuristic military unit. Rico's military career progresses from recruit, to non-commissioned officer, and finally to officer, against the backdrop of an interstellar war between mankind and an insectoid species known as Arachnids.
The only theatrically released film in the Starship Troopers franchise, reviews were initially negative upon release; however, it has received a more positive reception in recent years, with many critics highlighting the film's political satire. It grossed $54.5 million in the U.S., and a total of $121.2 million worldwide, against a budget of $105 million. In 1998, the film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 70th Academy Awards. In 2012, Slant Magazine ranked the film #20 on its list of "The 100 Best Films of the 1990s".
The film has spawned several sequels – two live-action films, Starship Troopers 2: Hero of the Federation (2004) and Starship Troopers 3: Marauder (2008), and two computer-animated films, Starship Troopers: Invasion (2012) and Starship Troopers: Traitor of Mars (2017).
Plot
In the 23rd century, while colonizing new planets, humans have encountered a hostile non-technological insectoid species known as Arachnids, but commonly referred to as "Bugs". The Bugs appear to be little more than savage, unrelenting killing machines, though there are suggestions that they were provoked by the intrusion of humans into their habitats.
In the United Citizen Federation, citizenship is earned by performing activities such as military service, which grants individuals opportunities prohibited to basic civilians. After graduating from high school in Buenos Aires, John "Johnny" Rico, his girlfriend Carmen Ibáñez, and psychic best friend Carl Jenkins enlist in the Federal Service, despite Rico's parents' disapproval of military service. Carmen becomes a spaceship pilot, while Carl joins Military Intelligence. Rico enlists in the Mobile Infantry (the M.I.) and surprisingly finds that Isabelle "Dizzy" Flores, his former classmate who also has romantic feelings for him, has deliberately transferred to his squad.
In Mobile Infantry basic training, Career Sergeant Zim ruthlessly trains the recruits. Rico befriends fellow cadet Ace Levy and is later promoted to squad leader. He subsequently receives a Dear John letter from Carmen, as she desires a career with the fleet and now serves under Rico's high-school sports rival, Zander Barcalow. Following a live-fire training incident that kills one of Rico's squad members and causes another to quit out of guilt, Rico is demoted and flogged. He resigns and calls his parents to ask them if he can return home, but rescinds his resignation after an asteroid, reported to have been launched by the Arachnids, obliterates Buenos Aires, killing his parents and millions of others.
An invasion force is deployed to Klendathu, the Arachnids' home planet, but the operation severely underestimates the Arachnids and is a total disaster. Rico is severely wounded and mistakenly reported killed in action. After recovering, he, Ace, and Dizzy are reassigned to the "Roughnecks", an elite unit commanded by Lt. Jean Rasczak, Rico's former high-school teacher. He quickly gains the respect of his peers and is promoted to the rank of Corporal after destroying a tanker Bug. His relationship with Dizzy continues to grow, and they have sex during their night on Tango Urilla.
The Roughnecks respond to a distress call from Planet "P", where they reconnoiter an outpost that has been devastated by Bugs. They soon realize that the distress call was a trap, and the Arachnids swarm the outpost. Rico, now an acting sergeant, euthanizes a mortally wounded Rasczak after a buried tanker Bug bites off his legs. Dizzy is killed, but Carmen and Zander rescue the surviving Roughnecks. At Dizzy's funeral, Rico and Carmen encounter Carl, now a high-ranking intelligence officer. Revealing that there is reason to believe an intelligent "Brain Bug" is directing the other Bugs and has been learning how to fight humans, Carl field-promotes Rico to lieutenant and gives him command of the Roughnecks, ordering the Mobile Infantry units under his control to return to "P" in an attempt to capture the Brain Bug.
The fleet encounters unexpected heavy fire from the Bugs and Carmen's ship is destroyed. Carmen and Zander's escape pod crashes into a Bug tunnel system near Rico. They are surrounded by Bugs, and a Brain Bug uses its proboscis to pierce Zander's skull and eat his brain. As it is about to do the same to Carmen, she cuts off its proboscis with a knife. Rico, Watkins and Ace arrive and threaten the Bugs with a small nuclear bomb, which the Brain Bug recognizes. They flee while the Brain Bug escapes. Arachnids pursue them and Watkins, mortally wounded, sacrifices himself by detonating the bomb to enable the others to escape.
After returning to the surface, they find that former Sergeant Zim, who had requested a demotion to private so that he could serve at the front, has captured the Brain Bug. Carl tells Rico and Carmen that the humans will soon be victorious now that Military Intelligence can study the Brain Bug. Carl mentally scans the Bug and reveals that it is afraid, and the troops rejoice. A propaganda clip shows Carmen, Ace, and Rico as model servicemen, encouraging viewers to enlist in the armed forces.
Cast
Production
Development and writing
Script writer Ed Neumeier had been a fan of the novel since his childhood. Paul Verhoeven on the other hand had never read the book and attempted to read it for the film but it made him "bored and depressed", so he read only a few chapters:
I stopped after two chapters because it was so boring … It is really quite a bad book. I asked Ed Neumeier to tell me the story because I just couldn't read the thing. It's a very right-wing book.
Neumeier had previously worked with Verhoeven as a writer on RoboCop (1987).
During production the film had the working title Bug Hunt at Outpost Nine.
The "Bug planet" scenes were filmed in the badlands of Hell's Half Acre in Natrona County, Wyoming.
Two nude scenes were kept in the original version (the co-ed shower and a bedroom scene with Rico and Dizzy), although these were modified in the broadcast version. The cast agreed to do the co-ed shower scene only if Verhoeven agreed to direct the scene naked, which he did. Verhoeven found it strange "Americans get more upset about nudity than ultra-violence. I am constantly amazed about that. I mean, I haven't seen any sex scenes in American film that are anything other than completely boring. A bare breast is more difficult to get through the censors than a body riddled with bullets."
In the audio commentary on the DVD or Blu-ray release, Verhoeven remarks that he had hoped to cast actors whose age more closely matched that of the characters, but that the producers felt such actors would look too young. The teacher and leader of the "Roughnecks" in the novel are combined into one role played by Ironside.
Test audience reactions led to several minor changes before the film was released. Originally, it was clear that Carmen was torn between Rico and Zander. Test audiences, regardless of gender, strongly felt that a woman could not love two men at once, so scenes which portrayed this were cut. These audiences also felt it was immoral for Carmen to choose a career ahead of being loyal to Rico, to the extent that many commented that, in so doing, Carmen should have been the one to die instead of Dizzy. While admitting it may have been a bad commercial decision not to change the film to accommodate this, the producer and director did cut a scene from after Zander's death in which Carmen and Rico kiss, which the audience believed made the previous betrayal even more immoral.
Relationship to novel
There are many differences between the film and Heinlein's 1959 novel. While the novel has been accused of promoting militarism, fascism, and military rule, the film satirizes these concepts by featuring bombastic displays of nationalism as well as news reports that are intensely xenophobic and propagandistic.
Verhoeven stated in 1997 that the first scene of the film—an advertisement for the Mobile Infantry—was adapted shot-for-shot from a scene in Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935), specifically an outdoor rally for the Reich Labour Service. Other allusions to Nazism include the Wehrmacht-inspired uniforms and insignia of field grade officers, Military Intelligence working uniforms reminiscent of Mussolini's Blackshirts, Albert Speer's style of architecture and its propagandistic dialogue ("Violence is the supreme authority!").
In a 2014 interview on The Adam Carolla Show, the actor Michael Ironside, who read the novel as a youth, said that he asked Verhoeven, who grew up in the German-occupied Netherlands, "Why are you doing a right-wing fascist movie?" Verhoeven replied, "If I tell the world that a right-wing, fascist way of doing things doesn't work, no one will listen to me. So I'm going to make a perfect fascist world: everyone is beautiful, everything is shiny, everything has big guns and fancy ships but it's only good for killing fucking Bugs!"
Themes
The film includes visual allusions to propaganda films such as Why We Fight, Triumph of the Will and wartime newsreels, and the symbols and certain clothing styles of the Federation are modeled on those of the Nazis (e.g., windbreakers, suits, caps, etc. Furthermore, the military intelligence officer's uniforms bear a striking similarity to those of the Allgemeine-SS). The use of Nazi imagery for the film's Americanized heroes occasioned comment. At the time of the film's theatrical release, the filmmakers did not explain their reasons for this choice. Some viewers interpreted it as a satirical takedown of fascism, while others saw a celebration of it.
In his DVD commentary, Verhoeven said that the film's message is that "War makes fascists of us all". He evoked Nazi Germany's fashion, iconography and propaganda because he saw it as a natural evolution of the United States after World War II and especially after the Korean War. "I've heard this film nicknamed All Quiet on the Final Frontier", he said, "which is actually not far from the truth." Screenwriter Edward Neumeier broadly concurs, although he sees a satire on human history rather than solely the United States. Verhoeven says his satirical use of irony and hyperbole is "playing with fascism or fascist imagery to point out certain aspects of American society... of course, the movie is about 'Let's all go to war and let's all die.'"
Verhoeven also compared the film to previous creature features from the 1950s, such as Them! (1954) and The Deadly Mantis (1957). Speaking about these films, he said they "expressed the fear about the nuclear threat at the time and the feelings of helplessness and despair it caused", while Starship Troopers (which was filmed in a post-Cold War United States) was about "having no more enemies." He also discussed how making movies of the sort are difficult due to political correctness but "if it's big insects that you can shoot to pieces, nobody cares." Tying this into the theme of the film, he said the statement of the film is that "we like enemies."
Reception
Contemporary response
On release, Starship Troopers received negative reviews from American critics. In a 2017 retrospective round-up of the best films of 1997, The A.V. Club critic Ignatiy Vishnevetsky called the film "too damn well-made for its own good" and said that it confused audiences and critics. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, which collects both contemporaneous and modern reviews, it has a 65% approval rating based on 65 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's consensus is: "A fun movie...if you can accept the excessive gore and wooden acting." On Metacritic, it has a rating of 51 out of 100 based on 20 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times panned the "crazed, lurid spectacle". Jeff Vice of the Deseret News called it "a nonstop splatterfest so devoid of taste and logic that it makes even the most brainless summer blockbuster look intelligent." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, also called it shallow and oriented toward teenage, male science fiction fans but nonetheless said Verhoeven managed some "sly satire" by maintaining a visual style reminiscent of the 1950s when the book was first published: "the sets and costumes look like a cross between Buck Rogers and the Archie comic books". Gene Siskel gave the film a marginal recommendation, praising the satire that "exposed the kick of killing" and the "technical computer artistry" of the bug effects, but saying the film got "repetitive" and "could've been cut by 20 minutes."
Starship Troopers was nominated for a number of awards in 1998, including the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects; the film won Saturn Awards for Best Costumes and Best Special Effects at the 1998 Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films, USA Awards. It was also nominated for Worst Picture at the Stinkers Bad Movie Awards but lost to Batman and Robin.
Modern reappraisal
More positive retrospectives of the film began to appear in the 2010s. These retrospectives generally de-emphasize the film's action elements and instead analyze it as an indictment of fascism and jingoism. In his 2013 retrospective, Calum Marsh of The Atlantic called the film a "...satire, a ruthlessly funny and keenly self-aware sendup of right-wing militarism...[that] critiques the military–industrial complex, the jingoism of American foreign policy, and a culture that privileges reactionary violence over sensitivity and reason." This type of appraisal of the film, although extant since at least the early 2010s, was only more broadly popularized in the latter part of the decade, after it was endorsed by internet celebrities such as PewDiePie and Macaulay Culkin.
These reappraisals often view the film's basic structure as essential to the success of its satire. In 2017, Ned Carter Miles of Little White Lies argued that the film's lack of internal self-awareness eliminates critical distance between the viewer and the in-universe propaganda presented on screen, creating an alienating effect. According to Miles, the film "exposes the suspect events and philosophy of Heinlein’s fictional universe on their own terms, without guiding our interpretation. Just like any other echo chamber, the film offers a singular message." Similarly, in 2021, Ben Sherlock of Game Rant claimed that the film's use of a non-human opponent allows it fundamentally to satirize the nature of war and fighting, something he argues that war films featuring human adversaries are unable fully to accomplish.
In a slide show accompanying a 2012 article for Salon by comedian and writer Aasif Mandvi, Max Rivlin-Nadler criticized Casper Van Dien's casting as an example of whitewashing compared to the character's Filipino origins in the book.
Other media
Merchandise
In 1997 Avalon Hill released Starship Troopers: Prepare for Battle!, a board game based on the film version rather than Heinlein's book. Its gameplay focused on limited skirmishes rather than larger battles. Avalon Hill had previously released a game called Robert Heinlein's Starship Troopers in 1976.
A real-time tactics video game titled Starship Troopers: Terran Ascendancy was released in 2000. This game also incorporated the powered suits in Heinlein's novel into the Verhoeven version of the Mobile Infantry. It was developed by Australian software company Blue Tongue Entertainment.
A first-person shooter game also titled Starship Troopers was released November 15, 2005. This version was developed by Strangelite Studios and published by Empire Interactive. Set five years after the events of the film, the game also featured Van Dien voicing the in-game version of Johnny Rico.
Sega Pinball released a themed-pinball machine based on the film, and was re-released on The Pinball Arcade in 2015.
Sequels and proposed remake
The film has spawned four sequels, including two live-action films, Starship Troopers 2: Hero of the Federation (2004) and Starship Troopers 3: Marauder (2008), as well as two animated films, Starship Troopers: Invasion (2012) and Starship Troopers: Traitor of Mars (2017).
There was also a 1999 spin-off CGI animated half-hour television series entitled Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles, which ran for eight-story arcs (49 episodes, four of them being "clip shows") and ending on an unresolved cliffhanger.
In December 2011, film producer Neal Moritz announced plans to remake the film. In November 2016, Columbia and Moritz announced the writing team of Mark Swift and Damian Shannon had been signed to pen the screenplay. Verhoeven has expressed skepticism at the proposed remake, citing reports that it draws heavily from the original "fascistic and militaristic" 1959 novel.
See also
List of films featuring space stations
References
External links
1997 films
1990s science fiction action films
American science fiction adventure films
1990s satirical films
1990s science fiction adventure films
American coming-of-age films
American films
American satirical films
American science fiction action films
American science fiction war films
American splatter films
American teen films
1990s English-language films
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films based on American novels
Films based on science fiction novels
Films directed by Paul Verhoeven
Films scored by Basil Poledouris
Films set in Buenos Aires
Films set in the 23rd century
Films set on fictional planets
Films shot in South Dakota
Films shot in Wyoming
Impact event films
War adventure films
Starship Troopers films
Touchstone Pictures films
TriStar Pictures films
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] |
203843
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20shrike
|
Northern shrike
|
The northern shrike (Lanius borealis) is a large songbird species in the shrike family (Laniidae) native to North America and Siberia. Long considered a subspecies of the great grey shrike, it was classified as a distinct species in 2017. Six subspecies are recognised.
Taxonomy
The northern shrike was formally described by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1808 under its present binomial name Lanius borealis. In the 19th century, North American ornithologists considered it as a separate species from the great grey shrike, while European authorities held them to be the same species. American ornithologist Alden H. Miller investigated differences between the Siberian and Alaskan populations in 1930 and could find no consistent differences, hence he recommended the sinking of the two into Lanius excubitor.
In North America, this and the related loggerhead shrike are commonly known as butcherbirds for their habit of impaling prey on thorns or spikes. A folk name from Michigan is winter butcherbird. The Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation people of Old Crow, Yukon call it Tzi kwut go katshi lyi.
A 2010 study of mitochondrial DNA found that the northern shrike was most closely related to the Iberian grey shrike (Lanius meridionalis), the steppe grey shrike (Lanius pallidirostris), and the two formed a clade along with the Chinese grey shrike and loggerhead shrike.
Subspecies
East Eurasian group
Lanius borealis sibiricus – eastern Siberia to northern Mongolia
Browner above than excubitor, distinct but delicate banding below. Some white on primary bases only.
Lanius borealis bianchii – Sakhalin and possibly southern Kuril Islands
Smaller and paler than sibiricus, banding below pale and indistinct. Some white on primary bases only.
Lanius borealis mollis – Russian Altai Mountains, north western Mongolia
Browner than sibiricus above, banding below well-developed. Little white on primary bases.
Lanius borealis funereus – Tian Shan and western China
Large; quite dark and brownish, below bluish-grey with almost black banding. Little white on primary bases.
North American group
Lanius borealis borealis – Hudson Bay region of Ontario and Quebec
Similar to excubitor, but darker with faint barring below. John James Audubon called this subspecies the great American shrike in his book Birds of America.
Lanius borealis invictus – northern Alberta west to northern Alaska, perhaps also Chukchi Peninsula region in extreme north east Siberia
Larger and paler than borealis, paralleling homeyeri compared to excubitor.
Description
The loggerhead shrike can be distinguished from the northern shrike by its smaller size, darker grey plumage and larger black face mask that covers the eye completely. It also has a shorter bill with less prominent hook. Their calls are similar.
Measurements:
Length:
Weight:
Wingspan:
Distribution and habitat
Observations of wintering habitats in Idaho suggest suitable wintering territories are in demand, as northern shrikes that died in a particular area were quickly replaced.
Feeding
Northern shrikes often sit on tall poles and branches surveying for food. They prey on arthropods such as spiders, beetles, bugs, and grasshoppers, and small vertebrates. Prey identified include passerine birds such as horned lark, black-capped chickadee, common starling, brewer's sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, dark-eyed junco, pine siskin, house sparrow, small mammals such as the vagrant shrew, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, long-tailed vole, meadow vole and house mouse, and reptiles such as spiny lizards. They have been observed hunting finches and house sparrows at bird feeders.
References
External links
Northern shrike – Lanius borealis – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Northern shrike species account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
northern shrike
northern shrike
Birds of North America
Birds of North Asia
Birds described in 1808
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips%20Exeter%20Academy
|
Phillips Exeter Academy
|
Phillips Exeter Academy (often called Exeter or PEA) is a highly selective, coeducational independent school for boarding and day students in grades 9 through 12, and offers a secondary postgraduate program. Located in Exeter, New Hampshire, it is one of the oldest secondary schools in the United States and among the most prestigious in the world.
Exeter is based on the Harkness education system, a conference format of student interaction with minimal teacher involvement. It has the largest endowment of any New England boarding school, which as of 2018 was valued at $1.3 billion. On January 25, 2019, William K. Rawson was appointed by the academy's trustees as the 16th Principal Instructor. He is the 4th alumnus of Exeter to serve as Principal Instructor, after Gideon Lane Soule (1838–1873), Harlan Amen (1895–1913), and William Saltonstall (1946–1963).
Phillips Exeter Academy has educated several generations of the New England establishment and prominent American politicians, but has introduced many programs to diversify the student population, including need-blind admission. In 2018, over 45% of students received financial aid from grants totaling over $22 million. The school has been historically highly selective, with an acceptance rate of 10% for the 2020–2021 school year, and approximately 30% of graduates attend an Ivy League university.
Management of the school's financial and physical resources is overseen by trustees drawn from alumni. Day-to-day operations are headed by a principal, who is appointed by the trustees. The faculty of the school are responsible for governing matters relating to student life, both in and out of the classroom.
The school's first enrolled class counted 56 boys; in 1970, when the decision was made to implement co-education, there were 700 boys. The 2018 academic year saw enrollment at 1,096 students, with 883 boarding students and 213 day students. The student body is roughly equally split between boys and girls, who are housed in 25 single-sex and two mixed-sex dormitories. Each residence is supervised by a dormitory head selected from the faculty.
History
Origins
Phillips Exeter Academy was established in Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1781 by Elizabeth and John Phillips. John Phillips had made his fortune as a merchant and banker before going into public service, and financially supported his nephew Samuel Phillips, Jr. in founding his own school, Phillips Academy, in Andover, Massachusetts, three years earlier. As a result of this family relationship, the two schools share a rivalry. The school that Phillips founded at Exeter was to educate students under a Calvinist religious framework. However, like his nephew who founded Andover, Phillips stipulated in the school's founding charter that it would "ever be equally open to youth of requisite qualifications from every quarter."
Phillips had previously been married to Sarah Gilman, wealthy widow of Phillips' cousin, merchant Nathaniel Gilman, whose large fortune, bequeathed to Phillips, enabled him to endow the academy. The Gilman family also donated to the academy much of the land on which it stands, including the initial 1793 grant by New Hampshire Governor John Taylor Gilman of the Yard, the oldest part of campus; the academy's first class in 1783 included seven Gilmans. In 1814, Nicholas Gilman, signer of the U.S. Constitution, left $1,000 to Exeter to teach "sacred music."
The academy's first schoolhouse, the First Academy Building, was built on a site on Tan Lane in 1783, and today stands not far from its original location. The building was dedicated on February 20, 1783, the same day that the school's first Preceptor, William Woodbridge, was chosen by John Phillips.
Exeter's Deed of Gift, written by John Phillips at the founding of the school, states that Exeter's mission is to instill in its students both goodness and knowledge:
Exeter participated in the Chinese Educational Mission, hosting seven students from Qing China, starting in 1879. They were sent to learn about western technology, and attended Exeter among other schools to prepare for college. However, all students were recalled after just 2 years (in 1881) due to mounting tensions between the United States and China, as well as growing concern that the students were becoming Americanized.
Harkness gift
On April 9, 1930, philanthropist and oil magnate Edward Harkness wrote to Exeter Principal Lewis Perry regarding how a substantial donation that Harkness would make to the academy might be used to fund a new way of teaching and learning:
The result was "Harkness teaching", in which a teacher and a group of students work together, exchanging ideas and information, similar to the Socratic method. In November 1930, Harkness gave Exeter $5.8 million to support this initiative. Since then, the academy's principal mode of instruction has been by discussion, "seminar style," around an oval table known as the Harkness table. Today at Phillips Exeter Academy, all classes are taught using this method, with no more than 12 or 13.
This informality was for many decades reflected in the school's "unwritten code that there were no rules at the academy until you broke one." Expelled alumni include the journalist David Lamb and the writer and editor George Plimpton.
Recent history
The academy became coeducational in 1970 when 39 girls began attending. In 1996, to reflect the academy's coeducational status, a new gender-inclusive Latin inscription Hic Quaerite Pueri Puellaeque Virtutem et Scientiam ("Here, boys and girls, seek goodness and knowledge") was added over the main entrance to the Academy Building. This new inscription augments the original one—Huc Venite, Pueri, ut Viri Sitis ("Come hither boys so that ye may become men").
Academics
Exeter uses an 11-point grading system, in which an A is worth 11 points and an E is worth 0 points. Exeter has a student-to-teacher ratio of about 5:1. A majority of the faculty have advanced degrees in their fields. Students who attend Exeter for four years are required to take courses in the arts, classical or modern languages, computer science, English, health & human development, history, mathematics, religion, and science. Most students receive an English diploma, but students who take the full series of Latin and Ancient Greek classes receive a Classical diploma.
Harkness teaching method
Most classes at Exeter are taught around Harkness tables. No classrooms have rows of chairs, and lectures are rare. The completion of the Phelps Science Center in 2001 enabled all science classes, which previously had been taught in more conventional classrooms, to be conducted around the same Harkness tables. Elements of the Harkness method, including the Harkness table, are now used in schools around the world.
Notable faculty
Founder of the Religion department Frederick Buechner, minister and author
Instructor in History Michael Golay, historian and author
Instructor in English Todd Hearon, poet
Instructor in English Willie Perdomo, poet and children's book author
Instructor in Mathematics Zuming Feng, U.S. International Mathematical Olympiad Program team coach from 1997 to 2013
Instructor in Mathematics Gwynneth Coogan, Olympic athlete
Instructor in Music Marilinda Garcia, former member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives and harp player
Instructor in Physical Education Olutoyin Augustus, Olympic athlete
Off-campus study
During the tenure of Exeter's tenth principal, Richard W. Day, the Washington Intern Program and the Foreign Studies Program began. Exeter offers the Washington Intern Program, where students intern in the office of a senator or congressional representative. Exeter also participates in the Milton Academy Mountain School program, which allows students to study in a small rural setting in Vershire, Vermont. The academy currently sponsors trimester-long foreign study programs in Grenoble, Tema, Tokyo, Saint Petersburg, Stratford-upon-Avon, Eleuthera, Taichung, Göttingen, Rome, Cuenca, and Callan; as well as school-year abroad programs in Beijing, Rennes, Viterbo, and Zaragoza. The academy also offers foreign language summer programs in France, Japan, Spain, and Taiwan.
Numbers
For the 313 members of the class of 2018, the average SAT was 700 verbal, 740 math.
Between 2016 and 2018, 15 or more students matriculated at the following colleges and universities: Brown, Carnegie Mellon, Columbia, Dartmouth, Georgetown, Harvard, MIT, Princeton, Trinity College, Tufts, Michigan, UPenn, Williams, and Yale.
Student body
For the 2019–20 school year, the Exeter student body included students from 44 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and 31 countries. Students of color comprise 46.6% of the student body (Asian 30.8%, Black 12.3%, Hispanic/Latino 9.4%, Native American 1.6%). Legacy students account for 13% of the students. Of new students entering in 2019 (a total of 314), 52% attended public school and 48% attended private, parochial, military, home, or foreign schools.
Most Exeter students—80 percent—live on campus in dormitories or houses. The remaining 19 percent of the student body are day students from the surrounding communities.
The academy uses a unique designation for its grade levels. Entering first-year students are called Juniors (nicknamed "preps"), second-year students are Lower Middlers ("lowers"), third-year students are Upper Middlers ("uppers"), and fourth-year students are seniors. Exeter also admits postgraduate students ("PGs").
Finances
Tuition and financial aid
Tuition for boarding students in 2018-19 was $55,000, plus other mandatory and optional fees.
Exeter offers need-based financial aid. For families with incomes less than $75,000, Exeter is free. Partial assistance is available for families with incomes up to $200,000. Admissions are currently need-blind. In 2018, approximately 50 percent of students received a total of $21 million in financial assistance.
Endowment
Exeter's endowment as of June 30, 2017, was valued at $1.3 billion. This is the third-highest endowment of any American secondary school, behind the $11.0 billion endowment of Kamehameha Schools in Hawaii, and the $13.7 billion of the Milton Hershey School in Pennsylvania. Phillips Exeter Academy's operational budget was $107 million as of 2018.
Campus facilities
Academic facilities
The Academy Building is the fourth such building. It was built in 1914 after a devastating fire ruined the third. The Academy Building was designed by Ralph Adams Cram of Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson, and houses the History, Math, Religion and Classical Languages departments, along with a small but significant archaeology/anthropology museum. Two wings were added to the original structure in the 1920s and 1930s during a building boom that was orchestrated by Principal Lewis Perry. One of these wings is the Mayer Art Center, which, despite being attached to the Academy Building, is often referred to as a separate building. The Academy Building also houses the Assembly Hall (formerly known as the Chapel). In former times, non-denominational, Christian religious services were conducted in the Chapel every morning Monday through Saturday before the beginning of classes, and attendance was mandatory for all students in keeping with the wishes of the founders of the academy. The bell (visible in the photo of the Academy Building tower) was rung in a succession of rings to call the student body to worship: Ones, Twos, Threes, Fours, and Fives. After Fives were rung, monitors would begin walking down the rows checking attendance on the benches. The bell continues to be rung to mark the end of classes, as well as to mark each hour from 8 AM to 11 PM.
The Class of 1945 Library, a famous modern library designed by Louis Kahn. The library has a shelf capacity of 250,000 volumes, and as of 2009 housed 162,000 volumes. This library is the largest secondary-school library in the world. When it opened, Ada Louise Huxtable, architecture critic for The New York Times, hailed the Exeter library as a "serene, distinguished structure of considerable beauty." She said that the library's central space "breaks on the viewer with breathtaking drama." The headline of her review called the Exeter library a "stunning paean to books."
Elizabeth Phillips Academy Center (or "EPAC") is the student center of the campus. It houses the Phelps Commons, the McLane Post Office, the Day Student Lounge, the Forum (a 300-person auditorium), the Academic Support Center, and a grill. It also plays host to a number of student organizations such as The Exonian, WPEA, and the Exeter Student Service Organization (ESSO). The building was originally opened in 2006 as the Phelps Academy Center, but the name was changed in the fall of 2018.
Goel Center for Theater and Dance was opened in 2018. It houses DRAMAT, the student led drama club at Exeter. It is named for David Goel and Stacey Goel.
Phillips Hall is home to the English and Modern Languages departments. On the first floor of Phillips Hall is the Elting Room (where the faculty meets). Phillips Hall was built in 1932 during the tenure of Principal Lewis Perry. The Harkness gift funded the building, and its classrooms were designed for the Harkness tables.
Phelps Science Center was designed by Centerbrook Architects & Planners, and was built in 2001. The center provides laboratory and classroom space. In 2004, it received the American Institute of Architects New Hampshire's Honor Award for Excellence in Architecture.
Forrestal Bowld Music Center houses the Music Department, the Music Library, three rehearsal halls, several faculty offices, and dozens of rehearsal rooms. It was built in 1995, and was awarded the Honor Award in Architecture Design by the Boston Society of Architects in 1996. The facility was extended recently and includes a recital hall.
Mayer Art Center is home to the Art Department and the Lamont Gallery, as well as the College Counseling Office. It was constructed in 1903 as Alumni Hall. It contains a large ceramics studio with approximately twenty wheels and three kilns on the first floor, two printmaking studios and three drawing/painting studios on the second floor, and an architectural and 3-D design studio on the third floor. It also has a 3-D printer, which was added in 2013.
Athletic facilities
The George H. Love Gymnasium was built in 1969, and is named for George H. Love (1917). It houses squash facilities with 10 international sized courts, one swimming pool, three basketball courts, a weight-training room, a sports-science lab, gym offices, two hockey rinks, locker rooms, and visiting team locker rooms.
The Thompson Gymnasium was built in 1918, replacing the old gym which was demolished in 1922, and was a gift of Colonel William Boyce Thompson (1890). It has a basketball court, a dance studio, visiting team locker rooms, a cycling training room, a second swimming pool and a media room.
The Thompson Cage was built in 1931 and was also a gift of Colonel Thompson. It is an indoor cage with two tracks; one has a wooden surface and the other a dirt surface. The open dirt-surfaced floor is a multipurpose area. A wrestling room and gymnastics space are attached. In 2015, Academy Trustees approved the removal of the Cage and the construction of a new field house in its footprint.
The Thompson Fieldhouse was opened in 2018 on the grounds of the former Thompson Cage. It is an facility connected to the Love and Thompson Gymnasiums, housing four indoor tennis courts, two batting cages, a wrestling room, and an indoor track.
Ralph Lovshin Track is an outdoor all-weather track named for the long-serving track coach Ralph Lovshin.
The Plimpton Playing Fields are used for various outdoor sports. They are named in honor of alumnus and trustee George Arthur Plimpton (1873).
Phelps Stadium is used for football, soccer, lacrosse and field hockey. It was converted into turf surface in 2006.
The William G. Saltonstall Boathouse was built in 1990, and is the center of crew on campus, on the Squamscott River. It is named for the academy's ninth principal.
Amos Alonzo Stagg Baseball Diamond was named after alumnus Amos Alonzo Stagg.
Hilliard Lacrosse Field
Roger Nekton Championship Pool is named for the long-serving former swimming and water polo coach.
The Downer Family Fitness Center was built in 2015 guided by a donation from its namesake, the Downer family. It features many weight lifting resources, aerobic machines, and turf space.
19 outdoor tennis courts
Several miles of cross-country and running trails
Wrestling practice room
Other facilities
Phillips Church was originally built as the Second Parish Church in 1897 and was purchased by the academy in 1922. The building was designed by Ralph Adams Cram. Although originally a church, the building now contains spaces for students of many faiths. It includes a Hindu shrine, a Muslim prayer room and ablutions fountain, a kosher kitchen, and a meditation room. Services that are particular to Phillips Church include Evening Prayer on Tuesday nights, Thursday Meditation, and Indaba—a religious open forum.
Nathaniel Gilman House was built in 1740. The Gilman House is a large colonial white clapboard home with a gambrel roof hipped at one end, a leaded fanlight over the front door and a wide panelled entry hall. This home, as well as the Benjamin Clark Gilman House which is also owned by the academy, were built for members of Exeter's Gilman family, who donated the Nathaniel Gilman House to the academy in 1905. The home now houses the academy's Alumni and Alumnae Affairs and Development Office.
The Davis Center was designed by Ralph Adams Cram as the Davis Library. Today it houses the financial aid offices as well as the dance studio.
Athletics
Exeter offers 65 interscholastic sports teams at the varsity and junior varsity level, 27 intramural sports teams, and various fitness classes. All students are required to participate in athletics.
Water polo, wrestling, swimming, cycling, soccer, squash, cross country, crew, and ice hockey teams have won recent New England championships.
Exeter has graduated multiple elite athletes in the past few decades. For example, crew Olympians include Anne Marden '76, Rajanya Shah '92, Sabrina Kolker '98, and Andréanne Morin '02. Georgia Gould is an Olympic medalist in mountain biking, while Joy Fahrenkrog is a member of the United States Archery Team. Duncan Robinson plays for the Miami Heat in the National Basketball Association. Tom Cavanagh played in the National Hockey League. Sam Fuld played 8 years of Major League Baseball, and became the General Manager of the Philadelphia Phillies in 2020.
Exeter's main rival is Phillips Academy Andover. The two schools have been competing against each other in both baseball and football since 1878 (in those first games, Exeter defeated Andover 12–0 in baseball, while Andover won the football game, 22-0). Today, Exeter-Andover weekend is still a large tradition in both schools.
Other athletic opponents include a variety of New England private schools such as Belmont Hill School, Berwick Academy, Deerfield Academy, Northfield Mount Hermon, Brewster Academy, Choate Rosemary Hall, Groton School, The Governor's Academy, Loomis Chaffee, Tabor Academy, Milton Academy, Avon Old Farms, Worcester Academy, Cushing Academy, and various other northeastern prep and boarding schools.
Student life
Exeter had a gendered dress code until June 2015. Boys were required to wear collared shirts and ties or turtlenecks. Girls were required to wear non-revealing, appropriate attire. Skirts and shorts must reach finger-tip length, and straps may not be less than two fingers wide. Jeans were allowed for boys and girls; however, "hoodies," graphic T-shirts, and athletic wear are not permitted. The new dress code is gender neutral, and no longer requires ties. Dress code is required only in the classroom setting and Assembly.
The academy has over 100 clubs listed. The number of functioning and reputable clubs fluctuates; several of the listed clubs on the website do not hold tables on Club Night. The Exonian is the school's weekly newspaper. It is the oldest continuously running preparatory school newspaper in the United States, having begun publishing in 1878. Recently, The Exonian began online publication. The Exonian has been a finalist for a National Pacemaker Award several times, winning in 2007. Other long-established clubs include ESSO, which focuses on social service outreach, and the PEAN, which is the academy's yearbook. Exeter also has the oldest surviving secondary school society, the Golden Branch (founded in 1818), a society for public speaking, inspired by PEA's Rhetorical Society of 1807–1820. Now known as the Daniel Webster Debate Society, these groups served as America's first secondary school organization for oratory. The Model UN club has won the "Best Small Delegation" award at HMUN. Exeter's Mock Trial Association, founded by attorney and historian Walter Stahr, has since 2011 claimed seventeen individual titles, five all-around state titles, and a top-ten spot at the National High School Mock Trial Championship.
Close to 80% of students live in the dormitories, with the other 20% commuting from homes within a radius. Each residence hall has several faculty members and senior student proctors. There are check-in hours of 8:00 pm (for first- and second-year students), 9:00pm (for third years), and 10:00 pm (for seniors) during the weekdays and 11:00 pm on Saturday night.
Religious life on campus is supported by the Religious Services Department, which provides a vintage stone chapel and a full-service ministry for the spiritual needs of students. The chapel was originally built in 1895 and has been updated. It accommodates worship for "twelve religious traditions including Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Quaker, Buddhist, Catholic among others" as well as Secular Humanism.
Weekly attendance at the religious service of their choice was required of students until 1969, after which religion at Exeter languished until it was revived by a new approach "as concerned with the religious dimension of all of our lives as it is with the particular religious needs of any one of us." A renovation of Phillips Church, completed in 2002, provided spaces for worship and meditation for students of diverse religious persuasions.
Sexual misconduct
Exeter has struggled to deal effectively with multiple incidents in which students were sexually abused by faculty and staff.
An incident of sexual misconduct that occurred in the basement of the church in late 2015 first brought criticism to the school.
A more in-depth investigation by an outside law firm uncovered sexual misconduct that occurred at Exeter since the 1970s and involved at least 11 members of the faculty and staff. The report harshly criticized the school for not supporting the victims when they reported the incidents and for a pattern of not including these allegations in the faculty members' files. In April 2016, Exeter hired a law firm of Holland & Knight LLP to investigate allegations of past misconduct by Exeter faculty and staff. A report was released in August 2018 providing an overview of the investigation and the findings of Holland & Knight LLP.
Through this process, Holland & Knight was assigned and completed 28 investigations. Of those 28 matters, 26 involved reported misconduct of a sexual nature by an Exeter faculty or staff member towards an Exeter student occurring at various points spanning from the 1950s to the 2010s. During the course of these 28 investigations, Holland & Knight conducted approximately 294 interviews of over 170 individuals. The persons interviewed were located in various states, as well as in multiple countries. According to the findings, the school maintained two sets of files, and would keep the more sensitive material away from Human Resources and prospective employers. Some of these faculty members would then leave Exeter but get hired at peer schools. In at least one case, the teacher then molested students at his next school. The allegations involve staffers who have since been fired, left the school or have died. Several have been named in the past by the school. In a letter, Exeter officials apologized to the school community, including victims who have come forward and those who have remained silent.
Emblems
Academy seal
Exeter has two chief symbols: a seal depicting a river, sun and beehive, incorporating the academy's mottos; and the Lion Rampant. The seal has similarities to that used by Phillips Academy—an emblem designed by Paul Revere—and its imagery is Masonic in nature. A beehive often represented the industry and cooperation of a lodge or, in this case, the studies and united efforts of Academy students. The Lion Rampant is derived from the Phillips family's coat of arms, and suggests that all of the academy's alumni are part of the "Exonian family".
Exeter has three mottoes on the academy seal: Non Sibi (Latin 'Not for oneself') indicating a life based on community and duty; Finis origine pendet (Latin 'The end depends on the beginning') reflecting Exeter's emphasis on hard work as preparation for a fruitful adult life; and Χάριτι Θεοῦ (Greek 'By the grace of God') reflecting Exeter's Calvinist origins, of which the only remnant today is the school's requirement that most students take two courses in religion or philosophy.
School colors and the alumnus tie
There are several variants of school colors associated with Phillips Exeter Academy that range from crimson red and white to burgundy red and silver. Black is also a color associated with the school to a lesser extent. The official school colors are lively maroon and gray. The traditional school tie is a burgundy red tie with alternating diagonal silver stripes and silver lions rampant. The school’s athletic teams today wear the Pantone Matching System color PMS201.
Notable alumni
Early alumni of Exeter include US Senator Daniel Webster (1796); John Adams Dix (1809) a Secretary of the Treasury and Governor of New York; US President Franklin Pierce (1820); physician and founder of Sigma Pi Phi Henry McKee Minton (1851); Abraham Lincoln's son and 35th Secretary of War Robert Lincoln (1860); Ulysses S. Grant, Jr. (1870); Richard and Francis Cleveland; "grandfather of football" Amos Alonzo Stagg (1880); Pulitzer Prize-winning author Booth Tarkington (1889) and Hugo W. Koehler (1903), American naval spy during the Russian Revolution and step-father of United States Senator Claiborne Pell. John Knowles, author of A Separate Peace and Peace Breaks Out, was a 1945 graduate; both novels are set at the fictional Devon School, which serves as an analog for his alma mater.
Exeter alumni pursue careers in various fields. Other alumni noted for their work in government include Gifford Pinchot, Lewis Cass, Judd Gregg, Jay Rockefeller, Kent Conrad, John Negroponte, Bobby Shriver, Robert Bauer and Peter Orszag. Alumni notable for their military service include Secretary of Navy George Bancroft, Benjamin Butler, and Charles C. Krulak. Authors George Plimpton, John Knowles, Gore Vidal, John Irving (whose stepfather taught at Exeter), Robert Anderson, Dan Brown (whose father taught at Exeter), Peter Benchley, James Agee, Chang-Rae Lee, Debby Herbenick, Stewart Brand, Norb Vonnegut, Roland Merullo and Caroline Calloway also attended the academy.
Other notable alumni include businessmen Joseph Coors, Michael Lynton, Tom Steyer, Mark Zuckerberg, David Goel, and Stephen Mandel; lawyer Bradley Palmer; entrepreneur and presidential candidate Andrew Yang, journalist Drew Pearson, Dwight Macdonald, producer and entrepreneur Lauren Selig, James F. Hoge, Jr., Paul Klebnikov, Trish Regan, Suzy Welch, and Sarah Lyall; actors Michael Cerveris, Catherine Disher, Jack Gilpin, and Alessandro Nivola; film director Howard Hawks; musicians Phil Wilson,Bill Keith, Benmont Tench, China Forbes, Ketch Secor, Win Butler and William Butler; historians Robert Cowley, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., and Brooks D. Simpson; writers Roxane Gay and Joyce Maynard; screenwriters Tom Whedon and Tom Mankiewicz; baseball players Robert Rolfe and Sam Fuld; educators Jared Sparks and Benno C. Schmidt, Jr.; composer Adam Guettel; humorist Greg Daniels; mathematicians Shinichi Mochizuki, David Mumford, and Lloyd Shapley, winner of the 2012 Nobel Prize in economics; economist Paul Romer, winner of the 2018 Nobel Prize in economics, computer scientist Adam D'Angelo (co-founder of Quora); and philosopher and evolutionary biologist Daniel Dennett. Serial killer H.H. Holmes also attended the school.
Other academic programs
Summer school
Each summer, Phillips Exeter hosts over 780 students from various schools for a five-week program of academic study. The summer program accommodates a diverse student body typically derived from over 40 different states and 45 foreign countries.
Exeter's summer school is divided into two programs of study: Upper School, which offers a wide variety of classes to students currently enrolled in high school who are entering grades ten through 12 as well as serving postgraduates; and Access Exeter, a program for students entering grades eight and nine, which offers accelerated study in the arts, sciences and writing as well as serving as an introduction to the school itself. Access Exeter curriculum consists of six academic clusters; each cluster consists of three courses organized around a focused central theme. Some of Exeter's summer school programs also give students the opportunity to experience studies outside of Exeter's campus environment, including interactions with other top schools and students, experience with Washington D.C., and travel abroad.
Workshops
The academy offers a number of workshops and conferences for secondary school educators. These include the Exeter Math Institute; the Exeter Humanities Institute; the Math, Science and Technology Conference; the Exeter Astronomy Conference; and the Shakespeare Conference.
The "On Beyond Exeter" program offers one-week seminars for alumni. Most courses are held at the academy, but some meet in the locations central to the course's topic.
Historical endeavors
In 1952, Exeter, Andover, Lawrenceville, Harvard, Princeton and Yale published the study General Education in School and College: A Committee Report. The report recommended examinations that would place students after admission to college. This program evolved into the Advanced Placement Program.
In 1965 Exeter became the second charter member (after Andover) of the School Year Abroad program. The program allows students to reside and study a foreign language abroad.
In popular culture
Several works are based on Exeter and portray the lives of its students. Many are written by alumni who disguise Exeter's name, but not its character, such as John Knowles and his novel A Separate Peace.
See also
Exeter point
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Phillips Exeter Academy
Phillips Exeter Academy Crew
Donald Hall talking about Phillips Exeter Academy. Archived at Ghostarchive on 2021-12-30. Additionally archived at archive.today
Boarding schools in New Hampshire
Private high schools in New Hampshire
Preparatory schools in New Hampshire
Educational institutions established in 1781
1781 establishments in New Hampshire
Co-educational boarding schools
Schools in Rockingham County, New Hampshire
Exeter, New Hampshire
Six Schools League
Phillips family (New England)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buteo
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Buteo
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Buteo is a genus of medium to fairly large, wide-ranging raptors with a robust body and broad wings. In the Old World, members of this genus are called "buzzards", but "hawk" is used in the New World (Etymology: Buteo is the Latin name of the common buzzard). As both terms are ambiguous, buteo is sometimes used instead, for example, by the Peregrine Fund.
Characteristics
Buteos are fairly large birds. Total length can vary from and wingspan can range from . The lightest known species is the roadside hawk, at an average of although the lesser known white-rumped and Ridgway's hawks are similarly small in average wingspan around , and average length around in standard measurements. The largest species in length and wingspan is the upland buzzard, which averages around in length and in wingspan. The upland is rivaled in weight and outsized in foot measurements and bill size by the ferruginous hawk. In both of these largest buteos, adults typically weigh over , and in mature females, can exceed a mass of . All buteos may be noted for their broad wings and sturdy builds. They frequently soar on thermals at midday over openings and are most frequently seen while doing this. The flight style varies based on the body type and wing shape and surface size. Some long-winged species, such as rough-legged buzzards and Swainson's hawks, have a floppy, buoyant flight style, while others, such as red-tailed hawks and rufous-tailed hawks, tend to be relatively shorter-winged, soaring more slowly and flying with more labored, deeper flaps. Most small and some medium-sized species, from the roadside hawk to the red-shouldered hawk, often fly with an alternation of soaring and flapping, thus may be reminiscent of an Accipiter hawk in flight, but are still relatively larger-winged, shorter-tailed, and soar more extensively in open areas than Accipiter species do. Buteos inhabit a wide range of habitats across the world, but tend to prefer some access to both clearings, which provide ideal hunting grounds, and trees, which can provide nesting locations and security.
Diet
All Buteo species are to some extent opportunistic when it comes to hunting, and prey on almost any type of small animal as it becomes available to them. However, most have a strong preference for small mammals, mostly rodents. Rodents of almost every family in the world are somewhere preyed upon by Buteo species. Since many rodents are primarily nocturnal, most buteos mainly hunt rodents that may be partially active during the day, which can include squirrels and chipmunks, voles, and gerbils. More nocturnal varieties are hunted opportunistically and may be caught in the first or last few hours of light. Other smallish mammals, such as shrews, moles, pikas, bats, and weasels, tend to be minor secondary prey, although can locally be significant for individual species. Larger mammals, such as rabbits, hares, and marmots, including even adult specimens weighing as much as , may be hunted by the heaviest and strongest species, such as ferruginous, red-tailed and white-tailed hawks. Birds are taken occasionally, as well. Small to mid-sized birds, i.e. passerines, woodpeckers, waterfowl, pigeons, and gamebirds, are most often taken. However, since the adults of most smaller birds can successfully outmaneuver and evade buteos in flight, much avian prey is taken in the nestling or fledgling stages or adult birds if they are previously injured. An exception is the short-tailed hawk, which is a relatively small and agile species and is locally a small bird-hunting specialist. The Hawaiian hawk, which evolved on an isolated group of islands with no terrestrial mammals, was also initially a bird specialist, although today it preys mainly on introduced rodents. Other prey may include snakes, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, and even various invertebrates, especially beetles. In several Buteo species found in more tropical regions, such as the roadside hawk or grey-lined hawk, reptiles and amphibians may come to locally dominate the diet. Swainson's hawk, despite its somewhat large size, is something of exceptional insect-feeding specialist and may rely almost fully on crickets and dragonflies when wintering in southern South America. Carrion is eaten occasionally by most species, but is almost always secondary to live prey. The importance of carrion in the Old World "buzzard" species is relatively higher since these often seem slower and less active predators than their equivalents in the Americas. Most Buteo species seem to prefer to ambush prey by pouncing down to the ground directly from a perch. In a secondary approach, many spot prey from a great distance while soaring and circle down to the ground to snatch it.
Reproduction
Buteos are typical accipitrids in most of their breeding behaviors. They all build their own nests, which are often constructed out of sticks and other materials they can carry. Nests are generally located in trees, which are generally selected based on large sizes and inaccessibility to climbing predators rather than by species. Most Buteos breed in stable pairs, which may mate for life or at least for several years even in migratory species in which pairs part ways during winter. Generally from 2 to 4 eggs are laid by the female and are mostly incubated by her, while the male mate provides food. Once the eggs hatch, the survival of the young is dependent upon how abundant appropriate food is and the security of the nesting location from potential nest predators and other (often human-induced) disturbances. As in many raptors, the nestlings hatch at intervals of a day or two and the older, strong siblings tend to have the best chances of survival, with the younger siblings often starving or being handled aggressively (and even killed) by their older siblings. The male generally does most of the hunting and the female broods, but the male may also do some brooding while the female hunts as well. Once the fledgling stage is reached, the female takes over much of the hunting. After a stage averaging a couple of weeks, the fledglings take the adults increasing indifference to feeding them or occasional hostile behavior towards them as a cue to disperse on their own. Generally, young Buteos tend to disperse several miles away from their nesting grounds and wander for one to two years until they can court a mate and establish their own breeding range.
Distribution
The Buteo hawks include many of the most widely distributed, most common, and best-known raptors in the world. Examples include the red-tailed hawk of North America, the common buzzard of Eurasia, and the roadside hawk of tropical Central and South America. Most Northern Hemisphere species are at least partially migratory. In North America, species such as broad-winged hawks and Swainson's hawks are known for their huge numbers (often called "kettles") while passing over major migratory flyways in the fall. Up to tens of thousands of these Buteos can be seen each day during the peak of their migration. Any of the prior mentioned common Buteo species may have total populations that exceed a million individuals. On the other hand, the Socotra buzzard and Galapagos hawks are considered vulnerable to extinction per the IUCN. The Ridgway's hawk is even more direly threatened and is considered Critically Endangered. These insular forms are threatened primarily by habitat destruction, prey reductions and poisoning. The latter reason is considered the main cause of a noted decline in the population of the more abundant Swainson's hawk, due to insecticides being used in southern South America, which the hawks ingest through crickets and then die from poisoning.
Taxonomy and systematics
The genus Buteo was erected by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 by tautonymy with the specific name of the common buzzard Falco buteo which had been introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.
Extant species in taxonomic order
Fossil record
A number of fossil species have been discovered, mainly in North America. Some are placed here primarily based on considerations of biogeography, Buteo being somewhat hard to distinguish from Geranoaetus based on osteology alone:
†Buteo dondasi (Late Pliocene of Buenos Aires, Argentina)
†Buteo fluviaticus (Brule Middle? Oligocene of Wealt County, US) – possibly same as B. grangeri
†Buteo grangeri (Brule Middle? Oligocene of Washabaugh County, South Dakota, US)
†Buteo antecursor (Brule Late? Oligocene)
†?Buteo sp. (Brule Late Oligocene of Washington County, US)
†Buteo ales (Agate Fossil Beds Early Miocene of Sioux County, US) – formerly in Geranospiza or Geranoaetus
†Buteo typhoius (Olcott Early ?- snake Creek Late Miocene of Sioux County, US)
†Buteo pusillus (Middle Miocene of Grive-Saint-Alban, France)
†Buteo sp. (Middle Miocene of Grive-Saint-Alban, France – Early Pleistocene of Bacton, England)
†Buteo contortus (snake Creek Late Miocene of Sioux County, US) – formerly in Geranoaetus
†Buteo spassovi (Late Miocene of Chadžidimovo, Bulgaria)
†Buteo conterminus (snake Creek Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Sioux County, US) – formerly in Geranoaetus
†Buteo sp. (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina, US)
†Buteo sanya (Late Pleistocene of Luobidang Cave, Hainan, China)
†Buteo sanfelipensis (Late Pleistocene, Cuba)
An unidentifiable accipitrid that occurred on Ibiza in the Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene may also have been a Buteo. If this is so, the bird can be expected to aid in untangling the complicated evolutionary history of the common buzzard group.
The prehistoric species "Aquila" danana, Buteogallus fragilis (Fragile eagle), and Spizaetus grinnelli were at one time also placed in Buteo.
Notes
References
Further reading
"Raptors of the World" by Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead & Burton. Houghton Mifflin (2001), .
Alcover, Josep Antoni (1989): Les Aus fòssils de la Cova de Ca Na Reia. Endins 14-15: 95-100. [In Catalan with English abstract]
Ballmann, Peter (1969): Les Oiseaux miocènes de la Grive-Saint-Alban (Isère) [The Miocene birds of Grive-Saint-Alban (Isère)]. Geobios 2: 157–204. [French with English abstract] (HTML abstract)
Brodkorb, Pierce (1964): Catalogue of Fossil Birds: Part 2 (Anseriformes through Galliformes). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum 8(3): 195–335. PDF or JPEG fulltext
Cracraft, Joel (1969): Notes on fossil hawks (Accipitridae). Auk 86(2): 353–354. PDF fulltext
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague. PDF fulltext
Wetmore, Alexander (1933): Status of the Genus Geranoaëtus. Auk 50(2): 212. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext
Bird genera
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Taxa named by Bernard Germain de Lacépède
|
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] |
203848
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League%20for%20Programming%20Freedom
|
League for Programming Freedom
|
League for Programming Freedom (LPF) was founded in 1989 by Richard Stallman to unite free software developers as well as developers of proprietary software to fight against software patents and the extension of the scope of copyright. Their logo is the Statue of Liberty holding a floppy disk and tape spool.
Among other initiatives, the League started the "Burn all GIFs" campaign in opposition to the actions of Unisys in enforcing their patent on LZW compression used by CompuServe when creating the image format.
The League produced a newsletter, Programming Freedom, in 11 issues from 1991 to 1995. These primary source materials chronicle the work of the organization.
The single event that had the most influence on the creation of the League was Apple's lawsuits against Microsoft about supposed copyrights violations of the look and feel of the Macintosh in the development of Windows. After the lawsuit ended, the League went dormant, to be resurrected by those who were increasingly troubled by the enforcement of software patents.
In September 2009, LPF President Dean Anderson sent a notice to former members announcing the return of the LPF and reviving its membership, with plans for an election on 12 May 2010.
See also
Electronic Frontier Foundation
Free Software Foundation
References
External links
Official website
LPF history page
Political organizations based in the United States
Intellectual property activism
Non-profit technology
Free Software Foundation
Information technology organizations based in North America
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Harkness
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Edward Harkness
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Edward Stephen Harkness (January 22, 1874 – January 29, 1940) was an American philanthropist. Given privately and through his family's Commonwealth Fund, Harkness' gifts to private hospitals, art museums, and educational institutions in the Northeastern United States were among the largest of the early twentieth century. He was a major benefactor to Columbia University, Yale University, Harvard University, Phillips Exeter Academy, St. Paul's School, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the University of St Andrews in Scotland.
Harkness inherited his fortune from his father, Stephen V. Harkness, whose wealth was established by an early investment in Standard Oil, and his brother, Charles W. Harkness. In 1918, he was ranked the 6th-richest person in the United States by Forbes magazine's first "Rich List", behind John D. Rockefeller, Henry Clay Frick, Andrew Carnegie, George Fisher Baker, and William Rockefeller.
Biography
Edward (“Ned”) Harkness was born in Cleveland, Ohio, one of four sons of Anna M. Harkness and Stephen V. Harkness, a harness-maker who invested in and was one of the five founding partners in the forerunner of Standard Oil, John D. Rockefeller's oil company. Stephen Harkness died when Edward was fourteen, leaving his wife and oldest son, Charles, to manage the estate. Harkness attended St. Paul's School and Yale College, Class of 1897 and Columbia Law School. Harkness, his brother Charles, and cousin William were members of Wolf's Head Society at Yale. While at Yale, Ned enlisted the assistance of Henry Sloane Coffin as a tutor. Ned and Henry became friends and they roomed together at Yale. Henry later became the pastor of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church just blocks away from Ned and Mary's home at 1 East 75th Street in New York. Also, Henry's brother William Sloane Coffin Sr. was the President of the Metropolitan Museum of Art from 1931–1933. Ned had already been heavily involved with the Metropolitan Museum of Art as a trustee and major donor and was likely instrumental in William Coffin's appointment.
After graduating, Edward Harkness married Mary Stillman, daughter of wealthy New York attorney Thomas E. Stillman, in 1904. Mary's maternal grandfather was Thomas S. Greenman, a shipbuilder in Mystic, Connecticut, who co-founded George Greenman & Co shipyard. (This is now part of the Mystic Seaport Museum). Harkness' mother gave the couple a new Italian Renaissance mansion on New York City's Upper East Side as a wedding present. As the building's architect, Harkness chose Yale College classmate James Gamble Rogers, who would later design many of his philanthropic building projects. The home, at 75th Street and 5th Avenue and now known as the Edward S. Harkness House, became the headquarters of Harkness' Commonwealth Fund after Mary's death.
Harkness briefly served as a railroad director for the Southern Pacific Railroad, but within several years decided to become a full-time philanthropist. He began making gifts to the Egyptian collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1912, and that same year was appointed to the museum's Board of Trustees.
Harkness' older brother Charles died in 1916 at age 55, leaving Edward more than US$80 million, much of it in Standard Oil stock. Charles had continued to invest substantially in Standard Oil as manager of the family fortune, and his brother's estate made Harkness the third-largest stakeholder in Standard Oil.
Philanthropy
Harkness made charitable gifts totaling more than $129 million, the equivalent of $2 billion in 2005 dollars. His philanthropic peers John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie gave respectively $550 million and $350 million.
Medical philanthropy
Harkness encouraged and orchestrated the merger of Presbyterian Hospital and Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons, creating Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center (CPMC), the world's first academic medical center.
CPMC was built in the 1920s on the site of Hilltop Park, the one-time home stadium of the New York Yankees, which Harkness purchased and donated. Despite his aversion to have anything named for himself, The Edward Harkness Eye Institute was named by relatives.
In 1997, Columbia-Presbyterian merged with the New York Hospital. New York hospital had affiliated with Cornell University's Weill Cornell Medical College in the 1930s, following their lead. Now known as NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital / Columbia University Medical Center, The Harkness Pavilion, named for father Stephen, is a central part of the campus.
Arts philanthropy
Harkness was a major benefactor of the New York Public Library and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Harkness, in addition to donations to the Decorative Arts Department, gifted the Museum's initial Ancient Egyptian art collection. Harkness bought the complete Tomb of Perneb for the Met and helped purchase the Carnarvon Collection of Egyptian artifacts. He also donated the Met's unofficial mascot, a blue decorative hippo from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom's Twelfth Dynasty. It is known as "William."
Ned was actively involved with the discovery and excavation of King Tutankhamun's tomb. He visited Howard Carter at the site multiple times and in fact Carter invited Harkness to witness the opening of King Tutankhamun's sarcophagus on February 3, 1924.
Educational philanthropy
In 1917, a year after Charles' death, Anna Harkness donated $3 million to Yale University to build the Memorial Quadrangle student dormitory in Charles' memory. In 1918, Anna Harkness established the Commonwealth Fund with an initial gift of $10 million, and Ned Harkness was made its president.
Ned Harkness and his wife made many contributions to educational buildings, including St Salvator's Hall at the University of St. Andrews; Harkness Chapel and Harkness Dormitory at Connecticut College; Butler Library at Columbia University as well as the original portions of the Columbia University Medical Center and the undergraduate dormitories at Brown University and Connecticut College—all of these were built through his philanthropy or that of his wife, Mary.
Between 1926 and 1930, Harkness made major donations to Yale his alma mater and Harvard to establish residential college systems at each school. Harkness admired the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge in England and proposed to Yale President James Rowland Angell that he would fund a similar system for Yale's undergraduate college to relieve overcrowding and improve social intimacy. When the Yale Corporation failed to accept Harkness' offer by 1928, Harkness went to Harvard with a similar offer. Harvard's president, Abbott Lawrence Lowell, quickly accepted, and eight houses for Harvard College were completed by 1931 with a $10 million gift from Harkness. Dismayed, Yale administrators appealed to Harkness to reconsider his offer, and in 1930 he agreed to give Yale $11 million for nine residential colleges of its own. Harkness persuaded Yale to retain his friend James Gamble Rogers as the colleges' architect. He also made gifts that established the Yale School of Drama, the first independent drama faculty in the country, and erected its theatre.
Around the same time as his Yale-Harvard philanthropy, Harkness sought to reform the pedagogical techniques of the country's elite boarding schools. At Phillips Exeter Academy, he sought to innovate beyond rote learning by introducing the Harkness table method of instruction. Through further gifts, the method spread to St. Paul’s, The Lawrenceville School, and Kingswood-Oxford School. Harkness also made gifts to Taft School, The Hill School and Phillips Academy.
He established the Harkness Fellowships and founded the Pilgrim Trust in the UK in 1930 with an endowment of just over two million pounds, "prompted by his admiration for what Great Britain had done in the 1914–18 war and, by his ties of affection for the land from which he drew his descent." The current priorities of the trust are preservation, places of worship, and social welfare.
Residences
Edward and Mary Harkness had a number of homes in addition to Harkness House in New York. They spent summers at their Eolia mansion on Long Island Sound in Waterford, Connecticut, near where Mary had visited her grandparents in the summers. The home and of ornamental gardens and grounds are now maintained by the State of Connecticut as Harkness Memorial State Park. The Harkness' used their steam yacht Steveana (named after his parents) to commute back and forth to New York. For longer trips across country, Ned and Mary used their Pullman car "Pelham" named after Pelham, Massachusetts where the Harkness family started in America.
Ned and Mary also owned another house on Long Island in Manhasset, New York, on 186 acres called Weekend, designed by architect James Gamble Rogers, plus houses in North Carolina, San Diego, California and a camp at the Ausable Club in the Adirondacks. Ned was an avid golfer and was a member of the Jekyll Island Club in Georgia, Cypress Point Club, the Valley Club of Monteceito in Santa Barbara and Yeamans Hall Club outside of Charleston, South Carolina, another James Gamble Rogers golf and winter community. He was also a member of the Racquet and Tennis Club of New York.
Burial
Edward and Mary Harkness are buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City, which is today a National Historic Landmark. The Harkness family mausoleum is stately and includes a privately walled and locked garden. The mausoleum does not have any name at all on it noting who is buried inside. The architecture of the mausoleum evokes that of a small medieval church.
Legacy
In addition to the family funded foundations, Harkness (along with another wealthy neighbor, Edward Crowninshield Hammond) was the inspiration for Eugene O'Neill's off-stage character "Harker", the "Standard Oil millionaire", in Long Day's Journey into Night, and on-stage figure "T. Stedman Harder" in A Moon for the Misbegotten.
References
Further reading
External links
Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital
Architectural article on Harkness House at 1 East 75th Street - now offices of the Commonwealth Fund.
Pictures and history of Harkness House, current home to the Commonwealth Fund
The Pilgrim Trust website
'Edward S. Harkness, 1874-1940', Richard F. Niebling, Phillips Exeter Bulletin, Fall 1982 (PDF)
The Commonwealth Fund website
1874 births
1940 deaths
St. Paul's School (New Hampshire) alumni
Yale College alumni
Columbia Law School alumni
Edward
Phillips Exeter Academy
American philanthropists
New York (state) Republicans
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradorn%20Srichaphan
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Paradorn Srichaphan
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Paradorn Srichaphan (; ; ; born 14 June 1979) is a retired professional tennis player from Thailand. He was the first men's singles player from Asia to be ranked in the top 10 of the ATP rankings, reaching a career high world no. 9. His nickname is "Ball". He graduated as a Bachelor of Social Science from Ramkhamhaeng University.
Junior career
Srichaphan played his first junior match in March 1993 at the age of 13 at a grade 2 tournament in Thailand. He won his first junior title in November 1993 and made his junior grand slam debut at the 1994 Wimbledon Championships where he lost in the first round to 2nd seed Ben Ellwood.
1996 would prove to be a breakout year for Srichaphan. Along with winning four titles within the year, he made the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, Wimbledon and the US Open. His ranking soared to a career-high of No. 10 in the world at the end of the year.
Srichaphan ended his junior career after a first round loss at the 1997 Wimbledon Championships. Throughout his junior career, he posted a win-loss record of 94–48.
Junior Grand Slam results - Singles:
Australian Open: QF (1996)
French Open: 2R (1996)
Wimbledon: QF (1996)
US Open: QF (1996)
Career
1997–1998: Turning pro and ATP debut
Srichaphan turned pro in 1997 at the age of 18 after making his ATP debut at the 1997 Heineken Open in Singapore where he lost to former world No. 1 Jim Courier in three sets. Throughout 1997 and 1998, he mostly played ITF and ATP Challenger events winning one ITF event.
1999: Success and breaking into the top 100
Srichaphan began the year with an early loss in qualifying at the Australian Open and a second ITF title.
In April, Srichaphan recorded his first ATP win at the Salem Open defeating Petr Luxa in straight sets. He lost in the second round to 5th seed Nicolas Kiefer in straight sets. The next week at the Japan Open, he recorded another win against Vincenzo Santopadre in straight sets but once again lost in the second to 5th seed Nicolas Kiefer who would become the eventual champion.
After failing to qualify for the French Open, Srichaphan qualified for Wimbledon to make his grand slam debut. There, he defeated Guillaume Raoux in straight sets to record his first grand slam win. He lost in the second round to world No. 3 Yevgeny Kafelnikov.
September and October showed success for Srichaphan. In September, he made his first ATP quarterfinal at the President's Cup. In October, he made another quarterfinal at the Heineken Open Shanghai. The next week, he made his first semifinal at the Heineken Open Singapore defeating 3rd seed Magnus Norman en route.
Srichaphan broke into the top 100 in December and finished the year ranked No. 99. A remarkable jump from his ranking of 406 at the start of the year.
2000–2001: Consistent appearances in ATP events
By mid 2000, Srichaphan had established himself as a figure on the ATP Tour who made consistent appearances in ATP events. He had played in every single grand slam in the year 2000 but was only able to win one match at the Australian Open against 14th seed and former semifinalist Karol Kučera in straight sets. He also dropped back out of the top 100 in 2001.
2002: Breakout year
Srichaphan began the year by making his first ATP final at the Chennai Open defeating 2nd seed Thomas Johansson and 4th seed Andrei Pavel en route. He lost to top seed Guillermo Cañas in straight sets. Because of his result, his ranking improved 36 spots from No. 120 to No. 86 putting him back into the top 100. One week later at the Adidas International he recorded his first win over a top 10 player defeating top seed and world No. 6 Sébastien Grosjean in the first round in straight sets.
At the 2002 French Open, Srichaphan made the third round defeating 19th seed Thomas Enqvist along the way. He lost in the third round to wildcard and former Olympic bronze medalist Arnaud Di Pasquale in straight sets. One month later at Wimbledon, he upset 3rd seed, world No. 4, former world No. 1 and former champion Andre Agassi in the second round in straight sets to claim his second win over a top 10 player. He lost in the third round to former champion Richard Krajicek in straight sets.
August would bring much success for Srichaphan. At the Legg Mason Tennis Classic, he went into the tournament as the 14th seed and made the finals defeating 3rd seed Sjeng Schalken, 8th seed Jarkko Nieminen and 5th seed and former world No. 1 Marcelo Ríos en route. He lost in the final to 6th seed James Blake in three sets. One week later at the TD Waterhouse Cup, Srichaphan won his first career title defeating 7th seed Juan Ignacio Chela in the final in three sets.
In his final tournaments from September to November, Srichaphan saw very significant success. At the President's Cup, he upset top seed, world No. 4 and former world No. 1 Marat Safin in the quarterfinals in straight sets. Then, at the Japan Open, he upset world No. 1 Lleyton Hewitt in the quarterfinals in straight sets. At the Madrid Masters, he made his first Masters 1000 quarterfinal claiming another win over a top 10 player by defeating 4th seed and world No. 5 Tim Henman in the second round in straight sets. He lost in the quarterfinals to eventual finalist Jiří Novák in straight sets. He the won his second title one week later at the Stockholm Open defeating 6th seed Marcelo Ríos in the final in four sets. In his final tournament of the year at the Paris Masters, he made his first Masters 1000 semifinal defeating world No. 3 Juan Carlos Ferrero and world No. 12 Andy Roddick en route. He lost in the semifinals to world No. 1 Lleyton Hewitt in three sets.
Srichaphan finished the year with a win-loss record of 49–25 and a year-end ranking of No. 16. Another remarkable jump from his ranking of 120 at the start of the year. He also recorded six wins over top 10 players within the year and was awarded the most improved player of the year.
2003: First Asian male into the top 10
Srichaphan began the year by winning the Chennai Open without losing a set defeating Karol Kučera in the final.
At the Miami Masters, Srichaphan went into the tournament as the 13th seed and made his second Masters 1000 semifinal defeating former world No. 1 Yevgeny Kafelnikov along the way. He lost in the semifinals to world No. 5 and former world No. 1 Carlos Moyá in straight sets.
On April 21, Srichaphan broke into the top 10 for the first time in his career. This made him the first Asian male in history to break into the top 10 in the singles rankings. He also reached his career-high ranking of No. 9 on May 12 and went into the French Open as the 10th seed which remains the highest he was seeded in a Grand Slam.
At Wimbledon, after a long streak of early exits, Srichaphan went into the tournament as the 12th seed and made the fourth round where he was beaten by Andy Roddick in four sets. En route to the fourth round, he defeated 17-year-old Rafael Nadal in Nadal's first Grand Slam who, as of 2022, is a 21-time Grand Slam champion and 13-time French Open. He became the first player to defeat Nadal at a Grand Slam. He also reached the fourth round in the US Open losing to Lleyton Hewitt. By the end of the year, he was ranked World No. 11 in the ATP rankings. He is however not in favor of playing doubles having won no title in this category on either Challenger or ATP level.
Srichaphan saw even more success during the US Open swing. He made the finals of the RCA Championships but lost to top seed Andy Roddick in straight sets. One month later, he defended his title at the TD Waterhouse Cup as the top seed without losing a set defeating James Blake in the final. He then made the fourth round of the US Open where he lost to world No. 6 Lleyton Hewitt in four sets.
Srichaphan finished the rest of the year with a quarterfinal in his home tournament of the Thailand Open, two semifinals in a row at the Japan Open and the Lyon Open and another Masters 1000 quarterfinal once again at the Madrid Masters where he lost to world No. 1 and eventual champion Juan Carlos Ferrero in straight sets. He finished the year with a win-loss record of 50–28 and a year-end ranking of No. 11, the highest year-end ranking of his career.
2004: Last title of career
Srichaphan began the year with a third consecutive final appearance at the Chennai Open where he failed to defend his title against top seed and world No. 7 Carlos Moyá who won in three sets. Two weeks later at the Australian Open, he made the fourth round defeating 19th seed and former world No. 1 Gustavo Kuerten en route. He lost in the fourth round to world No. 4 Andre Agassi in straight sets.
Srichaphan won his fifth and last title at the Nottingham Open where he went into the tournament as the top seed defeating qualifier and former world No. 7 Thomas Johansson in the final in three sets. He failed to defend his title at the TD Waterhouse Cup after he lost to Luis Horna in the semifinals in three sets.
After his third round appearance at the US Open, Srichaphan made two more semifinals. The first one came at the China Open where he lost to Mikhail Youzhny in straight sets. The second one came at his home tournament of the Thailand Open where he lost to world No. 1 Roger Federer in three sets. He was the only player in the entire tournament to win a set from Federer.
Srichaphan ended the year with a win-loss record of 44–30 and a year-end ranking of 27.
2005: Slow loss of form and rankings
Srichaphan began the year with a fourth consecutive final appearance at the Chennai Open where he once again lost to top seed Carlos Moyá in three sets.
2005 would prove to be a worse year for Srichaphan than his past years on the tour. Out of the seven Masters 1000 tournaments he played, he only recorded one win at the Miami Masters. His best Grand Slam result of the year was another third round appearance at the US Open where he defeated world No. 6 Nikolay Davydenko en route. Some other good results during the year included a quarterfinal at the 2005 Rotterdam Open where he defeated 2nd seed and world No. 5 Guillermo Coria en route, a semifinal at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic where he lost to top seed, world No. 6 and eventual champion Andy Roddick in straight sets and his last final at the Stockholm Open where he defeated top seed Thomas Johansson en route and lost to 6th seed James Blake in straight sets. He also failed to defend his title at the Nottingham Open after losing in the quarterfinals to 4th seed and eventual champion Richard Gasquet in three sets.
Srichaphan ended the year with a win-loss record of 34–31 and a year-end ranking of 42.
2006: Indian Wells semifinal
Srichaphan began the year with his finals streak ending at the Chennai Open when he lost in the quarterfinals to Kristof Vliegen in straight sets.
At the Indian Wells Masters, Srichaphan reached the semifinals where he lost against world No. 1 Roger Federer in straight sets. En route to the semifinals, he beat world No. 20 Robby Ginepri in the second round, world No. 16 Juan Carlos Ferrero of Spain in the third round, world No. 4 David Nalbandian in the fourth round and world No. 25 Jarkko Nieminen of Finland in the quarterfinals. Because of his result, his ranking improved 23 spots from No. 61 to No. 38.
From late March to late August, Srichaphan endured a streak of early losses in tournaments which caused his ranking to fall. At the US Open, he defeated 24th seed José Acasuso in the first round which would become his last win in a Grand Slam.
After the US Open, Srichaphan made three more semifinals at the China Open where he defeated 2nd seed and world No. 5 Nikolay Davydenko en route and lost to 3rd seed, world No. 9 and eventual champion Marcos Baghdatis in three sets, the Thailand Open where he lost to top seed and world No. 3 Ivan Ljubičić in straight sets and the Swiss Indoors where he lost to world No. 1 Roger Federer in three sets and was once again the only player to win a set from Federer the entire tournament.
Srichaphan ended the year with a win-loss record of 30–32 and a year-end ranking of 53. It was the first time since 2001 that he had more losses than wins on his yearly record.
2007–2010: Injuries and retirement
Srichaphan once again began the year at the Chennai Open where he defeated qualifier Simone Bolelli in the first round in straight sets for the last match win of his career. He lost in the second round to eventual finalist Stefan Koubek in straight sets.
Srichaphan would go on to lose five matches in a row between January and March to have a win-loss record of 1–5 in 2007. Some of these losses include a straight sets loss to qualifier Dudi Sela at the 2007 Australian Open which would be the last Grand Slam of his career and a straight sets loss to Janko Tipsarević at the Indian Wells Masters which dropped his ranking down 31 spots from No. 52 to No. 83 due to his inability to match his semifinal result of the previous year.
At the Miami Masters, Srichaphan sustained a wrist injury in his first round match against Luis Horna and was forced to retire late in the first set. The injury caused him to miss the rest of 2007 and to fall out of the ATP rankings in March 2008 due to his inactivity. He began practicing to return to the tour and returned at the 2009 Thailand Open in doubles partnering fellow Thai Danai Udomchoke but lost in the first round to Michael Kohlmann and Alexander Peya in three sets. It would be the last tournament of his career.
Srichaphan once again began practicing to make a strong return to the tour, but in June 2010, he was involved in a motorcycle accident that broke both his hands and severely injured his knee. Because of the injuries sustained in the accident, he officially retired on June 4.
National representation
Olympics
Srichaphan made his Olympics debut at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia in the singles draw. There, he defeated Attila Sávolt in the first round but lost in the second round to 3rd seed Magnus Norman in straight sets. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, he was Thailand's flag bearer at the opening ceremony. He went into the tournament as the 12th seed but lost in the first round of singles to Joachim Johansson in straight sets.
Davis Cup
Srichaphan made his Davis Cup debut for Thailand in April 1998 at the age of 18. During his time with the team from 1998 to 2006, he posted a win-loss record of 33–13 (31–10 in singles).
Asian Games
At the 1998 Asian Games Srichaphan won a gold medal in the doubles partnering his older brother, Narathorn Srichaphan. He the won a gold medal in singles at the next edition in 2002 which he won without losing a set. In addition, he was a triple gold medalist at the 1999 Southeast Asian Games winning in singles, doubles (once again parterning his brother, Narathorn) and the team event.
Hopman Cup
Srichaphan partnered Tamarine Tanasugarn after qualifying for the 2000 Hopman Cup. There, they surprisingly won the group stage to qualify for the finals where they lost to South Africa's team of Amanda Coetzer and Wayne Ferreira. They returned at the next edition in 2001 but lost in the group stage.
Playing style
Srichaphan is known for his athleticism on court. He is known for being very quick and flexible allowing him to return balls from unlikely and uncomfortable positions. Because of this, he is regarded as one of the most entertaining players on the tour. He is also known for playing a very flat and powerful playing style. His forehand is regarded as his best and most powerful weapon but his backhand is also very strong and his serve is very rapid and fast.
Personal life
Srichaphan was born on June 14, 1979 in Bangkok, the capital of Thailand. He started playing tennis at the age of 6 with his dad who quit his bank job to coach his son.
Srichaphan is noted for his politeness on the court. At each match, he performs the wai, the traditional Thai greeting, clasping his hands together and bowing to the four corners of the stadium. The gesture is seen as thanking the fans and it has become his trademark. His success in tennis led to a spike in popularity of the game in Thailand.
Srichaphan is extremely popular in Asia, especially in Thailand. The Nation newspaper named him "Thai of the Year" in 2002; in 2003, Srichaphan was featured on the cover of Time and featured as one of the year's "Asian heroes".
In November 2005, Srichaphan spent a week as a Buddhist monk in a temple outside Bangkok. He adopted the Buddhist name Mahaviro, meaning "great and brave", wore saffron robes and shaved his head. His then girlfriend, Odette Henriette Jacqmin was present for the ceremony.
Srichaphan married Miss Universe 2005, Natalie Glebova of Canada in his home of Bangkok, Thailand, on 29 November 2007.
In June 2010, Srichaphan officially announced his retirement from the ATP tour but will coach Thailand's Davis Cup team.
In February 2011, Srichaphan and his wife, Natalie, announced their separation after three years of marriage stating the reason to be "work commitments had kept them apart."
Srichaphan currently resides in Thailand where he got married once again and had a child. He also coaches young children in tennis.
Awards
Srichaphan has twice been awarded the ATP Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award, in 2002 and 2003. He was also awarded the ATP Most improved player of the year in 2002 due to his rapid success within the year.
ATP career finals
Singles: 11 (5 titles, 6 runner-ups)
ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals
Singles: 8 (3–5)
Doubles: 4 (1–3)
Performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
Record against top 10 players
Srichaphan's match record against players who have been ranked No. 10 or higher, with those who have been ranked No. 1 in boldface.
Thomas Johansson 3–0
Wayne Ferreira 3–1
Michael Chang 3–2
Nikolay Davydenko 3–2
Albert Costa 2–0
Karol Kučera 2–0
Gustavo Kuerten 2–0
Marcelo Ríos 2–0
Robin Söderling 2–0
Fernando Verdasco 2–0
Tommy Robredo 2–1
Juan Carlos Ferrero 2–3
Ivan Ljubičić 2–5
Tim Henman 2–6
Jonas Björkman 1–0
Thomas Enqvist 1–0
Nicolás Lapentti 1–0
Nicolás Massú 1–0
Jürgen Melzer 1–0
Rafael Nadal 1–0
Gilles Simon 1–0
Mario Ančić 1–1
David Ferrer 1–1
Joachim Johansson 1–1
Rainer Schüttler 1–1
Mikhail Youzhny 1–1
Stan Wawrinka 1–1
Andre Agassi 1–2
Tomáš Berdych 1–2
Sébastien Grosjean 1–2
Yevgeny Kafelnikov 1–2
Todd Martin 1–2
Juan Mónaco 1–2
David Nalbandian 1–2
Magnus Norman 1–2
Radek Štěpánek 1–2
Guillermo Cañas 1–3
Àlex Corretja 1–3
Mardy Fish 1–3
Marat Safin 1–3
Nicolas Kiefer 1–4
Lleyton Hewitt 1–5
Jiří Novák 1–5
James Blake 1–7
Andy Roddick 1–7
Marcos Baghdatis 0–1
Arnaud Clément 0–1
Jim Courier 0–1
Tommy Haas 0–1
Richard Krajicek 0–1
Magnus Larsson 0–1
Andy Murray 0–1
Mark Philippoussis 0–1
Marc Rosset 0–1
Richard Gasquet 0–2
Fernando González 0–2
Greg Rusedski 0–2
Janko Tipsarević 0–2
Roger Federer 0–4
Carlos Moyá 0–4
Top 10 Wins
Business career
In August 2009, Paradorn opened an Italian cuisine restaurant in Bangkok named So–Le Cafe. At the same time, Paradorn also launched an herbal-product company named Magic Thaiherbs. He also tried his hand at acting in Bang Rajan 2 (sequel of Bang Rajan The movie).
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Paradorn Srichaphan
Asian Games medalists in tennis
Hopman Cup competitors
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Tennis players at the 1998 Asian Games
Tennis players at the 2002 Asian Games
Tennis players at the 2006 Asian Games
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Medalists at the 1998 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2002 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games
Paradorn Srichaphan
Paradorn Srichaphan
Southeast Asian Games medalists in tennis
Competitors at the 1999 Southeast Asian Games
|
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203855
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khon%20Kaen
|
Khon Kaen
|
Khon Kaen (, ) is one of the four major cities of Isan, Thailand, also known as the "big four of Isan", the others being Udon Thani, Nakhon Ratchasima, and Ubon Ratchathani. It is the capital of Khon Kaen Province and the Mueang Khon Kaen District. Khon Kaen lies north-northeast of Bangkok.
Geography and demography
Khon Kaen is on the Khorat Plateau, elevation 187 m, and is the center of the mid-northeastern provincial group of Thailand, according to the Thai government. Its coordinates are . The city has a population of 114,459.
Regional importance
Khon Kaen is a city in the northeastern region of Thailand. The city is bisected by Mithraphap Road, also known as the "Friendship Highway", or "Highway 2", the road linking Bangkok to the Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge. Highway 230, a modern, multi-lane by-pass enables through-traffic to avoid the city center to the west, and connects to the airport, the new main bus station (BKS3), and to the highway 12 to Kalasin and Maha Sarakham in the east, and Udon Thani in the north.
The city can be easily navigated by driving along with either of the two north-south main roads: Na Muang and Klang Muang, which are east and parallel to the Friendship Highway. In addition, there are two main east-west roads: Srichan Road and Prachasamosorn Road, leading east to the city of Kalasin, and west to the airport, as well as to other small villages via highway 12.
Smart City initiative
The province of Khon Kaen's 2017 population was 1.8 million with a GDP of 190 billion baht. Its Smart City development plan aims to double its GDP per person to 394,000-493,000 baht by 2029 from an average of about 192,000 baht in 2016. Khon Kaen's plan has been incorporated into Thailand's 12th national social and economic plan (2017-2021). The plan has been driven largely by the Khon Kaen Think Tank (KKTT), a group of involved citizens. The Smart City's signature project is the Khon Kaen Transit System Co (KKTS), founded in 2017. Its plans for a 26 km light rail network from Samran to Tha Phra in the Mueang Khon Kaen District are complete and awaiting Thai Cabinet approval before bidding on the project can begin. The light rail system will feature 18 to 21 stations, take two years to complete, and will cost 15 billion baht. The Land Traffic Management Commission (LTMC), a national think tank for transportation policy, has already blessed the plan.
Climate
Khon Kaen's climate is categorised as tropical savanna (Köppen climate classification Aw), with winters that are dry and very warm. Temperatures rise until April—a very hot month, with an average daily maximum of . The monsoon season runs from May until October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm.
Culture
Thailand's 2014 EU Film Festival included Khon Kaen, together with Chiang Mai and Bangkok, as host locations. A selection of six films was shown in the city, including the Spanish film The Pelayos and the Polish film Walesa, Man of Hope.
Administration
On 20 August 1935 Khon Kaen town municipality (thesaban mueang) was established, with an area of 4.031 sq.km. On 24 September 1995 Khon Kaen was upgraded to city municipality (thesaban nakhon). The administration of the city is responsible for an area that covers approximately 46 sq.km. and consists of 66,179 households. There are 95 communities (chumchon) divided as follows: zone 1 - 17, zone 2 - 28, zone 3 - 31 and zone 4 - 19 communities.
References
External links
Tourism Thailand official website
Isan
Populated places in Khon Kaen province
Cities and towns in Thailand
Smart cities
|
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203859
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallcreeper
|
Wallcreeper
|
The wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria) is a small passerine bird found throughout the high mountains of the Palearctic from southern Europe to central China. It is the only extant member of both the genus Tichodroma and the family Tichodromidae.
Taxonomy and systematics
There is some disagreement among ornithologists as to where the wallcreeper belongs in the taxonomic order. Initially, Linnaeus placed it in the family Certhiidae, along with the treecreepers. The wallcreeper is placed in a monotypic family Tichodromadidae by, amongst others, Clements 2007, while other authorities such as Dickinson 2003 put it in the monotypic Tichodromadinae, a subfamily of the nuthatch family Sittidae. In either case, it is very closely related to the nuthatches. A 2016 phylogenetic study of members in the superfamily Certhioidea suggests it is a sister of the Sittidae. At least one other species of wallcreeper is known from the fossil record, Tichodroma capeki (Late Miocene of Polgardi, Hungary).
The genus name Tichodroma comes from the Ancient Greek teikhos "wall", and dromos "runner". The specific muraria is Medieval Latin for "of walls", from Latin murus, "wall". Alternatively, the wallcreeper is named the red-winged wall creeper.
Subspecies
Two subspecies are recognized:
European wallcreeper (T. m. muraria) - (Linnaeus, 1766): Found from southern and eastern Europe to the Caucasus and western Iran
T. m. nepalensis - Bonaparte, 1850: Originally described as a separate species. Found from Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and eastern Iran to eastern China
Description
The wallcreeper is a long bird, with a mass of . Its is primarily blue-grey, with darker flight and tail feathers. Its most striking plumage feature, though, are its extraordinary crimson wings. Largely hidden when the wings are folded, this bright colouring covers most of the covert feathers, and the basal half of the primaries and secondaries. The subspecies T. m. nepalensis is slightly darker than the nominate race.
Vocalizations
Though largely silent, both male and female wallcreepers sing, the females generally only while defending feeding territories in the winter. The song is a high-pitched, drawn-out whistle, with notes that alternately rise and fall. During the breeding season, the male sings while perched or climbing.
Distribution and habitat
A bird of the high mountains, the wallcreeper breeds at elevations ranging between . It is largely resident across its range, but moves to lower elevations in winter, when it is found on buildings and in quarries. In France it regularly and repeatedly winters on cathedrals and viaducts in Brittany and Normandy. Birds have wintered as far afield as England and the Netherlands, where one spent two consecutive winters between 1989 and 1991 at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. The species is resident across much of the Himalayas, ranging across India, Nepal, Bhutan and parts of Tibet and also as a winter visitor in Bangladesh.
Behaviour and ecology
This species can be quite tame, but is often surprisingly difficult to see on mountain faces. While it may be confiding in the breeding and non-breeding seasons, and vagrant birds especially are extremely tame, they will still hide when they are aware of being watched, and will hesitate before entering the nest and even take roundabout routes towards the nest during prolonged observations.
Wallcreepers are territorial, and pairs vigorously defend their breeding territory during the summer. During the winter the wallcreeper is solitary, with males and females defending individual feeding territories. The size of these feeding territories is hard to estimate but may comprise a single large quarry or rock massif; or, alternatively, a series of smaller quarries and rock faces. Wallcreepers may travel some distances from roosting sites to feeding territories. They have also been demonstrated showing site fidelity to winter feeding territories in consecutive years.
Breeding
The female wallcreeper builds a cup nest of grass and moss, sheltered deep in a rock crevice, hole or cave. The nest is lined with softer materials, often including feathers or wool, and typically has two entrances. The female usually lays 4–5 eggs, though clutches as small as three have been found. The white eggs measure 21 mm long, and are marked with a small number of black or reddish-brown speckles. Once her entire clutch has been laid, the female incubates the eggs for 19–20 days, until they hatch. During incubation, she is regularly fed by her mate. Young are altricial, which means they are blind, featherless and helpless at birth. Both parents feed the nestlings for a period of 28–30 days, until the young birds fledge. Each pair raises a single brood a year.
Feeding
The wallcreeper is an insectivore, feeding on terrestrial invertebrates—primarily insects and spiders—gleaned from rock faces. It sometimes also chases flying insects in short sallies from a rock wall perch. Feeding birds move across a cliff face in short flights and quick hops, often with their wings partially spread.
References
External links
Neveu Frank, Salamandre Films. (ed) 2013. Like a butterfly - The incredible life of the wallcreeper
Tichodroma
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Western China
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isan
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Isan
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Northeast Thailand or Isan (Isan/, ; ; also written as Isaan, Isarn, Issarn, Issan, Esan, or Esarn; from Pali īsānna or Sanskrit ईशान्य īśānya "northeast") consists of 20 provinces in the northeastern region of Thailand. Isan is Thailand's largest region, located on the Khorat Plateau, bordered by the Mekong River (along the Laos–Thailand border) to the north and east, by Cambodia to the southeast and the Sankamphaeng Range south of Nakhon Ratchasima. To the west it is separated from northern and central Thailand by the Phetchabun Mountains. Isan covers making it about half the size of Germany and roughly the size of England and Wales. The total forest area is or 15 percent of Isan's area.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, northeastern Thailand has been generally known as Isan, while in official contexts the term phak tawan-ok-chiang-nuea (; "northeastern region") may be used. The term "Isan" was derived from Isanapura, capital of Chenla. The majority population of the Isan region is ethnically Lao, but distinguish themselves not only from the Lao of Laos but also from the central Thai by calling themselves khon Isan or Thai Isan in general. However, some refer to themselves as simply Lao, and academics have recently been referring to them as Lao Isan or as Thai Lao, with the main issue with self-identification as Lao being stigma associated with the Lao identity within Thai society.
The Lao Isan people are aware of their Lao ethnic origin, but Isan has been incorporated as a territory into the modern Thai state through over one hundred years of administrative and bureaucratic reforms, educational policy, and government media. Despite this, since the election of Thaksin Shinawatra as prime minister in the 2001 Thai general election, the Lao Isan identity has reemerged, and the Lao Isan are now the main ethnolinguistic group involved in the pro-Thaksin "Red Shirt movement" of the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship. Several Thai prime ministers have come from the region.
History
Isan has a number of important Bronze Age sites, with prehistoric art in the form of cliff paintings, artifacts and early evidence of rice cultivation. Iron and bronze tools such as those found at Ban Chiang may predate similar tools from Mesopotamia.
The region later came under the influence of the Dvaravati culture, followed by the Khmer Empire. The latter built dozens of prasats (sanctuaries) throughout Isan. The most significant are at Phimai Historical Park and Phanom Rung Historical Park. Preah Vihear Temple was also considered to be in Isan, until the International Court of Justice in 1962 ruled that it belonged to Cambodia.
After the Khmer Empire began to decline in the 13th century, Isan was dominated by the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang, which had been established by Fa Ngum. Due to a scarcity of information from the periods known as the dark ages of Cambodia, the plateau seems to have been largely depopulated. There were few if any lines of demarcation, for prior to the 19th century introduction of modern mapping, the region fell under what 20th century scholars called the "mandala system". Accordingly, in 1718 the first Lao mueang in the Chi River valley — and indeed anywhere in the interior of the Khorat Plateau — was founded at Suwannaphum District (in present-day Roi Et Province) by an official in the service of King Nokasad of the Kingdom of Champasak.
The region was increasingly settled by both Lao and Thai emigrants. Thailand held sway from the 17th century, and carried out forced population transfers from the more populous left (east) bank of the Mekong to the right bank in the 18th and 19th centuries. This became more severe following the Lao rebellion (1826–1828) for complete independence of 1826–9. In the wake of the Franco-Siamese War of 1893, the resulting treaty with France and the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 made the plateau a border region between Thailand and the Laos of French Indochina.
In the mid-20th century, the state-supported assimilation policy called Thaification promoted the ethnic integration of Isan into the modern conception of Thai nationality and de-emphasized the use of ethnic markers, for ethnic Laos and Khmers, as it was deemed uncivilized and to prevent ethnic discrimination among the Thai people.
The national government claimed that the name "Isan" was derived from Sanskrit Īśāna, a name of Shiva they claimed referred to his rule of the northeast (Sanskrit īśānya). This interpretation was intended to reinforce Isan's identity as the northeast of Thailand, rather than as part of the Lao kingdom which was recently created by the French colonial discourse, as "race was then an important ideological tool for French colonialists in the attempt to seize the 'Laotian' and 'Cambodian' portions of Siam."
Before the central government introduced the Thai alphabet and language in regional schools, the people of Isan wrote in the Tai Noi script, a very similar script to the one that Thai adopted. Most people speak Isan, a variety of Lao, as their first language. A significant minority in the south also speak Northern Khmer.
The Kuy people, an Austroasiatic people concentrated around the core of what was once called "Chenla" and known as the Khmer Boran "ancient Khmer", are a link to the region's pre-Tai history.
Geography
Isan is roughly coterminous with the Khorat Plateau, which tilts gently from its northwestern corner where it is about 213 m (700 feet) above sea level to the southeast where the elevation is only about 62 metres (200 feet). Except for a few hills in the northeastern corner, the region is primarily gently undulating land, most of it varying in elevation from 90–180 m (300–600 feet), tilting from the Phetchabun Mountains in the west down toward the Mekong River. The plateau consists of two plains: the southern Khorat plain is drained by the Mun and Chi rivers, while the northern Sakon Nakhon plain is drained by the Loei and Songkhram rivers. The two plains are separated by the Phu Phan Mountains. The soil is mostly sandy, with substantial salt deposits.
The Mekong forms most of the border between Thailand and Laos to the north and east of Isan, while the south of the region borders on Cambodia. The Mekong's main Thai tributary is the Mun River, which rises in the Khao Yai National Park near Nakhon Ratchasima Province and runs east, joining the Mekong in Ubon Ratchathani Province. The other main river in Isan is the Chi River, which flows through central Isan before turning south to meet the Mun in Sisaket Province. The smaller Loei and Songkhram rivers are also tributaries of the Mekong, the former flowing north through Loei Province and the latter flowing east through Udon Thani, Sakon Nakhon, Nakhon Phanom, and Nong Khai Provinces.
The average temperature range is from to . The highest temperature recorded was in Udon Thani, the lowest at Sakhon Nakhon Agro Station.
Rainfall is unpredictable, but is concentrated in the rainy season from May to October. Average annual precipitation varies from in some areas to in the southwestern provinces of Nakhon Ratchasima, Buriram, Maha Sarakham, Khon Kaen, and Chaiyaphum. The rainy season begins with occasional short but heavy showers, eventually raining heavily for longer periods almost every day, usually in the late afternoon or at night, until it ends abruptly at the onset of the cool season.
The cool season runs from October to February and the hot season from February to May with the peak of high temperatures in April.
National parks
There are around twenty-six national parks. Province Khon Kaen has four national parks of which, Phu Pha Man National Park with Klang Khao cave notable is for its large daily exodus of bats at dusk, making a formation about 10 kilometers (6 mi) long. Siam tulip fields are in Sai Thong National Park and Pa Hin Ngam National Park, both in Chaiyaphum Province. Phu Phan National Park in Sakon Nakhon Province includes the eight meter (26 ft) long Tang Pee Parn natural stone bridge. Among the best known national parks of Thailand are Khao Yai National Park in Nakhon Ratchasima Province and Phu Kradueng National Park in Loei Province.
Biodiversity
The region boasts high biodiversity and many endemic species, with several national parks. Both wildlife and plant species are exploited illegally. Valuable hardwood tree species, in particular Siamese Rosewood, are being extracted for sale in especially the Chinese furniture market. These trees are so valuable that poachers, coming across the border from Cambodia, are heavily armed, and both rangers and poachers have been killed over them. In the national parks such as Ta Phraya, rangers are since 2015 trained in military style counter-poaching measures by the elite ranger squad Hasadin
Economy
Isan is home to one-third of Thailand's population of 67 million, but contributes only ten per cent to the national GDP.
In terms of regional value-added per capita, Isan is Thailand's poorest region. Bangkok is the richest, followed by central Thailand, southern Thailand, then northern Thailand. This ordering has been unchanged for decades. Thailand's highly centralized fiscal system reinforces the status quo. An example of this Bangkok-centric policy is the allocation of budgets: Bangkok accounts for about 17 percent of the population and 25.8 percent of GDP, but benefits from about 72.2 percent of total expenditures. Isan accounts for about 34 percent of the population and 11.5 percent of GDP, but receives only 5.8 percent of expenditures.
Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, generating around 22 percent of the gross regional product (compared to 8.5 percent for Thailand as a whole). Sticky rice, the staple food of the region, is the main agricultural crop (accounting for about 60 percent of cultivated land). It thrives in poorly drained paddy fields, and where fields can be flooded from nearby streams, rivers, and ponds. Often two harvests are possible each year. Farmers are increasingly diversifying into cash crops such as sugarcane and cassava, which are cultivated on a vast scale, and to a lesser extent, rubber. Silk production is an important cottage industry and contributes significantly to the economy.
Nong Khai Province, which stretches along the Mekong River, is noted for the production of pineapples, tobacco (which is dried, cured and shredded by the families before collection by cigarette manufacturers), and tomatoes, which are grown on an industrial scale, particularly in Si Chiang Mai District.
Despite its dominance of the economy, agriculture in the region is problematic. The climate is prone to drought, while the flat terrain of the plateau is often flooded in the rainy season. The tendency to flood renders a large proportion of the land unsuitable for cultivation. In addition, the soil is highly acidic, saline, and infertile from overuse. Since the 1970s, agriculture has been declining in importance as trade and the service sector has been increasing.
Very few farmers still use water buffalos rather than tractors. Nowadays, water buffalos are mainly kept by almost all rural families as status symbols. The main piece of agricultural equipment in use today is the "rot tai na" (, lit. "vehicle plow field") colloquially referred to as "kwai lek" (, or "iron/steel buffalo"), or more generally by its manufacturer's name of "Kobota", a mini-tractor composed of a small diesel engine mounted on two wheels with long wooden or metal handlebars for steering. It is usually attached to a trailer or a plow. Buffalo are now mainly used for grazing on the stubble in the rice paddy, which they in turn fertilize with their manure. The main animals raised for food are cattle, pigs, chickens, ducks, and fish.
Most of Thailand's rural poor live in Isan. The region's poverty is reflected in its infrastructure: eight of the ten provinces in Thailand with the fewest physicians per capita are in Isan. Sisaket Province has the fewest, with one physician per 14,661 persons in 2001, with the national average being 3,289. It also has eight of the ten provinces with the fewest hospital beds per head. Chaiyaphum Province has the fewest, with one per 1,131 in 2001 (the national average was 453). Nevertheless, as in the rest of Thailand, all districts (amphoe) have a hospital, and all sub-districts (tambon) have clinics providing primary health care. The introduction of the "30 baht" health card has dramatically changed the numbers of those attending hospitals for treatment, as it has meant that full health care is available to all who register for only 30 baht per visit. The few who can afford it travel to the modern private hospitals and clinics in the large cities for non-urgent specialist consultations and care.
The region lags in new technology: there was only one Internet connection per 75 households in 2002 (national average: one per 22 households) [update needed], but by 2006 every district town (amphoe) had at least one publicly accessible Internet connection, either in a local computer shop or in the district office.
Extension of landline telephones to remote areas not previously served has been largely superseded by the use of mobile phones, primarily of GSM format, which now covers the entire region with the exception of a few sparsely populated mountainous areas and large national parks. Many people, even the poorest and frequently also children, have cellular telephones, although they have no fixed-line telephone. In this sense, Isan has led advanced nations where land-line service is now being superseded by cellular technology. The region also has the lowest literacy rate when compared with other regions in Thailand.
By the beginning of 2008, most amphoe had been provided with ADSL by the TOT, leaving the majority of the rural population dependent on dial-up connections for those few who have land-line telephones. This results in slow service that does not adequately meet modern data-hungry needs. Most rural people rely on smart phones for data services. Internet shops with high speed connections have for many years provided service to those who cannot afford or do not have access to high speed Internet. They are heavily patronized by primary and secondary school children who come not only to use the Internet but also to play online games, use VOIP, or just to use the computer and printers. Resident Western expatriates and foreign tourists are also frequent customers. For those outside the district towns who require a serious use of the Internet in their homes, the mobile phone or an iPstar broadband satellite connection is the only alternative, although more expensive than a DSL connection. It is far less reliable and suffers considerable downtime due to overloading, heavy cloud cover, and rain. Despite, in theory, being "always on", it often lacks adequate stability for streaming and clarity of VOIP.
Many Isan people seek higher-paying work outside the region, particularly in Bangkok. Some of these people have settled permanently in the city, while some migrate to and fro. Others have emigrated in search of better wages. Rather than relocate as a family, they usually leave their babies and school-age children in the care of relatives, friends, or neighbours.
Average wages in Isan were the lowest in the country in 2002 at 3,928 baht per month (the national average was 6,445 baht).
A Khon Kaen University study (2014) found that marriages with foreigners by Thai northeastern women boosted the gross domestic product of the northeast by 8.67 billion baht (2014: €211 million or US$270 million). According to the study, after a northeastern woman married a foreigner, she will send 9,600 baht a month on average to her family to help with its expenses. The activity also created 747,094 jobs, the study found. The 2010 census found that 90 percent of the slightly more than 27,000 foreigners living in the northeastern region were married to women from there.
Tourism
According to the governor of Nakhon Phanom Province, "The entire Northeast [Isan] gained only 2.9 percent of [the] country's tourism income of 2.7 trillion baht [in 2017]."
Demographics
Population
Isan's total population as of 2010 was 21,305,000. Forty percent of the population is concentrated in the provinces of Khorat, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, and Khon Kaen, known as "big four of Isan". These provinces surround the four major cities of the same names. As of 2010, their populations were: Khorat 142,169; Udon Thani 137,979; Khon Kaen 113,828; and Ubon Ratchathani 83,148. However, as of 2010 only 50 percent of the region's population lived in municipal areas. Kalasin was the most urbanised province (with almost 100 percent in municipal areas), and Roi Et the least (2.8 percent). Thus, the population is still largely rural, but concentrated around the urban centres.
There is a substantial Khmer minority, concentrated in the southern provinces of Buriram, Surin, and Sisaket, and some Vietnamese refugees in Mukdahan and Nakhon Phanom. The Khmer-speaking minority and the Kuy people ("Soui"), who live in the south of Isan, speak Austroasiatic languages and follow customs more similar to those of Cambodia than to those of the Thai and Lao, who are Tai peoples.
Languages
The main language is Isan, the name by which the Lao language is referred to in Thailand due to political reasons, though most people in the Isan region still refer to language as Lao among themselves and in non-official settings, but dialect from Khon Kaen is de facto standard. The number of speakers of Isan has been estimated at between 15–23 million, the majority of those living in Isan. Currently written with the Thai alphabet (instead of the historically used Tai Noi script), Isan belongs to the Chiang Saeng and Lao–Phutai language groups, which along with Thai are members of the Tai languages of the Kra–Dai language family. Central Thai (Khorat Thai) is also spoken by almost everyone and is the language used in education but natively spoken by one-fourth the population of in Nakhon Ratchasima Province only. The Khorat dialect, spoken by around 10,000 people, occupies a linguistic position somewhere between Lao and standard Thai, and is an archaic Central Thai dialect with heavy Khmer and some Lao influence
The 'tribal' Tai languages, referred to as 'tribal' due to their origins in mountainous areas of Laos or their adherence to animism, most of which such as Phuthai, Yo, Kaloeng, Phuan and Tai Dam languages are closely related to Isan and all but the latter are generally mutually intelligible. Even in areas with a heavy linguistic minority presence, native Isan speakers of Lao descent comprised anywhere from sixty to seventy-four per cent of the population, although minority language speakers are also bi- or trilingual in Isan, Thai or both.
Isan is home to many speakers of Austroasiatic languages, with one and one-half million speakers of the Northern Khmer dialect and one-half million speakers of the Kuy language, both of which are found in the southernmost provinces of Isan. Khmer is widely spoken in areas along the Cambodian border: Buriram, Surin, and Sisaket. There are several small ethnic groups speaking various other Austroasiatic languages, but most are fairly small and restricted to a few villages, or such as Vietnamese, spoken by small groups in cities.
Other languages spoken in Isan, mainly by tribal minorities, are as follows:
Education
Education is well-provided for by the government in terms of numbers of establishments and is supplemented in the larger cities by the private sector (mostly Catholic and international schools). Following the national pattern of education in Thailand, there are primary (elementary) schools in all larger villages and (tambon) capitals, with secondary (high) schools to grade 12 (approximately age 18) in the district (amphoe) towns.
Many other secondary schools provide education only to grade 9, while some combined schools provide education from grade 1 through grade 9. Rural schools are generally less well equipped than the schools in the large towns and cities and the standard of instruction, particularly for the English language, is much lower. Many children of poorer families leave school after grade 6 (age 12) to work on the farms. A number move to areas of dense or tourist populations to work in the service industry.
Many primary schools operate their own websites and almost all schoolchildren in Isan, at least from junior high school age, are now (2008) largely computer literate in basic programs.
In 2001, there were 43 government vocational and polytechnic colleges throughout the region, several specialised training colleges in the private sector, and large colleges of agriculture and nursing in Udon Thani Province.
Universities are found in the major cities of Khon Kaen (one of the country's largest), Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, and the smaller provincial capital of Maha Sarakham. Some Bangkok-based universities have small campuses in Isan, and Khon Kaen University maintains a large installation on the outskirts of Nong Khai. Most provinces have a government-run Rajabhat University, formerly known as Rajabhat Institutes, which originated as teacher training colleges.
Culture
Isan's culture is predominantly Lao, and has much in common with that of the neighbouring country of Laos. This affinity is shown in the region's cuisine, dress, temple architecture, festivals, and arts.
Isan food has elements most in common with Laos and is somewhat distinct from central Thai cuisine. The most obvious difference is the consumption of sticky rice that accompanies almost every meal rather than non-sticky long-grain rice. French and Vietnamese influences found in Lao cuisine are absent in Isan. Popular Lao dishes that are also staples in Isan include tam mak hung, or in central Thai, som tam (green papaya salad), larb (meat salad), and kai yang (grilled chicken). These dishes have spread to other parts of Thailand, but normally in versions which temper the extreme heat and sourness favoured in Isan for the more moderate central Thai palate. Conversely, central Thai food has become popular in Isan. The people of the Isan region in Thailand, a mixture of Lao, Vietnamese, Khmer, Mon, Cham, and other Tai groups, famously eat a wide variety of creatures, such as lizards, frogs, and fried insects such as grasshoppers, crickets, silkworms, and dung beetles. Originally forced by poverty to be creative in finding foods, Isan people now savour these creatures as delicacies or snacks. Food is commonly eaten by hand using sticky rice pressed into a ball with the fingers of the right hand. Soups are a frequent element of any meal, and contain either vegetables and herbs, noodles, chunks of fish, balls of ground pork, or a mixture of these. They are eaten using a spoon and chopsticks at the same time.
The traditional dress of Isan is the sarong. Women's sarongs most often have an embroidered border at the hem, while men's are in a chequered pattern. Men also wear a pakama, a versatile length of cloth which can be used as a belt, a money and document belt, as headwear for protection from the sun, as a hammock, or as a bathing garment.
Isan is a centre for the production of Thai silk. The trade received a major boost in the post-war years, when Jim Thompson popularised Thai silk among Westerners. One of the best-known types of Isan silk is mut-mee, which is tie-dyed to produce geometric patterns on the thread.
The Buddhist temple (or wat) is the major feature of most villages. These temples are used not only for religious ceremonies, but also for festivals, particularly mor lam, and as assembly halls. They are mostly built in Lao-style, but with less ornamentation than the more elaborate central Thai temples or the Lao-style temples in central Laos. Lao-style Buddha images are also prevalent.
The people of Isan celebrate many traditional festivals, such as the Bun Bungfai Rocket Festival. This fertility rite, originating in pre-Buddhist times, is celebrated in a number of locations both in Isan and in Laos, At present day not only most vigorously and most famously in Yasothon Province, today Isan peoples know well for the most of number BungFai parade float are made in Roi Et province and one of traditional Bun Bungfai is in Suwannaphume which the original Bungfai decoration and most of number Rocket fire or Bungfai in the world in Phnomprai both are located in Roi et province . Other Isan festivals are the Candle Festival, which marks the start of vassa in July in Ubon and other locations; the Silk Festival in Khon Kaen, which promotes local handicrafts; the Elephant Round-up in Surin; and the bangfai phayanak or Naga fireballs of Nong Khai.
The main indigenous music of Isan is mor lam. It exists in a number of regional variants, plus modern forms. Since the late 1970s it has acquired greater exposure outside the region thanks to the presence of migrant workers in Bangkok. Many mor lam singers also sing central Thai luk thung music, and have produced the hybrid luk thung Isan form. Another form of folk music, kantrum, is popular with the Khmer minority in the south.
Mor lam needs a special mention as its festival-type production, which is very commonplace in Isan, has not been exported to other regions. Although it is a very exciting affair, not being on the tourist trail it is largely ignored by foreign visitors. When the locals speak of mor lam (pronounced mor'ram with stress on the second syllable), one will often hear them say pai doo morram (lit. "go see mor'ram"). They are referring to the most common form of evening entertainment in the region. Somewhere, in a village within easy reach, there will be a mor lam festival on a Friday or Saturday evening. Usually, the rock-festival-sized stage is constructed either in a temple compound or on a sports field. Thousands of people will sit on mats on the ground and watch the fun-filled program of variety entertainment. The traditional music and song is accompanied by extremely colorful choreography, executed by a group of up to 50 female (and some male katoey) dancers. The fantastic costumes are changed several times throughout the program, and the transitions are bridged by often-raunchy gags, slapstick comedy, and speeches by local dignitaries. A mor lam festival is a family affair and the area is surrounded by food and drink stalls.
Although there is no tradition of written secular literature in the Isan language, in the latter half of the 20th century the region produced several notable writers, such as Khamsing Srinawk (who writes in Thai) and Pira Sudham (who writes in English).
Isan is known for producing a large number of muay Thai boxers. Many of the boxers from Srisaket, Buriram and Surin are of ethnic Suai(Kuy), Lao, and Khmer descent. Isan's most famous sportsman, however, is tennis player Paradorn Srichaphan, whose family is from Khon Kaen.
Marriage and courtship in Isan still mainly follows strict tradition, especially in rural areas, and most young women are married by the time they are 20 years old. Many girls, in spite of the legal requirement, marry as young as 14 to escape poverty, as usually marriage is associated with a dowry paid by the husband to the bride's family. A dowry will not normally be less than 40,000 baht, and according to the status of the bride and/or her family, can often greatly exceed 300,000 baht.
Despite the influence of tradition, in 2013, according to UNICEF, 191.5 births out of every 1,000 births in Isan were to adolescents aged 15–19. This is four times higher than the 2018 global average of 44 births per 1,000 according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In September 2019, the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security set a target to reduce the number of unintended teenage pregnancies countrywide to 25 births per 1,000 by 2026.
Isan women rarely have boyfriends until they meet the man whom they will eventually marry, and tradition requires that the betrothal is then announced. Younger fiancées will be chaperoned, usually by a female friend, brother, or sister while in the company of their future husband. The wedding ceremony usually takes place in the bride's home and is normally officiated by one or several monks or a respected village elder who has been a monk. Young couples are increasingly registering their marriages at the city hall, which they can do if they are over 17. The extended family system is still very much the traditional social structure in Isan, with newlywed couples often living with in-laws or building a home on the family compound or farmland.
It is not unusual, however, for many women to remain single until much later. Tradition demands that the youngest or only daughter continues to live at home to take care of her parents. They are then only free to marry when both parents are deceased. There is also the tradition that a woman should "marry up" in status. If the woman is tied to an occupation in a rural area as a farm or business owner, teacher, or similar profession, finding a suitable husband who is prepared to relocate is often not easy.
Water buffalo are a regular feature, even in the suburbs, being walked to and from the fields at dawn and dusk. Although rarely used nowadays for working the land, they are considered an important status symbol. The current value (2010) of one head of buffalo is about 20,000 baht (2010: US$620).
The cultural separation from central Thailand, combined with the region's poverty and the typically dark skin of its people, has encouraged a considerable amount of discrimination against the multi-ethnic people of Isan from non-ethnic Thais of Chinese descent. Even though many Isan people now work in the cities rather than in the fields, many hold lower-status jobs such as construction workers, stall vendors, and tuk-tuk taxi drivers, and discriminatory attitudes have been known to persist with many Thai-Chinese inhabitants. Nevertheless, Isan food and music have both been enthusiastically adopted and adapted to the tastes of the rest of the country.
The process of Thaification, resulting from central Thais' perceived threat of Lao cultural dominance in the Isan region, has diluted somewhat the distinctive character of Isan culture, particularly in the cities and in provinces, such as Khorat, which are closest to the central Thai heartlands and which have been under Thai rule the longest.
Religion
As in the rest of Thailand, the population is mostly Theravada Buddhist, although this is combined with elements of animism. Larger cities have Christian churches. Many major district towns have a small Christian church or chapel, usually Roman Catholic, and there are others in rural areas.
The world-famous meditation teacher Ajahn Chah, teacher of Ajahn Sumedho,was born in Isan.
Thaification
Anouvong, the last of the kings of Vientiane rebelled against Siamese suzerainty, and lost in a war that raged on for two years. Khorat was then repopulated by forced migration of Mekong Valley Lao, with a heavy influx of voluntary Chinese migrants. The plateau was claimed by Siam when France and Siam divided Lao territories following the Franco-Siamese War of 1893. Roi Et was established early in the 20th century to further Siamese control, and to further assimilation of the population into the kingdom.
Transportation
Communications
Traditionally, messages between the government in Bangkok and Isan provincial outposts had been carried by "pony express" or by fast boat. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910), the Ministry of Interior maintained a schedule which specified that messages between Bangkok and Nong Khai took 12 days, between Bangkok and Ubon Ratchathani, 12 days, and between Bangkok and Luang Prabang, 17 days outbound and 13 days inbound.
Rail
Until 1900, when the first rail line from Bangkok to Khorat was opened, the shipment of goods took at least eight or nine days to go between the two. Now goods could be transported in a day. The speed with which goods could reach Khorat from Bangkok permitted the introduction into Isan of items previously too expensive or too perishable to transport. By 1928 a section of the northeastern rail line was extended to Ubon and by 1933 another section had reached Khon Kaen. It would not extend to Nong Khai until 1955. Trading patterns between the central region and Isan were forever altered.
The State Railway of Thailand has two main lines in Isan, both connecting the region to Bangkok. One runs east from Khorat, through Surin to Ubon; the other runs north through Khon Kaen and Udon to Nong Khai. In early-2009, a rail link from Nong Khai came into operation. It crosses the Friendship road bridge into Laos territory to a terminus a few kilometres north of the land border crossing. It remains unclear whether this line will be extended the remaining 20 kilometres to Vientiane, the capital of Laos.
Road
According to one report in 1895, it took about three weeks to travel overland by ox cart from Nong Khai to Khorat and another eight or nine days to travel from Khorat to Bangkok. Automobile transport made its first appearance in Isan sometime in the 1920s but did not expand rapidly until after the Second World War.
There are of highway, centered on the Thanon Mitraphap ("Friendship Highway") from Khorat to Nong Khai built by the United States in the 1960s at a cost of US$20 million to supply its northeastern military bases. A road bridge (the Saphan Mitraphap or Friendship Bridge) jointly built by the Australian, Lao, and Thai governments forms the border crossing over the Mekong River on the outskirts of Nong Khai to Vientiane, the capital of Laos, about away.
Most roads in Isan are paved. All major roads interconnecting the provincial capitals are in excellent condition for driving, and most are centrally divided four or six-lane highways. Many roads connecting province capitals to larger district towns are also currently (2008) being widened to four-lane highways with median strips. The paving on some very minor roads in the poorer districts may be navigable with difficulty due to large, deep potholes. Unpaved, graded roads link some of the smaller, more remote villages, but they are comfortably navigable at normal driving speeds for wheeled vehicles. Most of the stretches of paved roads through villages are lighted at night, many with powerful sodium lighting, some of which are on independently solar-powered masts. Reflective "cats-eyes" marking the central line of two-lane roads are a common feature. Crash barriers are installed along the sides of dangerous bends and precipitous verges. Signposting is excellent and follows international style. Since 2002 (with the exception of some poorer sub-districts), all signs are bilingual in Thai and Roman script.
The main highways have frequent, Western-style rest and refueling stations which accept payment by major credit/debit cards. In 2006, all fuel stations sell 91 and 95 octane gasoline/petrol and diesel fuel. LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) and NGV (natural gas for vehicles) were till recently very rare outside the cities of Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, and Udon Thani. As of 2012, many new LPG and NGV stations have opened. Since 2009, bio-diesel fuel has become increasingly available.
Air
In 1960 air service by Thai Airways to several northeastern towns was inaugurated. By 1963 there were regular flights between Bangkok and Nakhon Phanom, Ubon, Khon Kaen, and Udon.
There are airports at Khorat (at the present time no scheduled services due to its proximity to Bangkok making air service difficult to justify financially), Khon Kaen (domestic), Ubon Ratchathani (domestic), Udon Thani (international), Nakhon Phanom (domestic, scheduled services), Sakon Nakhon (domestic, scheduled services), Roi Et (domestic, scheduled services), Buriram (domestic, scheduled services) and Loei (domestic, scheduled services).
Domestic air travel between the capital and the region is well developed, and has become a viable alternative to rail, long-distance bus, and self-driving. Fares are cheap by foreign standards, and Udon and Khon Kaen which both opened brand new airport terminals in 2005 and 2006 respectively, are served by many daily flights and also have routes connecting other major destinations in Thailand with some companies operating wide-bodied aircraft. Most domestic flights to and from Bangkok operate to and from Don Muang, the original Bangkok international airport, while Thai Airways flights serve Bangkok International Airport at Suvarnabhumi.
Bus
Buses provide mass transport throughout the region. All provincial cities are connected to Bangkok by daily and nightly, direct, air-conditioned bus routes. All district amphoe towns operate at least one similar nightly route to and from Bangkok. All towns and villages are interconnected with frequent services of songthaew (, lit. "two rows") a covered truck-style bus or covered pick-up trucks with bench seats in the cargo bed.
Taxi transport is not well developed, even in the very large cities, where samlor (, lit. "three wheels"), three-wheeled motorcycle taxis similar to the Bangkok tuk-tuk, provide the mainstay of urban transport. The large cities do have some pick-up trucks operating on regular inner-city and suburban routes. Airports are served by collective vans, which tend to be expensive for the local population, and samlors for private hire.
Waterways
In this region, rapids and variable flow make navigation difficult on the Mekong River, so large boat traffic is limited in connection with downriver areas. Bridges are rare because of the high cost of spanning the wide river; numerous passenger and vehicle ferries link its two sides. The Second Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge, spanning the Mekong between the cities of Mukdahan (Thailand) and Savannakhet (Laos), was completed and officially opened for traffic on 20 December 2006. Some new bridges, not included on the 2005 maps, have been built over smaller rivers and dams. Passenger and vehicle ferries also operate across some large reservoirs.
Improved infrastructure and ease of travel restrictions between Thailand and Laos has allowed the continued movement of thousands of people every day, with people on either side crossing the river to visit relatives, shop, participate in religious festivals, conduct business or day-trip, with the Nong Khai-Vientiane Mukdahan-Savannakhét and Nakhon Phanom-Thakhèk border crossings particularly important due to the construction of bridges. Other major border crossings include Bueng Kan-Pakxan and the only non-Mekong checkpoint Chong Mek-Vangtao, although ferries cross the river in other areas. The familiarity of the language makes travel and business easy for Isan speakers, who are able to use their language freely in Laos and be understood.
Administrative divisions
Isan is divided into 20 provinces, grouped into three statistical subregions. Nakhon Ratchasima Province is considered by some to be in central Thailand.
Note: Populations as of 31 December 2019.
Isan returns 136 of the national parliament's 400 constituency MPs. In the 2005 election, the Thai Rak Thai party took 126 of these seats, with six for Chart Thai and two each for the Democrat party and Mahachon Party.
Notable natives or residents
Buddhist monks
Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta Thera, born in Ubon Ratchathani Province
Luang Por Ajahn Chah, born in Ubon Ratchathani Province
Luangta Ajahn Maha Bua, born in Udon Thani Province
Luang Por Khun Parissuddho, born in Nakhon Ratchasima Province
Politicians
Sarit Thanarat, born in Bangkok, but he is half-blooded from the provinces of Bangkok and Mukdahan Province. His father is a native of Bangkok and his mother is a native Mukdahan Province.
Praphas Charusathien, born in Udon Thani Province
Anon Nampa, born in Roi Et Province
Prayut Chan-o-cha, born in Nakhon Ratchasima Province
Newin Chidchob, born in Buriram Province
Writers
Pira Sudham, born in Buriram Province
Actors
Nadech Kugimiya, born in Khon Kaen Province
Sukollawat Kanarot, born in Khon Kaen Province
Nichaphat Chatchaipholrat, born in Khon Kaen Province
Sombat Metanee, born in Ubon Ratchathani Province
Tony Jaa, born in Surin Province
Comedians
Mum Jokmok, born in Yasothon Province
Sudarat Butrprom, born in Udon Thani Province
Martial arts choreographers
Panna Rittikrai, born in Khon Kaen Province
Singers
Jintara Poonlarp, born in Roi Et Province, singing styles: mor lam, Thai pop music, Luk thung
Honey Sri-Isan, born in Kalasin Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Siriporn Ampaipong, born in Udon Thani Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Banyen Rakgan, born in Ubon Ratchatani Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Tai Orathai, born in Ubon Ratchathani Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Mike Phiromphon, born in Udon Thani Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Maithai Huajaisin, born in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Phai Phongsathon, born in Yasothon Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Monkaen Kaenkoon, born in Yasothon Province, singing styles: Mor lam, Luk thung
Asanee–Wasan, born in Loei Province, singing style: Rock
Pongsit Kamphee, born in Nong Khai Province, singing style: Songs for Life
Seksan Sukpimai, born in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, singing style: Rock
Lalisa Manoban, born in Buriram Province , K-pop singer
Sports
Somluck Kamsing, the first Thai Olympic gold medalist in amateur boxer, born in Khon Kaen Province.
Paradorn Srichaphan, tennis player, born in Khon Kaen Province.
Ratchanok Intanon, badminton player, born in Yasothon , She is half-blooded from the provinces of Roi Et and Yasothon. Her father is a native of Yasothon and her mother is a native of Roi Et.
Surat Sukha, football player, born in Sakon Nakhon Province, who played with Melbourne Victory FC, Victoria, Australia between 2009 and 2011, and currently plays for Buriram United F.C..
Kiatisuk Senamuang, football coach and former player, born in Udon Thani Province and resides at Khon Kaen Province.
References
Further reading
Alpha Research Co. Pocket Thailand in Figures. Alpha Research Co. 2005.
External links
Grandstaff, T. B., Grandstaff, S., Limpinuntana, V., & Suphanchaimat, N. "Rainfed revolution in northeast Thailand." Southeast Asian Studies Vol. 46, No. 3, December 2008, 289–376. PDF
McCargo, Duncan, and Krisadawan Hongladarom. "Contesting Isan‐ness: discourses of politics and identity in Northeast Thailand." Asian Ethnicity 5.2 (2004): 219-234.
The Isaan Record
Ethnologue report on Thailand
Annual population data for Thailand to 1997 (Chulalongkorn University)
Population statistics from citypopulation.de
Estimates to 2004, from world-gazeteer.com
Toward a Knowledge-Based Economy: Northeastern Thailand
Regions of Thailand
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] |
203861
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Pennsylvania%20%28ACR-4%29
|
USS Pennsylvania (ACR-4)
|
The second USS Pennsylvania (ACR/CA-4), also referred to as Armored Cruiser No. 4, and later renamed Pittsburgh, was a United States Navy armored cruiser, the lead ship of her class. She was originally assigned the name Nebraska but was renamed Pennsylvania on 7 March 1901.
Construction
She was laid down on 7 August 1901, by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia, launched on 22 August 1903. Pennsylvania was sponsored by Miss Coral Quay, daughter of Senator Matthew S. Quay of Pennsylvania, and commissioned on 9 March 1905, with Captain Thomas C. McLean in command.
Service history
Pre-World War I
Pennsylvania operated on the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean Sea until 8 September 1906, when she cleared Newport for the Asiatic Station, returning to San Francisco on 27 September 1907, for west coast duty. She visited Chile and Peru in 1910.
At 10:48, on 18 January 1911, Eugene Ely, flew a Curtiss Model D from Tanforan Racetrack in San Bruno, California, and at 11:01, landed on board Pennsylvania while she lay at anchor off Hunters Point, in San Francisco Bay. The plane made a smooth landing from astern onto a specially built platform. At 11:58, the plane took off and returned to Selfridge Field, completing the earliest demonstration of the adaptability of aircraft to shipboard operations.
In another of these early demonstrations, civilian aircraft designer and entrepreneur Glenn Curtiss taxied a hydroaeroplane alongside Pennsylvania as she lay anchored in San Diego Harbor, during the forenoon watch on 17 February 1911. The plane landed alongside the ship at 08:45 and sailors manned the cruiser's crane to hoist the machine on board. At 09:05, Pennsylvania hoisted the aircraft out and it returned to base.
While in reserve at Puget Sound, from 1 July 1911 – 30 May 1913, the cruiser trained naval militia. She was renamed Pittsburgh on 27 August 1912, to free the name Pennsylvania for a new battleship.
World War I
Recommissioning, Pittsburgh patrolled the west coast of Mexico, during the troubled times of insurrection that led to American involvement with the Veracruz landing in April 1914. Later she served as flagship for Admiral William B. Caperton—Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet—during South American patrols and visits during World War I. Cooperating with the British, she scouted German raiders and acted as a powerful deterrent against their penetration of the eastern Pacific.
While at Rio de Janeiro, in October and November 1918, failure to implement quarantine procedures by Captain George Bradshaw, led to the spread of the deadly strain of Spanish influenza on ship, sickening 663 sailors (80% of the crew) and killing 58 of them.
Future Rear Admiral Ellis M. Zacharias served as a line officer aboard Pittsburgh during World War I. Future Governor of American Samoa George Landenberger commanded the vessel.
Inter-war period
Returning to the east coast, Pittsburgh prepared for duty as flagship for Commander, US Naval Forces in the eastern Mediterranean, for which she sailed from Portsmouth, New Hampshire on 19 June 1919. Cruising the Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, and Black Sea, she joined in the massive relief operations and other humanitarian concerns with which the Navy carried out its quasi-diplomatic functions in this troubled area. In June 1920, she sailed north to visit French and British ports and cruise the Baltic Sea on further relief assignments.
On 9 September 1920, she ran aground on rocks in the Baltic Sea off Libau. She was assisted by and ; Frederick escorted her to Sheerness Royal Dockyard, Kent, England which she reached at 10:00 o'clock in the morning of 23 September. Before 12 October she had moved up river to Chatham Dockyard where she went into dry dock. On that date a team from Pittsburgh routed a team of British officers 21–8 at baseball. The following month, with Pittsburgh still in dry dock, a court-martial absolved Captain Todd of blame for the grounding but the navigator and watch officer were held accountable. She returned to decommission at Philadelphia, on 15 October 1921.
Recommissioned on 2 October 1922, Pittsburgh returned to European and Mediterranean waters as flagship of Naval Forces Europe, arriving in Gibraltar on 19 October. On 23 October, she hoisted the flag of Vice Admiral Long when returned to the US. By 10 July 1923, Pittsburgh was in the harbor at Cherbourg, France, to disembark 3 officers and 60 enlisted men of her Marine Detachment. They were detailed to travel to the dedication of the Belleau Wood National Monument to the American Expeditionary Force. The Battle of Belleau Wood was where the US Marine Corps made a famous stand during the Allied Campaign of 1918. In 1923, when docked in Amsterdam, the crew of Pittsburgh took part in another baseball game, this time against a team of Dutch players. The details of the game are not known, but it is known that Pittsburgh team won. It would be the first of several games Dutch players would play with US Navy crews. Pittsburgh became flagship for two of the Commanders-in-Chief, US Naval Forces European Waters, Admiral Philip Andrews in 1924–1925 and Vice Admiral Roger Welles in 1925–1926.
The ship arrived at New York on 17 July 1926, to prepare for flagship duty with the Asiatic Fleet, during which time she was partially refitted, including the removal of her forward stack (making her unique to her class) and removal and plating over several 3-inch guns. She sailed on 16 October, for Chefoo, arriving on 23 December. Early in January 1927, she landed sailors and Marines to protect Americans and other foreigners in Shanghai, from the turmoil and fighting of the Chinese power struggle. When Chiang Kai-shek's National Revolutionary Army won control of Shanghai, in March, Pittsburgh resumed patrol operations and exercises with the Asiatic Fleet. Closing her long career of service, she carried the Governor General of the Philippines, Dwight F. Davis, on a courtesy cruise to such ports as Saigon, Bangkok, Singapore, Belawan, Batavia (Jakarta), Surabaya, Bali, Makassar, and Sandakan, returning to Manila, on 15 April 1931. Six days later, she steamed for Suez, en route to Hampton Roads, arriving on 26 June. She was decommissioned on 10 July, and under the terms of the London Naval Treaty, sold for scrapping to Union Shipbuilding, Baltimore, Maryland on 21 December.
Bow ornament
Pittsburghs bow ornament was presented to the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where it was installed overlooking Junction Hollow at the western edge of the school's campus. Today, the ornament is on display at Soldiers and Sailors National Military Museum and Memorial; a replica of it is still in place at the modern Carnegie Mellon University.
Memorial bell
The number 3 bell at Rochester Cathedral, England, bears the inscription "U.S.S. PITTSBURGH IN MEMORY OF 1920". For many years the reason for this inscription was a mystery. Then a researcher found the explanation in the Chatham News of 17 December 1920. That issue included a letter from Captain J.W. Todd, who commanded Pittsburgh in 1920. Captain Todd thanked the dean of the cathedral for various hospitality events during the two and a half months that Pittsburgh was in dry dock at Chatham. He enclosed a cheque for £52 10s to pay for the recasting of the bell, and suggested the inscription.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Microfilmed copy available for consultation at Medway Archives
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
External links
hazegray.org: USS Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1903 ships
World War I cruisers of the United States
United States Navy Pennsylvania-related ships
Pittsburgh
Maritime incidents in 1920
|
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203863
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20West%20Virginia%20%28ACR-5%29
|
USS West Virginia (ACR-5)
|
The first USS West Virginia (ACR-5/CA-5), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 5", and later renamed Huntington, was a United States Navy armored cruiser.
The ship was launched on 18 April 1903 by Newport News Drydock & ShipbuildingCo., Newport News, Virginia, sponsored by Miss Katherine V. White, and commissioned on 23 February 1905, Captain C. H. Arnold in command.
Pre-World War I
After shakedown training, West Virginia cruised with the New York Naval Militia as a unit of the Atlantic Fleet until 30 September 1906 when she sailed for duty with the Asiatic Fleet. The ship remained with the Asiatic Fleet (which was downgraded in status to that of First Squadron of the Pacific Fleet in early 1907) on training operations for two years, and after overhaul at Mare Island in 1908 joined the Pacific Fleet for similar exercises along the West Coast of the United States. In 1911–1912, she made a cruise with the Fleet to Hawaiian waters and in 1914 steamed on special duty off the west coast of Mexico for the protection of American interests. She remained off Mexico during the Veracruz crisis, and returned to Bremerton, Washington, to become a part of the Pacific Reserve Fleet.
West Virginia remained at Bremerton, Washington, until 20 September 1916, when she again sailed to Mexico for the protection of American lives and property and to back up U.S. diplomacy. While on this service, she was renamed Huntington on 11 November to permit the assignment of her old name to a newly authorized battleship, . After five months service off Mexico, she steamed to Mare Island for the installation of catapult devices on the quarterdeck and equipment to accommodate four seaplanes on the boat deck ways.
World War I
Huntington was detached from the Reserve Force and placed in full commission on 5 April 1917. She departed Mare Island on 11 May and steamed to Pensacola, Florida, via the Panama Canal. Detached from the Pacific Fleet after her arrival in Florida on 28 May, she spent the next two months at the Naval Air Station Pensacola, engaging in a series of important early experiments with balloons and seaplanes launched from the deck. The cruiser then sailed for Hampton Roads on 1 August and arrived New York five days later. There, Huntington formed with a convoy of six troopships bound for France departing on 8 September. En route, several balloon observation flights were made, and on one of these on 17 September, the balloon was forced down by a squall while being brought back on board and the observer, Lieutenant (jg) Henry W. Hoyt, was knocked out of the basket and caught underwater entangled in its rigging. Seeing the emergency, shipfitter Patrick McGunigal jumped overboard to release the crewman from the balloon basket, by then overturned and underwater. For his heroic action, McGunigal was awarded World War I's 3rd Medal of Honor. The day after the rescue, the convoy was turned over to American destroyers in European waters; and Huntington steamed back to Hampton Roads, arriving 30 September.
After replenishing at Norfolk, Huntington sailed to New York on 5 October to have her catapult and seaplanes removed. She got underway on 27 October and arrived Halifax, Nova Scotia, two days later to embark together with on a high-level US Commission to confer with the Allies. Presidential envoy, Colonel Edward M. House; Admiral William S. Benson; General Tasker H. Bliss; and other dignitaries took passage in Huntington, arriving Davenport, England on 7 November, to be met by British officials. Huntington departed for New York, via Hampton Roads, arriving on 27 November.
Subsequently, the cruiser returned to the important duty of escorting convoys of troops and supplies to Europe, making nine such voyages to Europe and back from 19 February-13 November 1918. In addition, Huntington made three coastal convoy passages from New York to Hampton Roads. She entered Brooklyn Navy Yard on 17 November for conversion to a troop transport.
Inter-war period
Assigned to Cruiser and Transport Force, Atlantic Fleet, Huntington next sailed for France to bring home veterans of the European fighting. She departed New York on 17 December, arrived Brest 29 December, and brought over 1,700 passengers to New York on 14 January 1919. The ship made five more voyages to France and return, bringing home nearly 12,000 troops, and terminated her last voyage at Boston on 5 July. Detached from Transport Force, she was reassigned to Cruiser Force and became flagship of Flying Squadron 1 on 8 July. Huntington decommissioned at Portsmouth Navy Yard, Kittery, Maine on 1 September 1920. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 12 March 1930 and sold in accordance with the London Naval Treaty on 30 August. The bell from the armored cruiser was given to West Virginia University, dedicated in 1967, and now occupies a place in Oglebay Plaza along with the mast from the USS West Virginia (BB-48).
Notes
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
External links
hazegray.org: USS West Virginia / Huntington
The West Virginia and Regional History Center has multiple collections pertaining to WVU's acquisition of the bell. Since WVU also has the mast, it is worth noting that some of the collections at that link pertain to the battleship USS West Virginia (BB-48).
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
1903 ships
Banana Wars ships of the United States
World War I cruisers of the United States
United States Navy West Virginia-related ships
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairuza%20Balk
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Fairuza Balk
|
Fairuza Balk (born May 21, 1974) is an American actress, musician and visual artist. Influential in popular culture, Balk is known for her portrayals of distinctive "goth-girl" characters, often with a dark edge. She has appeared in numerous independent films and blockbuster features, typically in both leading and supporting roles.
Following a series of television film roles, Balk made her feature film debut as Dorothy Gale in the fantasy Return to Oz (1985), for which she was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Starring Performance By a Young Actress - Motion Picture. Her career progressed with roles in the drama films Valmont (1989) and Gas Food Lodging (1992), the latter earning her the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead. After appearing in the historical drama Imaginary Crimes (1994) and the crime drama Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead (1995), Balk earned acclaim for her role in the horror film The Craft (1996), which earned her a nomination for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress, and a cult following. She has since appeared in The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996), American History X (1998), The Waterboy (1998), Almost Famous (2000), Personal Velocity: Three Portraits (2002), Deuces Wild (2002), Don't Come Knocking (2005), Wild Tigers I Have Known (2006), Humboldt County (2008), and Bad Lieutenant: Port of Call New Orleans (2009).
On television, Balk portrayed Mildred Hubble in the 1986 adaptation of The Worst Witch, based on the book series of the same name. She appeared in the recurring role of Ginger on Showtime's Ray Donovan in 2015, and currently stars as Lizzie Thomas on the Amazon Prime series Paradise City (2021). Balk has been releasing music since 2010 under the name of her unsigned act, Armed Love Militia.
Early life
Balk was born on May 21, 1974, in Point Reyes, California to Solomon Feldthouse (born David Earle Scaff; 1940–2021), a musician, and Catherine Balk, a belly dancer. The name Fairuza is of Persian origin meaning "turquoise". Her father gave her the name for the color of her eyes. Feldthouse was one of the founding members of the 1960s psychedelic rock group Kaleidoscope, and was also a traveling folk musician. He was born in Pingree, Idaho and, between the ages of six and ten, lived in Turkey where he learned Greek, Iraqi, Iranian, and Armenian music.
Until the age of two, Balk lived in Jackson, Michigan with her mother. They then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, where she began acting at age six. They moved to London and then to Paris for another role. They remained there for six months before returning to Vancouver.
Balk owned an occult shop in Los Angeles as a young woman upon signing to act in the 1996 film The Craft.
Career
Balk took her first acting course around the summer of 1983, where she was taught how to look at a camera and not be shy. Her first experience was in a British Columbia tourism commercial, for which she earned $100. Her debut role was in a 1983 television film titled The Best Christmas Pageant Ever. While in London, Balk was cast by Walt Disney Productions to star as Dorothy Gale in Return to Oz, the unofficial sequel to MGM's 1939 musical The Wizard of Oz. This role led to other minor roles, including that of Mildred Hubble in The Worst Witch. In 1988, at age 14, she moved to Paris to work on Valmont with Miloš Forman. She decided to take correspondence courses and went back to Hollywood, where she gained increasing notice as an actress. In 1992, she was awarded an Independent Spirit Award as best actress for her performance in the Allison Anders film Gas Food Lodging.
In 1996, she appeared in a lead role in The Craft, in which her character formed a teenage coven with characters portrayed by Neve Campbell, Rachel True and Robin Tunney. Since then, Balk has continued to find roles, primarily dark ones. In 1996, she co-starred in The Island of Dr Moreau. In 1998, she played a neo-Nazi goth-punk opposite Edward Norton in American History X, and was featured in The Waterboy, alongside Adam Sandler. Since 2000, she has appeared in over a dozen films and was briefly in a band called G-13. She has also done voice work for animated films, TV shows and video games, including Justice League, Family Guy, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City and Lords of EverQuest. The 2007 documentary Return to Oz: The Joy That Got Away was dedicated to her.
In 2010, Armed Love Militia, Balk's musical outlet, released the single "Stormwinds". The track was written and sung by Balk. Armed Love Militia continued, with Balk collaborating on an EP with singer and songwriter Mel Sanson.
In 2011, Balk began to exhibit art in Los Angeles and New York. On August 4, 2012, she participated in the group show 'MiXTAPE', with other notable artists Mark Ryden, Camille Rose Garcia, Jessicka Addams, and Marion Peck. Artists were asked to pick a song and create art inspired by that song. Balk chose the song "Nuages" by Django Reinhardt and created a 16"x20"x12" mixed-media sculpture. The eclectic mix of songs chosen were featured for digital download on iTunes.
In 2017, the emo puppet band Fragile Rock performed a song titled "Fairuza Balk" on their NPR Tiny Desk Concert.
Filmography
References
External links
1974 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from the San Francisco Bay Area
American child actresses
American expatriates in Canada
American expatriates in France
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American film actresses
American television actresses
American video game actresses
American voice actresses
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
People from Cloverdale, California
People from Jackson, Michigan
People from Point Reyes, California
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoumi%20Nosavan
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Phoumi Nosavan
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Major General Phoumi Nosavan (; 27 January 1920 – 1985) was a military strongman who was prominent in the history of the Kingdom of Laos; at times, he dominated its political life to the point of being a virtual dictator. He was born in Savannakhet, the French Protectorate of Laos, on 27 January 1920. Originally a civil servant in the French colonial administration of Laos, during the last year of World War II he joined the resistance movement against the Japanese occupiers. Exiled from 1946 to early 1949 for his opposition to French return to colonizing Laos, he returned to his native soil to begin a military career in 1950 after the collapse of the anti-French Lao Issara government. By 1955, he was Chief of Staff of the brand-new Royal Lao Army. While in that position, he was largely responsible for appointing senior officers into command positions in the Military Regions of Laos. Following that, in 1957 he was the first Lao officer to be schooled in France at the École de Guerre (War College). While in France, he became acquainted with Central Intelligence Agency operative John F. "Jack" Hasey. Phoumi returned to Laos to become a founding member of the Committee for the Defence of National Interests on 17 June 1958. On 25 December 1959, he took control of the capital of Vientiane and of the nation in a bloodless coup.
Drawing military power from his status as a general officer, and political power from appointment as defense minister, Phoumi would remain a dominant figure in Laotian political life for the next six years. He would be temporarily removed from power during an August 1960 coup by Captain Kong Le, only to return with a Central Intelligence Agency backed counter-coup in December. From 1961 to 1963, he carried out military operations contrary to his American advisers' wishes, figuring the U.S. would have to support him regardless. His American backers periodically curtailed military aid to his forces to compel his compliance, even as the Royal Lao Army's performance deteriorated. The aftermath to the Battle of Vientiane in early 1961, as well as the disastrous Battle of Luang Namtha in 1962 and the lost Battle of Lak Sao in 1963 illustrated his shortcomings as a military commander. As Phoumi's influence was whittled away, he attempted to retain power via coups, including one in 1964, and one in 1965. The 1964 coup being unsuccessful, he was stripped of his troop command. His final coup attempt in January 1965 was plotted with borrowed troops. When that bid to regain power failed, he fled into exile in the neighboring Kingdom of Thailand. He was sentenced in absentia to 20 years imprisonment. Phoumi Nosavan died in Bangkok, Thailand in November 1985.
Colonial Service
Phoumi Nosavan was a prominent Lao military and political figure of the Laotian Civil War. He was of Chinese-Lao heritage. He was born in Savannakhet, the French Protectorate of Laos. He was educated there, and in Vientiane. He became a civil servant in the French colonial government. As World War II wound down in 1945, he joined the resistance movement opposed to the Japanese occupation of Laos. He belonged to the secretive Lao Pen Lao (Laos for the Lao). He was also in the short-lived Lao Issara (Free Laos) government until the French return in 1946 drove him into exile in the Kingdom of Thailand. As part of the Lao Issara command, he briefly ran their military operations in southern Laos in coordination with the Viet Minh.
In early 1949, he returned to Thailand before repatriating himself to Laos. In 1950, he joined the nascent Armee Nationale Laotienne (Laotian National Army). He served as a military adviser at the 1954 Geneva Conference. By 1955, he had risen to lieutenant colonel, serving as Chief of Staff of the newly constituted Royal Lao Army in the newly independent Kingdom of Laos.
Service After Independence
Under Colonel Phoumi, there was a massive appointment of military officers subordinate to him into command positions in the Royal Lao Army. One of the criteria for these appointments was seniority in the military. However, the urban elite families had great interest in procuring these command positions; they brought influence to bear to secure appointments for their family members or adherents. As the families were regionally based, officers from the elite both saw government service as a tool for political advancement, and as another way to command the allegiance of the Lao peasantry in their region.
Phoumi then attended the Ecole de Guerre (War College) in 1957 to 1958; he was the first Lao officer to do so. He took Siho Lamphouthacoul as his aide de camp. While there, Phoumi became acquainted with Central Intelligence Agency operative John F. "Jack" Hasey. Phoumi returned from France to command the newly created Military Region 5; to that, he added the political post of Deputy Minister for Internal Security. When the May 1958 national election results favored the communist candidates, the rightwing Committee for the Defence of National Interests was formed with American support on 17 June 1958 to counterbalance the leftists. Phoumi was a charter member of the CDNI.
Promoted to colonel, Phoumi joined Phoui Sananikone's government to assume the portfolio for national defense in 1959. On 4 September 1959, the Royal Lao Government appealed to the United Nations for an intervention against invasion by North Vietnamese communists. Sparked by a Washington Post article by Joseph Alsop, as well as a 5 September editorial by the paper, on 7 September the United States pushed for a United Nations subcommittee of its Security Council be sent to Laos to investigate the charges of aggression against it. Also on 7 September, Phoui proclaimed martial law even as his government insisted that "foreign invaders" had vacated Houaphanh Province. While Phoui made that announcement, Phoumi told the Associated Press (AP) that if the United Nations turned down the Lao request, the Royal Lao Government (RLG) would request help from the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). As the Laotian crisis began to gather skeptical coverage in the international press, Phoumi flew to Bangkok for a four-day visit. Once there, he solicited aid from his uncle, Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat. Sarit declined help unless Phoumi had American backing. The United Nations subcommittee visited Laos from 15 to 20 September; however, it received no persuasive proof of an invasion. In any case, neither the United Nations nor SEATO aid arrived. In mid-November, Secretary-General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld visited Laos. He advised the Royal Lao Government that its policy should be one of strict neutrality if it expected United Nations support.
Phoumi Runs The Nation
1960 Laotian Coups
On 16 December 1959, Phoui fired the CDNI ministers from his cabinet, including Phoumi. On 25 December, General Phoumi took charge of the government in a bloodless coup, using Captain Kong Le and his Bataillon Parachutistes 2 (Parachute Battalion 2) to occupy Vientiane's infrastructure. The takeover had the approval of King Sisavang Vatthana; moreover, Phoumi was the only one chosen by his monarch for the new government. Phoumi believed he could impose an authoritarian "directed democracy" upon an ignorant populace for their own welfare.
When the 1960 election results again favored leftists and communists, Phoumi founded the Paxa Sangkhom (People's Society) political party on 12 May 1960, as a means of furthering his political ends. It was about this time he became friends with Thao Ma, head of the Royal Lao Air Force.
On 10 August 1960, Kong Le would oust Phoumi in his own coup. In return, Phoumi would return to power with the aid of the Central Intelligence Agency (including John Hasey) on 16 December in the Battle of Vientiane during his counter-coup. He was aided in this by Generals Kouprasith Abhay and Siho Lamphouthacoul. Phoumi reclaimed the Ministry of Defense after his counter-coup reclaimed the country, as well as becoming the deputy prime minister on 4 January 1961. He appointed his close friend Thao Ma to command the Royal Lao Air Force; he would act only on Phoumi's commands.
As Kong Le established his Forces Armee Neutraliste (Neutralist Armed Forces) in Military Region 2 as a third side in the Laotian Civil War, Phoumi ordered a pursuit. It moved slowly northward toward the Plain of Jars. On 13 March, a Forces Armee Neutraliste counter-offensive quickly wiped out all the Royal Lao Army gains. To bolster Phoumi's forces, Operation Millpond was founded to secretively import American air power on the Royal Lao Government's side. Phoumi also tried to co-opt the Operation Momentum guerrillas, despite his dislike and distrust of the Hmong hill tribe.
Phoumi himself remained in Vientiane to maintain his control over the nation, and to organize the Royal Lao Army battalions into regiments during March 1961; the Royal Lao Air Force also received its first strike aircraft, four T-6 Texans. Phoumi rewarded his subordinate officers with promotions and appointments. He also promoted himself to Major General and began construction of a downtown monument in Vientiane celebrating his victory in the battle for control of the city. Meanwhile, President Dwight D. Eisenhower was so concerned that Phoumi might lose Laos to the communists that an American task force was placed on alert, and the Royal Thai Government was approached by the Americans as a source of reinforcements.
The International Control Commission established by the 1954 Geneva Conference was renewed and engineered a truce on 11 May 1961, while the details of a new Lao government could be settled. On 19 June 1961, the three feuding princes met in Zurich, with Cambodian Prince Norodom Sihanouk mediating. On the 22nd, Prince Souphanouvong, Prince Souvanna Phouma, and Prince Boun Oum agreed in principle upon provisional rule by an interim Lao government until elections could be held. However, Phoumi stalled upon details of the coalition government, insisting upon knowing the composition of the new cabinet. He intended to stonewall until he could foster a new government headed by King Sisavang Vatthana instead. His visit to Washington, DC after a Zurich meeting left him believing that the U.S. would back him, no matter what circumstances. After his return to Laos, despite a ceasefire, troops under his command probed between Royal Lao Army and communist/Pathet Lao lines, retreating whenever they came up against the enemy. The communists fought them off, but did not retaliate.
Much to the despair of the American advisers attached to his forces, Phoumi preferred to promote officers known for their incompetence while demoting his competent officers as Phoumi feared able and intelligent officers might be able to overthrow him while inept and stupid officers never would. General William H. Craig of the U.S. Army wrote after visiting Laos in August-September 1961 that: "He is the only driving force in Laos but to make him function successfully, we must get tough with him". Craig wanted Phoumi to change his promotion policy to start promoting able officers at the expense of his inept officers.
In late December, Phoumi accused the United States of a "defeatist policy", and of treating the Royal Lao Government "like a small child". There were months of wrangling concerning his role in the proposed coalition cabinet. On 25 March 1962, Phoumi, W. Averell Harriman, and Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat met in Nong Khai, Thailand. Sarit, who was kin to Phoumi, tried to convince him to join a coalition that split control of the military and police three ways among the Royalists, Neutralists, and Pathet Lao. When Phoumi would not accept, he was subjected to a heated tirade by Harriman. However, as the latter was under orders to not cut U.S. aid to Laos, he had no leverage. Phoumi remained obdurate. He would not accept that the Defense and Interior ministries should be occupied by neutralists instead of rightists.
Battle of Luang Namtha
Elsewhere in early 1962, skirmishing between communists and the Royal Lao Army began on the Chinese border in far northwestern Laos in Luang Namtha. Phoumi directed his troops into the ensuing Battle of Luang Namtha in the beliefs that possession of the border town could be settled by military means, and that his American backers would be forced to back his actions. For their part, the Americans favored a diplomatic or political solution to the border incursion. They suspended U.S. foreign military aid to Laos, including the payroll for the Royal Lao Army, to sway him to their point of view. Phoumi turned to a secretive source of income by deputizing General Ouane Rattikone to deal opium to generate needed military funding.
In any case, the battle ended with the Royal Lao Army being trounced by half its number of communists. The Royal Lao Army's retreat took it from the Lao/Chinese border to the Mekong River. The Royal Lao Government not only lost control of Luang Namtha; it also lost a third of its maneuver battalions, including its elite paratroops. The Royal Lao Government was forced by this defeat into the Second Coalition Government. Phoumi was forced to surrender his political posts as the Defense and Interior ministries, and was reduced to sharing the deputy prime minister post with the communist Prince Souphanouvong, with either having the right to veto cabinet decisions. After the Luang Namtha defeat, U.S. President John F. Kennedy wanted Phoumi out of politics, and strictly limited to a military role. Kennedy directed Ambassador Winthrop G. Brown to make it known to Vientiane's politico-military elite that Phoumi no longer had the confidence of the U.S. for his political actions.
Neutrality And More Coups
Neutrality
The International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos was signed in July 1962; by its October deadline for foreign troop departure, it became apparent that at least 5,000 Vietnamese communists still remained in Laos.
In early 1963, during the lull that followed the establishment of national neutrality, Phoumi headquartered himself in Savannakhet. He ignored the International Agreement's proviso that he disband his less able units. Instead, he beefed up the Royal Lao Army to almost 50,000 strong. He also quietly courted the Forces Armee Neutraliste, airlifting supplies to them and urging them to ally with the Royalists. Despite the American acceptance of the Forces Armee Neutraliste as allies, by 18 May 1963, Ambassador Leonard Unger performed a re-examination of Royalist forces. Because of their poor combat performance, Unger thought the Royal Lao Army and Forces Armee Neutraliste would serve only to warn the government of communist attacks without offering significant resistance. However, the State Department ordered Unger to watch for opportunities for the Royal Lao Army to go on the offensive. In April, Phoumi arranged for the Royal Lao Air Force to receive eight T-28 Trojans from the Royal Thai Air Force. With U.S. State Department consent, the RLAF was strengthened by swapping in T-28s for worn-out T-6 Harvards on a one-to-one basis so the International Agreement was not breached. Whereas the T-6s had used only rockets and .30 caliber ammunition for strafing ground targets, the T-28s were cleared to carry and drop bombs. Additional transport craft were also supplied to the Royal Lao Air Force.
By November 1963, the positions of the Forces Armee Neutraliste on the Plain of Jars needed reinforcement. In response, Royal Lao Army garrison troops were moved from Thakhek to Military Region 2. However, despite the resultant weakening in military force in Military Region 3, Phoumi planned an offensive there. He thought that a thrust to the border village of Lak Sao would split a North Vietnamese intrusion. Phoumi found himself at odds with his American backers, who believed that an advance that would almost reach the border of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam would outrun supplies while inviting Vietnamese retaliation. When Phoumi did launch the assault, the ensuing Battle of Lak Sao would indeed end with the Royal Lao Army and its Neutralist allies dispersed in disarray by counterattacks. The communists took back Lak Sao and also occupied the entire Nakay Plateau by 1 February 1964.
More Coups
On 18 April 1964, General Siho Lamphouthicoul, who had aided Phoumi's return to power in December 1960, sent his Directorate of National Coordination police to secure the streets of Vientiane. Phoumi sat out the short-lived coup, which was ended on 23 April by U.S. Ambassador Leonard Unger's orders to Siho and his co-conspirator Kouprasith Abhay. Despite Phoumi's non-participation, in the aftermath of the coup, Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma dismissed Phoumi as Defense Minister, depriving him of troops to command. However, Phoumi's brother still headed the Lao custom service, and diverted most customs fees for personal use. Siho and Kouprasith Abhay then demanded some share of Phoumi's illicit operations—opium, gold and liquor smuggling operations, as well as his prostitution and gambling concerns.
Despite his demotion, Phoumi had somehow retained control of a training battalion in Vientiane. On 4 August 1964, he used them to seize Vientiane. General Kouprasith promptly turned out his local troops to suppress the insurrection while Siho sat out the coup. The training battalion was disbanded, depriving Phoumi of his last troops under his command.
Exile And Death
On 27 January 1965, Phoumi managed to convince one of his adherents to order a transfer of troops from Military Region 2 to Vientiane to ward off a purported attack by MR 5 troops. His coup, and a simultaneous one by Bounleut Saycocie, both failed. Phoumi fled into exile in Thailand. In Laos, General Ouane Rattikone remained as the Royal Lao Army Chief of Staff. General Kouprasith Abhay held Vientiane and the surrounding Military Region 5. Junior officers were sent to head up units stationed on Phoumi's home ground of Savannakhet. Phoumi's birthday coup had failed because he had no troops to command.
Phoumi convinced a loyal subordinate to return to Vientiane and retrieve a cache of gold. Phoumi then settled into a comfortable retirement in Songkhla, Thailand. However, while still in Laos, Phoumi had shielded his friend Thao Ma from problems with competing generals. Now that he was in exile, Kouprasith Abhay, Ouane Rattikone, and Oudone Sananikone began conspiring to diminish Thao Ma's command; this led to the latter's 1966 coup.
Phoumi spent the 1970s in Bangkok exile. He was sentenced by a Lao court in absentia to 20 years prison. In 1981, he allowed the Thai-backed United Front for the Liberation of the Lao People to use his name. He remained in exile, dying in Bangkok in 1985.
Notes
References
Ahern, Thomas L. Jr. (2006), Undercover Armies: CIA and Surrogate Warfare in Laos. Center for the Study of Intelligence. Classified control no. C05303949.
Anthony, Victor B. and Richard R. Sexton (1993). The War in Northern Laos. Command for Air Force History. .
Fall, Bernard Anatomy of a Crisis: The Laotian Crisis of 1960-1961. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. 1969.
Castle, Timothy N. (1993). At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: U.S. Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government 1955–1975. Columbia University Press. .
Conboy, Kenneth and James Morrison (1995). Shadow War: The CIA's Secret War in Laos. Paladin Press. .
Stuart-Fox, Martin (2008) Historical Dictionary of Laos. Scarecrow Press. ISBNs 0810864118, 978-0-81086-411-5.
Warner, Roger (1995). Back Fire: The CIA's Secret War in Laos and Its Link to the War in Vietnam. Simon & Schuster. ISBNs 0-68480-292-9, 978-06848-0292-3.
People of the Laotian Civil War
1920 births
1985 deaths
Laotian people of Chinese descent
Laotian anti-communists
Laotian military leaders
Finance Ministers of Laos
Government ministers of Laos
Committee for the Defence of National Interests politicians
People from Savannakhet province
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203867
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stung%20Treng%20province
|
Stung Treng province
|
Stung Treng (, ; , ; lit. "River of Reeds") is a province of Cambodia in the northeast. It borders the provinces of Ratanakiri to the east, Mondulkiri and Kratié to the south and Kampong Thom and Preah Vihear to the west. Its northern boundary is Cambodia's international border with Laos. The Mekong River bisects the province. The province is mostly covered by forest, but logging and fishing put high pressure on the forest and fishery reserves.
Etymology
Originally, Stung Treng was named "Tonle Ropov (Khmer: ទន្លេរពៅ), which is now an area in Stung Treng called "Tonle Ropov Area" (Khmer: តំបន់ទន្លេរពៅ).
The name “Satung Teng (Khmer: សាទឹងទែង)" was founded by a monk named "Seang Peng (Khmer: សៀង ប៉េង) from Vientiane. The words “Satung Teng" have changed to "Xiang Taeng (Khmer: សៀងទែង). In Lao, the word "Xiang" means "goddess" who has resigned, while the word “Taeng” means "built".
Due to advancement in the Khmer language, it was later called "Stung Treng (Khmer: ស្ទឹងត្រែង)" which means a river of reeds.
History
Stung Treng was first a part of the Khmer Empire, then the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang, and later the Lao kingdom of Champasak. After the Franco-Siamese War of 1893, Chiang Taeng (Stung Treng) was administered by French Lower Laos from 1893 to 1904. In 1904 French Laos traded the province to the French Protectorate of Cambodia in exchange for Champassak, leaving a small Laotian minority in Cambodia.
Owing to its border location and the forested mountains in the northeast of the province, it was a hotbed of communist insurgent activity—and a target for U.S. bombs in the 1960s and 70s. The insurgency lasted from the Vietnamese infiltration in the 1950s until the late Khmer Rouge years.
Geography
Stung Treng province, which covers an area of 11,092 square kilometers borders Laos to the north, Ratanakiri to the east, Preah Vihear to the west and Kratié and Kampong Thom to the south.
Extensive forests, intersecting rivers and streams characterize it. Stung Treng includes also the western chunk of the massive Virachey National Park, accessible from Siem Pang. The province also features three big rivers—the Sekong River, the Sesan River and the Mekong—with its hundreds of small islands scattered on the river stretch in Stung Treng.
It is also one of the few provinces where you can see the rare and endangered Irrawaddy dolphin in the wild near the Laos border, Borei O’Svay Sen Chey District and Anlong Cheuteal in Stung Treng.
Weather
In Stung Treng, the wet season is oppressive and overcast, the dry season is muggy and partly cloudy, and it is hot year-round. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 20 °C (67 °F) to 38 °C (100 °F) and is rarely below 16 °C (61 °F) or above 40 °C (105 °F).
Climate
On average, much rain (rainy season) falls in May, June, July, August, and September—the wettest season, with precipitation of 304.3 mm—and October. Stung Treng has dry periods in January, February and December—with January being the driest month. The warmest month is April with an average temperature of 35 °C (95 °F). The coldest month is January with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F).
Economy
Stung Treng's economy is solely based on agriculture. Various plantations such as timber, rubber and cash nuts are built all over the province. 85% of the population lives in rural parts of the province and depend on agriculture for their source of income. Animal breeding, fishing and silk weaving are also important industries in the province.
The Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation found a mineralized belt of copper and zinc in the province in 2019, and plans to step up further exploration with a Japanese partner to extract the minerals. The exploration site is about 260 kilometres north of Phnom Penh.
Administration
The province is divided into 5 districts, 1 municipality, 34 communes, and 128 villages.
Notable people
Ken Lo, Martial artist, actor, stuntman
Sinn Sisamouth, Singer-songwriter
References
Provinces of Cambodia
|
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203868
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photisarath
|
Photisarath
|
Photisarath (also spelled Phothisarath, Phothisarat, or Potisarat, , 1501–1547) son of King Visoun of Lanxang, is considered to be the most devout of the Lao kings. He banned spirit worship and built temples upon the sites of spirit shrines. His elephant fell and crushed him while he sought to display his prowess to the diplomatic corps. His son Setthathirath returned from Chiang Mai to succeed him to the throne of Lan Xang.
Phothisarath was ruler (1520–47) of the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang whose territorial expansion embroiled Laos in the warfare that swept mainland Southeast Asia in the latter half of the 16th century. King Chairachathirat of the Ayutthaya Kingdom invaded Vientiane with a large army in 1540, captured Muang Khouk and crossed the Mekong, but succumbed to a rout at the battle of Sala Kham, the remnants fleeing for their lives and leaving enormous casualties behind. Phothisarath himself allied himself with Burma, sent out 3 campaigns against the Ayutthaya Kingdom: the first to Phitsanulok in 1535, the second one to Vieng Prangarm in 1539, and third was sent in 1548 to Vieng Prab (now Sawangaburi) where he brought back 20,000 families to settle in the Lan Xang kingdom.
In 1548, following the ascension of King Maha Chakkraphat and queen Suriyothai to the Ayutthaya Kingdom throne, Burmese king Tabinshwehti planned an attack, starting the Burmese–Siamese War. Tabinshwehti asked Phothisarath to attack Ayutthaya from the North which eventually resulted in the famous death of Suriyothai in defense of her husband.
Phothisarath was a pious Buddhist who worked to undermine animism and Brahmanic religious practices and promote Buddhism. In 1527, Phothisarath issued a decree proscribing the worship of animism as groundless superstition, and ordering their shrines to be destroyed and their altars thrown into the river. He resided much of the time not in the capital at Luang Prabang but in Vientiane, which was located farther south and maintained better communications with the major states of the region. Phothisarath married a princess from Chiang Mai (now part of northern Thailand), and when his father-in-law Mueangketklao, the ruler of Lan Na or Chiang Mai, died in 1546 without male issue, Phothisarath's own son Setthathirath placed on the Chiang Mai throne. When Phothisarath died the following year, after a fatal accident while hunting wild elephants, Setthathirath succeeded him and joined together the two kingdoms—which were soon embroiled in Burmese–Siamese wars that would devastate much of the region over the next half-century.
Family
Father: Visoun - King of Lan Xang (r. 1500-1520)
Mother: unknown
Consorts and their Respective Issue:
Queen Yudhi Karma Devi (Yot Kam Tip), Nang Nhot-Kham - (m. 1533) daughter of Brhat Muang Ket Klao Setharaja, King of Lanna
Prince Jaya Setha Varman (Setthavangso), (Phya Uppayao), (Sai Setthathirath I) - King of Lan Na (r. 1546-1551) and Lan Xang (r. 1548-1571)
a princess of Ayutthaya - killed by Phya Sri Sadharmatilaka on ca. 1550
Prince Lankarnakaya (Phra Lancharng) - Seized the territories south of Chiengkarn after the death of his father, 1550. Defeated and taken prisoner, together with his mother, by Phya Srisa Dharmatilaka ~1550. Pardoned by his brother and appointed as Governor of Saenmuong
Prince Dharuva (Tharua), Brhat Vora Varman (Phra Vorawong) - Seized Luang Prabang and the territories north of Chiengkarn, after the death of his father, 1547. Defeated and expelled by his eldest brother, King Setthathirath
a daughter of Prince Kuvanadeva (Khua-Thepha)
Nang Kong-Soi
Nang Keng - niece of Prince Kama Setthadhananga (Kham Xat Tha Nang), Prince of S’ieng Wong S’ieng Wang (Xieng Khoang)
Nang Pak Thuoi Luong - (m. 1534)
by unknown women
Prince Brhatasena (Phya Asen) (Vorawongse I) - King of Lan Xang (r. 1575-1579)
Princess Kaeva Kumari (Keo Koumane)
Princess Taen Kam Lao
Princess Kamagayi (Kam Khai)
Princess Dharmagayi (Kham Khai) - m. Brhat Varapitra (Vorapita) (d. 1604), regent for his son (1596-1602) Voravongsa II
Thammikarath Vorouvongsa II - King of Lan Xang (r. 1596-1621)
See also
History of Laos
References
External links
Photisarath at britannica.com
Kings of Lan Xang
Year of birth unknown
1501 births
1547 deaths
16th-century Laotian people
16th-century monarchs in Asia
Laotian Theravada Buddhists
1520s in Asia
1530s in Asia
1540s in Asia
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi%20Motors
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Mitsubishi Motors
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is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. In 2011, Mitsubishi Motors was the sixth-largest Japanese automaker and the 19th-largest worldwide by production. Since October 2016, Mitsubishi has been one-third (34%) owned by Nissan, thus a part of the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance.
Besides being part of the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance, it is also a part of Mitsubishi keiretsu, formerly the biggest industrial group in Japan, and the company was originally formed in 1970 from the automotive division of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.
Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation, which builds commercial-grade trucks, buses, and heavy construction equipment, was formerly a part of Mitsubishi Motors, but is now separate, and is owned by German automotive corporation Daimler Truck (though Mitsubishi continues to own a small stake).
History
Mitsubishi's automotive origins date back to 1917, when the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. introduced the Mitsubishi Model A, Japan's first series-production automobile. An entirely hand-built seven-seater sedan based on the Fiat Tipo 3, it proved expensive compared to its American and European mass-produced rivals, and was discontinued in 1921 after only 22 had been built.
In 1934, Mitsubishi Shipbuilding was merged with the Mitsubishi Aircraft Co., a company established in 1920 to manufacture aircraft engines and other parts. The unified company was known as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), and was the largest private company in Japan. MHI concentrated on manufacturing aircraft, ships, railroad cars and machinery, but in 1937 developed the PX33, a prototype sedan for military use. It was the first Japanese-built passenger car with full-time four-wheel drive, a technology the company would return to almost 50 years later in its quest for motorsport and sales success.
Post-war era
Immediately following the end of the Second World War, the company returned to manufacturing vehicles. Fuso bus production resumed, while a small three-wheeled cargo vehicle called the Mizushima and a scooter called the Silver Pigeon were also developed. However, the zaibatsu (Japan's family-controlled industrial conglomerates) were ordered to be dismantled by the Allied powers in 1950, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was split into three regional companies, each with an involvement in motor-vehicle development: West Japan Heavy-Industries, Central Japan Heavy-Industries, and East Japan Heavy-Industries.
East Japan Heavy-Industries began importing the Henry J, an inexpensive American sedan built by Kaiser Motors, in knockdown kit (CKD) form in 1951, and continued to bring them to Japan for the remainder of the car's three-year production run. The same year, Central Japan Heavy-Industries concluded a similar contract with Willys (now owned by Kaiser) for CKD-assembled Jeep CJ-3Bs. This deal proved more durable, with licensed Mitsubishi Jeeps in production until 1998, 30 years after Willys had replaced the model.
By the beginning of the 1960s, Japan's economy was gearing up; wages were rising and the idea of family motoring was taking off. Central Japan Heavy-Industries, now known as Shin Mitsubishi Heavy-Industries, had already re-established an automotive department in its headquarters in 1953. Now, it was ready to introduce the Mitsubishi 500, a mass-market sedan, to meet the new demand from consumers. It followed this in 1962 with the Minica kei car and the Colt 1000, the first of its Colt line of family cars, in 1963. In 1964, Mitsubishi introduced its largest passenger sedan, the Mitsubishi Debonair as a luxury car primarily for the Japanese market, and was used by senior Mitsubishi executives as a company car.
West Japan Heavy-Industries (now renamed Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering) and East Japan Heavy-Industries (now Mitsubishi Nihon Heavy-Industries) had also expanded their automotive departments in the 1950s, and the three were reintegrated as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in 1964. Within three years, its output was over 75,000 vehicles annually. Following the successful introduction of the first Galant in 1969 and similar growth with its commercial-vehicle division, the company decided to create a single operation to focus on the automotive industry. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC) was formed on April 22, 1970, as a wholly owned subsidiary of MHI under the leadership of Tomio Kubo, a successful engineer from the aircraft division.
The logo of three red diamonds, shared with over 40 other companies within the keiretsu, antedates Mitsubishi Motors itself by almost a century. It was chosen by Iwasaki Yatarō, the founder of Mitsubishi, as it was suggestive of the emblem of the Tosa clan who first employed him, and because his own family crest was three rhombi stacked atop each other. The name consists of two parts - mitsu meaning "three" and hishi (which becomes "bishi" under rendaku) meaning "water caltrop" (also called "water chestnut"), and hence "rhombus", which is reflected in the company's logo.
Chrysler connection
1970s
Part of Mr. Kubo's expansion strategy was to increase exports by forging alliances with well-established foreign companies. Therefore, in 1971, MHI sold U.S. automotive giant Chrysler a 15% share in the new company. Thanks to this deal, Chrysler began selling the Galant in the United States as the Dodge Colt (which was the first rebadged Mitsubishi product sold by Chrysler), pushing MMC's annual production beyond 250,000 vehicles. In 1977, the Galant was sold as the Chrysler Sigma in Australia.
By 1977, a network of "Colt"-branded distribution and sales dealerships had been established across Europe, as Mitsubishi sought to begin selling vehicles directly. Annual production had by now grown from 500,000 vehicles in 1973 to 965,000 in 1978, when Chrysler began selling the Galant as the Dodge Challenger and the Plymouth Sapporo. However, this expansion was beginning to cause friction; Chrysler saw their overseas markets for subcompacts as being directly encroached by their Japanese partners, while MMC felt the Americans were demanding too much say in their corporate decisions.
1980s
Mitsubishi finally achieved annual production of a million cars in 1980, but by this time, its ally was not so healthy; as part of its battle to avoid bankruptcy, Chrysler was forced to sell its Australian manufacturing division to MMC that year. The new Japanese owners renamed it Mitsubishi Motors Australia Ltd (MMAL).
In 1982, the Mitsubishi brand was introduced to the American market for the first time. The Tredia sedan, and the Cordia and Starion coupés were initially sold through 70 dealers in 22 states, with an allocation of 30,000 vehicles among them. This quota, restricted by mutual agreement between the two countries' governments, had to be included among the 120,000 cars earmarked for Chrysler. A restricting element of Mitsubishi's deal with Chrysler was that Chrysler had the right of first refusal of any Mitsubishi automobiles in the US market until 1990. Toward the end of the 1980s, as MMC initiated a major push to increase its U.S. presence, it aired its first national television advertising campaign and made plans to increase its network to 340 dealers.
Before receiving government approval for this project, Mitsubishi had to express contrition over "defective" Mitsubishi trucks imported to China in 1984 and 1985. By 1989, Mitsubishi's worldwide production, including its overseas affiliates, had reached 1.5 million units.
Diamond-Star Motors
Despite the ongoing tensions between Chrysler and Mitsubishi, they agreed to unite in a vehicle manufacturing operation in Normal, Illinois. The 50/50 venture provided a way to circumvent the voluntary import restrictions, while providing a new line of compact and subcompact cars for Chrysler. Diamond-Star Motors (DSM)—from the parent companies' logos: three diamonds (Mitsubishi) and a pentastar (Chrysler)—was incorporated in October 1985, and in April 1986, ground was broken on a 1.9-million-square-foot (177,000 m2) production facility in Normal. In 1987, the company was selling 67,000 cars a year in the U.S., but when the plant was completed in March 1988, it offered an annual capacity of 240,000 vehicles. Initially, three platform-sharing compact 2+2 coupés were released, the Mitsubishi Eclipse, Eagle Talon, and Plymouth Laser, with other models being introduced in subsequent years.
1988 IPO
Mitsubishi Motors went public in 1988, ending its status as the only one of Japan's 11 auto manufacturers to be privately held. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries agreed to reduce its share to 25%, retaining its position as largest single stockholder. Chrysler, meanwhile, increased its holding to over 20%. The capital raised by this initial offering enabled Mitsubishi to pay off part of its debts, as well as to expand its investments throughout Southeast Asia, where it was by now operating in the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand.
1990s
Hirokazu Nakamura became president of Mitsubishi in 1989, and steered the company in some promising directions, with the advent of the Japanese asset price bubble "market correction" that led to the Lost Decade as a result of the Plaza Accord agreement signed in 1985. Sales of the company's new Pajero were bucking conventional wisdom by becoming popular even in the crowded streets of Japan.
Japanese media rumored in 1992 and 1993 that Mitsubishi Motors intended a hostile acquisition of Honda. While Mitsubishi was riding high off of profitable vehicles such as the Diamante and Pajero, Honda was caught off-guard with the SUV and truck boom, and was losing focus after the illness and later death of its founder. Honda CEO Nobuhiko Kawamoto took drastic steps, though, such as exiting Formula 1 and discontinuing unprofitable vehicles to avert a Mitsubishi takeover, which proved effective.
Although sales of SUVs and light trucks were booming in the U.S., Japan's car manufacturers dismissed the idea that such a trend could occur in their own country. Nakamura, however, increased the budget for SUV product development, and his gamble paid off; Mitsubishi's wide line of four-wheel drive vehicles, from the Mitsubishi Pajero Mini kei car to the Delica Space Gear passenger van, rode the wave of SUV-buying in Japan in the early to mid-1990s, and Mitsubishi saw its overall domestic share rise to 11.6% in 1995.
Independence
In 1991, Chrysler sold its equity stake in Diamond-Star Motors to its partner Mitsubishi, and from then on the two companies continued to share components and manufacturing on a contractual basis only. Chrysler decreased its interest in Mitsubishi Motors to less than 3% in 1992, and announced its decision to divest itself of all its remaining shares on the open market in 1993. The two companies then terminated their close alliance, with Mitsubishi no longer supplying parts for engines and transmissions for Chrysler. After this period, Mitsubishi sought alliances with many other automotive manufacturers in different areas of the world, as described under "other alliances" below, with its most economically significant alliance being with Nissan to develop and manufacture kei cars.
2000s
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) participated in a ¥540-billion emergency rescue of Mitsubishi Motors in January 2005, in partnership with Mitsubishi Corporation and Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group. As part of the rescue, MHI acquired ¥50 billion of Mitsubishi Motors stock, increasing its ownership stake to 15% and making the automaker an affiliate again. The emergency rescue was carried out 4 years after a product recall scandal in Japan that was triggered by accusations of Mitsubishi Motors trying to systematically hide manufacturing defects to avoid recalls, and marketing problems in the US.
Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance membership
In May 2016, in the wake of the fuel-efficiency scandal uncovered by Nissan (discussed in "Fuel economy scandal"), Nissan began the acquisition of a 34% stake in Mitsubishi Motors, with the aim of making Nissan the largest and controlling shareholder of Mitsubishi and turning Mitsubishi Motors into a member of the Renault–Nissan Alliance (the "Alliance"). Nissan has said that they plan to share some car platforms and jointly develop future vehicles with Mitsubishi Motors. Nissan's acquisition of the 34% controlling interest in Mitsubishi was completed in October 2016, when Carlos Ghosn, the chairman of Nissan, Renault, and the Alliance, also became chairman of Mitsubishi. Ghosn remained chairman of Mitsubishi until his dismissal following his arrest by the Japanese government in November 2018, when Mitsubishi CEO Osamu Masuko assumed the chairmanship.
Mitsubishi Motors plans to stop developing car platforms for the Japanese market and instead use vehicle bases made by ally Nissan Motor beginning around 2026 as the auto industry requires huge investments in technology.
Other alliances
1974-1984 Colt and Lonsdale
The Colt name appears frequently in Mitsubishi's history since its introduction as a rear-engined 600-cc sedan in the early 1960s. Today, it most commonly refers to the Mitsubishi Colt subcompact in the company's line-up, but is also the name of MMC's import/distribution company in the United Kingdom, the Colt Car Company, established in 1974. For the first decade of its existence, before Far Eastern auto manufacturers had established their reputations, its cars carried the "Colt" badge in Britain instead of "Mitsubishi".
In 1982 and 1983, Mitsubishi introduced the Australian-built Mitsubishi Sigma to the UK as the Lonsdale YD41 in an attempt to circumvent British import quotas, but the new brand was unsuccessful. It then carried Mitsubishi Sigma badges in 1983–84 before abandoning this operation entirely.
1975-2003 Hyundai
South Korean manufacturer Hyundai, built the Hyundai Pony in 1975 using MMC's Saturn engine and transmissions. Korea's first car, it remained in production for 13 years. Mitsubishi held up to a 10% stake in the company, until disposing of the last of its remaining shares in March 2003.
The 1985 Hyundai Excel was sold in the United States as the Mitsubishi Precis between 1987 and 1994, whereas several other Mitsubishi models were rebadged as Hyundai, namely the Mitsubishi Chariot (as the Hyundai Santamo), the Mitsubishi Pajero (as the Hyundai Galloper) or the Mitsubishi Delica (as the Hyundai Porter) and Mitsubishi Proudia (as the Hyundai Equus).
1985-1991 Samcor
The South African Motor Corporation (Samcor) (previously also called Sigma Corporation and MMI) was a joint venture created in 1985, which produced Ford, Mazda, and Mitsubishi vehicles for the local South African market, with the Mitsubishi Delica being rebadged as the Ford Husky minibus and the Mitsubishi Canter as the Ford Triton light truck. Samcor also made a version of the Mazda 323 for the UK market called the Sao Penza, which was a marque like Lonsdale YD41, invented to get around British import quotas.
1985-2010 Proton
Malaysian manufacturer Proton was initially very dependent on Mitsubishi Motors, assembling their 1985 Proton Saga using mostly MMC components at a newly established facility in Shah Alam. Subsequent models like the Wira and Perdana were based on the Lancer/Colt and Galant/Eterna, respectively, before the company finally produced entirely self-developed vehicles, the Waja in 2000, and the Proton Gen-2 in 2004. At its peak, the Proton controlled 75% of its domestic market, even after Mitsubishi ended their 22-year partnership in 2005, selling their 7.9% stake for RM384 million to Khazanah Nasional Berhad. However, in October 2008, Proton renewed its technology-transfer agreements with MMC, and the Proton Inspira (the Proton Waja replacement) was again based on the Mitsubishi Lancer platform and officially launched on 10 November 2010.
1991–2012 Volvo Cars
Mitsubishi participated in a joint venture with rival carmaker Volvo and the Dutch government at the former DAF plant in Born in 1991. The operation, branded NedCar, began producing the first-generation Mitsubishi Carisma alongside the Volvo S40/V40 in 1996. The factory later produced the latest Mitsubishi Colt and the related Smart Forfour (partner DaimlerChrysler cancelled its production in 2006). Production of European market-bound Mitsubishi Outlanders, and badge-engineered versions of this vehicle, were also manufactured in the Netherlands until 2012, when the company sold the plant to the Dutch industrial conglomerate VDL Groep. Mitsubishi Motors Europe's headquarters and their European distribution center are still based in Born.
1991-2019 Suzuki
In Indonesia, Mitsubishi offered the Colt T120SS light truck between 1991 and 2019 based on the Suzuki Carry. Despite the same bodywork, the fascia is unique to Mitsubishi and it is manufactured in the local Mitsubishi plant. The engine used is either Mitsubishi's carbureted 4G17 or the bigger fuel-injected 4G15. In 2005, the alliance continued by rebadging the Suzuki APV to Mitsubishi Maven. Few styling changes were applied, and the 4G15 engine was used instead of Suzuki's G15A engine. The Maven was discontinued in 2009 due to poor sales. The Colt T120SS was discontinued in 2019 as the base vehicle, the Suzuki Carry was updated, and Mitsubishi was not interested in continuing the alliance.
In Japan, Mitsubishi had rebadged the Suzuki Solio as the Delica D:2 and the Suzuki Every as the Minicab.
1998-2016 Hindustan
Indian manufacturer Hindustan had a joint venture with Mitsubishi that started 1998.
Models produced at the Tiruvallur, Tamil Nadu plant included the Mitsubishi Pajero Sport (third generation) until 2016.
1999–2001 Volvo Trucks
Upon selling its Volvo Cars division to Ford in January 1999, Volvo Group purchased a 5% stake in Mitsubishi Motors in November of that same year, but sold its stake to shareholder DaimlerChrysler in March 2001.
1999-2011 Groupe PSA
Mitsubishi has been allied with Groupe PSA since 1999, after they agreed to co-operate on the development of diesel engines using the Japanese company's gasoline direct injection technology. They united again in 2005 to develop the Peugeot 4007 and Citroën C-Crosser sport utility vehicles (SUVs), based on the Japanese company's Mitsubishi Outlander.
Two further ties were established between the companies in 2008, first with the establishment of a jointly owned production facility in Kaluga, which will manufacture up to 160,000 Outlander-based SUVs for the fast-growing Russian market. They are also collaborating in the research and development of electric powertrains for small urban vehicles. Japanese newspaper Nikkei claims that PSA will sell the electric city car Mitsubishi i MIEV in Europe by 2011.
2004-2010 Volkswagen
In Europe, Mitsubishi Motors used diesel engines supplied by German manufacturer Volkswagen for some of its mid-sized cars, such as the Lancer, Grandis, and Outlander. From 2010, they were superseded with Mitsubishi's self-developed 4N1 diesel engines.
2006-present Chinese joint ventures
As of 2006, Mitsubishi had four joint ventures with Chinese partners:
South East (Fujian) Motor Co Ltd
Shenyang Aerospace Mitsubishi Motors Engine Manufacturing Co Ltd
Harbin Dongan Automotive Engine Manufacturing Co Ltd – a subsidiary of Harbin Hafei Automobile Industry Group Co Ltd
Hunan Changfeng Motor Co Ltd – a subsidiary of Chang Feng (Group) Co Ltd
2010–2016 Nissan
In December 2010, Mitsubishi and Nissan agreed to form a joint venture (later named "NMKV Co., Ltd.") to develop kei cars for the Japanese market.
2016-present Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance
In 2016, Nissan uncovered evidence that Mitsubishi's fuel-economy testing numbers were erroneous and had been erroneous since the start of the venture, affecting 625,000 cars produced by NMKV. The result of the "fuel economy scandal" was that Nissan acquired a controlling interest in Mitsubishi, as detailed under "Membership in Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance".
By 2023, Groupe Renault will be supplying Mitsubishi with two models built in France, with the cars to be rebadged as Mitsubishis only for RHD markets in mainland Europe. The firm has no plans to sell any of the models in Ireland or the UK, where the Colt Car Company's Mitsubishi aftersales business was bought as a going concern by International Motors (a firm previously known for launching Hyundai onto the UK market in 1981).
Japan sales channels
Mitsubishi Motors maintained two retail sales channels that sold specific models, called "Car Plaza" and "Galant Shop". Certain models were exclusive to either channel, while some models were available at both channels, as required by local Japanese market conditions. More recently, due to cancellation of larger sedans, the sales channels have been combined into one franchise that sells all models, including kei cars and commercial delivery vehicles.
Historical troubles
Asian economic downturn
The benefits Mitsubishi had seen because of its strong presence in South-east Asia reversed themselves as a result of the economic crisis in the region, which began in 1991 with the advent of the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble, referred to in Japan as the beginning of the Lost Decade and continued to 1997. The collapse was partly the result of the Plaza Accord agreement in 1985, which sought to equalize the United States dollar with the Japanese yen and the German mark. In September of that year, the company closed its Thai factory in response to a crash in the country's currency and plummeting consumer demand. The large truck plant, which had produced 8,700 trucks in 1996, was shut down indefinitely. In addition, Mitsubishi had little support from sales in Japan, which slowed considerably throughout 1997, and were affected by that country's own economic uncertainty into 1998. Other Japanese automakers, such as Toyota and Honda, bolstered their own slipping domestic sales with success in the U.S. However, with a comparatively small percentage of the American market, the impact of the turmoil in the Asian economy had a greater effect on Mitsubishi, and the company's 1997 losses were the worst in its history. In addition, it lost both its rank as the third-largest automaker in Japan to Mazda, and market share overseas. Its stock price fell precipitously, prompting the company to cancel its year-end dividend payment.
In November 1997, Mitsubishi hired Katsuhiko Kawasoe to replace Takemune Kimura as company president. Kawasoe unveiled an aggressive restructuring program that aimed to cut costs by ¥350 billion in three years, reduce personnel by 1,400, and return the company to profitability by 1998. While the program had some initial success, the company's sales were still stagnant as the Asian economy continued to sputter. In 1999, Mitsubishi was forced once again to skip dividend payments. Its interest-bearing debt totalled ¥1.7 trillion.
Vehicle defect cover-up
In what was referred to as "one of the largest corporate scandals in Japanese history", Mitsubishi was twice forced to admit to systematically covering up defect problems in its vehicles. Four defects were first publicised in 2000, but in 2004, it confessed to 26 more going back as far as 1977, including failing brakes, fuel leaks, and malfunctioning clutches. The effect on the company was catastrophic, forcing it to recall 163,707 cars (156,433 in Japan and 7,274 overseas) for free repair. Further recalls by Fuso Truck and Bus brought the total number of vehicles requiring repair to almost one million. The affair led to the resignation and subsequent arrest of president Kawasoe, along with 23 other employees who were also implicated. Three of them have since been acquitted, with the judge stating that no official request from the Transport Ministry ordered them to submit a defect report.
0–0–0
In an effort to boost sales in the U.S. in the early 2000s, Mitsubishi began offering a "0–0–0" finance offer—0% down, 0% interest, and $0 monthly payments (all repayments deferred for 12 months). Initially, sales leapt, but at the end of the year's "grace period", numerous credit-risky buyers defaulted, leaving Mitsubishi with used vehicles for which they had received no money and which were now worth less than they cost to manufacture. The company's American credit operation, MMCA, was eventually forced to make a US$454 million provision against its 2003 accounts as a result of these losses. As a result, sales plummeted to 243,000 in 2003, 139,000 in 2004, 124,000 in 2005, and 119,000 in 2006.
End of Australian production
In October 2005, MMAL introduced the Mitsubishi 380 to the Australian market as the replacement for its long-running Mitsubishi Magna, and the sole vehicle being built at its Australian assembly plant at Clovelly Park. Despite an investment of A$600 million developing the car, initial sales projections proved optimistic; after only six months, Mitsubishi scaled back production from 90/day, and reduced the working week from five days to four. The Australian auto industry remained concerned as to whether this would be sufficient to restore the plant to profitability and ensure its long-term survival.
The drop in local sales could not be mitigated by exports outside of the Australian and New Zealand markets. On 5 February 2008, Mitsubishi Motors Australia announced it would be closing down its Adelaide assembly plant by the end of March. Between 700 and 1,000 direct jobs would be lost and up to 2,000 jobs would be lost in industries supporting Mitsubishi's local manufacturing operations.
End of Western European production
With operating losses ¥22 billion ($287 million) in Europe for the fiscal year to March due to stagnant sales in a continent beset by uncertainty of a raging debt crisis, in February 2012, Mitsubishi decided to stop production in Western Europe by the end of 2012. On 1 October, it announced that the Dutch industrial conglomerate VDL Groep had taken over NedCar from Mitsubishi, retaining all 1,500 employees.
End of North American production
In 1988, Mitsubishi opened a production facility in the United States in Normal, Illinois. The facility was known as Diamond-Star Motors, and was initially a joint venture with Chrysler, but Chrysler sold its stake in the plant to Mitsubishi in 1993. After 1995, the facility was known as Mitsubishi Motors Manufacturing America (MMMA). At its peak in 2000, the facility produced over 222,000 vehicles per year, but following the decline of Mitsubishi in North America, the plant operated well below capacity for years.
Finally, in July 2015, Mitsubishi announced that it would close the plant by November, but would continue to sell automobiles in North America. In 2014, the plant had produced just 69,000 vehicles, roughly one-quarter of its capacity. Production at the plant ended on 30 November 2015, and most of the employees were laid off. The plant continued to operate with a minimal staff to produce replacement parts until May 2016, after which it closed permanently.
Withdrawal from UK market
Mitsubishi announced that the company would leave the UK market due to financial reasons by Autumn 2021. Afterwards, Mitsubishi's British presence will be limited to aftersales.
Fuel economy scandal
In early 2016, Mitsubishi partner Nissan found discrepancies between Mitsubishi information and actual fuel consumption while working in new micro (kei) cars for both companies, the eK Wagon, eK Space, Nissan Dayz, and Nissan Dayz Roox. At the time, Mitsubishi manufactured micro cars for Nissan, which had never produced that class of vehicle itself. Mitsubishi admitted that they had been giving wrong information on fuel consumption from 2002 onwards, using inaccurate test methods. Later, the company said it used fuel-economy testing methods that did not comply with Japanese regulations for 25 years, much longer than previously known. Mitsubishi management said they did not know about the issue and that the wrong information came from the micro car development department. They ordered an investigation led by investigators not affiliated with the company. The resultant scandal culminated in Nissan acquiring a controlling interest in MMC in May 2016. As a consequence, Nissan agreed to invest 237.4 billion yen (US$2.2 billion) in exchange for receiving a 34% controlling ownership stake in Mitsubishi Motors.
Due to dilution of existing shares, other Mitsubishi group companies (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Corp., and Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ) had their combined holdings in Mitsubishi Motors fall to about 20% from 34% currently.
MMNA stated that vehicles sold from 2013 in the United States featured accurate fuel-economy information and were thereby not affected by the scandal.
In May 2016, Mitsubishi Motors announced Tetsuro Aikawa was to resign as the president of the company in effect in June. Both Mitsubishi Motors and Aikawa denied any top management involvement in the mileage scandal. The company said much of the mileage-testing work was assigned to a subsidiary and a lack of scrutiny existed of such work.
Revitalization plan
After a starvation of new investment caused by lack of cashflow, the company introduced the award-winning Mitsubishi i kei car in 2006, its first new model in 29 months, while a revised Outlander has been introduced worldwide to compete in the popular XUV market niche. The next generation of its Lancer and Lancer Evolution was launched in 2007 and 2008.
Slow-selling vehicles were eliminated from the U.S. market, purchase projections for the Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance have been scaled back, and 10,000 jobs have been shed to cut costs with 3,400 workers at its Australian plant and other loss-making operations still under threat. Meanwhile, in an effort to increase production at its U.S. facility, new export markets for the Eclipse and Galant are being explored in Ukraine, the Middle East, and Russia, where the company's bestselling dealership is located. Mitsubishi has also been active in OEM production of cars for Nissan, and announced a similar partnership with Groupe PSA in July 2005 to manufacture an SUV on their behalf.
Mitsubishi reported its first profitable quarter in four years in the third quarter of 2006, and returned to profitability by the end of the 2006 financial year, and sustained profitability and global sales of 1,524,000 through 2007 and later.
In January 2011, the company announced its next midterm business plan to introduce eight hybrid and battery-powered models by 2015. It aimed to sell its first two plug-in hybrids by fiscal 2012.
In May 2016, Nissan announced a controlling purchase of Mitsubishi Motors for an estimated US$2 billion. Nissan stated that no major changes were planned for Mitsubishi Motors and sharing of technologies and platforms can be expected between the two automobile manufactures.
Management
In 2014, Tetsuro Aikawa was appointed as the president of the company, becoming the first in more than a decade to have spent an entire career at the company. The career of Aikawa had been mainly in product development, although he was involved in manufacturing and Japan domestic sales lately. Osamu Masuko, the previous president, joined the company from Mitsubishi Corp. in 2004. MMC endured eight presidents between 1989 and 2004.
Electric vehicles
Mitsubishi Motors started selling its i MiEV, the all-electric minicar with a lithium-ion battery pack tucked under its floor, to retail customers in the summer 2009, a year ahead of schedule. The automaker had initially planned to start leasing the minicar-based vehicle to businesses and municipalities in the summer 2009 and to wait until 2010 for the retail launch. It has also announced its plans to offer five other e-drive vehicles.
Mitsubishi Motors aims to cut the price of its electric vehicles to 2 million yen ($21,890) by fiscal 2012—down 30%.
Motorsport
Mitsubishi has almost half a century of international motorsport experience, antedating even the incorporation of MMC. Beginning with street races in the early 1960s, the company found itself gravitating towards the challenge of off-road racing. It dominated endurance rallies in the 1970s, the Dakar Rally from the '80s, and the Group A and Group N classes of the World Rally Championship through the 1990s. Ralliart (later Mitsubishi Motors Motor Sports), was Mitsubishi's racing subsidiary, although the company ceased competing formally in 2010.
Circuit racing
Mitsubishi's motorsport debut was in touring car racing in 1962, when it entered its Mitsubishi 500 Super DeLuxe in the Macau Grand Prix in an effort to promote sales of its first postwar passenger car. In an auspicious debut, the diminutive rear-engined sedan swept the top four places in the "Under 750 cc" category, with Kazuo Togawa taking class honours. The company returned the following year with their new Mitsubishi Colt 600 and again swept the podium with a 1–2–3 in the "Under 600 cc" class. In its final year of competition with touring cars in 1966, Mitsubishi scored a podium clean sweep in the "750–1000 cc" class of the 1964 Japanese Grand Prix with the Colt 1000, their first front-engined competition vehicle.
The company began concentrating on the Japanese GP's emerging open-wheel "formula car" categories from 1966, winning the "Exhibition" class. They also scored class 1–2 in 1967 and 1968, and reached the podium in 1969 and 1970. They finished on a high with an overall 1–2 in the 1971 Japan GP, with the two litre DOHC F2000 driven by Kuniomi Nagamatsu.
Off-road racing
The East African Safari Rally was by far the most gruelling event on the World Rally Championship calendar in the 1970s. MMC developed the Lancer 1600 GSR specifically for the marathon race, and won at the first attempt in 1974. Their highpoint was a clean sweep of the podium places in 1976 in an event where only 20% of the starters typically reached the finish. They also achieved a 1–2–3–4 in the 1973 Southern Cross Rally, the first of four consecutive victories in this event with drivers Andrew Cowan and Kenjiro Shinozuka.
During the 1980s, Mitsubishi continued to participate in the WRC, first with the Lancer EX2000 Turbo and the Starion. It then scored its first outright Group A victories with a Galant VR-4 in the late '80s, Mitsubishi homologated the Lancer Evolution, and in the hands of Finland's Tommi Mäkinen, winner of the drivers' title for four consecutive years (1996–1999), they won the manufacturers' championship in 1998. They have won 34 WRC events since 1973. The Lancer Evo has also dominated the FIA championship for showroom-ready cars, winning seven consecutive Group N titles with four different drivers from 1995 to 2001. Even in 2002, when it ostensibly lost the title, the class-winning manufacturer was Proton using a Lancer Evo-based Pert.
Mitsubishi is also the most successful manufacturer in the history of the Dakar Rally. MMC's maiden entry was in 1983 with their new Pajero, and only three attempts were needed to find a winning formula. Since then, they have won in 1992, 1993, 1997, 1998, and between 2001 and 2007, an unprecedented seven consecutive victories and 12th overall with nine different drivers. They also won the 2003 FIA Cross-Country Rally World Cup, along with Carlos Sousa.
Partnership with Jackie Chan
Mitsubishi has had a 30-year-long association with actor Jackie Chan, who has used their vehicles almost exclusively in his movies throughout his career. The Jackie Chan Cup, first held in 1984, is an annual celebrity auto race involving international motor journalists and starlets from across Asia in Mitsubishis with professional touring car drivers alongside for assistance, and was held before the Macau GP until 2004, when it moved to Shanghai. In September 2005 Ralliart, Mitsubishi's motorsport arm, produced 50 Jackie Chan Special Edition versions of the Lancer Evo IX; Chan acts as the honorary director of Team Ralliart China.
Locations
The company has vehicle manufacturing facilities in Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia, and 12 plants co-owned in partnership with others. In Brazil, it has a production agreement with a local group with no direct investment from MMC. It also has three further engine and transmission manufacturing plants, five R&D centres, and 75 subsidiaries, affiliates, and partners. Its vehicles are manufactured, assembled, or sold in more than 160 countries worldwide.
Research, design, and administration
Japan
Minato, Tokyo: Head Office and Tokyo Design Studio
Okazaki, Aichi: Car Research & Development Center
Uzumasa, Ukyō, Kyoto: Car Research and Development Center
Hokkaidō: Car Research & Development Center, Tokachi Proving Ground
Mitsubishi Auto Gallery (三菱オートギャラリー), 1, Nakashinkiri, Okazaki
Worldwide
Trebur, Hessen, Germany: Mitsubishi Motor R&D of Europe GmbH (MRDE)
Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States: Mitsubishi Motors R&D of America, Inc. (MRDA) Head Office
Cypress, California, United States: Mitsubishi Motors R&D of America, Inc. (MRDA) Research and Design Center
Production facilities
Japan
Okazaki, Aichi: Okazaki Plant (previously Nagoya Plant)
Kurashiki, Okayama: Mizushima Vehicle & Powertrain Plant
Sakahogi, Gifu: Pajero Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
Uzumasa, Ukyō, Kyoto: Powertrain plant
Koka, Shiga: Powertrain plant
Worldwide
Santa Rosa, Laguna, Philippines: Mitsubishi Motors Philippines Corp. (MMPC)
Klong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand: Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd. (MMTh). These are the biggest facilities outside Japan.
Cikarang, West Java, Indonesia: PT Mitsubishi Motors Krama Yudha Indonesia (MMKI)
China: GAC Changfeng Motor Co., Ltd. (GACCF)
China: South East (Fujian) Motor Co., Ltd. (SEM)
Kaluga, Russia: Peugeot Citroën Mitsubishi Automotiv Rus (PCMA Rus), joint venture with PSA Peugeot Citroën
Catalão, Brazil: MMC Automotores do Brasil Ltda
Former production facilities
Tonsley Park, South Australia, Australia (1981-2008)
Tanjung Priok, Jakarta, Indonesia: PT. Krama Yudha Kesuma Motor (KKM), 1981–2005.
Born, Netherlands: Netherlands Car B.V. (NedCar), shares sold in 2012.
Normal, Illinois, United States: Mitsubishi Motors North America, Inc (MMNA). Opened in 1988, closed in 2015.
Barcelona, Anzoátegui, Venezuela: (MMC Automotriz S.A.) Opened in 1990, sold to Venezuelan government in 2015.
Leadership
Yuji Sato (1970–1973)
Tomio Kubo (1973–1979)
Yoshitoshi Sone (1979–1981)
Masao Suzuki (1981–1983)
Toyoo Tate (1983–1989)
Hirokazu Nakamura (1989–1995)
Nobuhisa Tsukamura (1995–1996)
Takemune Kimura (1996–1997)
Katsuhiko Kawasoe (1997–2000)
Takashi Sonobe (2000–2002)
Rolf Eckrodt (2002–2004)
Yoichiro Okazaki (2004)
Hideyasu Tagaya (2004–2005)
Osamu Masuko (2005–2020)
Takao Kato (2020–present)
See also
Urawa Red Diamonds
Mitsubishi Motors Mizushima F.C.
Automotive industry in Japan
References
External links
Official website (North America)
Car brands
Car manufacturers of Japan
Defense companies of Japan
Engine manufacturers of Japan
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
Mitsubishi companies
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1970
1970 establishments in Japan
Nissan
Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
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-0.48163533210754395,
-0.2670905292034149,
-0.3577154874801636,
0.3186630606651306,
0.26592835783958435,
-0.4069986939430237,
0.40706557035446167,
0.10279392451047897,
0.7900509238243103,
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0.4040236473083496,
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0.5774452090263367,
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] |
203875
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28mass%29
|
Orders of magnitude (mass)
|
To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following lists describe various mass levels between 10−59 kg and 1052 kg.
Units of mass
The table below is based on the kilogram (kg), the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). The kilogram is the only standard unit to include an SI prefix (kilo-) as part of its name. The gram (10−3 kg) is an SI derived unit of mass. However, the names of all SI mass units are based on gram, rather than on kilogram; thus 103 kg is a megagram (106 g), not a "kilokilogram".
The tonne (t) is an SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram (Mg), or 103 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 103 kg and is often used with SI prefixes. For example, a gigagram (Gg) or 109 g is 103 tonnes, commonly called a kilotonne.
Other units
Other units of mass are also in use. Historical units include the stone, the pound, the carat, and the grain.
For subatomic particles, physicists use the mass equivalent to the energy represented by an electronvolt (eV). At the atomic level, chemists use the mass of one-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom (the dalton). Astronomers use the mass of the sun ().
Below 10−24 kg
Unlike other physical quantities, mass–energy does not have an a priori expected minimal quantity, or an observed basic quantum as in the case of electric charge. Planck's law allows for the existence of photons with arbitrarily low energies. Consequently, there can only ever be an experimental upper bound on the mass of a supposedly massless particle; in the case of the photon, this confirmed upper bound is of the order of = .
10−24 to 10−19 kg
10−18 to 10−13 kg
10−12 to 10−7 kg
10 to 1 kg
1 kg to 105 kg
106 to 1011 kg
1012 to 1017 kg
1018 to 1023 kg
1024 to 1029 kg
1030 to 1035 kg
1036 to 1041 kg
1042 kg and greater
See also
Lists of astronomical objects
Notes
External links
Mass units conversion calculator
Mass units conversion calculator JavaScript
Mass
Mass
|
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0.29598408937454224,
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0.3332788050174713,
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0.8851835131645203,
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0.19309541583061218,
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0.24343259632587433,
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0.7007677555084229,
0.46189767122268677,
0.3588576018810272,
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0.20580372214317322,
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0.443550169467926,
0.24973084032535553,
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0.09030640125274658,
0.03738202899694443,
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0.12957078218460083,
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0.52687668800354,
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0.09472841024398804,
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0.1172202005982399,
0.5409337282180786,
0.1403886079788208,
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0.7117972373962402,
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0.00654990691691637,
0.5446189641952515,
0.4908701777458191,
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0.3768464922904968,
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0.21549667418003082,
0.42340096831321716,
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0.25742706656455994,
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0.04697943851351738,
0.35619521141052246,
0.0778842642903328,
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0.8169270157814026,
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0.04726918414235115,
0.04896337911486626,
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0.10644309967756271,
0.0578487403690815,
0.13620582222938538,
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0.012469779700040817,
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0.567035973072052,
0.5172742009162903,
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0.6143002510070801,
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0.2271241396665573,
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0.37728065252304077,
0.16788245737552643,
0.4944874048233032,
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0.10125146061182022,
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0.02985849604010582,
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0.735947847366333,
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0.368601530790329,
0.14747148752212524,
-0.6707727313041687,
0.14599333703517914,
0.28355708718299866,
0.3301241099834442,
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0.7169585824012756,
-0.8128471970558167,
0.5531649589538574,
-0.0824013501405716
] |
203876
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28volume%29
|
Orders of magnitude (volume)
|
The table lists various objects and units by the order of magnitude of their volume.
Sub-microscopic
Microscopic
Human measures
Terrestrial
Astronomical
References
Volume
|
[
-0.6642767190933228,
0.7193383574485779,
0.24184364080429077,
-0.3221784234046936,
-0.9070855975151062,
0.34489259123802185,
0.9661316871643066,
0.373981237411499,
-0.9193364381790161,
-0.5079481601715088,
-0.42412838339805603,
0.11513299494981766,
0.1563757210969925,
1.444130778312683,
0.1863066703081131,
0.35360172390937805,
0.35624241828918457,
0.8147516846656799,
-0.6011801362037659,
0.2946931719779968,
-0.08191429823637009,
-0.006383830681443214,
0.5658569931983948,
-0.7221609354019165,
-0.18308687210083008,
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0.07260963320732117,
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-0.34097129106521606,
0.7670055627822876,
0.360382616519928,
0.08115806430578232,
0.1826600581407547,
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0.015975065529346466,
0.05525588244199753,
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0.05581966042518616,
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0.31084948778152466,
0.42746061086654663,
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-1.2368617057800293,
-0.20855827629566193,
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0.5822944045066833,
0.12491811066865921,
0.02972993068397045,
0.530291736125946,
0.23297500610351562,
0.15012988448143005,
0.19371017813682556,
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0.205531045794487,
0.5636833310127258,
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0.43110835552215576,
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1.1694836616516113,
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0.36687171459198,
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0.22118709981441498,
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0.43413984775543213,
0.2797151505947113,
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0.381639301776886,
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0.12548469007015228,
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1.3628302812576294,
0.0721510797739029,
0.05341411381959915,
0.7043113708496094,
0.2618711590766907,
0.6412855982780457,
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0.3866127133369446,
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0.23356647789478302,
0.359820693731308,
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0.5780775547027588,
0.17529602348804474,
0.2159518599510193,
0.08839324861764908,
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0.043894022703170776,
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0.3143327534198761,
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0.21489183604717255,
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0.1477036327123642,
0.5742820501327515,
0.24223700165748596,
0.3285333514213562,
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0.5627747178077698,
0.45662906765937805,
0.32404375076293945,
0.230691596865654,
0.3800181746482849,
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0.838941216468811,
0.5705776810646057,
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0.10604947805404663,
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0.07681215554475784,
0.37577882409095764,
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0.7687380313873291,
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0.2918280065059662,
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0.3349945843219757,
-0.035451553761959076,
0.23185811936855316,
0.05660223588347435,
0.36623212695121765,
0.43102365732192993,
0.36321699619293213,
0.0559348501265049,
0.14087964594364166,
0.07391772419214249,
-0.20339712500572205,
0.16956916451454163,
-0.5895712375640869,
0.8318719267845154,
0.5881105065345764,
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0.22254854440689087,
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0.012561415322124958,
0.3177432417869568,
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1.150593876838684,
0.6790766716003418,
0.7271850109100342,
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0.46061423420906067,
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0.557448148727417,
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0.2544502913951874,
0.08274811506271362,
0.35524076223373413,
0.22786743938922882,
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0.4132536053657532,
0.24560998380184174,
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0.66154944896698,
0.010012665763497353,
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0.04619782790541649,
0.18455658853054047,
0.5842076539993286,
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0.0553087517619133,
0.18394812941551208,
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0.6459343433380127,
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0.5278655290603638,
0.15229284763336182,
0.2774367332458496,
0.6783172488212585,
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0.20019198954105377,
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0.42025765776634216,
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0.1360933482646942,
0.780903160572052,
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0.04409278556704521,
0.3325919806957245,
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0.018232323229312897,
0.554976224899292,
0.719595730304718,
0.23510122299194336,
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0.4530758857727051,
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0.1871596723794937,
0.00832179095596075,
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0.09790493547916412,
0.1118745356798172,
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0.40081220865249634,
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0.22841776907444,
0.12462014704942703,
0.3041633069515228,
0.3588743209838867,
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0.37782764434814453,
0.22550621628761292,
0.21600694954395294,
0.34948405623435974,
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0.1286037415266037,
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0.169234037399292,
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0.7537651062011719,
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0.02354145422577858,
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0.4378700256347656,
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0.3043208718299866,
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0.13596534729003906,
0.6582971215248108,
0.7379988431930542,
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0.13877293467521667,
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0.4170135259628296,
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0.057577937841415405,
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald%20Buddha
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Emerald Buddha
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The Emerald Buddha ( , or ) is an image of the meditating Gautama Buddha seated in a meditative posture, made of a semi-precious green stone (jasper rather than emerald or jade), clothed in gold. and about tall. The image is considered the sacred palladium of Thailand. It is housed in the Temple of the Emerald Buddha (Wat Phra Kaew) on the grounds of the Grand Palace in Bangkok.
History
Historical sources indicate that the statue surfaced in northern Thailand in the Lan Na kingdom in 1434. One account of its discovery tells that lightning struck a chedi in Wat Pa Yia (Bamboo Forest Monastery, later renamed Wat Phra Kaew) in Chiang Rai, revealing a Buddha covered with stucco inside. The Buddha was then placed in the abbot's residence, who later noticed that stucco on the nose had flaked off, revealing a green interior. The abbot removed the stucco and found a Buddha figure carved from a green semi-precious stone, which became known as Phra Kaew Morakot or in English the Emerald Buddha. ("Emerald" refers to its "green colour" in Thai, not its composition.) Some art historians describe the Emerald Buddha as belonging to the Chiang Saen Style of the 15th century CE, which would mean that it is of Lan Na origin.
The legend reports that King Sam Fang Kaen of Lan Na wanted it in his capital of Chiang Mai, but the elephant carrying it insisted on three separate occasions on going instead to Lampang. This was taken as a divine sign, and the Emerald Buddha stayed in Lampang in a specially-built temple (now Wat Phra Kaeo Don Tao) for the next 32 years. In 1468, it was moved to Chiang Mai by King Tilokaraj, where it was kept in a niche in a large stupa called Chedi Luang.
The Emerald Buddha remained in Chiang Mai until 1552, when it was taken to Luang Prabang, then the capital of the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang. Some years earlier, the crown prince of Lan Xang, Setthathirath, had been invited to occupy the vacant throne of Lan Na as his mother was the daughter of the king of Chiang Mai who had died without an heir. However, Prince Setthathirath also became king of Lan Xang when his father, Photisarath, died. He returned home, taking the revered Buddha figure with him.
In 1564, King Setthathirath moved it to Vientiane, which he had made his new capital due to Burmese attacks and where the Buddha image was housed in Haw Phra Kaew. The Buddha image would stay in Vientiane for the next 214 years.
In 1779, the Siamese General Chao Phraya Chakri invaded Laos, captured Vientiane and took the Emerald Buddha to Siam. It was installed in a shrine close to Wat Arun in Thonburi, the new capital of Siam. Chao Phra Chakri then seized the throne for himself and founded the Chakri Dynasty of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, where he would later be titled King Rama I. He shifted his capital across Chao Phraya river to its present location in Bangkok, and constructed the new Grand Palace including Wat Phra Kaew within its compound. Wat Phra Kaew was consecrated in 1784, and the Emerald Buddha was moved with great pomp to its current home in the ubosot of the Wat Phra Kaew temple complex on 22 March 1784.
Temples of the Emerald Buddha
Legends
The legend of the Emerald Buddha is related in number of sources such as Jinakalamali, Amarakatabuddharupanidana, and in particular Ratanabimbavamsa or The Chronicle of the Emerald Buddha written in Pali by Brahmarājapañña in the 15th century. The story is a mix of fact and fables with some variations to the story. According to the legend, the Emerald Buddha was created in 43 BCE by a saint named Nagasena in the city of Pataliputra (today's Patna), India. Nagasena allegedly had the help of Hindu god Vishnu and the demigod Indra, 500 years after Buddha attained Nirvana. He was said to have predicted:
This figure of the Buddha is assuredly going to give to religion the most brilliant importance in five lands, that is in Lankadvipa (Sri Lanka), Ramalakka, Dvaravati, Chieng Mai and Lan Chang (Laos).
The legends state that after remaining in Pataliputra for three hundred years, it was taken to Sri Lanka to save it from a civil war. A version of the legend stated that in 457, King Anuruth of Burma sent a mission to Ceylon to ask for Buddhist scriptures and the Emerald Buddha, in order to support Buddhism in his country. These requests were granted, but the ship lost its way in a storm during the return voyage and somehow landed in Cambodia. When the Thais captured Angkor Wat in 1432 (following the ravage of the bubonic plague), the Emerald Buddha was taken to Ayutthaya, Kamphaeng Phet, Laos and finally Chiang Rai, where the ruler of the city hid it until it was found in 1434.
Description
The Buddha image is made of a semi-precious green stone, described variously as jade or jasper rather than emerald, as "emerald" here refers to its colour rather than the stone. The image has not been analyzed to determine its exact composition or origin.
The figure is wide at the lap, and high. The Buddha is in a seated position, with the right leg resting on the left one, a style that suggest it might have been carved in the late Chiang Saen or Chiang Mai school, not much earlier than the fifteenth century CE. However, the Meditation attitude of the statue was not popular in Thailand but looks very much like some of the Buddha images of southern India and Sri Lanka, which led some to suggest an origin in India or Sri Lanka.
Seasonal decoration
The Emerald Buddha is adorned with three sets of gold seasonal decorations: two were made by Rama I, one for the summer and one for the rainy season, and a third made by Rama III for the winter or cool season. In 1996 to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the Bureau of the Royal Household commissioned a replica set of the seasonal decorations to be made in all the same materials. This new set was funded entirely by donations. The original set, which were made over 200 years ago, were retired and are on display at the Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple in the Middle court of the Grand Palace.
The decorations are changed by the King of Thailand, or a senior member of the royal family in his stead, in a ceremony at the changing of the seasons – in the 1st Waning of lunar months 4, 8 and 12 (around March, August and November).
For the three seasons, there are three sets of decorations for the Emerald Buddha:
Hot/summer season from March to August – a stepped, pointed crown (makuṭa); a breast pendant; a sash; a necklace, a number of armlets, bracelets and other items of royal attire. All items are made of enameled gold and embedded with precious and semi-precious stones.
Rainy season from August to November – a pointed headpiece of enameled gold studded with sapphires; a gold-embossed monk's robe draped over one shoulder (kasaya).
Cool/winter season from November to March – a gold headpiece studded with diamonds; a jewel-fringed gold-mesh shawl draped over the rainy season attire.
The sets of gold clothing not in use at any given time are kept on display in the nearby Pavilion of Regalia, Royal Decorations, and Thai Coins on the grounds of the Grand Palace, where the public may view them.
Ceremonies
Early in the Bangkok period, the Emerald Buddha was occasionally taken out and paraded through the streets to relieve the city and countryside of various calamities (such as plague and cholera). This practice was discontinued during King Rama IV's reign as it was feared that the image could be damaged during the procession and the king's belief that; "Diseases are caused by germs, not by evil spirits or the displeasure of the Buddha".
The Emerald Buddha also marks the changing of the seasons in Thailand, with the king presiding over seasonal ceremonies. In a ritual held at the temple three times a year, the decoration of the statue is changed at the start of each of the three seasons. The astrological dates for the ritual ceremonies, at the changing of the seasons, followed are in the first waning moon of the lunar calendar, months 4, 8 and 12 (around March, July, and November). Rama I initiated this ritual for the hot season and the rainy season; Rama III introduced the ritual for the winter season. The decoration which adorn the image, represent those of monks and the king, depending on the season, an indication of its symbolic role "as Buddha and the King", which role is also enjoined on the king who formally dresses the Emerald Buddha himself. The costume change ritual is performed by the king who is the most elevated master of ceremonies for all Buddhist rites. During the ceremony, the king first climbs up to the pedestal, cleans the image by wiping away any dust with a wet cloth, and changes the gold headress of the Emerald Buddha. The king then worships nearby while an attendant performs the elaborate ritual of changing the rest of the decorative garments. The king also sprays holy water, which is mixed with the water rinsed from the wet cloth used to wipe the dust of the image, upon his subjects waiting outside the ordination hall. Previously this was a privilege afforded only to the princes and officials who were attending the ceremony (uposatha) inside the ubosot.
Ceremonies are also performed at the Emerald Buddha temple at other occasions such as Chakri Day (6 April 1782), a national holiday to honour the founding of the Chakri dynasty. The king and queen, an entourage of the royal family, as well as the prime minister, officials of the Ministry of Defence and other government departments, offer prayers at the temple.
See also
Grand Palace
Phra Phuttha Sihing
Wat Phra Kaew
References
External links
Grand Palace and Emerald Buddha at emerald-buddha.com
15th-century sculptures
Buddha statues in Thailand
Grand Palace
Northern Thai culture
Stone Buddha statues
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lam
|
Lam
|
Lam and its various forms may refer to:
Lām
Lām, a letter of the Arabic alphabet
Places
Laguna Art Museum, California, US
Lam Brook, a stream in the West Country of England
Lam Chau island, now Hong Kong International Airport
Lam Kee Ferry, Hong Kong
Los Alamos County Airport, IATA and FAA LID codes
Settlements
Lam, Germany, Bavaria
Lam Beshkest-e Pain, a village in Iran
Lam Cốt, a village in Vietnam
Lam, Guntur district, a village in Andhra Pradesh, India
People
Lam as family name
Adrian Lam (born 1970), Papua New Guinean-Australian rugby footballer
Alfonso Lam Liu (born 1969/1970), Mexican drug lord
Lam Bun (1930–1967), Hong Kong radio commentator
Lam Bun-Ching (born 1954), Chinese musician
Carrie Lam (politician) (born 1958), Hong Kong politician
Carrie Lam (actress) (born 1980), Hong Kong television presenter
David K. Lam (born 1943), Chinese-born American technology entrepreneur
Lam Chi-chung (born 1976), Hong Kong actor
Lam Chih Bing (born 1976), Singaporean golfer
Lam Ching-ying (1952–1997), Hong Kong stuntman, actor, and action director
Lam Chiu Ying (born 1949), SBS, Hong Kong meteorologist
Gabriel Lam (born 1933), Catholic clergyman, Hong Kong
George Lam (born 1947), Hong Kong singer
Hai (video gamer) (born Hai Du Lam), American
Hai Lam (footballer), Norwegian
Lam Hin Chung, Hong Kong fencer
Lam Ho Ching (born 1998), Hong Kong gymnast
Lam Hok Hei (born 1991), Hong Kong footballer
Jaffa Lam (born 1973), artist
Lam Joi-pau (born 1950), Taiwanese actor
Lam Jones (1958–2019), American athlete
Jordan Lam (born 1999), Hong Kong footballer
Lam Ka-Tung (born 1967), Hong Kong actor
Lam Ka Wai (born 1985), Hong Kong footballer
Lam Kam San (born 1971), Macanese racing driver
Karena Lam (born 1978), actress in Hong Kong
Narissapat Lam (born 1996), Thai badminton player
Pakorn Lam (born 1979), Thai singer and actor
Pat Lam (born 1968), Samoan-New Zealand rugby player
Samantha Lam (singer) (born 1963), Hong Kong singer
Sanderson Lam (born 1994), English snooker player
Tsit Yuen Lam (born 1942), Chinese-American mathematician
Tuan Lam, poker player
Wifredo Lam (born 1902), Cuban artist
Zhi-Gin Lam (born 1991), German footballer
Lam as given name
Lam Adesina (1939–2012), an educator in Nigeria
Lam Akol (born 1950), a South Sudanese politician
Lam Dorji (born 1933), a Royal Bhutan Army officer
Surnames
Lam., botanical author abbreviation for Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829)
Lin (surname) (林), Lam in Cantonese
Lâm, Vietnamese equivalent of Lin
Lan (surname 蓝), Lam in Cantonese and Hakka
Media
London After Midnight (band)
Lam saravane, a music genre
Lam luang, a music genre
Mor lam, an ancient Laotian form of song
Institutions
GLAM (cultural heritage) an acronym for Libraries, Archives and Museums
Science
Lactational amenorrhea method, a contraceptive method
LAM/MPI, a Message Passing Interface
Lymphangioleiomyomatosis, a lung disease
Lipoarabinomannan, a tuberculosis virulence factor
Laser capture microdissection or laser-assisted microdissection
Cyclone Lam, Australia, 2015
Lysine 2,3-aminomutase, an enzyme
Other
Lam Ieng, a Macau football club
Lam Eng Rubber, a Malaysian manufacturer
Lam Research, semiconductor equipment company
Monts de Lam, a department of Chad
GLAM or LAM, industry classification
'Lam', supernatural entity according to Aleister Crowley
LAM Mozambique Airlines, flag carrier airline in Mozambique
See also
Lamb (disambiguation)
Lamm, a surname
Lams (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20music
|
Lao music
|
Traditional Lao music can be divided into classical and folk forms.
Khene
The Khene is the instrument most identified with Laotian music. A national proverb says that "a person living under a stilted house, eating sticky rice, listening to any music related to Lam or Morlam, and playing the Khene is likely to be Lao or associated with Lao people."
Khenes are made from a special kind of bamboo. It looks slightly Andean in appearance with its sets of bamboo and reed pipes of various lengths, which are strapped together, and then blown into by the player. It can be played solo as in traditional Lao music or in combination with other musical instruments to accompany modern songs.
Lao musicians
Vichai Sitviseth, "Koviseth 2
ວິຈັຍ ສິຕວິເສສ
Vichai Sitviseth is Lao singer, loves to sing the Oldies songs were first composed and recorded by Koviseth ไทยดำรำพัน,นั้หรือรักจริง
Khamtoun Vongsanith,ติอ้ายปอนใด,โชกต่างล่าง
Khamphou Thavivane โอย่..หิว, อยู่บ้านดง, and
Voradeth Dithavong สาวLycee สาวสมัย.
Rock bands popular with the younger generation include Cells, Smile Black Dog, Dao Kha Chai, Awake, Khem Tid, Eighteen and Black Burn, Aluna, Overdance and LOG. LOG was recently connected to the controversial movie Mark Tae (Lucky loser), which created a riot between Laos and Thailand that needed diplomatic intervention.
Lao music today comes in a wide variety of styles and from different national origins. Outside of Laos, Lao music is mainly created in the United States, France and Canada. An increasing amount of transnational Lao (alternative) rock, pop and hip hop created a new 'oeuvre' next to the traditional Lao music like morlam.
In the United States, rock bands Sarky Mekmorakoth, SDN, Chitpanya and Black Flame found a growing fan base for their music.
Most popular Lao pop music in the US is made by three female singers: Phone Phoummithone the young pop princess Birdie and Ketsana Vilaylack. Birdie is quickly on the rise as she balances between mainstream and traditional country Lao music.
Most notable Lao hip hop artists from the US are Supasang aka Buc Supa, 'gangsta rapper' Gumby AKA Pryce, Lil Yank from South Carolina, and Goof Loc from Fort Smith, Arkansas. Both rappers, Gumby and Supasang, made music videos and both rap in Lao language.
The most famous Lao artist from France is Willy Denzey, a R&B singer who started his singing career in 2001 and achieved success with his hits "Le mur du son", "L'Orphelin" and "Et si tu n'existais pas" and his successful albums #1 and
Classical music
The Lao classical orchestra can be divided into two categories, Sep Nyai and Sep Noi (or Mahori). The Sep Nyai is similar to Piphat, and is ceremonial and formal music and includes: two sets of gongs (khong vông), a xylophone (ranat), an oboe (pei or salai), two large kettle drums and two sets of cymbals (sing, similar to Thai ching). The Sep Noi, capable of playing popular tunes, includes two bowed string instruments, the So U and the So I, also known to the Indians. These instruments are similar to the Thai Saw u and Saw duang, respectively. They have a long neck or fingerboard and a small sound box; this sound box is made of bamboo in the So U and from a coconut in the So I. Both instruments have two strings, and the bow is slid between these two strings, which are tuned at a fifth apart and always played together. Furthermore, this mahori or sep noi ensemble (the sep nyai is strictly percussion and oboe) may include several khene. In this respect, it differs markedly from the mahori orchestras of Cambodia and Siam.
Some ethnomusicologists believe the ancient art music of the Khmer people has been best preserved in Laos—along with diverse forms of folk music related to the oldest types of Indian music—music that has largely disappeared in India itself. They claim to find in Laos a scale the ancient Hindus called the "celestial scale," the Gandhara grama—which is a tempered heptatonic scale, or a division of the octave into seven equal parts.
The Royal Lao Orchestra, consisting of musicians of the former court of the king of Laos, who fled Laos following the communist takeover in 1975, now reside in Knoxville and Nashville, Tennessee, United States.
Folk music
Lao folk music, known as Lam, is extemporaneous singing accompanied by the khene. It is popular both in Laos and Thailand, where there is a large ethnic Lao population.
History of Lao music in Thailand
Following the Siamese conquest of Laos in 1828 and the subsequent dispersion of the Lao population into Siam (Central Thailand), Lao music became fashionable there. Sir John Bowring, an envoy from Great Britain, described a meeting with the deputy king (ouparaja) of Siam in 1855 in which his host performed on the Lao khene; at a meeting two days later he entertained Bowring with Lao dancers and khene music. The Chronicles of the Fourth Reign said the deputy king enjoyed playing the khene and "could perform the Lao type of dance and could skillfully perform the Lao comedy-singing. It is said that if one did not actually see his royal person, one would have thought the singer were a real Lao."
Immediately after the deputy king's death in 1865, King Mongkut made known his fear that Lao musical culture would supplant Siamese genres and therefore banned Lao musical performances in a proclamation in which he complained that, "Both men and women now play Lao khene (mo lam) throughout the kingdom...Lao khene is always played for the topknot cutting ceremony and for ordinations. We cannot give the priority to Lao entertainments. Thai have been performing Lao khene for more than ten years now and it has become very common. It is apparent that wherever there is an increase in the playing of Lao khene there is also less rain."
In recent years Lao popular music has made inroads into Thailand through the success of contemporary Lao musicians Alexandria, L.O.G. and Cells. Cells second Lao album 'Saew' was released by Thai label GMM / Grammy in 2007 and received top 20 radio airplay in Bangkok for hit singles 'Waan' and 'Leuk Leuk'. Music videos for 'Waan' and 'Leuk Leuk' have also proved very popular on Thai music video channels and Cells have made several well received tours of Thailand to promote the album.
Further reading
External links
The traditional music of Laos
Latest Lao Music
Indee Records (official)
Lao Music Videos From Indee Records
Traditional Music and Songs in Laos
Patou Lao (Lao Portal)
Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
Laos Cultural Profile: Modern and contemporary performing arts: Music
Alexandra Bounxouei (official)
Alexandra Bounxouei music and videos
Hommage à Chao Pangkham, la grande dame de la chanson laotienne, par S. AMPHONESINH
Laomall.com/artists
Les chansons Lao Francophone, par S. AMPHONESINH
Jonny Olsen's site with Lao Music and Videos
Voradeth Ditthavong (official)
Laotian music
Thai styles of music
|
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203883
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20communication
|
Interstellar communication
|
Interstellar communication is the transmission of signals between planetary systems. Sending interstellar messages is potentially much easier than interstellar travel, being possible with technologies and equipment which are currently available. However, the distances from Earth to other potentially inhabited systems introduce prohibitive delays, assuming the limitations of the speed of light. Even an immediate reply to radio communications sent to stars tens of thousands of light-years away would take many human generations to arrive.
Radio
The SETI project has for the past several decades been conducting a search for signals being transmitted by extraterrestrial life located outside the Solar System, primarily in the radio frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. Special attention has been given to the Water Hole, the frequency of one of neutral hydrogen's absorption lines, due to the low background noise at this frequency and its symbolic association with the basis for what is likely to be the most common system of biochemistry (but see alternative biochemistry).
The regular radio pulses emitted by pulsars were briefly thought to be potential intelligent signals; the first pulsar to be discovered was originally designated "LGM-1", for "Little Green Men." They were quickly determined to be of natural origin, however.
Several attempts have been made to transmit signals to other stars as well. (See "Realized projects" at Active SETI.) One of the earliest and most famous was the 1974 radio message sent from the largest radio telescope in the world, the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. An extremely simple message was aimed at a globular cluster of stars known as M13 in the Milky Way Galaxy and at a distance of 30,000 light years from the Solar System. These efforts have been more symbolic than anything else, however. Further, a possible answer needs double the travel time, i.e. tens of years (near stars) or 60,000 years (M13).
Other methods
It has also been proposed that higher frequency signals, such as lasers operating at visible light frequencies, may prove to be a fruitful method of interstellar communication; at a given frequency it takes surprisingly small energy output for a laser emitter to outshine its local star from the perspective of its target.
Other more exotic methods of communication have been proposed, such as modulated neutrino or gravitational wave emissions. These would have the advantage of being essentially immune to interference by intervening matter.
Sending physical mail packets between stars may prove to be optimal for many applications. While mail packets would likely be limited to speeds far below that of electromagnetic or other light-speed signals (resulting in very high latency), the amount of information that could be encoded in only a few tons of physical matter could more than make up for it in terms of average bandwidth. The possibility of using interstellar messenger probes for interstellar communication — known as Bracewell probes — was first suggested by Ronald N. Bracewell in 1960, and the technical feasibility of this approach was demonstrated by the British Interplanetary Society's starship study Project Daedalus in 1978. Starting in 1979, Robert Freitas advanced arguments
for the proposition that physical space-probes provide a superior mode of interstellar communication to radio signals, then undertook telescopic searches for such probes in 1979 and 1982.
See also
Interplanetary Internet
List of interstellar radio messages
Universal translator
Gravitational lens
References
External links
Science fiction themes
Search for extraterrestrial intelligence
Telecommunications
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khene
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Khene
|
The khene “khene lao” (; spelled "Can" in English; Lao: ແຄນ; , , ; - Ken; Vietnamese: khèn) is a Lao mouth organ whose pipes, which are usually made of bamboo, are connected with a small, hollowed-out hardwood reservoir into which air is blown. The khene is the national instrument of Laos. The khene music is an integral part of Lao life that promotes family and social cohesion and it was inscribed in 2017 on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Today associated with the Lao people of Laos and Isan (Northeast Thailand), other similar instruments date back to the Bronze Age. In Cambodia, it is used among the ethnic Lao population of the province of Stung Treng and is used in lakhon ken, a Cambodian dance drama genre that features the khene as the premiere instrument. In Vietnam, this instrument is used among the Tai peoples and the Muong people.
The most interesting characteristic of the khene is its free reed, which is made of brass or silver. It is related to Western free-reed instruments such as the harmonium, concertina, accordion, harmonica, and bandoneon, which were developed beginning in the 18th century from the Chinese sheng, a related instrument, a specimen of which had been carried to St. Petersburg, Russia.
The khene has five different lai, or pentatonic modes with specific drone pitches, organized into two families (thang san and thang yao). The thang san family includes lai sutsanaen (G A C D E), lai po sai (C D F G A), and lai soi (D E G A B), while the thang yao family includes lai yai (A C D E G) and lai noi (D F G A C). Lai po sai is considered to be the oldest of the modes and lai sutsanaen the "Father of the Lai Khaen." Khene can be played as a solo instrument (dio khene), as part of an ensemble (such as wong pong lang and khene wong), or as an accompaniment to a Lao or Isan solo singer mor lam. It is often played in combination with a traditional fretted plucked lute called phin.
Composers who have written notated music for the instrument include Annea Lockwood, Christopher Adler, David Loeb, Sidney Marquez Boquiren, Christopher Burns, Jinhee Han, H. James Harkins, Jeff Herriott, Vera Ivanova, Yu Kuwabara, and Hal Walker, the latter of whom has given the khaen some popularity on TikTok, with songs such as "Low Key Gliding" and it's remixes going viral.
Tuning
The khene has seven tones per octave, with intervals similar to that of the Western diatonic natural A-minor scale: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. A khene can be made in a particular key but cannot be tuned after the reed is set and the pipes are cut.
Varieties
The khene comes in several varieties:
Khaen hok (แคนหก, hok meaning "six") - small khaen with 12 pipes in two rows of 6; usually used by children or beginners, or sold to tourists
Khaen jet (แคนเจ็ด, jet meaning "seven") - medium-sized khaen with 14 pipes in two rows of 7
Khaen paet (แคนแปด, paet meaning "eight") - medium-sized khaen with 16 pipes in two rows of 8; the most commonly used variety
Khaen gao (แคนเก้า, gao meaning "nine") - khaen with 18 pipes in two rows of 9; usually very long
Khaen sip (แคนสิบ, sip meaning "ten") - an "improved" version of the khaen paet; little used
Players
In the United States, the top master khaen artist is a blind Laotian-born Bounseung Synanonh. Master Synanonh started playing the khaen at age twelve and later lost his eye sight at age 15. Master Synanonh immigrated to the U.S. as a refugee in the early 1980s. In 1987, he performed for President Reagan at the White House. He also recorded with the World Music Institute under the direction of Terry Miller, a world-renowned ethnomusicologist. In 2007, he performed at the Smithsonian Folklife Festival in Washington, D.C. In Thailand, one of the top virtuoso khaen soloists is the blind musician Sombat Simla. The instrument has also attracted a few non-Asian performers, including University of San Diego professor Christopher Adler, who also composes for the instrument; English musician Clive Bell (UK); Vancouver-based composer/performer Randy Raine-Reusch (Canada), who played khaen on Aerosmith's Pump (1989), Cranberries' To the Faithful Departed (1996), and Yes's The Ladder (1999); and Jaron Lanier (United States). Since the early 21st century, the California-born khaen player Jonny Olsen has achieved familiarity in Laos and Thailand by appearing on numerous Thai and Lao TV Shows and performing live concerts in Thailand and the U.S. Olsen is the first foreigner to win a khaen championship in Khon Kaen, Thailand in 2005. Stephen Molyneux (United States) has played the khaen on his releases The Arbitrary State (2010), The Stars Are the Light Show (2012), Wings and Circles (2016), and in select live performances. Molyneux bought a khaen in Bangkok in 2010 after developing an interest in the instrument while traveling in Laos and Thailand.
See also
Water organ
Sompoton
Ploong
Sheng (instrument)
Lusheng
Gourd mouth organ
Notes
Bibliography
Miller, Terry E. Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlum Singing in Northeast Thailand (1985). Contributions in Intercultural and Comparative Studies, no. 13. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Miller, Terry E. An Introduction to Playing the Kaen (1980). Kent, Ohio: Terry E. Miller.
Lilly, Joseph An Introduction to the Khaen of Laos:The Free-Reed Journal Articles and Essays Featuring Classical Free-Reed Instruments and Performers
External links
Educational Video about Khaen What is the khaen and how it is played
Khaen Baet and Khaen Hok
Khaen Repertories: The Developments of Lao Traditional Music in Northeast Thailand Accessed 13 May 2005.
Audio samples
Traditional Music and Songs in Laos: The Voice of the Lao Khen
Art of the States: khaen Three contemporary American works featuring the instrument
Jaron Lanier using his invented style of playing, extraordinary.
Bamboo musical instruments
Laotian musical instruments
Thai musical instruments
Mor lam
Sets of free reeds
Mouth organs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20Massachusetts
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Constitution of Massachusetts
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The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the fundamental governing document of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, one of the 50 individual state governments that make up the United States of America. As a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779, John Adams was the document's principal author. Voters approved the document on June 15, 1780. It became effective on October 25, 1780, and is among the oldest functioning written constitutions in continuous effect in the world. (The constitutions of San Marino and Vermont have sections still in force that are older.) It was also the first constitution anywhere to be created by a convention called for that purpose rather than by a legislative body.
The Massachusetts Constitution was written last of the original states' first constitutions. Rather than taking the form of a list of provisions, it was organized into a structure of chapters, sections and articles. It served as a model for the Constitution of the United States of America, drafted seven years later, which used a similar structure. It also influenced later revisions of many other state constitutions. The Massachusetts Constitution has four parts: a preamble, a declaration of rights, a description of the framework of government, and articles of amendment.
It has been amended 120 times, most recently in 2000.
History
In the spring of 1775, Adams took the position that each state should call a special convention to write a constitution and then submit it to a popular vote. He told the Continental Congress that:
The legislative body of Massachusetts, known as the Massachusetts General Court, instead drafted its own version of a constitution and submitted it to the voters, who rejected it in 1778. That version did not provide for the separation of powers, nor did it include a statement of individual rights. The General Court then organized the election of delegates from each town to participate in a convention that would draft a constitution and submit their work to a popular vote with the understanding that its adoption would require approval by two-thirds of the voters. The constitutional convention met in Cambridge in September 1779.
The convention sat from September 1 to October 30, 1779. Its 312 members chose a committee of thirty members to prepare a new constitution and declaration of rights. That committee asked Adams to draft a declaration of rights. It appointed a subcommittee of James Bowdoin, Samuel Adams, and John Adams to draft the constitution and that trio delegated the drafting to John Adams alone. He later wrote that he constituted a "sub-sub committee of one". An article on religion was referred to members of the clergy, which resulted in a form of religious establishment entirely unlike that later adopted at the federal level. Adams advocated for an end to that establishment when revisions to the constitution were considered in 1820 and his views were adopted in 1832.
Adams's draft declaration of rights read in part: "All men are born equally free and independent..." Before being adopted by the constitutional convention it was revised to read: "All men are born free and equal..." At the insistence of Adams, the document referred to the state as a "commonwealth."
Male voters 21 years or older ratified the constitution and declaration of rights at the convention on June 15, 1780, and it became effective on October 25, 1780.
Preamble
The preamble of the constitution provided a model that was drawn on when the United States Constitution was composed a few years later, including some phrases near the end. It reads:
Declaration of Rights
"Part the First: A Declaration of the Rights of the Inhabitants of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts" consists of thirty articles. The first states:
This article was the subject of a landmark case in 1781 before a Massachusetts court sitting in Great Barrington, Brom and Bett v. Ashley. Elizabeth Freeman (whose slave name was "Bett"), a black slave owned by Colonel John Ashley, sued for her freedom based on this article. The jury agreed that slavery was inconsistent with the Massachusetts Constitution and awarded Freeman £5 in damages and her freedom. A few years later, Quock Walker, a black slave, sued his master for false imprisonment; the jury found for Walker and awarded him damages of £50. His master was then subject to criminal prosecution for assault and battery against Walker and was found guilty by a jury, which imposed a fine of 40/- (£2). In this manner, slavery lost any legal protection in Massachusetts, making it a tortious act under the law, effectively abolishing it within the Commonwealth.
In 1976 by amendment Article CVI, this article was amended to change the word "men" to "people". That amendment also added an additional sentence: “Equality under the law shall not be denied or abridged because of sex, race, color, creed or national origin.”
This article was also the basis for the 2003 Supreme Judicial Court's ruling in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health required the Commonwealth to extend marriage rights to same-sex couples on an equal basis with different-sex couples.
The next several Articles within the "Part the First" in the original 1780 Constitution of Massachusetts called upon the people of the Commonwealth as being their "right as well as the duty of all men" (Article II) to a strong religious conviction and belief.
Article III continued by noting that "the happiness of a people" and "preservation of civil government" is explicitly tied to religion and morality. This article established the possibility of "town religions" by allowing the state legislature, though Massachusetts cannot declare or recognize a state religion, to require towns to pay for the upkeep of a Protestant church out of local tax funds, with the town to determine by majority vote the denomination it would support as its parish church.
From 1780 to 1824 these democratically selected parish churches were considered the only churches with full legal rights, as "voluntary" churches ran against the Federalist ideal of a commonwealth. Until 1822 all residents of a town were required to belong to the parish church. In that year they were allowed to attend a neighboring town's church instead, and in 1824 full religious freedom was granted. However, the parishes remained beneficiaries of local taxes and were unable to expel dissident parishioners, since as residents they were members of the parish until they declared otherwise. Soon both dissident churches and the majority Congregational Church increasingly recognized that this system was contrary to the voluntary nature of religious worship. This section of the constitution was amended by bipartisan consensus in 1834 at the same time that several blue laws were repealed.
Frame of Government
Part II, Chapter I, Section I
The opening of the "Part the Second" lays down the official name of the State of Massachusetts.
The first three articles in Chapter I, Section I,of the Massachusetts Constitution establishes the three primary branches of government; an executive, a bicameral legislature, and an independent judiciary. The design of this system, unique at the time, was created to ensure the proper separation of power between the different entities. The framers of the state constitution intended by this means to prevent the abuse of power by any one branch.
Removal – impeachment
Massachusetts allows impeachment of government officials through the Legislature. They can also disqualify convicted officials from ever holding any place within the commonwealth.
Articles of Amendment
There are 120 Articles of Amendment that have been added to the Massachusetts Constitution. The most recent one disqualifies people incarcerated on felony convictions from voting and was approved by a vote of 60.3% to 33.9% in 2000.
The amendment process is governed by the 48th Article of Amendment to the Constitution, which establishes an indirect initiative process that requires action by the state legislature, followed by a referendum.
For an amendment to be placed before the voters as a referendum, a state constitutional convention, a joint meeting of both houses of the legislature sitting as one body, in each of two successive two-year legislative sessions, must provide the required number of votes, which varies according to how the proposed amendment comes before the convention.
If it is a legislative amendment proposed by a legislator, the threshold is 50% of the members. If it is an initiative amendment put forward by petition, the threshold is 25% of the members. In both cases, the calculation of the votes is based on the number of seats in the constitutional convention, not the members present or seated.
The number of certified signatures required on the petitions is 3% of the total vote cast for all candidates for governor (excluding blanks) at the immediately preceding state election.<ref>Massachusetts Legislature: Article XLVIII, accessed July 5, 2013</ref>
Constitutional conventions
The state has held four constitutional conventions of elected delegates (as opposed to those that are special sessions of the legislature):
Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779–1780, drew up the original document
Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820–1821, submitted a number of articles to a popular vote, resulting in the adoption of the first nine amendments and the rejection of a number of other proposals
Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1853
Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1917–1918
See also
Mayflower Compact (1620)
Massachusetts Charter
Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company
Initiative petition, the Bay State's specific legal term for a public method for Massachusetts residents to affect Constitutional law, for example, Proposition 2½
Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641)
Instrument of Government (1653)
Law of Massachusetts
State constitution (United States)
Unenrolled voter: within Massachusetts, one who is registered to vote, but with no'' declared party affiliation.
References
External links
Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (Full Text)
Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1780 printed edition, appending an address given by convention president James Bowdoin
1779 documents
1779 in Massachusetts
1780 establishments in Massachusetts
1780 in law
Constitution
Constitition
Constitution
Constitution
Massachusetts
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203890
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%20Ngum
|
Fa Ngum
|
Somdetch Brhat-Anya Fa Ladhuraniya Sri Sadhana Kanayudha Maharaja Brhat Rajadharana Sri Chudhana Negara (), better known as Fa Ngum (Laotian: ຟ້າງູ່ມ ; 1316 – 1393, born in Muang Sua, died in Nan), established the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang in 1353.
Early life
Phraya Fa Ngum, son of the exiled Phi Fa, grandson of Phraya Khamphong, and great-grandson of the exiled Phraya Lang, was born in 1316. He was raised by the religious scholar Maha Pasaman Chao (Phra Mahasamana). At sixteen, he married a Cambodian princess known variously as Kaeo, Yot Kaeo, or Kaeo Lot Fa.
Fa Ngoum or Fa Ngum was born in Muang Sua, a Lao principality located on the site of present-day Luang Prabang, and founded the Lan Xang Hôm Khao (better known as Lan Xang) kingdom in Laos in 1353. Fa Ngum was a grandson of Souvanna Khamphong, titled Phagna Khampong, ruler of Muang Sua and grandfather of Fa Ngum, banished Fa Ngum and his father, Chao Fa Ngiao, to the Khmer kingdom of Angkor in the 1320s due to his father's indiscretion with one of the grandfather's wives. Another source said that Fa Ngum was sent to exile because Fa Ngoum was miraculously born with thirty-three teeth which was an omen of threatening the well-being of his grandfather's kingdom. Fa Ngum subsequently married a Khmer princess Princess Kèo Kèngkanya. With the support of Jayavarman IX, Fa Ngum returned to Muang Sua with a 10,000 armed men to gain control and consolidate his kingdom. Princess Kèo Kèngkanya later died from plague, while he was campaigning North against the Mongols. In 1353, Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang Hôm Khao—"land of one million elephants and a white parasol." The elephant symbolized military power since most battles were fought using elephants, and the white parasol symbolized royalty, particularly a Buddhist monarch. Fa Ngum further legitimized his rule by enshrining the Prabang Buddha image as the spiritual protector of the kingdom in Viang Chan Viang Kham (present-day Vientiane). He made Xiang Dong Xiang Thong (later renamed Luang Prabang) his capital.
Fa Ngum is credited with introducing Khmer culture and Singhalese Buddhism to the region. His religious tutor, Maha Pasaman also brought back sacred texts and the Phra Bang.
Political turmoil ensued, and Fa Ngum's son Oun Huan also known as Samsènethai, succeeded the throne in 1368.
King of Lan Xang (Million Elephants)
Fa Ngum conquered western Nghệ An as well as the valleys between Red River and Black River in Vietnam (Tonkin) and modern day Isan in Thailand. In 1352–1354, he conquered Muang Sing, Muang Houm, Chiang Hung, Chiang Saen, Chiang Mai, Pak Ou and Pak Beng. In 1353, he conquered Vientiane, Xiang Khouang and then Luang Phrabang. He fought a battle against his uncle near Xiang Dong Xiang Thong and won, becoming the undisputed master of the land, which he named Lan Xang and in keeping with his Khmer wife's wishes, made Theravada Buddhism the state religion. In 1350, he symbolically pledged allegiance to the State of Mong Mao, however this didn't have much of an impact on his reign.
In 1373, the royals and nobles of his own court exiled him. His son Oun Huan, often called Samsenethai, a name adopted for the 300,000 Tai people of Lan Xang; then ascended to the throne of Lan Xang. Who was barely 18 when he acceded the throne. He was named after the 1376 census, which concluded that he ruled over 300,000 Tais living in Laos;
samsèn
means, literally, 300,000. He set up a new administrative system based on the existing
muang
, nominating governors to each that lasted until it was abolished by the Communist government in 1975. Samsènthai's death was followed by a period of unrest. Under King Xaiyachakkaphat-Phènphèo (1441–1478), the kingdom came under increasing threat from the Vietnamese. King Xaiyachakkaphat's eldest son, the Prince of Xianglo, secured a holy white elephant. The emperor of Vietnam, learning of this momentous discovery, asked to be sent some of the beast's hairs. Disliking the Vietnamese, the Prince dispatched a box of its excrement instead, whereupon the Emperor formed an improbably large 550,000 man army. The Prince's army numbered 200,000 and 2,000 elephants. The massive Vietnamese army finally prevailed and entered and sacked Luang Prabang. But shortly thereafter they were driven out by Xaiyachakkaphat-Phènphèo's son, King Souvanna Banlang (1478–1485). Peace was only fully restored under King Visounnarath (1500–1520).
Family
Father: Samdach Brhat-Anya Phya Vath, King of Rajadharani Sri Sudhana
Mother:
Consorts and their Respective Issue:
Queen Keo Kang Ya - (from Khmer Empire) (m. 1332; d. 1368)
Prince Oun Huan - King of Lan Xang, b. 1357 - d. 1416 (aged 60), r. 1372-1417
Prince Kham Kong
Princess Keo Ketkasi
Queen Keo Lot Fa (from Ayutthaya, daughter of King Ramadipati of Ayudhaya)
Citations
References
Kings of Lan Xang
1316 births
1393 deaths
14th-century monarchs in Asia
Laotian monarchy
Laotian Theravada Buddhists
Founding monarchs
14th-century Laotian people
|
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203893
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khun%20Lo
|
Khun Lo
|
Khun Lo, legendary founder of the city of Luang Prabang, was the eldest of the seven sons of the Khun Borom, and is credited as being the first of the prehistoric Lao monarchs. The royal families of Laos trace their lineage to him.
Khun Lo died in 780 and was succeeded by Khun Sung.
References
780 deaths
History of Laos
Laotian royalty
Year of birth unknown
8th-century Tai people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obock
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Obock
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Obock (also Obok, ) is a small port town in Djibouti. It is located on the northern shore of the Gulf of Tadjoura, where it opens out into the Gulf of Aden. The town is home to an airstrip and has ferries to Djibouti City. The French form Obock derives from Arabic "Oboh", deformation of Oboki, a name given to the Wadi Dar'i in its middle part, upstream of its coastal delta.
History
The fishing village was originally built on the plateau of Dala-h Húgub near the Dar'i Wadi, with some houses constructed of mud and stone and Daboyta. Most of the inhabitants earned their living through animal husbandry, fishing, commerce and used a well for drinking water. During the Middle Ages, Obock was ruled by the Ifat Sultanate and then the Adal Sultanate. The Sultans of Raheita emerged from the Adal Sultanate. Although nominally part of the Ottoman Empire since 1554, between 1821 and 1841, Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt, came to control Yemen and the sahil, with Zeila and as far as Harar. On the 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L’Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura. In actuality, however, Egypt had little authority over the interior and their period of rule on the coast was brief, lasting only a few years (1841–62). The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from the area.
French Somaliland
During the Scramble for Africa, growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Between 1883 and 1887, France signed various treaties with the then ruling Somali and Afar Sultans, which allowed it to expand the protectorate to include the Gulf of Tadjoura. Obock was originally significant as the site of the first French colony in the region, established by treaty with the local Afar rulers on March 11, 1862. The French were interested in having a coaling station for steamships, which would become especially important upon the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. (Up to that time French ships had to buy coal at the British port of Aden across the gulf, an unwise dependency in case of war.)
The site was not the subject of any occupation, just visited by the ships of the naval divisions assigned to the Indian Ocean, until the installation of trader Pierre Arnoux in 1881, followed by Paul Soleillet. Obock became a true colony in 1884 with the arrival in August of Léonce Lagarde, who established an administration and extended French possession in the Gulf of Tadjoura, forming the Territory of Obock and outbuildings, with Obock as its capital. By 1885, Obock had 800 inhabitants and a school. However, the anchorage was more exposed than the site of Djibouti on the south side of the Gulf of Tadjoura, and the colonial administration moved there in 1894. The population of Obock subsequently declined.
However, until the occupation of Tadjoura in 1927, Obock remained the only place on the northern coast of the Gulf of Tadjoura with a colonial administration. It became the capital of the "District Dankali" in 1914, then an administrative position from 1927 which was subsumed into the "Circle of Adaels" in 1929. During World War II, Italy's declaration of war on France and Great Britain came on 10 June 1940. The Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June. From Harrar Governorate, troops under General Guglielmo Nasi to attack French Somaliland, there was some skirmishes. When the government on 10 July learned that the armistice was not yet put into effect in French Somaliland, President Philippe Pétain a collaborationist government at Vichy sent General Gaëtan Germain as his personal representative to correct the situation. Negotiations at Dewele, Italian East Africa on the local implementation of the armistice were only finally completed on 8 August. By that time, the British offensive against the Italians had tightened the blockade of French Somaliland. Famine set in malnutrition-related diseases took many lives, 70% of them women and children and many townsfolk left for the hinterland. The locals named the blockade the carmii, a word for a type of sorghum usually reserved for cattle, but used as human food at the height of the famine. Obock became the capital of a circle responsible for resupplying the colony during the Allied blockade from 1941 to 1943. Only a few Arab dhows (boutres) managed to run the blockade to Djibouti and Obock and only two French ships from Madagascar managed to run it. The Japanese declaration of war (7 December 1941) gave the colony some respite, since the British were forced to withdraw all but two ships from the blockade for use in the Far East. The Commander-in-Chief, East Africa, William Platt, codenamed the negotiations for the surrender of French Somaliland "Pentagon", because there were five sides: himself, the Vichy governor, the Free French, the British minister at Addis Ababa and the United States. Christian Raimond Dupont surrendered and Colonel Raynal's troops crossed back into French Somaliland on 26 December 1942, completing its liberation. The official handover took place at 10:00 p.m. on 28 December. The first governor appointed under the Free French was André Bayardelle. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944. In 1963, Obock's circle was created by division of that of Tadjourah region.
Djibouti
A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967, which rejected independence. This referendum backed independence from France. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. Obock is expected to be the site of the Chinese naval base in Djibouti.
Demographics
As of 2009, the population of Obock has been estimated to be 11,706. The town inhabitants belong to various mainly Afro-Asiatic-speaking ethnic groups, the Afar and Issa Somali, are predominant.
Postage stamps
During its time as a French colony, Obock issued its own postage stamps; for more detail see Postage stamps and postal history of Obock.
Overview
Obock is connected to other environs by RN-9 National Highway. A ferry ride from Djibouti City to Obock takes three hours; the distance is .
Climate and geography
Obock has a dry climate. It is classified as hot and semi-arid (Köppen climate classification BSh). Obock is 13 m above sea level on the plateau of Gazelles ("Dala-h Húgub in Afar") in desert terrain. The sky is always clear and bright throughout the year.
The submarine coastal spring waters have an interesting geothermal potential (with a deep temperature of approximatively 200 °C).
Notable residents
Hasna Mohamed Dato, Politician
Abdallah Mohamed Kamil, Politician
Henry de Monfreid, Adventurer, writer
References
Populated places in Djibouti
Obock Region
Gulf of Aden
Ports and harbours of Djibouti
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe%20Acrobat
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Adobe Acrobat
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Adobe Acrobat is a family of application software and Web services developed by Adobe Inc. to view, create, manipulate, print and manage Portable Document Format (PDF) files.
The family comprises Acrobat Reader (formerly Reader), Acrobat (formerly Exchange) and Acrobat.com. The basic Acrobat Reader, available for several desktop and mobile platforms, is freeware; it supports viewing, printing and annotating of PDF files. Additional, "Premium", services are available on paid subscription. The commercial proprietary Acrobat, available for Microsoft Windows and macOS only, can also create, edit, convert, digitally sign, encrypt, export and publish PDF files. Acrobat.com complements the family with a variety of enterprise content management and file hosting services.
Purpose
The main function of Adobe Acrobat is creating, viewing, and editing PDF documents. It can import popular document and image formats and save them as PDF. It's also possible to import a scanner's output, a website, or the contents of the Windows clipboard.
Because of the nature of the PDF, however, once a PDF document is created, its natural organization and flow cannot be meaningfully modified. In other words, Adobe Acrobat is able to modify the contents of paragraphs and images, but doing so does not repaginate the whole document to accommodate for a longer or shorter document. Acrobat can crop PDF pages, change their order, manipulate hyperlinks, digitally sign a PDF file, add comments, redact certain parts of the PDF file, and ensure its adherence to such standards as PDF/A.
History
Adobe Acrobat came to being in 1993 and had to compete with other products and proprietary formats that aimed to create digital documents:
Common Ground from No Hands Software Inc.
Envoy from WordPerfect Corporation
Folio Views from NextPage
Replica from Farallon Computing
WorldView from Interleaf
DjVu from AT&T Laboratories
Adobe has renamed the Acrobat products several times, in addition to merging, splitting and discontinuing them. Initially, the offered products were called Acrobat Reader, Acrobat Exchange and Acrobat Distiller. "Acrobat Exchange" soon became "Acrobat". Over time, "Acrobat Reader" became "Reader". Between versions 3 and 5, Acrobat did not have several editions. In 1999, the Acrobat.com service came to being and introduced several web services whose names started with "Acrobat", but eventually, "Acrobat.com" was downgraded from the name of the family of services, to that of one of those services.
Unlike most other Adobe products, such as members of Adobe Creative Suite family, the Acrobat products do not have icons that display two letters on a colored rectangle.
Document Cloud
In April 2015, Adobe introduced the "Document Cloud" branding (alongside its Creative Cloud) to signify its adoption of the cloud storage and the software as a service model. Apps under this branding received a "DC" suffix. In addition, "Reader" was renamed back to "Acrobat Reader". Following the introduction of Document Cloud, Acrobat.com was discontinued as their features were integrated into the desktop and mobile apps.
The UI had major changes with the introduction of Acrobat DC in 2015, which supports Windows 7 and later, and OS X 10.9 and later. Version numbers are now identified by the last two digits of the year of major release, and the month and year is specified; the previous version was 12, but examples of the DC (Document Cloud) Acrobat product family versions are DC June 2016, version 15.016.20045, released 2 June 2016 and DC Classic January 2016, version 15.006.30119, released 12 January 2016. From DC 2015 the Acrobat family is available in two tracks, the original track, now named Classic, and the Continuous track. Updates for the Classic track are released quarterly, and do not include new features, whereas updates for the Continuous track are issued more frequently, and implemented silently and automatically.
The last pre-DC version, Acrobat XI, was updated to 11.0.23 version (and this was the final release) on November 14, 2017, support for which ended on October 15, 2017.
Adobe Acrobat family products
Current services
Acrobat.com is the web version of Acrobat developed by Adobe Inc. to edit, create, manipulate, print and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for users with a web browser and an Adobe ID only.
Acrobat Distiller is a software application for converting documents from PostScript format to Adobe PDF (Portable Document Format), the native format of the Adobe Acrobat family of products.
Acrobat Pro is the professional full version of Acrobat developed by Adobe Inc. to edit, create, manipulate, print and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for Windows and macOS users only.
Acrobat Reader is the freeware version of Acrobat developed by Adobe Inc. to view, create, fill, print and format files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for Windows, macOS, iOS, and Android users only.
Acrobat Standard is the standard full version of Acrobat developed by Adobe Inc. to edit, create, manipulate, print and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for Windows users only.
Document Cloud is part of the Acrobat family developed by Adobe Inc. to edit, create, save online, print and format files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for users with a web browser and an Adobe ID only.
Fill & Sign is part of the Acrobat family developed by Adobe Inc. to fill, sign, and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for Windows, macOS, iOS, and Android users only.
Scan is part of the Acrobat family developed by Adobe Inc. to scan, crop, and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for iOS and Android users only.
Sign (formerly EchoSign and eSign) is part of the Acrobat family developed by Adobe Inc. to fill, sign, and manage files in the Portable Document Format (PDF). It is currently available for iOS and Android users only.
Discontinued services
Acrobat Approval allows users to deploy electronic forms based on the Acrobat Portable Document Format (PDF).
Acrobat Business Tools is a discontinued component of the Acrobat family that was distributed by Adobe Systems with collaboration and document review features.
Acrobat Capture is a document processing utility for Windows from Adobe Systems that converts a scan of any paper document into a PDF file with selectable text through OCR technology.
Acrobat Distiller Server is a discontinued server-based utility that was developed by Adobe Systems to perform centralized high-volume conversion of PostScript documents to PDF formats for workgroups.
Acrobat eBook Reader is a PDF-based e-book reader from Adobe Systems. Features present in Acrobat eBook Reader later appeared in Digital Editions.
Acrobat Elements was a very basic version of the Acrobat family that was released by Adobe Systems. Its key feature advantage over the free Acrobat Reader was the ability to create reliable PDF files from Microsoft Office applications.
Acrobat InProduction is a pre-press tools suite for Acrobat released by Adobe in 2000 to handle color separation and pre-flighting of PDF files for printing.
Acrobat Messenger is a document utility for Acrobat users that was released by Adobe Systems in 2000 to convert paper documents into PDF files that can be e-mailed, faxed, or shared online.
Acrobat Reader Touch is a free PDF document viewer developed and released on December 11, 2012 by Adobe Systems for the Windows Touch user interface.
FormsCentral was a web form filling server for users with Windows, macOS, or a web browser and an Adobe ID only. It was discontinued on July 28, 2015 and was replaced by Experience Manager Forms.
Send & Track (formerly SendNow and Send) was a service that lets you send files as links, track files you send to specific individuals, and get confirmation receipts when others view your file. It was completely discontinued as of July 11, 2018.
Hidden helper tools
Acrobat Synchronizer is a tool installed along with Acrobat versions. While running in the background, it maintains the accuracy of Acrobat files imported to Acrobat.
RdrCEF (also known as Adobe Reader Cloud Extension Feature) is a tool bundled with Acrobat that runs a process that handles cloud connectivity features.
Supported file formats
The table below contains some of the supported file formats that can be opened or accessed in Adobe Acrobat.
Internationalization and localization
Adobe Acrobat is available in the following languages: Arabic, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish and Ukrainian. Arabic and Hebrew versions are available from WinSoft International, Adobe Systems' internationalization and localization partner.
Before Adobe Acrobat DC, separate Arabic and Hebrew versions were developed specifically for these languages, which are normally written right-to-left. These versions include special TouchUp properties to manage digits, ligatures option and paragraph direction in right-to-left Middle Eastern scripts such as Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian, as well as standard left-to-right Indian scripts such as Devanagari and Gujarati. The Web Capture feature can convert single web pages or entire web sites into PDF files, while preserving the content's original text encoding. Acrobat can also copy Arabic and Hebrew text to the system clipboard in its original encoding; if the target application is also compatible with the text encoding, then the text will appear in the correct script.
Security
A comprehensive list of security bulletins for most Adobe products and related versions is published on their Security bulletins and advisories page and in other related venues. In particular, the detailed history of security updates for all versions of Adobe Acrobat has been made public.
From Version 3.02 onwards, Acrobat Reader has included support for JavaScript. This functionality allows a PDF document creator to include code which executes when the document is read. Malicious PDF files that attempt to attack security vulnerabilities can be attached to links on web pages or distributed as email attachments. While JavaScript is designed without direct access to the file system to make it "safe", vulnerabilities have been reported for abuses such as distributing malicious code by Acrobat programs. Adobe applications had already become the most popular client-software targets for attackers during the last quarter of 2009. McAfee predicted that Adobe software, especially Reader and Flash, would be the primary target for software attacks in the year 2010.
September 2006 warning
On September 13, 2006, David Kierznowski provided sample PDF files illustrating JavaScript vulnerabilities. Since at least version 6, JavaScript can be disabled using the preferences menu and embedded URLs that are launched are intercepted by a security warning dialog box to either allow or block the website from activating.
February 2009 warning
On February 19, 2009, Adobe released a Security Bulletin announcing JavaScript vulnerabilities in Adobe Reader and Acrobat versions 9 and earlier. As a workaround for this issue, US-CERT recommended disabling JavaScript in the affected Adobe products, canceling integration with Windows shell and web browsers (while carrying out an extended version of de-integration for Internet Explorer), deactivating Adobe indexing services and avoiding all PDF files from external sources.
February 2013 warning
Adobe has identified critical vulnerabilities in Adobe Reader and Acrobat XI (11.0.01 and earlier) for Windows and Macintosh, 9.5.3 and earlier 9.x versions. These vulnerabilities could cause the application to crash and potentially allow an attacker to take control of the affected system. There have been reports of these vulnerabilities being exploited to trick Windows users into clicking on a malicious PDF file delivered in an email message. Adobe recommended users update their product installations.
January 2016 warning
Adobe has released security updates for Adobe Acrobat and Reader for Windows and Macintosh. These updates address critical vulnerabilities that could potentially allow an attacker to take control of the affected system.
See also
List of PDF software
Adobe Acrobat version history
References
External links
Adobe software
Media readers
PDF readers
PDF software
Proprietary cross-platform software
Symbian software
Technical communication tools
Classic Mac OS software
MacOS text-related software
Windows text-related software
1993 software
Computer-related introductions in 1993
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203897
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai%20Group
|
Hyundai Group
|
Hyundai Group (; ) is a South Korean conglomerate founded by Chung Ju-yung. The first company in the group was founded in 1947 as a construction company. With government assistance, Chung and his family members rapidly expanded into various industries, eventually becoming South Korea's second Enterprise Group. Chung Ju-yung was directly in control of the company until his death in 2001.
The company spun off many of its better known businesses after the 1997 Asian financial crisis and founder Chung Ju-yung's death, including Hyundai Motor Group, Hyundai Department Store Group, and Hyundai Heavy Industries Group. The Hyundai Group now focuses on elevators and tourism to Mount Kumgang.
Etymology
The name "Hyundai" comes from the Korean word (hanja form), which means "modernity".
History
In 1947, Hyundai Togun (Hyundai Engineering and Construction), the initial company of the Hyundai Group, was established by Chung Ju-yung. Hyundai Construction began operating outside of South Korea in 1965, initially entering the markets of Guam, Thailand and Vietnam. In 1950, Hyundai Togun was renamed Hyundai Construction. In 1958, Keumkang Company was established to make construction materials. In 1965, Hyundai Construction began its first overseas venture, a highway project in Thailand.
In 1967, Hyundai Motors was established. Hyundai Heavy Industries was founded in 1973, and completed the construction of its first ships in June 1974.
In 1975, the group begins construction on an integrated car factory and launches a new Korean vehicle.
In 1973, the group's shipyard is incorporated as Hyundai Shipbuilding and Heavy Industries, renamed Hyundai Heavy Industries in 1978.
In 1976, Hyundai Corporation is established as a trading arm. The same year, Asia Merchant Marine Co. established, later renamed Hyundai Merchant Marine.
In 1977, Asan Foundation was established.
In 1983 Hyundai entered the semiconductor industry through the establishment of Hyundai Electronics (renamed Hynix in 2001).
In 1986, Hyundai Research Institute was established.
In 1986 a Hyundai-manufactured IBM PC-XT compatible called the Blue Chip PC was sold in discount and toy stores throughout the US. It was one of the earliest PC clones marketed toward consumers instead of business.
In 1988, Asian Sangsun was established, renamed Hyundai Logistics in 1992.
By the mid-1990s Hyundai comprised over 60 subsidiary companies and was active in a diverse range of activities including automobile manufacturing, construction, chemicals, electronics, financial services, heavy industry and shipbuilding. In the same period it had total annual revenues of around US$90 billion and over 200,000 employees.
In December 1995, Hyundai announced a major management restructuring, affecting 404 executives.
During 1997 Asian financial crisis, Hyundai acquired Kia Motors and LG Semi-Conductor.
In 1998, Korea's economic crisis forced the group to begin restructuring efforts, which include selling off subsidiaries and focusing on five core business areas. Nevertheless, Hyundai began South Korean tourism to North Korea's Kumgangsan. In 1999, Hyundai Asan was established to operating Kumgang tourism, the Kaesong Industrial Complex, and other inter-Korean work.
In April 1999 Hyundai announced an enormous corporate restructuring, involving a two-thirds reduction of the number of business units and a plan to break up the group into five independent business groups by 2003.
In 2001, the founder Chung Ju-yung died, and the Hyundai Group conglomerate continued to be dismantled.
In 2007, Hyundai Construction Equipment India Pvt. Ltd. established in India.
In 2010, Hyundai Group was selected as a preferred bidder by creditors for the acquisition of Hyundai Engineering & Construction.
Logo
Affiliated companies
As of 2017, these are the affiliated companies of the Hyundai Group.
Hyundai Elevator
Hyundai Movex
Hyundai Asan
Hyundai Research Institute
Hyundai Investment Partners
Hyundai Global
Able Hyundai Hotel & Resort
Bloomvista
Hyundai Motor Company
Hyundai branded vehicles are manufactured by Hyundai Motor Company, which along with Kia forms the Hyundai Kia Automotive Group. Headquartered in Seoul, South Korea, Hyundai operates in Ulsan the world's largest integrated automobile manufacturing facility, which is capable of producing 1.6 million units annually. The company employs about 75,000 people around the world. Hyundai vehicles are sold in 193 countries through some 6,000 dealerships and showrooms worldwide. In 2012, Hyundai sold over 4.4 million vehicles worldwide. Popular models include the Sonata and Elantra mid-sized sedans.
The Asan Foundation, established by Chung Ju-yung in 1977 with 50 percent of the stock of Hyundai Construction, subsidizes medical services in Korea primarily through the Asan Medical Center and six other hospitals. The foundation has sponsored conferences on Eastern ethics and funded academic research into traditional Korean culture. In 1991, it established the annual Filial Piety Award.
See also
Economy of South Korea
Chaebol
Hyundai Motor Company
References
External links
Hyundai Group Website
Hyundai Group Homepage
Funding Universe profile
Hyundai Power Equipment (UK)
Conglomerate companies of South Korea
Manufacturing companies of South Korea
Conglomerate companies established in 1947
South Korean companies established in 1947
Hyundai
Companies based in Seoul
Electronics companies of South Korea
Manufacturing companies established in 1947
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1947
South Korean brands
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203901
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20Nonviolent%20Coordinating%20Committee
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Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
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The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, often pronounced ) was the principal channel of student commitment in the United States to the civil rights movement during the 1960s. Emerging in 1960 from the student-led sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in Greensboro, North Carolina, and Nashville, Tennessee, the Committee sought to coordinate and assist direct-action challenges to the civic segregation and political exclusion of African Americans. From 1962, with the support of the Voter Education Project, SNCC committed to the registration and mobilization of black voters in the Deep South. Affiliates such as the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party and the Lowndes County Freedom Organization in Alabama also worked to increase the pressure on federal and state government to enforce constitutional protections.
By the mid-1960s the measured nature of the gains made, and the violence with which they were resisted, were generating dissent from the group's principles of nonviolence, of white participation in the movement, and of field-driven, as opposed to national-office, leadership and direction. At the same time some original organizers were now working with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and others were being lost to a de-segregating Democratic Party and to federally-funded anti-poverty programs. Following an aborted merger with the Black Panther Party in 1968, SNCC effectively dissolved.
Because of the successes of its early years, SNCC is credited with breaking down barriers, both institutional and psychological, to the empowerment of African-American communities.
1960: Emergence from the sit-in movement
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was formed in April 1960 at a conference at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, attended by 126 student delegates from 58 sit-in centers in 12 states, from 19 northern colleges, and from the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), the National Student Association (NSA), and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Among those attending who were to emerge as strategists for the committee and its field projects were students Diane Nash, Marion Barry, and John Lewis from Fisk University and American Baptist Theological Seminary students James Bevel and Bernard Lafayette, all involved in the Nashville Student Movement; their mentor at Vanderbilt University, James Lawson; Charles F. McDew, who led student protests at South Carolina State University; J. Charles Jones, Johnson C. Smith University, who organized 200 students to participate in sit-ins at whites-only department stores and service counters throughout Charlotte, North Carolina; Julian Bond from Morehouse College, Atlanta; and Stokely Carmichael from Howard University, Washington, D.C..
The invitation had been issued by Martin Luther King Jr. on behalf of the SCLC, but the conference had been organized by then SCLC director Ella Baker. Baker was a critic of what she perceived as King's top-down leadership at the SCLC. "Strong people don't need strong leaders," she told the young activists. Speaking to the students' own experience of protest organization, it was Baker's vision that appeared to prevail.
SNCC did not constitute itself as the youth wing of SCLC. It steered an independent course that sought to channel the students' program through the organizers out in the field rather than through its national office in Atlanta ("small and rather dingy," located above a beauty parlor near the city's five Black colleges). Under the constitution adopted, the SNCC comprised representatives from each of the affiliated "local protest groups," and these groups (and not the committee and its support staff) were to be recognized as "the primary expression of a protest in a given area."
Under the same general principle, that "the people who do the work should make the decisions", the students committed to a "participatory democracy" which, avoiding office hierarchy, sought to reach decisions by consensus. Group meetings were convened in which every participant could speak for as long as they wanted and the meeting would continue until everyone who was left was in agreement with the decision. Given the physical risks involved in many activities in which SNCC was to engage this was thought particularly important: "no one felt comfortable making a decision by majority rule that might cost somebody else's life."
Initially the SNCC continued the focus on sit-ins and boycotts targeting establishments (restaurants, retail stores, theaters) and public amenities maintaining whites-only or segregated facilities. But it was to adopt a new tactic that helped galvanize the movement nationally. In February 1961, Diane Nash, Ruby Doris Smith, Charles Sherrod, and J. Charles Jones joined the Rock Hill, South Carolina sit-in protests and followed the example of the Friendship Nine in enduring an extended jail time rather than post bail. The "Jail-no-Bail" stand was seen as a moral refusal to accept, and to effectively subsidize, a corrupted constitution-defiant police and judicial system—while at the same time saving the movement money it did not have.
As way to "dramatize that the church, the house of all people, fosters segregation more than any other institution," SNCC students also participated in "kneel-ins"—kneeling in prayer outside of Whites-only churches. Presbyterians churches, targeted because their "ministers lacked the protection and support of a church hierarchy," were not long indifferent. In August 1960, the 172nd General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church wrote to SNCC: "Laws and customs requiring racial discrimination are, in our judgement, such serious violations of the law of God as to justify peaceful and orderly disobedience or disregard of these laws."
In May 1961, Nash was to lead a second SNCC group to Alabama to sustain a new wave of direct action, the Freedom Rides.
1961 Freedom Rides
Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to dramatize the southern states' disregard of the Supreme Court rulings (Morgan v. Virginia, 1946 and Boynton v. Virginia, 1960) outlawing segregation in interstate transportation, in May 1961, the first Freedom Riders (seven black, six white, led by CORE director James Farmer) traveling together on interstate buses were brutally attacked by mobs of Ku Klux Klansmen in Anniston. Local police stood by. After they were assaulted again in Birmingham, Alabama, and under pressure from the Kennedy Administration, CORE announced it was discontinuing the action. Undeterred, Diane Nash called for new riders. Oretha Castle Haley, Jean C. Thompson, Rudy Lombard, James Bevel, Marion Barry, Angeline Butler, Stokely Carmichael, and Joan Trumpauer Mulholland joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas, the two young SNCC members of the original Ride. They traveled on to a savage beating in Montgomery, Alabama, to arrest in Jackson, Mississippi, and to confinement in the Maximum Security (Death Row) Unit of the infamous Mississippi State Penitentiary--"Parchman Farm".
Recognizing SNCC's determination, CORE and the SCLC rejected the Administration's call for a "cooling off" period and joined with the students in a Freedom Riders Coordinating Committee to keep the Rides rolling through June and into September. During those months, more than 60 different Freedom Rides criss-crossed the South, most of them converging on Jackson, where every Rider was arrested, more than 300 in total. An unknown number were arrested in other Southern towns, and many were beaten including, in Monroe, North Carolina, SNCC's Executive Secretary James Forman. It is estimated that almost 450 people, black and white in equal number, participated.
With CORE, SNCC had been making plans for a mass demonstration in Washington when Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy finally prevailed on the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue rules giving force the repudiation of the "separate but equal" doctrine. After the new ICC rules took effect on November 1, 1961, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains; "white" and "colored" signs were to be removed from the terminals (lunch counters, drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms) serving interstate customers.
To test the ICC ruling and in the hope of mobilizing the local black community in a broader campaign, in October 1961 SNCC members Charles Sherrod and Cordell Reagon led a sit-in at the bus terminal in Albany, Georgia. By mid-December, having drawn in the NAACP and a number of other organizations, the Albany Movement had more than 500 protesters in jail. There they were joined briefly by Martin Luther King Jr. and by Ralph Abernathy. King sought to take advantage of the national media attention his arrest had drawn: In return for the city's commitment to comply with the ICC ruling and to release those protesters willing to post bail, King agreed to leave town. The city reneged, however, so protests and subsequent arrests continued into 1962.
News reports across the country portrayed the Albany debacle as "one of the most stunning defeats" in King's career. What they also reported was conflict with SNCC. The New York Times noted that King's SCLC had taken steps "that seemed to indicate they were assuming control" of the movement in Albany, and that the student group had "moved immediately to recapture its dominant position on the scene." If the differences between the organizations were not resolved, the paper predicted "tragic consequences".
1962 voter registration campaigns
As a result of meetings brokered by the Kennedy Administration with large liberal foundations, the Voter Education Project (VEP) was formed in early 1962 to channel funds into voter drives in the eleven Southern states. Inducted by sit-in campaigns and hardened in the Freedom Rides, many student activists saw VEP as a government attempt to co-opt their movement. Lonnie C. King Jr., a student from Morehouse College in Atlanta, felt that "by rechanneling its energies" what the Kennedys were "trying to do was kill the Movement." But others were already convinced that obtaining the right to vote was the key to unlocking political power for Black Americans. Older Black southerners had been pressing SNCC to move in this direction for some time. Mississippi NAACP leader Amzie Moore had tabled a voter registration drive at the SNCC's second conference in October 1960.
A split over the priority to be accorded voter registration was avoided by Ella Baker's intervention. She suggested that the organization create two distinct wings: one for direct action (which Diane Nash was to lead) and the other for voter registration. But the white violence visited in the summer of 1961 on the first registration efforts (under the direction of Bob Moses) in McComb, Mississippi, including the murder of activist Herbert Lee, persuaded many that in the Deep South voter registration was as direct a challenge to white supremacy as anything they had been doing before. "If you went into Mississippi and talked about voter registration they're going to hit you on the side of the head and that," Reggie Robinson, one of the SNCC's first field secretaries, quipped is "as direct as you can get."
In 1962, Bob Moses garnered further support for SNCC's efforts by forging a coalition, the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), with, among other groups, the NAACP and the National Council of Churches. With VEP and COFO funding SNCC was able to expand its voter registration efforts into the Mississippi Delta around Greenwood, Southwest Georgia around Albany, and the Alabama Black Belt around Selma. All of these projects endured police harassment and arrests; KKK violence including shootings, bombings, and assassinations; and economic sanctions against those blacks who dared to try to register.
1963
Although it is an event largely remembered for King's delivery of his "I Have a Dream" speech, SNCC had a significant role in the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. But it was at odds with the other sponsoring civil rights, labor, and religious organizations, all of whom were prepared to applaud the Kennedy Administration for its Civil Rights Bill (the Civil Rights Act of 1964).
1963 March on Washington
In the version of his speech leaked to the press John Lewis remarked that those marching for jobs and freedom "have nothing to be proud of, for hundreds and thousands of our brothers are not here—for they have no money for their transportation, for they are receiving starvation wages...or no wages at all." He went on to announce:
In good conscience, we cannot support the administration's civil rights bill. This bill will not protect young children and old women from police dogs and fire hoses when engaging in peaceful demonstrations. This bill will not protect the citizens of Danville, Virginia who must live in constant fear in a police state. This bill will not protect the hundreds of people who have been arrested on trumped-up charges like those in Americus, Georgia, where four young men are in jail, facing a death penalty, for engaging in peaceful protest. I want to know, which side is the federal government on? The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it in the courts. Listen Mr. Kennedy, the black masses are on the march for jobs and for freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there won't be a "cooling-off period."
Under pressure from the other groups, changes were made. "We cannot support" the 1963 Kennedy Civil Rights Bill was re-scripted as "we support with reservations". In the view of the then SNCC executive secretary, James Forman, those who had pushed the change were selling out to the cautious liberal politics of labor-movement leadership and the Catholic and Protestant church hierarchy. "If people had known they had come to Washington to aid the Kennedy administration, they would not have come in the numbers they did."
1963 Women's March
A feature of the march itself, was that men and women were directed to proceed separately and that only male speakers were scheduled to address the Lincoln Memorial rally. Despite protesting behind the scenes with Anna Hedgeman (who was to go on to co-found the National Organization for Women), SNCC staffer and Ella Baker protégé Casey Hayden found herself walking with other women unnoticed up Independence Avenue while the media recorded the men marching down Constitution Avenue. In the event, a few women were allowed to sit on the Lincoln Memorial platform and Daisy Bates, who had been instrumental in the integration of Little Rock Central High School was permitted to speak briefly.
Leesburg Stockade
The previous month, July 1963, SNCC was involved in another march that eventually made headlines. With the NAACP in Americus, Georgia, SNCC organized a protest march on a segregated movie theater that concluded with the arrest of upwards of 33 high-school girls. The "Stolen Girls" were imprisoned 45 days without charge in brutal conditions in the Lee County Public Works building, the Leesburg Stockade. It took SNCC photographer Danny Lyon smuggling himself into the Stockade to publicize the case nationally
1964 Freedom Summer
In the fall of 1963, with the assistance of 100 northern volunteers SNCC conducted the Freedom Ballot, a mock gubernatorial election in which over 80,000 black Mississippians demonstrated their willingness to exercise the constitutional right to vote that state law and violent intimidation had denied them since Reconstruction. (Only 6.7 per cent of the black voting age population of Mississippi was registered, compared to 70.2 per cent of the white voting age population). In coordination with CORE, the SNCC followed up on the ballot with the 1964 Mississippi Summer Project, also known as Freedom Summer. This brought over 700 white Northern students to the South, where they volunteered as teachers and organizers.
According to Julian Bond, their presence can be credited to freelance social activist Allard Lowenstein: white students, he had proposed, would not only "provide needed manpower", "their white skins might provoke interest from the news media that black skins could not produce." With the murder of two of their number, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, alongside local activist (Freedom Rider and voter educator) James Chaney, this indeed was to be the effect. Freedom Summer attracted international attention.
For SNCC the focus of summer project became the organization, through the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), of a parallel state Democratic Party primary. The MFDP would send an integrated slate of delegates to the 1964 Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City and there contest the credentials of the all-white Mississippi regulars.
As part of this project SNCC's Charlie Cobb proposed summer field schools. Encouraging youth "to articulate their own desires, demands, and questions," the schools would help ensure a movement for social change in the state that would continue to be led by Mississippians. This was, he suggested, what organizing for voter registration was all about – "challenging people in various ways to take control of their own lives." Over the course of Freedom Summer, COFO set up more than 40 Freedom Schools in African-American communities across Mississippi. More than 3,000 students attended, many of whom participated in registration efforts.
With the encouragement of SNCC field secretary Frank Smith, a meeting of cotton pickers at a Freedom School in Shaw, Mississippi, gave birth to the Mississippi Freedom Labor Union. At its peak, in the summer of 1965 the MFLU had 1,350 members and about 350 on strike.
On August 4, 1964, before the state MFDP convention, the bodies of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner were discovered buried in an earthen dam. Missing for weeks since disappearing after investigating a church burning in June 1964, they were subjects of a massive manhunt that involved the FBI and United States sailors from a nearby base. In the course of the search the corpses of several black Mississippians were uncovered whose disappearances had not previously attracted attention outside the Delta.
Notwithstanding the national outrage generated by the murders, the Johnson Administration was determined to deflect the MDFP effort. With the presidential election approaching the priority was to protect the Democrats' "Solid South" against inroads being made by Republican Barry Goldwater's campaign and to minimise support for George Wallace's third-party challenge. The MFDP nonetheless got to the National Democratic Convention in Atlantic City at the end of August.
The proceedings of the convention's credentials committee were televised, giving a national and international audience to the testimony of SNCC field secretary Fannie Lou Hamer: to her portrayal of the brutalities of a sharecropper's life, and of the obstruction and violence encountered by an African American in the exercise her constitutional rights. (Hamer still bore the marks of beatings meted to her, her father and other SNCC workers by police in Winona, Mississippi, just a year before). But with the all-white delegations of other southern states threatening to walk out, Johnson engineered a "compromise" in which the national Democratic Party offered the 68 MFDP delegates two at-large seats from where they could watch the floor proceedings but not take part. Fannie Lou Hamer led her delegates out of the convention: "We didn't come all this way for no two seats when all of us is tired."
Activists, Hayden suggests, were staggered to find the Democratic Party "in the role of racist lunch counter owner": "the core of SNCC's work, voter registration, was [now] open to question." In the wake of Atlantic City, Elaine DeLott Baker recalls the desolation of project offices "that had only recently been hives of activity and energy" and the shutting down of Freedom Schools and community centers.
In September 1964, at a COFO conference in New York, Bob Moses had to see off two challenges to SNCC's future role in Mississippi. First, he had to defend the SNCC's anti-"Red-baiting" insistence on "free association": the NAACP had threatened to pull out of COFO if SNCC continued to engage the services of the Communist Party associated National Lawyers Guild. Second, he had deflect a proposal from Lowenstein and Democratic Party operative Barny Frank that in a future summer program decision-making be removed from organizers in the field to a new office in New York City responsible directly to liberal-foundation and church funders. Dorothy Zellner (a white radical SNCC staffer) remarked that, "What they [Lowenstein and Frank] want is to let the Negro into the existing society, not to change it."
1965: Differences over "structure" and direction
At the end of 1964, SNCC fielded the largest staff of any civil rights organization in the South. Yet to many the movement seemed to be at a loss.
In Mississippi Casey Hayden recalls everyone "reeling from the violence" (3 project workers killed; 4 people critically wounded; 80 beaten, 1,000 arrests; 35 shooting incidents, 37 churches bombed or burned; and 30 black businesses or homes burned), and also from "the new racial imbalance" following the summer influx of white student volunteers. The local black staff, "the backbone" of the projects were frustrated, even resentful, at having to deal "with a lot of young white people who were intellectual and moneyed," "ignorant" of realities on the ground, and who, with their greater visibility, brought additional risks. But most of all SNCC activists were "staggered" by the debacle in Atlantic City. Being confronted by the Democratic Party "in the role of racist lunch counter owner" had thrown "the core of SNCC's work", voter registration, into question.
Notwithstanding passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 barring discrimination in public accommodations, employment and private education, and the equally broad Voting Rights Act of 1965, faith in the Johnson Administration and its liberal allies was ebbing, and a gulf had opened between SNCC and other civil rights organizations. In Atlantic City Fannie Lou Hamer confessed she "lost hope in American society."
Questions of strategic direction were also questions of "structure". What Stokely Carmichael described as "not an organization but a lot of people all doing what they think needs to be done," was for Hayden the very realization of her mentor's vision. Such was "the participatory, town-hall, consensus-forming nature" of the operation Ella Baker had helped set in motion that Hayden could feel herself to be "at the center of the organization" without having, "in any public way", to be "a leader".
Yet when Elaine DeLott Baker joined Hayden in Mississippi in May 1964 she found "a hierarchy in place". Based "on considerations of race, the amount of time spent in the struggle, dangers suffered, and finally, of gender," this was not a hierarchy office, but "an unspoken understanding of who should speak up at meetings, who should propose ideas in public places, and who should remain silent." Black men were at the top, "then black women, followed by white men, and at the bottom, white women." Field staff, among them "women, black and white," still retained "an enormous amount of operational freedom, they were indeed the ones that were keeping things moving." But from those leading the debate on new directions for the movement DeLott Baker saw "little recognition of that reality," and the ground was shifting.The violence and emotional stresses of four years had eroded the focus and spirits of many veteran field staffers who appeared to central office staff as increasingly unpredictable and unreliable. Communication between core staff and field staff was poor and getting worse. To field staff, the Atlanta office was out of touch and becoming more and more irrelevant. Meanwhile, there were no central strategies. Resources were dwindling and tensions over the allocation of resources were mounting As an opportunity to take stock, to critique and reevaluate the movement, a retreat in Waveland, Mississippi, was organized for November 1964. Like Ella Baker, in criticizing King's "messianic" leadership of the SCLC, Executive Secretary James Forman saw himself as championing popularly-accountable, grassroots organization. Believing it "would detract from, rather than intensify" the focus on ordinary people's involvement in the movement, he had not appreciated King's appearance in Albany in December 1961. When on March 9, 1965, King, seemingly on his own authority, was able to turn the second Selma to Montgomery march back at the Edmund Pettus Bridge where two days before ("Bloody Sunday") the first had been brutally charged and batoned, Forman was appalled. Yet within SNCC itself Forman increasingly was concerned by the lack of "internal cohesion".
At Waveland Forman proposed that the staff (some twenty), who under the original constitution had had "a voice but no vote," constitute "themselves as the Coordinating Committee" and elect a new Executive. It was time to recognize that SNCC no longer had a "student base" (with the move to voter registration, the original campus protest groups had largely evaporated) and that the staff, "the people who do the most work," were the organization's real "nucleus". But the "many problems and many strains within the organization" caused by the "freedom" allowed to organizers in the field were also reason, he argued, to "change and alter" the structure of decision making. Given the "external pressures" the requirement now was for "unity".
Bob Moses opposed. The role of SNCC was to stimulate social struggles, not to provide an institutionalized leadership. "Leadership," Moses believed, "will emerge from the movement that emerges." Leadership is there in the people. You don't have to worry about where your leaders are, how are you going to get some leaders. ... If you go out and work with your people leadership will emerge. ... We don't know who they are now: and we don't need to know.
"To get us through the impasse," Casey Hayden tried to attach to Forman's proposal various sub-committees and provisos to ensure that "leadership for all our programs" would continue to be driven from the field, and not from central office "which makes many program areas responsible to one person rather than to all of us." For Forman this still suggested too loose, too confederal a structure for an organization whose challenge, without the manpower and publicity of white volunteers, was to mount and coordinate a Southwide Freeedom Summer and "build a Black Belt political party."
At her last Committee meeting in the fall of 1965, Hayden told both Forman and Chairman John Lewis that the "imbalance of power within SNCC" was such that, if the movement was to remain "radically democratic", they would need to step down. Forman and Lewis did step down in their own time, in the spring, but with questions of structure and direction for the organization unresolved.
1966: Black Power movement
Carmichael and the Vine Street Project Statement
In May 1966 Forman was replaced by Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson, who was determined "to keep the SNCC together." But Forman recalls male leaders fighting "her attempts as executive secretary to impose a sense of organizational responsibility and self-discipline," and "trying to justify themselves by the fact that their critic was a woman" In October 1967 Smith-Robinson died, aged just 25, "of exhaustion" according to one of her co-workers, "destroyed by the movement."
Replacing John Lewis as chairman in May 1966 was the 24-year old Stokely Carmichael. When on the night of June 16, 1966, following protests at the shooting of solo freedom marcher James Meredith, Carmichael walked out of jail (his 27th arrest) and into Broad Street Park in Greenwood, Mississippi, he asked the waiting crowd "What do you want?." They roared back "Black Power! Black Power!"
For Carmichael Black Power was a "call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations."We have to organize ourselves to speak from a position of strength and stop begging people to look kindly upon us. We are going to build a movement in this country based on the color of our skins that is going to free us from our oppressors and we have to do that ourselves.
A new direction SNCC was evident in the Atlanta, Georgia, "Vine City" Project, SNCC's first effort at urban organizing. Co-directed by William "Bill" Ware and Gwendolyn Zoharah Simmons (Robinson), it took up the challenge of the Georgia State Legislature's refusal to seat Julian Bond because of SNCC opposition to the Vietnam War.
Ware, who had been greatly affected by his experience of newly independent Ghana, emphasized racial solidarity. Black people, he argued, needed to work "without the guidance and/or direction and control of non-Blacks". Without control over their affairs, he warned, "Black people will know no freedom, but only more subtle forms of slavery." A Vine Street Project position paper on Black Power, which Simmons helped write, suggested that:
Negroes in this country have never been allowed to organize themselves because of white interference. As a result of this, the stereotype has been reinforced that Blacks cannot organize themselves. The white psychology that Blacks have to be watched, also reinforces this stereotype. Blacks, in fact, feel intimidated by the presence of whites, because of their knowledge of the power that whites have over their lives. One white person can come into a meeting of Black people and change the complexion of that meeting ... People would immediately start talking about "brotherhood", "love", etc.; race would not be discussed.
This was "not to say that whites have not had an important role in the Movement." If people now had "the right to picket, the right to give out leaflets, the right to vote, the right to demonstrate, the right to print," the Vine City paper allowed that it was "mainly because of the entrance of white people into Mississippi, in the summer of '64." But their "role is now over and it should be," for what would it mean "if Black people, once having the right to organize, are not allowed to organize themselves? It means that Blacks' ideas about inferiority are being reinforced."
What was needed now for "people to free themselves" was an "all-Black project" and this had to "exist from the beginning." Future cooperation with whites had to be a matter of "coalition". But there could be "no talk of 'hooking up' unless Black people organize Blacks and white people organize whites." Those "white people who desire change" should go "where the problem (of racism) is most manifest," in their own communities where power has been created "for the express purpose of denying Blacks human dignity and self-determination."
Even without embracing an explicitly separatist agenda, many veteran project directors accepted the case that the presence of white organizers undermined black self-confidence. (Although overridden, on that basis Oretha Castle Haley already in 1962 had suspended whites from the CORE chapter in New Orleans). Julian Bond later reflected:
the successes Freedom Summer achieved resulted from its embrace of a paradox — it tried to fight bigotry by appealing to people more concerned about whites, not blacks. Appealing to the nation's racism accepted white supremacy. By acknowledging its dependence on whites to popularize the civil rights struggle in the South, SNCC contradicted its rhetorical belief in the equal worth of all races, and undermined its insistence that indigenous blacks were best prepared to lead the struggle for their deliverance from white dominance.
Yet like Forman (now urging the study of Marxism), Carmichael hesitated to accept the implication that whites should be excluded from the movement. It was in December that he led the SNCC national executive in a narrow decision (19 in favor, 18 against and 24 abstentions) to ask white co-workers and volunteers to leave. In May 1967 the Coordinating Committee formally asked its non-black staff to resign. Whites should concentrate on organizing poor white communities and leave SNCC to promote African-American self-reliance.
Lowndes County
Carmichael had been working with a voter registration project in Alabama that had taken what, at the time, may have seemed an equally momentous step. In the face of murderous Klan violence, organizers for the Lowndes County Freedom Organization openly carried arms. Participating in the Selma to Montgomery march, Carmichael had stopped off in the county in March 1965. Local registration efforts were being led by John Hulett who that month, with John C. Lawson, a preacher, became the first two black voters in Lowndes County in more than six decades.
Carmichael gained the confidence of local residents when, handing out voter registration material at a local school, he refused to be intimidated by local police: they were either to arrest him or leave. With SNCC workers then "swarmed" by young people, Carmichael took the initiative to help form the LCFO with Hulett, its first chair. The organization would not only register voters but, as a party, run candidates for office—its symbol, a rampant black panther, representing black "strength and dignity".
Hulett warned the state of Alabama that it had a last chance to peacefully grant African Americans their rights: "We're out to take power legally, but if we're stopped by the government from doing it legally, we're going to take it the way everyone else took it, including the way the Americans took it in the American Revolution." Certain the federal government was not going to protect him and his fellow LCFO members, Hulett told a federal registrar, "if one of our candidates gets touched, we're going to take care of the murderer ourselves."
Interracial coalition
While other white SNCC activists in the Broad Street Park, Greenwood, crowd that affirmed Carmichael's call for Black Power were bewildered, Peggy Terry recalls:there was never any rift in my mind or my heart. I just felt Black people were doing what they should be doing. We reached a period in the civil rights movement when Black people felt they weren't being given the respect they should have, and I agreed. White liberals ran everything.The message to white activists, "organize your own", was one that Terry took home with her to uptown, "Hillbilly Harlem", Chicago. This was the neighborhood in which, having taken the prompt the year before, Casey Hayden had already been working, organizing welfare mothers into a union. She was "on loan" from SNCC to Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Like other new left groups, SDS did not view a self-consciously black SNCC as separatist. Rather it was seen as the vanguard of a prospective "interracial movement of the poor". Accepting the Vine Street challenge, the goal was no longer integration but what Chicago Black Panther leader Fred Hampton was to project as the "rainbow coalition".
In the South, as SNCC began turning them away white volunteers moved over to the New Orleans-based Southern Conference Education Fund with which Ella Baker had been working since the 1950s. There, in effort to advance a coalition agenda, they joined Bob Zellner, the SNCC's first white field organizer (and son of a former Klansman), in working with Carl and Anne Braden to organize white students and poor whites.
Opposition to the Vietnam War
The Meredith shooting in June 1966 had been preceded in January by the killing of Sammy Younge Jr., the first black college student to be killed as a result of his involvement in the civil rights movement, and by the acquittal of his killer. SNCC took the occasion to denounce the war in Vietnam, the first statement of its kind by a major civil rights organization.
"The murder of Samuel Young in Tuskegee, Alabama," SNCC proposed, "is no different than the murder of peasants in Vietnam, for both Young and the Vietnamese sought, and are seeking, to secure the rights guaranteed them by law. In each case, the United States government bears a great part of the responsibility for these deaths." In the face of a government that "has never guaranteed the freedom of oppressed citizens, and is not yet truly determined to end the rule of terror and oppression within its own borders," where," it asked, "is the draft for the freedom fight in the United States." It could longer countenance the "hypocrisy" of a call upon "negroes ... to stifle the liberation of Vietnam, to preserve a 'democracy' which does not exist for them at home."
At an SDS-organized conference at UC Berkeley in October 1966, Carmichael challenged the white left to escalate their resistance to the military draft in a manner similar to the black movement. Some participants in the August 1965 Watts Uprising and in the ghetto rebellions that followed had already associated their actions with opposition to the Vietnam War, and SNCC had first disrupted an Atlanta draft board in August 1966. According to historians Joshua Bloom and Waldo Martin, SDS's first Stop the Draft Week of October 1967 was "inspired by Black Power [and] emboldened by the ghetto rebellions." SNCC appear to have originated the popular anti-draft slogan: "Hell no! We won't go!"
1967–1968: Northern strategy and the split with Carmichael and the Panthers
By early 1967, SNCC was approaching bankruptcy. The call for Black Power and the departure of white activists did not go down well with the liberal foundations and churches in the North. This was at a time when SNCC organizers were themselves heading North to the "ghettoes" where, as the urban riots of the mid-1960s had demonstrated, victories at lunch counters and ballot boxes in the South counted for little. Julian Bond recounts projects being:established in Washington, D.C., to fight for home rule; in Columbus, Ohio, where a community foundation was organized; in New York City's Harlem, where SNCC workers organized early efforts at community control of public schools; in Los Angeles, where SNCC helped monitor local police and joined an effort at creating a 'Freedom City' in black neighborhoods; and in Chicago, where SNCC workers began to build an independent political party and demonstrated against segregated schools.As part of this northern community-organizing strategy, SNCC seriously considered an alliance with Saul Alinsky's mainstream-church supported Industrial Areas Foundation. But Alinsky had little patience or understanding for SNCC's new rhetoric. On stage with Carmichael in Detroit, Alinsky was scathing when, pressed for an example of "Black Power", the SNCC leader cited the IAF's-mentored FIGHT community organization in Rochester, New York. The example was proof that Carmichael and his friends needed to stop "going round yelling 'Black Power!'" and "really go down and organize." It is simple, according to Alinsky: it's "called...community power, and if the community is black, it's black power."
In May 1967, Carmichael relinquished the SNCC chairmanship and speaking out against U.S. policy traveled to Cuba, China, North Vietnam, and finally to Ahmed Sékou Touré's Guinea. Returning to the United States in January 1968 he accepted an invitation to become honorary Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party for Self Defense. Inspired by John Hulet's stand and borrowing the LCFO's black panther moniker, the party had been formed by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton in Oakland, California, in October 1966. For Carmichael the goal was a nation-wide Black United Front.
Carmichael's replacement, H. Rap Brown (later known as Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin) tried to hold what he now called the Student National Coordinating Committee to an alliance with the Panthers. Like Carmichael, Rap Brown had come to view nonviolence as a tactic rather than as a foundational principle. Violence, he famously quipped, was "as American as cherry pie".
In June 1968 the SNCC national executive emphatically rejected the association with the Black Panthers. This was followed in July by a "violent confrontation" in New York City with James Forman, who had resigned as the Panther's Minister of Foreign Affairs and was then heading up the city's SNCC operation. In the course of a "heated discussion" Panthers accompanying Carmichael and Eldridge Cleaver, the Panthers' Minister of Information, reportedly thrust a pistol was into Forman's mouth. For Forman and SNCC this was "the last straw". Carmichael was expelled ("engaging in a power struggle" that "threatened the existence of the organization")—and "Forman wound up first in hospital, and later in Puerto Rico, suffering from a nervous breakdown".
The New York Times reported that it was the "opinion of most people in the movement" that the SNCC Carmichael had left was "pre-Watts", while the Panthers were "post-Watts". The 1965 Watts riots in Los Angeles, they believed, had marked "the end of the middle-class-oriented civil right movement".
Rap Brown himself resigned as SNCC chairman after being indicted for inciting to riot in Cambridge, Maryland, in 1967. On March 9, 1970, two SNCC workers, Ralph Featherstone and William ("Che") Payne, died on a road approaching Bel Air, Maryland, when a bomb on the front floorboard of their car exploded. The bomb's origin is disputed: some say the bomb was planted in an assassination attempt, and others say Payne was intentionally carrying it to the courthouse where Brown was to be tried.
1969–1970: Dissolution
Ella Baker said that "SNCC came North at a time when the North was in a ferment that led to various interpretations on what was needed to be done. With its own frustrations, it could not take the pace-setter role it took in the South."
These "frustrations" may in part have been fed by undercover agents. Like other potentially "subversive" groups, SNCC had become a target of the Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO) of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's general COINTELPRO directive was for agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities and leadership of the movements they infiltrated.
By the beginning of 1970, surveillance had everywhere effectively ceased for lack of SNCC activity—save in New York City from where the last FBI report was filed in December 1973.
Experienced organizers and staff had moved on. For many the years of "hard work at irregular, subsistence-level pay, in an atmosphere of constant tension" had been as much as they could bear. Some went over to the Black Panthers. Others were to follow Forman into the Black Economic Development Council (whose key demand was reparations for the nation's history of racial exploitation). A greater loss had been to the Democrats (it was after merging with the Alabama Democratic Party in 1970 that LCFO candidates began winning public offices, Hulett becoming county Sheriff) and to Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty. Charlie Cobb recalls: After we got the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and Voting Rights Act in 1965, a lot of groups that we had cultivated were absorbed into the Democratic Party ... a lot more money came into the states we were working in. A lot of the people we were working with became a part of Head Start and various kinds of poverty programs. We were too young to really know how to respond effectively. How could we tell poor sharecroppers or maids making a few dollars a day to walk away from poverty program salaries or stipends?
As their numbers diminished, SNCC veteran Clayborne Carson found staff cultivating the skills for "organizational infighting" rather than "those that had enabled SNCC to inspire thousands of people outside the group during its years of greatest influence." Attempting to gain the trust of beleaguered communities, "develop indigenous leadership, and build strong local institutions," was no longer regarded as sufficiently "revolutionary."
The judgement of Charles McDew, SNCC's second chairman (1961–1963), is that the organization was not designed to last beyond its mission of winning civil rights for blacks, and that at the founding meetings most participants expected it to last no more than five years:
First, we felt if we go more than five years without the understanding that the organization would be disbanded, we run the risk of becoming institutionalized or being more concerned with trying to perpetuate the organization and in doing so, giving up the freedom to act and to do. ... The other thing is that by the end of that time you'd either be dead or crazy …
By the time of its dissolution, many of the controversial ideas that once had defined SNCC's radicalism had become widely accepted among African Americans.
Women in the SNCC
In impressing upon the young student activists the principle "those who do the work, make the decisions," Ella Baker had hoped the SNCC would avoid the SCLC's reproduction of the organization and experience of the church: women form the working body and men assume the headship. In SNCC black women did emerge as among the movement's most dynamic and courageous organizers and thinkers.
In addition to Diane Nash, Ruby Doris Smith Robinson, Fannie Lou Hamer, Oretha Castle Haley, and others already mentioned, these women included Tuskegee student-body president, Gwen Patton; Mississippi Delta field secretary, Cynthia Washington; Sammy Younge's teacher, Jean Wiley; head of COFO's Mississippi operations, Muriel Tillinghast; Natchez, Mississippi, project director Dorie Ladner, and her sister Joyce who, in the violence of Mississippi (and having worked with Medgar Evers), regarded their own arrests as "about the least harmful thing" that could occur; Annie Pearl Avery, who when organizing in Natchez carried a gun; MDFP state-senate candidate Victoria Gray; MFDP delegate Unita Blackwell; leader of the Cambridge Movement Gloria Richardson; Bernice Reagon of the Albany Movement's Freedom Singers; womanist theologian Prathia Hall; LCFO veteran and Eyes on the Prize associate producer Judy Richardson; Ruby Sales, for whom Jonathan Daniels took a fatal shot-gun blast in Hayneville, Alabama; Fay Bellamy, who ran the Selma, Alabama office; the singer Bettie Mae Fikes ("the Voice of Selma"); playwright Endesha Ida Mae Holland; Eleanor Holmes Norton, first chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission; and sharecroppers' daughter and author (Coming of Age in Mississippi) Anne Moody.
Anne Moody recalls it was the women did the work: young black women college students and teachers were the mainstay of voter registration and of the summer Freedom Schools. Women were also the expectation when looking for local leadership. "There was always a 'mama'," one SNCC activist recalled,"usually a militant woman in the community, outspoken, understanding and willing to catch hell."
From the outset white students, veterans of college-town sit-ins, had been active in the movement. Among them were Ella Baker's YWCA proteges Casey Hayden and Mary King. As a Southerner, Hayden regarded the "Freedom Movement Against Segregation" as much hers as "any one else's"—"It was my freedom." But when working full-time in the black community, she was nonetheless conscious of being "a guest." (For this reason it was important to Hayden that an opportunity in 1963 to work alongside Doris Derby in starting a literacy project at Tougaloo College, Mississippi, had come to her "specifically" because she had the educational qualifications). Having dropped out of Duke University, Freedom Rider Joan Trumpauer Mulholland graduated from Tougaloo, the first white student to do so. The majority of white women drawn to the movement, however, would have been those from the north who responded to the call for volunteers to help register black voters in Mississippi during the summer of 1964. Among the few that might have had obvious qualifications was Susan Brownmiller, then a journalist. She had worked on a voter registration drive in East Harlem and organized with CORE.
"Sex and Caste"
Among the Position Papers circulated at Waveland conference in 1964, number 24 ("name withheld by request") opened with the observation that the "large committee" formed to present "crucial constitutional revisions" to the staff "was all men." After cataloguing a number of other instances in which women appear to have been sidelined, it went on to suggest that "assumptions of male superiority are as widespread and deep rooted and every much as crippling to the woman as the assumptions of white supremacy are to the Negro."
This paper was not the first time women had raised questions about their roles in SNCC. In the spring of 1964, a group of black and white SNCC staffers had sat-in at James Forman's office in Atlanta to protest at being burdened, and stymied in their contributions, by the assumption that it was they, the women, who would see to minute taking and other mundane office, and housekeeping, tasks: "No More Minutes Until Freedom Comes to the Atlanta Office" was Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson's placard. Like Mary King, Judy Richardson recalls the protest as being "half playful (Forman actually appearing supportive), although "the other thing was, we're not going to do this anymore." The same might be said of the Waveland paper itself. With so many women themselves "insensitive" to the "day-to-day discriminations" (who is asked to take minutes, who gets to clean Freedom House), the paper concluded that, "amidst the laughter," further discussion might be the best that could be hoped for.
At the time, and in "the Waveland setting," Casey Hayden, who with Mary King was soon outed as one of the authors, regarded the paper as "definitely an aside."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hayden|first=Casey|author-link=Casey Hayden|date=2010|title=In the Attics of My Mind|url=https://www.crmvet.org/comm/hayden.htm|access-date=2020-12-29|website=Civil Rights Movement Archive|type=Written for Hands on the Freedom Plow: Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC}}</ref> But in the course of 1965, while working on leave for the SDS organizing women in Chicago, Hayden was to reconsider. Seeking to further "dialogue within the movement," Hayden circulated an extended version of the "memo" among 29 SNCC women veterans and, with King, had it published in the War Resisters League magazine Liberation under the title "Sex and Caste". Employing the movement's own rhetoric of race relations, the article suggested that, like African Americans, women can find themselves "caught up in a common-law caste system that operates, sometimes subtly, forcing them to work around or outside hierarchical structures of power." Viewed as a bridge between civil rights and women's liberation, "Sex and Caste" has since been regarded as a "key text of second-wave feminism."
Black Women's Liberation
The two other women subsequently identified as having direct authorship of the original position paper on women (which has sometimes been mistakenly attributed to Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson), Elaine Delott Baker and Emmie Schrader Adams, were also white. This, it has been suggested, was the reflection of a movement culture that gave Black women greater opportunity "to protest directly". That white women chose an anonymous paper was testimony, in effect, to the "unspoken understanding of who should speak up at meetings" that Delott Baker had identified when she joined Hayden in Mississippi in 1964. But many black women were to dispute the degree and significance of male-domination within the SNCC, denying that it had excluded them from leadership roles. Joyce Ladner's recollection of organizing Freedom Summer is of "women's full participation," and Jean Wheeler Smith's of doing in SNCC "anything I was big enough to do."
Historian Barbara Ransby dismisses, in particular, the suggestion that in its concluding Black Power period SNCC diminished the profile of women within the movement. She points out that Stokely Carmichael appointed several women to posts as project directors during his tenure as chairman, and that in the latter half of the 1960s, more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the early years. On the other hand, Hayden, in the position paper she presented under her own name at Waveland, "On Structure", had seen herself defending Ella Baker's original participatory vision in which women's voices are heard precisely because decision making is not dependent on formal rank position but rather on actual work and commitment, and a movement culture that she recalls as "womanist, nurturing, and familial."
Frances M. Beal (who worked with SNCC's International Affairs Commission and its National Black Antiwar Antidraft Union) is in no doubt that as the SNCC moved away from "sustained community organizing toward Black Power propagandizing that was accompanied by increasing male dominance." (Beal and others objected to the James Forman's initial enthusiasm for the Black Panther Party, judging Eldridge Cleaver's Soul on Ice, which he brought back to the office, to be the work of a "thug" and a rapist). "You're talking about liberation and freedom half the night on the racial side," she recalls of her time in the SNCC, "and then all of a sudden men are going to turn around and start talking about putting you in your place. So in 1968 we founded the SNCC Black Women's Liberation Committee to take up some of these issues."
With the SNCC's breakup, the Black Women's Liberation Committee became first the Black Women's Alliance and then, following an approach by revolutionary Puerto-Rican women activists, the Third World Women's Alliance in 1970. Active for another decade, the TWWA was one of the earliest groups advocating an intersectional approach to women's oppression—"the triple oppression of race, class and gender."
Gwendolyn Delores Robinson/Zoharah Simmons, who co-authored the Vine Street Project paper on Black Power, was struck by the contrast between the SNCC and her subsequent experience of the Nation of Islam: "there was really no place for a woman to exercise what I considered real leadership as it had been in SNCC." Breaking with the NOI's strict gendered hierarchy, she went on to identify, teach and write as an "Islamic feminist."
On top of seeking to increase African-American access to land through a pioneer Freedom Farm Cooperative, in 1971 Fannie Lou Hamer co-founded the National Women's Political Caucus. She emphasized the power women might have acting as a voting majority in the country regardless of race or ethnicity: "A white mother is no different from a black mother. The only thing is they haven't had as many problems. But we cry the same tears." The NWPC continues to recruit, train and support "women candidates for elected and appointed offices at all levels of government" who are "pro-choice" and who support a federal Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Constitution.
References
Further reading
Archives
Ellin (Joseph and Nancy) Freedom Summer Collection. Collection Number: M323. Dates: 1963 – 1988. Volume: 1.7 ft³ (48 L)
The University of Southern Mississippi Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved May 2, 2005.
SNCC History and Geography from the Mapping American Social Movements Project at the University of Washington.
FBI COINTELPRO Black Extremist Records, a series of archival documents from the FBI that explicitly target SNCC and Stokely Carmichael for suppression.
Books
Carmichael, Stokely, and Michael Thelwell. Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture). Scribner, 2005. 848 pages.
Carson, Claybourne. In Struggle, SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981.
Forman, James. The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 1985 and 1997, Open Hand Publishing, Washington D.C. and
Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn, ed. A Circle of Trust: Remembering SNCC. Rutgers University Press, 1998. 274 pages.
Halberstam, David. The Children, Ballantine Books, 1999.
Hamer, Fannie Lou, The Speeches of Fannie Lou Hamer: To Tell it Like it is, University Press of Mississippi, 2011. .Deep in Our Hearts: Nine White Women in the Freedom Movement, University of Georgia Press, 2002.
Holsaert, Faith; Martha Prescod Norman Noonan, Judy Richardson, Betty Garman Robinson, Jean Smith Young, and Dorothy M. Zellner, Hands on the Freedom Plow: Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC. University of Illinois Press, 2010. .
Hogan, Wesley C. How Democracy travels: SNCC, Swarthmore students, and the growth of the student movement in the North, 1961–1964.
Hogan, Wesley C. Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC's Dream for a New America, University of North Carolina Press. 2007.
King, Mary. "Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement". 1987.
Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1998.
Pardun, Robert. Prairie Radical: A Journey Through the Sixties. California: Shire Press. 2001. 376 pages.
Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision. University of North Carolina Press. 2003.
Salas, Mario Marcel. Masters Thesis: "Patterns of Persistence: Paternal Colonialist Structures and the Radical Opposition in the African American Community in San Antonio, Texas, 1937–2001", University of Texas at San Antonio, John Peace Library 6900 Loop 1604, San Antonio, Texas, 2002. Other SNCC material located in historical records at the Institute of Texan Cultures, University of Texas at San Antonio as part of the Mario Marcel Salas historical record.
Sellers, Cleveland, and Robert Terrell. The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC. University Press of Mississippi; 1990 reprint. 289 pages.
Zinn, Howard. SNCC: The New Abolitionists. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964.
Payne, Charles M. I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle, 2nd edition.
Video
SNCC 50th Anniversary Conference 38 DVD collection documenting the formal addresses, panel discussions and programs that took place at the 50th anniversary conference at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina.
Eighth Annual Forum on Women in Leadership Then and Now: Women in the Civil Rights Leadership, Joyce Ladner is one of the panelists and shares many stories about SNCC
Interviews
Transcript: An Oral History with Terri Shaw. SNCC member and Freedom Summer participant. The University of Southern Mississippi Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved May 2, 2005.Interviews with civil rights workers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Stanford University Project South oral history collection. Microfilming Corp. of America. 1975. .
Who Speaks for the Negro Vanderbilt documentary website
Publications and documents
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Founding Statement.
Memorandum: on the SNCC Mississippi Summer Project Transcript. Oxford, Ohio: General Materials (c. June 1964). Retrieved May 2, 2005.
Gallery
H. Rap Brown
Unita Blackwell
External links
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Collected Records, Swarthmore College Peace Collection
The SNCC Digital Gateway
The SNCC Project: A Year by Year History 1960–1970
SNCC Actions 1960–1970 (map)
SNCC 1960 – 1966: Six years of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Retrieved May 2, 2005.
crmvet.org - the official website for the Civil Rights Movement Archive
SNCC Documents Online collection of original SNCC documents ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive.
Americus Movement, Civil Rights Digital Library.
The Story of SNCC, One Person, One Vote'' Project
Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee collection 1964–1989
African Americans' rights organizations
Anti–Vietnam War groups
Civil rights movement
Black Power
Civil rights organizations in the United States
COINTELPRO targets
History of African-American civil rights
Nonviolence organizations based in the United States
Nonviolent resistance movements
Post–civil rights era in African-American history
Student political organizations in the United States
Youth empowerment organizations
Social movement organizations
Selma to Montgomery marches
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203902
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khun%20Borom
|
Khun Borom
|
Khun Borom (, ) or Khoun Bourôm (, ) is a legendary progenitor of the Southwestern Tai-speaking peoples, considered by the Lao to be the father of their race.
Mythology
According to the myth of Khoun Borôm, a myth commonly related among Tai-speaking peoples, in ancient times people were wicked and crude. A great deity destroyed them with a flood, leaving only three worthy chiefs who were preserved in heaven to be the founders and guides for a new race of people. The deity sent the three chiefs back to the earth with a buffalo to help them till the land.
The chiefs and the buffalo arrived in the legendary land of Muang Then, located at today's Điện Biên Phủ, Vietnam. Once the land had been prepared for rice cultivation, the buffalo died and a bitter gourd vine grew from his nostril. From the gourds on the vine, the new human race emerged. Relatively dark-skinned aboriginal peoples emerging from gourds cut open with a hot skewer and the lighter skinned Tai peoples emerging from cuts made with a chisel.
The gods then taught the Tai peoples how to build houses and cultivate rice. They were instructed in proper rituals and behavior, and grew prosperous. As their population grew, they needed aid in governing their relations and resolving disputes. Phagna Thèn, the king of the gods, sent his son, Khoun Borôm, to be the ruler of the Tai people. Khoun Borôm ruled the Tai people for 25 years, teaching them to use new tools and other arts.
After this quarter-century span, Khoun Borôm divided the kingdom among his seven sons, giving each one of them a portion of the kingdom to rule.
Alleged association with Nanzhao
Khoun Borôm is sometimes erroneously identified, apparently without any evidence at all, as having been Piluoge, a historical ruler of the Nanzhao (Ai Lao) Empire. It is claimed that this Khoun Borôm, ruler of Nanzhao, had nine sons, and seven of them became kings in different kingdoms in "Lèmthong":
"Khoun Lo" ruled Muang Sua (Xoua), (Luang Phrabang, Laos)
"Khoun Phalan" ruled Muang Sipsong Phanna, (Yunnan, China)
"Khoun Chulông" ruled Muang KôtThèPhènpôm, (Muang Houaphanh to Tonkin, Vietnam)
"Khoun Khamphông" ruled Muang Yônôk Lanna (Thailand)
"Khoun In" ruled Muang Sri Ayôthaya, (Thailand)
"Khoun Kôm" ruled Muang Hôngsavadi (Intharapat), (Burma)
"Khoun Chuang" ruled Muang Phuan, (Xieng Khouang, Laos).
There were 19 kings after Khoun Lo who ruled Muang Swa. The last one was Khoun Vang, who was then succeeded by:
Lang, who became King Langthirath
Thao Khamphong, crowned as King Souvanna Khamphong
Chao Fifah, also known as Khamhiao, who had six sons
Chao Fa Ngum, who founded the Lan Xang Kingdom during the 14th century.
Both King Mangrai of Chiang Mai and Uthong of Ayutthaya are said to have been descendants of Khum Borom's younger sons.
Interpretation
Some interpreters of the story of Khoun Borôm believe that it describes Tai-speaking peoples arriving in Southeast Asia from China (mythically identified with heaven, from which the Tai chiefs emerge after the flood). The system of dividing and expanding a kingdom in order to provide for the sons of a ruler agrees in general with the apparent organization and succession practices of ancient Tai village groups was called mueang.
Scholar David K. Wyatt believes that the Khoun Borôm myth may provide insight into the early history of the Tai people in Southeast Asia. Versions of the Khoun Borôm myth occur as early as 698 CE in Xiang Khouang, and identify Tai-speaking kingdoms that would be formally established years later. This may indicate the early geographical spread of Tai-speaking peoples, and provides a mythological explanation for why modern Tai-speaking peoples are found in such widespread pockets.
Linguistic analysis indicates that the division of the early Tai speakers into the language groups that gave rise to modern Thai, Lao and other languages occurred sometime between the 7th and 11th centuries CE. This split proceeded along geographic lines very similar to the division given in the Khoun Borôm legend.
See also
Thens
Notes
Sources
Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History, New Haven (Yale University Press), 2003.
Fictional Laotian people
Tai history
Flood myths
|
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] |
203903
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrobat%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Acrobat (disambiguation)
|
An acrobat is one who practises acrobatics.
Acrobat may also refer to:
Computers
Adobe Acrobat, a family of computer programs
Acrobat.com, a suite of hosted document exchange services from Adobe Systems
Music
"Acrobat" (U2 song), from U2's album Achtung Baby
"Acrobat", a song from Maxïmo Park's album A Certain Trigger
"Acrobat" (Gwangil Jo song), from Gwangil Jo's album Dark Adaptation
Acrobat Records, an American independent record company
Film
The Acrobat, a 1941 French comedy
The Acrobat (2019 film), a 2019 Canadian drama
Other uses
Paraavis Acrobat, a Russian paraglider design
Acrobats (1927), a sculpture by Alan Durst
|
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203906
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode%20Consortium
|
Unicode Consortium
|
The Unicode Consortium (legally Unicode, Inc.) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization incorporated and based in Mountain View, California. Its primary purpose is to maintain and publish the Unicode Standard which was developed with the intention of replacing existing character encoding schemes which are limited in size and scope, and are incompatible with multilingual environments. The consortium describes its overall purpose as:
Unicode's success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread adoption in the internationalization and localization of software. The standard has been implemented in many technologies, including XML, the Java programming language, Swift, and modern operating systems.
Voting members include computer software and hardware companies with an interest in text-processing standards, including Adobe, Apple, the Bangladesh Computer Council, Emojipedia, Facebook, Google, IBM, Microsoft, the Omani Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, Monotype Imaging, Netflix, Salesforce, SAP SE, Tamil Virtual Academy, and the University of California, Berkeley. Technical decisions relating to the Unicode Standard are made by the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC).
Founding
The project to develop a universal character encoding scheme called Unicode was initiated in 1987 by Joe Becker, Lee Collins, and Mark Davis. The Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3, 1991, with the stated aim to develop, extend, and promote the use of the Unicode Standard. Mark Davis has been president of the Unicode Consortium since the Consortium was incorporated in 1991.
Work
The Unicode Consortium cooperates with many standards development organizations, including ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 and W3C. While Unicode is often considered equivalent to ISO 10646, and the character sets are essentially identical, the Unicode standard imposes additional restrictions on implementations that ISO 10646 does not. Apart from The Unicode Standard (TUS) and its annexes (UAX), the Unicode Consortium also maintains the CLDR, collaborated with the IETF on IDNA, and publishes related standards (UTS), reports (UTR), and utilities.
The group selects the emoji icons used by the world's smartphones, based on submissions from individuals and organizations who present their case with evidence for why each one is essential.
Unicode Technical Committee
The Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) meets quarterly to decide whether new characters will be encoded. A quorum of half of the Consortium's full members is required.
As of July 2020, there are nine full members, only one of which, the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs of Oman, is not a tech or software company. The other eight, as of the same period, are Adobe, Apple, Facebook, Google, IBM, Microsoft, Netflix, and SAP SE.
The UTC accepts documents from any organization or individual, whether they are members of the Unicode Consortium or not. The UTC holds its meetings behind closed doors, and its voting members are overwhelmingly white, American, and male. As of July 2020, the UTC rules on both emoji and script proposals at the same meeting.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic's effect on travel, the meetings, which used to be hosted on the campuses of various tech companies who would open their doors to the Consortium for free, were in 2020 held online via Zoom, although the discussions remain confidential. The UTC prefers to work by consensus, but on particularly contentious issues, votes may be necessary. After it meets, the UTC releases a public statement on each proposal it considered.
Due to the volume of incoming proposals, various subcommittees, such as the Script Ad Hoc Group and Emoji Subcommittee, exist to submit recommendations to the full UTC en banc. The UTC is under no obligation to heed these recommendations, although in practice it usually does.
Publications
The Unicode Consortium maintains a History of Unicode Release and Publication Dates.
Publications include
See also
Comparison of Unicode encodings
Universal Character Set characters
Universal Coded Character Set
References
External links
Unicode
501(c)(3) organizations
Standards organizations in the United States
Organizations based in Santa Clara County, California
Mountain View, California
Organizations established in 1991
1991 establishments in California
|
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203908
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress%20of%20Racial%20Equality
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Congress of Racial Equality
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The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States that played a pivotal role for African Americans in the civil rights movement. Founded in 1942, its stated mission is "to bring about equality for all people regardless of race, creed, sex, age, disability, sexual orientation, religion or ethnic background."
History
Founding
CORE was founded in Chicago, Illinois, in March 1942. The organization's founding members included James Leonard Farmer Jr., Anna Pauline "Pauli" Murray, George Mills Houser, Elsie Bernice Fisher and Homer A. Jack. Of the 50 original founding members, 28 were men and 22 were women, roughly one-third of them were Black and the other two-thirds white. Bayard Rustin, while nota founding member of the organization, was (as Farmer and Houser later noted) "an uncle to CORE" and provided it with significant support. The group had evolved out of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation, and sought to apply the principles of nonviolence as a tactic against racial segregation. The group was inspired by Indian nationalist leader Mahatma Gandhi's support for nonviolent resistance. Indian writer and journalist Krishnalal Shridharani, who was known as a vibrant and theatrical public speaker, had been a protege of Gandhi- being jailed with him in the Salt March- and whose 1939 book War Without Violence heavily influenced the organization. During the period in which CORE was founded, Gandhi's leadership of the independence movement in India against British colonial rule was reaching its apogee; CORE sought to apply the nonviolent anti-colonial tactics pioneered by Gandhi and his followers to successfully challenge racial segregation and racism in the United States through civil disobedience.
In accordance with CORE's constitution and bylaws, in the early and mid-1960s, chapters were organized on a model similar to that of a democratic trade union, with monthly membership meetings, elected and usually unpaid officers, and numerous committees of volunteers. In the South, CORE's nonviolent direct action campaigns opposed "Jim Crow" segregation and job discrimination, and fought for voting rights. Outside the South, CORE focused on discrimination in employment and housing, and also in de facto school segregation.
Some of CORE's main leadership had strong disagreements with the Deacons for Defense and Justice over the Deacons' public threat to racist Southerners that they would use armed self-defense to protect CORE workers from racist organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, in Louisiana during the 1960s. Others, however, strongly supported the organization. By the mid-1960s, Farmer tried to incorporate elements of the emerging black nationalist sentiments within CORE—sentiments that, among other things, would quickly lead to an embrace of Black Power. Farmer failed to reconcile these tensions, and he resigned in 1966, but he backed his replacement, Floyd McKissick.
By 1961 CORE had 53 chapters throughout the United States. By 1963, most of the major urban centers of the Northeast, Midwest, Mid-Atlantic and West Coast had one or more CORE chapters, including a growing number of chapters on college campuses. In the South, CORE had active chapters and projects in Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, South Carolina, and Kentucky.
Freedom Rides
On April 10, 1947, CORE sent a group of eight white (including James Peck, their publicity officer) and eight black men on what was to be a two-week Journey of Reconciliation through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky in an effort to end segregation in interstate travel. The members of this group were arrested and jailed several times, but they received a great deal of publicity, and this marked the beginning of a long series of similar campaigns.
By the early 1960s, Farmer, who had taken a hiatus from leading the group, returned as its executive secretary and sought to repeat the 1947 journey, coining a new name for it: the Freedom Ride.
On May 4, 1961, participants journeyed to the deep South, this time including women as well as men and testing segregated bus terminals as well. The riders were met with severe violence. In Anniston, Alabama, one of the buses was fire-bombed and passengers were beaten by a white mob. White mobs also attacked Freedom Riders in Birmingham and Montgomery. The violence garnered national attention, sparking a summer of similar rides by CORE, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and other civil rights organizations and thousands of ordinary citizens.
Desegregating Chicago's schools
In 1960, the Chicago chapter of CORE began to challenge racial segregation in the Chicago Public Schools (CPS). By the late 1950s, the Chicago Board of Education's maintenance of the neighborhood school policy resulted in a pattern of racial segregation in the CPS. Predominantly black schools were situated in predominantly black neighborhoods on the south and west sides of the city, while predominantly white schools were located in predominantly white areas in the north, northwest and southwest sides of Chicago.
Many segregated schools were overcrowded, and in order to ease overcrowding, the Board instated double-shifts at some schools. Double-shifts meant that students in affected schools attended less than a full day of class. In another measure to alleviate overcrowding at some schools, the Board sanctioned the construction of mobile classroom units. Moreover, a significant proportion of students dropped out before finishing high school. Faculty was segregated, and many teachers in predominantly black schools lacked full-time teaching experience compared to teachers in white schools. In addition, the history curriculum did not mention African Americans. According to CORE, "school segregation [was] a damaging bacteria, a psychological handicap, which [festered] a disease generating widespread unemployment and crime in Chicago".
Between 1960 and 1963, CORE wrote letters about the conditions of schools to the Board of Education (headed by Superintendent Benjamin Willis), Mayor Richard J. Daley, the Illinois House of Representatives and the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. In addition, CORE attended the Board's school budget hearings, speaking against segregation and asking for the Board to implement transfer plans to desegregate the schools. In July 1963, CORE staged a week-long sit-in and protest at the Board office in downtown Chicago in response to the Board's inaction. Finally, Board President Claire Roddewig and Willis agreed to meet with CORE to negotiate integration, but no significant changes came to the schools.
During the mid-1960s, CORE turned towards community involvement, seeking to equip Chicagoans with ways to challenge segregation. Freedom Houses, transfer petitions, community rallies and meetings served to educate Chicagoans about segregation and provide them with tools to circumnavigate the neighborhood school policy.
By 1966, the Chicago Freedom Movement, led by Martin Luther King Jr., the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and Chicago's Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO), had assumed control over civil rights demonstrations and negotiations. While CORE was a member organization of the CCCO, it increasingly lost influence over desegregation efforts. And when the Chicago Freedom Movement met with representatives of the city to negotiate in the summer of 1966, they agreed on ten fair housing reforms but did not discuss reforms to desegregate the schools. While CORE played no role in the housing summit, it had shifted towards promoting and developing Black power in Chicago. By fall of 1966, CORE was no longer a civil rights organization, but a Black power organization. Changes in CORE's national leadership and continued inaction on behalf of the Board to desegregate the schools pushed CORE towards separatism and away from desegregation efforts. The chapter collapsed in October 1968.
Desegregating Durham
In 1962, CORE set up a headquarters in Durham, North Carolina where upon arrival, local black women activists, including Sadie Sawyer Hughley, welcomed them into their homes. CORE worked with the local NAACP to organize pickets at Eckerd's Drug Store and Howard Johnson's. The goals were to increase employment opportunities for black workers and integrate local restaurants.
March on Washington
In 1963, the organization helped organize the famous March on Washington. On August 28, 1963, more than 250,000 people marched peacefully to the Lincoln Memorial to demand equal justice for all citizens under the law. At the end of the march Martin Luther King Jr. made his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.
"Freedom Summer"
The following year, CORE along with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) helped organize the "Freedom Summer" campaign - aimed principally at ending the political disenfranchisement of African Americans in the Deep South. Operating under the umbrella coalition of the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), volunteers from the three organizations concentrated their efforts in Mississippi. In 1962 only 6.7 percent of African Americans in the state were registered to vote, the lowest percentage in the country. This involved the formation of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). Over 80,000 people joined the party and 68 delegates attended the Democratic Party Convention in Atlantic City and challenged the attendance of the all-white Mississippi representation.
CORE, SNCC and COFO also established 30 Freedom Schools in towns throughout Mississippi. Volunteers taught in the schools and the curriculum now included black history, the philosophy of the civil rights movement. During the summer of 1964 over 3,000 students attended these schools and the experiment provided a model for future educational programs such as Head Start.
Freedom Schools were often targets of white mobs. So also were the homes of local African Americans involved in the campaign. That summer 30 black homes and 37 black churches were firebombed. Over 80 volunteers were beaten by white mobs or racist police officers. Three CORE activists, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, were murdered by the Ku Klux Klan on June 21, 1964 (see Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner). These deaths created nationwide publicity for the campaign.
March in Cicero, Illinois
On September 4, 1966, Robert Lucas and fellow members of CORE led activists through Cicero, Illinois, to pressure the city of Chicago's white leaders into making solid commitments to open housing. Shortly before the march, Chicago city officials, including Mayor Richard J. Daley, negotiated a Fair Housing agreement with Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, Al Raby and others in exchange for an end of demonstrations. Nevertheless, Robert Lucas and other members of CORE felt that the march was strategically necessary and proceeded with it anyway. The march is documented in the 1966 short documentary film Cicero March, which was added to the National Film Registry in 2013.
Since 1966
In 1966, James Farmer resigned as Director of CORE, to be replaced by Black Power advocate Floyd McKissick until 1968, when California activist Wilfred T. Ussery served a brief term as national chairman. He was replaced by Roy Innis, who was National Chairman until his death in 2017. Innis initially led the organization to strongly support black nationalism. However, subsequent political developments within the organization led it to support conservative political positions.
The FBI's "COINTELPRO" program targeted civil rights groups, including the CORE, for infiltration, discreditation and disruption. In August 1967, the FBI instructed its program "COINTELPRO" to "neutralize" what the FBI called "black nationalist hate groups" and other dissident groups.
A CORE delegation toured seven African countries in 1971. Innis met with several heads of state, including Kenya’s Jomo Kenyatta, Tanzania’s Julius Nyerere, Liberia’s William Tolbert and Uganda's Idi Amin, who was awarded a life membership of CORE. In 1973 he became the first American to attend the Organization of African Unity (OAU) as a delegate.
In 1981, to settle illegal fundraising allegations under Roy Innis, CORE paid a $35,000 fine.
CORE provides immigration services to immigrants in the preparation of petitions and applications to the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services. CORE also provides classes for immigrants in fields such as English and American Civics in its center in Nevada.
Geography
Winning victories in northern cities in the 1940s and 1950s, CORE became active in the South with the lunch counter sit-ins of 1960. The following year CORE organized "Freedom Rides," sending black and white students south to disrupt segregated interstate bus service. Drawing much of its membership from college campuses, CORE kept up civil disobedience campaigns in the North as well as the South. They also organized activities in California, where they protested housing discrimination in San Francisco and Los Angeles, held a Western Region Conference in the Sacramento area, and launched an equal employment campaign at restaurants and stores throughout the state. In 1968, Seattle's chapter of CORE decided that, in order for it to function best in the community, it needed to be an all-black organization.
International activities
CORE has an African branch based in Uganda, with Fiona Kobusingye as is its director. Bringing attention to the malaria crisis is one of the organization's main activities, and it has championed the use of DDT to fight the disease, and it has partnered with a variety of conservative and libertarian think tanks in this effort. In 2007, CORE organized a 300-mile walk across Uganda to promote DDT-based interventions against malaria.
Criticism
According to an interview given by James Farmer in 1993, "CORE has no functioning chapters; it holds no conventions, no elections, no meetings, sets no policies, has no social programs and does no fund-raising. In my opinion, CORE is fraudulent."
CORE has been criticized by environmentalist groups for its efforts promoting DDT use against malaria in Africa. An article in Mother Jones magazine accused the group of selling influence, writing that, "is better known among real civil rights groups for renting out its historic name to any corporation in need of a black front person. The group has taken money from the payday-lending industry, chemical giant (and original DDT manufacturer) Monsanto, and a reported $40,000 from ExxonMobil." In his book Not A Conspiracy Theory: How Business Propaganda Hijacks Democracy, Donald Gutstein wrote that "In recent years CORE used its African-American facade to work with conservative groups to attack organizations like Greenpeace and undermine environmental regulation."
See also
Louisiana Diary, a 1964 documentary about CORE's 1963 voting registration drive in Louisiana.
DePorres Club, an affiliate at Creighton University in Omaha
New York Foundation
Steelworkers and Shipyard Workers for Equality
Notes
References
Frazier, Nishani (2017). Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism. University of Arkansas Press. .
External links
Congress of Racial Equality Official website
Harambee City: Archival site incorporating documents, maps, audio/visual materials related to CORE's work in black power and black economic development.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Actions 1942-1970: Maps and charts showing the geography of CORE activism. From the Mapping American Social Movements project at the University of Washington.
Timeline of Congress of Racial Equality Actions 1942-1970: A timeline of more than 600 events reported in CORE publications and The New York Times.
Civil Rights Greensboro
Civil Rights Movement Archive
"You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!" Web site for documentary of Journey of Reconciliation.
Chris Mooney, Mother Jones, May/June 2005, "Black Gold?" - CORE, ExxonMobil
The Frank J. Miranda Papers document Miranda's activities as CORE activist and one-time chair of the Boston CORE chapter. Located in the Archives and Special Collections of the Northeastern University Libraries in Boston, MA.
A History of Harlem CORE
CORE and Central Area Civil Rights Campaigns 1960-1968 , multimedia resources on CORE activity in Seattle, Washington from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project.
CORE Documents Online collection of original CORE documents ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive.
A History of CORE in New York City
"CORE," One Person, One Vote
Congress of Racial Equality Collected Records from Swarthmore College Peace Collection
Archives
Congress of Racial Equality, Seattle Chapter, records. 1961–1970. 5 cubic feet (12 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Image of three CORE hunger strikers, Jay Frank, Stanley Kohls, and Martin Goldsmith, sitting in a hallway at the Los Angeles Board of Education Building, 1963. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
1942 establishments in Illinois
Black conservatism in the United States
African Americans' rights organizations
COINTELPRO targets
Civil rights organizations in the United States
Nonviolence organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1942
Anti-racist organizations in the United States
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kia
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Kia
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Kia Corporation, commonly known as Kia (, ; formerly known as Kyungsung Precision Industry and Kia Motors Corporation, and stylized as KIΛ), is a South Korean multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Seoul, South Korea. It is South Korea's second largest automobile manufacturer after (its parent company) Hyundai Motor Company, with sales of over 2.8 million vehicles in 2019. the Kia Corporation is minority owned by Hyundai, which holds a 33.88% stake valued at just over US$6 billion. Kia in turn is a minority owner of more than twenty Hyundai subsidiaries ranging from 4.9% up to 45.37%, totaling more than US$8.3 billion.
Etymology
According to the company, the name "Kia" derives from the Sino-Korean characters (, 'to arise') and (, which stands for , meaning 'Asia'); it is roughly translated as "Rising from Asia."
History
Origins and early expansion
Kia was founded on June 9, 1944, as Kyungsung Precision Industry, a manufacturer of steel tubing and bicycle parts, eventually producing Korea's first domestic bicycle, the Samchully, in 1951. In 1952, Kyungsung Precision Industry changed its name to Kia Industries, and later built Honda-licensed small motorcycles (starting in 1957) and Mazda-licensed trucks (1962) and cars (1974). The company opened its first integrated automotive assembly plant in 1973, the Sohari Plant. Kia built the small Mazda-based Brisa range of cars until 1981, when production came to an end after the new military dictator Chun Doo-hwan enforced industry consolidation. This forced Kia to give up passenger cars and focus entirely on light trucks. Kia assembled a few hundred more cars in 1982 and 1983, after the ban had taken effect, but no passenger cars were built in 1984 and 1985.
Prior to the forced 1981 shutdown, Kia had rounded out its passenger car lineup with two other foreign models assembled under license: the Fiat 132 and the Peugeot 604. The import of these knock-down kits was permitted as long as Kia exported five cars for every single Fiat or Peugeot brought in (Hyundai had to meet the same requirement).
Starting in 1986 (when only 26 cars were manufactured, followed by over 95,000 the next year), Kia rejoined the automobile industry in partnership with Ford. Kia produced several Mazda-derived vehicles for both domestic sales in South Korea and for export into other countries - where they were positioned at the budget end of the market. These models included the Kia Pride, based on the Mazda 121 and the Avella, which were sold in North America and Australasia as the Ford Festiva and Ford Aspire. In 1992, Kia Motors America was incorporated in the United States. The first Kia-branded vehicles in the United States were sold from four dealerships in Portland, Oregon, in 1992. Since then, Kia methodically expanded one region at a time. Dealers in 1994 sold the Sephia and a few years later the United States segment expanded their line with the Sportage. Over one hundred Kia dealerships existed across thirty states by 1995, selling a record 24,740 automobiles.
Hyundai Motor Company takeover
Kia declared bankruptcy in 1997, during the Asian financial crisis, and in 1998 reached an agreement with Hyundai Motor Company to diversify by exchanging ownership between the two companies. Hyundai Motor Company acquired 51% of the company, outbidding Ford Motor Company, which had owned an interest in Kia Motors since 1986. After subsequent divestments, Hyundai Motor Company owns about one third of Kia Motor Corporation. While Hyundai Motor Company remains Kia's largest stakeholder, Kia Motor Company also retains ownership in some 22 Hyundai Motor Company subsidiaries. Since 2005, Kia has focused on the European market and has identified design as its "core future growth engine"—leading to the hiring of Peter Schreyer in 2006 as chief design officer and his subsequent creation of a new corporate grille known as the 'Tiger Nose'. In October 2006, Kia Motors America broke ground for Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia in West Point, Georgia, representing a US$1 billion investment for the company. Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia opened in February 2010, after Kia recorded its 15th consecutive year of increased U.S. market share. In August 2014, the company received international attention when Pope Francis of the Catholic Church rode in one of their compact cars, the Kia Soul, during a five-day visit to South Korea. The Kia Soul drew bigger attention than two other vehicles used by the Pope, their Kia Carnival and Hyundai's Santa Fe, because it appeared in the high-profile welcoming ceremony of his arrival at the Seoul Airport on August 14. In 2016, Kia Motors model reliability was ranked first in the United States by J.D. Power and Associates, becoming the first non-luxury automaker since 1989 to top that list.
Board of Directors
As of January 2021:
Chung Eui-sun, Chairman of Hyundai Motor Group
Song Ho-sung, President and CEO of Kia Corporation
Jun-Young Choi, Executive Vice President of Kia Corporation
Woo-Jeong Joo, Executive Vice President & CFO of Kia Corporation
Sang-Koo Nam, Professor of Business Administration at Gachon University
Chol-Su Han, Advisor at Yoon & Yang Law Firm
Duk-Joong Kim, Advisor at Yoon & Yang Law Firm
Dong-One Kim, Professor of Business School at Korea University
Wha-Sun Jho, full-time member of the policy department of the Korea Academy of Science and Technology and Professor of Political Science and Diplomacy at Yonsei University
Affiliates and subsidiaries
Hyundai Motor Company
, the Hyundai Motor Company owns a 33.88% stake in Kia Motors. Likewise, as of December 31, 2015, Kia Motors is a part owner of 22 Hyundai companies. Its ownership percentages range from 4.9% to 45.37%.
Kia America
Kia America, Inc. was incorporated in California on October 21, 1992, and became the American sales, marketing, and distribution arm of Kia Corporation. KMA is based in Irvine, California, and currently offers a complete line of vehicles through more than 755 dealers throughout the United States. The first two models that were introduced to the U.S. market in 1993 were KIA Sephia and Kia Sportage 4x4. In the United States, sales began in late 1993 for the 1994 model year. The two models most recently introduced to the U.S. market have both been highly awarded during the short time since their launch: the 2018 Stinger performance sedan gained recognition with J.D. Power's inaugural Engineering Award for Highest Rated All-New Vehicle as well as Business Insider's Car of the Year Award, then the 2020 Telluride made its mark several times over by winning major awards from review organizations like Kelley Blue Book, MotorTrend, Hispanic Motor Press (www.hispanicmotorpress.org)also awarded the Telluride as the best SUV for 2020, and most recently Edmunds.
As a brand, KMA has continued to improve over the years as well; in 2013, Kia Motors America recorded its 18th consecutive year of increased U.S. market share, and for the past five consecutive years (2015-2019) it has been recognized by J.D. Power as the highest ranked mass market brand in initial quality.
In November 2009, Kia started production at the first U.S. Kia Motors plant, Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia, in West Point. Though the Kia Sorento crossover vehicle was the only model to be assembled there at first, the facility has since expanded its production lines to include the Kia Optima mid-size sedan in 2011 and the just-launched Kia Telluride crossover SUV in January 2019. As of September 2019, the location has successfully built over 3 million units of these three models altogether, and shortly after celebrated another milestone by reaching its 10th year of production in November 2019. Currently, the facility has a production capacity of 340,000 vehicles per year (largely dedicated to the Telluride and Sorento crossover SUVs) and is responsible for distributing them to hundreds of dealerships in the US and Canada, as well as fulfilling shipments across North America and even overseas.
Kia Central & South America Corp.
Kia Central & South America Corp. is the incorporated division of Kia Corporation in charge of sales and marketing in 43 countries across Central and South America (including Brazil), and the Caribbean. The Regional Headquarter is located in Miami, Florida (US).
Kia Europe
Kia Europe is the European sales and marketing division of Kia Corporation. It has been selling cars in Europe since the first half of 1991.
In 2007, KME moved from its previous location at Hauptstrasse 185, Eschborn (near Frankfurt), to a new purpose-built facility adjacent to the Messe, in Frankfurt city centre.
When Kia launched in Europe during 1991, it initially sold only the Pride supermini—a rebadged version of the late 1980s Mazda 121. It initially proved popular with buyers. By the end of 1991, Kia had sold nearly 1,800 Prides in the United Kingdom. The first full year, 1992, saw that figure double, and, in 1993, it increased again to nearly 5,500 units. However, sales fell towards the end of the decade, and the end of production was finally announced in May 2000, with its successor – the Rio – not going on sale for another year.
From 1995 to 1999, Kia produced left- and right-hand drive versions of the first generation Sportage SUV at the Karmann factory in Osnabrück, Germany. These have been popular across Europe, but, since 2002, Kia has gained more sales in this market thanks to the launch of the larger Sorento. From 1999 until production of the model ceased in 2003, all Sportage production reverted to South Korea.
The European range also expanded in the spring of 1994 when Kia began importing the larger Mentor, a range of medium-sized hatchbacks and sedans which were marketed as inexpensive and well-equipped alternatives to the likes of the Ford Escort and the Vauxhall/Opel Astra.
A facelift in 1999 saw the Mentor name retained for the saloon (sedan), but the hatchback was renamed Shuma. These models remained on sale until 2004, when the newer Cerato was launched and gave Kia one of its first serious competitors against mainstream brands. The Clarus saloon and Sedona MPV were also launched onto the UK market during 1999, helping Kia begin its rise in popularity.
Despite Kia's range increasing from one car as late as 1993, to three cars by the end of 1995, British sales actually decreased in that period, from nearly 5,500 in 1993 to less than 4,000 the following year. In 1998, Kia's future in Britain was thrown into serious doubt when it sold less than 3,000 of its whole range – the worst in any full year on the British market. Kia did not enter Europe's large family car market until the launch of its Clarus four-door sedan in 1999—a year behind schedule due to the financial difficulties that Kia was facing before it was taken over by Hyundai. This car was similar in size to the Ford Mondeo and the Opel/Vauxhall Vectra, but, on its launch, was actually less expensive to buy than the smaller Focus and the Astra. It had a spacious interior, large boot, competitive asking price, and high equipment levels, but it had little more appeal to sway buyers away from established European brands like Ford, Vauxhall/Opel and Peugeot.
Its successor, the Magentis, launched in 2001, was still nowhere near as popular as Kia might have hoped it would be, although with a sub-£14,000 asking price it offered the cheapest V6-engined car in the UK, by which time it was rare enough for a six-cylinder car to be priced at less than £20,000.
Kia entered the MPV market in 1999 with the Sedona. On its launch, it was the lowest-priced, full-size people carrier on sale in the United Kingdom. With the range expanded by 1999, sales for that year reached almost 6,400 – more than double the previous year's total. That annual sales figure had almost been matched in 2000 by the end of May, reflecting Kia's growing popularity with British buyers. By 2009, Kia was firmly established as a popular brand in Britain, when sales broke the 50,000 barrier for the first time and the brand now had a share of more than 2% in the new car market. The Picanto was the most popular single model with nearly 17,000 sales.
In late 2006, Kia opened its first own plant in Europe at a cost of approximately EUR 1.7 billion in Žilina, Slovakia, in the village of Teplička nad Váhom, after construction between October 2004 and December 2005. It has since produced over 2.5 million units of the Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage and Kia Venga, as well as seven types of engines. In 2016, 339,500 cars and 612,915 engines were manufactured. The area of the plant is 166 ha and Mobis Slovakia, the largest supplier, is situated right on the carmaker's premises. As of December 31, 2016, 3,625 employees worked in the facility, while their average age was 35. The relatively low number of employees working in three shifts is related to a high degree of automation as well as high integration with Mobis Slovakia. In 2016, Kia Motors Slovakia recorded revenue of EUR 5.56 billion. Although the European car market knew significant difficulties, Kia announced increased sales in 2013.
Kia Mexico
The company has built a $1 billion manufacturing plant in the northern Mexican state of Nuevo León, which produces 300,000 cars a year. Details of the factory, built in the city of Pesquería, were revealed in a joint press conference given by Kia CEO Hyoung-Keun Lee and the President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto in Mexico City on August 28, 2014. The plant was expected to be completed in the first half of 2016. This factory is involved in controversies because it was built on unevenly purchased land, and the construction agreement was made with advantage conditions and out of the local dispositions to Kia.
Kia India
The company has entered the Indian market in July 2019 with their 'Made for India' SUV- SP2 Concept now announced as the global mid-sized SUV Kia Seltos. The company has built a production facility on a Greenfield land in Anantpur district, Andhra Pradesh near Penukonda. The annual production capacity is 300,000 units. Kia has appointed Kookhyun Shim as MD & CEO for its Indian arm. In his new role, Shim will be responsible for leading the carmaker's expansion in the Indian market. Shim will play a leading role in ensuring KI's projected timeline and schedule of operations is achieved. He also oversaw the construction of Kia's first manufacturing facility in India, to help strengthen the company's position in the fifth largest global automotive market. Kia has committed investments to the tune of $1.1 billion to develop operations in India including investing in a network of over 250 customer touch-points that include service, sales and spares establishments.
On 31 July 2020, Kia crossed 100,000 car sales in India becoming the fastest car manufacturer to do so.
Kia Lucky Motors Pakistan
Kia Lucky Motors (KLM) is a joint venture in Pakistan between Kia Motors and Lucky Cement. Kia Lucky Motors Pakistan began selling cars in 2018 when they launched their All New Grand Carnival in Pakistan. In quarter 4 2019, Kia Pakistan introduced two new locally manufactured products known as Kia Sportage and Kia Picanto.
Kia Defense
Kia Motors has specialized in the production of military vehicles with variants and other transportation equipment and by supplying them as a sole maker of military vehicles designated by the South Korean Government since 1976, when Kia Heavy Industry Co. Ltd. (now known as Hyundai Wia) was established. Kia is currently designing a Kaiser Jeep M715-type vehicle named the KM450 for the South Korean Army on license from the U.S. Government. Kia is also the owner of the former ex-Asia Motors factory at Gwangju.
Models
Sales figures
Facilities
Design emphasis
Beginning in 2006 Kia identified design as its "core future growth engine" – leading to the 2006 hiring of Peter Schreyer and to the 2005 hiring Tom Kearns as Chief Design Officer. Schreyer had previously worked at Audi (designing the Audi TT) and Volkswagen and had won the Design Award of the Federal Republic of Germany. Kearns had previously worked at Cadillac as Chief Design Officer and was responsible for influencing Cadillac's direction of hard angles and sharp lines within their design. Schreyer has since been central to a complete restyling of Kia's line-up, overseeing design activities at Kia's design centers in Frankfurt, Los Angeles, Tokyo, and the Namyang Design Center in South Korea. With the Kee concept vehicle, shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 2007, Kia introduced a new corporate grille to create a recognizable 'face' for the brand. Known as the Tiger Nose, Schreyer indicated he wanted "a powerful visual signal, a seal, an identifier. The front of a car needs this recognition, this expression. A car needs a face and I think the new Kia face is strong and distinctive. Visibility is vital and that face should immediately allow you to identify a Kia even from a distance." Schreyer described how the Kia Tiger Nose came to be as he explained, "I was just working on the car and just thinking about different possibilities, and suddenly I found it." Commenting on the new signature grille in 2009: "From now on, we'll have it on all our cars". Kia has since featured the Tiger Nose on all of their vehicles, ranging from the compact Kia Soul, on to the edgy new design of the Kia Optima, and to the larger SUV, the Kia Telluride. Kia cars won Road & Travel Magazine's International Car of the Year award in 2013, 2014 and 2015.
Controversies
In late 2012, Kia Motors was forced to admit error in inflating its United States Environmental Protection Agency mileage claims and had to reduce its fuel economy claims in the U.S. by about 3 percent across the board and to offer compensation to previous vehicle buyers.
Nuevo León plant
Since 2014, Kia Motors has been involved in controversies in Mexico due to alleged irregularities in the construction of one of its manufacturing plants, located in the municipality of Pesquería, Nuevo León. The construction of the plant was done in an irregularly purchased land agreement between Kia Motors Mexico and the State of Nuevo León, then headed by Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz, was signed with unfairly advantageous conditions, such as bigger tax incentives than those allowed by Mexican law (tax exemptions for 20 years when the standard is 5), extended to the Mexican providers of Kia. A copy of the full agreement was published in Facebook by current Nuevo León governor, Jaime Rodríguez Calderón, as part of a prosecution case against Medina and he declared that the signed agreement with his predecessor would be cancelled. A new agreement was then reached with Rodriguez's administration in June 2016. Former governor Medina de la Cruz and 30 other officials of the former state administration were investigated by an anti-corruption prosecutor for alleged embezzlement, improper exercise of public functions and damage to Nuevo León State assets. Medina was then taken into custody on January 26, 2017, in relation to this case and others in which he is involved.
Sponsorship
Kia Motors sponsors the following sports teams, events and athletes:
Sports associations
League of Legends European Championship (LEC)
FIFA
UEFA
Liga ACB
National Basketball Association (NBA)
Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)
Sports events
Archery World Cup
Asian Games
Australian Open (tennis tournament)
Copa América
FIBA Asia Championship
FIFA World Cup
Kia Classic (LPGA)
Kia Lotos Race
Kia Super League (cricket)
Korea Speed Festival
UEFA Europa League
Universiade
X Games
X Games Asia
Sports teams
Atlanta Falcons
Atlético Madrid (Spanish professional football club)
Bengaluru FC (Indian professional Football Club)
Boston United FC (English Football Club)
Brisbane Broncos (National Rugby League)
Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs (National Rugby League)
DWG KIA (South Korean professional esports organization)
England women's cricket team
Greater Western Sydney Giants (Australian Football League)
Global F.C. (Philippines association football team)
Kia Forte (Shakey's V-League)
Kia Picanto (Philippine Basketball Association)
Kia Tigers (Korean Baseball Team in Gwangju, South Korea)
Philippines national football team
Qormi FC (Maltese association football team)
AC Monza (Italian association football team)
Slovakia national football team
South Korea national speed skating team
Surrey County Cricket Club
Belenenses SAD (Portugal association football team)
Waikato Bay of Plenty Magic (ANZ Championship netball team)
Kia Speed Skating Academy
FC Steaua București (Romanian association football team)
Athletes
Ryan Ford (MMA fighter)
Fernando González (Chilean tennis player – 2004 & 2008 Olympic medalist)
Badr Hari (Moroccan kickboxer)
LeBron James (Global brand ambassador)
Blake Griffin (NBA Basketball Player)
Lee Sang-hwa (Speed skater)
Yulia Lipnitskaya (Russian figure skater)
Aliya Mustafina and Viktoria Komova (both Russian artistic gymnasts)
Rafael Nadal (Global brand ambassador)
Manny Pacquiao (Filipino boxer)
Adelina Sotnikova (Russian figure skater)
Michelle Wie (Official golf ambassador & spokesperson – KMA)
Dylan Alcott (Australian Tennis Great)
Eric Keogh (Kia Race Series winner 2 years in a row)
Actors
Pierce Brosnan
Laurence Fishburne
Christopher Walken
Tiger Shroff (Kia India)
Musicians
Blackpink
Chase Bryant
Hyolyn
Matthew Koma
MisterWives
Weezer
Music events
Live at The chapel (Australian music concert)
Vans Warped Tour
YouTube Music Awards (2013)
Melon Music Awards (2019)
Charity events
We Can Be Heroes (joint-venture between Kia and DC Comics);
Entertainment
Tobot
X-Men
Slogans
(2000–2006)
(2006–2021)
(2019–2021, United States)
(2021–present, Worldwide)
See also
List of Kia design and manufacturing facilities
Automotive industry in South Korea
Hyundai Motor Group
Kia EcoDynamics
Dewan Farooque Motors
Economy of South Korea
References
External links
Kia Military Vehicles official site
Car manufacturers of South Korea
Bus manufacturers of South Korea
Truck manufacturers of South Korea
Defence companies of South Korea
Hyundai Motor Group
Multinational companies headquartered in South Korea
Manufacturing companies based in Seoul
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1944
1944 establishments in the Japanese colonial empire
Companies listed on the Korea Exchange
South Korean brands
Car brands
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203913
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20pigs
|
List of fictional pigs
|
This article contains a list of pigs in various categories of fiction, including pigs and warthogs.
Advertising mascots and Animatronics
Madame Oink, an early guest star at Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre. She spoke in a thick French accent and often sang traditional French songs. She appeared in several earlier show tapes from the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Moo and Oink, a grocery store chain.
Percy Pig, sugary treat that can be purchased from Marks & Spencer.
Piggly Wiggly, supermarket chain which features a pig as its mascot.
Pig 'n Whistle restaurants.
Stella, intelligent and sociable pig in a vegan children book: "The Pig Who Made It Big"
In literature
Comics
Nursery rhymes and fairy tales
The pigs in "Birds of a feather" nursery rhyme
The Three Little Pigs
The market-going little pig and his brethren in the counting rhyme, used to name toes, who variously had roast beef or didn't, etc.
The fat pig, the buying of which was the reason for going to market in the nursery rhyme
A pig who eats up the pancake in the fairy tale "The Runaway Pancake"
Folklore and mythology
Beast of Dean, an abnormally large wild boar said to live, or have lived, in the Forest of Dean, England
Calydonian Boar, another boar which features strongly in Greek mythology
Erymanthian Boar, a boar that was to be captured as one of the Twelve Labours of Hercules
Gullinbursti, a boar in Norse mythology
The men transformed into pigs by Circe in the story of Homer's Odyssey
Pigs, of Chinese zodiac year
Twrch Trwyth, of Welsh mythology, features prominently in the tale of Culhwch and Olwen
In media
Animation
Film
Music
Radio
The Archers, BBC Radio 4's soap opera features Eddie Grundy's pig Barbarella, named after a film
Television
Video games
In toys
Monokuro Boo, a pair of monochrome pigs developed by the Japanese company San-X.
Pass the Pigs, variation of a dice game, using two small plastic pigs
Pippo, a Sanrio character created in 1993
Razor Beast, a primal which takes the form of a warthog, from the Transformers line Beast Wars
Squealer Knuckle "Beanie Babies"
Truffles from the Me to You Bears range
See also
Pigs in culture
List of individual pigs
References
Pigs
Fictional
|
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203919
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryne
|
Bryne
|
Bryne () is a town in Time municipality in Rogaland county, Norway. The city is the administrative centre of the municipality of Time and it is also one of the 50 largest towns/cities in Norway. Bryne's location in the region of Stavanger/Sandnes and its road and rail links have made Bryne a popular area for commuters. The city is expanding rapidly and there have been reports of problems with schooling capacity. Bryne Church is located in the centre of the city and Time Church is located east of the city .
Bryne is located on the southern shores of the lake Frøylandsvatnet, about 25 minutes south of the city of Stavanger by train. The city has a population (2021) of 12,465 and a population density of . The city's urban area crosses over the municipal border to Klepp Municipality, with and 1,800 residents living in the neighboring municipality.
History
The village of Bryne was founded as Thime Stasjon, since this was the location of the Thime Station along the Jærbanen railroad going from Stavanger to Egersund. The small village was one of many popping up around the new stations on the railroad that was completed in 1878. A new chapel was soon built, as well as a store, a wool processing facility and a dairy farm.
Several industries related to agriculture also emerged, producing ploughs, mowers, and harvesting equipment. Many years later in 1949, the first excavator in Europe with complete hydraulic transmission of power, the Brøyt, was introduced by the two brothers Kristian and Ingebret Søyland. Also the company Tralfa developed the world's first spray paint robot, today run by ABB.
Gradually, Bryne developed into a regional education center, with a dairy school established in 1906, the National Grammar School (Rogaland Landsgymnas) in 1924, and later a vocational school was also established. In 1921, the name of Thime Station was changed to Bryne by referendum. Bryne has since grown rapidly to become Jæren's most densely populated rural area and a regional trade center. On 1 January 2001, the municipality granted Bryne town status, the 49th largest settlement in Norway at the time.
Shopping
Bryne has three shopping malls. They are Torgsenteret, Brynetorget, and M44 which is the newest and second largest in Rogaland. There is also a shopping street called Storgata ("Main Street") where there are several clothing shops, book shops, and sports wear shops, including special designer clothes shops that sell wares that can only be found in here.
Culture
Fritz Røed Park
The Fritz Røed Park was officially opened 1 October 2004. It is a collection of sculptures made by the sculptor Fritz Røed, who was born in Bryne. The sculptures are all placed in and around the river which flows through the park.
Garborg Centre
The Garborg Centre () opened in 2012. It is a museum and educational centre dedicated to the author couple Arne Garborg and Hulda Garborg. It aims to encourage people's interest for the ideas and visions of the two authors. The centre will encourage visitors to take a more active part in today's society, and inspire them to read and develop their own creativity.
Bryne Mølle
Bryne Mølle (Bryne Mill) is an old mill now used for concerts and art exhibitions. The original mill burnt down in 1928. Today's building is dated from 1929. Ranglerock Festival is an annual rockfestival that has been arranged in there since 2005.
Kaizers Orchestra
The rock band Kaizers Orchestra originated in Bryne. The two founders of the band, vocalist Janove Ottesen and guitarist Geir Zahl are from Bryne.
Sport
Bryne FK played in the Norwegian premier league from 1976 to 1988, and from 2000 to 2003, and now plays in 1. divisjon, the second tier of Norwegian football. In 1987 the team won the National Football Cup, and was in the final in 2001.
Bryne is the childhood home of Erling Haaland, where he grew up and learned to play football.
The football clubs Kåsen IL and Rosseland BK are also based in Bryne.
Bryne also has a karate club. The club has produced both national victories and international victories. It is among the biggest karate clubs in Norway.
See also
List of towns and cities in Norway
References
External links
Time municipality
Jærbladet
Bryne Fotballklubb
The Fritz Røed Park
The Ranglerock Festival
Time, Norway
Cities and towns in Norway
Populated places in Rogaland
2001 establishments in Norway
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusher
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Crusher
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A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, sand or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated. Crushing is the process of transferring a force amplified by mechanical advantage through a material made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and resist deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces, and apply sufficient force to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy within the material being crushed so that its molecules separate from (fracturing), or change alignment in relation to (deformation), each other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil. Querns and mortars are types of these crushing devices.
Background history
In industry, crushers are machines which use a metal surface to break or compress materials into small fractional chunks or denser masses. Throughout most of industrial history, the greater part of crushing and mining part of the process occurred under muscle power as the application of force concentrated in the tip of the miners pick or sledge hammer driven drill bit. Before explosives came into widespread use in bulk mining in the mid-nineteenth century, most initial ore crushing and sizing was by hand and hammers at the mine or by water powered trip hammers in the small charcoal fired smithies and iron works typical of the Renaissance through the early-to-middle industrial revolution. It was only after explosives, and later early powerful steam shovels produced large chunks of materials, chunks originally reduced by hammering in the mine before being loaded into sacks for a trip to the surface, chunks that were eventually also to lead to rails and mine railways transporting bulk aggregations that post-mine face crushing became widely necessary. The earliest of these were in the foundries, but as coal took hold the larger operations became the coal breakers that fueled industrial growth from the first decade of the 1600s to the replacement of breakers in the 1970s through the fuel needs of the present day. The gradual coming of that era and displacement of the cottage industry based economies was itself accelerated first by the utility of wrought and cast iron as a desired materials giving impetus to larger operations, then in the late-sixteenth century by the increasing scarcity of wood lands for charcoal production to make the newfangled window glass material that had become—along with the chimney— 'all the rage' among the growing middle-class and affluence of the sixteenth-and-seventeenth centuries;and as always, the charcoal needed to smelt metals, especially to produce ever larger amounts of brass and bronze, pig iron, cast iron and wrought iron demanded by the new consumer classes. Other metallurgical developments such as silver and gold mining mirrored the practices and developments of the bulk material handling methods and technologies feeding the burgeoning appetite for more and more iron and glass, both of which were rare in personal possessions until the 1700s.
Things only became worse when the English figured out how to cast the more economical iron cannons (1547), following on their feat of becoming the armorers of the European continent's powers by having been leading producers brass and bronze guns, and eventually by various acts of Parliament, gradually banned or restricted the further cutting of trees for charcoal in larger and larger regions in the United Kingdom. In 1611, a consortium led by courtier Edward Zouch was granted a patent for the reverberatory furnace, a furnace using coal, not precious national timber reserves, which was immediately employed in glass making. An early politically connected and wealthy Robber Baron figure Sir Robert Mansell bought his way into the fledgling furnace company wrested control of it, and by 1615 managed to have James I issue a proclamation forbidding the use of wood to produce glass, giving his families extensive coal holdings a monopoly on both source and means of production for nearly half-a-century. Abraham Darby a century later relocated to Bristol where he had established a building brass and bronze industry by importing Dutch workers and using them to raid Dutch techniques. Both materials were considered superior to iron for cannon, and machines as they were better understood. But Darby would change the world in several key ways.
Where the Dutch had failed in casting iron, one of Darby's apprentices, John Thomas succeeded in 1707 and as Burke put it: "had given England the key to the Industrial Revolution". At the time, mines and foundries were virtually all small enterprises except for the tin mines (driven by the price and utility of brass) and materials came out of the mines already hammered small by legions of miners who had to stuff their work into carry sacks for pack animal slinging. Concurrently, mines needed drainage resulting in Savery and Newcomen's early steam driven pumping systems. The deeper the mines went, the larger the demand became for better pumps, the greater the demand for iron, the greater the need for coal, the greater the demand for each. Seeing ahead clearly, Darby, sold off his brass business interests and relocated to Coalbrookdale with its plentiful coal mines, water power and nearby ore supplies. Over that decade his foundries developed iron casting technologies and began to supplant other metals in many applications. He adapted Coking of his fuel by copying Brewers practices. In 1822 the pumping industries needs for larger cylinders met up with Darby's ability to melt sufficient quantities of pig iron to cast large inexpensive iron cylinders instead of costly brass ones, reducing the cost of cylinders by nine-tenths.
With gunpowder being increasingly applied to mining, rock chunks from a mining face became much larger, and the blast dependent mining itself had become dependent upon an organized group, not just an individual swinging a pick. Economies of scale gradually infused industrial enterprises, while transport became a key bottleneck as the volume of moved materials continued to increase following demand. This spurred numerous canal projects, inspired laying first wooden, then iron protected rails using draft animals to pull loads in the emerging bulk goods transportation dependent economy. In the coal industry, which grew up hand in hand as the preferred fuel for smelting ores, crushing and preparation (cleaning) was performed for over a hundred years in coal breakers, massive noisy buildings full of conveyors, belt-powered trip-hammer crushing stages and giant metal grading/sorting grates. Like mine pumps, the internal conveyors and trip-hammers contained within these 7—11 story buildings.
Industrial use
Mining operations use crushers, commonly classified by the degree to which they fragment the starting material, with primary and secondary crushers handling coarse materials, and tertiary and Quaternary crushers reducing ore particles to finer gradations. Each crusher is designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material, and often delivers its output to a screening machine which sorts and directs the product for further processing. Typically, crushing stages are followed by milling stages if the materials need to be further reduced. Additionally rock breakers are typically located next to a crusher to reduce oversize material too large for a crusher. Crushers are used to reduce particle size enough so that the material can be processed into finer particles in a grinder. A typical processing line at a mine might consist of a crusher followed by a SAG mill followed by a ball mill. In this context, the SAG mill and ball mill are considered grinders rather than crushers.
In operation, the raw material (of various sizes) is usually delivered to the primary crusher's hopper by dump trucks, excavators or wheeled front-end loaders. A feeder device such as an apron feeder, conveyor or vibrating grid controls the rate at which this material enters the crusher, and often contains a preliminary screening device which allows smaller material to bypass the crusher itself, thus improving efficiency. Primary crushing reduces the large pieces to a size which can be handled by the downstream machinery.
Some crushers are mobile and can crush rocks as large as 1.5 meter (60 inches). Primarily used in-pit at the mine face these units are able to move with the large infeed machines (mainly shovels) to increase the tonnage produced. In a mobile road operation, these crushed rocks are directly combined with concrete and asphalt which are then deposited on to a road surface. This removes the need for hauling over sized material to a stationary crusher and then back to the road surface.
Types of crushers
The following table describes typical uses of commonly used crushers:
Jaw crusher
A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particle. This mechanical pressure is achieved by the two jaws of the crusher of which one is fixed while the other reciprocates. A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw is kept stationary and is called a fixed jaw while the other jaw called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it, by a cam or pitman mechanism, acting like a class II lever or a nutcracker. The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The movement of the swing jaw can be quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke. The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a flywheel that moves a shaft creating an eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.
Jaw crushers are heavy duty machines and hence need to be robustly constructed. The outer frame is generally made of cast iron or steel. The jaws themselves are usually constructed from cast steel. They are fitted with replaceable liners which are made of manganese steel, or Ni-hard (a Ni-Cr alloyed cast iron). Jaw crushers are usually constructed in sections to ease the process transportation if they are to be taken underground for carrying out the operations.
Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the pivoting of the swing jaw
Blake crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the lower position
Dodge crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the upper position
Universal crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at an intermediate position
The Blake crusher was patented by Eli Whitney Blake in 1858. The Blake type jaw crusher has a fixed feed area and a variable discharge area. Blake crushers are of two types- single toggle and double toggle jaw crushers.
In the single toggle jaw crushers, the swing jaw is suspended on the eccentric shaft which leads to a much more compact design than that of the double toggle jaw crusher. The swing jaw, suspended on the eccentric, undergoes two types of motion- swing motion towards the fixed jaw due to the action of toggle plate and vertical movement due to the rotation of the eccentric. These two motions, when combined, lead to an elliptical jaw motion. This motion is useful as it assists in pushing the particles through the crushing chamber. This phenomenon leads to higher capacity of the single toggle jaw crushers but it also results in higher wear of the crushing jaws. These type of jaw crushers are preferred for the crushing of softer particles.
In the double toggle jaw crushers, the oscillating motion of the swing jaw is caused by the vertical motion of the pitman. The pitman moves up and down. The swing jaw closes, i.e., it moves towards the fixed jaw when the pitman moves upward and opens during the downward motion of the pitman. This type is commonly used in mines due to its ability to crush tough and abrasive materials.
In the Dodge type jaw crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, forming a tapered chute so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from the bottom opening. The Dodge jaw crusher has a variable feed area and a fixed discharge area which leads to choking of the crusher and hence is used only for laboratory purposes and not for heavy duty operations.
Gyratory crusher
A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces. The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.
A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by the size of the receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is mounted below the gear.
Cone crusher
With the rapid development of mining technology, the cone crusher can be divided into four types: compound cone crusher, spring cone crusher, hydraulic cone crusher and gyratory crusher. According to different models, the cone crusher is divided into vertical shaft cone (VSC) series cone crusher (compound cone crusher), Symons cone crusher, PY cone crusher, single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, gyratory crusher, etc.
A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the crushing chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones. A cone crusher breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an eccentrically gyrating spindle, which is covered by a wear-resistant mantle, and the enclosing concave hopper, covered by a manganese concave or a bowl liner. As rock enters the top of the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between the mantle and the bowl liner or concave. Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower position (because they are now smaller) where they are broken again. This process continues until the pieces are small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.
A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard ores and rocks. It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, better granularity and shape of finished products, easy adjustment and lower operational costs. The spring release system of a cone crusher acts an overload protection that allows tramp to pass through the crushing chamber without damage to the crusher.
Compound cone crusher
Compound cone crusher (VSC series cone crusher) can crush materials of over medium hardness. It is mainly used in mining, chemical industry, road and bridge construction, building, etc. As for VSC series cone crusher, there are four crushing cavities (coarse, medium, fine and superfine) to choose. Compared with the same type, VSC series cone crusher, whose combination of crushing frequency and eccentricity is the best, can make materials have higher comminution degree and higher yield. In addition, VSC series cone crusher's enhanced laminating crushing effect on material particles makes the cubic shape of crushed materials better, which increases the selling point.
Symons cone crusher
Symons cone crusher (spring cone crusher) can crush materials of above medium hardness. And it is widely used in metallurgy, building, hydropower, transportation, chemical industry, etc. When used with jaw crusher, it can be used as secondary, tertiary or quaternary crushing. Generally speaking, the standard type of Symons cone crusher is applied to medium crushing. The medium type is applied to fine crushing. The short head type is applied to coarse fine crushing. As casting steel technique is adopted, the machine has good rigidity and large high strength.
Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher
Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher is mainly composed of main frame, transmission device, eccentric shaft, bowl-shaped bearing, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system, dust-proof ring, feed plate, etc. It is applied to cement mill, mining, building construction, road &bridge construction, railway construction and metallurgy and some other industries.
Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher
Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher is mainly composed of main frame, eccentric shaft, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, dust ring, transmission device, bowl-shaped bearing, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system, etc. The electric motor of the cone crusher drives the eccentric shaft to make periodic swing movement under the shaft axis, and consequently surface of mantle approaches and leaves the surface of bowl liner now and then, so that the material is crushed due to squeezing and grinding inside the crushing chamber. The safety cylinder of the machine can ensure safety as well as lift supporting sleeve and static cone by a hydraulic system and automatically remove the blocks in the crushing chamber when the machine is suddenly stuffy. Thus the maintenance rate is greatly reduced and production efficiency is greatly improved as it can remove blocks without disassembling the machine.
Impact crusher
Impact crushers involve the use of impact rather than pressure to crush material. The material is contained within a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of the desired size to allow pulverized material to escape. There are two types of impact crushers: horizontal shaft impactor and vertical shaft impactor.
Horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) / Hammermill
The HSI crushers break rock by impacting the rock with hammers that are fixed upon the outer edge of a spinning rotor. HSI machines are sold in stationary, trailer mounted and crawler mounted configurations. HSI's are used in recycling, hard rock and soft materials. In earlier years the practical use of HSI crushers is limited to soft materials and non abrasive materials, such as limestone, phosphate, gypsum, weathered shales, however improvements in metallurgy have changed the application of these machines.
Vertical shaft impactor (VSI)
VSI crushers use a different approach involving a high speed rotor with wear resistant tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the rock against. The VSI crushers utilize velocity rather than surface force as the predominant force to break rock. In its natural state, rock has a jagged and uneven surface. Applying surface force (pressure) results in unpredictable and typically non-cubical resulting particles. Utilizing velocity rather than surface force allows the breaking force to be applied evenly both across the surface of the rock as well as through the mass of the rock. Rock, regardless of size, has natural fissures (faults) throughout its structure. As rock is 'thrown' by a VSI rotor against a solid anvil, it fractures and breaks along these fissures. Final particle size can be controlled by 1) the velocity at which the rock is thrown against the anvil and 2) the distance between the end of the rotor and the impact point on the anvil. The product resulting from VSI crushing is generally of a consistent cubical shape such as that required by modern Superpave highway asphalt applications. Using this method also allows materials with much higher abrasiveness to be crushed than is capable with an HSI and most other crushing methods.
VSI crushers generally utilize a high speed spinning rotor at the center of the crushing chamber and an outer impact surface of either abrasive resistant metal anvils or crushed rock. Utilizing cast metal surfaces 'anvils' is traditionally referred to as a "shoe and anvil VSI". Utilizing crushed rock on the outer walls of the crusher for new rock to be crushed against is traditionally referred to as "rock on rock VSI". VSI crushers can be used in static plant set-up or in mobile tracked equipment.
Mineral sizers
Mineral sizers are a variety of roll crushers which use two rotors with large teeth, on small diameter shafts, driven at a low speed by a direct high torque drive system. This design produces three major principles which all interact when breaking materials using sizer technology. The unique principles are the three-stage breaking action, the rotating screen effect, and the deep scroll tooth pattern.
The three-stage breaking action: initially, the material is gripped by the leading faces of opposed rotor teeth. These subject the rock to multiple point loading, inducing stress into the material to exploit any natural weaknesses. At the second stage, material is broken in tension by being subjected to a three-point loading, applied between the front tooth faces on one rotor, and rear tooth faces on the other rotor. Any lumps of material that still remain oversize, are broken as the rotors chop through the fixed teeth of the breaker bar, thereby achieving a three dimensional controlled product size.
The rotating screen effect: The interlaced toothed rotor design allows free flowing undersize material to pass through the continuously changing gaps generated by the relatively slow moving shafts.
The deep scroll tooth pattern: The deep scroll conveys the larger material to one end of the machine and helps to spread the feed across the full length of the rotors. This feature can also be used to reject oversize material from the machine.
Crusher Bucket
A crusher bucket is an attachment for hydraulic excavators. Its way of working consists on a bucket with two crushing jaws inside, one of them is fixed and the other one moves back and forth relative to it, as in a jaw crusher. They are manufactured with a high inertia power train, circular jaw movement and an antiestagnation plate, which prevents large shredding pieces from getting stuck in the bucket's mouth, not allowing them to enter the crushing jaws. They have also the crushing jaws placed in a cross position. This position together with its circular motion gives these crusher buckets the faculty of grinding wet material.
Technology
For the most part advances in crusher design have moved slowly. Jaw crushers have remained virtually unchanged for sixty years. More reliability and higher production have been added to basic cone crusher designs that have also remained largely unchanged. Increases in rotating speed have provided the largest variation. For instance, a 48-inch (120 cm) cone crusher manufactured in 1960 may be able to produce 170 tons/h of crushed rock, whereas the same size crusher manufactured today may produce 300 tons/h. These production improvements come from speed increases and better crushing chamber designs.
The largest advance in cone crusher reliability has been seen in the use of hydraulics to protect crushers from being damaged when uncrushable objects enter the crushing chamber. Foreign objects, such as steel, can cause extensive damage to a cone crusher, and additional costs in lost production. The advance of hydraulic relief systems has greatly reduced downtime and improved the life of these machines.
See also
Ball mill for further reduction to powder
Car crusher
Compactor
Jaques Limited Australian jaw crusher manufacturer
Mill (grinding)
Scrap metal shredder
Stamp mill
References
External links
Faults And Solutions Of Sand Making Machine
The Common Questions Of Cone Crusher
Power tools
Mining equipment
Recycling
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] |
203927
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryne%20FK
|
Bryne FK
|
Bryne Fotballklubb () is a professional football club in Bryne, Norway, that competes in the 1. divisjon, the second tier of Norwegian football.
History
Bryne has played a total of 17 seasons in the top flight of Norwegian football since their debut in 1976. They had their longest spell of 13 consecutive top tier seasons from 1976 until 1988. Their last stint in the top divisions lasted four seasons from 2000 until the 2003 season, when Bryne, coached by Swede Reine Almqvist, were relegated in the final round of the 2003 Tippeligaen.
Bryne placed sixth in 1. divisjon in 2007. It was a disappointing season for the club that is aiming for the top division. It was a turbulent season, players left and players were brought in. The players that came in before the season did not manage to set their mark on the club, and was (for the most) loaned out or sold. The season reached its bottom when head coach Magnus Johansson resigned after yet another disappointing appearance, this time against Tromsdalen. Hans Olav Frette, Johansson's predecessor, came in and led the team the rest of the season. In 2016, Bryne relegated to 2. divisjon despite winning the last game of the season.
Stadium
Bryne spent the majority of their early years playing on a small, rented field next to Bryne Mill, before acquiring the site of their current home ground, Bryne Stadion, at the end of the 1930s. At the time of its inauguration in September 1946, the stadium's grass pitch was one of the largest in the country and a far cry from the 85x55 m dimensions of the Bryne Mill field.
Bryne Stadion is used both for football and athletics and has a capacity of 4,000, of which 2,507 are seated. The record attendance is 13,621 paying spectators, achieved when Bryne defeated Viking on 26 May 1980, although as many as 14,500 were estimated to have attended an earlier game between the two rivals, on 9 October 1977. The club considers 13,621 to be the official record since there were only 12,236 paying spectators at this other game.
Bryne have in recent years been working towards a possible redevelopment of their home ground, alternatively the construction of a new stadium elsewhere, in order to increase turnover and conform with the Norwegian Football Association's requirements for hosting top-tier football matches. On 14 February 2006, the club presented plans for the Jæren Arena, an 8,688-capacity stadium designed by the architects responsible for Viking Stadion, and on 12 December 2006, the club announced that it had obtained finance for the project, which was estimated to cost 150 million NOK.
The intended location was on the border between the municipalities of Time, of which Bryne is the administrative centre, and Klepp. However, due to difficulties in obtaining a construction permit for the site, which is currently regulated for agricultural purposes, the club has opted for a new location about 900 m south of the old ground. Bryne aimed to have the stadium completed in time for the 2008 season. In 2010, Jæren Arena AS went bankrupt. As of 2019, Bryne still plays their matches at Bryne Stadion.
European Cup appearances
Achievements
Norwegian top flight:
Runners-up (2): 1980, 1982
Norwegian Cup:
Winners (1): 1987
Runners-up (1): 2001
Records
Greatest home victory: 7–0 vs. Bodø/Glimt, 5 October 1980
Greatest away victory: 5–2 vs. Fredrikstad, 22 August 1976
Heaviest home loss: 0–5 vs. Lillestrøm, 8 July 2001
Heaviest away loss: 0–9 vs. Rosenborg, 15 October 2000
Highest attendance, Bryne Stadion: 13,621 vs. Viking, 26 May 1980
Highest average attendance, season: 6,283, 1977
Most appearances, total: 596, Gabriel Høyland 1970–1986
Most appearances, league: 227, Gabriel Høyland 1970–1986
Most goals scored, total: 274, Johannes Vold 1961–1970
Most goals scored, league: 59, Arne Larsen Økland 1980–1987
Recent history
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
!
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Cup
!Notes
|-
|2001
|Tippeligaen
|align=right |12
|align=right|26||align=right|6||align=right|4||align=right|16
|align=right|33||align=right|61||align=right|22
|bgcolor=silver|Final
|Avoided relegation through playoffs
|-
|2002
|Tippeligaen
|align=right |9
|align=right|26||align=right|8||align=right|7||align=right|11
|align=right|38||align=right|39||align=right|31
|Fourth round
|
|-
|2003
|Tippeligaen
|align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 14
|align=right|26||align=right|7||align=right|1||align=right|18
|align=right|35||align=right|56||align=right|22
|Third round
|Relegated to the 1. divisjon
|-
|2004
|1. divisjon
|align=right |7
|align=right|30||align=right|11||align=right|9||align=right|10
|align=right|54||align=right|45||align=right|42
|Quarterfinal
|
|-
|2005
|1. divisjon
|align=right |5
|align=right|30||align=right|14||align=right|8||align=right|8
|align=right|55||align=right|33||align=right|50
|Fourth round
|
|-
|2006
|1. divisjon
|align=right |3
|align=right|30||align=right|14||align=right|10||align=right|6
|align=right|52||align=right|44||align=right|52
|Fourth round
|
|-
|2007
|1. divisjon
|align=right |6
|align=right|30||align=right|14||align=right|7||align=right|9
|align=right|57||align=right|38||align=right|49
|Third round
|
|-
|2008
|1. divisjon
|align=right |11
|align=right|30||align=right|10||align=right|6||align=right|14
|align=right|38||align=right|53||align=right|36
||Third round
|
|-
|2009
|1. divisjon
|align=right |8
|align=right|30||align=right|10||align=right|10||align=right|10
|align=right|41||align=right|39||align=right|40
||Fourth round
|
|-
|2010
|1. divisjon
|align=right |9
|align=right|28||align=right|10||align=right|5||align=right|13
|align=right|57||align=right|52||align=right|35
||Third round
|
|-
|2011
|1. divisjon
|align=right |9
|align=right|30||align=right|11||align=right|11||align=right|8
|align=right|47||align=right|36||align=right|44
||First round
|
|-
|2012
|1. divisjon
|align=right |10
|align=right|30||align=right|10||align=right|8||align=right|12
|align=right|41||align=right|53||align=right|38
|Second round
|
|-
|2013
|1. divisjon
|align=right |7
|align=right|30||align=right|13||align=right|7||align=right|10
|align=right|55||align=right|50||align=right|46
|Fourth round
|
|-
|2014
|1. divisjon
|align=right |9
|align=right|30||align=right|13||align=right|3||align=right|14
|align=right|48||align=right|55||align=right|42
||Second round
|
|-
|2015
|1. divisjon
|align=right |10
|align=right|30||align=right|10||align=right|6||align=right|14
|align=right|43||align=right|50||align=right|36
||Third Round
|
|-
|2016
|1. divisjon
|align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 13
|align=right|30||align=right|7||align=right|9||align=right|14
|align=right|33||align=right|48||align=right|30
||Second Round
|Relegated
|-
|2017
|2. divisjon
|align=right |3
|align=right|26||align=right|13||align=right|8||align=right|5
|align=right|52||align=right|37||align=right|47
||Second Round
|
|-
|2018
|2. divisjon
|align=right |5
|align=right|26||align=right|11||align=right|8||align=right|7
|align=right|45||align=right|38||align=right|41
||Quarter-final
|
|-
|2019
|2. divisjon
|align=right |10
|align=right|26||align=right|7||align=right|7||align=right|12
|align=right|30||align=right|41||align=right|28
||Third Round
|
|-
|2020
|2. divisjon
|align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
|align=right|19||align=right|13||align=right|5||align=right|1
|align=right|47||align=right|23||align=right|44
||Cancelled
|Promoted
|-
|2021
|1. divisjon
|align=right |10
|align=right|30||align=right|11||align=right|4||align=right|15
|align=right|44||align=right|48||align=right|37
||Third Round
|
|}
Players
Current squad
Notable former players
Had senior international cap(s) for their respective countries.
Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for Bryne FK.
Betu
Rógvi Baldvinsson
Bård Borgersen
Kris Bright
Jonatan Braut Brunes
André Danielsen
Prince Efe Ehiorobo
Anders Eriksson
Magnus Retsius Grødem
Erling Haaland
Adnan Haidar
Hugo Hansen
Nils Ove Hellvik
Erik Holtan
Alf-Inge Håland
Kenneth Høie
Jon Inge Høiland
Quinton Jacobs
Tom Rüsz Jacobsen
Carlos Johnson
Ulf Karlsen
Marek Lemsalu
Marius Lode
Bonaventure Maruti
Mons Ivar Mjelde
Erik Mykland
Roger Nilsen
Meinhard Olsen
Rune Ottesen
Paul Oyuga
Chris Pozniak
Baldur Sigurðsson
Ragnvald Soma
Stefan Strandberg
Daniel Torres
Albert Braut Tjåland
Ville Väisänen
Arne Larsen Økland
Coaches
Committee (1926–1929)
Andreas Gabrielsen (1930)
Committee (1931–1937)
Jens Håland and committee (1938–1939)
Committee (1940)
Committee (1945–1947)
Alf Rasmussen and committee (1948–1950)
Committee (1951–1952)
Einar Jensen and committee (1953)
Inge Paulsen and committee (1954)
Georg Monsen (1955)
Committee (1956)
Reidar Kvammen (1957)
Committee (1958–1959)
Reidar Kvammen (1960–1963)
John Larsen (1964–1965)
Reidar Kvammen (1966)
Olav Sigbjørnsen (1967–1968)
Einar Jacobsen (1969)
Olav Sigbjørnsen (1970)
Gunnar Steen (1971–1972)
Gustav Hult (1973)
Claus Ellingsen (1974)
Gustav Hult (1975–1976)
Kjell Schou-Andreassen (1977–1979)
Brian Green (1980–1982)
Kent Karlsson (1983–1985)
Bjarne Berntsen (1986–1988)
Arne Larsen Økland (1989–1990)
Kjell Tennfjord (1991–1992)
Gary Goodchild (1993–1994)
Trond Sirevåg (1994–1996)
Kenneth Rosén (1997–2000)
Erik Brakstad (2001)
Hans Olav Frette (2001)
Gabriel Høyland (2001)
Reine Almqvist (2001–2003)
Hans Olav Frette (2004–2005)
Magnus Johansson (2006–2007)
Hans Olav Frette (2007)
Rolf Teigen (2008–2009)
Trond Sirevåg (2009)
Gabriel Høyland (2009)
Mons Ivar Mjelde (2009)
Tommy Bergersen (2010–2012)
Gaute Larsen (2012–2016)
Alf Ingve Berntsen (2016)
Ole Hjelmhaug (2016–2018)
Jan Halvor Halvorsen (2018–2021)
Kevin Knappen (2022–)
References
External links
Official homepage (in Norwegian)
Sport in Rogaland
Eliteserien clubs
Association football clubs established in 1926
1926 establishments in Norway
Jæren
Time, Norway
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck%20E.%20Cheese
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Chuck E. Cheese
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Chuck E. Cheese is an American family entertainment center and restaurant pizza chain founded in 1977 by Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell. Headquartered in Irving, Texas, each location features arcade games, amusement rides, and character stage shows in addition to serving pizza and other food items; former mainstays included ball pits, crawl tubes, and animatronic shows. The chain's name is taken from its main character and mascot, Chuck E. Cheese. The first location opened as Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre in San Jose, California. It was the first family restaurant to integrate food with arcade games and animated entertainment.
After filing for bankruptcy in 1984, the chain was acquired in 1985 by Brock Hotel Corporation, parent company of competitor ShowBiz Pizza Place. The merger formed a new parent company, ShowBiz Pizza Time, Inc., which began unifying the two brands in 1990, renaming every location Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza. It was later shortened to Chuck E. Cheese's in 1994, and Chuck E. Cheese in 2019. Parent company ShowBiz Pizza Time also became CEC Entertainment in 1998.
CEC Entertainment owned 611 Chuck E. Cheese venues in 47 U.S. states, four Canadian provinces, and Puerto Rico. The COVID-19 pandemic put significant financial strain on the company, and CEC Entertainment filed a voluntary bankruptcy petition under Chapter 11 in the Southern District of Texas on June 25, 2020. The announcement was coordinated with 47 states and 16 countries including the United States, Canada, Mexico, Chile, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and India.
History
Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre was founded by Atari founder Nolan Bushnell, who sought to expand video-game arcades beyond adult locations like pool halls to family friendly venues. His experience in the amusement park industry, and his fondness for Disneyland's Country Bear Jamboree, influenced his concept for Pizza Time Theatre. He has said, "It was my pet project ... I chose pizza because of the wait time and the build schedule—very few components, and not too many ways to screw it up." When his first animatronic show was being assembled, Bushnell learned the costume he had bought for his main character, a coyote, was actually a rat, prompting him to suggest changing the name from "Coyote Pizza" to "Rick Rat's Pizza". His marketing team believed this name would not be appealing to customers and proposed "Chuck E. Cheese" instead. The company adopted the rat as their mascot.
The first Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theater opened in San Jose, California, in 1977. In 1978, when Atari's then-corporate parent Warner Communications refused to open additional locations, Bushnell purchased the rights to the concept and characters from Warner for $500,000. Gene Landrum then resigned from Atari and was made the restaurants' president and chief operating officer. By late 1979, there were seven PTT locations, all in California. Its animatronics were produced fully in-house by PTT employees.
ShowBiz Pizza Place
To expand beyond California and the west coast, Bushnell began to franchise, resulting in a co-development agreement between himself and Robert Brock of Topeka Inn Management in June 1979. The agreement handed Brock exclusive franchising rights for opening Pizza Time Theatres in sixteen states across the Southern and Midwestern United States, while also forming a company subdivision, "Pizza Show Biz", to develop the Pizza Time Theatres.
Late in 1979, Brock became aware of Aaron Fechter of Creative Engineering, Inc. and his work in animatronics. In November 1979, he scouted Fechter's business and concluded that Creative Engineering's animatronics would be too strong a competition for Bushnell's work. Brock therefore requested that Bushnell release him from their co-development agreement, wishing to develop with Fechter instead. In December 1979, Brock and Fechter formed ShowBiz Pizza Place Inc., and Brock gave notice to sever his development relationship with Bushnell. ShowBiz Pizza Place was conceptually identical to Pizza Time Theatre in all aspects except for animation, which would be provided by Creative Engineering. ShowBiz Pizza Place opened its first location on March 3, 1980, in Kansas City, Missouri.
Upon the opening of ShowBiz Pizza Place, Bushnell sued Brock and Topeka Inn Management over breach of contract. Brock immediately issued a counter-suit against Bushnell, citing misrepresentation. The court case began in March 1980, eventually settling out of court with Showbiz agreeing to pay Pizza Time Theatre a portion of its profits over the following decade. During this period, Topeka Inn Management also changed its name to Brock Hotel Corporation and moved its headquarters to Irving, Texas. Both restaurants experienced increased success as the video game industry became more robust, and, to maintain competition, both franchises continually modified and diversified their animatronic shows.
Mergers and restructuring
In 1981, Pizza Time Theatre went public; however, the evolving video game industry and the video game crash of 1983 resulted in significant losses for Pizza Time Theatre, which lost $15 million in 1983. By early 1984, Bushnell's debts were insurmountable, resulting in the filing of Chapter 11 bankruptcy for Pizza Time Theatre Inc. on March 28, 1984. Brock then bought the floundering company, finalizing the purchase in May 1985 and merging the two restaurant companies into Showbiz Pizza Time Inc.
After the merge, both restaurant chains continued operating under their respective titles, while major financial restructuring had begun. During this period, Creative Engineering began to sever ties with ShowBiz Pizza Time (officially splitting in September 1990), resulting in the unification of the two brands. By 1992, all restaurants assumed the name of Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza. The name was then shortened to Chuck E. Cheese's by March 1994 after a redesigned concept. In 1998, Showbiz Pizza Time renamed itself CEC Entertainment, Inc. to reflect the remaining chain brand. CEC Entertainment has since acquired additional family restaurant properties, including 13 locations of the now-defunct Discovery Zone in 1999, and all locations of Peter Piper Pizza in October 2014. Peter Piper Pizza still operates under that name.
International expansion
In the early 1980s, the restaurant franchise debuted in Australia under the name Charlie Cheese's Pizza Playhouse. The name change had to do with the common meaning of the word "chuck", which in Australia is a reference to the phrase "to throw up". Consecutively, Pizza Time Theatre, Inc. also opened at least one restaurant in Hong Kong and Singapore, which both closed shortly thereafter as a result of the initial company's 1984 bankruptcy.
As of June 2020, Chuck E. Cheese operates 612 corporate and franchise stores, as well as 122 Peter Piper Pizza restaurants. They are located in 47 states across the United States and in 16 countries and territories around the world.
Buyout and modern redesign
By 2012, CEC was struggling with decreasing revenue. They ran a rebranding campaign, changing the rat mascot into a rock star guitar-playing mouse. In-store restaurant sales continued to decline through 2013 but merchandising and box office revenue increased.
In February 2014, Apollo Global Management acquired CEC Entertainment, Inc. for $54 per share, or about $950 million. In October 2014, under Apollo Global Management, CEC Entertainment announced that they would purchase their Phoenix-based competitor, Peter Piper Pizza from ACON Investments.
In August 2017, the company began to pilot a new design concept at seven remodeled locations (three in Kansas City, three in San Antonio, one in Selma, Texas), branded as Chuck E. Cheese Pizzeria & Games. These locations feature more upscale decor with a "muted" interior color scheme, an open kitchen, the "Play Pass" card system to replace arcade tokens, and the animatronic stage show replaced by a dance floor area. These changes, along with expansions to food offerings, were intended to help the chain be more appealing to adults and encourage family dining as opposed to primarily hosting parties.
In 2019, the corporation announced it would go public on the New York Stock Exchange through a shell company, Leo Holdings Corporation, in which Apollo will still own 51% of. Bloomberg also reported that after going public, Chuck E. Cheese would no longer have animatronic animals as part of the entertainment. The proposed merger between CEC Entertainment and Leo Holdings Corporation was terminated on July 29, 2019.
Financial trouble
The COVID-19 pandemic has been financially damaging to the parent company, and with an estimated $1–2 billion in debt, the possibility exists of all CEC properties being forced to close if bankruptcy refinancing fails. CEC Entertainment solicited $200 million in loans to finance a restructuring under bankruptcy protection. They also filed a voluntary petition under Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of Texas on June 25, 2020.
Entertainment
Video arcade
Since the company's inception, one of the primary draws for the business has been its video arcade offering inside restaurants. Within the arcade, customers can play coin-operated video games or redemption games, the latter of which involves games of skill that reward players in the form of tickets based on score. Tickets can be redeemed later for merchandise, such as candy and toys.
The coin-op games originally accepted brass tokens issued by the company, stamped with various logos and branding that evolved over time. The company experimented with a card access method as a replacement for tokens, which allowed customers to load credits onto a card that could then be swiped for access at arcade games and refilled later. It was tested under different names including "Chuck E.'s Super Discount Card" and "Chuck E. Token Card".
Characters and animatronics
Another primary draw for the centers since their beginning through to the mid-2010s has been its animatronic shows. There have historically been several different styles of animatronic shows in use within the company, details of which would vary depending on when the location opened, whether it was renovated, available room for animatronic stages, and other factors. Over the years, these animatronics have often been supplemented by (and in recent years been completely replaced by) costumed characters.
When the first location opened in 1977, the animatronic characters were featured as busts in framed portraits hanging on the walls of the main dining area. The original show featured Crusty The Cat (the first character to face retirement as he was soon replaced with Mr. Munch in 1978), Pasqually the singing chef, Jasper T. Jowls, the Warblettes, and the main focus of the show, Chuck E. Cheese. By 1979, many restaurants had also added "Cabaret" shows in separate rooms of each restaurant. One of the early Cabaret characters was Dolli Dimples, a hippopotamus who played the piano and sang in the blues/jazz style of performer Pearl Bailey. The in-house control system consisted of a 6502-based controller in a card cage with various driver boards was called "Cyberamics".
While Fechter separately produced the Rock-afire Explosion animatronics for ShowBiz Pizza through the early 1980s, Bushnell and Pizza Time Theatre continued work on characters for their portrait format and newer balcony performance stage shows under the umbrella of the Pizza Time Players. Development on Cabaret concepts slowed greatly after Pizza Time Theatre Inc.'s bankruptcy in 1984 and its purchase by ShowBiz a year later. From 1985 to 1990, the merged company kept their brands (and their respective animatronics) mostly separate.
After Fechter refused to sign over the rights to the Rock-afire Explosion to Showbiz Pizza Time, Inc., "Concept Unification" was undertaken beginning in September 1990 and continuing through 1992, to eliminate Fechter's characters from ShowBiz locations. The animatronics used for ShowBiz's Rock-afire Explosion band were redressed as "Munch's Make Believe Band", with new costumes. In the mid-1990s, the character Chuck E. Cheese began to see significant design changes. His vest (or suit) and derby hat were changed for a baseball cap, casual shirt, and optional sneakers in an attempt to appeal to a younger audience.
Beginning in 1998, the animatronics show installed into new stores, referred to as "Studio C", consisted of a single animated Chuck E. Cheese character created by Garner Holt alongside large television monitors, lighting effects, and interactive elements. The other characters appear as puppets on the TV screens. The control system dubbed "Cyberstar" was re-designed from the ground up and produced by Dave Philipsen. The last animatronic stage mass-produced for Chuck E. Cheese, "Circles of Light", premiered in early 2012.
Elimination of animatronics
In July 2012, the long-standing rat mascot was rebranded, changing to a slimmer rock star mouse who plays electric guitar. Voice actor Duncan Brannan, who for 19 years had characterized Chuck E. Cheese as a wise-cracking rat from New Jersey, was replaced with Jaret Reddick, the frontman and guitarist for the pop punk band Bowling for Soup.
By 2015, the "Chuck E. Live Stage" also known as "Stage V2", which featured no animatronics at all, a modernized dance floor, and performances only with costumed characters, had been created. In 2017, the chain announced that animatronic shows would be removed entirely in favor of this design in seven pilot locations. After the pilot locations showed promise, retirement of animatronics at Chuck E. Cheese locations accelerated and continued through 2019, by which time 80 of its stores were expected to be retrofitted to the new design. Live costumed character performances, particularly of the Chuck E. Cheese character himself, are still widely used today, especially in locations where animatronics have been eliminated.
Food
Pizza is the main focus of the restaurant portion of the business, but the menu features other items as well including cold-cut sandwiches, chicken wings, salad bar access, and desserts. In addition, some Chuck E. Cheese locations offer alcoholic beverages.
In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the restaurant began selling pizza, wings, desserts and more through food delivery services under the virtual brand Pasqually's Pizza & Wings. The Pasqually name comes from Pasqually P. Pieplate, who is a member of Munch's Make Believe Band, the Chuck E Cheese animatronic band. While food sold under this brand comes from the same brick-and-mortar kitchens as Chuck E. Cheese, the company claims to use different ingredients and recipes that cater to a more mature audience. Practically all of the Chuck E. Cheese stores in the United States are selling and delivering food under this virtual brand.
References
External links
1977 establishments in California
1977 in robotics
1980s fads and trends
2014 mergers and acquisitions
Animatronic attractions
Apollo Global Management companies
Atari
Companies based in Irving, Texas
Companies based in San Jose, California
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1984
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2020
Entertainment companies established in 1977
Fast-food franchises
Fictional mice and rats
Pizza chains of Canada
Pizza chains of the United States
Pizza franchises
Restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurants established in 1977
Theme restaurants
Video arcades
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory%20of%20constraints
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Theory of constraints
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The theory of constraints (TOC) is a management paradigm that views any manageable system as being limited in achieving more of its goals by a very small number of constraints. There is always at least one constraint, and TOC uses a focusing process to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it. TOC adopts the common idiom "a chain is no stronger than its weakest link". That means that organizations and processes are vulnerable because the weakest person or part can always damage or break them, or at least adversely affect the outcome.
History
The theory of constraints (TOC) is an overall management philosophy, introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his 1984 book titled The Goal, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals. Goldratt adapted the concept to project management with his book Critical Chain, published in 1997.
An earlier propagator of a similar concept was Wolfgang Mewes in Germany with publications on power-oriented management theory (Machtorientierte Führungstheorie, 1963) and following with his Energo-Kybernetic System (EKS, 1971), later renamed Engpasskonzentrierte Strategie (Bottleneck-focused Strategy) as a more advanced theory of bottlenecks. The publications of Wolfgang Mewes are marketed through the FAZ Verlag, publishing house of the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. However, the paradigm Theory of constraints was first used by Goldratt.
Key assumption
The underlying premise of the theory of constraints is that organizations can be measured and controlled by variations on three measures: throughput, operational expense, and inventory. Inventory is all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things which it intends to sell. Operational expense is all the money the system spends in order to turn inventory into throughput. Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money through sales.
Before the goal itself can be reached, necessary conditions must first be met. These typically include safety, quality, legal obligations, etc. For most businesses, the goal itself is to make profit. However, for many organizations and non-profit businesses, making money is a necessary condition for pursuing the goal. Whether it is the goal or a necessary condition, understanding how to make sound financial decisions based on throughput, inventory, and operating expense is a critical requirement.
The five focusing steps
Theory of constraints is based on the premise that the rate of goal achievement by a goal-oriented system (i.e., the system's throughput) is limited by at least one constraint.
The argument by reductio ad absurdum is as follows: If there was nothing preventing a system from achieving higher throughput (i.e., more goal units in a unit of time), its throughput would be infinite – which is impossible in a real-life system.
Only by increasing flow through the constraint can overall throughput be increased.
Assuming the goal of a system has been articulated and its measurements defined, the steps are:
IDENTIFY the system's constraint(s).
Decide how to EXPLOIT the system's constraint(s).
SUBORDINATE everything else to the above decision.
ELEVATE the system's constraint(s).
WARNING! If in the previous steps a constraint has been broken, go back to step 1, but do not allow inertia to cause a system's constraint.
The goal of a commercial organization is: "Make more money now and in the future", and its measurements are given by throughput accounting as: throughput, inventory, and operating expenses.
The five focusing steps aim to ensure ongoing improvement efforts are centered on the organization's constraint(s). In the TOC literature, this is referred to as the process of ongoing improvement (POOGI).
These focusing steps are the key steps to developing the specific applications mentioned below.
Constraints
A constraint is anything that prevents the system from achieving its goal. There are many ways that constraints can show up, but a core principle within TOC is that there are not tens or hundreds of constraints. There is at least one, but at most only a few in any given system. Constraints can be internal or external to the system. An internal constraint is in evidence when the market demands more from the system than it can deliver. If this is the case, then the focus of the organization should be on discovering that constraint and following the five focusing steps to open it up (and potentially remove it). An external constraint exists when the system can produce more than the market will bear. If this is the case, then the organization should focus on mechanisms to create more demand for its products or services.
Types of (internal) constraints
Equipment: The way equipment is currently used limits the ability of the system to produce more salable goods/services.
People: Lack of skilled people limits the system. Mental models held by people can cause behaviour that becomes a constraint.
Policy: A written or unwritten policy prevents the system from making more.
The concept of the constraint in Theory of Constraints is analogous to but differs from the constraint that shows up in mathematical optimization. In TOC, the constraint is used as a focusing mechanism for management of the system. In optimization, the constraint is written into the mathematical expressions to limit the scope of the solution (X can be no greater than 5).
Please note: organizations have many problems with equipment, people, policies, etc. (A breakdown is just that – a breakdown – and is not a constraint in the true sense of the TOC concept). The constraint is the limiting factor that is preventing the organization from getting more throughput (typically, revenue through sales) even when nothing goes wrong.
Breaking a constraint
If a constraint's throughput capacity is elevated to the point where it is no longer the system's limiting factor, this is said to "break" the constraint. The limiting factor is now some other part of the system, or may be external to the system (an external constraint). This is not to be confused with a breakdown.
Buffers
Buffers are used throughout the theory of constraints. They often result as part of the exploit and subordinate steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the constraint to prevent downstream failure from blocking the constraint's output. Buffers used in this way protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal variation of processing time and the occasional upset (Murphy) before and behind the constraint.
Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive) work in the time queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint.
Buffers are not the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a Kanban system although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite in the theory is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time was lost. In a balanced line, as espoused by Kanban, when one work center goes down for a period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger is if the constraint is unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole" in the buffer – if something goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect).
Buffer management, therefore, represents a crucial attribute of the theory of constraints. There are many ways to apply buffers, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in three colors: green (okay), yellow (caution) and red (action required). Creating this kind of visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to everybody.
Plant types
There are four primary types of plants in the TOC lexicon. Draw the flow of material from the bottom of a page to the top, and you get the four types. They specify the general flow of materials through a system, and also provide some hints about where to look for typical problems. This type of analysis is known as VATI analysis as it uses the bottom-up shapes of the letters V, A, T, and I to describe the types of plants. The four types can be combined in many ways in larger facilities, e.g. "an A plant feeding a V plant".
V-plant: The general flow of material is one-to-many, such as a plant that takes one raw material and can make many final products. Classic examples are meat rendering plants or a steel manufacturer. The primary problem in V-plants is "robbing," where one operation (A) immediately after a diverging point "steals" materials meant for the other operation (B). Once the material has been processed by A, it cannot come back and be run through B without significant rework.
A-plant: The general flow of material is many-to-one, such as in a plant where many sub-assemblies converge for a final assembly. The primary problem in A-plants is in synchronizing the converging lines so that each supplies the final assembly point at the right time.
T-plant: The general flow is that of an I-plant (or has multiple lines), which then splits into many assemblies (many-to-many). Most manufactured parts are used in multiple assemblies and nearly all assemblies use multiple parts. Customized devices, such as computers, are good examples. T-plants suffer from both synchronization problems of A-plants (parts aren't all available for an assembly) and the robbing problems of V-plants (one assembly steals parts that could have been used in another).
I-plant: Material flows in a sequence, such as in an assembly line. The primary work is done in a straight sequence of events (one-to-one). The constraint is the slowest operation.
From the above list, one can deduce that for non-material systems one could draw the flow of work or the flow of processes, instead of physical flows, and arrive at similar basic V, A, T, or I structures. A project, for example, is an A-shaped sequence of work, culminating in a delivered product (i.e., the intended outcome of the project).
Applications
The focusing steps, this process of ongoing improvement, have been applied to manufacturing, project management, supply chain/distribution generated specific solutions. Other tools (mainly the "thinking process") also led to TOC applications in the fields of marketing and sales, and finance. The solution as applied to each of these areas are listed below.
Operations
Within manufacturing operations and operations management, the solution seeks to pull materials through the system, rather than push them into the system. The primary methodology used is drum-buffer-rope (DBR) and a variation called simplified drum-buffer-rope (S-DBR).
Drum-buffer-rope is a manufacturing execution methodology based on the fact the output of a system can only be the same as the output at the constraint of the system. Any attempt to produce more than what the constraint can process just leads to excess inventory piling up. The method is named for its three components. The drum is the rate at which the physical constraint of the plant can work: the work center or machine or operation that limits the ability of the entire system to produce more. The rest of the plant follows the beat of the drum. Schedule at the drum decides what the system should produce, in what sequence to produce and how much to produce. They make sure the drum has work and that anything the drum has processed does not get wasted.
The buffer protects the drum, so that it always has work flowing to it. Buffers in DBR provide the additional lead time beyond the required set up and process times, for materials in the product flow. Since these buffers have time as their unit of measure, rather than quantity of material, this makes the priority system operate strictly based on the time an order is expected to be at the drum. Each work order will have a remaining buffer status that can be calculated. Based on this buffer status, work orders can be color coded into Red, Yellow and Green. The red orders have the highest priority and must be worked on first, since they have penetrated most into their buffers followed by yellow and green. As time evolves, this buffer status might change and the color assigned to the particular work order change with it.
Traditional DBR usually calls for buffers at several points in the system: the constraint, synchronization points and at shipping. S-DBR has a buffer at shipping and manages the flow of work across the drum through a load planning mechanism.
The rope is the work release mechanism for the plant. Orders are released to the shop floor at one "buffer time" before they are due to be processed by the constraint. In other words, if the buffer is 5 days, the order is released 5 days before it is due at the constraint. Putting work into the system earlier than this buffer time is likely to generate too-high work-in-process and slow down the entire system.
High-speed automated production lines
Automated production lines achieve high throughput rates and output quantities by deploying automation solutions that are highly task-specific. Depending on their design and construction, these machines operate at different speeds and capacities and therefore have varying efficiency levels.
A prominent example is the use of automated production lines in the beverage industry. Filling systems usually have several machines executing parts of the complete bottling process, from filling primary containers to secondary packaging and palletisation.
To be able to maximize the throughput, the production line usually has a designed constraint. This constraint is typically the slowest and often the most expensive machine on the line. The overall throughput of the line is determined by this machine. All other machines can operate faster and are connected by conveyors.
The conveyors usually have the ability to buffer product. In the event of a stoppage at a machine other than the constraint, the conveyor can buffer the product enabling the constraint machine to keep on running.
A typical line setup is such that in normal operation the upstream conveyors from the constraint machine are always run full to prevent starvation at the constraint and the downstream conveyors are run empty to prevent a back up at the constraint. The overall aim is to prevent minor stoppages at the machines from impacting the constraint.
For this reason as the machines get further from the constraint, they have the ability to run faster than the previous machine and this creates a V curve.
Supply chain and logistics
In general, the solution for supply chains is to create flow of inventory so as to ensure greater availability and to eliminate surpluses.
The TOC distribution solution is effective when used to address a single link in the supply chain and more so across the entire system, even if that system comprises many different companies. The purpose of the TOC distribution solution is to establish a competitive advantage based on extraordinary availability by reducing the damages caused when the flow of goods is interrupted by shortages and surpluses.
This approach uses several new rules to protect availability with less inventory than is conventionally required.
Inventory is held at an aggregation point(s) as close as possible to the source. This approach ensures smoothed demand at the aggregation point, requiring proportionally less inventory. The distribution centers holding the aggregated stock are able to ship goods downstream to the next link in the supply chain much more quickly than a make-to-order manufacturer can.
Following this rule may result in a make-to-order manufacturer converting to make-to-stock. The inventory added at the aggregation point is significantly less than the inventory reduction downstream.
In all stocking locations, initial inventory buffers are set which effectively create an upper limit of the inventory at that location. The buffer size is equal to the maximum expected consumption within the average Replenishment Time ("RT"), plus additional stock to protect in case a delivery is late. In other words, there is no advantage in holding more inventory in a location than the amount that might be consumed before more could be ordered and received. Typically, the sum of the on hand value of such buffers are 25–75% less than currently observed average inventory levels
Replenishment Time (RT) is the sum of the delay, after the first consumption following a delivery, before an order is placed plus the delay after the order is placed until the ordered goods arrive at the ordering location.
Once buffers have been established, no replenishment orders are placed as long as the quantity inbound (already ordered but not yet received) plus the quantity on hand are equal to or greater than the buffer size. Following this rule causes surplus inventory to be bled off as it is consumed.
For any reason, when on hand plus inbound inventory is less than the buffer, orders are placed as soon as practical to increase the inbound inventory so that the relationship on Hand + Inbound = Buffer is maintained.
To ensure buffers remain correctly sized even with changes in the rates of demand and replenishment, a simple recursive algorithm called Buffer Management is used. When the on hand inventory level is in the upper third of the buffer for a full RT, the buffer is reduced by one third (and don't forget rule 3). Alternatively, when the on hand inventory is in the bottom one third of the buffer for too long, the buffer is increased by one third (and don't forget rule 4). The definition of "too long" may be changed depending on required service levels, however, a rule of thumb is 20% of the RT. Moving buffers up more readily than down is supported by the usually greater damage caused by shortages as compared to the damage caused by surpluses.
Once inventory is managed as described above, continuous efforts should be undertaken to reduce RT, late deliveries, supplier minimum order quantities (both per SKU and per order) and customer order batching. Any improvements in these areas will automatically improve both availability and inventory turns, thanks to the adaptive nature of Buffer Management.
A stocking location that manages inventory according to the TOC should help a non-TOC customer (downstream link in a supply chain, whether internal or external) manage their inventory according to the TOC process. This type of help can take the form of a vendor managed inventory (VMI). The TOC distribution link simply extends its buffer sizing and management techniques to its customers' inventories. Doing so has the effect of smoothing the demand from the customer and reducing order sizes per SKU. VMI results in better availability and inventory turns for both supplier and customer. The benefits to the non-TOC customers are sufficient to meet the purpose of capitalizing on the competitive edge by giving the customer a reason to be more loyal and give more business to the upstream link. When the end consumers buy more, the whole supply chain sells more.
One caveat should be considered. Initially and only temporarily, the supply chain or a specific link may sell less as the surplus inventory in the system is sold. However, the sales lift due to improved availability is a countervailing factor. The current levels of surpluses and shortages make each case different.
Finance and accounting
Holistic thinking applied to the finance application has been termed throughput accounting. Throughput accounting suggests that one examine the impact of investments and operational changes in terms of the impact on the throughput of the business. It is an alternative to cost accounting.
The primary measures for a TOC view of finance and accounting are: throughput, operating expense and investment. Throughput is calculated from sales minus "totally variable cost", where totally variable cost is usually calculated as the cost of raw materials that go into creating the item sold.
Project management
Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) are utilized in this area. CCPM is based on the idea that all projects look like A-plants: all activities converge to a final deliverable. As such, to protect the project, there must be internal buffers to protect synchronization points and a final project buffer to protect the overall project.
Marketing and sales
While originally focused on manufacturing and logistics, TOC has expanded into sales management and marketing. Its role is explicitly acknowledged in the field of sales process engineering. For effective sales management one can apply Drum Buffer Rope to the sales process similar to the way it is applied to operations (see Reengineering the Sales Process book reference below). This technique is appropriate when your constraint is in the sales process itself, or if you just want an effective sales management technique which includes the topics of funnel management and conversion rates.
Thinking processes
The thinking processes are a set of tools to help managers walk through the steps of initiating and implementing a project. When used in a logical flow, they help walk through a buy-in process:
Gain agreement on the problem
Gain agreement on the direction for a solution
Gain agreement that the solution solves the problem
Agree to overcome any potential negative ramifications
Agree to overcome any obstacles to implementation
TOC practitioners sometimes refer to these in the negative as working through layers of resistance to a change.
Recently, the current reality tree (CRT) and future reality tree (FRT) have been applied to an argumentative academic paper.
Despite its origins as a manufacturing approach (Goldratt & Cox, The Goal: A process of Ongoing Improvement, 1992), Goldratt's Theory of Constraints (TOC) methodology is now regarded as a systems methodology with strong foundations in the hard sciences (Mabin, 1999). Through its tools for convergent thinking and synthesis, the "Thinking processes", which underpin the entire TOC methodology, help identify and manage constraints and guide continuous improvement and change in organizations (Dettmer H. , 1998).
The process of change requires the identification and acceptance of core issues; the goal and the means to the goal. This comprehensive set of logical tools can be used for exploration, solution development and solution implementation for individuals, groups or organizations. Each tool has a purpose and nearly all tools can be used independently (Cox & Spencer, 1998). Since these thinking tools are designed to address successive "layers of resistance" and enable communication, it expedites securing "buy in" of groups. While CRT (current reality tree) represents the undesirable effects of the current situation, the FRT (the future reality tree), NBR (negative branch) help people plan and understand the possible results of their actions. The PRT (prerequisite tree) and TRT (transition tree) are designed to build collective buy in and aid in the Implementation phase. The logical constructs of these tools or diagrams are the necessary condition logic, the sufficient cause logic and the strict logic rules that are used to validate cause-effect relationships which are modelled with these tools (Dettmer W. , 2006).
A summary of these tools, the questions they help answer and the associated logical constructs used is presented in the table below.
TOC Thinking Process Tools:
Use of these tools are based on the fundamental beliefs of TOC that organizations a) are inherently simple (interdependencies exist in organizations) b) desire inherent harmony (win – win solutions are possible) c) are inherently good (people are good) and have inherent potential (people and organizations have potential to do better) (Goldratt E. , 2009). In the book "Through the clouds to solutions" Jelena Fedurko (Fedurko, 2013) states that the major areas for application of TP tools as:
To create and enhance thinking and learning skills
To make better decisions
To develop responsibility for one's own actions through understanding their consequences
To handle conflicts with more confidence and win-win outcomes
To correct behavior with undesirable consequences
Assist in evaluating conditions for achieving a desired outcome
To assist in peer mediation
To assist in relationship between subordinates and bosses
Development and practice
TOC was initiated by Goldratt, who until his death was still the main driving force behind the development and practice of TOC. There is a network of individuals and small companies loosely coupled as practitioners around the world. TOC is sometimes referred to as "constraint management". TOC is a large body of knowledge with a strong guiding philosophy of growth.
Criticism
Criticisms that have been leveled against TOC include:
Claimed suboptimality of drum-buffer-rope
While TOC has been compared favorably to linear programming techniques, D. Trietsch from University of Auckland argues that DBR methodology is inferior to competing methodologies. Linhares, from the Getulio Vargas Foundation, has shown that the TOC approach to establishing an optimal product mix is unlikely to yield optimum results, as it would imply that P=NP.
Unacknowledged debt
Duncan (as cited by Steyn)
says that TOC borrows heavily from systems dynamics developed by Forrester in the 1950s and from statistical process control which dates back to World War II. And Noreen Smith and Mackey, in their independent report on TOC, point out that several key concepts in TOC "have been topics in management accounting textbooks for decades." It is also claimed that Goldratt's books fail to acknowledge that TOC borrows from more than 40 years of previous management science research and practice, particularly from program evaluation and review technique/critical path method (PERT/CPM) and the just in time strategy.
A rebuttal to these criticisms is offered in Goldratt's "What is the Theory of Constraints and How Should it be Implemented?", and in his audio program, "Beyond The Goal". In these, Goldratt discusses the history of disciplinary sciences, compares the strengths and weaknesses of the various disciplines, and acknowledges the sources of information and inspiration for the thinking processes and critical chain methodologies. Articles published in the now-defunct Journal of Theory of Constraints referenced foundational materials. Goldratt published an article and gave talks with the title "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants" in which he gives credit for many of the core ideas of Theory of Constraints. Goldratt has sought many times to show the correlation between various improvement methods.
Goldratt has been criticized on lack of openness in his theories, an example being him not releasing the algorithm he used for the Optimum Performance Training system. Some view him as unscientific with many of his theories, tools and techniques not being a part of the public domain, rather a part of his own framework of profiting on his ideas.
According to Gupta and Snyder (2009), despite being recognized as a genuine management philosophy nowadays, TOC has yet failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in the academic literature and as such, cannot be considered academically worthy to be called a widely recognized theory. TOC needs more case studies that prove a connection between implementation and improved financial performance.
Nave (2002) argues that TOC does not take employees into account and fails to empower them in the production process. He also states that TOC fails to address unsuccessful policies as constraints.
In contrast, Mukherjee and Chatterjee (2007) state that much of the criticism of Goldratt's work has been focused on the lack of rigour in his work, but not of the bottleneck approach, which are two different aspects of the issue.
Certification and education
The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO) is an independent not-for-profit incorporated society that sets exams to ensure a consistent standard of competence. It is overseen by a board of academic and industrial experts. It also hosts an annual international conference. The work presented at these conferences constitutes a core repository of the current knowledge.
See also
Linear programming
List of Theory of Constraints topics
Industrial engineering
Limiting factor
Systems thinking – Critical systems thinking – Joint decision traps
Twelve leverage points by Donella Meadows
Constraint (disambiguation)
Thinklets
Throughput
Rate-determining step
Liebig's law of the minimum
References
Further reading
John Tripp TOC Executive Challenge A Goal Game.
External links
A Guide to Implementing the Theory of Constraints
Five focusing Steps
Theory of Constraints Essentials
Theory of Constraints: A Research Database
Business process management
Leadership
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203934
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuso%20%28company%29
|
Fuso (company)
|
The is a manufacturer of trucks and buses. It is headquartered in Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan. Currently, it is 89.29% owned by Germany-based Daimler Truck.
Fuso derives from the ancient Chinese term fusang (扶桑), for a sacred tree said to grow at the spot in the east where the sun rises, and has been used to refer to Japan itself. The actual fuso tree is a hibiscus.
History
In 1932, the first B46 bus (the Fuso) was built at the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company's Kobe Works. Two years later, the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company was renamed Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). Three years after that, the MHI motor-vehicle operations at the Kobe Works were transferred to the Tokyo Works.
In 1949, the Fuso Motors Sales Company was established; it was renamed the Mitsubishi Fuso Motors Sales Company in 1952. In 1950, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was split into three companies: East Japan Heavy Industries, Central Japan Heavy Industries, and West Japan Heavy Industries. Two years later, Central Japan Heavy Industries was renamed Shin Mitsubishi Heavy Industries; West Japan Heavy Industries was renamed Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, and East Japan Heavy Industries was renamed Mitsubishi Nippon Heavy Industries (MNHI). Products from the companies were distributed by Mitsubishi Fuso Motor Sales because of brand recognition.
In 1957, MNHI integrated the Tokyo and Kawasaki Works into the Tokyo Motor Vehicle Works. Seven years later, Mitsubishi Nippon Heavy Industries, Shin Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering Company merged to form Mitsubishi Fuso Heavy Industries; Mitsubishi Fuso Motors Sales split into two divisions: Shin and Fuso Motors Sales Company. Sharing a logo, they split the distribution of heavy and light machinery; Shin distributed light machinery branded as Mitsubishi, and Fuso distributed heavy machinery branded as Fuso. In 1970, MHI signed a joint-venture agreement with Chrysler Corporation, establishing the Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (MMC), and MHI transferred its motor-vehicle operations to MMC.
In 1975, MMC opened the Nakatsu Plant at its Tokyo Motor Vehicle Works; five years later, it opened the Kitsuregawa Proving Grounds. Four years after that, MMC merged with Mitsubishi Motor Sales Company. In 1985, MMC and Mitsubishi Corporation established the joint-equity company Mitsubishi Trucks of America in the United States. Eight years later, MMC and Chrysler dissolved their equity partnership. The following year, MMC and Mitsubishi joined to design, build, and distribute the Mitsubishi Lancer.
In 1999, MMC and Volvo joined their truck and bus operations, and Volvo acquired 5% of MMC. Two years later, DaimlerChrysler replaced Volvo as MMC's truck and bus partner and MMC renamed the Tokyo Plant the Truck and Bus Production Office (also known as the Kawasaki Plant).
In 2003, the Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation (MFTBC) was established. DaimlerChrysler, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, and other Mitsubishi companies acquired 43, 42. and 15% shares, respectively, in MFTBC. In 2005, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation transferred its MFTBC shares to DaimlerChrysler as part of their compensation agreement for financial damages resulting from quality problems and recalls at MFTBC. DaimlerChrysler and the Mitsubishi companies hold shares of 89 and 11%, respectively. In 2006, MFTBC moved its headquarters from Tokyo to Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa; the following year, DaimlerChrysler sold its majority stake in Chrysler Corporation to Cerberus Capital Management. The corporation was renamed Daimler AG, and the DaimlerChrysler Truck Group was renamed Daimler Trucks; MFTBC is part of the Daimler Trucks Division of Daimler AG.
On May 27, 2020, Mitsubishi Fuso Truck of America announced it is discontinuing new truck sales. The move is a result of a re-evaluation by Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corp. of its business situation in the United States and Canada, according to the announcement, as the company shifts to a service-focused operation in these markets.
Facilities
Fuso trucks are developed and built primarily at these Japanese facilities:
Kitsuregawa Proving Ground
Kawasaki Plant and Research and Development Center
Nakatsu Plant, Aikawa, Kanagawa
Mitsubishi Fuso Bus Manufacturing Company in Toyama, Toyama
Mitsubishi Fuso Canter work trucks are manufactured in Egypt, Portugal, the Philippines, Venezuela, Turkey, and Russia. They are marketed in Japan, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, and a number of other Asian countries, as well as in the United States.
They are also manufactured in India at the Daimler India Commercial Vehicles plant in Oragadam, near Chennai. Those vehicles are sold in East Africa and Southeast Asia. Mitsubishi Fuso's European marketing and sales headquarters is in Stuttgart.
Products
Van
Canter Van (OEM Nissan Caravan, export only)
Trucks
Canter aka FE/FF/FG/FH, formerly also rebadged and sold as the Sterling 360
Canter Guts (Canter Mini FA/FB/FC/FD)
Canter Eco Hybrid
Fighter aka FH/FK/FM/FL
The Great
Super Great/Heavy Duty aka FP/FS/FV
Fuso Shogun (manufactured in New Zealand)
Fuso FJ (manufactured in India by BharatBenz for export)
Fuso TV (manufactured in Malaysia and Thailand)
Fuso FI
Buses and chassis
Rosa
Aero Midi MK/MJ/ME
Aero Star MP
Aero King
Aero Ace/Bus/Queen MS
Mitsubishi Cruiser
Mitsubishi Eagle
Fuso BK125L (Bus chassis)
Fuso BM115/116/117/118 (Bus chassis)
Fuso RK (Bus chassis)
Fuso RM (Bus chassis)
Fuso RP (Bus Chassis)
Electric transport
The Mitsubishi Fuso Aero Star diesel-electric bus is being tested in Japan. According to the company, it can reduce fuel consumption by as much as 30%. The Aero Star uses a series hybrid drive, where its diesel engine drives an electric generator to recharge lithium-ion batteries connected to the two electric motors with a combined output of 158 kW, which propel the vehicle. Series hybrids are efficient on urban buses. Opposed to the buses the Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Eco Hybrid uses a parallel hybrid system with an electric Motor-generator on the transmission input shaft. This system maintains better efficiency gains at higher speeds.
Global distribution
Outside Japan, vehicles manufactured by the corporation are sold in:
Latin America by Mitsubishi Motors, Daimler, and independent dealers (in Mexico, some Fuso vehicles are offered in Freightliner trademark, to replace the Sterling Trucks image that previously badged some trucks such as Canter and Super Great)
Asia by Mitsubishi Motors, Mitsubishi Fuso Company, and Daimler independent dealers
Middle East by Mitsubishi Motors and independent dealers
Africa by Mitsubishi and independent dealers in Rwanda by Akagera Business Group
Oceania by Daimler-Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi Motors, Fuso, and independent dealers
Europe by Daimler Trucks and dealers
References
https://www.truckinginfo.com/359173/mitsubishi-fuso-truck-of-america-discontinues-new-truck-sales
External links
Mitsubishi Fuso International website
Mitsubishi Fuso Australia Fuso Australia website
Mitsubishi Fuso South Africa Fuso South Africa website
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1932
Bus manufacturers of Japan
Companies based in Kanagawa Prefecture
Daimler Truck
Hybrid electric bus manufacturers
Japanese brands
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Truck manufacturers of Japan
Electric vehicle manufacturers of Japan
Japanese subsidiaries of foreign companies
Japanese companies established in 1932
|
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] |
203936
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20North%20American%20animals%20extinct%20in%20the%20Holocene
|
List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene
|
This is an incomplete list of extinct animals of North America. This list covers only extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geological period that extends from the present day back to about 10,000 radiocarbon years, approximately 11,430 ± 130 calendar years BP (between 9560 and 9300 BC).
Mammals
Prehistoric mammal extinctions (beginning of the Holocene to 1500 C.E.)
Possibly extinct amphibians
Fish
Prehistoric fish extinctions (beginning of the Holocene to 1500 C.E.)
Recent fish extinctions (1500 C.E. to the present)
Crustaceans
Cambarellus alvarezi, around 1994, Mexico (Nuevo León)
Chihuahua dwarf crayfish, Cambarellus chihuahuae unknown, Mexico (Chihuahua)
Florida fairy shrimp , Dexteria floridana, unknown, Florida
Hemigrapsus estellinensis , 1963, Estelline, Texas
Pasadena freshwater shrimp , Syncaris pasadenae, 1933, Los Angeles, California
Rubious cave amphipod , Stygobromus lucifugus, unknown, Illinois
Sandhills crayfish , Procambarus angustatus, unknown, Georgia
Sooty crayfish , Pacifastacus nigrescens, late 19th century, San Francisco Bay, California
Insects
American chestnut moth, Ectoedemia castaneae, unknown, the U.S.
Antioch Dunes shieldback katydid, Neduba extincta, unknown, the U.S.
Athens caddisfly, Triaenodes phalacris, unknown, the U.S.
Castle Lake caddisfly, Rhyacophila amabilis, unknown, the U.S.
Central Valley grasshopper, Conozoa hyalina, unknown, the U.S.
Chestnut casebearer moth, Coleophora leucochrysella, 1900, the U.S.
Chestnut ermine moth, Argyresthia castaneella, unknown, the U.S.
Chestnut clearwing moth, Coptotriche perplexa, unknown, the U.S.
Fort Ross weevil, Trigonoscuta rossi, unknown, the U.S.
Macrancylus linearis, unknown, the U.S. and the West Indies
Mono Lake diving beetle, Hygrotus artus, unknown, California
Oeobia sp. Nov, unknown, the U.S.
Phleophagan chestnut moth, Ectoedemia phleophaga, unknown, Virginia
Pecatonica River mayfly, Acanthometropus pecatonica, unknown, the U.S.
Rocky Mountain locust, Melanoplus spretus, 1902, the Great Plains, Canada and the U.S.
Robert's stonefly, Alloperla roberti, unknown, the U.S.
Robust burrowing mayfly, Pentagenia robusta, unknown, the Ohio River area
Three-toothed caddisfly, Triaenodes tridonata, unknown, the U.S.
Sloane's Urania butterfly, Urania sloanus, 1894, Jamaica
Volutine stoneyian tabanid fly, Stonemyia volutina, unknown, the U.S.
Xerces blue butterfly, Glaucopsyche xerces, 1943, the Sunset District of San Francisco, California
Yorba Linda weevil, Trigonoscuta yorbalindae, unknown, the U.S.
Arachnids
Caribbean monk seal nasal mite, Halarachne americana, 1952, the Caribbean Sea
Tityus exstinctus, 1884, Martinique
Mollusks
Acorn pearly mussel, Epioblasma haysiana, unknown, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers
Acorn ramshell, Planorbella multivolvis, unknown, Michigan
Agate rocksnail, Leptoxis clipeata, unknown, Alabama
Alabama clubshell, Pleurobema troschelianum, unknown, Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee
Alabama pigtoe, Pleurobema johannis, unknown, Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee
Amphicyclotulus guadeloupensis, Unknown, Guadeloupe
Angled riffleshell, Epioblasma biemarginata, after 1967, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers
Arc-form pearly mussel, Epioblasma arcaeformis, 1940, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers
Arcuate pearly mussel, Epioblasma flexuosa, unknown, the U.S.
Bigmouth rocksnail, Leptoxis occultata, unknown, Alabama
Boulder snail, Athearnia crassa, unknown, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia
Brown pigtoe, Pleurobema hagleri, unknown, the U.S.
Cahaba pebblesnail, Clappia cahabensis, 1965, the Cahaba River, Alabama
Carolina elktoe, Alasmidonta robusta, unknown, the Carolinas
Channeled pebblesnail, Somatogyrus wheeleri, unknown, Arkansas
Closed elimia, Elimia clausa, after 1967, Alabama
Cobble elimia, Elimia vanuxemiana, unknown, Alabama
Constricted elimia, Elimia impressa, unknown, Alabama
Coosa elktoe, Alasmidonta mccordi, unknown, Alabama
Coosa pigtoe, Pleurobema murrayense, unknown, the U.S.
Coosa rocksnail, Leptoxis showalterii, unknown, the U.S.
Corded purg, Pyrgulopsis nevadensis, unknown, Nevada
Eelgrass limpet, Lottia alveus, the 1920s, Labrador to New York
Elimia gibbera, unknown, Alabama
Elimia macglameriana, unknown, Alabama and Georgia
Excised slitshell, Gyrotoma excisa, unknown, Alabama
Fine-rayed pearly mussel, Epioblasma personata, the early 20th century, Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio and Tennessee
Fish Lake physa, Gyrotoma excisa, unknown, Alabama
Fusiform elimia, Elimia fusiformis, unknown, Alabama
Green-blossom pearly mussel, Epioblasma torulosa gubernaculum, the 1980s, the Tennessee River
Hazel pigtoe, Pleurobema avellanum, unknown, the U.S.
Hearty elimia, Elimia jonesi, unknown, Alabama
Highnut, Pleurobema altum, unknown, the U.S.
High-spired elimia, Elimia hartmaniana, unknown, the U.S.
Incerticyclus cinereus, unknown, Martinique
Incerticyclus martinicensis, unknown, Martinique
Lewis pearly mussel, Epioblasma lewisii, unknown, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers
Leptoxis torrefacta, unknown, the U.S.
Little flat-top snail, Neoplanorbis tantillus, unknown, Alabama
Lined pocketbook, Lampsilis binominata, unknown, U.S.
Longnut, Pleurobema nucleopsis, unknown, the U.S.
Lyrate rocksnail, Leptoxis lirata, unknown, Alabama
Maiden rocksnail, Leptoxis formosa, unknown, Alabama and Georgia
Nearby pearly mussel, Epioblasma propinqua, 1901, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers
Neoplanorbis carinatus, unknown, the U.S.
Neoplanorbis smithi, unknown, the U.S.
Neoplanorbis umbilicatus, unknown, the U.S.
Oachita pebblesnail, Somatogyrus amnicoloides, unknown, Arkansas
Ochlockonee arcmussel, Alasmidonta wrightiana, unknown, Florida
Oleacina guadeloupensis, unknown, Guadeloupe
Olive marstonia, Marstonia olivacea, 1940, Alabama
Pagoda slitshell, Gyrotoma pagoda, unknown, Alabama
Pleurodonte desidens, 1834, Martinique
Pupa elimia, Elimia pupaeformis, unknown, Alabama
Pygmy elimia, Elimia pygmaea, unknown, Alabama
Pyramid slitshell, Gyrotoma pyramidata, unknown, Alabama
Reverse pebblesnail, Somatogyrus alcoviensis, unknown, Georgia
Ribbed elimia, Elimia laeta, unknown, Alabama
Ribbed slitshell, Gyrotoma pumila, unknown, Alabama
Rotund rocksnail, Leptoxis ligata, unknown, Alabama
Rough-lined elimia, Elimia pilsbryi, unknown, Alabama
Round slitshell, Gyrotoma walkeri, unknown, Alabama
Sampson's pearly mussel, Epioblasma sampsonii, unknown, Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky
Scioto pigtoe, Pleurobema bournianum, unknown, the U.S.
Shoal sprite, Amphigyra alabamensis, unknown, the U.S.
Short-spired elimia, Elimia brevis, unknown, Alabama
Steward's pearly mussel, Epioblasma stewardsonii, unknown, the U.S.
Stone's pearly mussel, Epioblasma lenior, after 1965, Alabama and Tennessee
Striate slitshell, Gyrotoma lewisii, unknown, the U.S.
Striped rocksnail, Leptoxis vittata, unknown, the U.S.
Thick-lipped pebblesnail, Somatogyrus crassilabris, unknown, Arkansas
Tombigbee moccasinshell, Medionidus mcglameriae, unknown, the U.S.
True pigtoe, Pleurobema verum, unknown, Alabama
Tubercled-blossom pearly mussel, Epioblasma torulosa torulosa, unknown, Canada, Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee and West Virginia
Turgid-blossom pearly mussel, Epioblasma turgidula, unknown, the U.S.
Umbilicate pebblesnail, Clappia umbilicata, 1928, Alabama
Yellow pigtoe, Pleurobema flavidulum, unknown, the U.S.
See also
List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene
List of extinct animals
List of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands
List of extinct birds
Extinct in the wild
Lazarus taxon
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
References
IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on February 10, 2007.
Notes
NA
Holocene
Holocene
North America
†Holocene
|
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] |
203938
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milli-
|
Milli-
|
Milli (symbol m) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one thousandth (10−3). Proposed in 1793, and adopted in 1795, the prefix comes from the Latin , meaning one thousand (the Latin plural is ). Since 1960, the prefix is part of the International System of Units (SI).
See also
RKM code
References
SI prefixes
1000 (number)
simple:Milli-
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20historical%20horses
|
List of historical horses
|
This list includes actual horses that exist in the historical record. For fictional horses, see: List of fictional horses.
Racehorses
A
Adios: leading sire of harness racehorses
Adios Butler: famous harness racer
Affirmed: U.S. Triple Crown winner (1978)
Ajax: 18 consecutive race wins, before he was defeated at 1/40
Albatross: harness racer who won 59 of 71 races, and as a sire produced winners of over $130 million, including Niatross
Allez France: French Arc winner and first filly to win a million dollars
Alydar: finished second to Affirmed in all three 1978 Triple Crown races; successful sire
American Pharoah: 2015 winner of the U.S. Triple Crown and Breeders' Cup World Championships in Lexington, Kentucky at Keeneland Race Course
Animal Kingdom: American Thoroughbred racehorse; won 137th Kentucky Derby and 2013 Dubai World Cup
Archer: first and second winner of the Melbourne Cup
Aristides: winner of the first Kentucky Derby
Arrogate: winner of Travers Stakes, Breeders' Cup Classic, Pegasus World Cup, and Dubai World Cup in track record time and the richest U.S.-based racehorse of all time
Arkle: highest Timeform rating for a steeplechase horseracer
Assault: U.S. Triple Crown winner (1946)
B
Barbaro: American Thoroughbred who decisively won the 2006 Kentucky Derby, but shattered his leg two weeks later in the 2006 Preakness Stakes, ending his racing career; underwent several operations; eventually healed, but developed laminitis and could not be saved; euthanized January 29, 2007
Beholder: three-time winner of the Breeders' Cup Distaff, as well as the first filly to win the Pacific Classic
Bernborough: Australian racehorse and winner of 15 consecutive races at big weights; sold to US film producer Louis B. Mayer
Ben Nevis: champion Maryland steeplechaser he won the Maryland Hunt Cup twice and the Grand National
Bend Or, very successful British Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 1880 Epsom Derby
Best Mate: 2002, 2003 and 2004 Cheltenham Gold Cup winner; often given title 'Greatest Steeplechaser' since Arkle, and an equal to him
Big Brown: 2008 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes winner; first horse since Clyde Van Dusen to win the Kentucky Derby from the 20th post position
Black Caviar: undefeated in 25 career starts; fifteen-time Group 1 winner
Bold Forbes: 1976 Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes winner
Bold Ruler: leading sire of stakeswinners; born in the same barn the same night as Round Table; sired the outstanding Secretariat
Bret Hanover: one of only nine pacers to win the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers; had 62 wins from 69 starts; the only horse to be made Harness Horse of the Year three times
Brigadier Gerard: winner of 17 of 18 races in England, including the 2000 Guineas and 11 other Group I races; joint third highest Timeform flat rating of all time
Brooklyn Supreme: a red roan Belgian stallion noted for his extreme size
Bucephalus: Horse of Alexander the Great
Buckpasser: won 15 consecutive races; one of the great broodmare sires
C
California Chrome: won the 140th Kentucky Derby; won the Preakness; won the 2016 Dubai World Cup; two-time American Horse of the Year
Carbine: outstanding racehorse and sire; winner of the Melbourne Cup
Cardigan Bay: New Zealand's "million dollar pacer"; the first to win a million in the US; appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show
Castleshane: winner of eight flat races and two jumps
Cicero: winner of the 1905 Epsom Derby as the shortest-priced successful favourite in the history of the event
Cigar: champion in the 1990s who won 16 consecutive races
Citation: U.S. Triple Crown winner (1948); also won 16 consecutive major stakes races; first horse to earn $1 million\
Country House: Winner of Kentucky Derby 2019 after Maximum Security was demoted from 1st place for interference with other horses
Crisp: remembered for his epic race in the Grand National with Red Rum
Curlin: third richest US-based horse of all time, winner of 2007 Preakness Stakes and Breeders' Cup Classic and 2008 Dubai World Cup
D
Dan Patch: America's greatest pacer
Danehill: American-bred and British-trained sprint champion who went on to become a champion sire in both the northern and southern hemispheres; the first major "shuttle stallion"
Dance Smartly: second Canadian filly ever to win the Canadian Triple Crown, and the first to win a Breeders Cup Race
Dawn Run: only horse ever to complete Champion Hurdle, Cheltenham Gold Cup double
Deep Impact: Japanese Triple Crown winner; also smashed the world record over 3200 metres and seven-time leading sire in Japan
Desert Gold: race mare who won 19 races successive races during World War I; often raced against Gloaming
Desert Orchid: won King George four times and Cheltenham Gold Cup
Dr. Fager: "the Doctor"; set the world record at 1 mile on any surface, 1:32 1/5, and held it for more than 20 years
Doncaster: very successful racehorse, sire of the great Bend Or
E
Easy Goer: Hall of Fame champion who ran the fastest mile of all time on dirt by any three-year-old Thoroughbred in 1:32.2; ran the second fastest Belmont Stakes of all time behind Secretariat; had a great rivalry with Sunday Silence
Eclipse: celebrated 18th-century racehorse that won 18 races in 18 starts; influential sire
Emanas:Fastest Brazilian horse to win Brazilian Cup (1986, 1989 and 1990)
Eight Belles: first filly to win the Martha Washington Stakes, by a record 13½ lengths
Exterminator: exceedingly popular "iron horse" of American racing history
F
Frankel: undefeated in 14 career starts; highest rated flat race horse in history: WTR 140; Timeform 147, Racing Post 143
Funny Cide: first gelding since Clyde Van Dusen to win the Kentucky Derby
Flyingbolt: widely considered as the second best Steeplechaser of all-time; stablemate of Arkle; Timeform rated 210. 2 lb inferior to Arkle
Fair Play: successful American Thoroughbred racehorse and very successful sire; sired the great Man o' War
G
Gainsborough: winner of the English Triple Crown; leading sire
Galileo: seven-time Leading sire in Great Britain & Ireland; sire of Frankel; has sired 102 Group 1 winners worldwide as of December 2015
Genuine Risk: second filly to win the Kentucky Derby (1980)
Gloaming: won 19 successive races in New Zealand and Australia; record was 67 starts for 57 wins and 9 seconds
Go Man Go: champion running Quarter Horse
Golden Miller: record five-time winner of the Cheltenham Gold Cup; only horse to win the Cheltenham Gold Cup and Grand National in the same year
Goldsmith Maid: famous harness racing mare of the 19th century
Greyhound: named Trotting Horse of the Century in the US
H
Hambletonian 10: the "father of American trotting"
Hurricane Fly: Irish hurdler, winner of a record 22 Grade I races
Hyperion: winner of The Derby and the St Leger Stakes; top sire for six years in the UK
Hastings: sire of Fair Play, who in turn sired the great Man o' War, successful racehorse
I
Incitatus: horse legend says Roman Emperor Caligula planned to make a senator
Iroquois: first American-bred racehorse to win The Derby
Invasor: winner of the Uruguayan Triple Crown, as well as the Dubai World Cup and Breeders' Cup Classic
I'll Have Another: winner of the 2012 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes
Irish War Cry: Graded-Stakes Winner, noted for his win in the Wood Memorial Stakes and for finishing second in the 2017 Belmont Stakes
Isinglass: sixth winner of the English Triple Crown (1892)
Isonomy: very successful racehorse and sire of The English Triple Crown winner Isinglass
J
Jay Trump: three-time winner of the Maryland Hunt Cup and the Grand National
John Henry: U.S. Champion Turf Horse (1980, 1981, 1983, 1984)
Johnstown: winner of the 1939 Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes
Justify: 2018 winner of the U.S. Triple Crown
K
Kalgoorlie Kid: winner of the 2007 Cairns Cup
Kelso: only five-time U.S. Horse of the Year, in the list of the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century by The Blood-Horse magazine, Kelso ranks 4th
Kincsem: Hungarian race mare and most successful racehorse ever, winning all 54 starts in five countries
Kindergarten: weighted more than Phar Lap in the Melbourne Cup
Kingston: all-time record holder of the most wins by a horse with 89
Kingston Town: won three Cox Plates; first Australian horse to top $1million in stakes earnings
Kissin George: one of America's premier sprinting Thoroughbred racehorses
L
La Troienne: most important broodmare of the twentieth century
Lexington: America's leading 19th-century sire
Longfellow: 19th-century runner and stallion
Lonesome Glory: only five-time winner of American champion steeplechaser
Lottery: winner of the Grand National steeplechase in 1839
Lookin At Lucky: winner of 2010 Preakness Stakes, sired Lookin at Lee
M
Makybe Diva: won the Melbourne Cup on three occasions
Man o' War: often considered America's greatest racehorse; won 20 of 21 career starts
Marengo Famous war horse of Napoleon
Master Charlie: winner of the 1924 Remsen Stakes, Tijuana Futurity, Hopeful Stakes, Kentucky Jockey Club Stakes; awarded 1924 American Champion Two-Year-Old-Male/Colt
Maximum Security: Winner of Kentucky Derby 2019 before disqualification from 1st place for disturbing other horses
Might and Power: World Champion Stayer (1997); Australian Horse of the Year (1998, 1999)
Mr. Prospector: one of the most successful U.S. sires of the late 20th century
Moifaa: first New Zealand horse to win the Grand National
Mahubah: dam of Man o' War
N
Nasrullah: one of the most successful Thoroughbred sires of the 20th century, grandsire to Secretariat
Native Dancer (also nicknamed the Grey Ghost): won 21 of 22 career races, with only loss in the Kentucky Derby; sire whose descendants have come to dominate modern Triple Crown racing
Nearco Italian bred Thoroughbred racehorse. ''Thoroughbred Heritage'' described him as "one of the greatest racehorses of the Twentieth Century" and "one of the most important sires of the century." He was undefeated and his sire line was dominant.
Needles: the first Florida-bred horse to win the Kentucky Derby (1956), also won the Belmont Stakes
Niatross: pacer who won 37 of his 39 races and broke many records, considered to be one of the greatest harness racers of all time
Night Raid: sire of Phar Lap
Nijinsky II: last horse to win the English Triple Crown (1970)
Northern Dancer: Canada's champion on the racetrack; most successful sire of the 20th century
O
Overdose: champion Hungarian sprinter and winner of 14 straight races
Orfevre: winner of almost 20 million US dollars in earnings and is one of the highest earning racehorses ever
Oedipus: winner of the American Steeplechase triple crown
P
Peter Pan: winner of the Preakness Stakes, and had the Peter Pan Stakes named in his honor
Phar Lap: Australia and New Zealand's most famed Thoroughbred racehorse; won 37 of his 51 career starts
Pleasant Colony: 1981 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes winner
Potoooooooo: 18th-century thoroughbred racehorse who won over 30 races and defeated some of the greatest racehorses of the time.
Pretty Polly Irish Thoroughbred racehorse who won 15 consecutive races, fifth filly to win the British Fillies Triple Crown, record 24: 22-2-0
Q
Quevega: only horse in the history to win at six consecutive Cheltenham Festivals
Queensway: won the Canadian Triple Crown
R
Rachel Alexandra: filly and winner of the 2009 Preakness Stakes
Roy Olcott: harness racehorse
Real Quiet: winner of the 1998 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes; lost the third leg of the U.S. Triple Crown, the Belmont Stakes, by a margin of four inches
Red Rum: only horse in the history of the Aintree Grand National to win the race three times (placed second on two other occasions)
Regret: first filly to win the Kentucky Derby (1915)
Ribot: Thoroughbred undefeated in sixteen races
Rock Sand: English Triple Crown winner (1903); sire of the dam of Man o' War
Round Table: sire of stakes winners; born in the same barn the same night as Bold Ruler, in 1954
Ruffian: filly champion who won every race she started until her final (and fatal) race
Ruthless: first ever winner of the Belmont Stakes, and the first of only three fillies ever to win the Belmont Stakes
S
Sadler's Wells: one of Europe's most successful sires of the late 20th century
Sardar: stallion presented as a gift to First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy by President Ayub Khan on her visit to Pakistan
Sea Bird: second highest Timeform rated horse (rated 145)
Sea the Stars: first horse ever to win the 2,000 Guineas, Epsom Derby, and Arc de Triomphe in the same year (2009)
Seabiscuit: beat War Admiral in a nationally broadcast 1938 match race; like Phar Lap, raced during the Depression
Seattle Slew: U.S. Triple Crown winner (1977)
Secretariat: U.S. Triple Crown winner (1973); one of the most famous horses in Thoroughbred racing
Shergar: winner of the 1981 Epsom Derby by a record 10 lengths, the longest winning margin in a race run annually since 1781; kidnapped by the IRA in 1983, and was held for ransom, but the owner syndicate refused to pay, fearing that valuable horses would become targets; the stallion was never found
Silky Sullivan: a racehorse
Sir Winston: Winner of 2019 Belmont Stakes
Skewball: immortalized in 18th century poetry as a sku-ball winning against a Thoroughbred
Smarty Jones: became the first unbeaten Kentucky Derby winner since Seattle Slew in 1977
Spectacular Bid: Hall of Fame champion who went undefeated as a four-year-old, and won 26 of 30 career starts
Steel Dust: 19th-century quarter-mile racing horse
Storm Cat: one of the most successful U.S. sires of the late 20th century
Sunday Silence: winner in the US; champion sire in Japan
Sunline: first Southern Hemisphere horse to top $10million in stakes earnings; three-time Australian (2000-2002); four-time New Zealand (1999-2002) horse of the year; 13-time Group 1 winner
Swale: 1984 Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes winner, died eight days after the Belmont win
T
Tanya: second filly ever to win the Belmont Stakes
Tapwrit: won the 2017 Belmont Stakes, and set a new stakes record for the Tampa Bay Derby
Ta Wee: two-time American Champion Sprint Horse, and won her second Fall Highweight Handicap, at 10 stone (140 pounds) and her second Interborough Handicap, at 10 stone 2 pounds (142 pounds)
The Duke: first and second winner of the Grand National
Tiznow: two-time winner of the Breeders' Cup Classic
Tonalist: winner of 2014 Belmont Stakes, and two-time winner of the Jockey Club Gold Cup
Tuscalee: steeplechaser and all-time record holder for most wins in a season, and for most steeplechase wins overall
Twenty Grand: winner of the Kentucky Derby, Belmont, and Travers Stakes, also was champion 3-year-old and Horse of the Year of 1931
Two Lea: successful broodmare and filly winner of the Hollywood Gold Cup
U
Unbreakable: grandsire of great Native Dancer
Unbridled: winner of the Kentucky Derby and Breeders' Cup Classic and sire of the champion sire Unbridled's Song
Unbridled's Song: Breeders' Cup Juvenile winner, and sire of the great Arrogate
V
Vain: champion front runner; great, great grandsire of Black Caviar
Varenne: Italy's most famous harness horse
Vo Rouge: fast frontrunner and 3-time winner of the C F Orr Stakes, had the Vo Rogue Plate named in his honor
Voltaire: winner of the 1828 Doncaster Gold Cup
W
War Admiral: fourth U.S. Triple Crown winner (1937)
War Of Will: Winner of 2019 Preakness Stakes
Whistlejacket: Marquess of Rockingham's racehorse; painted by G. Stubbs (1762)
Winning Colors: third filly to win the Kentucky Derby (1988)
Winx: winner of 33 straight races, including the Cox Plate four times
Wise Dan: two-time American Horse of the Year (2012, 2013); won Breeders' Cup Mile twice (same years)
Whirlaway: fifth American Triple Crown winner
Whisk Broom II: first of four horses ever to win the New York Handicap Triple
X
Xaar: winner of Prix de Cabourg (1997), Prix de la Salamandre (1997)
Xtra Heat: champion 3-year-old filly of 2001, and the only filly to win the Endine stakes twice
Y
Yeats: only horse ever to win 4 Ascot Gold Cups, also won 3 other group 1 races
Your Host: winner of 1950 Santa Anita Derby, 1951 Santa Catalina Handicap, sire of the great Kelso
Z
Zabeel: New Zealand sire of Octagonal and Vengeance of Rain
Zaccio: three-time winner of the Outstanding Steeplechase horse award in the 80s
Zenyatta: won 19 of 20 starts; first mare to win the Breeders' Cup Classic (2009); first to win two different Breeders' Cup races (Ladies' Classic in 2008, Classic in 2009)
Zev: winner of the Belmont Stakes and the Kentucky Derby, as well as winner of a match race against Epsom Derby winner Papyrus
Zippy Chippy: infamous for racing 100 times and losing every single time
Competition horses
Big Ben, Canadian international show jumper and Olympian
Hickstead, Canadian international show jumper and Olympic individual show jumping gold medal winner
Huaso (1933 – August 24, 1961), famous Chilean jumping horse that still holds the record in highest jump: 2.47 m (8 ft in)
Midnight inducted into five different halls of fame, this bucking horse famously bucked at the best rodeos throughout the West and Canada
Midnight Sun, two-time Grand Champion and leading foundation sire of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed
Milton, British international show jumper and Olympian ridden by John Whitaker
Noble Flaire, Morgan horse who was the first to win three Park Harness World Championships at the American Morgan Horse World Championship Horse Show
Radium, outstanding campdrafter; influential sire in Australia
Scamper ProRodeo Hall of Fame horse in barrel racing for hall of fame rider Charmayne James. They won the National Finals Rodeo a consecutive 10 times in a row, a record that still stands today.
Seldom Seen, pony who successfully competed in dressage despite being unusually small
Snowman, former plough horse rescued from being butchered by rider Harry de Lyer; won the 1958 National Horse Show Open Jumper championship against professional and Olympic level competition; twice named the American Horse Shows Association Horse of the Year
Totilas, first horse to score above a 90 in dressage
Touch of Class, bay TB mare, ridden by Joe Fargis, won two gold medals in the 1984 Olympics
Valegro, current world record holder in dressage with 94,3% Royal Dutch Sport Horse, ridden by Charlotte Dujardin
Military horses
Babieca, horse of El Cid
Black Jack, the last Quartermaster-issued U.S. Army horse, died February 6, 1976
Blueskin, one of Washington's two primary mounts during the American Revolutionary War
Bucephalus, favorite horse of Alexander the Great; one of the most famous horses of antiquity; following his death after the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BCE, Alexander promptly founded the city of Bucephala upon the spot in his memory
Chetak, war horse of Rana Pratap of Mewar in India; died defending its master in 1576 during the Battle of Haldighati
Cincinnati, one of Ulysses S. Grant's horses
Comanche, only documented survivor of General Custer's 7th Cavalry detachment at the Battle of Little Big Horn
Copenhagen, the Duke of Wellington's favourite horse, which he rode at the Battle of Waterloo
Dhūljānāḥ, the horse of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala
Favorito, the personal horse of Charles Albert of Savoy, King of Sardinia from 1831 to the king’s death in 1849
Kasztanka, horse of Józef Piłsudski, likely the most famous Polish horse
Llamrei, horse of King Arthur
Marengo, Napoleon's horse which was captured by the British, and outlived Napoleon by eight years
Matsukaze, personal horse of Maeda Keiji
Nelson, one of Washington's two primary mounts during the American Revolutionary War
Palomo, main horse of Simon Bolivar
Reckless, became a decorated Marine for carrying supplies and ammunition into battle for the US Marine platoon in the Korean War
Red Hare, also known as Chitu, Lü Bu's horse from the Three Kingdoms; inspired the phrase "Among men: Lü Bu. Among horses: Red Hare"
Sefton, survivor of the Hyde Park and Regent's Park bombings in 1982
Streiff, horse of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the battle of Lützen (1632)
Tencendur, warhorse of King Charlemagne
Traveller, Robert E. Lee's horse
Veillantif, horse of Roland, a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne
Warrior, "Old Warrior", the mount of General Jack Seely in the First World War from 1914 to 1918; awarded the Dickin Medal in 2014
Zuljanah, horse of Hussein ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala
Horses of various other fame
Bamboo Harvester, portrayed a talking horse in the title role of the TV series Mister Ed, retired in Shasta County
Brooklyn Supreme, said to be the largest horse in history
Burmese, favourite mount of Queen Elizabeth II; a gift from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Buttermilk, Dale Evans' horse
Champion, Gene Autry's horse
Clever Hans, a smart horse
Darley Arabian, Godolphin Arabian and Byerly Turk, stallions from whom all Thoroughbreds are descended
Figure (also known by the name of one of his owners, Justin Morgan), the foundation sire of the Morgan horse breed
Gun Rock, the offspring of Man O' War used in the 1920s at UC Davis to breed horses for the U.S. Army Cavalry
Hollywood Dun It, all-time leading reining sire and Quarter Horse
Huaso, Chilean-bred horse; holder of the high jump world record set in Chile on February 5 of 1949, one of the world's longest unbroken sport records
Incitatus, Emperor Caligula's favorite horse; may have been made a senator
Jim, former milk cart horse used to produce diphtheria antitoxin; contamination of this antitoxin inspired the Biologics Control Act of 1902
King, a foundation sire of the Quarter Horse breed
Marocco or Bankes's Horse, a late 16th- and early 17th-century English performing horse
Muhamed, German horse allegedly capable of solving cubic roots
Popcorn Deelites, the main horse who played Seabiscuit in the Oscar Nominated film Seabiscuit
Prometea, born May 28, 2003, the first cloned horse and the first to be born from and carried by its cloning mother
Rugged Lark, famous quarter horse owned by Carol Harris, in the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame
Sampson, the tallest horse ever recorded; a Shire; stood 21.2½ hands high
Thunder, Red Ryder's horse
Traveler, mascot of the University of Southern California
Trigger, Roy Rogers' Palomino
Zippo Pine Bar Inducted into American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame and National Snaffle Bit Association Hall of Fame
See also
List of fictional horses
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
Wonder Horses
Horsemanship of Ulysses S. Grant
References
Historical horses
Historical
Historical horses
Horses
|
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] |
203941
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano-
|
Nano-
|
Nano (symbol n) is a unit prefix meaning "one billionth". Used primarily with the metric system, this prefix denotes a factor of 10−9 or . It is frequently encountered in science and electronics for prefixing units of time and length.
Examples
One nanometer is about the length that a fingernail grows in one second.
Three gold atoms lined up are about one nanometer long.
If a toy marble were scaled down to one nanometer wide, Earth would scale to about wide.
One nanosecond is about the time required for light to travel 30 cm in air, or 20 cm in an optical fiber.
The prefix derives from the Greek (Latin ), meaning "dwarf". The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) officially endorsed the usage of nano as a standard prefix in 1960.
When used as a prefix for something other than a unit of measure (as for example in words like "nanoscience"), nano refers to nanotechnology, or means "on a scale of nanometres".
See also
nanoscopic scale.
RKM code
References
SI prefixes
simple:Nano-
|
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203943
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deca-
|
Deca-
|
Deca (International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; symbol: da) or deka (American spelling) is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of ten. The term is derived from the Greek () meaning ten.
The prefix was a part of the original metric system in 1795. It is not in very common usage, although the decapascal is occasionally used by audiologists. The decanewton is also encountered occasionally, probably because it is an SI approximation of the kilogram-force.
Its use is more common in Central Europe. In German, Polish, Czech, Slovak, and Hungarian, deka (or deko) is common, and used in self-standing form, always meaning decagram.
A runway number typically indicates its magnetic azimuth in decadegrees.
Before the symbol as an SI prefix was standardized as da with the introduction of the International System of Units in 1960, various other symbols were more common, such as dk (e.g., UK and Austria), D (e.g., Germany, Eastern Europe), and Da. For syntactical reasons, the HP 48, 49, 50 series, as well as the HP 39gII and Prime calculators use the unit prefix D.
1 decametre = 10 metres
1 decalitre = 10 litres
1 decare = 10 ares
Examples:
The blue whale is approximately 30 metres or 3 decametres in length.
See also
Metric prefix
References
External links
BIPM website
SI prefixes
|
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] |
203944
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deci-
|
Deci-
|
Deci (symbol d) is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one tenth. Proposed in 1793, and adopted in 1795, the prefix comes from the Latin , meaning "tenth". Since 1960, the prefix is part of the International System of Units (SI).
A frequent use of the prefix is in the unit deciliter (dl), common in food recipes; many European homes have a deciliter measure for flour, water, etc. A common measure in engineering is the unit decibel for measuring ratios of power and root-power quantities, such as sound level and electrical amplification.
Example
The diameter of a compact disc is about 12 centimetres or 1.2 decimetres.
References
SI prefixes
|
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] |
203945
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deka
|
Deka
|
Deka or DEKA may refer to:
deka-, a variant spelling for deca-, a prefix in the International System of Units
Deka, Pomeranian Voivodeship, village in northern Poland
DEKA (New Zealand), a defunct discount store chain, formerly in New Zealand
DEKA (company), located in Manchester, New Hampshire in the United States
Jadab Chandra Deka, Indian politician
Ramesh C. Deka, specialist and the Director of All India Institute of Medical Sciences
See also
Deca (disambiguation)
|
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] |
203946
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecto-
|
Hecto-
|
Hecto (symbol: h) is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of one hundred. It was adopted as a multiplier in 1795, and comes from the Greek , meaning "hundred". In 19th century English it was sometimes spelled "hecato", in line with a puristic opinion by Thomas Young. Its unit symbol as an SI prefix in the International System of Units (SI) is the lower case letter h.
The prefix is rarely used in general, but has certain specific applications:
hectopascal (hPa), in meteorology, for atmospheric pressure, the modern equivalent of the traditional millibar.
hectolitre (hl or hL), in agriculture, for liquids (notably wine and milk) and bulk commodities (e.g., grain).
hectogram (hg), in agronomy, for quantities of animal feed (hectogram/animal) and for measures of agricultural productivity (hectogram/hectare); also used in Italy abbreviated as , and in Canada, New Zealand and Sweden simply as 100 g, for retail sale of cold cuts and meat.
hectometre (hm), in radio astronomy, occasionally used to indicate a radio band by wavelength
In surveying, a square hectometre is called a hectare (ha, or 100 ares = 1 hm2 = 10,000 m2).
See also
Metric prefix
Numeral prefix
References
SI prefixes
100 (number)
|
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203949
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yotta-
|
Yotta-
|
Yotta is the largest decimal unit prefix in the metric system, denoting a factor of 1024 (), or one septillion. It has the symbol Y. The prefix name is derived from the Latin octo or the Ancient Greek (), meaning eight, because it is equal to 10008. It was added as an SI prefix to the International System of Units (SI) in 1991.
Usage examples
The mass of the Earth is .
The mass of the oceans is about .
The total power output of the Sun is approximately .
The observable universe is estimated to be in diameter.
One yottabyte (YB) is a unit of digital information or information storage capacity for one septillion bytes or zettabytes. The yobibyte (YiB) is a related unit that uses a binary prefix and means 10248 bytes, which is approximately 1.2 septillion bytes.
See also
Metric prefix
Googol
References
External links
BIPM website
SI prefixes
|
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203950
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exa-
|
Exa-
|
Exa is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting 1018 or . It was added as an SI prefix to the International System of Units (SI) in 1975, and has the unit symbol E.
Exa comes from the ancient Greek héx, used as a prefix hexá-, meaning six (like hexa-), because it is equal to 10006.
Examples:
The total storage needed by Gmail as of April 2012, ignoring backups and compression, is more than an exabyte (10,240 megabytes of storage per user multiplied by an estimated 260 million users)
1 EeV = 1018 electronvolts = 0.1602 joule
United States electric energy consumption is about 15 exajoule per year
1 exasecond is approximately 32 billion years
0.43 Es ≈ the approximate age of the universe
1 exametre is approximately 110 light-years
1.6 Em is 172 ± 12.5 light years—diameter of Omega Centauri (one of the largest-known globular clusters, perhaps containing over a million stars)
150 exahashes/s is the calculation rate of the Bitcoin network ≈ hashes per second as of January 2021
1.5 exaFLOPS is the compute performance of the upcoming 'Frontier' supercomputer built by AMD and Cray for Oak Ridge National Laboratory
See also
Binary prefix
Exabyte
Exametre
Metric prefix
Orders of magnitude (numbers)
Orders of magnitude (time)
References
External links
BIPM website
Exa Corporation
Exa Proxy Test
SI prefixes
|
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203951
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zetta-
|
Zetta-
|
Zetta (unit symbol prefix Z) is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of 1021 or . The prefix was added as an SI prefix to the International System of Units (SI) in 1991.
Zetta is derived from the Latin numeral 'seven', and represents 10007.
A prefix of the same value, hepta, derived from the Ancient Greek () 'seven', was informally introduced a few years before the promulgation of zetta, but never received official sanction and is considered obsolete.
Examples:
The mass of Earth's atmosphere is approximately five zettagrams (Zg).
The volume of seawater in the Earth's oceans is approximately 1.369 zettalitres (ZL).
The Avogadro constant is 602.2 Zmol−1.
The diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy is estimated to be between 0.9 and 1.7 zettametres (Zm).
, the World Wide Web was estimated to comprise nearly half a zettabyte (ZB) of data. The zebibyte (ZiB), a related unit that uses a binary prefix, represents 10247 bytes.
See also
Metric prefix
Zettascale computing
References
External links
BIPM website
SI prefixes
|
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] |
203954
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zepto-
|
Zepto-
|
Zepto (unit symbol z) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of 10−21, i.e. .
Adopted into the International System of Units (SI) in 1991, it is derived from the Latin , seven, since it is equal to 1000−7.
Examples of its use:
The electric charge on one electron is 160.2176634 zeptocoulombs (zC).
One zeptomole (zmol) of a substance contains 602 particles.
The human insulin molecule has a mass of roughly 10 zeptograms (zg).
The travel time of a photon across molecular hydrogen is 247 zeptoseconds (zs) for the average bond length of molecular hydrogen.
References
SI prefixes
|
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] |
203955
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yocto-
|
Yocto-
|
Yocto (symbol y) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of 10−24 or .
It was adopted in 1991 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures. It comes from the Latin octo or the Ancient Greek , meaning "eight", because it is equal to 1000−8. Yocto- is the smallest official SI prefix.
It can be used to state a subatomic particle's mass, for example:
{|
|-
|Rest mass of electron:||
|-
|Rest mass of proton: ||
|-
|Rest mass of neutron: ||
|-
|Atomic mass unit: ||
|}
References
SI prefixes
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse%20problem
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Inverse problem
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An inverse problem in science is the process of calculating from a set of observations the causal factors that produced them: for example, calculating an image in X-ray computed tomography, source reconstruction in acoustics, or calculating the density of the Earth from measurements of its gravity field. It is called an inverse problem because it starts with the effects and then calculates the causes. It is the inverse of a forward problem, which starts with the causes and then calculates the effects.
Inverse problems are some of the most important mathematical problems in science and mathematics because they tell us about parameters that we cannot directly observe. They have wide application in system identification, optics, radar, acoustics, communication theory, signal processing, medical imaging, computer vision, geophysics, oceanography, astronomy, remote sensing, natural language processing, machine learning, nondestructive testing, slope stability analysis and many other fields.
History
Starting with the effects to discover the causes has concerned physicists for centuries. A historical example is the calculations of Adams and Le Verrier which led to the discovery of Neptune from the perturbed trajectory of Uranus. However, a formal study of inverse problems was not initiated until the 20th century.
One of the earliest examples of a solution to an inverse problem was discovered by Hermann Weyl and published in 1911, describing the asymptotic behavior of eigenvalues of the Laplace–Beltrami operator. Today known as Weyl's law, it is perhaps most easily understood as an answer to the question of whether it is possible to hear the shape of a drum. Weyl conjectured that the eigenfrequencies of a drum would be related to the area and perimeter of the drum by a particular equation, a result improved upon by later mathematicians.
The field of inverse problems was later touched on by Soviet-Armenian physicist, Viktor Ambartsumian.
While still a student, Ambartsumian thoroughly studied the theory of atomic structure, the formation of energy levels, and the Schrödinger equation and its properties, and when he mastered the theory of eigenvalues of differential equations, he pointed out the apparent analogy between discrete energy levels and the eigenvalues of differential equations. He then asked: given a family of eigenvalues, is it possible to find the form of the equations whose eigenvalues they are? Essentially Ambartsumian was examining the inverse Sturm–Liouville problem, which dealt with determining the equations of a vibrating string. This paper was published in 1929 in the German physics journal Zeitschrift für Physik and remained in obscurity for a rather long time. Describing this situation after many decades, Ambartsumian said, "If an astronomer publishes an article with a mathematical content in a physics journal, then the most likely thing that will happen to it is oblivion."
Nonetheless, toward the end of the Second World War, this article, written by the 20-year-old Ambartsumian, was found by Swedish mathematicians and formed the starting point for a whole area of research on inverse problems, becoming the foundation of an entire discipline.
Then important efforts have been devoted to a "direct solution" of the inverse scattering problem especially by Gelfand and Levitan in the Soviet Union. They proposed an analytic constructive method for determining the solution. When computers became available, some authors have investigated the possibility of applying their approach to similar problems such as the inverse problem in the 1D wave equation. But it rapidly turned out that the inversion is an unstable process: noise and errors can be tremendously amplified making a direct solution hardly practicable.
Then, around the seventies, the least-squares and probabilistic approaches came in and turned out to be very helpful for the determination of parameters involved in various physical systems. This approach met a lot of success. Nowadays inverse problems are also investigated in fields outside physics, such as chemistry, economics, and computer science. Eventually, as numerical models become prevalent in many parts of society, we may expect an inverse problem associated with each of these numerical models.
Conceptual understanding
Since Newton, scientists have extensively attempted to model the world. In particular, when a mathematical model is available (for instance, Newton's gravitational law or Coulomb's equation for electrostatics), we can foresee, given some parameters that describe a physical system (such as a distribution of mass or a distribution of electric charges), the behavior of the system. This approach is known as mathematical modeling and the above-mentioned physical parameters are called the model parameters or simply the model. To be precise, we introduce the notion of state of the physical system: it is the solution of the mathematical model's equation. In optimal control theory, these equations are referred to as the state equations. In many situations we are not truly interested in knowing the physical state but just its effects on some objects (for instance, the effects the gravitational field has on a specific planet). Hence we have to introduce another operator, called the observation operator, which converts the state of the physical system (here the predicted gravitational field) into what we want to observe (here the movements of the considered planet). We can now introduce the so-called forward problem, which consists of two steps:
determination of the state of the system from the physical parameters that describe it
application of the observation operator to the estimated state of the system so as to predict the behavior of what we want to observe.
This leads to introduce another operator (F stands for "forward") which maps model parameters into , the data that model predicts that is the result of this two-step procedure. Operator is called forward operator or forward map.
In this approach we basically attempt at predicting the effects knowing the causes.
The table below shows, the Earth being considered as the physical system and for different physical phenomena, the model parameters that describe the system, the physical quantity that describes the state of the physical system and observations commonly made on the state of the system.
In the inverse problem approach we, roughly speaking, try to know the causes given the effects.
General statement of the inverse problem
The inverse problem is the "inverse" of the forward problem: we want to determine the model parameters that produce the data that is the observation we have recorded (the subscript obs stands for observed).
So that we look for the model parameters such that (at least approximately)
where is the forward map. We denote by the (possibly infinite) number of model parameters, and by the number of recorded data.
We introduce some useful concepts and the associated notations that will be used below:
The space of models denoted by : the vector space spanned by model parameters; it has dimensions;
The space of data denoted by : if we organize the measured samples in a vector with components (if our measurements consist of functions, is a vector space with infinite dimensions);
: the response of model ; it consists of the data predicted by model ;
: the image of by the forward map, it is a subset of (but not a subspace unless is linear) made of responses of all models;
: the data misfits (or residuals) associated with model : they can be arranged as a vector, an element of .
The concept of residuals is very important: in the scope of finding a model that matches the data, their analysis reveals if the considered model can be considered as realistic or not. Systematic unrealistic discrepancies between the data and the model responses also reveals that the forward map is inadequate and may give insights about an improved forward map.
When operator is linear, the inverse problem is linear. Otherwise, that is most often, the inverse problem is nonlinear.
Also, models cannot always be described by a finite number of parameters. It is the case when we look for distributed parameters (a distribution of wave-speeds for instance): in such cases the goal of the inverse problem is to retrieve one or several functions. Such inverse problems are inverse problems with infinite dimension.
Linear inverse problems
In the case of a linear forward map and when we deal with a finite number of model parameters, the forward map can be written as a linear system
where is the matrix that characterizes the forward map.
An elementary example: Earth's gravitational field
Only a few physical systems are actually linear with respect to the model parameters. One such system from geophysics is that of the Earth's gravitational field. The Earth's gravitational field is determined by the density distribution of the Earth in the subsurface. Because the lithology of the Earth changes quite significantly, we are able to observe minute differences in the Earth's gravitational field on the surface of the Earth. From our understanding of gravity (Newton's Law of Gravitation), we know that the mathematical expression for gravity is:
here is a measure of the local gravitational acceleration, is the universal gravitational constant, is the local mass (which is related to density) of the rock in the subsurface and is the distance from the mass to the observation point.
By discretizing the above expression, we are able to relate the discrete data observations on the surface of the Earth to the discrete model parameters (density) in the subsurface that we wish to know more about. For example, consider the case where we have measurements carried out at 5 locations on the surface of the Earth. In this case, our data vector, is a column vector of dimension (5x1): its th component is associated with the th observation location. We also know that we only have five unknown masses in the subsurface (unrealistic but used to demonstrate the concept) with known location: we denote by the distance between the th observation location and the th mass. Thus, we can construct the linear system relating the five unknown masses to the five data points as follows:
To solve for the model parameters that fit our data, we might be able to invert the matrix to directly convert the measurements into our model parameters. For example:
A system with five equations and five unknowns is a very specific situation: our example was designed to end up with this specificity. In general, the numbers of data and unknowns are different so that matrix is not square.
However, even a square matrix can have no inverse: matrix can be rank deficient (i.e. has zero eigenvalues) and the solution of the system is not unique. Then the solution of the inverse problem will be undetermined. This is a first difficulty. Over-determined systems (more equations than unknowns) have other issues.
Also noise may corrupt our observations making possibly outside the space of possible responses to model parameters so that solution of the system may not exist. This is another difficulty.
Tools to overcome the first difficulty
The first difficulty reflects a crucial problem: Our observations do not contain enough information and additional data are required. Additional data can come from physical prior information on the parameter values, on their spatial distribution or, more generally, on their mutual dependence. It can also come from other experiments: For instance, we may think of integrating data recorded by gravimeters and seismographs for a better estimation of densities.
The integration of this additional information is basically a problem of statistics. This discipline is the one that can answer the question: How to mix quantities of different nature? We will be more precise in the section "Bayesian approach" below.
Concerning distributed parameters, prior information about their spatial distribution often consists of information about some derivatives of these distributed parameters. Also, it is common practice, although somewhat artificial, to look for the "simplest" model that reasonably matches the data. This is usually achieved by penalizing the norm of the gradient (or the total variation) of the parameters (this approach is also referred to as the maximization of the entropy). One can also make the model simple through a parametrization that introduces freedom degrees only when necessary.
Additional information may also be integrated through inequality constraints on the model parameters or some functions of them. Such constraints are important to avoid unrealistic values for the parameters (negative values for instance). In this case, the space spanned by model parameters will no longer be a vector space but a subset of admissible models denoted by in the sequel.
Tools to overcome the second difficulty
As mentioned above, noise may be such that our measurements are not the image of any model, so that we cannot look for a model that produces the data but rather look for the best (or optimal) model: that is, the one that best matches the data. This leads us to minimize an objective function, namely a functional that quantifies how big the residuals are or how far the predicted data are from the observed data. Of course, when we have perfect data (i.e. no noise) then the recovered model should fit the observed data perfectly. A standard objective function, , is of the form:
where is the Euclidean norm (it will be the norm when the measurements are functions instead of samples) of the residuals. This approach amounts to making use of ordinary least squares, an approach widely used in statistics. However, the Euclidean norm is known to be very sensitive to outliers: to avoid this difficulty we may think of using other distances, for instance the norm, in replacement of the norm.
Bayesian approach
Very similar to the least-squares approach is the probabilistic approach: If we know the statistics of the noise that contaminates the data, we can think of seeking the most likely model m, which is the model that matches the maximum likelihood criterion. If the noise is Gaussian, the maximum likelihood criterion appears as a least-squares criterion, the Euclidean scalar product in data space being replaced by a scalar product involving the co-variance of the noise. Also, should prior information on model parameters be available, we could think of using Bayesian inference to formulate the solution of the inverse problem. This approach is described in detail in Tarantola's book.
Numerical solution of our elementary example
Here we make use of the Euclidean norm to quantify the data misfits. As we deal with a linear inverse problem, the objective function is quadratic. For its minimization, it is classical to compute its gradient using the same rationale (as we would to minimize a function of only one variable). At the optimal model , this gradient vanishes which can be written as:
where FT denotes the matrix transpose of F. This equation simplifies to:
This expression is known as the normal equation and gives us a possible solution to the inverse problem.
In our example matrix turns out to be generally full rank so that the equation above makes sense and determines uniquely the model parameters: we do not need integrating additional information for ending up with a unique solution.
Mathematical and computational aspects
Inverse problems are typically ill-posed, as opposed to the well-posed problems usually met in mathematical modeling. Of the three conditions for a well-posed problem suggested by Jacques Hadamard (existence, uniqueness, and stability of the solution or solutions) the condition of stability is most often violated. In the sense of functional analysis, the inverse problem is represented by a mapping between metric spaces. While inverse problems are often formulated in infinite dimensional spaces, limitations to a finite number of measurements, and the practical consideration of recovering only a finite number of unknown parameters, may lead to the problems being recast in discrete form. In this case the inverse problem will typically be ill-conditioned. In these cases, regularization may be used to introduce mild assumptions on the solution and prevent overfitting. Many instances of regularized inverse problems can be interpreted as special cases of Bayesian inference.
Numerical solution of the optimization problem
Some inverse problems have a very simple solution, for instance, when one has a set of unisolvent functions, meaning a set of functions such that evaluating them at distinct points yields a set of linearly independent vectors. This means that given a linear combination of these functions, the coefficients can be computed by arranging the vectors as the columns of a matrix and then inverting this matrix. The simplest example of unisolvent functions is polynomials constructed, using the unisolvence theorem, so as to be unisolvent. Concretely, this is done by inverting the Vandermonde matrix. But this a very specific situation.
In general, the solution of an inverse problem requires sophisticated optimization algorithms. When the model is described by a large number of parameters (the number of unknowns involved in some diffraction tomography applications can reach one billion), solving the linear system associated with the normal equations can be cumbersome. The numerical method to be used for solving the optimization problem depends in particular on the cost required for computing the solution of the forward problem. Once chosen the appropriate algorithm for solving the forward problem (a straightforward matrix-vector multiplication may be not adequate when matrix is huge), the appropriate algorithm for carrying out the minimization can be found in textbooks dealing with numerical methods for the solution of linear systems and for the minimization of quadratic functions (see for instance Ciarlet or Nocedal).
Also, the user may wish to add physical constraints to the models: In this case, they have to be familiar with constrained optimization methods, a subject in itself. In all cases, computing the gradient of the objective function often is a key element for the solution of the optimization problem. As mentioned above, information about the spatial distribution of a distributed parameter can be introduced through the parametrization. One can also think of adapting this parametrization during the optimization.
Should the objective function be based on a norm other than the Euclidean norm, we have to leave the area of quadratic optimization. As a result, the optimization problem becomes more difficult. In particular, when the norm is used for quantifying the data misfit the objective function is no longer differentiable: its gradient does not make sense any longer. Dedicated methods (see for instance Lemaréchal) from non differentiable optimization come in.
Once the optimal model is computed we have to address the question: "Can we trust this model?" The question can be formulated as follows: How large is the set of models that match the data "nearly as well" as this model? In the case of quadratic objective functions, this set is contained in a hyper-ellipsoid, a subset of ( is the number of unknowns), whose size depends on what we mean with "nearly as well", that is on the noise level. The direction of the largest axis of this ellipsoid (eigenvector associated with the smallest eigenvalue of matrix ) is the direction of poorly determined components: if we follow this direction, we can bring a strong perturbation to the model without changing significantly the value of the objective function and thus end up with a significantly different quasi-optimal model. We clearly see that the answer to the question "can we trust this model" is governed by the noise level and by the eigenvalues of the Hessian of the objective function or equivalently, in the case where no regularization has been integrated, by the singular values of matrix . Of course, the use of regularization (or other kinds of prior information) reduces the size of the set of almost optimal solutions and, in turn, increases the confidence we can put in the computed solution.
Stability, regularization and model discretization in infinite dimension
We focus here on the recovery of a distributed parameter.
When looking for distributed parameters we have to discretize these unknown functions. Doing so, we reduce the dimension of the problem to something finite. But now, the question is: is there any link between the solution we compute and the one of the initial problem? Then another question: what do we mean with the solution of the initial problem? Since a finite number of data does not allow the determination of an infinity of unknowns, the original data misfit functional has to be regularized to ensure the uniqueness of the solution. Many times, reducing the unknowns to a finite-dimensional space will provide an adequate regularization: the computed solution will look like a discrete version of the solution we were looking for. For example, a naive discretization will often work for solving the deconvolution problem: it will work as long as we do not allow missing frequencies to show up in the numerical solution. But many times, regularization has to be integrated explicitly in the objective function.
In order to understand what may happen, we have to keep in mind that solving such a linear inverse problem amount to solving a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind:
where is the kernel, and are vectors of , and is a domain in . This holds for a 2D application. For a 3D application, we consider . Note that here the model parameters consist of a function and that the response of a model also consists of a function denoted by . This equation is an extension to infinite dimension of the matrix equation given in the case of discrete problems.
For sufficiently smooth the operator defined above is compact on reasonable Banach spaces such as the . F. Riesz theory states that the set of singular values of such an operator contains zero (hence the existence of a null-space), is finite or at most countable, and, in the latter case, they constitute a sequence that goes to zero. In the case of a symmetric kernel, we have an infinity of eigenvalues and the associated eigenvectors constitute a hilbertian basis of . Thus any solution of this equation is determined up to an additive function in the null-space and, in the case of infinity of singular values, the solution (which involves the reciprocal of arbitrary small eigenvalues) is unstable: two ingredients that make the solution of this integral equation a typical ill-posed problem! However, we can define a solution through the pseudo-inverse of the forward map (again up to an arbitrary additive function). When the forward map is compact, the classical Tikhonov regularization will work if we use it for integrating prior information stating that the norm of the solution should be as small as possible: this will make the inverse problem well-posed. Yet, as in the finite dimension case, we have to question the confidence we can put in the computed solution. Again, basically, the information lies in the eigenvalues of the Hessian operator. Should subspaces containing eigenvectors associated with small eigenvalues be explored for computing the solution, then the solution can hardly be trusted: some of its components will be poorly determined. The smallest eigenvalue is equal to the weight introduced in Tikhonov regularization.
Irregular kernels may yield a forward map which is not compact and even unbounded if we naively equip the space of models with the norm. In such cases, the Hessian is not a bounded operator and the notion of eigenvalue does not make sense any longer. A mathematical analysis is required to make it a bounded operator and design a well-posed problem: an illustration can be found in. Again, we have to question the confidence we can put in the computed solution and we have to generalize the notion of eigenvalue to get the answer.
Analysis of the spectrum of the Hessian operator is thus a key element to determine how reliable the computed solution is. However, such an analysis is usually a very heavy task. This has led several authors to investigate alternative approaches in the case where we are not interested in all the components of the unknown function but only in sub-unknowns that are the images of the unknown function by a linear operator. These approaches are referred to as the " Backus and Gilbert method", Lions's sentinels approach, and the SOLA method: these approaches turned out to be strongly related with one another as explained in Chavent Finally, the concept of limited resolution, often invoked by physicists, is nothing but a specific view of the fact that some poorly determined components may corrupt the solution. But, generally speaking, these poorly determined components of the model are not necessarily associated with high frequencies.
Some classical linear inverse problems for the recovery of distributed parameters
The problems mentioned below correspond to different versions of the Fredholm integral: each of these is associated with a specific kernel .
Deconvolution
The goal of deconvolution is to reconstruct the original image or signal which appears as noisy and blurred on the data .
From a mathematical point of view, the kernel here only depends on the difference between and .
Tomographic methods
In these methods we attempt at recovering a distributed parameter, the observation consisting in the measurement of the integrals of this parameter carried out along a family of lines. We denote by the line in this family associated with measurement point . The observation at can thus be written as:
where is the arc-length along and a known weighting function. Comparing this equation with the Fredholm integral above, we notice that the kernel is kind of a delta function that peaks on line . With such a kernel, the forward map is not compact.
Computed tomography
In X-ray computed tomography the lines on which the parameter is integrated are straight lines: the tomographic reconstruction of the parameter distribution is based on the inversion of the Radon transform. Although from a theoretical point of view many linear inverse problems are well understood, problems involving the Radon transform and its generalisations still present many theoretical challenges with questions of sufficiency of data still unresolved. Such problems include incomplete data for the x-ray transform in three dimensions and problems involving the generalisation of the x-ray transform to tensor fields. Solutions explored include Algebraic Reconstruction Technique, filtered backprojection, and as computing power has increased, iterative reconstruction methods such as iterative Sparse Asymptotic Minimum Variance.
Diffraction tomography
Diffraction tomography is a classical linear inverse problem in exploration seismology: the amplitude recorded at one time for a given source-receiver pair is the sum of contributions arising from points such that the sum of the distances, measured in traveltimes, from the source and the receiver, respectively, is equal to the corresponding recording time. In 3D the parameter is not integrated along lines but over surfaces. Should the propagation velocity be constant, such points are distributed on an ellipsoid. The inverse problems consists in retrieving the distribution of diffracting points from the seismograms recorded along the survey, the velocity distribution being known. A direct solution has been originally proposed by Beylkin and Lambaré et al.: these works were the starting points of approaches known as amplitude preserved migration (see Beylkin and Bleistein). Should geometrical optics techniques (i.e. rays) be used for the solving the wave equation, these methods turn out to be closely related to the so-called least-squares migration methods derived from the least-squares approach (see Lailly, Tarantola).
Doppler tomography (astrophysics)
If we consider a rotating stellar object, the spectral lines we can observe on a spectral profile will be shifted due to Doppler effect. Doppler tomography aims at converting the information contained in spectral monitoring of the object into a 2D image of the emission (as a function of the radial velocity and of the phase in the periodic rotation movement) of the stellar atmosphere. As explained in Marsh this linear inverse problem is tomography like: we have to recover a distributed parameter which has been integrated along lines to produce its effects in the recordings.
Inverse heat conduction
Early publications on inverse heat conduction arose from determining surface heat flux during atmospheric re-entry from buried temperature sensors.
Other applications where surface heat flux is needed but surface sensors are not practical include: inside reciprocating engines, inside rocket engines; and, testing of nuclear reactor components. A variety of numerical techniques have been developed to address the ill-posedness and sensitivity to measurement error caused by damping and lagging in the temperature signal.
Non-linear inverse problems
Non-linear inverse problems constitute an inherently more difficult family of inverse problems. Here the forward map is a non-linear operator. Modeling of physical phenomena often relies on the solution of a partial differential equation (see table above except for gravity law): although these partial differential equations are often linear, the physical parameters that appear in these equations depend in a non-linear way of the state of the system and therefore on the observations we make on it.
Some classical non-linear inverse problems
Inverse scattering problems
Whereas linear inverse problems were completely solved from the theoretical point of view at the end of the nineteenth century , only one class of nonlinear inverse problems was so before 1970, that of inverse spectral and (one space dimension) inverse scattering problems, after the seminal work of the Russian mathematical school (Krein, Gelfand, Levitan, Marchenko). A large review of the results has been given by Chadan and Sabatier in their book "Inverse Problems of Quantum Scattering Theory" (two editions in English, one in Russian).
In this kind of problem, data are properties of the spectrum of a linear operator which describe the scattering. The spectrum is made of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions, forming together the "discrete spectrum", and generalizations, called the continuous spectrum. The very remarkable physical point is that scattering experiments give information only on the continuous spectrum, and that knowing its full spectrum is both necessary and sufficient in recovering the scattering operator. Hence we have invisible parameters, much more interesting than the null space which has a similar property in linear inverse problems. In addition, there are physical motions in which the spectrum of such an operator is conserved as a consequence of such motion. This phenomenon is governed by special nonlinear partial differential evolution equations, for example the Korteweg–de Vries equation. If the spectrum of the operator is reduced to one single eigenvalue, its corresponding motion is that of a single bump that propagates at constant velocity and without deformation, a solitary wave called a "soliton".
A perfect signal and its generalizations for the Korteweg–de Vries equation or other integrable nonlinear partial differential equations are of great interest, with many possible applications. This area has been studied as a branch of mathematical physics since the 1970s. Nonlinear inverse problems are also currently studied in many fields of applied science (acoustics, mechanics, quantum mechanics, electromagnetic scattering - in particular radar soundings, seismic soundings, and nearly all imaging modalities).
A final example related to the Riemann hypothesis was given by Wu and Sprung, the idea is that in the semiclassical old quantum theory the inverse of the potential inside the Hamiltonian is proportional to the half-derivative of the eigenvalues (energies) counting function n(x).
Permeability matching in oil and gas reservoirs
The goal is to recover the diffusion coefficient in the parabolic partial differential equation that models single phase fluid flows in porous media. This problem has been the object of many studies since a pioneering work carried out in the early seventies. Concerning two-phase flows an important problem is to estimate the relative permeabilities and the capillary pressures.
Inverse problems in the wave equations
The goal is to recover the wave-speeds (P and S waves) and the density distributions from seismograms. Such inverse problems are of prime interest in seismology.
We can basically consider two mathematical models:
The acoustic wave equation (in which S waves are ignored when the space dimensions are 2 or 3)
The elastodynamics equation in which the P and S wave velocities can be derived from the Lamé parameters and the density.
These basic hyperbolic equations can be upgraded by incorporating attenuation, anisotropy,...
The solution of the inverse problem in the 1D wave equation has been the object of many studies. It is one of the very few non-linear inverse problems for which we can prove the uniqueness of the solution. The analysis of the stability of the solution was another challenge. Practical applications, using the least-squares approach, were developed.
Extension to 2D or 3D problems and to the elastodynamics equations was attempted since the 80's but turned out to be very difficult ! This problem often referred to as Full Waveform Inversion (FWI), is not yet completely solved: one of the main difficulties is the chaotic behavior of the data misfit function. Some authors have investigated the possibility of reformulating the inverse problem so as to make the objective function less chaotic than the data misfit function.
Travel-time tomography
Realizing how difficult is the inverse problem in the wave equation, seismologists investigated a simplified approach making use of geometrical optics. In particular they aimed at inverting for the propagation velocity distribution, knowing the arrival times of wave-fronts observed on seismograms. These wave-fronts can be associated with direct arrivals or with reflections associated with reflectors whose geometry is to be determined, jointly with the velocity distribution.
The arrival time distribution ( is a point in physical space) of a wave-front issued from a point source, satisfies the Eikonal equation:
where denotes the slowness (reciprocal of the velocity) distribution. The presence of makes this equation nonlinear. It is classically solved by shooting rays (trajectories about which the arrival time is stationary) from the point source.
This problem is tomography like: the measured arrival times are the integral along the ray-path of the slowness. But this tomography like problem is nonlinear, mainly because the unknown ray-path geometry depends upon the velocity (or slowness) distribution. In spite of its nonlinear character, travel-time tomography turned out to be very effective for determining the propagation velocity in the Earth or in the subsurface, the latter aspect being a key element for seismic imaging, in particular using methods mentioned in Section "Diffraction tomography".
Mathematical aspects: Hadamard's questions
The questions concern well-posedness: Does the least-squares problem have a unique solution which depends continuously on the data (stability problem)? It is the first question, but it is also a difficult one because of the non-linearity of .
In order to see where the difficulties arise from, Chavent proposed to conceptually split the minimization of the data misfit function into two consecutive steps ( is the subset of admissible models):
projection step: given find a projection on (nearest point on according to the distance involved in the definition of the objective function)
given this projection find one pre-image that is a model whose image by operator is this projection.
Difficulties can - and usually will - arise in both steps:
operator is not likely to be one-to-one, therefore there can be more than one pre-image,
even when is one-to-one, its inverse may not be continuous over ,
the projection on may not exist, should this set be not closed,
the projection on can be non-unique and not continuous as this can be non-convex due to the non-linearity of .
We refer to Chavent for a mathematical analysis of these points.
Computational aspects
A non-convex data misfit function
The forward map being nonlinear, the data misfit function is likely to be non-convex, making local minimization techniques inefficient. Several approaches have been investigated to overcome this difficulty:
use of global optimization techniques such as sampling of the posterior density function and Metropolis algorithm in the inverse problem probabilistic framework, genetic algorithms (alone or in combination with Metropolis algorithm: see for an application to the determination of permeabilities that match the existing permeability data), neural networks, regularization techniques including multi scale analysis;
reformulation of the least-squares objective function so as to make it smoother (see for the inverse problem in the wave equations.)
Computation of the gradient of the objective function
Inverse problems, especially in infinite dimension, may be large size, thus requiring important computing time. When the forward map is nonlinear, the computational difficulties increase and minimizing the objective function can be difficult. Contrary to the linear situation, an explicit use of the Hessian matrix for solving the normal equations does not make sense here: the Hessian matrix varies with models. Much more effective is the evaluation of the gradient of the objective function for some models. Important computational effort can be saved when we can avoid the very heavy computation of the Jacobian ( often called "Fréchet derivatives"): the adjoint state method, proposed by Chavent and Lions, is aimed to avoid this very heavy computation. It is now very widely used.
Applications
Inverse problem theory is used extensively in weather predictions, oceanography, hydrology, and petroleum engineering.
Inverse problems are also found in the field of heat transfer, where a surface heat flux is estimated outgoing from temperature data measured inside a rigid body; and, in understanding the controls on plant-matter decay. The linear inverse problem is also the fundamental of spectral estimation and direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation in signal processing.
See also
Atmospheric sounding
Backus–Gilbert method
Computed tomography
Algebraic reconstruction technique
Filtered backprojection
Iterative reconstruction
Data assimilation
Engineering optimization
Grey box model
Mathematical geophysics
Optimal estimation
Seismic inversion
Tikhonov regularization
Compressed sensing
Academic journals
Four main academic journals cover inverse problems in general:
Inverse Problems
Journal of Inverse and Ill-posed Problems
Inverse Problems in Science and Engineering
Inverse Problems and Imaging
Many journals on medical imaging, geophysics, non-destructive testing, etc. are dominated by inverse problems in those areas.
References
References
Chadan, Khosrow & Sabatier, Pierre Célestin (1977). Inverse Problems in Quantum Scattering Theory. Springer-Verlag.
Aster, Richard; Borchers, Brian, and Thurber, Clifford (2018). Parameter Estimation and Inverse Problems, Third Edition, Elsevier. ,
Further reading
External links
Inverse Problems International Association
Eurasian Association on Inverse Problems
Finnish Inverse Problems Society
Inverse Problems Network
Albert Tarantola's website, includes a free PDF version of his Inverse Problem Theory book, and some online articles on Inverse Problems
Inverse Problems page at the University of Alabama
Inverse Problems and Geostatistics Project, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen
Andy Ganse's Geophysical Inverse Theory Resources Page
Finnish Centre of Excellence in Inverse Problems Research
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203958
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus%20chamaemorus
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Rubus chamaemorus
|
Rubus chamaemorus is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae, native to cool temperate regions, alpine and arctic tundra and boreal forest. This herbaceous perennial produces amber-colored edible fruit similar to the blackberry. English common names include cloudberry, nordic berry, bakeapple (in Newfoundland and Labrador), knotberry and knoutberry (in England), aqpik or low-bush salmonberry (in Alaska – not to be confused with salmonberry, Rubus spectabilis), and averin or evron (in Scotland).
Description
Unlike most Rubus species, the cloudberry is dioecious, and fruit production by a female plant requires pollination from a male plant.
The cloudberry grows to high. The leaves alternate between having 5 and 7 soft, handlike lobes on straight, branchless stalks. After pollination, the white (sometimes reddish-tipped) flowers form raspberry-sized aggregate fruits which are more plentiful in wooded rather than sun-exposed habitats. Consisting of between 5 and 25 drupelets, each fruit is initially pale red, ripening into an amber color in early autumn.
Distribution and ecology
Cloudberries are a circumpolar boreal plant, occurring naturally throughout the Northern Hemisphere from 78°N, south to about 55°N, and are scattered south to 44°N mainly in mountainous areas and moorlands. In Europe, they grow in the Nordic countries but are rare in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). They occur across northern Russia east towards the Pacific Ocean as far south as Japan. Due to peatland drainage and peat exploitation, they are considered endangered and are under legal protection in Germany's Weser and Elbe valleys, and at isolated sites in the English Pennines and Scottish Highlands. A single, fragile site exists in the Sperrin Mountains of Northern Ireland.
In North America, cloudberries grow wild across Greenland, most of northern Canada, Alaska, northern Minnesota, New Hampshire, Maine, and New York.
Wide distribution occurs due to the excretion of the indigestible seeds by birds and mammals. Further distribution arises through its rhizomes, which are up to long and grow about below the soil surface, developing extensive and dense berry patches. Cuttings of these taken in May or August are successful in producing a genetic clone of the parent plant. The cloudberry grows in bogs, marshes, wet meadows, tundra and elevations of above sea level in Norway, requiring acidic ground (between 3.5 and 5 pH).
Cloudberry leaves are food for caterpillars of several Lepidoptera species. The moth Coleophora thulea has no other known food plants. See also List of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus.
Cultivation
Despite great demand as a delicacy (particularly in Sweden, Norway and Finland) the cloudberry is not widely cultivated and is primarily a wild plant. Wholesale prices vary widely based on the size of the yearly harvest, but cloudberries have gone for as little as €10/kg (in 2004).
Since the middle of the 1990s, however, the species has formed part of a multinational research project. Beginning in 2002, selected cultivars have been available to farmers, notably 'Apolto' (male), 'Fjellgull' (female) and 'Fjordgull' (female). The cloudberry can be cultivated in Arctic areas where few other crops are possible, for example along the northern coast of Norway.
Uses
When ripe, cloudberry fruits are golden-yellow, soft and juicy, and are rich in vitamin C. When eaten fresh, cloudberries have a distinctive tart taste. When over-ripe, they have a creamy texture somewhat like yogurt and a sweet flavor. They are often made into jams, juices, tarts, and liqueurs. In Finland, the berries are eaten with heated (a local cheese; the name translates to "bread-cheese"), as well as cream and sugar. In Sweden, cloudberries () and cloudberry jam are used as a topping for ice cream, pancakes, and waffles. In Norway, they are often mixed with whipped cream and sugar to be served as a dessert called (cloudberry cream), as a jam or as an ingredient in homemade ice cream. Cloudberry yoghurt— or —is a supermarket item in Norway.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make "bakeapple pie" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make "Eskimo ice cream" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik.
Due to its high vitamin C content, the berry is valued both by Nordic seafarers and Northern indigenous peoples. Its polyphenol content, including flavonoid compounds such as ellagic acid, appears to naturally preserve food preparations of the berries. Cloudberries can be preserved in their own juice without added sugar, if stored cool.
Extract of cloudberries is also used in cosmetics such as shower gels, hand creams and body lotions.
Alcoholic drinks
In Nordic countries, traditional liqueurs such as (Finland) are made of cloudberry, having a strong taste and high sugar content. Cloudberry is used as a flavouring for making akvavit. In northeastern Quebec, a cloudberry liqueur known as (aboriginal name) is made.
Nutrients and phytochemicals
Cloudberries are rich in vitamin C and ellagic acid, citric acid, malic acid, α-tocopherol, anthocyanins and the provitamin A carotenoid, β-carotene in contents which differ across regions of Finland due to sunlight exposure, rainfall or temperature. The ellagitannins lambertianin C and sanguiin H-6 are also present. Genotype of cloudberry variants may also affect polyphenol composition, particularly for ellagitannins, sanguiin H-6, anthocyanins and quercetin.
Polyphenol extracts from cloudberries have improved storage properties when microencapsulated using maltodextrin DE5-8. At least 14 volatile compounds, including vanillin, account for the aroma of cloudberries.
Cultural references
The cloudberry appears on the Finnish version of the 2 euro coin. The name of the hill in Breadalbane in the Scottish Highlands means "Hill of the Cloudberries" in Scottish Gaelic. Transactions of Camden's Britain (1637 edition) indicates the etymological origins of 'cloud-berry', the plant's name in old Lancashire dialect: 'Pendelhill [in Lancashire] advenceth itselfe up the skie [..] and in the very top thereof bringeth forth a peculiar plant which, as though it came out of the clowdes, they tearme clowdes-berry'. In Norrland cloudberries are known as Norrland's gold.
Harvesting on public property
In some northern European countries such as Norway, a common use policy to non-wood forest products allows anyone to pick cloudberries on public property and eat them on location, but only local residents may transport them from that location and only ripe berries may be picked. Since 1970 in Norway, while it has been illegal to pick unripe cloudberries, transporting ripe cloudberries from the harvest location is permitted in many counties.
References
Further reading
External links
Den virtuella floran - Distribution in Swedish with photos
chamaemorus
Berries
Flora of Europe
Flora of North America
Flora of temperate Asia
Finnish cuisine
Inuit cuisine
Canadian cuisine
Norwegian cuisine
Swedish cuisine
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Dioecious plants
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Wars
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New Zealand Wars
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The New Zealand Wars took place from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand Colonial government and allied Māori on one side and Māori and Māori-allied settlers on the other. They were previously commonly referred to as the Land Wars or the Māori Wars while Māori language names for the conflicts included Ngā pakanga o Aotearoa ("the great New Zealand wars") and Te riri Pākehā ("the white man's anger"). Historian James Belich popularised the name "New Zealand Wars" in the 1980s, although the term was first used by historian James Cowan in the 1920s.
Though the wars were initially localised conflicts triggered by tensions over disputed land purchases, they escalated dramatically from 1860 as the government became convinced it was facing united Māori resistance to further land sales and a refusal to acknowledge Crown sovereignty. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Kīngitanga (Māori King) movement and also acquire farming and residential land for British settlers. Later campaigns were aimed at quashing the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Mārire religion, which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity.
At the peak of hostilities in the 1860s, 18,000 British Army troops, supported by artillery, cavalry and local militia, battled about 4,000 Māori warriors in what became a gross imbalance of manpower and weaponry. Although outnumbered, the Māori were able to withstand their enemy with techniques that included anti-artillery bunkers and the use of carefully placed pā, or fortified villages, that allowed them to block their enemy's advance and often inflict heavy losses, yet quickly abandon their positions without significant loss. Guerrilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns, the lives of about 1,800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, and total Māori losses over the course of all the wars may have exceeded 2,100.
Violence over land ownership broke out first in the Wairau Valley in the South Island in June 1843, but rising tensions in Taranaki eventually led to the involvement of British military forces at Waitara in March 1860. The war between the government and Kīngitanga Māori spread to other areas of the North Island, with the biggest single campaign being the invasion of the Waikato in 1863–1864, before hostilities concluded with the pursuits of Riwha Tītokowaru in Taranaki (1868–1869) and Rangatira (chief) Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki on the east coast (1868–1872).
Although Māori were initially fought by British Army forces, the New Zealand government developed its own military force, including local militia, rifle volunteer groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and kūpapa (pro-government Māori). The government also responded with legislation to imprison Māori opponents and confiscate expansive areas of the North Island for sale to settlers, with the funds used to cover war expenses; punitive measures that on the east and west coasts provoked an intensification of Māori resistance and aggression.
Background
The 1840 English language version of the Treaty of Waitangi guaranteed that individual Māori iwi (tribes) should have undisturbed possession of their lands, forests, fisheries and other taonga (treasures) in return for becoming British subjects, selling land to the government only (the right of pre-emption) and surrendering sovereignty to the British Crown. In the Māori language version of the Treaty, however, the word "sovereignty" was translated as kawanatanga which was a new word meaning "governance." This led to considerable disagreement over the meaning of the Treaty. Some Māori wanted to sign to consolidate peace and in hopes of ending the long intertribal Musket Wars (1807–1842) others wanted to keep their tino rangatiratanga, such as the Tūhoe in the Ureweras.
All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties. In the early period of contact, Māori had generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French had established mission stations, and missionaries had received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, and farms.
Traders, Sydney businessmen and the New Zealand Company had bought large tracts of land before 1840. The Treaty of Waitangi included the right of pre-emption on land sales, and the New Zealand colonial government, pressured by immigrant European settlers, tried to speed up land sales to provide farmland. This met resistance from the Kīngitanga (Māori King) movement that emerged in the 1850s and opposed further European encroachment.
Governor Thomas Gore Browne's provocative purchase of a disputed block of land at Waitara in 1859 set the government on a collision course with the Kīngitanga movement, and the government interpreted the Kīngitanga response as a challenge to the Crown's authority. Governor Gore Browne succeeded in bringing 3500 Imperial troops from the Australian colonies to quash this perceived challenge, and within four years a total of 9,000 British troops had arrived in New Zealand, assisted by more than 4,000 colonial and kūpapa (pro-government Māori) fighters as the government sought a decisive victory over the "rebel" Māori.
The use of a punitive land confiscation policy from 1865, depriving "rebel" Māori of the means of living, fuelled further Māori anger and resentment, fanning the flames of conflict in Taranaki (1863–1866) and on the east coast (1865–1866).
Conflicts
The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a considerable period, and the causes and outcomes differ widely. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, but by the 1860s settler numbers and resources were much greater. From about 1862 British troops began arriving in much greater number, summoned by Governor George Grey for his Waikato invasion, and in March 1864 total troop numbers peaked at about 14,000 (9,000 Imperial troops, more than 4,000 colonial and a few hundred kūpapa).
Wairau Affray
The first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a false title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata. Fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Nine of the Europeans were slain after being captured. In early 1844, the new governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island.
Northern War
The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, between March 1845 and January 1846. In 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hōne Heke challenged the authority of the British, beginning by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka. The flagstaff had previously flown the colours of United Tribes of New Zealand but now carried the Union Jack and therefore symbolised the grievances of Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti, as to changes that had followed the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.
There were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. While land acquisition by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had been controversial, the rebellion led by Heke was directed against the colonial forces with the CMS missionaries trying to persuade Heke to end the fighting. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, the small and ineptly led British force had been beaten at the Battle of Ohaeawai. Grey, with the financial support and far more troops armed with 32-pounder cannons that had been denied to FitzRoy, attacked and occupied Kawiti's fortress at Ruapekapeka, forcing Kawiti to retreat. Heke's confidence waned after he was wounded in battle with Tāmati Wāka Nene and his warriors, and by the realisation that the British had far more resources than he could muster, including some Pākehā Māori, who supported the colonial forces.
After the Battle of Ruapekapeka, Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. They approached Tāmati Wāka Nene to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, who accepted the advice of Nene that Heke and Kawiti should not be punished for their rebellion. The fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land.
Hutt Valley and Wanganui campaigns
The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray. The causes were similar—dubious land purchases by the New Zealand Company and the desire of the settlers to move on to land before disputes over titles were resolved—and the two conflicts shared many of the same protagonists. The campaign's most notable clashes were the Māori dawn raid on an imperial stockade at Boulcott's Farm on 16 May 1846 in which eight British soldiers and an estimated two Māori died, and the Battle of Battle Hill from 6–13 August as British troops, local militia and kūpapa pursued a Ngāti Toa force led by chief Te Rangihaeata through steep and dense bushland. Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign; he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years.
The bloodshed heightened settlers' fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a strong military force to guard against attack. In April 1847 an accidental shooting of a minor Wanganui Māori chief led to a bloody revenge attack on a settler family; when the perpetrators were captured and hanged, a major raid was launched on the town as a reprisal, with homes plundered and burned and livestock stolen. Māori besieged the town before mounting a frontal attack in July 1847. A peace settlement was reached in early 1848.
First Taranaki War
The catalyst for the First Taranaki War was the disputed sale to the Crown of a 240 hectare block of land at Waitara, despite a veto by the paramount chief of Te Āti Awa tribe, Wiremu Kīngi, and a "solemn contract" by local Māori not to sell. Governor Browne accepted the purchase with full knowledge of the circumstances and tried to occupy the land, anticipating it would lead to armed conflict, and a demonstration of the substantive sovereignty the British believed they had gained in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. Hostilities began on 17 March 1860. The war was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Māori forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500. After a series of battles and actions the war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200. Though there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result. Historian James Belich has claimed that Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. Belich also states that the Māori victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato.
Invasion of the Waikato
Governor Thomas Gore-Browne began making arrangements for a Waikato campaign to destroy the Kīngitanga stronghold at the close of the First Taranaki War. Preparations were suspended in December 1861 when he was replaced by Sir George Grey, but Grey revived plans for an invasion in June 1863. He persuaded the Colonial Office in London to send more than 10,000 Imperial troops to New Zealand and General Sir Duncan Cameron was appointed to lead the campaign. Cameron used soldiers to build the 18 km-long Great South Road to the border of Kīngitanga territory and on 9 July 1863 Grey ordered all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Waikato River; when his ultimatum was rejected the vanguard of the army crossed the frontier into Kīngitanga territory and established a forward camp. A long series of bush raids on his supply lines forced Cameron to build an extensive network of forts and redoubts through the area. In a continual buildup of force, Cameron eventually had 14,000 British and colonial soldiers at his disposal as well as steamers and armoured vessels for use on the Waikato River. They fought a combined Māori contingent of about 4,000.
Cameron and his Kīngitanga foe engaged in several major battles including the Battle of Rangiriri and a three-day siege at Orakau, capturing the Kīngitanga capital of Ngāruawāhia in December 1863, before completing their Waikato conquest in April 1864. The Waikato campaign cost the lives of 700 British and colonial soldiers and about 1,000 Māori.
The Kīngitanga Māori retreated into the rugged interior of the North Island and in 1865 the New Zealand Government confiscated about 12,000 km2 of Māori land (4% of New Zealand's land area) for white settlement—an action that quickly provoked the Second Taranaki War.
Second Taranaki War
Between 1863 and 1866 there was a resumption of hostilities between Māori and the New Zealand Government in Taranaki, which is sometimes referred to as the Second Taranaki War. The conflict, which overlapped the wars in Waikato and Tauranga, was fuelled by a combination of factors: lingering Māori resentment over the sale of land at Waitara in 1860 and government delays in resolving the issue; a large-scale land confiscation policy launched by the government in late 1863; and the rise of the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Marire syncretic religion, which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity. The Hauhau movement became a unifying factor for Taranaki Māori in the absence of individual Māori commanders.
The style of warfare after 1863 differed markedly from that of the 1860–1861 conflict, in which Māori had taken set positions and challenged the army to an open contest. From 1863 the army, working with greater numbers of troops and heavy artillery, systematically took possession of Māori land by driving off the inhabitants, adopting a "scorched earth" strategy of laying waste to Māori villages and cultivations, with attacks on villages, whether warlike or otherwise. Historian Brian Dalton noted: "The aim was no longer to conquer territory, but to inflict the utmost 'punishment' on the enemy; inevitably there was a great deal of brutality, much burning of undefended villages and indiscriminate looting, in which loyal Maoris often suffered." As the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost of land, with little distinction between the land of loyal or rebel Māori owners. The outcome of the armed conflict in Taranaki between 1860 and 1869 was a series of enforced confiscations of Taranaki tribal land from Māori blanketed as being in rebellion against the Government.
East Cape War
East coast hostilities erupted in April 1865 and, as in the Second Taranaki War, sprang from Māori resentment of punitive government land confiscations coupled with the embrace of radical Pai Marire expression. The religion arrived on the east coast from Taranaki in early 1865. The subsequent ritual killing of missionary Carl Volkner by Pai Mārire (or Hauhau) followers at Opotiki on 2 March 1865 sparked settler fears of an outbreak of violence and later that year the New Zealand government launched a lengthy expedition to hunt for Volkner's killers and neutralise the movement's influence. Rising tensions between Pai Mārire followers and conservative Māori led to a number of wars between and within Māori iwi, with kūpapa armed by the government in a bid to exterminate the movement.
Major conflicts within the campaign included the cavalry and artillery attack on Te Tarata pā near Opotiki in October 1865 in which about 35 Māori were killed, and the seven-day siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in November 1865. The government confiscated northern parts of Urewera land in January 1866 in a bid to break down supposed Māori support for Volkner's killers and confiscated additional land in Hawke's Bay a year later after a rout of a Māori party it deemed a threat to the settlement of Napier.
Titokowaru's War
War flared again in Taranaki in June 1868 as Riwha Titokowaru, chief of Ngāruahine, responded to the continued surveying and settlement of confiscated land with well-planned and effective attacks on settlers and government troops in an effort to block the occupation of Māori land. Coinciding with a violent raid on a European settlement on the East Coast by Te Kooti, the attacks shattered what European colonists regarded as a new era of peace and prosperity, creating fears of a "general uprising of hostile Māoris".
Titokowaru, who had fought in the Second Taranaki War, was the most skilful West Coast Māori warrior. He also assumed the roles of a priest and prophet of the extremist Hauhau movement of the Pai Mārire religion, reviving ancient rites of cannibalism and propitiation of Māori gods with the human heart torn from the first slain in a battle. Although Titokowaru's forces were numerically small and initially outnumbered in battle 12 to one by government troops, the ferocity of their attacks provoked fear among settlers and prompted the resignation and desertion of many militia volunteers, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of most government military forces from South Taranaki and giving Titokowaru control of almost all territory between New Plymouth and Wanganui. Although Titokowaru provided the strategy and leadership that had been missing among tribes that had fought in the Second Taranaki War and his forces never lost a battle during their intensive campaign, they mysteriously abandoned a strong position at Tauranga-ika Pā and Titokowaru's army immediately began to disperse. Kimble Bent, who lived as a slave with Titokowaru's hapu after deserting from the 57th Regiment, told Cowan 50 years later the chief had lost his mana tapu, or sacred power, after committing adultery with the wife of another chief.
Once Titokowaru was defeated and the East Coast threat minimised, the alienation of Māori land, as well as the political subjugation of Māori, continued at an even more rapid pace.
Te Kooti's War
Te Kooti's War was fought in the East Coast region and across the heavily forested central North Island and Bay of Plenty between government military forces and followers of spiritual leader Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. The conflict was sparked by Te Kooti's return to New Zealand after two years of internment on the Chatham Islands, from where he had escaped with almost 200 Māori prisoners of war and their families. Te Kooti, who had been held without trial on the island for two years, asked that he and his followers be left in peace, but within two weeks they were being pursued by a force of militia, government troops and Māori volunteers. The pursuit turned into a four-year guerrilla war, involving more than 30 expeditions by colonial and Māori troops against Te Kooti's dwindling number of warriors.
Although initially fighting defensively against pursuing government forces, Te Kooti went on the offensive from November 1868, starting with the so-called Poverty Bay massacre, a well-organised lightning strike against selected European settlers and Māori opponents in the Matawhero district, in which 51 men, women and children were slaughtered and their homes set alight. The attack prompted another vigorous pursuit by government forces, which included a siege at Ngatapa pā that came to a bloody end: although Te Kooti escaped the siege, Māori forces loyal to the government caught and executed more than 130 of his supporters, as well as prisoners he had earlier seized. Dissatisfied with the Māori King Movement's reluctance to continue its fight against European invasion and confiscation, Te Kooti offered Māori an Old Testament vision of salvation from oppression and a return to a promised land. Wounded three times in battle, he gained a reputation for being immune to death and uttered prophecies that had the appearance of being fulfilled. In early 1870 Te Kooti gained refuge from Tūhoe tribes, which consequently suffered a series of damaging raids in which crops and villages were destroyed, after other Māori iwi were lured by the promise of a £5,000 reward for Te Kooti's capture. Te Kooti was finally granted sanctuary by the Māori king in 1872 and moved to the King Country, where he continued to develop rituals, texts and prayers of his Ringatū faith. He was formally pardoned by the government in February 1883 and died in 1893.
A 2013 Waitangi Tribunal report said the action of Crown forces on the East Coast from 1865 to 1869—the East Coast Wars and the start of Te Kooti's War—resulted in the deaths of proportionately more Māori than in any other district during the New Zealand wars. It condemned the "illegal imprisonment" on the Chatham Islands of a quarter of the East Coast region's adult male population and said the loss in war of an estimated 43 percent of the male population, many through acts of "lawless brutality", was a stain on New Zealand's history and character.
Participants
The New Zealand campaigns involved Māori warriors from a range of iwi, most of which were allied with the Kīngitanga movement, fighting a mix of Imperial troops, local militia groups, the specialist Forest Rangers and kūpapa, or "loyalist" Māori.
Imperial and colonial
In 1855 just 1,250 Imperial troops, from two under-strength British regiments, were in New Zealand. Although both were scheduled to depart at the end of the year, Browne succeeded in retaining one of them for use in New Plymouth, where settlers feared the spread of intertribal violence. At the outbreak of Taranaki hostilities in 1860, reinforcements were brought from Auckland to boost the New Plymouth garrison, raising the total force of regulars to 450 and for many months the total number of Māori under arms exceeded the number of troops in Taranaki. In mid-April the arrival of three warships and about 400 soldiers from Australia marked the beginning of the escalation of imperial troop numbers.
The buildup increased rapidly under Grey's term as governor: when the second round of hostilities broke out in Taranaki in May 1863 he applied to the Secretary of State in London for the immediate dispatch of three more regiments and also wrote to the Australian governors asking for whatever British troops that could be made available. Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, the Commander-in-Chief of the British troops in New Zealand, began the Waikato invasion in July with fewer than 4,000 effective troops in Auckland at his disposal, but the continuous arrival of regiments from overseas rapidly swelled the force.
Colonial Defence Force
The Colonial Defence Force, a cavalry unit of about 100 men, was formed by Colonel Marmaduke Nixon in May 1863 and served in Waikato and militia forces were also used throughout the New Zealand wars. The Militia Ordinance 1845 provided for the compulsory training or service within 40 km of their town by all able-bodied European men aged between 18 and 60; the Auckland Militia and Volunteers reached a peak of about 1650 on active service in the early stages of the Waikato campaign; and the last force—the Taranaki Militia—was released from service in 1872.
A special 65-man bush-scouring corps, the Forest Rangers, composed of local farmers who were familiar with the bush, had proven guerrilla techniques and were capable of "roughing it", was formed in August 1863; the Forest Rangers split into two separate companies in November, with the second led by Gustavus von Tempsky and both served in Waikato and Taranaki. Other rangers corps during the New Zealand wars included the Taranaki Bush Rangers, Patea Rangers, Opotiki Volunteer Rangers, Wanganui Bush Rangers and Wellington Rangers. From September 1863 the first contingents of what was planned as 5,000 military settlers—recruited on the goldfields of Australia and Otago with promises of free grants of land confiscated from "rebel" Māori—also began service in the Waikato. By the end of October the number of military settlers, known as the Waikato Militia, had reached more than 2,600 and total troop numbers peaked at about 14,000 in March 1864 (9,000 Imperial troops, more than 4,000 colonial and a few hundred kūpapa).
In November 1864 Premier Frederick Weld introduced a policy of "self-reliance" for New Zealand, which included the gradual but complete withdrawal of Imperial troops, who would be replaced by a colonial force of 1,500. The move came at a time of rising conflict between Grey, who sought more extensive military operations to "pacify" the west coast of the North Island between Taranaki and Wanganui, and Cameron, who regarded such a campaign as unnecessary, impractical and contrary to Imperial policy. Grey blocked Cameron's attempts to dispatch the first regiments from New Zealand in May 1865 and the first regiment finally embarked in January 1866. By May 1867 only the 2/18th Regiment remained in the country, their departure delayed by political pressure over the "peril" still facing settlers; the last soldiers finally left in February 1870.
Imperial regiments and units stationed in New Zealand
British infantry regiments stationed in New Zealand during the New Zealand Wars were:
Māori
About 15 of the 26 major North Island tribal groups sent contingents to join the Waikato campaign, although sometimes they represented a single hapu, or clan, within the tribe. Continual presence on battlefields remained difficult for most, however, because of the constant need for tribal labour in their home community, so there was a constant turnover of small tribal groups. At Meremere, Paterangi, Hangatiki and Maungatatauri, between August 1863 and June 1864 Māori maintained forces of between 1,000 and 2,000 men, but troops were forced to disperse after each campaign because of labour and domestic needs at home. Belich has estimated that the total Māori mobilisation was at least 4,000 warriors, representing one-third of the total manpower available.
Although they were not part of a structured command system, Māori generally followed a consistent strategic plan, uniting to build skilfully engineered defensive lines up to long. Māori united under proven military commanders including Rewi Maniapoto and Tikaokao of Ngāti Maniapoto and Wiremu Tamihana of Ngāti Hauā.
Strategy and tactics
Campaigners on both sides of the New Zealand wars had developed distinctive war strategies and tactics. The British set out to fight a European-style war, based on engaging with the opposing forces, besieging and then capturing fortified positions. The British Army were professional soldiers who had experience fighting in various parts of the Empire, many from India and Afghanistan, and were led by officers who were themselves trained by men who had fought at Waterloo.
Many of the Māori fighters had been raised during the Musket Wars, the decades-long bitter intertribal fighting during which warriors had perfected the art of building defensive fortifications around a pā. During the Flagstaff War Kawiti and Heke appear to have followed a strategy of drawing the colonial forces into attacking a fortified pā, from which the warriors could fight from a strong defensive position that was secure from cannon fire.
The word pā means a fortified strong point near a Māori village or community. They were built with a view to defence, but primarily they were built to safely store food. Puketapu Pā and then Ohaeawai Pā were the first of the so-called "gunfighter pā", built to engage enemies armed with muskets and cannons. A strong, wooden palisade was fronted with woven flax leaves (Phormium tenax) whose tough, stringy foliage absorbed much of the force of the ammunition. The palisade was lifted a few centimetres from the ground so muskets could be fired from underneath rather than over the top. Sometimes there were gaps in the palisade, which led to killing traps. There were trenches and rifle pits to protect the occupants and, later, very effective artillery shelters. They were usually built so that they were almost impossible to surround completely, but usually presented at least one exposed face to invite attack from that direction. They were cheap and easily built—the L-Pa at Waitara was constructed by 80 men overnight—and they were completely expendable. The British repeatedly mounted often lengthy expeditions to besiege a pā, which would absorb their bombardment and possibly one or two attacks, and then be abandoned by the Māori. Shortly afterwards, a new pā would appear in another inaccessible site. Pā like these were built in the dozens, particularly during the First Taranaki War, where they eventually formed a cordon surrounding New Plymouth, and in the Waikato campaign.
For a long time, the modern pā effectively neutralised the overwhelming disparity in numbers and armaments. At Ohaeawai Pā in 1845, at Rangiriri in 1863 and again at Gate Pā in 1864, British and colonial forces discovered that frontal attacks on a defended pā were extremely costly. At Gate Pā, during the 1864 Tauranga Campaign, Māori withstood a day-long bombardment in their underground shelters and trenches. The palisade destroyed, the British troops rushed the pā, whereupon Māori fired on them from hidden trenches, killing 38 and injuring many more in the most costly battle for the Pākehā of the New Zealand Wars. The troops retired and Māori abandoned the pā.
British troops soon realised an easy way to neutralise a pā. Although cheap and easy to build, a gunfighter pā required a significant input of labour and resources. The destruction of the Māori economic base in the area around the pā made it difficult for the hapu to support the fighting men. This was the reasoning behind the bush-scouring expeditions of Chute and McDonnell in the Second Taranaki War.
The biggest problem for the Māori was that their society was ill-adapted to support a sustained campaign. A long campaign would disrupt food supplies and epidemics resulted in significant numbers of deaths among the Māori. While the British could defeat Māori in battle, the defeats were often not decisive. For example, the capture of Ruapekapeka Pā can be considered a British tactical victory, but it was purpose-built as a target for the British, and its loss was not damaging; Heke and Kawiti managed to escape with their forces intact. However the British force consisted of professional soldiers supported by an economic system capable of sustaining them in the field almost indefinitely, in contrast, the Māori warrior was a part-time fighter who also needed to work on producing food.
Weapons
The main weapon used by the British forces in the 1860s was the Pattern 1853 Enfield. Properly described as a rifled musket, it was loaded down the barrel like a conventional musket but the barrel was rifled. While muskets were accurate to about 60–80 m, an 1853 Enfield was accurate to about 300 m to 400 m in the hands of an experienced soldier; at 100 m an experienced soldier could easily hit a human target. The rifle was 1.44 m long, weighed 4 kg and had a 53 cm socket bayonet. This rifle was also commonly used in the American Civil War by both sides.
The Calisher and Terry carbine (short rifle) was ordered by the New Zealand Government from Calisher and Terry, Birmingham gunsmiths in 1861 after earlier fighting against Māori showed the need for a carbine suited to fighting in heavy bush. This was the favoured weapon of the New Zealand Forest Rangers because of its shortness, its lightness, and its ability to be reloaded while the marksman lay down—unlike the Enfield, which required the soldier to stand to load the powder—and could be loaded on the run. This feature led to a decisive victory for the Forest Rangers at Orakau: several groups of soldiers harried the fleeing Māori but only the Forest Rangers, equipped with carbines, were able to follow them 10 km to the Puniu River shooting as they went.
Revolvers were mainly used by officers but were a general issue for the Forest Rangers. The most common revolver appears to have been the five-shot Beaumont–Adams .44 percussion revolver. Other revolvers in use were the Colt Navy .36 1851 model with open top frame. The Colt was favoured by the Forest Rangers because it was light and accurate being a single-action revolver. Von Tempsky's second company of the Forest Rangers also used the Bowie knife.
Aftermath
Large areas of land were confiscated from the Māori by the government under the New Zealand Settlements Act in 1863, purportedly as punishment for rebellion. In reality, land was confiscated from both "loyal" and "rebel" tribes alike. More than of land was confiscated. Although about half of this was subsequently paid for or returned to Māori control, it was often not returned to its original owners. The confiscations had a lasting impact on the social and economic development of the affected tribes.
In the immediate aftermath of the wars in Taranaki, and land confiscations, a new town Parihaka was founded by Te Whiti o Rongomai, based on principles of non-violent resistance. Parihaka's population grew to over 2,000 before the government sent the constabulary to arrest Te Whiti and his supporters on 5 November 1881. Another incident in the aftermath of the New Zealand Wars was the so-called Dog Tax War of 1898.
The legacy of the New Zealand Wars continues, but these days the battles are mostly fought in courtrooms and around the negotiation table. Numerous reports by the Waitangi Tribunal have criticised Crown actions during the wars, and also found that the Māori, too, had breached the treaty. As part of the negotiated out-of-court settlements of tribes' historical claims (Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements), as of 2011 the Crown is making formal apologies to tribes.
Commemoration
The National Day of Commemoration for the New Zealand Wars was inaugurated in 2017 and is held on 28 October. In 2019, a commemorative plaque was unveiled for the New Zealand Wars in the New Zealand House of Representatives.
In popular culture
A number of fictionalised accounts of the New Zealand Wars have been adapted for film and literature:
Rewi's Last Stand, Silent Film (1925), Remake with sound (1940) based on the last stand of Rewi Maniapoto at the Battle of Ōrākau.
The Governor, docudrama television miniseries (1977) based on Governor Sir George Grey.
Utu, film (1983) based on Te Kooti's War.
Season of the Jew, novel (1987) based on Te Kooti's War.
River Queen, film (2005) based on Tītokowaru's War in Whanganui.
Last veterans
Edwin Bezar (1838–1936), last British soldier (and possibly last combatant).
See also
Early naval vessels of New Zealand
History of New Zealand
American Indian Wars
Australian Frontier Wars
Māori culture
Military history of New Zealand
New Zealand land confiscations
Siege warfare
Trench warfare
References
Further reading
Barthorp, Michael (1979). To Face the Daring Māori. Hodder and Stoughton.
Belich, James (1996) Making Peoples. Penguin.
Binney, Judith (1995). Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. Auckland: Auckland University Press.
Buick, T. Lindsay (1976). Old Marlborough. Christchurch: Capper Press. (Originally published in 1900)
Cowan, James, & Hasselberg, P. D. (1983) The New Zealand Wars. New Zealand Government Printer. (Originally published 1922) Online: Volume 1 1845–64, Volume 2 1864–72
Fletcher, Henry James, Rev., Turnbull, Alexander (ed.), National Library of New Zealand, Index of Māori Names, The New Zealand Collection of the University of Waikato Library, unpublished manuscript compiled about 1925
Lee, Jack (1983). I have named it the Bay of Islands. Hodder and Stoughton.
Lee, Jack (1987). Hokianga. Hodder and Stoughton.
Maning, F.E. (1862). A History of the War in the North of New Zealand against the Chief Heke. (A near-contemporaneous account, although written primarily with an aim to entertain rather than with an eye to historical accuracy)
Maxwell, Peter (2000). Frontier, the Battle for the North Island of New Zealand. Celebrity Books.
Ryan, Tim & Parham, Bill. The Colonial New Zealand Wars (1986, Wellington, Grantham House)
Simpson, Tony (1979). Te Riri Pākehā. Hodder and Stoughton.
Sinclair, Keith (ed.) (1996). The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand (2nd ed.) Wellington: Oxford University Press.
Smith, S. Percy, Maori Wars of the Nineteenth Century, Whitcombe and Tombs Limited, Christchurch, 1910 , New Zealand Electronic Text Centre
Stringfellow, Olga (1960). Mary Bravender. Fictional treatment of the New Zealand Wars as seen through the eyes of a young Englishwoman.
Vaggioli, Dom Felici (2000). History of New Zealand and its inhabitants, Translated by J. Crockett. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. (Original Italian publication, 1896).
Walker, Ranginui (2004) Ka whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End Penguin.
Wright, Matthew (2006) Two Peoples, One Land: The New Zealand Wars Penguin
"The People of Many Peaks: The Māori Biographies". (1990). From The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Vol. 1, 1769–1869. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs.
External links
The New Zealand Wars / Nga Pakanga Whenua O Mua. Website run by Danny Keenan of Victoria University of Wellington, NZ
New Zealand's 19th Century Wars on NZHistory.net.nz
Historical Chronology on New Zealand Army website
New Zealand Wars (1845–1872) collection at the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre
The Maori Wars in 1966 An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
Myths of Origins of the Maori Wars in 1966 An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
Documenting research of New Zealand War Medal recipients
Treaty of Waitangi
Race relations in New Zealand
Wars involving the United Kingdom
Māori history
Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Oceania
19th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Aboriginal title in New Zealand
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] |
203961
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Cheese
|
Ben Cheese
|
Ben Cheese (1955 – 21 January 2001) was a British engineer who worked on Sinclair's ZX Microdrives. Authors Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy, in their book Sinclair and the "Sunrise" Technology, write that "it seems only fair to note that it was the tenacity and imagination of R&D staffer Ben Cheese that got the product [i.e., the Microdrive] to the market".
When Sinclair was sold, Cheese formed a company called Flare Technology with two other former Sinclair engineers, John Mathieson and Martin Brennan. Brennan and Mathieson went on to form Flare II, and to develop the Atari Jaguar console. Meanwhile, Cheese worked with Argonaut Software and Nintendo to develop the Super FX chip used in Super Nintendo Entertainment System games such as Star Fox.
Besides his engineering work, Ben Cheese also drew some mildly subversive cartoons for the Sinclair in-house newsletter called WHAM!, or What's Happening At Milton.
Ben Cheese died from cancer at age 46.
References
British electronics engineers
1955 births
2001 deaths
Deaths from cancer in the United Kingdom
Sinclair Research
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%C3%B4%27s%20lemma
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Itô's lemma
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In mathematics, Itô's lemma is an identity used in Itô calculus to find the differential of a time-dependent function of a stochastic process. It serves as the stochastic calculus counterpart of the chain rule. It can be heuristically derived by forming the Taylor series expansion of the function up to its second derivatives and retaining terms up to first order in the time increment and second order in the Wiener process increment. The lemma is widely employed in mathematical finance, and its best known application is in the derivation of the Black–Scholes equation for option values.
Informal derivation
A formal proof of the lemma relies on taking the limit of a sequence of random variables. This approach is not presented here since it involves a number of technical details. Instead, we give a sketch of how one can derive Itô's lemma by expanding a Taylor series and applying the rules of stochastic calculus.
Assume is an Itô drift-diffusion process that satisfies the stochastic differential equation
where is a Wiener process. If is a twice-differentiable scalar function, its expansion in a Taylor series is
Substituting for and therefore for gives
In the limit , the terms and tend to zero faster than , which is . Setting the and terms to zero, substituting for (due to the quadratic variation of a Wiener process), and collecting the and terms, we obtain
as required.
Mathematical formulation of Itô's lemma
In the following subsections we discuss versions of Itô's lemma for different types of stochastic processes.
Itô drift-diffusion processes (due to: Kunita–Watanabe)
In its simplest form, Itô's lemma states the following: for an Itô drift-diffusion process
and any twice differentiable scalar function of two real variables and , one has
This immediately implies that is itself an Itô drift-diffusion process.
In higher dimensions, if is a vector of Itô processes such that
for a vector and matrix , Itô's lemma then states that
where is the gradient of w.r.t. , is the Hessian matrix of w.r.t. , and is the trace operator.
Poisson jump processes
We may also define functions on discontinuous stochastic processes.
Let be the jump intensity. The Poisson process model for jumps is that the probability of one jump in the interval is plus higher order terms. could be a constant, a deterministic function of time, or a stochastic process. The survival probability is the probability that no jump has occurred in the interval . The change in the survival probability is
So
Let be a discontinuous stochastic process. Write for the value of S as we approach t from the left. Write for the non-infinitesimal change in as a result of a jump. Then
Let z be the magnitude of the jump and let be the distribution of z. The expected magnitude of the jump is
Define , a compensated process and martingale, as
Then
Consider a function of the jump process . If jumps by then jumps by . is drawn from distribution which may depend on , dg and . The jump part of is
If contains drift, diffusion and jump parts, then Itô's Lemma for is
Itô's lemma for a process which is the sum of a drift-diffusion process and a jump process is just the sum of the Itô's lemma for the individual parts.
Non-continuous semimartingales
Itô's lemma can also be applied to general -dimensional semimartingales, which need not be continuous. In general, a semimartingale is a càdlàg process, and an additional term needs to be added to the formula to ensure that the jumps of the process are correctly given by Itô's lemma.
For any cadlag process , the left limit in is denoted by , which is a left-continuous process. The jumps are written as . Then, Itô's lemma states that if is a -dimensional semimartingale and f is a twice continuously differentiable real valued function on then f(X) is a semimartingale, and
This differs from the formula for continuous semi-martingales by the additional term summing over the jumps of X, which ensures that the jump of the right hand side at time is Δf(Xt).
Multiple non-continuous jump processes
There is also a version of this for a twice-continuously differentiable in space once in time function f evaluated at (potentially different) non-continuous semi-martingales which may be written as follows:
where denotes the continuous part of the ith semi-martingale.
Examples
Geometric Brownian motion
A process S is said to follow a geometric Brownian motion with constant volatility σ and constant drift μ if it satisfies the stochastic differential equation , for a Brownian motion B. Applying Itô's lemma with gives
It follows that
exponentiating gives the expression for S,
The correction term of corresponds to the difference between the median and mean of the log-normal distribution, or equivalently for this distribution, the geometric mean and arithmetic mean, with the median (geometric mean) being lower. This is due to the AM–GM inequality, and corresponds to the logarithm being concave (or convex upwards), so the correction term can accordingly be interpreted as a convexity correction. This is an infinitesimal version of the fact that the annualized return is less than the average return, with the difference proportional to the variance. See geometric moments of the log-normal distribution for further discussion.
The same factor of appears in the d1 and d2 auxiliary variables of the Black–Scholes formula, and can be interpreted as a consequence of Itô's lemma.
Doléans-Dade exponential
The Doléans-Dade exponential (or stochastic exponential) of a continuous semimartingale X can be defined as the solution to the SDE with initial condition . It is sometimes denoted by .
Applying Itô's lemma with f(Y) = log(Y) gives
Exponentiating gives the solution
Black–Scholes formula
Itô's lemma can be used to derive the Black–Scholes equation for an option. Suppose a stock price follows a geometric Brownian motion given by the stochastic differential equation . Then, if the value of an option at time is f(t, St), Itô's lemma gives
The term represents the change in value in time dt of the trading strategy consisting of holding an amount of the stock. If this trading strategy is followed, and any cash held is assumed to grow at the risk free rate r, then the total value V of this portfolio satisfies the SDE
This strategy replicates the option if V = f(t,S). Combining these equations gives the celebrated Black–Scholes equation
Product rule for Itô processes
Let be a two-dimensional Ito process with SDE:
Then we can use the multi-dimensional form of Ito's lemma to find an expression for .
We have and .
We set and observe that and
Substituting these values in the multi-dimensional version of the lemma gives us:
This is a generalisation of Leibniz's product rule to Ito processes, which are non-differentiable.
Further, using the second form of the multidimensional version above gives us
so we see that the product is itself an Itô drift-diffusion process.
See also
Wiener process
Itô calculus
Feynman–Kac formula
Notes
References
Kiyosi Itô (1944). Stochastic Integral. Proc. Imperial Acad. Tokyo 20, 519–524. This is the paper with the Ito Formula; Online
Kiyosi Itô (1951). On stochastic differential equations. Memoirs, American Mathematical Society 4, 1–51. Online
Bernt Øksendal (2000). Stochastic Differential Equations. An Introduction with Applications, 5th edition, corrected 2nd printing. Springer. . Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
Philip E Protter (2005). Stochastic Integration and Differential Equations, 2nd edition. Springer. . Section 2.7.
External links
Derivation, Prof. Thayer Watkins
Informal proof, optiontutor
Stochastic calculus
Lemmas in analysis
Equations
Probability theorems
Theorems in statistics
Lemmas
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestion
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Hephaestion
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Hephaestion ( Hephaistíon; c. 356 BC – October 324 BC), son of Amyntor, was an ancient Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. He was "by far the dearest of all the king's friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets." This relationship lasted throughout their lives, and was compared, by others as well as themselves, to that of Achilles and Patroclus.
His military career was distinguished. A member of Alexander the Great's personal bodyguard, he went on to command the Companion cavalry and was entrusted with many other tasks throughout Alexander's ten-year campaign in Asia, including diplomatic missions, the bridging of major rivers, sieges and the foundation of new settlements. Besides being a soldier, engineer and diplomat, he corresponded with the philosophers Aristotle and Xenocrates and actively supported Alexander in his attempts to integrate the Greeks and Persians. Alexander formally made him his second-in-command when he appointed him Chiliarch of the empire. Alexander also made him part of the royal family when he gave him as his bride Drypetis, sister to his own second wife Stateira, both daughters of Darius III of Persia.
When he died suddenly at Ecbatana around age thirty-two, Alexander was overwhelmed with grief. He petitioned the oracle at Siwa to grant Hephaestion divine status and thus Hephaestion was honoured as a Divine Hero. Hephaestion was cremated and his ashes taken to Babylon. At the time of his own death a mere eight months later, Alexander was still planning lasting monuments to Hephaestion's memory.
Youth and education
Hephaestion's exact age is not known. No concise biography has ever been written about him, likely stemming from the fact that he died before Alexander and none of those among Alexander's companions who survived him would have had a need to promote someone other than themselves. Many scholars cite Hephaestion's age as being similar to Alexander's so it is fair to assume that he was born about 356 BC. He is said to have become a page in 343 BC, a role common to adolescent boys of the aristocratic class in Macedon. As a member of the court, he may have met Alexander around this time.
The only surviving anecdote from Hephaestion's youth comes courtesy of the Alexander Romance. According to this tale, "one day when Alexander was 15 years old ... sailing with Hephaestion, his friend, he easily reached Pisa ... and he went off to stroll with Hephaestion." That Alexander's exact age is given provides another clue to Hephaestion's upbringing because at fifteen Alexander and his companions were at Mieza studying under Aristotle. Hephaestion has never been named among those who attended the lectures at Mieza, but his close friendship with Alexander at that age suggests strongly that he was numbered among them. More telling is Hephaestion's name being found in a catalogue of Aristotle's correspondences. The letters themselves no longer exist, but for them to have found their way into an official catalogue, their content must have been of some significance. It implies that Hephaestion received a good education and shows that Aristotle was impressed enough by his alleged pupil to send letters throughout Alexander's expanding empire to converse with him.
A few years after the lectures at Mieza, Hephaestion's presence was notably absent when several of Alexander's close friends were exiled as a result of the Pixodarus affair. Among those exiled by Philip II after Alexander's failed attempt to offer himself as groom to the Carian princess were Ptolemy, Nearchus, Harpalus, Erigyius and Laomedon. The reason for Hephaestion's absence from this list could be the fact that all of the exiled men were older friends of Alexander, Erigyius himself roughly 24 years older than the prince. Hephaestion was a contemporary of Alexander and it is likely that his influence might have been seen as less of a threat than these more mature companions. Whatever Hephaestion's opinion had been on the whole affair, like many of Alexander's other childhood companions he was not exiled in its aftermath.
While it is true that very little detail of Hephaestion's childhood and education can be found, that which remains gives credence to what is known about his later life. His friendship with Alexander was long-lasting, as was his tenure in the court at Pella; he even shared the same education as the future Great King of Greece and Asia. With such a promising start, age and experience would have helped mould Hephaestion Amyntoros into the man who would one day be the second most powerful man in Alexander's empire, second only to the king himself.
Career
Sharing Alexander's upbringing, Hephaestion would have learned to fight and to ride well from an early age. His first taste of military action was probably the campaign against the Thracians while Alexander was regent, followed by Philip II's Danube campaign (342 BC) and the battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) while he was still in his teens. His name is not mentioned in lists of high-ranking officers during the early battles of Alexander's Danube campaign (335 BC) or the invasion of Persia. Nor are the names of Alexander's other close friends and contemporaries listed, suggesting that their promotions, when they achieved them, were earned by merit.
Wars in Persia
Hephaestion's career was never solely a military one. Right from the start he was also engaged in special missions, sometimes diplomatic, sometimes technical. The first mention of his career in the sources is a diplomatic mission of some importance. After the battle of Issus (333 BC) when Alexander was proceeding south down the Phoenician coast and had received the capitulation of Sidon, Hephaestion was "authorised to appoint to the throne the Sidonian he considered most deserving of that high office". Hephaestion took local advice and chose a man distantly related to the royal family, but whose honesty had reduced him to working as a gardener. The man, Abdalonymus, had a successful royal career, fully justifying Hephaestion's choice.
After the siege of Tyre (332 BC) Alexander entrusted his fleet to Hephaestion, who had orders to skirt the coast and head for Gaza, their next objective, while Alexander himself led the army overland. Hephaestion's task was not an easy one for this was not the Athenian fleet with which Alexander had started and had earlier disbanded, but a motley collection of semi-reluctant allies of many nationalities who would need holding together with patience and strength. Furthermore, on arrival at Gaza the cargo of siege engines had to be unloaded, transported across difficult terrain and reassembled.
Plutarch, while writing about Alexander's correspondence, reveals an occasion when Hephaestion was away on business and Alexander wrote to him. The subject matter suggests that this took place while they were in Egypt. What business Hephaestion was attending to we do not know, but Andrew Chugg has suggested that it was concerned either with his command of the fleet or Athenian diplomacy. He quotes sources which suggest that Hephaestion had been approached by Aristion of Athens to effect a reconciliation between Alexander and Demosthenes and, certainly, Athens' inaction during the revolt of the Spartan king Agis would seem to support this idea. As Chugg says, "If he did persuade Alexander to reach an accommodation with Demosthenes at this critical juncture, as would seem likely from the circumstances, then he was significantly responsible for saving the situation for Macedon in Greece by preventing the revolt of Agis spreading to Athens and her allies."
It is likely, though not certain, that it was Hephaestion who led the advance army from Egypt to bridge the Euphrates river. Darius of Persia sent Mazaeus to hold the opposite bank while the bridging work was in progress. This Mazaeus was the commander who threw away what looked like certain victory on the Persian right at the battle of Gaugamela (331 BC) and later became Alexander's governor of Babylon. Robin Lane Fox has suggested that a conversation with Hephaestion may have won Mazaeus over: "It is conceivable that the battle of Gaugamela was partly won on the banks of the Euphrates and that Mazaeus' reinstatement was less a sign of magnanimity than of a prearranged reward."
It is at Gaugamela that mention is first made of Hephaestion's rank. He is called the "commander of the bodyguards (somatophylakes)". This is not the Royal Squadron, whose duties also included guarding the king in battle and which was at that time commanded by Cleitus—a man of the older generation—but a small group of close companions specifically designated to fight alongside the king. Hephaestion was certainly in the thick of things with Alexander for Arrian tells us he was wounded and Curtius specifically mentions that it was a spear wound in the arm.
After Gaugamela there is the first indication that Alexander intended reconciliation with the Persians and that Hephaestion supported him in this unpopular policy. One evening in Babylon Alexander noticed a high-born woman obliged to dance as part of the entertainment. Curtius explains:
"The following day, he (Alexander) instructed Hephaestion to have all the prisoners brought to the royal quarters and there he verified the lineage of each of them."
Alexander had realized that people from noble families were being treated with little dignity and wanted to do something about it. That he chose Hephaestion to help him shows that he could rely on Hephaestion's tact and sympathy. Yet Alexander could also rely on Hephaestion for firmness and resolve. When his policies had led to a plot against his life, the possible involvement of a senior officer, Philotas, caused much concern. It was Hephaestion, along with Craterus and Coenus, who insisted on, and actually carried out, the customary torture.
After the execution of Philotas (330 BC), Hephaestion was appointed joint commander—with Cleitus—of the Companion cavalry, Philotas' former position. This dual appointment was a way of satisfying two divergent shades of opinion now hardening throughout the army: one, like Hephaestion, broadly supportive of Alexander's policy of integration, and the other, that of Philip's older veterans in particular, whose implacable resentment of Persian ways was well represented by Cleitus. The cavalry prospered under this command, showing itself equal to learning new tactics necessary against Scythian nomads and to counter-insurgency measures such as those deployed in the spring of 328 BC. The army set out from Balkh in five columns to spread through the valleys between the Oxus and Tanais rivers to pacify Sogdiana. Hephaestion commanded one of the columns and, after arriving at Marakanda, he set out again to establish settlements in the region.
Expedition into India
In spring 327 BC the army headed into India and Alexander divided his forces. He led his section north into the Swat Valley, while Hephaestion and Perdiccas took a sizeable contingent through the Khyber Pass. Hephaestion's orders were to "take over either by force or agreement all places on their march and upon reaching the Indus to make suitable preparations for crossing". They were in unknown territory, whose political and geographical landscapes were unfamiliar, and Hephaestion would have had to make decisions on the spot and act accordingly. He reached the Indus with the land behind him conquered, including the successful siege of Peuceolatis, which took thirty days, and proceeded to organize the construction of boats for the crossing.
Alexander often had to divide his forces and command was given to a variety of senior officers on different occasions. For example, a few weeks before this mission of Hephaestion's, Craterus had been sent with a large force to subdue the last two remaining Bactrian rebels. It seems that Hephaestion was chosen when the objectives were far from clear-cut, and Alexander needed a commander on whom he could rely to do what he would have done himself without needing instructions.
Hephaestion took part in a notable cavalry charge at the battle of the Hydaspes river (326 BC). Then when the army began its homeward journey he was again entrusted with half the army, including the elite troops and two hundred elephants, as they travelled south-west along the banks of the Hydaspes. Some of the army, including Alexander himself, travelled in boats which had been provided by the sponsorship of leading courtiers. Arrian lists Hephaestion first among these "honorary trierarchs", indicating his leading position at this time. On entering hostile territory Alexander split his forces into three. Hephaestion's section marched "five days in advance, with the object of intercepting and capturing any native troops which ... might be rapidly moving forward". Again, Hephaestion was called upon when initiative was required. After Alexander had taken a detour to subdue a hostile tribe, in which he was seriously injured, Hephaestion took command of the greater part of the army as they travelled down the Indus to the sea. At the coast he organized the construction of a fortress and a harbour for the fleet at Pattala.
Hephaestion was in command at Pattala while Alexander advanced. When he rejoined Alexander at Rhambacia he established a city there also. Hephaestion crossed the Gedrosian desert with Alexander, sharing the torments of that journey and, when the army was safely back in Susa, he was decorated for bravery. He was to take part in no further fighting; he had only months to live. But, having ended his military career as Alexander's de facto second-in-command, he was also his second in the political sphere. Alexander had made that official by naming him Chiliarch. Photius mentions Perdiccas being appointed "to command the chiliarchy which Hephaestion had originally held".
Relationships
Alexander
Little is known of Hephaestion's personal relationships beyond his close friendship with Alexander. Alexander was an outgoing, charismatic man who had many friends but his dearest and closest friend and confidant was Hephaestion. Theirs was a friendship which had been forged in boyhood. It endured through adolescence, through Alexander's becoming king, and through the hardships of campaigning and the flatteries of court life and their marriages.
Their tutor Aristotle described generally friendship as "one soul abiding in two bodies". That they themselves considered their friendship to be of such a kind is shown by the stories of the morning after the Battle of Issus. Diodorus, Arrian and Curtius all describe the scene when Alexander and Hephaestion went together to visit the captured Persian royal family. Its senior member, the queen Sisygambis, knelt to Hephaestion to plead for their lives, having mistaken him for Alexander because he was taller, and both young men were wearing similar clothes. When she realized her mistake she was acutely embarrassed, but Alexander pardoned her, saying "You were not mistaken, Mother; this man too is Alexander." Their affection for each other was no secret, as is borne out by their own words. Hephaestion, when replying to a letter to Alexander's mother, Olympias, said "you know that Alexander means more to us than anything". Arrian says that Alexander, after Hephaestion's death, described him as "the friend I valued as my own life". Paul Cartledge describes their closeness when he says: "Alexander seems actually to have referred to Hephaestion as his alter ego."
Aside from their strong personal bond, theirs was also a working partnership in that all that Alexander undertook, Hephaestion was at his side. It is possible to discern a pattern, when studying Hephaestion's career, of Alexander's constant trust in, and increasing reliance on, Hephaestion. By the time of the advance into India, after the deaths of senior generals from the older generation, there had been worrying instances among senior officers of their own generation of treachery, a lack of sympathy with Alexander's aims of further integration of Persians into the army, and of sheer incompetence. Time after time, when Alexander needed to divide his forces he entrusted half to Hephaestion, knowing that in him he had a man of unquestionable loyalty who understood and sympathized with his aims and, above all, who got the job done.
Hephaestion played a full part in Alexander's regular consultations with senior officers, but he was the one to whom Alexander would also talk in private, sharing his thoughts, hopes, and plans. Curtius states that Hephaestion was the sharer of all his secrets; and Plutarch describes an occasion when Alexander had a controversial change to impose and implies that Hephaestion was the one with whom Alexander discussed it and who arranged for the change to be implemented. According to the painting done by Aetion of Alexander's first wedding, Hephaestion was his torch-bearer (best man), showing by this not only his friendship, but also his support for Alexander's policies as Alexander's choice of an Asian bride had not been a popular one among the Macedonians.
By the time they returned to Persia, Hephaestion was officially, by title, Alexander's second-in-command, as he had long been in practice, and also his brother-in-law. Hammond sums up their public relationship as follows: "It is not surprising that Alexander was as closely attached to Hephaestion as Achilles was to Patroclus", and "At the time of his death Hephaestion held the highest single command, that of the Companion Cavalry; and had been repeatedly second in command to Alexander in the hierarchy of the Asian court, holding the title of Chiliarch, which had been held by Nabarzanes under Darius. Thus Alexander honoured Hephaestion both as the closest of his friends and the most distinguished of his Field Marshals."
It has been suggested by some modern scholars that as well as being close friends Alexander and Hephaestion were also lovers, though hardly any of Alexander's extant ancient Greek or Roman biographers ever refers to Hephaestion as anything but Alexander's friend, consistent with Hephaestion's epithet "Philalexandros" which was given to him by Alexander himself. It has been observed, however, that the ancient Greek word for friend "φίλος" (Philos) was also applied to lovers in the homo-erotic or sexual sense.
In fact, Arrian and Plutarch describe the occasion when Alexander and Hephaestion publicly identified themselves with the Homeric figures of Achilles and Patroclus. At the onset of the campaign in Asia, Alexander led a contingent of the army to visit Troy, scene of the events in his beloved Iliad. He encircled the tomb of Achilles with a garland and Hephaestion did the same with the tomb of Patroclus. and they ran a race, naked, to honour their dead heroes. Arrian and Plutarch draw no conclusions from this; however, according to Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell, by no means does the identification of Alexander and Hephaestion with Achilles and Patroclus equate to their being in a homosexual relationship as Homer, author of the Iliad, never suggested that Achilles and Patroclus had sexual relations. Martin and Blackwell further suggest this concept was theorized by unspecified "later authors", who include however such eminent writers as Aeschylus and Plato that had lived before Alexander and Hephaestion's time. Attic orator Aeschines, who was contemporary with them (albeit somewhat older), explicitly addressed the question in these terms: "...Homer, though he often speaks of Patroclus and Achilles, is silent about love and gives no name to their friendship; he thinks that the remarkable strength of their affection is obvious to the cultivated among his audience." Thus, according to Robin Lane Fox quite different conclusions can be drawn from Martin and Blackwell's:
"It was a remarkable tribute, uniquely paid, and it is also Hephaestion's first mention in Alexander's career. Already the two were intimate, Patroclus and Achilles even to those around them; the comparison would remain to the end of their days and is proof of their life as lovers, for by Alexander's time, Achilles and Patroclus were agreed to have enjoyed the relationship which Homer himself had never directly mentioned."
Hephaestion and Alexander grew up in a time in which, according to Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell, homosexual affairs were seen as abnormal by majority Greek standards of their time. But Andrew Chugg, Robin Lane Fox and others show different views. According to Eva Cantarella, male bisexuality was widely permitted and ruled by law, and generally not frowned upon by the public to the extent to which it remained within the preset limits. For the Greeks "homosexuality was not an exclusive choice. Loving another man was not an option out of the norm, different, somehow deviant. It was just a part of life experience; it was the show of an either sentimental or sexual drive that, over a lifetime, alternated and was associated (sometimes at the very same time) with love for a woman". The pattern that same-sex love affairs followed, however, was not the same in every city-state. Some Roman and later writers, taking the Athenian pattern as their example, have tended to assume either that Alexander and Hephaestion had a sexual relationship which belonged to their adolescence, after which they left it behind, or that one of them was older, the lover (erastes), and the other was the beloved (eromenos).
The former assumption has persisted to the present day, with writers of fiction such as Mary Renault and the film director Oliver Stone among its proponents, as well as modern historians such as Paul Cartledge, who says: "Rumour had it—and rumour was for once surely correct—that he [Hephaestion] and Alexander had once been more than just good friends." Aelian takes the latter view when he uses just such an expression when describing the visit to Troy: "Alexander laid a garland on Achilles' tomb and Hephaestion on Patroclus', indicating that he was Alexander's eromenos, as Patroclus was of Achilles."
However, what was the case in Athens was not necessarily the case in Macedon. As Robin Lane Fox says, "descendants of the Dorians were considered and even expected to be openly homosexual, especially among their ruling class, and the Macedonian kings had long insisted on their pure Dorian ancestry". This was no fashionable affectation; this was something that belonged at the heart of what it was to be Dorian, and therefore Macedonian, and had more in common with the Theban Sacred Band than with Athens. Lucian, writing in his book On Slips of the Tongue, describes an occasion when Hephaestion's conversation one morning implied that he had been in Alexander's tent all night, and Plutarch describes the intimacy between them when he tells how Hephaestion was in the habit of reading Alexander's letters with him, and of a time when he showed that the contents of a letter were to be kept secret by touching his ring to Hephaestion's lips. There also exists a letter, spuriously attributed to Diogenes of Sinope, heavily hinting at Alexander's yielding to "Hephaestion's thighs".
No other circumstance shows better the nature and length of their relationship than Alexander's overwhelming grief at Hephaestion's death. As Andrew Chugg says, "it is surely incredible that Alexander's reaction to Hephaestion's death could indicate anything other than the closest relationship imaginable". The many and varied ways, both spontaneous and planned, by which Alexander poured out his grief are detailed below. In the context of the nature of their relationship however, one stands out as remarkable. Arrian says that Alexander "flung himself on the body of his friend and lay there nearly all day long in tears, and refused to be parted from him until he was dragged away by force by his Companions".
Others
Among Alexander's other officers, it is possible that Hephaestion was closest to Perdiccas, because it was with Perdiccas that he went on the mission to take Peuceolatis and bridge the Indus. By that time, as Alexander's effective second-in-command, he could doubtless have chosen any officer he cared to name. They accomplished everything they set out to do with great success, which indicates that the two of them worked well together, and that Hephaestion found the irrepressible Perdiccas a congenial companion. It is notable that their two cavalry regiments in particular were selected by Alexander for the dangerous crossing of the river Hydaspes before the battle with the Indian king, Porus. On that occasion superb teamwork would have been of paramount importance.
However, outside the close-knit coterie of the Macedonian high command, he was not universally admired. This is clear from Arrian's comment about Alexander's grief: "All writers have agreed that it was great, but personal prejudice, for or against both Hephaestion and Alexander himself, has coloured the accounts of how he expressed it."
Yet given the factions and jealousies that arise in any court and that Hephaestion was supremely close to the greatest monarch the Western world had yet seen, it is remarkable how little enmity he inspired. Arrian mentions a quarrel with Alexander's secretary Eumenes but, because of a missing page in the text, the greater part of the detail is missing, leaving only the conclusion that something persuaded Hephaestion, though against his will, to make up the quarrel. However, Plutarch, who wrote about Eumenes in his series of Parallel Lives, mentions that it was about lodgings and a flute-player, so perhaps this was an instance of some deeper antagonism breaking out into a quarrel over a triviality. What that antagonism might have been, it is not possible to know, but someone with the closeness to the king of a secretary might well have felt some jealousy for Hephaestion's even greater closeness.
In only one instance is Hephaestion known to have quarrelled with a fellow officer and that was with Craterus. In this instance it is easier to see that resentment might have been felt on both sides, for Craterus was one of those officers who vehemently disliked Alexander's policy of integrating Greek and Persian, whereas Hephaestion was very much in favour. Plutarch tells the story: "For this reason a feeling of hostility grew and festered between the two and they often came into open conflict. Once on the expedition to India they actually drew their swords and came to blows ..." Alexander, who also valued Craterus highly as a most competent officer, was forced to intervene and had stern words for both. It is a measure of how high feelings were running over this contentious issue that such a thing should have happened and also an indication of how closely Hephaestion identified Alexander's wishes with his own.
Hephaestion gave perhaps the ultimate proof of this in the summer of 324 BC, when he accepted as his wife Drypetis, daughter of Darius and sister to Alexander's own second wife Stateira. Of his short married life nothing is known, except that at the time of Alexander's own death, eight months after Hephaestion's, Drypetis was still mourning the husband to whom she had been married for only four months.
For Alexander to marry a daughter of Darius made good political sense, allying himself firmly with the Persian ruling class, but for Hephaestion to marry her sister shows the high esteem in which Alexander held him, bringing him into the royal family itself. They became brothers-in-law, and yet there was more to it than that. Arrian says that Alexander "wanted to be uncle to Hephaestion's children". Thus it is possible to imagine Alexander and Hephaestion hoping that their respective offspring might unite their lines and that, ultimately, the crown of Macedon and Persia might be worn by one who was a descendant of them both.
Death and funeral
Death
In spring 324 BC Hephaestion left Susa, where he had been married, and accompanied Alexander and the rest of the army as they travelled towards Ecbatana. They arrived in the autumn and it was there, during games and festivals, that Hephaestion fell ill with a fever. Arrian says that after the fever had run for seven days, Alexander had to be summoned from the games to Hephaestion, who was seriously ill. He did not arrive in time; by the time he got there, Hephaestion was dead. Plutarch says that being a young man and a soldier, Hephaestion had ignored medical advice: As soon as his doctor, Glaucias, had gone off to the theatre, he ate a large breakfast, consisting of a boiled fowl and a cooler of wine, and then fell sick and died.
Piecing the accounts together, it seems as if Hephaestion's fever had run its course for seven days, after which time he was sufficiently recovered for his doctor, and Alexander himself, to feel it was safe to leave him, and for Hephaestion to feel hungry. His meal, however, seems to have caused a relapse that led to his rapid death. Precisely why this should have happened is not known. As Mary Renault says, "This sudden crisis in a young, convalescent man is hard to account for." The explanation that fits most of the facts is that the fever was typhoid and that solid food perforated the ulcerated intestine that the typhoid would have caused. This would have led to internal bleeding, though it would be unusual in that case for death to follow quite as swiftly as it seems to have done here. For that reason, it is not possible altogether to discount other possible explanations, one of them being poison.
Following Hephaestion's death his body was cremated and the ashes were taken to Babylon. The general Eumenes suggested that divine honors be given to Hephaestion, this was later done.
Hephaestion's death is dealt with at greater length by the ancient sources than any of the events of his life, because of its profound effect upon Alexander. Plutarch says that "Alexander's grief was uncontrollable" and adds that he ordered many signs of mourning, notably that the manes and tails of all horses should be shorn, the demolition of the battlements of the neighbouring cities and the banning of flutes and every other kind of music. Besides the account reported in a previous section about the immediate manifestations of despair by Alexander on his friend's body, Arrian also relates that "until the third day after Hephaestion's death, Alexander neither tasted food nor paid any attention to his personal appearance, but lay on the ground either bewailing or silently mourning," and that he had the doctor, Glaucias, hanged for his lack of care. Arrian also mentions Alexander ordering the shrine of Asclepios in Ecbatana to be razed to the ground, and that he cut his hair short in mourning, this last a poignant reminder of Achilles' last gift to Patroclus on his funeral pyre:
Thus o'er Patroclus while the hero prayed,
on his cold hand the sacred lock he laid.
Once more afresh the Grecian sorrows flow:
And now the sun had set upon their woe.
Another hint that Alexander looked to Achilles to help him to express his grief may be found in the campaign, shortly following these events, against a tribe called the Cossaeans. Plutarch says they were massacred as an offering to the spirit of Hephaestion, and it is quite possible to imagine that to Alexander this might have followed in spirit with Achilles' killing of "twelve high-born youths" beside Patroclus' funeral pyre.
Alexander ordered a period of mourning throughout the empire and "many of the Companions, out of respect for Alexander, dedicated themselves and their arms to the dead man". The army, too, remembered him; Alexander did not appoint anyone to take Hephaestion's place as commander of the Companion cavalry; he "wished Hephaestion's name to be preserved always in connection with it, so Hephaestion's Regiment it continued to be called, and Hephaestion's image continued to be carried before it".
Messengers were sent to the oracle at Siwa to ask if Amon would permit Hephaestion to be worshipped as a god. When the reply came saying he might be worshipped not as a god, but as a divine hero, Alexander was pleased and "from that day forward saw that his friend was honoured with a hero's rites". He saw to it that shrines were erected to Hephaestion's memory, and evidence that the cult took hold can be found in a simple votary plaque now in Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, inscribed, "To the Hero Hephaestion".
Funeral
Hephaestion was given a magnificent funeral. Its cost is variously given in the sources as 10,000 talents or 12,000 talents, about $200,000,000 or $ 240,000,000 in the early 21st century's money. Alexander himself drove the funeral carriage part of the way back to Babylon with some of the driving entrusted to Hephaestion's friend Perdiccas. At Babylon, funeral games were held in Hephaestion's honour. The contests ranged from literature to athletics and 3,000 competitors took part, the festival eclipsing anything that had gone before both in cost and in numbers taking part. Plutarch says that Alexander planned to spend ten thousand talents on the funeral and the tomb. He employed Stasicrates, "as this artist was famous for his innovations, which combined an exceptional degree of magnificence, audacity and ostentation", to design the pyre for Hephaestion.
The pyre was sixty metres high, square in shape and built in stepped levels. The first level was decorated with two hundred and forty ships with golden prows, each of these adorned with armed figures with red banners filling the spaces between. On the second level were torches with snakes at the base, golden wreaths in the middle and at the top, flames surmounted by eagles. The third level showed a hunting scene, and the fourth a battle of centaurs, all done in gold. On the fifth level, also in gold, were lions and bulls, and on the sixth the arms of Macedon and Persia. The seventh and final level bore sculptures of sirens, hollowed out to conceal a choir who would sing a lament. It is possible that the pyre was not burnt, but that it was actually intended as a tomb or lasting memorial; if so, it is likely that it was never completed, as there are references to expensive, uncompleted projects at the time of Alexander's own death.
One final tribute remained, and it is compelling in its simplicity and in what it reveals about the high esteem in which Hephaestion was held by Alexander. On the day of the funeral, he gave orders that the sacred flame in the temple should be extinguished. Normally, this was only done on the death of the Great King himself.
Amphipolis Tomb
Based on a monogram found in the Amphipolis Tomb in northern Greece, the lead archaeologist, Katerina Peristeri, claims that the whole tumulus was a funerary monument for Hephaestion, built between 325–300 BC.
Portrayals of Hephaestion in fiction
Hephaestion is the major character in "Trampling in the Land of Woe" by William Galaini (Alternative Universe)
Hephaestion is a major character in "Memories of Hephaestion: A Story of Alexander the Great" by A.R. Valeson.
Cave, A. J. (2008) Roxana Romance. Pavasta. Hardcover: , eBook:
In the 1961 television version of Terence Rattigan's play Adventure Story, Hephaestion is played by William Russell.
In the Oliver Stone film Alexander, he is portrayed by Jared Leto.
Hephaestion is a major character in Mary Renault's novels Fire from Heaven and The Persian Boy.
Hephaestion is a secondary character in Judith Tarr's 1993 Lord of the Two Lands.
Hephaestion is a secondary character in Jo Graham's 2010 Stealing Fire.
He is mentioned as "Alexander's Lover" in the song "Mystery of Love" from the 2017 film Call Me By Your Name; the song received a nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Song.
Indian actor Akash Singh Rajput portrays Hephaestion in the 2017 Indian TV series Porus.
Hephaestion is a main character in Jeanne Reames's 2019 Dancing with the Lion duology.
A character calling herself "Hephaestion" appears as a Servant in The Case Files of Lord El-Melloi II, but later it is revealed that she is Hephaestion's sister, but never received a name in order to serve as a political decoy to Alexander the Great as well as her brother.
Notes
References
Ancient sources
Aelian, Varia Historia
Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander
Quintus Curtius Rufus, The History of Alexander
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica
Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers: Aristotle
Diogenes of Sinope, Letters
Homer, Iliad
Horace, Epistles
Lucian, Pro Lapsu
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Alexander, Eumenes
Modern sources
Cartledge, Paul (2004) Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past. London: Macmillan.
Chugg, Andrew Michael (2006) Alexander's Lovers. Lightning Source UK Ltd.
Hammond, N. G. L. (1980 2nd edition) Alexander the Great: King, Commander and Statesman. Bristol Press.
Hammond, N. G. L. (1997) The Genius of Alexander the Great. London: Duckworth.
Heckel, Waldemar (2006) Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great. MA, USA: Blackwell.
Lane Fox, Robin (1973) Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane.
Martin, Thomas R., Blackwell, Christopher W. (2012). Alexander the Great : the story of an ancient life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Renault, Mary (1975) The Nature of Alexander. London: Allen Lane.
Further reading
Reames, Jeanne. Hephaistion Amyntoros: Eminence Grise at the Court of Alexander the Great. Diss. The Pennsylvania State University, c1998. (abstract)
Borza, Eugene and Reames, Jeanne. Some New Thoughts on the Death of Alexander the Great, The Ancient World 31.1 (2000) 1-9.
Bosworth, Albert Brian. Hephaistion. In: Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth (Hrsg.): The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3. Aufl., Oxford University Press, Oxford 1996, .
Carney, Elizabeth D. Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Aristocracy. Dissertation, Duke University, 1975.
Heckel, Waldemar. Hephaistion. In: Ders.: The Marshals of Alexander's Empire. Routledge, London 1992, .
Reames, Jeanne. An Atypical Affair? Alexander the Great, Hephaistion, and the Nature of Their Relationship. In: The Ancient History Bulletin 13.3 (1999), pp. 81–96.
Reames, Jeanne. The Cult of Hephaistion. In: Cartledge, Paul, and Greenland, Fiona Rose (ed.), Responses to Oliver Stone's Alexander. Film, History, and Cultural Studies. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison 2010, (accessible online in Scribd.com).
Reames, Jeanne. The Mourning of Alexander the Great, In: Syllecta Classica 12 (2001) 98-145.
External links
Alexander's Tomb by Andrew M. Chugg
Hephaestion at WCD (Wiki Classical Dictionary)
Hephaistion - Philalexandros by Jeanne Reames
Livius, Hephaestion by Jona Lendering
pothos.org All about Alexander the Great
350s BC births
324 BC deaths
4th-century BC Greek people
4th-century BC Macedonians
Hetairoi
Somatophylakes
Male lovers of royalty
Ancient LGBT people
Ancient Macedonian generals
Generals of Alexander the Great
Lovers of Alexander the Great
Trierarchs of Nearchus' fleet
Deified people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shergar
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Shergar
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Shergar (3 March 1978 – ) was an Irish-bred, British-trained Thoroughbred racehorse. After a very successful season in 1981 he was retired to the Ballymany Stud in County Kildare, Ireland. In 1983 he was stolen from the stud, and a ransom of £2 million was demanded; it was not paid, and negotiations were soon broken off by the thieves. In 1999 a supergrass, formerly in the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), stated they stole the horse. The IRA has never admitted any role in the theft.
The Aga Khan, Shergar's owner, sent the horse for training in Britain in 1979 and 1980. Shergar began his first season of racing in September 1980 and ran two races that year, where he won one and came second in the other. In 1981 he ran in six races, winning five of them. In June that year he won the 202nd Epsom Derby by ten lengths—the longest winning margin in the race's history. Three weeks later he won the Irish Sweeps Derby by four lengths; a month after that he won the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes by four lengths. In his final race of the year he came in fourth, and the Aga Khan took the decision to retire him to stud in Ireland.
After Shergar's Epsom Derby win, the Aga Khan sold 40 shares in the horse, valuing it at £10 million. Retaining six shares, he created an owners' syndicate with the remaining 34 members. Shergar was stolen from the Aga Khan's stud farm by an armed gang on 8 February 1983. Negotiations were conducted with the thieves, but the gang broke off all communication after four days when the syndicate did not accept as true the proof provided that the horse was still alive. In 1999 Sean O'Callaghan, a former member of the IRA, published details of the theft and stated that it was an IRA operation to raise money for arms. He said that very soon after the theft, Shergar had panicked and damaged his leg, which led to him being killed by the gang. An investigation by The Sunday Telegraph concluded that the horse was shot four days after the theft.
No arrests have ever been made in relation to the theft. Shergar's body has never been recovered or identified; it is likely that the body was buried near Aughnasheelin, near Ballinamore, County Leitrim. In honour of Shergar, the Shergar Cup was inaugurated in 1999. His story has been made into two screen dramatisations, several books and two documentaries.
Background and early training
Shergar was a Thoroughbred bay colt with a white blaze, four white socks and a wall (blue) eye. He was foaled on 3 March 1978 at Sheshoon—the private stud of the Aga Khan IV—near the Curragh Racecourse in County Kildare, Ireland. Shergar was sired by Great Nephew, a British stallion whose wins included the Prix du Moulin and Prix Dollar in France in 1967. Great Nephew's other progeny included Grundy, Mrs Penny and Tolmi. Shergar's dam was Sharmeen, a seventh-generation descendant of Mumtaz Mahal, a horse that is described by the National Sporting Library as "one of the most important broodmares of the 20th Century".
In 1978 the Aga Khan—the leader of Nizari Ismailism, philanthropist and horse owner—announced he would send some of his yearlings for training in England. For a trainer, he chose Michael Stoute, who was based at Newmarket. Stoute had a good year in 1978, and had trained the winners of the Oaks, Irish Oaks and Yorkshire Oaks with Fair Salinia, and the Gold Cup with Shangamuzo. Shergar was sent into training with Stoute in 1979, as the Aga Khan's second year of sending horses to England.
According to Stoute and Ghislain Drion—the manager of the Aga Khan's Irish studs—Shergar was easy to break, and had a good temperament. He responded very well to training, particularly in September 1980, when the jockey Lester Piggott rode him in the run-up to Shergar's debut race.
Racing career
1980: two-year-old season
On 19 September 1980 Shergar ran his first race, the Kris Plate, with Piggott as his jockey. The race was open to two-year-old colts and geldings over a straight at Newbury. Listed as favourite with odds of 11–8, he kept in behind the leaders before opening up and winning by lengths. Richard Baerlein, the racing correspondent for The Observer, thought Shergar's run was the best from a two-year-old that season. After the race Stoute said the horse would run one more race that year to gain experience, before resting until the following year.
Shergar's second race was the William Hill Futurity Stakes at Doncaster, run on 25 October 1980. He was again ridden by Piggott, with odds of 5–2 in a very experienced field of seven. Shergar sat behind the pace-setting leader for much of the race, and when that horse faded, the running was taken up by Beldale Flutter. Shergar challenged for the lead, but Beldale Flutter pulled away and won by lengths; Shergar came in second. Following the race, Michael Seely, the racing correspondent of The Times, thought Shergar's run was significant, and that he was "a magnificent stamp of a horse" whose odds of 25–1 for the following year's Derby were worth considering.
1981: three-year-old season
Over late 1980 and early 1981 Shergar filled out and was stronger by April 1981. Stoute had decided that Shergar should run in that year's Derby, and planned the season accordingly. The first race to prepare him was the Guardian Newspaper Classic Trial, run at Sandown on 25 April 1981, where he was ridden by Walter Swinburn. In a 9-horse, -mile (2.0 km) race, Shergar raised his pace after a mile and won by 10 lengths. Baerlein had written in his column before the race that at 25–1, the odds for Shergar to win the Derby were excellent. After the win, he noted them shortening to 8–1, where, "the bet is still worth pressing"; he continued "If ... [Shergar] wins his next race at Chester or the Ladbroke Lingfield Trial as easily, he will be down to less than 4–1. Surely this is the time to bet like men."
As further training for the Derby, Stoute decided that Shergar needed practice on a left-hand cornered course; he selected Chester, where the Chester Vase was run on 5 May 1981. After keeping pace with the leaders, with half a mile to go, Swinburn urged Shergar to increase speed, and he did, overtaking the leaders and going clear to win by 12 lengths.
On 3 June 1981 Shergar ran in the Derby. Set over a mile (2.4 km) course at the Epsom Downs Racecourse in Surrey, the Derby is a Group 1 flat race open to three-year-old Thoroughbred colts and fillies. After the top of the uphill straight start of the course, Shergar was well-placed and moving through the other runners. At Tattenham Corner—the final bend of the course—Shergar took the front of the race and opened up a lead over the others. Commentating on the race, Peter Bromley informed listeners that "there's only one horse in it—you need a telescope to see the rest!" Swinburn eased off the pace with two furlongs to go, and won by ten lengths. It was the largest winning margin of any Epsom Derby. John Matthias, the jockey of the second-placed horse Glint of Gold, said that "I thought I'd achieved my life's ambition. Only then did I discover there was another horse on the horizon." In the light of Shergar's run of wins, particularly the Derby, Baerlein wrote that the horse was one of the finest he had seen.
While out on the gallops on 15 June, Shergar threw his rider, ran through a hedge onto the road and trotted along to the local village. He was spotted by a local resident, who followed the horse until it stopped to graze on a hedge, and then led him back to the stables. Shergar was unharmed during the event, and Stoute recalled "it's very lucky nothing happened to him; there's a crossing there, and it's a difficult thing".
By the time the Irish Derby was run at the Curragh, on 27 June 1981, Swinburn was suspended following an infringement at Royal Ascot, so Piggott returned to ride Shergar. At the half-way point in the race, Shergar was in third place, but increased his pace to take the lead with three furlongs to go. He slowed during the last furlong, and won by four lengths. As the horse approached the line, Michael O'Hehir, the commentator, informed viewers that "He's winning it so easily; it's Shergar first and the rest are nowhere". After the race Piggott told reporters that he had no doubt that Shergar would win as the horse never struggled in the race. He also said that Shergar was one of the best horses he had ever raced on.
Following Shergar's Epsom Derby win, a group of US horse owners had offered $40 million to syndicate the horse. The Aga Khan turned down the offer, and instead decided to syndicate Shergar for £10 million at £250,000 for each of the forty shares—a record price at the time; the Aga Khan kept six shares for himself and the others were sold individually to buyers from nine countries. The shareholders had the option each year of selecting a mare to be covered—or of selling that option on. The stud fees were £60,000–80,000 per cover, which meant that shareholders could expect to make a profit from stud within four years.
Shergar had a break of almost a month until he ran in the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Diamond Stakes at Ascot on 25 July 1981. The race was slow-paced to start and Shergar was boxed in by other horses, but found a way out by the time the leaders had reached the final straight, and accelerated to win by four lengths. For Baerlein, the race showed that Shergar was the best horse he had ever seen race; Michael Phillips, the racing correspondent for The Times, wrote that the win "proved that Shergar is a cut above the average but not exceptional". Phillips continued that Shergar "failed to fill me, and many more besides, with the magic that was in the air after Nijinsky and Mill Reef had won the same race".
The Aga Khan and Stoute considered entering Shergar into the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe that autumn, but decided that he needed one more race to prepare. They entered him into what would be his final race, the St Leger Stakes at Doncaster on 12 September 1981, with Swinburn as the jockey. Ten days before the race, a story was published in the racing newspaper Sporting Life that Shergar had not been practising well and had become "mulish"; Stoute stated that the rumours were untrue. Shergar was running well in the race, although the soft ground was not to his liking, but on the final straight, when Swinburn tried to get him to accelerate to the front, the horse would not respond. Shergar came in fourth, lengths behind Cut Above, the winner.
Surprised by the manner of the loss, Stoute and the Aga Khan ran a series of tests on Shergar. All showed the horse was in good health, and he worked well in training after the race. Unwilling to risk the horse without knowing what had happened at the St Leger, the Aga Khan did not enter him into the Arc, and instead retired him to the Ballymany Stud, near the Curragh. He later explained to a racing journalist:
He was just an exceptional athlete. All through the spring and summer he completely dominated European racing in a very dramatic manner, and after he had run so uncharacteristically in the St. Leger, we knew something had gone wrong, but we didn't know what it was, so it was an easy decision to retire him before the Arc.
Stud career
The Aga Khan turned down large offers to put Shergar to stud in the US, and instead chose to stand him at the Ballymany Stud in Ireland. He arrived in October 1981, and was paraded down the main street of Newbridge, County Kildare. Milton Toby, the writer on Thoroughbred racing and equine law, judges Shergar to have been "a national hero in Ireland. ... one of the most recognizable sports personalities—horse or human—in Ireland."
In 1982—his only rutting season—Shergar covered 44 mares, from which 36 foals were produced: 17 colts and 19 fillies. Of these, three won Group races, and the most successful of his progeny was Authaal. When sold as a weanling (between six months and a year) Authaal reached 325,000 guineas. He was sold a year later, where he fetched 3.1 million guineas. In 1986 he won the Irish St. Leger by five lengths. Toby considers that Shergar's progeny were "perhaps not a disappointing first crop, but certainly below expectations for a horse with Shergar's racing prowess."
At the start of February 1983 Shergar's second stud season was about to begin, and he was in high demand, and had a full book of 55 mares to cover. He was expected to earn £1 million for the season.
February 1983 onwards
Theft
On 8 February 1983, at around 8:30 pm, three men—all armed and wearing masks—entered the house of Jim Fitzgerald, the head groom at Ballymany. They were part of a group of at least six, and possibly up to nine men. One of the men said to him "We have come for Shergar. We want £2 million for him." Fitzgerald said the men were not rough, although one of them who carried a pistol was very aggressive. Fitzgerald's family were locked into a room while he was taken, at gunpoint, out to Shergar's stable and was told to put the horse in the back of a horsebox.
After the horsebox was driven away Fitzgerald was told to lie on the floor of a van, and his face was covered with a coat. He was driven around for four hours before being released near the village of Kilcock, approximately from Ballymany. He was told not to contact the Garda Síochána (Gardaí)—the Irish police—or he and his family would be killed, but to wait for the gang to contact him. He was given the code phrase "King Neptune", which the gang would use to identify themselves. The men did not say that they were from the IRA, or give any other indication as to who they were, although one of the men spoke with a Northern Irish accent, and another seemed to be experienced with horses.
Fitzgerald walked on to the next village and called his brother to pick him up. On arrival back at Ballymany, he rang Ghislain Drion to inform him of the theft, and urged him not to call the police because of the threats that had been made. Drion attempted to reach the Aga Khan in Switzerland to inform him, then rang Stan Cosgrove, Shergar's vet, who was also a shareholder. Cosgrove contacted a retired Irish Army captain, Sean Berry, who was manager of the Irish Thoroughbred Breeders Association. Berry contacted Alan Dukes, a friend of his who was the serving Minister for Finance, who suggested that Berry speak to Michael Noonan, the Minister for Justice. Noonan and Dukes told him to call the Gardaí. By 4:00 am Drion had managed to contact the Aga Khan, who told him to phone the Gardaí straight away. The force were then contacted, but it was eight hours after Shergar had been stolen and any possible trail had already gone cold.
The Aga Khan had several reasons for non-payment of the ransom, including that he was only one of 35 members, and could not negotiate or pay on behalf of the others. He was unsure whether Shergar would be returned even if the money was paid, and concerned that, if the kidnappers' demands were met, it would make every high-value horse in Ireland a target for future thefts. The shareholders were divided on the approach. Brian Sweeney, a veteran of the American horseracing industry thought that "if you ask a mother who has had a child that has been kidnapped if a ransom should be paid, I think the answer would be 'yes, and quickly'"; another shareholder, Lord Derby, disagreed and said "if ransom money is paid for this horse, then there is a danger of other horses being kidnapped in the years to come—and that simply cannot be tolerated".
First approach by the thieves
The first phone call from the thieves was on the night Shergar was stolen; Fitzgerald was not back at Ballymany by that time, and had not had the chance to tell the news of the theft to anyone. The call was to Jeremy Maxwell, a horse trainer based in Northern Ireland. The caller demanded £40,000, although this figure was later raised to £52,000. Maxwell was told that the negotiations would only be with three British horse racing journalists, Derek Thompson and John Oaksey of ITV and Peter Campling from The Sun. The men were told to be at the Europa Hotel in central Belfast by the Thursday evening; the Europa was known as the most bombed hotel in Europe after having suffered multiple bomb attacks during the Troubles.
When the three sports journalists arrived at the Europa, they were contacted by phone and told to go to the Maxwells' house to await further calls. On orders from the police, Thompson kept the person talking for as long as possible, but the caller rang off at 80 seconds—before the call could be traced. There were a series of calls to the Maxwells' house later that night, and at 1:30 am Thompson managed to keep the caller talking for over 90 seconds, which would have been enough to trace the call; he was told that the person who was doing the call intercepts had finished his shift at midnight and gone home. At 7:00 am on 12 February another call was put through to the Maxwells' house, which said that things had gone wrong, and that Shergar was dead.
Although a committee put together by the syndicate to co-ordinate their response later considered that this was a hoax, Toby argues that as the call about the theft preceded Fitzgerald's return to Ballymany—i.e. before anyone knew about the theft—and as the callers used the code phrase "King Neptune" in their communications, it is more likely that the calls, and the ensuing focus on the high-profile activity in Belfast, were undertaken to distract the authorities from what was happening with Shergar elsewhere.
Second approach by the thieves
On 9 February the thieves opened a second line of negotiation, contacting Ballymany Stud directly and speaking to Drion. The call, which came in at 4:05 pm, was short. Drion was not a fluent speaker of English and struggled to understand the Irish accent of the caller; the caller similarly had problems with Drion's heavy French pronunciation. Ninety minutes later, the caller tried again, with Drion asking him to speak slowly. A demand of £2 million was made for the return of Shergar, and for a contact number in France, through which further negotiations could be made. Drion provided the number of the Aga Khan's French office.
The syndicate which owned Shergar brought in the risk and strategic consulting firm Control Risks to handle the negotiations. They negotiated from the Paris office, with a series of telephone calls over four days. On Friday 11 February the negotiators demanded proof that Shergar was still alive, as there had been some speculation in the press that Shergar was dead. The thieves said that a representative of the syndicate should go to the Crofton Hotel in Dublin and ask for any messages for "Johnny Logan"—the name of an Irish singer. Stan Cosgrove went to the hotel and asked for any messages. Armed members of the Special Detective Unit—the domestic security agency of the Gardaí—were present in an undercover role. No message was delivered, and Cosgrove returned home after waiting. Shortly afterwards the negotiators received a phone call from the thieves, angry at the presence of the police, and threatening that if any members of the gang were captured or killed, the negotiators and police would be murdered in retribution.
On Saturday 12 February the thieves contacted the negotiators and said that proof had been left at the Rosnaree Hotel. When this was picked up, it contained several polaroid pictures showing Shergar; some of the pictures showed the horse's head next to a copy of The Irish News, dated 11 February. Cosgrove saw the photograph and confirmed that "it definitely was him", although he added "It wasn't proof that the horse was alive ... at that point ... you'd want to get much more definite evidence ... if you'd have seen the complete horse it would have been different, but this was just the head."
In a telephone call from the thieves to the negotiators at 10:40 pm on 12 February, it was explained that the syndicate were not satisfied with the pictures of the horse, which, they explained, did not constitute enough proof. The caller told the negotiators "If you're not satisfied, that's it". The call was ended, and the thieves never made any further contact. The syndicate attempted to re-establish contact with the gang, but there was no response to newspaper requests to do so.
Negotiations examined
The syndicate committee put together a report for the full syndicate, which examined the possible motives behind the theft. They concluded that the theft of Shergar was either undertaken to create confusion and publicity, rather than obtaining money, or that the negotiations were undertaken with naivety. They reached this conclusion after taking a number of factors into account. Many of the demands were physically impossible: the ransom demand included £100 notes, which did not exist. In one call at 5:45 pm to Drion in Ballymany, he was told to deliver the £2 million to Paris before noon the following day. In a call at 5:00 pm, the Paris negotiators were told to get £2 million by the end of the night—after the Parisian banks had closed. In another call, the negotiator in Paris was told to get agreement for a ransom, but told he should not contact anyone in Ireland, despite some of the shareholders being there. It also became clear during the course of the negotiations that the gang thought that the Aga Khan was the sole owner of Shergar; they had no knowledge of the other shareholders, and did not take into account the complexity of liaising and organising all 35 shareholders into a position of agreement.
Police investigation
The initial police investigation was hindered by the eight-hour lapse before the crime was reported, and by a local Thoroughbred auction, which meant several horseboxes were travelling in the area. Leading the investigation was Chief Superintendent James Murphy, a highly experienced detective. In his first press conference Murphy described how he was "slightly concerned" about the theft, and told reporters that "I have no leads". His comment about a lack of leads was not truthful, as Murphy withheld much information from the media, including the police finding the magazine for a Steyr MPi 69 submachine gun, which suggested a link to an IRA active service unit in South Armagh.
Murphy had a strong Irish brogue, wore a trilby hat and had a self-effacing sense of humour. At one press conference, he announced "A clue? That is something we haven't got". Several people claiming to have paranormal powers contacted the Gardaí with their thoughts; Murphy reported that "diviners, clairvoyants and psychic persons—they're in three different categories—they must be running into the fifties now". During one press conference, six photographers turned up wearing similar trilbies to the policeman; The Times called him a "stage Irishman". One reviewer of a documentary in 2004 called Murphy "the most richly comic copper since Inspector Clouseau". After eight days with no progress, he was replaced as the public figure of the investigation, but continued to lead it.
On 16 February a description of the horsebox used by the thieves—from a description given by Fitzgerald—was released. It was either light green or light blue with no working lights and no licence plates. The huge police search of possible hiding places for Shergar—by the Gardaí in the Irish Republic and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Northern Ireland—found no trace of the horse or horsebox, but several IRA caches of arms and explosives were uncovered, leading to the loss of several safe houses. Up to 70 detectives were working on the case at one point. Two weeks after Shergar was stolen, the police search was scaled down, although the investigation continued.
Speculation and hoaxes
With no definite news of Shergar's whereabouts, and with the Gardaí limiting the information they released to the press, the media took to speculation to cover the story. Baerlein observes that in reporting the Shergar case, "the press speculation was remarkable for its enthusiasm and its inaccuracy over a long period of time". Such media claims included that Shergar had been stolen by Colonel Gaddafi as part of a deal to supply arms to the IRA; that, according to the tabloid newspaper Sunday Sport, Shergar was spotted being ridden by the missing Lord Lucan; that a Middle Eastern horse breeder had stolen him for stud; and that the Mafia had undertaken the act to punish the Aga Khan over a previous sale of a horse which had gone badly.
Eight weeks after Shergar was stolen, Stan Cosgrove was approached by senior detectives within the Gardaí who introduced him to Dennis Minogue, a horse trainer. Minogue claimed to have a contact within the IRA who had shown him a photograph of Shergar, and that he could help get Shergar released for a ransom of IR£80,000. The Gardaí asked Cosgrove to assist them in a sting operation to lure the thieves out. Cosgrove agreed, and on 20 July 1983 Detective Garda Martin Kenirons assisted the operation. He put the money in the boot of his car in a remote village, which Minogue was to collect once the horse had been released. The following day Kenirons found the boot of his car forced open and the money missing. Minogue had also disappeared, and the money was never recovered.
A subsequent internal Gardaí enquiry dismissed Kenirons from the force for breaching Gardaí regulations. In an interview in 2018 he reiterated his long-stated innocence and said "when it all went wrong, everyone jumped for the high ground. They [the senior Gardaí officers] all denied that they had anything to do with the ransom."
Insurance
Shergar was insured through several different insurance companies. The Lloyd's of London insurance brokers Hodgson McCreedy covered £3,625,000 of the total, and added a theft clause to the policy. Other shareholders—accountable for £1.5 million worth of shares—had insurance that did not include a theft clause; Cosgrove was one of the mortality-only insured members. Shareholders accounting for £3 million did not take out insurance; the Aga Khan was one of the uninsured members of the syndicate. Cosgrove was insured with the Norwich Union (now part of Aviva), who refused to pay, even when it became clear that Shergar was probably dead; the company's liability was £144,000.
The 20 policies that included a theft clause were all settled in full in June 1983, even though there was a question of whether there was a need to. Terry Hall, an animal insurance insurer with Lloyd's of London, observes that while theft was clear cut, the demand of a ransom meant that the action was considered extortion, rather than theft, which meant the mortality and theft policies did not have to be paid out. Legal advice was sought by Lloyd's of London, who were told that although it was a grey area, payment was advised.
Possible identification of the criminals
Police and intelligence sources considered the IRA as the most likely suspects behind the theft. During the 1980s, the Irish republican movement followed the Armalite and ballot box strategy, in which electoral success was chased by Sinn Féin, while an armed struggle was continued by the IRA. The strategy was expensive, requiring payment for arms and explosives for the IRA, and for political activity, advertising and salaries for Sinn Féin. The annual budget for the movement was estimated at between £2 million and £5 million, and it was always under financial pressure.
In October 1981 the IRA Army Council—the leadership group of the organisation—approved the kidnapping of Ben Dunne, then head of the chain of Dunnes Stores. Dunne was released unharmed after a week; both the Dunne family and the Gardaí deny a ransom of £300,000 was paid. According to intelligence subsequently received by the intelligence sources, after the success of the operation, it was decided to undertake another ransom—through kidnapping or theft—this time of Shergar.
In 1999 Sean O'Callaghan, a former member of the IRA who had been working within the organisation as a supergrass for the Gardaí since 1980, published his autobiography. In it, he states that the plot to steal and ransom Shergar was devised by Kevin Mallon, a leading IRA member who sat on the Army Council; Mallon came up with the idea while serving time in Portlaoise Prison. Mallon was put in charge of a Special Operations unit with orders to raise several million pounds, and several IRA men were taken from under O'Callaghan's control in IRA Southern Command and put into Mallon's unit. These included the IRA members Gerry Fitzgerald, Paul Stewart, Rab Butler and Nicky Kehoe.
Two weeks after Shergar's kidnap, Gerry Fitzgerald told O'Callaghan that he had been involved in the theft, and that Shergar had been killed early on in the process after the horse panicked and no-one present could cope with him. In the process the horse damaged its left leg and the decision was made to kill it. In his 1999 autobiography O'Callaghan states that Shergar "was killed within days" of the theft; in an interview for RTÉ, the Irish broadcaster, in 2004, he stated that Gerry Fitzgerald "strongly suggested that Shergar had been killed within hours of his kidnap". The IRA then kept up a deception that the horse was still alive and in their care.
Kevin O'Connor, a journalist with RTÉ, identifies three parts of the gang: a section to undertake high-profile activity in Belfast, to focus media attention in the north; one part negotiating discreetly with the Aga Khan; and one part guarding the horse.
According to O'Callaghan, in August 1983, in an effort to raise the money that they failed to do with the Shergar theft, Fitzgerald and his group attempted to kidnap the businessman Galen Weston at his home in County Wicklow. The Gardaí had been forewarned, and took over the house while Weston was in the UK. After a gun battle, Gerry Fitzgerald, Kehoe and three others were arrested. They received long prison sentences. O'Callaghan stated that "Essentially the same team that went to kidnap Shergar went to kidnap Galen Weston".
No arrests have ever been made in relation to Shergar's theft. The IRA have never admitted any role in the theft or its aftermath. Mallon and Kehoe deny any involvement in the events. Toby raises a query over O'Callaghan's story, saying the IRA informant was "a confessed informer whose life depending on his ability to weave a convincing web of lies. Without more evidence, O'Callaghan's story ... [is] just that, an interesting story."
In 2008 a special investigation by The Sunday Telegraph obtained information from another IRA member who said that O'Callaghan had not been told the full story "because the gang was so embarrassed by what happened": a vet that the IRA had arranged to look after Shergar did not turn up because his wife threatened to leave him if he did. Once the IRA realised that the Aga Khan was not going to pay, the Army Council ordered the horse to be released. The extensive search by the Gardaí hampered any release, and Mallon thought he was under close surveillance, and that releasing the horse was too risky, so he ordered that it should be killed. The IRA source told the newspaper that two men went into the stable where Shergar was being held; one carried a machine gun:
Shergar was machine gunned to death. There was blood everywhere and the horse even slipped on his own blood. There was lots of cussin' and swearin' because the horse wouldn't die. It was a very bloody death.
Remains
Shergar's body has never been recovered or identified. Several sources, including O'Callaghan, The Sunday Telegraph and The Observer consider it likely that the body was buried near Aughnasheelin, near Ballinamore, County Leitrim. O'Callaghan said that as far as he knew, the remains had been buried on the farm of an IRA veteran from the 1940s, and that it would be difficult to get permission to dig on the land. Ballinamore is a town of strong republicanism, once nicknamed the "Falls Road of the South"—a reference to the Falls Road, Belfast, a highly republican area during the Troubles.
There have been several claims of equine skeletons being that of Shergar. Des Leadon, a specialist horse vet with knowledge of equine pathology, has assisted the Gardaí in several instances where a horse's remains may have been those of Shergar. He retains some strands of hair from Shergar's mane and tail which, he says, may contain sufficient DNA to confirm an identification.
Legacy
In 1999, in honour of Shergar, the Shergar Cup was inaugurated at Goodwood Racecourse, in a format that put a European team of jockeys against one from the Middle East. The race was later moved to Ascot Racecourse and is a competition between four teams, Great Britain and Ireland, Europe, the rest of the world and an all-women team. The winners of the competition are presented with a trophy showing Shergar; this was donated by the Aga Khan.
On the twentieth anniversary of Shergar's Derby win, a bronze statuette of the horse was presented to the winning jockey. A statue of Shergar stands in the grounds of Gilltown Stud, one of the Aga Khan's Irish stud farms.
The story of Shergar's theft was made into a television play with Stephen Rea and Gary Waldhorn, broadcast in March 1986 as part of the BBC's Screen Two anthology series. The play was based on the few facts known, plus a backstory described as plausible by Hugh Hebert, reviewing for The Guardian. The theft was also dramatised as the film Shergar, directed by Dennis Lewiston and starring Ian Holm and Mickey Rourke. There have been two television documentaries, Who Kidnapped Shergar?, broadcast on RTÉ in March 2004, and Searching for Shergar, broadcast on BBC One in June 2018.
Racing statistics
Pedigree
See also
Corrida (horse)
Fanfreluche (horse)
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
News articles
Internet and television media
External links
Shergar History
1978 racehorse births
1983 crimes in the Republic of Ireland
Epsom Derby winners
European Thoroughbred Horse of the Year
February 1983 crimes
February 1983 events in Europe
Individual thefts
Irish Classic Race winners
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes winners
Racehorses bred in Ireland
Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom
Thoroughbred family 9-c
Unsolved crimes in Ireland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Plattsburgh
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Battle of Plattsburgh
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The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final British invasion of the northern states of the United States during the War of 1812. An army under Lieutenant General Sir George Prévost and a naval squadron under Captain George Downie converged on the lakeside town of Plattsburgh, New York, which was defended by New York and Vermont militia and detachments of regular troops of the United States Army, all under the command of Brigadier General Alexander Macomb, and ships commanded by Master Commandant Thomas Macdonough.
Downie's squadron attacked shortly after dawn on 11 September 1814, but was defeated after a hard fight in which Downie was killed. Prévost then abandoned the attack by land against Macomb's defences and retreated to Canada, stating that even if Plattsburgh was captured, any British troops there could not be supplied without control of the lake.
When the battle took place, American and British delegates were meeting at Ghent in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, attempting to negotiate a treaty acceptable to both sides to end the war. The American victory at Plattsburgh, and the successful defense at the Battle of Baltimore, which began the next day and halted British advances in the Mid-Atlantic states, denied the British negotiators leverage to demand any territorial claims against the United States on the basis of Uti possidetis, i.e. retaining territory they held at the end of hostilities. The Treaty of Ghent, in which captured or occupied territories were restored on the basis of status quo ante bellum, i.e. the situation as it existed before the war, was signed three months after the battle. British ally Spain's West Florida, which was occupied by the U.S. military in early 1813, was the only permanent territorial change of the War of 1812 that was not reverted by the Treaty of Ghent.
Background
British plans
In 1814, most of Britain's army was engaged in the Peninsular War in Iberia. Then in April, Napoleon I abdicated the throne of France. This provided Britain the opportunity to send 16,000 veteran troops from the Peninsula and other garrisons to North America. Several experienced Major-Generals were also detached from the Duke of Wellington's army to command them.
The Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, the Earl of Bathurst, sent instructions to Lieutenant-General Sir George Prévost, the Commander-in-Chief in Canada and Governor General of the Canadas, authorizing him to launch offensives into American territory, but cautioning him against advancing too far and thereby risking being cut off. Bathurst suggested that Prévost should give first priority to attacking Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario, where the American fleet on the lake was based, and seize control of Lake Champlain as a secondary objective. Prévost lacked the means to transport the troops necessary for an attack on Sackett's Harbor and the supplies for them up the Saint Lawrence River. Furthermore, the American ships controlled Lake Ontario, making an attack impossible until the British launched the first-rate ship of the line HMS St. Lawrence on 15 October, too late in the year for major operations to be undertaken.
Prévost therefore prepared to launch his major offensive to Lake Champlain, up the Richelieu River. (Since the Richelieu was the only waterway connecting Lake Champlain to the ocean, trade on the lake naturally went through Canada.) Prévost's choice of route on reaching the lake was influenced by the attitude of the American state of Vermont, on the eastern side of the lake. The state had shown itself to be less than wholeheartedly behind the war and its inhabitants readily traded with the British, supplying them with all the cattle consumed by the British army, and even military stores such as masts and spars for the British warships on Lake Champlain. To spare Vermont from becoming a seat of war, Prévost therefore determined to advance down the western, New York State, side of the lake. The main American position on this side was at Plattsburgh.
Prévost organized the troops which were to carry out the invasion into a division commanded by Major General Sir Francis de Rottenburg, the Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada. The division consisted of the 1st Brigade of veterans of the Peninsular War under Major General Frederick Philipse Robinson (the 3/27th, 39th, 76th and 88th Regiments of Foot); the 2nd Brigade of troops already serving in Canada under Major General Thomas Brisbane (the 2/8th, 13th, and 49th Regiments of Foot, the Regiment de Meuron, the Canadian Voltigeurs, and the Canadian Chasseurs); and the 3rd Brigade of troops from the Peninsula and various garrisons under Major General Manley Power (the 3rd, 5th, 1/27th, and 58th Regiments of Foot). Each brigade was supported by a battery of five 6-pounder guns and one 5.5-inch howitzer of the Royal Artillery. A squadron of the 19th Light Dragoons was attached to the force. There was also a small "siege train" of artillery, consisting of two 24-pounder brass field guns, an 8-inch brass howitzer, and three 24-pounder naval carronades mounted on field carriages, and a Congreve rocket detachment. The force numbered 11,000 in total. However, some units were detached and some sick men did not take part, so the actual number of troops present at Plattsburgh was just over 8,000.
There was some tension within the force between the brigade and regimental commanders who were veterans of the Peninsular War or of earlier fighting in Upper Canada, and Prévost and his staff. Prévost had not endeared himself by complaining about the standards of dress of the troops from the Peninsular Army, where the Duke of Wellington had emphasized musketry and efficiency above turnout. Furthermore, neither Prévost, nor de Rottenburg, nor Prévost's Adjutant General (Major General Edward Baynes) had the extensive experience of battle gained by their brigade commanders, and had already gained a reputation for caution and hesitancy. Prévost's Quartermaster General, Major General Thomas Sydney Beckwith, was a veteran of the early part of the Peninsular campaign and of operations in Chesapeake Bay in 1813, but even he was to be criticized, mainly for failures in the intelligence.
American defenses
On the American side of the frontier, Major General George Izard was the commander of the Northern Army, deployed along the Northeast frontier. In late August, Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered Izard to take the majority of his force, about 4,000 troops, to reinforce Sackett's Harbor. Izard's force departed on 23 August, leaving Brigadier General Alexander Macomb in command at Plattsburgh with only 1,500 American regulars. Most of these troops were recruits, invalids or detachments of odds and ends.
Macomb ordered General Benjamin Mooers to call out the New York militia and appealed to the governor of Vermont for militia volunteers. 2,000 troops eventually reported to Plattsburgh under the command of Major General John Strong. Macomb put these recent volunteers to work digging trenches and building fortifications.
Macomb's main position was a ridge on the south bank of the Saranac River. Its fortifications had been laid out by Major Joseph Gilbert Totten, Izard's senior Engineer officer, and consisted of three redoubts and two blockhouses, linked by other fieldworks. The position was reckoned to be well enough supplied and fortified to withstand a siege for three weeks, even if the American ships on the lake were defeated and Plattsburgh was cut off. After Izard's division departed, Macomb continued to improve his defences. He even created an invalid battery on Crab Island, where his hospital was sited, that was to be manned by sick or wounded soldiers who were at least fit to fire the cannon. The townspeople of Plattsburgh had so little faith in Macomb's efforts to repulse the invasion that by September nearly all 3,000 inhabitants had fled the city. Plattsburgh was left occupied only by the American army.
Naval background
The British had gained naval superiority on Lake Champlain on 1 June 1813, when two American sloops pursued British gunboats into the Richelieu River, and were forced to surrender when the wind dropped and they were trapped by British artillery on the banks of the river. They were taken into the British naval establishment at Ile aux Noix, under Commander Daniel Pring. Their crews, and those of several gunboats, were temporarily reinforced by seamen drafted from ships of war lying at Quebec under Commander Thomas Everard who, being senior to Pring, took temporary command. They embarked 946 troops under Lieutenant Colonel John Murray of the 100th Regiment of Foot, and raided several settlements on both the New York and Vermont shores of Lake Champlain during the summer and autumn of 1813. The losses they inflicted and the restriction they imposed on the movement of men and supplies to Plattsburgh contributed to the defeat of Major General Wade Hampton's advance against Montreal, which finally ended with the Battle of the Chateauguay.
Lieutenant Thomas Macdonough, commanding the American naval forces on the Lake, established a secure base at Otter Creek (Vermont), and constructed several gunboats. He had to compete with Commodore Isaac Chauncey, commanding on Lake Ontario, for seamen, shipwrights and supplies, and was not able to begin constructing larger fighting vessels until his second-in-command went to Washington to argue his case to the Secretary of the Navy, William Jones. Naval architect Noah Brown was sent to Otter Creek to superintend construction.
In April 1814, the Americans launched the corvette of 26 guns and the schooner of 14 guns (originally a part-completed steam vessel). Together with the existing sloop-rigged of 7 guns, they gave the Americans naval superiority, and this allowed them to establish and supply a substantial base at Plattsburgh. Only a few days before the Battle of Plattsburgh, the Americans also completed the 20-gun brig .
The loss of their former supremacy on Lake Champlain prompted the British to construct the 36-gun frigate at Ile aux Noix. Captain George Downie was appointed to command soon after the frigate was launched on 25 August, replacing Captain Peter Fisher, who in turn had superseded Pring. Like Macdonough, Downie had difficulty obtaining men and materials from the senior officer on Lake Ontario (Commodore James Lucas Yeo) and Macdonough had intercepted several spars which had been sold to Britain by unpatriotic Vermonters. (By tradition, Midshipman Joel Abbot destroyed several of these in a daring commando-type raid.) Downie could promise to complete Confiance only on 15 September, and even then the frigate's crew would not have been exercised. Prévost was anxious to begin his campaign as early as possible, to avoid the bad weather of late autumn and winter, and continually pressed Downie to prepare Confiance for battle more quickly.
Invasion
On 31 August, Prévost began marching south. Macomb sent forward 450 regulars under Captain Sproul and Major John E. Wool, 110 riflemen under Major Daniel Appling, 700 New York militia under Major General Benjamin Mooers and two 6-pounder guns under Captain Leonard to fight a delaying action. At Chazy, New York, they first made contact with the British. Slowly falling back, the Americans set up road blocks, burned bridges and mislabelled streets to slow down the British. The British nevertheless advanced steadily, not even deploying out of column of march or returning fire, except by flank guards.
When Prévost reached Plattsburgh on 6 September, the American rearguards retired across the Saranac, tearing up the planks from the bridges. Prévost did not immediately attack. On 7 September, he ordered Major General Robinson to cross the Saranac, but to Robinson's annoyance, Prévost had no intelligence on the American defences or even the local geography. Some tentative attacks across the bridges were repulsed by Wool's regulars.
Prévost abandoned his efforts to cross the river for the time being and instead began constructing batteries. The Americans responded by using cannonballs heated red-hot to set fire to sixteen buildings in Plattsburgh which the British were using as cover, forcing the British to withdraw farther away. On 9 September, a night raid across the Saranac River by 50 Americans led by Captain George McGlassin destroyed a British Congreve rocket battery only from Fort Brown, one of the three main American fortifications.
While skirmishing and exchanges of artillery fire continued, the British located a ford (Pike's Ford) across the Saranac above Macomb's defences. Prévost planned that, once Downie's ships arrived, they would attack the American ships in Plattsburgh Bay. Simultaneously, Major General Brisbane would make a feint attack across the bridges over the Saranac while Major General Robinson's brigade (less two of its battalions but reinforced by the light infantry companies of several other battalions) would cross the ford to make the main attack against the American left flank, supported by Major General Power's brigade. Once the American ships had been defeated, Brisbane would make his feint attack into a real one.
Naval battle
Prelude
Macdonough had sent some of his gunboats to harass Prévost's advance, but he knew that his fleet was outgunned, particularly in long guns. He therefore withdrew into Plattsburgh Bay, where the British would be forced to engage at close range, at which the American and British squadrons would be roughly even in numbers and weight of short-range carronades. He used the time before Downie arrived to drill his sailors, and make preparations to fight at anchor. The ships were anchored in line from north to south in the order Eagle, Saratoga, Ticonderoga and Preble. They all had both bow and stern anchors, with "springs" attached to the anchor cables to allow the ships to be slewed through a wide arc. Macdonough also laid out extra kedge anchors from the quarters of his flagship Saratoga, which would allow him to spin the ship completely around. The ten American gunboats were anchored in the intervals between the larger vessels.
Although the British sloops and gunboats under Commander Pring were already on the Lake and at anchor near Chazy, and had set up a battery on Isle La Motte, Vermont, it took two days to tow the frigate Confiance up the Sorel River from Ile aux Noix, against both wind and current. Downie finally joined the squadron on 9 September. Carpenters and riggers were still at work on the frigate, and the incomplete crew was augmented by a company of the 39th Foot. To Prévost's fury, Downie was unable to attack on 10 September because the wind was unfavourable. During the night the wind shifted to the northeast, making an attack feasible.
The British squadron sailed in the early hours of 11 September, and announced their presence to Prévost's army by "scaling" the guns i.e. firing them without shot to clear scale or rust from the barrels. Shortly after dawn, Downie reconnoitred the American dispositions from a rowing boat, before ordering the British squadron to attack. Addressing his crew, he told them that the British Army would storm Plattsburgh as soon as the ships engaged, "and mind don't let us be behind".
Battle
At about 9 am, the British squadron rounded Cumberland Head close-hauled in line abreast, with the large ships to the north initially in the order Chubb, Linnet, Confiance and Finch, and the gunboats to the south. It was a fine autumn day, but the wind was light and variable, and Downie was unable to manoeuvre Confiance to the place he intended, across the head of Macdonough's line. As Confiance suffered increasing damage from the American ships, he was forced to drop anchor between 300 and 500 yards from Macdonough's flagship, Saratoga. He then proceeded deliberately, securing everything before firing a broadside which killed or wounded one fifth of Saratogas crew. Macdonough was stunned but quickly recovered; and a few minutes later Downie was killed, crushed by a cannon flung from its carriage by a shot from Saratoga.
Elsewhere along the British line, the sloop Chubb was badly damaged and drifted into the American line, where her commander surrendered. The brig Linnet, commanded by Pring, reached the head of the American line and opened a raking fire against Eagle. At the tail of the line, the sloop Finch failed to reach station and anchor, and although hardly hit at all, Finch drifted aground on Crab Island, and surrendered under fire from the 6-pounder gun of the battery manned by the invalids from Macomb's hospital.
Half the British gunboats were also hotly engaged at this end of the line. Their fire forced the weakest American vessel, Preble to cut its anchors and drift out of the fight. Ticonderoga was able to fight them off, although it was engaged too heavily to support Macdonough's flagship. The rest of the British gunboats apparently held back from action, and their commander later deserted.
After about an hour, Eagle had the springs to one of her anchor cables shot away, and was unable to bear to reply to Linnets raking fire. Eagles commander cut the remaining anchor cable and allowed the brig to drift down towards the tail of the line, before anchoring again astern of Saratoga and engaging Confiance, but allowing Linnet to rake Saratoga. Both flagships had fought each other to a standstill. After Downie and several of the other officers had been killed or injured, Confiances fire had become steadily less effective, but aboard Saratoga, almost all the starboard-side guns were dismounted or put out of action.
Macdonough ordered the bow anchor cut, and hauled in the kedge anchors he had laid out earlier to spin Saratoga around. This allowed Saratoga to bring its undamaged port battery into action. Confiance was unable to return the fire. The frigate's surviving Lieutenant, James Robertson, tried to haul in on the springs to his only anchor to make a similar manoeuvre, but succeeded only in presenting the vulnerable stern to the American fire. Helpless, Confiance could only surrender. Macdonough hauled in further on his kedge anchors to bring his broadside to bear on Linnet. Pring sent a boat to Confiance, to find that Downie was dead and Confiance had struck its colours. Linnet also could only surrender, after being battered almost into sinking. The British gunboats withdrew, unmolested.
The surviving British officers boarded Saratoga to offer their swords (of surrender) to Macdonough. When he saw the officers, Macdonough replied, "Gentlemen, return your swords to your scabbards, you are worthy of them". Commander Pring and the other surviving British officers later testified that Macdonough showed every consideration to the British wounded and prisoners.
Many of the British dead, not including the officers, were buried in an unmarked mass grave on nearby Crab Island, the site of the military hospital during the battle, where they remain today.
The False Nile
Both commanders would have seen the parallels of Macdonough's anchorage on Lake Champlain to that of the French under Vice Admiral Francois-Paul Brueys, opposing British Rear Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, at the Battle of the Nile in Aboukir Bay on 1 August 1798. A study of Nelson's battles was part of the professional knowledge expected of naval commanders. But Macdonough did all that Brueys did not. He expected to take advantage of the prevailing winds on Lake Champlain that constrained Downie's axis of approach. "Because nearly every circumstance that worked to Nelson's advantage proved disadvantageous to Downie, the Battle of Lake Champlain is sometimes called the False Nile by the English." The British naval historian William Laird Clowes regarded Macdonough's False Nile victory as "a most notable feat, one which, on the whole, surpassed that of any other captain of either navy in this war."
Land battle
Although Prévost's attack was supposed to coincide with the naval engagement, it was slow to get under way. Orders to move were not issued until 10 a.m, when the battle on the lake had been under way for over an hour. The American and British batteries settled down to a duel in which the Americans gained a slight advantage, while Brisbane's feint attack at the bridges was easily repulsed.
When a messenger arrived and notified Prévost that Downie's ship had been defeated on the lake he realized that without the navy to supply and support his further advance, any military advantage gained by storming Plattsburgh would have been worthless. Prévost considered he therefore had no option but to retreat, and called off the assault. Bugle calls ordering the retreat sounded out along the British lines.
Robinson's brigade had been misdirected by some British staff officers and missed the ford which was their objective. Once they had retraced their steps, Robinson's brigade, led by eight companies of light infantry soon drove the defenders back, and the British had crossed the ford and were preparing to advance, when the orders arrived from Prévost to call off the attack. The light company of the British 76th Regiment of Foot had been skirmishing in advance of the main body. When the bugle calls to retire were heard it was too late and they were surrounded and cut off by overwhelming numbers of American militia. Captain John Purchas, commanding the company, was killed in the act of waving a flag of truce (his white waistcoat). Three officers and 31 other ranks of the 76th were made prisoner. The 76th also suffered one other man killed and three wounded.
Major General Brisbane protested the order to retreat but complied. The British began their retreat to Canada after dark. Although the British soldiers were ordered to destroy ammunition and stores they could not easily remove, large quantities of these were left intact. There had been little or no desertion from the British army during the advance and the skirmishing along the Saranac, but during the retreat at least 234 soldiers deserted. Very few of these desertions were from the Peninsular War veterans or the two Canadian units in Prévost's force; most were from the Regiment de Meuron, which was a mixed bag of several nationalities, the 2/8th Regiment, which was a second-rate unit decimated by sickness in the Walcheren Campaign, and the 1/27th Foot, which had been stationed in Malta and had seen action in the abortive Siege of Tarragona.
The British casualties during the land engagement from 6–11 September were 37 killed, 150 wounded and 57 missing. Macomb reported 37 killed, 62 wounded and 20 missing but these losses were for the regular U.S. Army troops only. Historian William James remarked that the "general return of loss among the militia and volunteers, no where appears". General Macomb wrote to his father that the American loss "in the land battle" was 115 killed and 130 wounded, a figure which suggests considerable casualties among the militia and volunteers.
Results
Macdonough's victory had stopped the British offensive in its tracks. Also, Prévost had achieved what the U.S. government had been unable to do for the entire war up to that point: to bring the state of Vermont into the war.
The British had used their victories at the Battle of Bladensburg and the Burning of Washington to counter any American demands during the peace negotiations up to this point, despite the Americans' successful defense at the Battle of Baltimore in the days after this battle, and which ended British activities in the Mid-Atlantic region. American negotiators used the repulse at Plattsburgh to demand exclusive rights to Lake Champlain and denied Britain's claim of exclusive rights to the Great Lakes. Thus, American actions at Plattsburgh and Baltimore denied the British any advantage they could use to make demands for territorial gains in the Treaty of Ghent, such as
a pro-British Indian barrier state in the Midwest and the "New Ireland" colony established in the District of Maine.
The failure at Plattsburgh, with other complaints about his conduct of active operations, resulted in Sir George Prévost being relieved of command in Canada. When he returned to Britain his version of events was accepted at first. As was customary after the loss of a ship or a defeat, Commander Pring and the surviving officers and men of the squadron faced a court martial, which was held aboard HMS Gladiator at Portsmouth, between 18 and 21 August 1815. The court commended Pring and honorably acquitted all of those charged. The dispatches of Sir James Yeo were published about the same time, and emphatically placed the blame for the defeat on Prévost for forcing the British squadron into action prematurely. Prévost in turn demanded a court martial to clear his name, but died in 1816 before it could be held.
Alexander Macomb was promoted to Major General and became commanding general of the United States Army in 1828. Thomas Macdonough was promoted to Captain (and given the honorary rank of Commodore for his command of multiple ships in the battle) and is remembered as the "Hero of Lake Champlain". To honor the American commanders, Congress struck four Congressional Gold Medals, a record number for the time. These were awarded to Captain Thomas Macdonough, Captain Robert Henley, and Lieutenant Stephen Cassin of the U.S. Navy, and to Alexander Macomb (20 October 1814 3 Stat. 245–247). Macomb and his men were also formally given the thanks of Congress.
Seven currently active regular battalions of the United States Army (4-1 FA, 1-2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1-5 Inf, 2-5 Inf, 1-6 Inf and 2-6 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of American units that were present at the battle (Brooks's Company, Corps of Artillery, and the 6th, 13th and 29th Infantry Regiments).
Order of battle
Large vessels listed from north to south in order of sailing, or in which initially anchored
Memorials
Three US naval ships have been named for this battle:
USS Lake Champlain (1917), a cargo ship during WWII. Later sold
USS Lake Champlain (CV-39)
USS Lake Champlain (CG-57)
See also
Ile aux Noix
List of conflicts in the United States
War of 1812 Museum (Plattsburgh)
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
.
On-line version at books.bloatedtoe.com
National Historical Society Book Prize and American Military Institute Best Book Award.
Further reading
Schroeder, John H. The Battle of Lake Champlain: A "Brilliant and Extraordinary Victory." (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015). xiv, 164 pp.
External links
An Overview of the Battle of Plattsburgh.
Battle of Plattsburgh Association.
Bibliography and sources on the Battle of Plattsburgh compiled by James P. Millard.
"Defense of Plattsburgh" painting by Lee Hunt, 1992 (Interactive).
Google maps, Battles of Lake Champlain and of Plattsburgh.
Millard, James, America's Historic Lakes, links, documents, and sources.
Transcript of Alexander Macomb letter on defense of Fort Moreau.
Transcript of Alexander Macomb letter on British retreat from Plattsburg.
Conflicts in 1814
Naval battles of the War of 1812
History of New York (state)
1814 in New York (state)
Battles of the War of 1812 in New York (state)
Battles on the St. Lawrence/Lake Ontario frontier
September 1814 events
Orders of battle
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203966
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilberry
|
Bilberry
|
Bilberries (), or occasionally European blueberries, are a primarily Eurasian species of low-growing shrubs in the genus Vaccinium (family Ericaceae), bearing edible, dark blue berries. The species most often referred to is Vaccinium myrtillus L., but there are several other closely related species.
Etymology and common names
The name "bilberry" appears to have a Scandinavian origin, possibly from as early as 1577, being similar to the Danish word bølle for whortleberry with the addition of "berry". The bilberry (especially Vaccinium myrtillus) is also known by a number of other names including blaeberry in Scottish and Northern English regional dialects and the Scots language, whortleberry in southern England, and w(h)imberry or w(h)inberry in Derbyshire, along the Anglo-Welsh border, and south Wales, amongst other places.
Description and species
Bilberries – which are native to Europe – are different from North American blueberries, although the species are closely related and belong to the same genus, Vaccinium. Bilberry are non-climacteric fruits with a smooth, circular outline at the end opposite the stalk, whereas blueberries retain persistent sepals there, leaving a rough, star-shaped pattern of five flaps. Bilberries grow singly or in pairs rather than in clusters, as blueberries do, and blueberries have more evergreen leaves. Bilberries are dark in colour, and usually appear near black with a slight shade of purple.
Bilberries and blueberries contain diverse anthocyanins, specifically anthocyanidins, including delphinidin and cyanidin glycosides. While blueberry fruit pulp is light green, bilberry is red or purple. The high anthocyanin content may cause staining of the fingers, lips, and tongue.
Bilberries include several closely related species of the genus Vaccinium, including:
Vaccinium myrtillus L. (bilberry)
Vaccinium uliginosum L. (bog bilberry, bog blueberry, bog whortleberry, bog huckleberry, northern bilberry, ground hurts)
Vaccinium caespitosum Michx. (dwarf bilberry)
Vaccinium deliciosum Piper (Cascade bilberry)
Vaccinium membranaceum (mountain bilberry, black mountain huckleberry, black huckleberry, twin-leaved huckleberry)
Vaccinium ovalifolium (oval-leafed blueberry, oval-leaved bilberry, mountain blueberry, high-bush blueberry).
These species, with the exception of V. uliginosum, are part of section Myrtillus.
Wild and cultivated harvesting
Bilberries are found in acidic, nutrient-poor soils throughout the temperate and subarctic regions of the world. They are difficult to grow and the fruit is small, so they are seldom cultivated. Fruits are mostly collected from wild plants growing on publicly accessible lands throughout northern and central Europe, where they are plentiful – for example, up to a fifth (17–21%) of the land area of Sweden contains bilberry bushes, where it is called blåbär (lit. "blueberry", which is a source of confusion with the American blueberry). Bilberries can be picked by a berry-picking rake like lingonberries, but are more susceptible to damage. They are softer and juicier than blueberries, making them difficult to transport. Because of these factors, fresh bilberries are only available from markets and gourmet stores. Frozen bilberries, however, are available all year round in many parts of Europe.
In Iceland, bilberries (known as aðalbláber, or "prime blueberry") grow predominantly in Westfjords and the surrounding area. In most of the country, the closely related bláber occupy the same habitat. Both species are commonly found growing with dwarf birch and crowberries. Wild growth is vast compared to the population of Iceland and wild harvesting is legal, and a popular activity in August when the berry season peaks.
In Ireland, the fruit is known as fraughan, from the Irish fraochán, and is traditionally gathered on the last Sunday in July, known as "Fraughan Sunday". Bilberries were also collected at the Celtic festival of Lughnasadh in August, the first traditional harvest festival of the year. The crop of bilberries was said to indicate how well the rest of the crops would fare in their harvests later in the year.
Bilberry is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (see the list of Lepidoptera that feed on Vaccinium).
Food
The fruits are eaten fresh or made into jams, fools, juices or pies. In France and Italy they are used as a base for liqueurs and are a popular flavoring for sorbets and other desserts. In Brittany they are often used as a flavoring for crêpes, and in the Vosges and the Massif Central bilberry tart (tarte aux myrtilles) is a traditional dessert. In Romania they are used as a base for a liqueur called afinată – the name of the fruit in Romanian is afină. In the Nordic countries, they are eaten fresh or made into jams and other dishes, including bilberry pie (Finnish mustikkapiirakka, Swedish blåbärspaj) and blåbärssoppa, a bilberry soup served hot or cold. In Iceland they are popularly eaten with skyr (a cultured dairy product similar to yoghurt). In Poland, they are either eaten fresh (mixed with sugar), put into sweet buns as a filling (known as a jagodzianka and a popular bakery product during the summer), or used to make jams (known for their health benefits in the treatment of diarrhoea). They are sometimes served with sweet śmietana (a soured cream).
Myths and research
RAF pilots were said to have consumed bilberry jam during World War II to sharpen their night vision for missions in the dark, although there is no medical evidence for bilberries providing such an effect. One review of low-quality clinical research concluded there was no evidence that consuming bilberries improves night vision. Bilberries have been used in a variety of folklore and traditional medicine, but there are no proven health benefits or anti-disease effects from consuming them.
Diseases
Bilberry plants can suffer from bilberry blight, caused by Phytophthora kernoviae. There have been severe outbreaks in Staffordshire, England.
References
External links
Map of approximate distribution range of bilberries
Vaccinium
Medicinal plants
Berries
Plant common names
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari%20Panther
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Atari Panther
|
The Atari Panther is a cancelled video game console from Atari Corporation that was going to be the successor to the Atari 7800 and the Atari XEGS. It was developed by the same ex-Sinclair team, Flare Technology, who were previously responsible for two cancelled console projects: the Flare One and the Konix Multisystem.
Work started in 1988 with a planned release in 1991 to directly compete with the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Sega Genesis. Atari abandoned the project in favor of the Jaguar after the team at Flare convinced them that they should create 3D Graphics hardware instead. Prior to its cancellation, development kits for the Panther had already been sent out to several developers. Several games were in development, which were halted by the console's cancellation.
Hardware
The system features three chips, consisting of a Motorola 68000 running at 16 MHz, an object processor called the "Panther", and an Ensoniq sound processor nicknamed "Otis", featuring 32 sound channels (presumably an ES5505). The Panther was never commercially released as the design was eclipsed by that of the Jaguar.
Games
Three games were planned for the Panther's release:
Cybermorph
Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy
Raiden
All of the above games were later rewritten for the Atari Jaguar upon the Panther's demise.
Development
The Atari Panther's development was not announced to the public until the console was already cancelled, although it had been rumored to exist. The console was fully developed and operational at the time of its cancellation. In a July 1991 issue of The One, it was reported that a week prior to the Panther's cancellation, Atari's UK office was beginning to reveal details of the console for an Autumn 1991 release. The One speculates that the US division of Atari did not communicate this change of plans to the UK division until it was already announced. Atari UK's marketing director Peter Staddon stated in regards to the cancellation that "The Panther was taking longer to market, the other project taking we'd have left ourselves with a gap between the two launches of only six to nine months."
In an August 1991 issue of The One, The One met with Atari UK in their Slough office to report information about the console post-cancellation. The One notes speculations that the Panther was cancelled due to problems during production that resulted in Atari cutting their losses, or the popularity of the Sega Genesis and Super Famicom prompted Atari to cancel the Panther due to overwhelming competition. Atari's official recount of events is that the Panther was cancelled due to the development of the Jaguar. The One reports that development kits for the Panther had already been sent to developers prior to its cancellation, with "anywhere between six and 13" publishers receiving them. Psygnosis had a Panther conversion of Shadow of the Beast in development, and Domark was developing a Panther port of Pit-Fighter, with these projects being immediately halted when Atari cancelled the console.
The Panther was purported to be capable of handling 3D graphics due to a "sophisticated hardware maths capability" without slowing down, and the Ensoniq sound processor had 32 voices in stereo which could be filtered with frequency interpolation, looped forward/backwards, and each voice's volume and stereo panning was to be controlled through software. The Panther had an internal memory of 32Kb, and a maximum cartridge size of 16Mb. The Panther was to have four digital joystick ports, two analogue joystick ports, and two light gun ports. The Panther object processor was responsible for handling the system's graphics, freeing the main processor for other operations. The Panther object processor takes sprite data from memory and writes it to the screen, and was capable of performing fast memory-to-memory transfers (as with a blitter chip in an Amiga or the Atari STE) which gave it the ability to copy entire screens almost instantly. Sprites and background graphics could be scaled up or down, flipped, rotated or skewed easily. The Panther's display memory was to accommodate a palette of 32 colors, but was able to switch palettes while the screen is being updated, down to each individual line. The One states that "a finished screen could boast anything up to 8,384 colors from a staggering range of 262,144" and that the hardware could "simultaneously handle up to 83,840 sprites of any size [without slowing down]".
Several demos for the Panther were created by Jeff Minter, including a demo portraying antelope running from a Tyrannosaurus titled "The Antelope Demo", and a demo of asteroids hurtling towards the screen, titled "Prioritize Test #1", and a test with an unknown title featuring abstract psychedelic imagery and using a multitude of colors. "The Antelope Demo" showcased the Panther's sprite handling abilities, with The One stating that "no matter how many of these [antelopes] appear on screen, the rate of movement never slows down" and states in regards to "Prioritize Test #1" that "The asteroids begin as tiny sprites in the distance, then the Panther's sprite-scaling abilities are put to good effect to bring them hurtling forwards at a phenomenal speed." The Panther's sprite scaling was capable of being defined to any size, and reduced to any size.
References
External links
Atari Panther history & information
68k architecture
Panther
Vaporware game consoles
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57864464
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens%20Park%20Football%20Ground%20%28Bedford%29
|
Queens Park Football Ground (Bedford)
|
The Queens Park Football Ground was a football ground located at the end of Nelson Street in the Queens Park area of Bedford on the north side of the River Great Ouse.
Football
The ground hosted Bedford Town F.C also known as Bedford Eagles from about 1910 until 1982.
Greyhound racing
Greyhound racing started during 1975 following the construction of a track around the perimeter of the football pitch. Bedford Town Eagles required a financial boost and the introduction of greyhound racing had the desired effect because in 1979 it brought in an extra income of £10,000 as compared to the £4,000 football income. The greyhound racing was independent (not affiliated to the sports governing body the National Greyhound Racing Club) and was known as a flapping track which was the nickname given to independent tracks.
Closure
The lease to the football team was not renewed by ground owner Charles Wells in 1982, which resulted in both the football and greyhound racing coming to an end. Warehouse facilities were erected on the site before being taken over by an extension to the Wells & Youngs Brewery.
References
Defunct greyhound racing venues in the United Kingdom
Defunct football venues in England
Sport in Bedford
Sports venues in Bedfordshire
Bedford Town F.C.
|
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203970
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoopoe
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Hoopoe
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Hoopoes () are colourful birds found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, notable for their distinctive "crown" of feathers. Three living and one extinct species are recognized, though for many years all of the extant species were lumped as a single species—Upupa epops. In fact, some taxonomists still consider all three species conspecific. Some authorities also keep the African and Eurasian hoopoe together but split the Madagascar hoopoe. The Eurasian Hoopoe is common in its range and has a large population, so it is evaluated as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, their numbers are declining in Western Europe.
Taxonomy
The genus Upapa was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The type species is the Eurasian hoopoe (Upupa epops). Upupa and ἔποψ (epops) are respectively the Latin and Ancient Greek names for the hoopoe; both, like the English name, are onomatopoeic forms which imitate the cry of the bird.
The hoopoe was classified in the clade Coraciiformes, which also includes kingfishers, bee-eaters, and rollers. A close relationship between the hoopoe and the wood hoopoes is also supported by the shared and unique nature of their stapes. In the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, the hoopoe is separated from the Coraciiformes as a separate order, the Upupiformes. Some authorities place the wood hoopoes in the Upupiformes as well. Now the consensus is that both hoopoe and the wood hoopoes belong with the hornbills in the Bucerotiformes.
The fossil record of the hoopoes is very incomplete, with the earliest fossil coming from the Quaternary. The fossil record of their relatives is older, with fossil wood hoopoes dating back to the Miocene and those of an extinct related family, the Messelirrisoridae, dating from the Eocene.
Species
Formerly considered a single species, the hoopoe has been split into three separate species: the Eurasian hoopoe, Madagascar hoopoe and the resident African hoopoe. One accepted separate species, the Saint Helena hoopoe, lived on the island of St Helena but became extinct in the 16th century, presumably due to introduced species.
The genus Upupa was created by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758. It then included three other species with long curved bills:
U. eremita (now Geronticus eremita), the northern bald ibis
U. pyrrhocorax (now Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), the red-billed chough
U. paradisea
Formerly, the greater hoopoe-lark was also considered to be a member of this genus (as Upupa alaudipes).
Extant species
Distribution and habitat
Hoopoes are widespread in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. Most European and north Asian birds migrate to the tropics in winter. In contrast, the African populations are sedentary all year. The species has been a vagrant in Alaska; U. e. saturata was recorded there in 1975 in the Yukon Delta. Hoopoes have been known to breed north of their European range, and in southern England during warm, dry summers that provide plenty of grasshoppers and similar insects, although as of the early 1980s northern European populations were reported to be in the decline, possibly due to changes in climate.
The hoopoe has two basic requirements of its habitat: bare or lightly vegetated ground on which to forage and vertical surfaces with cavities (such as trees, cliffs or even walls, nestboxes, haystacks, and abandoned burrows) in which to nest. These requirements can be provided in a wide range of ecosystems, and as a consequence the hoopoe inhabits a wide range of habitats such as heathland, wooded steppes, savannas and grasslands, as well as forest glades. The Madagascar species also makes use of more dense primary forest. The modification of natural habitats by humans for various agricultural purposes has led to hoopoes becoming common in olive groves, orchards, vineyards, parkland and farmland, although they are less common and are declining in intensively farmed areas. Hunting is of concern in southern Europe and Asia.
Hoopoes make seasonal movements in response to rain in some regions such as in Ceylon and in the Western Ghats. Birds have been seen at high altitudes during migration across the Himalayas. One was recorded at about by the first Mount Everest expedition.
Behaviour and ecology
In what was long thought to be a defensive posture, hoopoes sunbathe by spreading out their wings and tail low against the ground and tilting their head up; they often fold their wings and preen halfway through. They also enjoy taking dust and sand baths. Adults may begin their moult after the breeding season and continue after they have migrated for the winter.
Diet and feeding
The diet of the hoopoe is mostly composed of insects, although small reptiles, frogs and plant matter such as seeds and berries are sometimes taken as well. It is a solitary forager which typically feeds on the ground. More rarely they will feed in the air, where their strong and rounded wings make them fast and manoeuverable, in pursuit of numerous swarming insects. More commonly their foraging style is to stride over relatively open ground and periodically pause to probe the ground with the full length of their bill. Insect larvae, pupae and mole crickets are detected by the bill and either extracted or dug out with the strong feet. Hoopoes will also feed on insects on the surface, probe into piles of leaves, and even use the bill to lever large stones and flake off bark. Common diet items include crickets, locusts, beetles, earwigs, cicadas, ant lions, bugs and ants. These can range from in length, with a preferred prey size of around . Larger prey items are beaten against the ground or a preferred stone to kill them and remove indigestible body parts such as wings and legs.
Breeding
Hoopoes are monogamous, although the pair bond apparently only lasts for a single season. They are also territorial. The male calls frequently to advertise his ownership of the territory. Chases and fights between rival males (and sometimes females) are common and can be brutal. Birds will try to stab rivals with their bills, and individuals are occasionally blinded in fights. The nest is in a hole in a tree or wall, and has a narrow entrance. It may be unlined, or various scraps may be collected. The female alone is responsible for incubating the eggs. Clutch size varies with location: Northern Hemisphere birds lay more eggs than those in the Southern Hemisphere, and birds at higher latitudes have larger clutches than those closer to the equator. In central and northern Europe and Asia the clutch size is around 12, whereas it is around four in the tropics and seven in the subtropics. The eggs are round and milky blue when laid, but quickly discolour in the increasingly dirty nest. They weigh . A replacement clutch is possible.
Hoopoes have well-developed anti-predator defences in the nest. The uropygial gland of the incubating and brooding female is quickly modified to produce a foul-smelling liquid, and the glands of nestlings do so as well. These secretions are rubbed into the plumage. The secretion, which smells like rotting meat, is thought to help deter predators, as well as deter parasites and possibly act as an antibacterial agent. The secretions stop soon before the young leave the nest. From the age of six days, nestlings can also direct streams of faeces at intruders, and will hiss at them in a snake-like fashion. The young also strike with their bill or with one wing.
The incubation period for the species is between 15 and 18 days, during which time the male feeds the female. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, so the chicks are born asynchronously. The chicks hatch with a covering of downy feathers. By around day three to five, feather quills emerge which will become the adult feathers. The chicks are brooded by the female for between 9 and 14 days. The female later joins the male in the task of bringing food. The young fledge in 26 to 29 days and remain with the parents for about a week more.
Relationship with humans
The diet of the hoopoe includes many species considered by humans to be pests, such as the pupae of the processionary moth, a damaging forest pest. For this reason the species is afforded protection under the law in many countries.
Hoopoes are distinctive birds and have made a cultural impact over much of their range. They were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt, and were "depicted on the walls of tombs and temples". At the Old Kingdom, the hoopoe was used in the iconography as a symbolic code to indicate the child was the heir and successor of his father. They achieved a similar standing in Minoan Crete.
In the Torah, Leviticus 11:13–19, hoopoes were listed among the animals that are detestable and should not be eaten. They are also listed in Deuteronomy as not kosher.
The Hoopoe, known as the (), also appears with King Solomon in the Quran in Surah Al-Naml:
The connection of the hoopoe with Solomon and the Queen of Sheba in the Qur'anic tradition is mentioned in passing in Rudyard Kipling's Just So story, The Butterfly that Stamped.
Hoopoes were seen as a symbol of virtue in Persia. A hoopoe was a leader of the birds in the Persian book of poems The Conference of the Birds ("Mantiq al-Tayr" by Attar) and when the birds seek a king, the hoopoe points out that the Simurgh was the king of the birds.
Hoopoes were thought of as thieves across much of Europe, and harbingers of war in Scandinavia. In Estonian tradition, hoopoes are strongly connected with death and the underworld; their song is believed to foreshadow death for many people or cattle. In medieval ritual magic, the hoopoe was thought to be an evil bird. The Munich Manual of Demonic Magic, a collection of magical spells compiled in Germany frequently requires the sacrifice of a hoopoe to summon demons and perform other magical intentions.
Tereus, transformed into the hoopoe, is the king of the birds in the Ancient Greek comedy The Birds by Aristophanes. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, book 6, King Tereus of Thrace rapes Philomela, his wife Procne's sister, and cuts out her tongue. In revenge, Procne kills their son Itys and serves him as a stew to his father. When Tereus sees the boy's head, which is served on a platter, he grabs a sword but just as he attempts to kill the sisters, they are turned into birds—Procne into a swallow and Philomela into a nightingale. Tereus himself is turned into an epops (6.674), translated as lapwing by Dryden and lappewincke (lappewinge) by John Gower in his Confessio Amantis, or hoopoe in A.S. Kline's translation. The bird's crest indicates his royal status, and his long, sharp beak is a symbol of his violent nature. English translators and poets probably had the northern lapwing in mind, considering its crest.
The hoopoe was chosen as the national bird of Israel in May 2008 in conjunction with the country's 60th anniversary, following a national survey of 155,000 citizens, outpolling the white-spectacled bulbul. The hoopoe appears on the logo of the University of Johannesburg and is the official mascot of the university's sports teams. The municipalities of Armstedt and Brechten, Germany, have a hoopoe in their coats of arms.
In Morocco, hoopoes are traded live and as medicinal products in the markets, primarily in herbalist shops. This trade is unregulated and a potential threat to local populations.
Three CGI enhanced hoopoes, together with other birds collectively named "the tittifers", are often shown whistling a song in the BBC children's television series In the Night Garden....
Harrison Tordoff, a World War II fighter ace and later a noted ornithologist, named his P-51 Mustang as Upupa epops, the scientific name of the hoopoe bird.
The questioned sighting of a blue-crested hoopoe in the British countryside is the basis of “A Rare Bird,” a 2012 episode of the British mystery series Midsomer Murders.
References
External links
"Hoopoe" in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Hoopoe videos, photos & sounds in the Internet Bird Collection
Birds described in 1758
Birds of Africa
Birds of East Africa
Birds of Eurasia
Bucerotiformes
Coraciiformes
National symbols of Israel
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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203993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20League%20of%20Gentlemen%20%28film%29
|
The League of Gentlemen (film)
|
The League of Gentlemen is a 1960 British criminal comedy film directed by Basil Dearden and starring Jack Hawkins, Nigel Patrick, Roger Livesey, and Richard Attenborough. It is based on the 1958 novel The League of Gentlemen by John Boland and adapted by Bryan Forbes, who also starred in the film.
Plot
A manhole opens at night in an empty street and out climbs Lieutenant-Colonel Norman Hyde (Jack Hawkins) in a dinner suit. He gets into a Rolls-Royce and drives home. There, he prepares seven envelopes, each containing an American crime paperback called The Golden Fleece, halves of ten £5-notes and an unsigned invitation from “Co-operative Removals Limited” to lunch at the Cafe Royal.
The envelopes are sent to former army officers, each in desperate or humiliating circumstances. When they all turn up looking for the other halves of the £5-notes which are handed out, Hyde asks their opinion of the novel which is about a robbery. They show little enthusiasm but Hyde then reveals each person's misdemeanours.
Hyde has no criminal record but holds a grudge for being made redundant by the army after a long career. He intends to rob a bank using the team's skills, with equal shares of £100,000 or more for each man.
The gang meet under the guise of an amateur dramatic society rehearsing Journey’s End to discuss the plan before moving into Hyde’s house and living a military regimen of duties and fines for being out of line. Hyde knows that a million pounds in used notes is regularly delivered to a City of London bank and has details of the delivery.
They raid an army training camp in Dorset for arms and supplies. Hyde, Mycroft, Porthill and Race distract soldiers by posing as senior officers on an unscheduled food inspection. The others steal weapons while posing as telephone repairmen, speaking in Irish accents to divert suspicion to the IRA. Hyde has explained the reasoning behind this ruse by stating the one nationality to whom the British will never give the benefit of the doubt is the Irish.
The gang rent a warehouse to prepare. Race steals vehicles including cars and a lorry which are fitted with false number plates. They are disturbed by a passing policeman who offers to keep an eye on their premises as he patrols. In Hyde’s basement, the gang trains with maps and models. On the eve of the operation, Hyde destroys the plans and recalls his former military glory.
The robbery is bloodless and precise. Using smoke bombs, Sterling submachine guns, and radio jamming equipment, the gang raids the bank, near St Paul’s. The money is seized without serious injury and the robbers escape. At Hyde’s house, celebrations are interrupted by the unexpected arrival of Hyde’s old friend, Brigadier “Bunny” Warren (Robert Coote), who drunkenly recalls the old days. One by one the members leave carrying suitcases filled with notes. Then the telephone rings; Hyde is told that police and soldiers surround the house.
Leading the police is Superintendent Wheatlock (Ronald Leigh-Hunt) from whom Hyde learns the flaw in his plan. A small boy outside the bank had been collecting car registration (licence plate) numbers, a common hobby at the time. The police, discovering the number, found it had been noted by the policeman who visited the warehouse. The policeman had also noted the number of Hyde's own car. Thus a link was established between the robbery and Hyde.
Hyde is escorted to a police van in which the rest are "all present and correct", each having been captured as he left the house.
Cast
Jack Hawkins as Lieutenant-Colonel Norman Hyde
Nigel Patrick as Major Peter Race
Roger Livesey as Captain "Padre" Mycroft
Richard Attenborough as Lieutenant Edward Lexy
Bryan Forbes as Captain Martin Porthill
Kieron Moore as Captain Stevens
Terence Alexander as Major Rupert Rutland-Smith
Norman Bird as Captain Frank Weaver
Robert Coote as Brigadier "Bunny" Warren
Melissa Stribling as Peggy
Nanette Newman as Elizabeth Rutland-Smith
Lydia Sherwood as Hilda
Doris Hare as Molly Weaver
David Lodge as C.S.M.
Patrick Wymark as Wylie
Gerald Harper as Captain Saunders
Brian Murray as Private "Chunky" Grogan
Terence Edmond as Young PC (uncredited)
Nigel Green as Kissing Man (uncredited)
Patrick Jordan as Sergeant (uncredited)
Dinsdale Landen as Young man in gym (uncredited)
Ronald Leigh-Hunt as Police Superintendent (uncredited)
Oliver Reed as Chorus Boy (uncredited)
Norman Rossington as Staff Sergeant Hall (uncredited)
Bruce Seton as AA Patrolman (uncredited)
Michael Corcoran as Blackmailer (uncredited)
Production
Allied Film Makers was a short-lived production company founded by Dearden, actors Hawkins, Forbes and Attenborough, and producer Michael Relph. Forbes contributed many of the company's scripts. Dearden had previously directed The Blue Lamp.
The portrait of Hyde's wife (he comments "I regret to say the bitch is still going strong") is a close copy of a portrait of Deborah Kerr which was used in The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp in which Roger Livesey (The League'''s "Padre" Mycroft) also starred.
Forbes points out in his commentary on the DVD that in most films of the time Hyde's wife would be described as dead and not dismissed in such a manner. A scene in the script following the dinner party has Hyde, followed by Race, visiting a teenage girl at school—her photo is also on his desk. It is implied that she is his daughter. A scene which did not make the film has Weaver the teetotaler reaching for the brandy after Hyde has left the dinner. Lexy reminds him he shouldn't but Weaver drinks anyway.
In the original script, Race addressed others as "old dear".
Cary Grant was offered the part of Hyde but turned it down.
Queens Gate Place Mews, SW7, was used as the filming location for Edward Lexy's (Richard Attenborough's) garage.
The magazines in Mycroft’s suitcase at the beginning of the film were borrowed from the set of Peeping Tom that was being filmed at the same time at Pinewood.
Reception
Box Office
The film was successful, being the sixth most popular movie at the UK box office in 1960. By 1971, it had earned a profit of £250,000 Over 20 years later, Bryan Forbes estimated the profit as between £300,000 and £400,000.
Critical
"Neatly written and expertly played," wrote The New York Times in its 1961 review, "a devilishly inventive and amusing screen play by Mr. Forbes...directed crisply and spinningly by Basil Dearden"; while more recently The Daily Telegraph called it "a masterpiece of British cinema"; Dennis Schwartz noted "a fine example of old-fashioned English humor: droll and civil"; and Time Out, "A terrific caper movie...with typically excellent character playing from a lovable set of old lags."The League of Gentlemen was mentioned in the film The Wrong Arm of the Law (1963) as one of the films that “Pearly Gates” (Peter Sellers) was going to show his gang of crooks as a part of his training programme.
Home media
The film was included, along with three other Dearden films, as part of the box set Basil Dearden’s London Underground by the Criterion Collection.
In 2006, a restored version of the film was released as a special edition DVD in the UK. The extras include a South Bank Show documentary on Attenborough and a PDF version of Forbes' original script. An audio commentary for the film was provided by Forbes and his wife Nanette Newman who features in the film as Major Rutland-Smith's wife.
Cultural legacy
The book and film inspired both Alan Moore's comic series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen and its spin-off film as well as the British comedy troupe The League of Gentlemen''.
References
External links
1960 films
1960s crime comedy films
1960s heist films
British films
British crime comedy films
British heist films
1960s English-language films
Films about bank robbery
Films about veterans
Films based on British novels
Films directed by Basil Dearden
Films set in London
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
1960 comedy films
British Lion Films films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian%20network
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Bayesian network
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A Bayesian network (also known as a Bayes network, Bayes net, belief network, or decision network) is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of variables and their conditional dependencies via a directed acyclic graph (DAG). Bayesian networks are ideal for taking an event that occurred and predicting the likelihood that any one of several possible known causes was the contributing factor. For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases.
Efficient algorithms can perform inference and learning in Bayesian networks. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables (e.g. speech signals or protein sequences) are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.
Graphical model
Formally, Bayesian networks are directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) whose nodes represent variables in the Bayesian sense: they may be observable quantities, latent variables, unknown parameters or hypotheses. Edges represent conditional dependencies; nodes that are not connected (no path connects one node to another) represent variables that are conditionally independent of each other. Each node is associated with a probability function that takes, as input, a particular set of values for the node's parent variables, and gives (as output) the probability (or probability distribution, if applicable) of the variable represented by the node. For example, if parent nodes represent Boolean variables, then the probability function could be represented by a table of entries, one entry for each of the possible parent combinations. Similar ideas may be applied to undirected, and possibly cyclic, graphs such as Markov networks.
Example
Two events can cause grass to be wet: an active sprinkler or rain. Rain has a direct effect on the use of the sprinkler (namely that when it rains, the sprinkler usually is not active). This situation can be modeled with a Bayesian network (shown to the right). Each variable has two possible values, T (for true) and F (for false).
The joint probability function is, by the chain rule of probability,
where G = "Grass wet (true/false)", S = "Sprinkler turned on (true/false)", and R = "Raining (true/false)".
The model can answer questions about the presence of a cause given the presence of an effect (so-called inverse probability) like "What is the probability that it is raining, given the grass is wet?" by using the conditional probability formula and summing over all nuisance variables:
Using the expansion for the joint probability function and the conditional probabilities from the conditional probability tables (CPTs) stated in the diagram, one can evaluate each term in the sums in the numerator and denominator. For example,
Then the numerical results (subscripted by the associated variable values) are
To answer an interventional question, such as "What is the probability that it would rain, given that we wet the grass?" the answer is governed by the post-intervention joint distribution function
obtained by removing the factor from the pre-intervention distribution. The do operator forces the value of G to be true. The probability of rain is unaffected by the action:
To predict the impact of turning the sprinkler on:
with the term removed, showing that the action affects the grass but not the rain.
These predictions may not be feasible given unobserved variables, as in most policy evaluation problems. The effect of the action can still be predicted, however, whenever the back-door criterion is satisfied. It states that, if a set Z of nodes can be observed that d-separates (or blocks) all back-door paths from X to Y then
A back-door path is one that ends with an arrow into X. Sets that satisfy the back-door criterion are called "sufficient" or "admissible." For example, the set Z = R is admissible for predicting the effect of S = T on G, because R d-separates the (only) back-door path S ← R → G. However, if S is not observed, no other set d-separates this path and the effect of turning the sprinkler on (S = T) on the grass (G) cannot be predicted from passive observations. In that case P(G | do(S = T)) is not "identified". This reflects the fact that, lacking interventional data, the observed dependence between S and G is due to a causal connection or is spurious
(apparent dependence arising from a common cause, R). (see Simpson's paradox)
To determine whether a causal relation is identified from an arbitrary Bayesian network with unobserved variables, one can use the three rules of "do-calculus" and test whether all do terms can be removed from the expression of that relation, thus confirming that the desired quantity is estimable from frequency data.
Using a Bayesian network can save considerable amounts of memory over exhaustive probability tables, if the dependencies in the joint distribution are sparse. For example, a naive way of storing the conditional probabilities of 10 two-valued variables as a table requires storage space for values. If no variable's local distribution depends on more than three parent variables, the Bayesian network representation stores at most values.
One advantage of Bayesian networks is that it is intuitively easier for a human to understand (a sparse set of) direct dependencies and local distributions than complete joint distributions.
Inference and learning
Bayesian networks perform three main inference tasks:
Inferring unobserved variables
Because a Bayesian network is a complete model for its variables and their relationships, it can be used to answer probabilistic queries about them. For example, the network can be used to update knowledge of the state of a subset of variables when other variables (the evidence variables) are observed. This process of computing the posterior distribution of variables given evidence is called probabilistic inference. The posterior gives a universal sufficient statistic for detection applications, when choosing values for the variable subset that minimize some expected loss function, for instance the probability of decision error. A Bayesian network can thus be considered a mechanism for automatically applying Bayes' theorem to complex problems.
The most common exact inference methods are: variable elimination, which eliminates (by integration or summation) the non-observed non-query variables one by one by distributing the sum over the product; clique tree propagation, which caches the computation so that many variables can be queried at one time and new evidence can be propagated quickly; and recursive conditioning and AND/OR search, which allow for a space–time tradeoff and match the efficiency of variable elimination when enough space is used. All of these methods have complexity that is exponential in the network's treewidth. The most common approximate inference algorithms are importance sampling, stochastic MCMC simulation, mini-bucket elimination, loopy belief propagation, generalized belief propagation and variational methods.
Parameter learning
In order to fully specify the Bayesian network and thus fully represent the joint probability distribution, it is necessary to specify for each node X the probability distribution for X conditional upon X'''s parents. The distribution of X conditional upon its parents may have any form. It is common to work with discrete or Gaussian distributions since that simplifies calculations. Sometimes only constraints on distribution are known; one can then use the principle of maximum entropy to determine a single distribution, the one with the greatest entropy given the constraints. (Analogously, in the specific context of a dynamic Bayesian network, the conditional distribution for the hidden state's temporal evolution is commonly specified to maximize the entropy rate of the implied stochastic process.)
Often these conditional distributions include parameters that are unknown and must be estimated from data, e.g., via the maximum likelihood approach. Direct maximization of the likelihood (or of the posterior probability) is often complex given unobserved variables. A classical approach to this problem is the expectation-maximization algorithm, which alternates computing expected values of the unobserved variables conditional on observed data, with maximizing the complete likelihood (or posterior) assuming that previously computed expected values are correct. Under mild regularity conditions, this process converges on maximum likelihood (or maximum posterior) values for parameters.
A more fully Bayesian approach to parameters is to treat them as additional unobserved variables and to compute a full posterior distribution over all nodes conditional upon observed data, then to integrate out the parameters. This approach can be expensive and lead to large dimension models, making classical parameter-setting approaches more tractable.
Structure learning
In the simplest case, a Bayesian network is specified by an expert and is then used to perform inference. In other applications, the task of defining the network is too complex for humans. In this case, the network structure and the parameters of the local distributions must be learned from data.
Automatically learning the graph structure of a Bayesian network (BN) is a challenge pursued within machine learning. The basic idea goes back to a recovery algorithm developed by Rebane and Pearl and rests on the distinction between the three possible patterns allowed in a 3-node DAG:
The first 2 represent the same dependencies ( and are independent given ) and are, therefore, indistinguishable. The collider, however, can be uniquely identified, since and are marginally independent and all other pairs are dependent. Thus, while the skeletons (the graphs stripped of arrows) of these three triplets are identical, the directionality of the arrows is partially identifiable. The same distinction applies when and have common parents, except that one must first condition on those parents. Algorithms have been developed to systematically determine the skeleton of the underlying graph and, then, orient all arrows whose directionality is dictated by the conditional independences observed.
An alternative method of structural learning uses optimization-based search. It requires a scoring function and a search strategy. A common scoring function is posterior probability of the structure given the training data, like the BIC or the BDeu. The time requirement of an exhaustive search returning a structure that maximizes the score is superexponential in the number of variables. A local search strategy makes incremental changes aimed at improving the score of the structure. A global search algorithm like Markov chain Monte Carlo can avoid getting trapped in local minima. Friedman et al. discuss using mutual information between variables and finding a structure that maximizes this. They do this by restricting the parent candidate set to k nodes and exhaustively searching therein.
A particularly fast method for exact BN learning is to cast the problem as an optimization problem, and solve it using integer programming. Acyclicity constraints are added to the integer program (IP) during solving in the form of cutting planes. Such method can handle problems with up to 100 variables.
In order to deal with problems with thousands of variables, a different approach is necessary. One is to first sample one ordering, and then find the optimal BN structure with respect to that ordering. This implies working on the search space of the possible orderings, which is convenient as it is smaller than the space of network structures. Multiple orderings are then sampled and evaluated. This method has been proven to be the best available in literature when the number of variables is huge.
Another method consists of focusing on the sub-class of decomposable models, for which the MLE have a closed form. It is then possible to discover a consistent structure for hundreds of variables.
Learning Bayesian networks with bounded treewidth is necessary to allow exact, tractable inference, since the worst-case inference complexity is exponential in the treewidth k (under the exponential time hypothesis). Yet, as a global property of the graph, it considerably increases the difficulty of the learning process. In this context it is possible to use K-tree for effective learning.
Statistical introduction
Given data and parameter , a simple Bayesian analysis starts with a prior probability (prior) and likelihood to compute a posterior probability .
Often the prior on depends in turn on other parameters that are not mentioned in the likelihood. So, the prior must be replaced by a likelihood , and a prior on the newly introduced parameters is required, resulting in a posterior probability
This is the simplest example of a hierarchical Bayes model.
The process may be repeated; for example, the parameters may depend in turn on additional parameters , which require their own prior. Eventually the process must terminate, with priors that do not depend on unmentioned parameters.
Introductory examples
Given the measured quantities each with normally distributed errors of known standard deviation ,
Suppose we are interested in estimating the . An approach would be to estimate the using a maximum likelihood approach; since the observations are independent, the likelihood factorizes and the maximum likelihood estimate is simply
However, if the quantities are related, so that for example the individual have themselves been drawn from an underlying distribution, then this relationship destroys the independence and suggests a more complex model, e.g.,
with improper priors , . When , this is an identified model (i.e. there exists a unique solution for the model's parameters), and the posterior distributions of the individual will tend to move, or shrink away from the maximum likelihood estimates towards their common mean. This shrinkage is a typical behavior in hierarchical Bayes models.
Restrictions on priors
Some care is needed when choosing priors in a hierarchical model, particularly on scale variables at higher levels of the hierarchy such as the variable in the example. The usual priors such as the Jeffreys prior often do not work, because the posterior distribution will not be normalizable and estimates made by minimizing the expected loss will be inadmissible.
Definitions and concepts
Several equivalent definitions of a Bayesian network have been offered. For the following, let G = (V,E) be a directed acyclic graph (DAG) and let X = (Xv), v ∈ V be a set of random variables indexed by V.
Factorization definitionX is a Bayesian network with respect to G if its joint probability density function (with respect to a product measure) can be written as a product of the individual density functions, conditional on their parent variables:
where pa(v) is the set of parents of v (i.e. those vertices pointing directly to v via a single edge).
For any set of random variables, the probability of any member of a joint distribution can be calculated from conditional probabilities using the chain rule (given a topological ordering of X) as follows:
Using the definition above, this can be written as:
The difference between the two expressions is the conditional independence of the variables from any of their non-descendants, given the values of their parent variables.
Local Markov propertyX is a Bayesian network with respect to G if it satisfies the local Markov property: each variable is conditionally independent of its non-descendants given its parent variables:
where de(v) is the set of descendants and V \ de(v) is the set of non-descendants of v.
This can be expressed in terms similar to the first definition, as
The set of parents is a subset of the set of non-descendants because the graph is acyclic.
Developing Bayesian networks
Developing a Bayesian network often begins with creating a DAG G such that X satisfies the local Markov property with respect to G. Sometimes this is a causal DAG. The conditional probability distributions of each variable given its parents in G are assessed. In many cases, in particular in the case where the variables are discrete, if the joint distribution of X is the product of these conditional distributions, then X is a Bayesian network with respect to G.
Markov blanket
The Markov blanket of a node is the set of nodes consisting of its parents, its children, and any other parents of its children. The Markov blanket renders the node independent of the rest of the network; the joint distribution of the variables in the Markov blanket of a node is sufficient knowledge for calculating the distribution of the node. X is a Bayesian network with respect to G if every node is conditionally independent of all other nodes in the network, given its Markov blanket.
d-separation
This definition can be made more general by defining the "d"-separation of two nodes, where d stands for directional. We first define the "d"-separation of a trail and then we will define the "d"-separation of two nodes in terms of that.
Let P be a trail from node u to v. A trail is a loop-free, undirected (i.e. all edge directions are ignored) path between two nodes. Then P is said to be d-separated by a set of nodes Z if any of the following conditions holds:P contains (but does not need to be entirely) a directed chain, or , such that the middle node m is in Z,P contains a fork, , such that the middle node m is in Z, orP contains an inverted fork (or collider), , such that the middle node m is not in Z and no descendant of m is in Z.
The nodes u and v are d-separated by Z if all trails between them are d-separated. If u and v are not d-separated, they are d-connected.X is a Bayesian network with respect to G if, for any two nodes u, v:
where Z is a set which d-separates u and v. (The Markov blanket is the minimal set of nodes which d-separates node v from all other nodes.)
Causal networks
Although Bayesian networks are often used to represent causal relationships, this need not be the case: a directed edge from u to v does not require that Xv be causally dependent on Xu. This is demonstrated by the fact that Bayesian networks on the graphs:
are equivalent: that is they impose exactly the same conditional independence requirements.
A causal network is a Bayesian network with the requirement that the relationships be causal. The additional semantics of causal networks specify that if a node X is actively caused to be in a given state x (an action written as do(X = x)), then the probability density function changes to that of the network obtained by cutting the links from the parents of X to X, and setting X to the caused value x. Using these semantics, the impact of external interventions from data obtained prior to intervention can be predicted.
Inference complexity and approximation algorithms
In 1990, while working at Stanford University on large bioinformatic applications, Cooper proved that exact inference in Bayesian networks is NP-hard. This result prompted research on approximation algorithms with the aim of developing a tractable approximation to probabilistic inference. In 1993, Paul Dagum and Michael Luby proved two surprising results on the complexity of approximation of probabilistic inference in Bayesian networks. First, they proved that no tractable deterministic algorithm can approximate probabilistic inference to within an absolute error ɛ < 1/2. Second, they proved that no tractable randomized algorithm can approximate probabilistic inference to within an absolute error ɛ < 1/2 with confidence probability greater than 1/2.
At about the same time, Roth proved that exact inference in Bayesian networks is in fact #P-complete (and thus as hard as counting the number of satisfying assignments of a conjunctive normal form formula (CNF)) and that approximate inference within a factor 2n1−ɛ for every ɛ > 0, even for Bayesian networks with restricted architecture, is NP-hard.D. Roth, On the hardness of approximate reasoning, Artificial Intelligence (1996)
In practical terms, these complexity results suggested that while Bayesian networks were rich representations for AI and machine learning applications, their use in large real-world applications would need to be tempered by either topological structural constraints, such as naïve Bayes networks, or by restrictions on the conditional probabilities. The bounded variance algorithm developed by Dagum and Luby was the first provable fast approximation algorithm to efficiently approximate probabilistic inference in Bayesian networks with guarantees on the error approximation. This powerful algorithm required the minor restriction on the conditional probabilities of the Bayesian network to be bounded away from zero and one by 1/p(n) where p(n) was any polynomial on the number of nodes in the network n.
Software
Notable software for Bayesian networks include:
Just another Gibbs sampler (JAGS) – Open-source alternative to WinBUGS. Uses Gibbs sampling.
OpenBUGS – Open-source development of WinBUGS.
SPSS Modeler – Commercial software that includes an implementation for Bayesian networks.
Stan (software) – Stan is an open-source package for obtaining Bayesian inference using the No-U-Turn sampler (NUTS), a variant of Hamiltonian Monte Carlo.
PyMC3 – A Python library implementing an embedded domain specific language to represent bayesian networks, and a variety of samplers (including NUTS)
BNLearn - A Python library with more capabilities and allows for the expansion of a regular bayesian network.
WinBUGS – One of the first computational implementations of MCMC samplers. No longer maintained.
History
The term Bayesian network was coined by Judea Pearl in 1985 to emphasize:
the often subjective nature of the input information
the reliance on Bayes' conditioning as the basis for updating information
the distinction between causal and evidential modes of reasoning
In the late 1980s Pearl's Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems and Neapolitan's Probabilistic Reasoning in Expert Systems'' summarized their properties and established them as a field of study.
See also
Notes
References
(This paper puts decision trees in internal nodes of Bayes networks using Minimum Message Length (MML).
:Also appears as
An earlier version appears as , Microsoft Research, March 1, 1995. The paper is about both parameter and structure learning in Bayesian networks.
.
This paper presents variable elimination for belief networks.
Further reading
External links
An Introduction to Bayesian Networks and their Contemporary Applications
On-line Tutorial on Bayesian nets and probability
Web-App to create Bayesian nets and run it with a Monte Carlo method
Continuous Time Bayesian Networks
Bayesian Networks: Explanation and Analogy
A live tutorial on learning Bayesian networks
A hierarchical Bayes Model for handling sample heterogeneity in classification problems, provides a classification model taking into consideration the uncertainty associated with measuring replicate samples.
Hierarchical Naive Bayes Model for handling sample uncertainty , shows how to perform classification and learning with continuous and discrete variables with replicated measurements.
Graphical models
Causality
Causal inference
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed%20acyclic%20graph
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Directed acyclic graph
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In mathematics, particularly graph theory, and computer science, a directed acyclic graph (DAG or dag ) is a directed graph with no directed cycles. That is, it consists of vertices and edges (also called arcs), with each edge directed from one vertex to another, such that following those directions will never form a closed loop. A directed graph is a DAG if and only if it can be topologically ordered, by arranging the vertices as a linear ordering that is consistent with all edge directions. DAGs have numerous scientific and computational applications, ranging from biology (evolution, family trees, epidemiology) to sociology (citation networks) to computation (scheduling).
Definitions
A graph is formed by vertices and by edges connecting pairs of vertices, where the vertices can be any kind of object that is connected in pairs by edges. In the case of a directed graph, each edge has an orientation, from one vertex to another vertex. A path in a directed graph is a sequence of edges having the property that the ending vertex of each edge in the sequence is the same as the starting vertex of the next edge in the sequence; a path forms a cycle if the starting vertex of its first edge equals the ending vertex of its last edge. A directed acyclic graph is a directed graph that has no cycles.
A vertex of a directed graph is said to be reachable from another vertex when there exists a path that starts at and ends at . As a special case, every vertex is considered to be reachable from itself (by a path with zero edges). If a vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path (a path with one or more edges), then that path is a cycle, so another way to define directed acyclic graphs is that they are the graphs in which no vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path.
Mathematical properties
Reachability relation, transitive closure, and transitive reduction
The reachability relation of a DAG can be formalized as a partial order on the vertices of the DAG. In this partial order, two vertices and are ordered as exactly when there exists a directed path from to in the DAG; that is, when can reach (or is reachable from ). However, different DAGs may give rise to the same reachability relation and the same partial order. For example, a DAG with two edges and has the same reachability relation as the DAG with three edges , , and . Both of these DAGs produce the same partial order, in which the vertices are ordered as .
The transitive closure of a DAG is the graph with the most edges that has the same reachability relation as the DAG. It has an edge for every pair of vertices (, ) in the reachability relation of the DAG, and may therefore be thought of as a direct translation of the reachability relation into graph-theoretic terms. The same method of translating partial orders into DAGs works more generally: for every finite partially ordered set , the graph that has a vertex for every element of and an edge for every pair of elements in is automatically a transitively closed DAG, and has as its reachability relation. In this way, every finite partially ordered set can be represented as a DAG.
The transitive reduction of a DAG is the graph with the fewest edges that has the same reachability relation as the DAG. It has an edge for every pair of vertices (, ) in the covering relation of the reachability relation of the DAG. It is a subgraph of the DAG, formed by discarding the edges for which the DAG also contains a longer directed path from to .
Like the transitive closure, the transitive reduction is uniquely defined for DAGs. In contrast, for a directed graph that is not acyclic, there can be more than one minimal subgraph with the same reachability relation. Transitive reductions are useful in visualizing the partial orders they represent, because they have fewer edges than other graphs representing the same orders and therefore lead to simpler graph drawings. A Hasse diagram of a partial order is a drawing of the transitive reduction in which the orientation of every edge is shown by placing the starting vertex of the edge in a lower position than its ending vertex.
Topological ordering
A topological ordering of a directed graph is an ordering of its vertices into a sequence, such that for every edge the start vertex of the edge occurs earlier in the sequence than the ending vertex of the edge. A graph that has a topological ordering cannot have any cycles, because the edge into the earliest vertex of a cycle would have to be oriented the wrong way. Therefore, every graph with a topological ordering is acyclic. Conversely, every directed acyclic graph has at least one topological ordering. The existence of a topological ordering can therefore be used as an equivalent definition of a directed acyclic graphs: they are exactly the graphs that have topological orderings.
In general, this ordering is not unique; a DAG has a unique topological ordering if and only if it has a directed path containing all the vertices, in which case the ordering is the same as the order in which the vertices appear in the path.
The family of topological orderings of a DAG is the same as the family of linear extensions of the reachability relation for the DAG, so any two graphs representing the same partial order have the same set of topological orders.
Combinatorial enumeration
The graph enumeration problem of counting directed acyclic graphs was studied by .
The number of DAGs on labeled vertices, for (without restrictions on the order in which these numbers appear in a topological ordering of the DAG) is
1, 1, 3, 25, 543, 29281, 3781503, … .
These numbers may be computed by the recurrence relation
Eric W. Weisstein conjectured, and proved, that the same numbers count the (0,1) matrices for which all eigenvalues are positive real numbers. The proof is bijective: a matrix is an adjacency matrix of a DAG if and only if is a (0,1) matrix with all eigenvalues positive, where denotes the identity matrix. Because a DAG cannot have self-loops, its adjacency matrix must have a zero diagonal, so adding preserves the property that all matrix coefficients are 0 or 1.
Related families of graphs
A multitree (also called a strongly unambiguous graph or a mangrove) is a DAG in which there is at most one directed path between any two vertices. Equivalently, it is a DAG in which the subgraph reachable from any vertex induces an undirected tree.
A polytree (also called a directed tree) is a multitree formed by orienting the edges of an undirected tree.
An arborescence is a polytree formed by orienting the edges of an undirected tree away from a particular vertex, called the root of the arborescence.
Computational problems
Topological sorting and recognition
Topological sorting is the algorithmic problem of finding a topological ordering of a given DAG. It can be solved in linear time. Kahn's algorithm for topological sorting builds the vertex ordering directly. It maintains a list of vertices that have no incoming edges from other vertices that have not already been included in the partially constructed topological ordering; initially this list consists of the vertices with no incoming edges at all. Then, it repeatedly adds one vertex from this list to the end of the partially constructed topological ordering, and checks whether its neighbors should be added to the list. The algorithm terminates when all vertices have been processed in this way. Alternatively, a topological ordering may be constructed by reversing a postorder numbering of a depth-first search graph traversal.
It is also possible to check whether a given directed graph is a DAG in linear time, either by attempting to find a topological ordering and then testing for each edge whether the resulting ordering is valid or alternatively, for some topological sorting algorithms, by verifying that the algorithm successfully orders all the vertices without meeting an error condition.
Construction from cyclic graphs
Any undirected graph may be made into a DAG by choosing a total order for its vertices and directing every edge from the earlier endpoint in the order to the later endpoint. The resulting orientation of the edges is called an acyclic orientation. Different total orders may lead to the same acyclic orientation, so an -vertex graph can have fewer than acyclic orientations. The number of acyclic orientations is equal to , where is the chromatic polynomial of the given graph.
Any directed graph may be made into a DAG by removing a feedback vertex set or a feedback arc set, a set of vertices or edges (respectively) that touches all cycles. However, the smallest such set is NP-hard to find. An arbitrary directed graph may also be transformed into a DAG, called its condensation, by contracting each of its strongly connected components into a single supervertex. When the graph is already acyclic, its smallest feedback vertex sets and feedback arc sets are empty, and its condensation is the graph itself.
Transitive closure and transitive reduction
The transitive closure of a given DAG, with vertices and edges, may be constructed in time by using either breadth-first search or depth-first search to test reachability from each vertex. Alternatively, it can be solved in time where is the exponent for matrix multiplication algorithms; this is a theoretical improvement over the bound for dense graphs.
In all of these transitive closure algorithms, it is possible to distinguish pairs of vertices that are reachable by at least one path of length two or more from pairs that can only be connected by a length-one path. The transitive reduction consists of the edges that form length-one paths that are the only paths connecting their endpoints. Therefore, the transitive reduction can be constructed in the same asymptotic time bounds as the transitive closure.
Closure problem
The closure problem takes as input a vertex-weighted directed acyclic graph and seeks the minimum (or maximum) weight of a closure – a set of vertices C, such that no edges leave C. The problem may be formulated for directed graphs without the assumption of acyclicity, but with no greater generality, because in this case it is equivalent to the same problem on the condensation of the graph. It may be solved in polynomial time using a reduction to the maximum flow problem.
Path algorithms
Some algorithms become simpler when used on DAGs instead of general graphs, based on the principle of topological ordering. For example, it is possible to find shortest paths and longest paths from a given starting vertex in DAGs in linear time by processing the vertices in a topological order, and calculating the path length for each vertex to be the minimum or maximum length obtained via any of its incoming edges. In contrast, for arbitrary graphs the shortest path may require slower algorithms such as Dijkstra's algorithm or the Bellman–Ford algorithm, and longest paths in arbitrary graphs are NP-hard to find.
Applications
Scheduling
Directed acyclic graphs representations of partial orderings have many applications in scheduling for systems of tasks with ordering constraints.
An important class of problems of this type concern collections of objects that need to be updated, such as the cells of a spreadsheet after one of the cells has been changed, or the object files of a piece of computer software after its source code has been changed.
In this context, a dependency graph is a graph that has a vertex for each object to be updated, and an edge connecting two objects whenever one of them needs to be updated earlier than the other. A cycle in this graph is called a circular dependency, and is generally not allowed, because there would be no way to consistently schedule the tasks involved in the cycle.
Dependency graphs without circular dependencies form DAGs.
For instance, when one cell of a spreadsheet changes, it is necessary to recalculate the values of other cells that depend directly or indirectly on the changed cell. For this problem, the tasks to be scheduled are the recalculations of the values of individual cells of the spreadsheet. Dependencies arise when an expression in one cell uses a value from another cell. In such a case, the value that is used must be recalculated earlier than the expression that uses it. Topologically ordering the dependency graph, and using this topological order to schedule the cell updates, allows the whole spreadsheet to be updated with only a single evaluation per cell. Similar problems of task ordering arise in makefiles for program compilation and instruction scheduling for low-level computer program optimization.
A somewhat different DAG-based formulation of scheduling constraints is used by the program evaluation and review technique (PERT), a method for management of large human projects that was one of the first applications of DAGs. In this method, the vertices of a DAG represent milestones of a project rather than specific tasks to be performed. Instead, a task or activity is represented by an edge of a DAG, connecting two milestones that mark the beginning and completion of the task. Each such edge is labeled with an estimate for the amount of time that it will take a team of workers to perform the task. The longest path in this DAG represents the critical path of the project, the one that controls the total time for the project. Individual milestones can be scheduled according to the lengths of the longest paths ending at their vertices.
Data processing networks
A directed acyclic graph may be used to represent a network of processing elements. In this representation, data enters a processing element through its incoming edges and leaves the element through its outgoing edges.
For instance, in electronic circuit design, static combinational logic blocks can be represented as an acyclic system of logic gates that computes a function of an input, where the input and output of the function are represented as individual bits. In general, the output of these blocks cannot be used as the input unless it is captured by a register or state element which maintains its acyclic properties. Electronic circuit schematics either on paper or in a database are a form of directed acyclic graphs using instances or components to form a directed reference to a lower level component. Electronic circuits themselves are not necessarily acyclic or directed.
Dataflow programming languages describe systems of operations on data streams, and the connections between the outputs of some operations and the inputs of others. These languages can be convenient for describing repetitive data processing tasks, in which the same acyclically-connected collection of operations is applied to many data items. They can be executed as a parallel algorithm in which each operation is performed by a parallel process as soon as another set of inputs becomes available to it.
In compilers, straight line code (that is, sequences of statements without loops or conditional branches) may be represented by a DAG describing the inputs and outputs of each of the arithmetic operations performed within the code. This representation allows the compiler to perform common subexpression elimination efficiently. At a higher level of code organization, the acyclic dependencies principle states that the dependencies between modules or components of a large software system should form a directed acyclic graph.
Feedforward neural networks are another example.
Causal structures
Graphs in which vertices represent events occurring at a definite time, and where the edges are always point from the early time vertex to a late time vertex of the edge, are necessarily directed and acyclic. The lack of a cycle follows because the time associated with a vertex always increases as you follow any path in the graph so you can never return to a vertex on a path. This reflects our natural intuition that causality means events can only affect the future, they never affect the past, and thus we have no causal loops. An example of this type of directed acyclic graph are those encountered in the causal set approach to quantum gravity though in this case the graphs considered are transitively complete. In the version history example, each version of the software is associated with a unique time, typically the time the version was saved, committed or released. For citation graphs, the documents are published at one time and can only refer to older documents.
Sometimes events are not associated with a specific physical time. Provided that pairs of events have a purely causal relationship, that is edges represent causal relations between the events, we will have a directed acyclic graph. For instance, a Bayesian network represents a system of probabilistic events as vertices in a directed acyclic graph, in which the likelihood of an event may be calculated from the likelihoods of its predecessors in the DAG. In this context, the moral graph of a DAG is the undirected graph created by adding an (undirected) edge between all parents of the same vertex (sometimes called marrying), and then replacing all directed edges by undirected edges. Another type of graph with a similar causal structure is an influence diagram, the vertices of which represent either decisions to be made or unknown information, and the edges of which represent causal influences from one vertex to another. In epidemiology, for instance, these diagrams are often used to estimate the expected value of different choices for intervention.
The converse is also true. That is in any application represented by a directed acyclic graph there is a causal structure, either an explicit order or time in the example or an order which can be derived from graph structure. This follows because all directed acyclic graphs have a topological ordering, i.e. there is at least one way to put the vertices in an order such that all edges point in the same direction along that order.
Genealogy and version history
Family trees may be seen as directed acyclic graphs, with a vertex for each family member and an edge for each parent-child relationship. Despite the name, these graphs are not necessarily trees because of the possibility of marriages between relatives (so a child has a common ancestor on both the mother's and father's side) causing pedigree collapse. The graphs of matrilineal descent (mother-daughter relationships) and patrilineal descent (father-son relationships) are trees within this graph. Because
no one can become their own ancestor, family trees are acyclic.
The version history of a distributed revision control system, such as Git, generally has the structure of a directed acyclic graph, in which there is a vertex for each revision and an edge connecting pairs of revisions that were directly derived from each other. These are not trees in general due to merges.
In many randomized algorithms in computational geometry, the algorithm maintains a history DAG representing the version history of a geometric structure over the course of a sequence of changes to the structure. For instance in a randomized incremental algorithm for Delaunay triangulation, the triangulation changes by replacing one triangle by three smaller triangles when each point is added, and by "flip" operations that replace pairs of triangles by a different pair of triangles. The history DAG for this algorithm has a vertex for each triangle constructed as part of the algorithm, and edges from each triangle to the two or three other triangles that replace it. This structure allows point location queries to be answered efficiently: to find the location of a query point in the Delaunay triangulation, follow a path in the history DAG, at each step moving to the replacement triangle that contains . The final triangle reached in this path must be the Delaunay triangle that contains .
Citation graphs
In a citation graph the vertices are documents with a single publication date. The edges represent the citations from the bibliography of one document to other necessarily earlier documents. The classic example comes from the citations between academic papers as pointed out in the 1965 article "Networks of Scientific Papers" by Derek J. de Solla Price who went on to produce the first model of a citation network, the Price model. In this case the citation count of a paper is just the in-degree of the corresponding vertex of the citation network. This is an important measure in citation analysis. Court judgements provide another example as judges support their conclusions in one case by recalling other earlier decisions made in previous cases. A final example is provided by patents which must refer to earlier prior art, earlier patents which are relevant to the current patent claim. By taking the special properties of directed acyclic graphs into account, one can analyse citation networks with techniques not available when analysing the general graphs considered in many studies using network analysis. For instance transitive reduction gives new insights into the citation distributions found in different applications highlighting clear differences in the mechanisms creating citations networks in different contexts. Another technique is main path analysis, which traces the citation links and suggests the most significant citation chains in a given citation graph.
The Price model is too simple to be a realistic model of a citation network but it is simple enough to allow for analytic solutions for some of its properties. Many of these can be found by using results derived from the undirected version of the Price model, the Barabási–Albert model. However, since Price's model gives a directed acyclic graph, it is a useful model when looking for analytic calculations of properties unique to directed acyclic graphs. For instance,
the length of the longest path, from the n-th node added to the network to the first node in the network, scales as .
Data compression
Directed acyclic graphs may also be used as a compact representation of a collection of sequences. In this type of application, one finds a DAG in which the paths form the given sequences. When many of the sequences share the same subsequences, these shared subsequences can be represented by a shared part of the DAG, allowing the representation to use less space than it would take to list out all of the sequences separately. For example, the directed acyclic word graph is a data structure in computer science formed by a directed acyclic graph with a single source and with edges labeled by letters or symbols; the paths from the source to the sinks in this graph represent a set of strings, such as English words. Any set of sequences can be represented as paths in a tree, by forming a tree vertex for every prefix of a sequence and making the parent of one of these vertices represent the sequence with one fewer element; the tree formed in this way for a set of strings is called a trie. A directed acyclic word graph saves space over a trie by allowing paths to diverge and rejoin, so that a set of words with the same possible suffixes can be represented by a single tree vertex.
The same idea of using a DAG to represent a family of paths occurs in the binary decision diagram, a DAG-based data structure for representing binary functions. In a binary decision diagram, each non-sink vertex is labeled by the name of a binary variable, and each sink and each edge is labeled by a 0 or 1. The function value for any truth assignment to the variables is the value at the sink found by following a path, starting from the single source vertex, that at each non-sink vertex follows the outgoing edge labeled with the value of that vertex's variable. Just as directed acyclic word graphs can be viewed as a compressed form of , binary decision diagrams can be viewed as compressed forms of decision trees that save space by allowing paths to rejoin when they agree on the results of all remaining decisions.
References
External links
DAGitty – an online tool for creating DAGs
Directed graphs
Directed acyclic graphs
de:Graph (Graphentheorie)#Teilgraphen.2C Wege und Zyklen
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204015
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near%20passerine
|
Near passerine
|
Near passerines and higher land-bird assemblage are terms of traditional, pre-cladistic taxonomy that have often been given to tree-dwelling birds or those most often believed to be related to the true passerines (order Passeriformes) owing to morphological and ecological similarities; the group corresponds to some extent with the Anomalogonatae of Alfred Henry Garrod.
Biology
All near passerines are land birds. However, molecular data does not support the traditional arrangement; it is now clear that "near passerines" and "higher landbirds" are not synonymous.
Per Ericson and colleagues, in analysing genomic DNA, revealed a lineage comprising Passeriformes, Psittaciformes and Falconiformes.
Orders
Pterocliformes (sandgrouse), Columbiformes (pigeons), Cuculiformes (cuckoos), Caprimulgiformes (nightjars), and Apodiformes (swifts, hummingbirds) are no longer recognized as near passerines. The true near-passerine families are the Psittaciformes (parrots), the Falconiformes (falcons), and the Cariamiformes (seriemas). These three orders, together with the Passeriformes make up the Australaves. Sister to the Australaves are the Afroaves (see Telluraves).
The phylogentic relationships between the orders are:
See also
List of birds
References
Further reading
Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, Per G. P. (2003): Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960). J. Avian Biol. 34(2): 185–197. PDF fulltext
Birds by classification
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notting%20Hill%20%28film%29
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Notting Hill (film)
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Notting Hill is a 1999 romantic comedy film directed by Roger Michell. The screenplay was written by Richard Curtis, and the film was produced by Duncan Kenworthy. The film stars Julia Roberts and Hugh Grant with Rhys Ifans, Emma Chambers, Tim McInnerny, Gina McKee, and Hugh Bonneville in supporting roles. The story is of a romance between a London bookseller (Grant) and a famous American actress (Roberts) who happens to walk into his shop.
Released on 21 May 1999, Notting Hill was well-received by critics and became the highest-grossing British film of all time. The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, with Roberts and Grant also receiving nominations for their performances, while the film also earned two BAFTA nominations. It also won a British Comedy Award and a Brit Award for the soundtrack.
Plot
William Thacker owns a travel book store in Notting Hill, London. Divorced, Will shares a flat with Spike, a flaky and sloppy Welshman. One day, famous Hollywood actress Anna Scott enters the shop and buys a book. Shortly after she has left, Will bumps into her while rounding a street corner, spilling his juice on her. He takes Anna to his place that is directly across the street so she can change into a clean shirt. When leaving, she impulsively kisses him.
Anna later invites him to visit her at the Ritz Hotel. Upon his arrival he is mistaken for a reporter and ushered into a press junket for her new film. When asked, he says he writes for Horse & Hound magazine. Anna asks to be William's date at his sister's birthday party later that evening. Though his friends are surprised, she gets on well with everyone and enjoys herself. Later, the two enter a private neighbourhood park, where Anna again kisses Will.
At a restaurant the next day, Will and Anna overhear four men at a nearby table discussing her, first praising and then disparaging her and equating actresses to prostitutes. Will confronts them, then she introduces herself and calmly insults the stunned sextet.
Anna invites Will to her hotel room, but he quickly leaves after discovering that her movie star boyfriend, Jeff King, has unexpectedly arrived from America. Over the next six months, Will's friends arrange a series of dates for him, but Will, unable to forget Anna, is uninterested in another relationship.
One day, a distraught Anna appears at Will's doorstep, needing to hide from a tabloid scandal. She apologises about King and says their relationship is over. They discover shared interests, and discuss Will's print of Marc Chagall's 1950 painting La Mariée. They make love that night. The next morning, paparazzi, inadvertently tipped off by Spike, besiege the house and take photos of Will, Anna, and a half-dressed Spike at the front door. Furious, she blames Will and leaves.
Several seasons pass, and Will remains miserable. When he discovers Anna is back in London making a film based on a Henry James novel, something he had suggested, he visits the set unannounced. She asks him to wait until shooting is done, but he leaves after overhearing her being dismissive about him to another actor. Anna comes to the bookshop the next day, bringing a wrapped gift. Will says he overheard what she said about him to her co-star. She explains that she was merely keeping her personal life private from another actor. She confesses she loves him, and pleads to rekindle their relationship. Will says no, explaining he would be too hurt if she left him again.
Will meets his friends and sister at a restaurant with Anna's opened gift: Chagall's original La Mariée (The Bride). They half-heartedly support his decision about Anna until Spike arrives and calls him a "daft prick". Will realizes his mistake, and everyone races across London to find Anna, who is holding a press conference at the Savoy Hotel. Will arrives just as her publicist announces that Anna is taking a year off and is leaving the UK that night.
A reporter asks about the embarrassing photographs taken at Will's flat, and Anna says they are just friends. Will, again pretending to be a Horse & Hound reporter, asks her if she would consider being more than friends if Thacker begged her forgiveness. She says she would, then asks to be asked again how long she plans to stay in England. Smiling, she answers "indefinitely".
Anna and Will marry and she is now pregnant. They spend time in the private park that they had visited on their first date.
Cast
Julia Roberts as Anna Scott
Hugh Grant as William "Will" Thacker
Hugh Bonneville as Bernie
Emma Chambers as Honey Thacker
James Dreyfus as Martin
Rhys Ifans as Spike
Tim McInnerny as Max
Gina McKee as Bella
Richard McCabe as Tony
Dylan Moran as Rufus, the thief
Henry Goodman as the Ritz concierge
Julian Rhind-Tutt as Time Out journalist
Lorelei King as Anna's publicist
John Shrapnel as Anna's UK press agent
Clarke Peters as Helix lead actor
Arturo Venegas as actor in Helix
Yolanda Vazquez as interpreter
Mischa Barton as 12-year-old actress in Helix
Emily Mortimer as Perfect Girl
Samuel West as Anna's co-star (as Sam West)
Ann Beach as William's mother
Patrick Barlow as Savoy concierge
Uncredited cast
Alec Baldwin as Jeff King
Simon Callow as himself in Film-within-Film
Joe Cornish as Fan Receiving Anna's Autograph
Matthew Modine as Actor in Film-within-Film
Sally Phillips as Caroline (scenes deleted)
Romilly Weeks as a guest at dinner
Casting notes
Julia Roberts was the "one and only" choice for the role of Anna Scott, although Roger Michell and Duncan Kenworthy did not expect her to accept. Her agent told her it was "the best romantic comedy she had ever read". Roberts said that after reading the script she decided she was "going to have to do this".
The decision to cast Hugh Grant as William Thacker was unanimous, as he and Richard Curtis had a "writer/actor marriage made in heaven". Michell said that "Hugh does Richard better than anyone else, and Richard writes Hugh better than anyone else", and that Grant is "one of the only actors who can speak Richard's lines perfectly".
Mischa Barton appears as the child actor whom Will pretends to interview for Horse & Hound.
The casting of Bonneville, McInnerny, McKee, Chambers, and Ifans as Will's friends was "rather like assembling a family". Michell explained that "When you are casting a cabal of friends, you have to cast a balance of qualities, of types and of sensibilities. They were the jigsaw that had to be put together all in one go, and I think we've got a very good variety of people who can realistically still live in the same world."
Sanjeev Bhaskar has a cameo role as a loud and offensive restaurant patron (who refers to Meg Ryan as "the actress who has an orgasm every time she's taken out for a cup of coffee") in the restaurant Anna and Will visit.
Omid Djalili makes an uncredited cameo as the vendor who sells Will the orange juice that he accidentally spills on Anna moments later.
Production
Richard Curtis developed the film from thoughts while lying awake at night. He described the starting point as "the idea of a very normal person going out with an unbelievably famous person and how that impinges on their lives". In an interview with GQ in 2018, Hugh Grant claimed the film was based on real life and loosely followed a friend of Richard's who fell in love with an 'extremely world-famous person who [Grant wasn't] allowed to mention'. Much like the film, Curtis's friend was an everyday person who met the well known celebrity in a shop (Harrods) and they ended up having a relationship.
The film has been likened to "a 90's London-set version of Roman Holiday". However, Curtis has said that he had not seen the 1953 film.
Four Weddings and a Funeral director Mike Newell was approached but rejected it to work on Pushing Tin. He said that in commercial terms he had made the wrong decision, but did not regret it. The producer, Duncan Kenworthy, then turned to Roger Michell, saying that "Finding someone as good as Roger, was just like finding the right actor to play each role. Roger shone out."
Curtis chose Notting Hill as he lived there and knew the area, saying "Notting Hill is a melting pot and the perfect place to set a film". This left the producers to film in a heavily populated area. Kenworthy noted "Early on, we toyed with the idea of building a huge exterior set. That way we would have more control, because we were worried about having Roberts and Grant on public streets where we could get thousands of onlookers." In the end they decided to film in the streets. Michell was worried "that Hugh and Julia were going to turn up on the first day of shooting on Portobello Road, and there would be gridlock and we would be surrounded by thousands of people and paparazzi photographers who would prevent us from shooting". The location team and security personnel prevented this, as well as preventing problems the presence of a film crew might have caused the residents of Notting Hill, who Michell believes were "genuinely excited" about the film. Location manager Sue Quinn described finding locations and getting permission to film as "a mammoth task". Quinn and the rest of her team had to write to thousands of people in the area, promising to donate to each person's favourite charity, resulting in 200 charities receiving money.
Stuart Craig, the production designer, was pleased to do a contemporary film, saying "we're dealing with streets with thousands of people, market traders, shop owners and residents which makes it really complex". Filming began on 17 April 1998 in West London and at Shepperton Studios. Will's bookshop was on Portobello Road, one of the main areas in which filming took place. Other places within Notting Hill included Westbourne Park Road, Golborne Road, Landsdowne Road and the Coronet Cinema. Will's house, 280 Westbourne Park Road, was owned by Richard Curtis and behind the entrance there is a grand house, not the flat in the film that was made up in the studios. The blue door was auctioned for charity. The current door is blue again. The Travel Book Store is located at 142 Portobello Road. After filming for six weeks in Notting Hill, filming moved to the Ritz Hotel, where work had to take place at night, the Savoy Hotel, the Nobu Restaurant, the Zen Garden of the Hempel Hotel and Kenwood House. One of the final scenes takes place at a film premiere, which presented difficulties. Michell wanted to film at Leicester Square but was declined. Police had found fans at a Leonardo DiCaprio premiere problematic and were concerned the same might occur at the staged premiere. Through a health and safety act, the production received permission to film and constructed the scene in 24 hours. Interior scenes were the last to be filmed, at Shepperton Studios. The final cut was 3.5 hours long, 90 minutes edited out for release.
The film features the 1950 Marc Chagall painting La Mariée ("The Bride"). Anna sees a print of the painting in William's home and later gives him what is presumably the original. Michell said in Entertainment Weekly that the painting was chosen because Curtis was a fan of Chagall's work and because La Mariée "depicts a yearning for something that's lost." The producers had a reproduction made for the film, but had to get permission from the owner as well as clearance from the Design and Artists Copyright Society. Finally, according to Kenworthy, "we had to agree to destroy it. They were concerned that if our fake was too good, it might float around the market and create problems." The article also noted that "some experts say the real canvas could be worth between US$500,000 and US$1million."
The film features the book Istanbul: The Imperial City (1996) by John Freely. William recommends this book to Anna, commenting that (unlike another book in the store) the author has at least been to Istanbul. In reality, Freely taught at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, and was the author of nine books about the city.
In the last scene of the film, Will is shown reading the 1994 book Captain Corelli's Mandolin by Louis de Bernières. This was to have been Roger Michell's next film but a heart attack forced him to withdraw from the production.
Soundtrack
Original music was composed by Trevor Jones. A main score was written, and excerpts were used throughout the film. The score was broken down into two songs for the soundtrack (Will and Anna/Notting Hill). Several additional songs written by other artists include Elvis Costello's cover of the Charles Aznavour song "She". Charles Aznavour's original version can be heard during the opening credits while Elvis Costello's version is played at the end of the movie (before the end credits). Other songs are Shania Twain's remixed version of "You've Got a Way", as well as Ronan Keating's specially recorded cover of "When You Say Nothing at All"; the song reached number one in the British charts. Pulp recorded a new song "Born to Cry", which was released on the European version of the soundtrack album.
The song played when Will strides down Portobello Road is "Ain't No Sunshine" by Bill Withers. Tony and Bernie play "Blue Moon" on the piano at Tony's restaurant on the night it closes. Originally, Charles Aznavour's version of "She" was used in the film, but American test screening audiences did not respond to it. Costello was then brought in by Richard Curtis to record a cover version of the song. Both versions of the song appear in non-US releases.
The soundtrack album was released by Island Records.
US version track listing
"No Matter What"– Boyzone
"You've Got a Way" (Notting Hill remix)– Shania Twain
"I Do (Cherish You)"– 98 Degrees
"She"– Elvis Costello
"Ain't No Sunshine"– Bill Withers
"How Can You Mend a Broken Heart"– Al Green
"Gimme Some Lovin'"– The Spencer Davis Group
"When You Say Nothing at All"- Ronan Keating
"Ain't No Sunshine"– Lighthouse Family
"From the Heart"- Another Level
"Everything About You"- Steve Poltz
"Will and Anna"– Trevor Jones (Score)
"Notting Hill"– Trevor Jones (Score)
The film score and original music was recorded and mixed by Gareth Cousins (who also mixed all the songs used in the film) and Simon Rhodes.
Certifications
Release
The film had its premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square on 27 April 1999 and opened in the UK on 21 May 1999 and in the United States the following week.
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 83% based on 100 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "A rom-com with the right ingredients, Notting Hill proves there's nothing like a love story well told – especially when Hugh Grant and Julia Roberts are your leads." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Variety'''s Derek Elley said that "It's slick, it's gawky, it's 10 minutes too long, and it's certainly not "Four Weddings and a Funeral Part 2" in either construction or overall tone", giving it an overall positive review. Cranky Critic called it "Bloody damned good", as well as saying that it was "A perfect date flick." Nitrate said that "Notting Hill is whimsical and light, fresh and quirky", with "endearing moments and memorable characters". In his review of the film's DVD John J. Puccio noted that "the movie is a fairy tale, and writer Richard Curtis knows how much the public loves a fairy tale", calling it "a sweet film". Desson Howe of The Washington Post gave the film a very positive review, particularly praising Rhys Ifans' performance as Spike. James Sanford gave Notting Hill three and a half stars, saying that "Curtis' dialogue may be much snappier than his sometimes dawdling plot, but the first hour of Notting Hill is so beguiling and consistently funny it seems churlish to complain that the rest is merely good." Sue Pierman of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel stated that "Notting Hill is clever, funny, romantic– and oh, yes, reminiscent of Four Weddings and a Funeral", but that the film "is so satisfying, it doesn't pay to nitpick." Roger Ebert praised the film, saying "the movie is bright, the dialogue has wit and intelligence, and Roberts and Grant are very easy to like." Kenneth Turan gave a good review, concluding that "the film's romantic core is impervious to problems". CNN reviewer Paul Clinton said that Notting Hill "stands alone as another funny and heartwarming story about love against all odds".
Widgett Walls of Needcoffee.com gave the film "three and a half cups of coffee", stating that "the humor of the film saves it from a completely trite and unsatisfying (nay, shall I say enraging) ending", but criticised the soundtrack. Dennis Schwartz gave the film a negative review with a grade of "C-" citing "this film was pure and unadulterated balderdash". Some criticised the film for giving a "sweetened unrealistic view of London life and British eccentricity." The Independent derided the film for being unrealistic. In particular, the film was criticised for failing to reflect the demographic of the area:
"only Curtis could write a movie about Notting Hill, London's most diverse borough, and not feature a single black face in it."
ListsNotting Hill was 95th on the British Film Institute's "list of the all-time top 100 films", based on estimates of each film's British cinema admissions.
Box office
The film opened over the Memorial Day weekend in the United States and Canada, the same weekend as Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, and opened at number two for the weekend, grossing US$27.7million over the 4-day weekend, the biggest opening for a romantic comedy film, beating My Best Friend's Wedding (which also starred Julia Roberts). Notting Hill made another US$15million the following week. One month after its release, Notting Hill lost its record for highest-grossing opening weekend for a romantic comedy film to Runaway Bride (again starring Roberts). The film grossed £31 million in the United Kingdom (the second highest-grossing film of 1999 behind The Phantom Menace) and US$116,089,678 in the United States and Canada (the sixteenth highest-grossing film of 1999), with a worldwide gross of US$363,889,678, making it the highest-grossing British film of all time, surpassing the record set by Four Weddings and a Funeral in 1994 (also starring Hugh Grant), and the seventh highest-grossing film of 1999.
Awards and nominationsNotting Hill won the Audience Award for Most Popular Film at the BAFTAs in 2000, and was nominated in the categories of The Alexander Korda Award for Outstanding British Film of the Year, and Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role for Rhys Ifans. The film won Best Comedy Film at the British Comedy Awards. The film's soundtrack won Best Soundtrack at the 2000 Brit Awards, beating Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace''. The film won Best British Film, Best British Director for Roger Michell, and Best British Actor for Hugh Grant at the Empire Awards.
The film received three nominations at the Golden Globes, in the categories Best Motion Picture– Comedy/Musical, Best Motion Picture Actor– Comedy/Musical for Hugh Grant, and Best Motion Picture Actress– Comedy/Musical for Julia Roberts.
References
External links
1990s romantic comedy-drama films
American films
American romantic comedy-drama films
British films
British romantic comedy-drama films
1990s English-language films
Films about actors
Films about tabloid journalism
Films directed by Roger Michell
Films scored by Trevor Jones
Films set in London
Films shot in London
Films with screenplays by Richard Curtis
PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films
Universal Pictures films
Working Title Films films
Films about the mass media in the United Kingdom
Films set in bookstores
Films set in a movie theatre
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Heinrich%20Jacobi
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Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
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Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (; 25 January 1743 – 10 March 1819) was an influential German philosopher, literary figure, and socialite.
He is notable for popularizing nihilism, a term coined by Obereit in 1787, and promoting it as the prime fault of Enlightenment thought particularly in the philosophical systems of Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant, Johann Fichte and Friedrich Schelling.
Jacobi advocated Glaube (variously translated as faith or "belief") and revelation instead of speculative reason. In this sense, Jacobi can be seen to have anticipated present-day writers who criticize secular philosophy as relativistic and dangerous for religious faith.
In his time, he was also well known among literary circles for his critique of the Sturm and Drang movement, and implicitly close associate and intimate partner of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and his visions of atomized individualism. His literary projects were devoted to the reconciliation of Enlightenment individualism with social obligation.
He was the younger brother of poet Johann Georg Jacobi and the father of the great psychiatrist Maximilian Jacobi.
Biography
Early life
He was born at Düsseldorf, the second son of a wealthy sugar merchant, and was educated for a commercial career, which included a brief apprenticeship at a merchant house in Frankfurt-am-Main during 1759. Following, he was sent to Geneva for general education. Jacobi, of a retiring, meditative disposition, associated himself at Geneva mainly with the literary and scientific circle (of which the most prominent member was Le Sage).
He studied closely the works of Charles Bonnet, as well as the political ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire. In 1763 he was recalled to Düsseldorf, and in the following year he married Elisbeth von Clermont and took over the management of his father's business.
After a short time, he gave up his commercial career, and in 1770 he became a member of the council for the duchies of Jülich and Berg. He distinguished himself by his ability in financial affairs and his zeal in social reform. Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and philosophic matters by an extensive correspondence. His mansion at Pempelfort, near Düsseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary circle. He helped to found a new literary journal with Christoph Martin Wieland. Some his earliest writings, mainly on practical or economic subjects, were published in Der Teutsche Merkur.
Here too appeared in part the first of his philosophic works, Edward Allwill's Briefsammlung (1776), a combination of romance and speculation. This was followed in 1779 by Woldemar, a philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure, but full of genial ideas, and giving the most complete picture of Jacobi's method of philosophizing.
In 1779, he visited Munich following his appointment as minister and privy councillor for the Bavarian department of customs and commerce. He opposed the mercantilistic policies of Bavaria and intended to liberalize local customs and taxes; but, after a short stay there, differences with his colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria, as well as his unwillingness to engage in a power struggle, drove him back to Pempelfort. The experience as well as its aftermath led to the publication of two essays in which Jacobi defended Adam Smith's theories of political economy. These essays were followed in 1785 by the work which first brought Jacobi into prominence as a philosopher.
Pantheism controversy
A conversation with Gotthold Lessing in 1780 in which Lessing avowed that he knew no philosophy in the true sense of that word, save Spinozism, led him to a protracted study of Spinoza's works. After Lessing's death, just a couple of months later, Jacobi continued to engage with Spinozism in an exchange of letters with Lessing's close friend Moses Mendelssohn, which began in 1783. These letters, published with commentary by Jacobi as Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas (1785; 2nd ed., much enlarged and with important Appendices, 1789), expressed sharply and clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the Aufklärer.
Jacobi was ridiculed for trying to reintroduce into philosophy the antiquated notion of unreasoning belief, was denounced as an enemy of reason, as a pietist, and as a Jesuit in disguise, and was especially attacked for his use of the ambiguous term "belief". His next important work, David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus (1787), was an attempt to show not only that the term Glaube had been used by the most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in the Letters on Spinoza, but that the nature of the cognition of facts as opposed to the construction of inferences could not be otherwise expressed. In this writing, and especially in the Appendix, Jacobi came into contact with the critical philosophy, and subjected the Kantian view of knowledge to searching examination.
In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism, Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself." Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on faith. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known. This faith or belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside of the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of faith, Jacobi legitimized belief and its theological associations. Schopenhauer would later state: "…[B]y reducing the external world to a matter of faith, he wanted merely to open a little door for faith in general…."
Ironically, the Pantheism Controversy led later German philosophers and writers to take an interest in pantheism and Spinozism. Jacobi's fideism remained unpopular, and instead his critique of Enlightenment rationalism led more German philosophers to explore atheism and wrestle with the perceived loss of philosophical foundations for theism, myth, and morality. Jacobi and the Pantheism Controversy he ignited remain important in European intellectual history, because he formulated (albeit critically) one of the first systematic statements of nihilism and represents an early example of the death of God discourse.
Later life
The Pempelfort era came to an end in 1794 when the French Revolution spilled over into Germany following the outbreak of war with the French Republic. The occupation of Düsseldorf by French Troops forced him to resettle and for nearly ten years live in Holstein. There he became intimately acquainted with Karl Leonhard Reinhold (in whose Beitrage his important work, Uber das Unternehmen des Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen, was first published), and with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the Wandsbecker Bote.
Atheism dispute
Gottlieb Fichte was dismissed from Jena in 1799 as a result of a charge of atheism. He was accused of this in 1798, after publishing his essay "Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"), which he had written in response to Friedrich Karl Forberg's essay "Development of the Concept of Religion", in his Philosophical Journal. For Fichte, God should be conceived primarily in moral terms: "The living and efficaciously acting moral order is itself God. We require no other God, nor can we grasp any other" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"). Fichte's intemperate "Appeal to the Public" ("Appellation an das Publikum", 1799) as well as a more thoughtful response entitled “From a Private Letter” (1799), provoked F. H. Jacobi to publish Letter to Fichte (1799), in which he equated philosophy in general and Fichte's transcendental philosophy in particular with nihilism and the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology.
President of Academy of sciences and retirement
Soon after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to Munich in connection with the new academy of sciences just founded there. The loss of a considerable portion of his fortune induced him to accept this offer; he settled in Munich in 1804, and in 1807 became president of the academy.
In 1811 appeared his last philosophic work, directed against Friedrich Schelling specially (Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung), the first part of which, a review of the Wandsbecker Bote, had been written in 1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer by Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries and Baader took prominent part.
In 1812 Jacobi retired from the office of president, and began to prepare a collected edition of his works. He died before this was completed. The edition of his writings was continued by his friend F. Koppen, and was completed in 1825. The works fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three parts. To the second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at the same time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has also an important preface.
Philosophical work
Jacobi's philosophy is essentially unsystematic. A fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is that of the complete separation between understanding [comprehension] and apprehension of real fact. For Jacobi, Understanding, or the logical faculty, is purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experience or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction, establishing connections among facts, but remaining in its nature mediate and finite.
The principle of reason and consequent, the necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned, impels understanding towards an endless series of identical propositions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions. The province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of the conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism. If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts must be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty of thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must depend upon something not itself capable of logical grounding, mediate thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth.
Philosophy therefore must resign the hopeless ideal of a systematic (i.e. intelligible) explanation of things, and must content itself with the examination of the facts of consciousness. It is a mere prejudice of philosophic thinkers, a prejudice which has descended from Aristotle, that mediate or demonstrated cognition is superior in cogency and value to the immediate perception of truths or facts.
As Jacobi starts with the doctrine that thought is partial and limited, applicable only to connect facts, but incapable of explaining their existence, it is evident that for him any demonstrative system of metaphysic which should attempt to subject all existence to the principle of logical ground must be repulsive. Now in modern philosophy the first and greatest demonstrative system of metaphysic is that of Spinoza; it is, therefore, sensible that upon Spinoza's system Jacobi should first direct his criticism. A summary of the results of his examination is thus presented (Werke, i. 216–223):
Spinozism is atheism;
the Kabbalistic philosophy, insofar as it is philosophy, is nothing but undeveloped or confused Spinozism;
the philosophy of Leibniz and Wolff is not less fatalistic than that of Spinoza, and carries a resolute thinker to the very principles of Spinoza;
every demonstrative method ends in fatalism (nihilism);
we can demonstrate only similarities (agreements, truths conditionally necessary), proceeding always in identical propositions; every proof presupposes something already proved, the principle of which is immediately given (Offenbarung, revelation, is the term here employed by Jacobi, as by many later writers, e.g. Lotze, to denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved, given truth);
the keystone (Element) of all human knowledge and activity is belief (Glaube, or "faith").
Of these propositions, only the first and fourth require further explanation.
Jacobi, accepting the law of reason and consequent as the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning, and as the rule explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if we proceed by applying this principle so as to recede from particular and qualified facts to the more general and abstract conditions, we land ourselves, not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator of the system of things, but in the notion of an all-comprehensive, indeterminate Nature, devoid of will or intelligence. Our unconditioned is either a pure abstraction, or else the impossible notion of a completed system of conditions. In either case the result is atheism, and this result is necessary if the demonstrative method, the method of understanding, is regarded as the only possible means of knowledge.
Moreover, the same method inevitably lands in fatalism/nihilism. For, if the action of the human will is to be made intelligible to understanding, it must be thought as a conditioned phenomenon, having its sufficient ground in preceding circumstances, and, in ultimate abstraction, as the outflow from nature which is the sum of conditions. But this is the fatalist conception, and any philosophy which accepts the law of reason and consequent as the essence of understanding is fatalistic/nihilistic. Thus for the scientific understanding there can be no God and no liberty.
It is impossible that there should be a God, for if so he would of necessity be finite. But a finite God, a God that is known, is no God. It is impossible that there should be liberty, for if so the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of which they are comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should have an unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it shall be understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies the middle place between sense perception, which is belief in matters of sense, and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact.
Works
Early essays in Der Teutsche Merkur. Available online.
Edward Allwill’s Briefsammlung (1781).
Etwas das Lessing gesagt hat (1782). Werke, vol. 2, pp. 325-388.
Über die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an den Herrn Moses Mendelssohn (1785). 2nd edition, 1789. NYPL.
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi wider Mendelssohns Beschuldigungen betreffend die Briefe über die Lehre des Spinoza (1786). Oxford.
David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus (1787). University of Lausanne.
Woldemar (1794). 2 volumes. Oxford. 2nd edition, 1796. NYPL.
Jacobi an Fichte (1799). University of Michigan. Text 1799/1816, Italian Translation, 3 Appendices with Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts, Commentary by A. Acerbi): La Scuola di Pitagora, Naples 2017, .
Ueber das Unternehmen des Kriticismus (1801). Werke, vol. 3, pp. 59-195.
Ueber Gelehrte Gesellschaften, ihren Geist und Zweck (1807). Harvard.
Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung (1811). University of California.
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's Werke (1812–1825).
Volume 1, 1812. Harvard; NYPL; University of Michigan; University of Michigan (Morris).
Volume 2, 1815. Harvard; NYPL; University of Michigan; University of Michigan (Morris).
Volume 3, 1816. Harvard; NYPL; University of Michigan; University of Michigan (Morris).
Volume 4, 1819. Harvard. Parts 1 & 2: Oxford; University of Michigan (Morris).
Part 1. NYPL; University of Michigan.
Part 2. NYPL; University of Michigan.
Part 3. NYPL; University of Michigan (Morris).
Volume 5, 1820. Harvard; NYPL; University of Michigan; University of Michigan (Morris).
Volume 6, 1825. NYPL; University of Michigan (Morris).
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's auserlesener Briefwechsel (1825–27). 2 volumes.
Volume 1, 1825. Harvard; University of Michigan.
Volume 2, 1827. Harvard; University of Michigan.
Notes
External links
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, George Di Giovanni (1994)."The Main Philosophical Writings and the Novel Allwill". McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, . .
1743 births
1819 deaths
Writers from Düsseldorf
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
18th-century German novelists
18th-century philosophers
19th-century philosophers
German philosophers
German Protestants
People from Berg (state)
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
German male novelists
Spinoza scholars
|
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] |
204029
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allodontidae
|
Allodontidae
|
Allodontidae (from ancient Greek "ἄλλος" "ὀδούς", "different tooth") is a family of extinct multituberculate mammal that lived in what is now North America during the Upper Jurassic period. They were relatively early mammals and are within the informal suborder of "Plagiaulacida". The family was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889. Two genera are recognized: Ctenacodon and Psalodon.
References
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Most of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Basal Multituberculata, an Internet directory.
Multituberculates
Late Jurassic first appearances
Late Jurassic extinctions
Prehistoric mammal families
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Heinrich%20Joseph%20D%C3%BCntzer
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Johann Heinrich Joseph Düntzer
|
Johann Heinrich Joseph Düntzer (July 12, 1813 – December 16, 1901) was a German philologist and historian of literature.
Biography
He was born at Cologne. After studying philology and especially ancient classics and Sanskrit at Bonn and Berlin (1830–1835), he took the degree of doctor of philosophy and established himself in 1837 at Bonn as privatdozent for classical philology. He had already, in his Goethes Faust in seiner Einheit und Ganzheit (1836) and Goethe als Dramatiker (1837), advocated a new critical method in interpreting the German classics, which he wished to see treated like the ancient classics.
He subsequently turned his attention almost exclusively to the poets of the German classical period, notably Goethe and Schiller. Düntzer's method met with much opposition and he consequently failed to obtain the professorship he coveted. From 1846 up to the time of his death in 1901 he maintained the post of librarian at the Roman Catholic gymnasium in Cologne. In 1849 he was awarded with the title of professor.
Evaluation
Düntzer was a painstaking and accurate critic, but lacking in inspiration and finer literary taste, consequently his work as a biographer and commentator has, to a great extent, been superseded and discredited.
Works
Among his philological writings may be mentioned:
Die Lehre von der lateinischen Wortbildung (1836).
Die Deklination der indogermanischen Sprachen (1839).
Homer und der epische Kyklos (1839).
Die homerischen Beiwörter des Götter- und Menschengeschlechts (1859).
Of his works on the German classical poets, especially Goethe, Schiller and Herder, the following are particularly worthy of note:
Erläuterungen zu den deutschen Klassikern (1853–1892).
Goethes Prometheus und Pandora (1850).
Goethes Faust (2 vols., 1850–1851; 2nd ed. 1857).
Goethes Götz und Egmont (1854).
Aus Goethes Freundeskreise (1868).
Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken (2 vols, 1885).
Goethes Tagebücher der sechs ersten weimarischen Jahre (1889).
Goethes Leben (1880; 2nd ed. 1883; Engl. transl. by T Lyster, London, 1884): "Life of Goethe", Vol.1, "Life of Goethe", Vol.2.
Schillers Leben (1881); translated into English and published as: The Life of Schiller (1883).
Schiller und Goethe (1859).
Übersicht und Erläuterung zum Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe (1859).
Herders Reise nach Italien (1859).
Aus Herders Nachlass (3 vols., 1856–1857).
Charlotte von Stein (1874).
References
HathiTrust Digital Library (published works)
1813 births
1901 deaths
German philologists
German librarians
Writers from Cologne
People from the Rhine Province
University of Bonn alumni
University of Bonn faculty
19th-century German people
|
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204037
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3C%20273
|
3C 273
|
3C 273 is a quasar located in the constellation of Virgo. It was the first quasar ever to be identified.
It is the optically brightest quasar in the sky from Earth (m ~12.9), and one of the closest with a redshift, z, of 0.158. A luminosity distance of DL = may be calculated from z. It is also one of the most luminous quasars known, with an absolute magnitude of −26.7, meaning that if it were only as distant as Pollux (~10 parsecs) it would appear nearly as bright in the sky as the Sun. Since the Sun's absolute magnitude is 4.83, it means that the quasar is over 4 trillion times more luminous than the Sun at visible wavelengths. The mass of its central black hole has been measured to be 886 ± 187 million solar masses through broad emission-line reverberation mapping.
Large-scale jet
The quasar has a large-scale visible jet, which measures ~ long, having an apparent size of 23″. In 1995, optical imaging of the jet using the Hubble Space Telescope revealed a structured morphology evidenced by repeated bright knots interlaced by areas of weak emission.
History
The name signifies that it was the 273rd object (ordered by right ascension) of the Third Cambridge Catalog of Radio Sources (3C), published in 1959. After accurate positions were obtained using lunar occultation by Cyril Hazard at the Parkes Radio Telescope, the radio source was quickly associated with an optical counterpart, an unresolved stellar object. In 1963, Maarten Schmidt and Bev Oke published a pair of papers in Nature reporting that 3C 273 has a substantial redshift of 0.158, placing it several billion light-years away.
Prior to the discovery of 3C 273, several other radio sources had been associated with optical counterparts, the first being 3C 48. Also, many active galaxies had been misidentified as variable stars, including the famous BL Lac, W Com and AU CVn. However, it was not understood what these objects were, since their spectra were unlike those of any known stars. Its spectrum did not resemble that of any normal stars with typical stellar elements. 3C 273 was the first object to be identified as a quasar—an extremely luminous object at an astronomical distance.
3C 273 is a radio-loud quasar, and was also one of the first extragalactic X-ray sources discovered in 1970.
However, even to this day, the process which gives rise to the X-ray emissions is controversial.
The luminosity is variable at nearly every wavelength from radio waves to gamma rays on timescales of a few days to decades.
Polarization with coincident orientation has been observed in radio, infrared, and optical light being emitted from the large-scale jet; these emissions are therefore almost certainly synchrotron in nature, radiation that is created by a jet of charged particles moving at relativistic speeds.
Such jets are believed to be created by the interaction of the central black hole and the accretion disk. VLBI radio observations of 3C 273 have revealed proper motion of some of the radio emitting regions, further suggesting the presence of relativistic jets of material.
Host galaxy
3C 273 lies at the center of a giant elliptical galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 16 and an apparent size of 30 arcseconds.
Observation
3C 273 is visible in May in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Situated in the Virgo constellation, it is bright enough to be observed with larger amateur telescopes. Due in part to its radio luminosity and its discovery as the first identified quasar, 3C 273's right ascension in the Fifth Fundamental Catalog (FK5) is used to standardize the positions of 23 extragalactic radio sources used to define the International Celestial Reference System (ICRS).
Given its distance from Earth and visual magnitude, 3C 273 is the most distant celestial object average amateur astronomers are likely to see through their telescopes.
See also
List of quasars
References
External links
3C 273's Database at the INTEGRAL Science Data Centre (ESA)
Detailed CCD image of 3C 273 based on 30 min total exposure
Amateur 3C 273 Redshift Measurement
NightSkyInfo.com – 3C 273
SKY-MAP.ORG SDSS image of 3C 273
The Quasar 3C 273: Spring 2005 – Variable Star Of The Season AAVSO
Virgo (constellation)
OVV quasars
273
|
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204039
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magpie-lark
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Magpie-lark
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The magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca), also known as wee magpie, peewee, peewit or mudlark, is a passerine bird native to Australia, Timor and southern New Guinea. The male and female both have black and white plumage, though with different patterns. John Latham described the species in 1801. Long thought to be a member of the mudnest builder family Corcoracidae, it has been reclassified in the family Monarchidae (the monarch flycatchers). Two subspecies are recognized.
Taxonomy and systematics
The magpie-lark (also known as wee magpie) was originally described by the English ornithologist John Latham in the genus Corvus in 1801 (as Corvus cyanoleucus). Its species name is derived from the Ancient Greek words cyanos "dark blue" and leukos "white" despite the black and white plumage. However, there can be a bluish sheen to the black back. In the same publication, Latham described the same species as Gracula picata. In 1843, Hugh Edwin Strickland proposed using the second name as it was the more accurate, resulting in Grallina picata. Formerly, some authorities have classified the magpie-lark as belonging to a genus of bee-eaters, Merops.
Latham gave the species the common names of blue and white crow and pied grackle, based on the scientific names. John Gould likewise called it the pied grallina in 1848, though he noted that it was called magpie-lark by the early settlers. Alternate names for the magpie-lark include the mudlark (more common in southeastern Australia) or pugwall (pug "clay"), from its nest, and peewee (more common in northeastern Australia), peewit, from its call. Unlike many species in southwestern Australia, the magpie-lark was given names by the local indigenous people that were onomatopoeic (sounding like the calls they make). Names recorded include byoolkolyedi (Perth and lowlands), dilabot (mountains and interior), and koolyibarak. Indigenous people in the Sydney region called it birrarik or birrerik.
Additional common names used regionally include Murray magpie in South Australia.
In 1977, the RAOU settled on Australian magpie-lark as the official name, noting that the names magpie lark and, less commonly, mudlark were used in guidebooks at the time.
Two subspecies are recognised:
G. c. cyanoleuca – (Latham, 1801): Found in western, central, eastern and southern Australia
G. c. neglecta – Mathews, 1912: Found in northern Australia
Long thought to be a member of the mudnest builder family Corcoracidae, the magpie-lark and the closely related torrent lark (Grallina brujini) have been reclassified in the family Monarchidae (the monarch flycatchers). The two make up a lineage that split off early from other monarchs and has no close relatives within the family.
Description
The magpie-lark (also known as wee magpie) is of small to medium size, reaching long when fully grown, or about the same size as a European common blackbird, and boldly pied in black and white; the weight range is for males, and for females. The sexes are similar from a distance but easy to tell apart: the female has a white throat, the male a black throat and a white "eyebrow". Juveniles and immatures of either sex have the white throat of the female and the black eyestripe of the male, and a white belly.
Distribution and habitat
The magpie-lark is a common and very widespread bird both in urban and rural areas, occupying all parts of Australia except for Tasmania and some of the inland desert in the far north-west of Western Australia, and appears to have adapted well to the presence of humans. It is also found in southern New Guinea and on the island of Timor. In 1924 it was introduced onto Lord Howe Island which lies to the east of Australia in the Tasman Sea. It is now widespread on the island. The magpie-lark is a familiar sight around Australia; sitting on telephone wires either singly or in pairs, or patrolling patches of bare ground, especially foreshores or swamps.
Behaviour and ecology
Magpie-Larks (also known as wee magpie) A primarily carnivorous species that eats all sorts of small creatures, the magpie-lark can adapt to an enormous range of different habitats, requiring only some soft, bare ground for foraging, a supply of mud for making a nest, and a tree to make it in. It has benefited greatly from agriculture: both the clearing of dense forest in fertile zones and the provision of artesian water in arid areas—although a disaster for other species—have been a boon for bare-ground and short-grass feeders like magpies and magpie-larks.
Group gatherings of magpie-larks have been observed, with loose "flocks" comprising dozens of individuals being observed perched on vantage points. They sit near houses and on fences to mark their territory and look for mates. This behaviour can be frustrating to residents in suburban areas because of their excessive high pitch shrieks. Such behaviour is common, particularly in rural and suburban environments. This behaviour may be pairing or breeding related or simply indicate a bountiful feeding area.
The magpie-lark is aggressively territorial, and will fearlessly defend its territory against larger species such as magpies, ravens, kookaburras, and even the wedge-tailed eagle.
They are also known to attack people to defend their nesting area.
Although attacks on people are not as aggressive as masked lapwings and magpies, they can still result in surprise or minor injury to the recipient.
They are also known to attack mirrors, windows and other reflective surfaces in which they mistake their reflection for an intruder into their territory.
Breeding
Birds generally pair for life (though divorce is not unknown) and defend a territory together. The nest is round, about 150 mm in diameter with vertical sides and is usually placed on a flat branch somewhere near water or on a horizontal beam of a telephone pole. It is made of grass and plant material thickly plastered together with mud, and generously lined with grass, feathers and fur. Breeding is opportunistic, usually from August to February in the fertile south, anytime after rain in drier areas, and multiple broods are common when conditions allow. Both parents incubate a clutch of between three and five eggs. Incubation of eggs takes up to eighteen days, and the young birds fledge about three weeks after hatching. It is quite common for only some of the chicks to survive because sometimes the nest is not big enough for all of the baby birds, therefore one baby will sometimes push another out of the nest and it is most likely that the chick will not survive the fall.
With climate change, Australia is seeing warmer summer temperatures and milder winters. Mud Larks are breeding for longer cycles during the year as a result.
Duet singing
Magpie-larks are one of the 200-odd species of bird around the world that are known to sing in duet; each partner producing about one note a second, but a half-second apart, so that humans find it difficult to tell that there are actually two birds singing, not one.
Traditionally, it has been thought that the function of duet singing (not just in magpie-larks but birds more generally and indeed in mammals, insects and frogs) was to defend a territory or to maintain the pair-bond. More recently it has been proposed that it serves to guard against infidelity—that the male sings to attract a mate, and the female joins in to let her rivals know that this particular male is already taken. Duet singing remains fairly poorly understood as a great deal of the existing research on birdsong has been carried out in the northern Hemisphere, where a fairly small number of female birds sing.
In the case of the magpie-lark, the duet singing is now known to be cooperative: pairs sing together to defend their territory. Magpie-larks sing more vigorously in response to duet calls from other birds than they do to the call of a single rival, and more vigorously still if the callers are strangers rather than established and familiar birds from a neighbouring territory. A pair of neighbours calling from the 'wrong' place, however, (as when calls are recorded and played back by an experimenter) bring forth a powerful reaction: clearly, they know exactly who their neighbours are.
References
Further reading
External links
Magpie-lark videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Grallina
Birds of Australia
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of Timor
Birds described in 1801
Taxa named by John Latham (ornithologist)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph%20Martin%20Wieland
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Christoph Martin Wieland
|
Christoph Martin Wieland (; 5 September 1733 – 20 January 1813) was a German poet and writer. He is best-remembered for having written the first Bildungsroman (Geschichte des Agathon), as well as the epic Oberon, which formed the basis for Carl Maria von Weber's opera of the same name. His thought was representative of the cosmopolitanism of the German Enlightenment, exemplified in his remark: "Only a true cosmopolitan can be a good citizen."
Biography
Christoph Martin Wieland was born in Oberholzheim (now part of Achstetten), half of which then belonged to the Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riss and the other half to Gutenzell Abbey in the south-east of the modern-day state of Baden-Württemberg.
His father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim and subsequently in Biberach, took great pains with his son's education. From the town school of Biberach he passed on at the age of twelve to the Kloster Berge gymnasium, near Magdeburg. He was a precocious child, and when he left school in 1749 was widely read in the Latin classics and the leading contemporary French writers; amongst German poets his favourites were Brockes and Klopstock.
During the summer of 1750, he fell in love with a cousin, Sophie Gutermann, and this love affair inspired him to plan his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge (The Nature of Things, 1752), a didactic poem in six books. In 1750 he went to the University of Tübingen as a student of law, but his time was mainly taken up with literary studies. The poems he wrote at the university—Hermann, an epic (published by F. Muncker, 1886), Zwölf moralische Briefe in Versen (Twelve Moral Letters in Verse, 1752), Anti-Ovid (1752)—are pietistic in tone and dominated by the influence of Klopstock.
Wieland's poetry attracted the attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, who invited Wieland to visit him in Zürich in the summer of 1752. After a few months however, he felt little sympathy with Wieland as, two years earlier, he had felt himself with Klopstock, and the friends parted; but Wieland remained in Switzerland until 1760, spending the last year, at Bern where he obtained a position as private tutor. Here he became intimate with Jean-Jacques Rousseau's friend Julie de Bondeli.
Wieland's tastes had changed; the writings of his early Swiss years—Der geprüfte Abraham (The Trial of Abraham's Faith, 1753), Sympathien (1756), Empfindungen eines Christen (1757)—were still in the manner of his earlier writings, but with the tragedies, Lady Johanna Gray (1758), and Clementina von Porretta (1760)—the latter based on Samuel Richardson's Sir Charles Grandison—the epic fragment Cyrus (first five cantos, 1759), and the "moral story in dialogues", Araspes und Panthea (1760), Wieland, as Gotthold Lessing said, "forsook the ethereal spheres to wander again among the sons of men." In Cyrus, he had been inspired by the deeds of Frederick the Great to write a poem exhibiting the ideal of a hero. Araspes und Panthea is based on an episode from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon.
Wieland's conversion was completed at Biberach, having returned in 1760 as director of the chancery. The monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not far from Biberach, was well stocked with French and English literature. Wieland met again his early love Sophie Gutermann, who had become the wife of Hofrat La Roche, then manager of Count Stadion's estates.
In Don Sylvia von Rosalva (1764), a romance in imitation of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith and in the Comische Erzählungen (1765) he gave his extravagant imagination only too free a rein.
More important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon (1766–1767), in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as "a novel of classic taste," marks an epoch in the development of the modern psychological novel. Of equal importance was Wieland's translation of twenty-two of Shakespeare's plays into prose (8 vols., 1762–1766); it was the first attempt to present the English poet to the German people in something approaching entirety. With the poems Musarion oder die Philosophie der Grazien (1768), Idris (1768), Combabus (1770), Der neue Amadis (1771), Wieland opened the series of light and graceful romances in verse which appealed so irresistibly to his contemporaries and acted as an antidote to the sentimental excesses of the subsequent Sturm und Drang movement. Musarion advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual; Amadis celebrates the triumph of intellectual over physical beauty.
Wieland married Anna Dorothea von Hillenbrand (July 8, 1746 – November 9, 1801) on October 21, 1765. They had 14 children. Wieland's daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland (October 19, 1768 – September 1, 1837) married philosopher Karl Leonhard Reinhold (1757–1823) on May 18, 1785.
Between 1769 and 1772, Wieland was a professor of philosophy at the University of Erfurt. In his Verklagter Amor ("Cupid Accused") he defended amatory poetry; and in the Dialogen des Diogenes von Sinope (1770) he gave a general vindication of his philosophical views.
In 1772 he published Der goldene Spiegel oder die Könige van Scheschian, a pedagogic work in the form of oriental stories; this attracted the attention of Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and resulted in his appointment as tutor to her two sons, the Duke Karl August and his brother Prince Constantin, at Weimar. With the exception of some years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate, Weimar remained Wieland's home until his death. Turning his attention to dramatic poetry, he wrote opera librettos such as Wahl des Hercules ("Choice of Hercules") and Alceste by Anton Schweitzer.
In 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship (1773–1789) became the most influential literary review in Germany. His views, as exhibited therein, however, showed so much of the narrow conventional spirit of French criticism, that he was attacked by Goethe in the satire Götter, Helden und Wieland ("Gods, Heroes and Wieland"). This Wieland answered with great good nature, recommending it to all who were fond of wit and sarcasm. Goethe and Johann Gottfried Herder were soon drawn to Weimar, where the Duchess Anna Amalia formed a circle of talent and genius, later also joined by Friedrich Schiller.
Politically, Wieland was a moderate liberal who advocated a constitutional monarchy, a free press, and a middle path between extremes of left and right. At least three of his works, Geschichte des Agathon, Der goldene Spiegel oder die Könige van Scheschian, and Beiträge zur geheimen Geschichte des menschlichen Verstandes und Herzens, found themselves on the official Bavarian Illuminati reading list.
He was also a librettist for the Seyler theatrical company of Abel Seyler. Of his later writings the most important are the admirable satire on German provinciality — the most attractive of all his prose writings — Die Abderiten, eine sehr wahrscheinliche Geschichte (A very probable history of the Abderites, 1774), (translated into French by Antoine Gilbert Griffet de Labaume) and the charming poetic romances, Das Wintermärchen (1776), Das Sommermärchen (1777), Geron der Adelige (1777), Pervonte oder die Wünsche (1778), a series culminating with Wieland's poetic masterpiece, the romantic epic of Oberon (1780). In 1780 he created the singspiel Rosamunde with the composer Anton Schweitzer.
In Wieland's later novels, such as the Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus Proteus (1791) and Aristipp und einige seiner Zeitgenossen (1800–1802), a didactic and philosophic tendency obscures the small literary interest they possess. He also translated Horace's Satires (1786), Lucian's Works (1788–1789), Cicero's Letters (1808 ff.), and from 1796 to 1803 he edited the Attisches Museum which did valuable service in popularizing Greek studies. Wieland was also strongly influenced by the French fairy-tale vogue of the 18th century, he published a collection of tales entitled Dschinnistan (1786–1789), which included three original tales, 'Der Stein der Weisen' ('The Philosopher's Stone'), 'Timander und Melissa', and 'Der Druide oder die Salamanderin und die Bildsäule' ('The Druid or the Salamander and the Painted Pillar'). Wieland had a strong influence on the German literature of his time.
He died in Weimar.
Editions
Wieland's Sämtliche Werke ("complete works") appeared in 1794-1802, 45 vols. Collections of Wieland's letters were edited by his son Ludwig (1815) and by H. Gessner (1815–1816); his Letters to Sophie Laroche by F. Horn (1820).
Later Editions of Wieland's Sämtliche Werke: 1818-1828, 53 vols.,1839-1840, 36 vols., and 1853–1858, 36 vols. Then 1879-1882 in 40 vols., edited by H. Düntzer. There are numerous editions of selected works, notably by Heinrich Pröhle in Kürschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (vols. 51-56, 1883–1887); by F. Muncker (6 vols., 1889); by W. Bolsche (4 vols., 1902).
Gesammelte Schriften, Abt. I: Werke. Abt. II: Übersetzungen, ed. by Deutsche Kommission der Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [since 1945 ed. by Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin; since 1969 ed. by Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR by Hans Werner Seiffert], Berlin 1909–1975. Completed volumes with accompanying commentary: I/6, I/9, I/12-15, I/18, I/20-23, II/1-3; volumes without accompanying commentary: I/1, I/2, I/3, I/4, I/7, I/10, I/17, II/4, II/9-10; volumes missing: I/5, I/16, I/19, II/5-8. [critical edition]
Wielands Briefwechsel, 20 volumes, ed. by Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Institut für deutsche Sprache und Literatur [since vol. 2, 1968 by Hans Werner Seiffert; since vol. 3, 1975 ed. by Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, Zentralinstitut für Literaturgeschichte by Hans Werner Seiffert; since vol. 7, 1992 ed. by Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin by Siegfried Scheibe; since 1993 by Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften by Siegfried Scheibe], Berlin, 1963–2007.
Wielands Werke. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe, edited by Klaus Manger and Jan Philipp Reemtsma. Berlin/New York 2008 f. [critical edition]
Notes
Further reading
J. G. Gruber, C.M. Wielands Leben (4 vols., 1827–1828)
Heinrich Doring, C.M. Wieland (1853); Christoph Martin Wieland, ein biographisches Denkmal (1840)
J. W. Loebell, C.M. Wieland (1858)
Heinrich Pröhle, Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (1877)
L. F. Ofterdinger, Wielands Leben und Wirken in Schwaben und in der Schweiz (1877)
R. Keil, Wieland und Reinhold (1885)
F. Thalmeyr, Über Wielands Klassizität, Sprache und SM (1894)
M. Doll, Wieland und die Antike (1896)
K. Buchner, Wieland und die Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. Zur Geschichte deutscher Literatur und deutschen Buchhandels (1871)
See also M. Koch's article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1897)
C. A. Behmer, Sterne und Wieland (1899)
J. M. R. Lenz, Vertheidigung des Herrn Wieland gegen die Wolken (1902)
W. Lenz, Wielands Verhältnis zu Spenser, Pope und Swift (1903)
L. Hirzel, Wielands Beziehungen zu den deutschen Romantikern (1904)
E. Haman, Wielands Bildungsideal (1907)
C. Elson, Wieland and Shaftesbury (1913)
H. Behme, Heinrich von Kleist und C.M. Wieland (1914)
V. Michel, C.M. Wieland, la formation et l'évolution de son esprit jusqu'en 1772 (1938)
M. G. Bach Wieland's attitude toward woman and her cultural and social relations (1966)
Jan Philipp Reemtsma, Das Buch vom Ich: Christoph Martin Wielands »Aristipp und einige seiner Zeitgenossen« (1993)
Jan Philipp Reemtsma, Der Liebe Maskentanz: Aufsätze zum Werk Christoph Martin Wielands (1999)
References
Elizabeth Barnes: "Loving with a Vengeance: Wieland, Familicide and the Crisis of Masculinity in the Early Nation". In: Milette Shamir und Jennifer Travis: Boys Don’t Cry? Rethinking Narratives of Masculinity and Emotion in the U.S. Columbia University Press: New York, 2002, S. 44–63.
Giorgia Sogos: Christoph Martin Wieland alla corte della duchessa Anna Amalia. In: Ders. Stefan Zweig, der Kosmopolit. Studiensammlung über seine Werke und andere Beiträge. Eine kritische Analyse. Free Pen Verlag Bonn 2017, ISBN 978-3-945177-43-3.
External links
Der Teutsche Merkur, vols. 1773-89 are digitized (April 2003)
1733 births
1813 deaths
People from Biberach (district)
Achstetten
German translators
English–German translators
Latin–German translators
University of Tübingen alumni
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Corresponding members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
University of Erfurt faculty
German male non-fiction writers
Enlightenment philosophers
18th-century German translators
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] |
204041
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Gruber
|
Johann Gottfried Gruber
|
Johann Gottfried Gruber (29 November 1774 – 7 August 1851) was a German critic and literary historian.
Biography
Gruber was born at Naumburg on the Saale, in the Electorate of Saxony.
He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the University of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Göttingen, Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe.
In 1811 he was appointed professor at the University of Wittenberg, and after the division of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the University of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste; and after the death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung.
Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of which are Charakteristik Herders (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction with Johann T. L. Danz (1769–1851), afterwards professor of theology at Jena; Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts (2 vols, Leipzig, 1806); Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie (3 vols, Weimar, 1810–1815); a life of Christoph Martin Wieland (Wielands Leben, 2 parts, Weimar, 1815–1816), and of Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (Klopstocks Leben, Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's collected works (Wielands sämmtliche Werke, Leipzig, 1818–1828).
Notes
1774 births
1851 deaths
People from Naumburg (Saale)
People from the Electorate of Saxony
German encyclopedists
German literary critics
German male non-fiction writers
Leipzig University alumni
University of Jena alumni
University of Wittenberg faculty
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg faculty
|
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] |
204042
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flameless%20ration%20heater
|
Flameless ration heater
|
A flameless ration heater (FRH) is a form of self-heating food packaging included with meals, ready-to-eat (MREs), used to heat the food. United States military specifications for the heater require it be capable of raising the temperature of an entrée (main course) by in twelve minutes, and that it has no visible flame.
The ration heater contains finely powdered magnesium metal, alloyed with a small amount of iron, and table salt. To activate the reaction, a small amount of water is added, and the boiling point of water is quickly reached as the exothermic reaction proceeds.
Chemical reaction
Ration heaters generate heat in an electron-transfer process called an oxidation-reduction reaction. Water oxidizes magnesium metal, according to the following chemical reaction:
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2 [+ heat (q)]
This reaction is analogous to iron being rusted by oxygen, and proceeds at about the same slow rate, which is too slow to generate usable heat. To accelerate the reaction, metallic iron particles and table salt (NaCl) are mixed with the magnesium particles.
Iron and magnesium metals, when suspended in an electrolyte, form a galvanic cell that can generate electricity. When water is added to a ration heater, it dissolves the salt to form a salt-water electrolyte, thereby turning each particle of magnesium and iron into a tiny battery. Because the magnesium and iron particles are in contact, they essentially become thousands of tiny short-circuited batteries which quickly burn out, producing heat in a process the patent holders call "supercorroding galvanic cells".
One brand of self-heating rations uses 7.5 grams of a powdered magnesium-iron alloy, consisting of 95 % magnesium and 5 % iron by weight, 0.5 grams of salt, in addition to an inner filler and anti-foaming agent. Upon adding of water, this mixture can raise the temperature of a meal packet by in about 10 minutes, releasing approximately of heat energy at about 80 watts.
Confined space hazard
The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) conducted testing and released a report which in summary states "... the release of hydrogen gas from these flameless ration heaters is of a sufficient quantity to pose a potential hazard on board a passenger aircraft." This testing was performed on commercial grade 'heater meals' which consisted of an unenclosed flameless heat pouch, a bag of salt water, a styrofoam saucer/tray and a meal in a sealed, microwavable/boilable bowl.
See also
Active packaging
References
Military food of the United States
Heaters
Packaging
|
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204043
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-ration
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C-ration
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The C-Ration, or Field Ration, Type C, was a prepared and canned wet combat ration intended to be issued to U.S. military land forces when fresh food (A-ration) or packaged unprepared food (B-ration) prepared in mess halls or field kitchens was not possible or not available, and when a survival ration (K-ration or D-ration) was insufficient. Development began in 1938 with the first rations being field-tested in 1940 and wide-scale adoption following soon after. Operational conditions often caused the C-ration to be standardized for field issue regardless of environmental suitability or weight limitations.
The C-Ration was replaced in 1958 with the Meal Combat Individual (MCI). Although officially a new ration, the MCI was derived from and very similar to the original C-Ration, and in fact continued to be called "C-Rations" by American troops throughout its production life as a combat ration (1958–1980). Although the replacement for the MCI, the MRE, was formally adopted as the Department of Defense combat ration in 1975, the first large-scale production test did not occur until in 1978 with the first MRE I rations packed and delivered in 1981.<ref>MRE History', MREInfo.Com, retrieved 4 August 2011</ref> While the MRE officially replaced the MCI in 1981, previously packed MCI rations continued to be issued until depleted.
Background and development
"Iron ration" (1907–1922)
The first U.S attempt to make an individual ration for issue to soldiers in the field was the "iron ration", introduced in 1907. It contained three 3-ounce cakes (made from a concoction of beef bouillon powder and parched and cooked wheat), three 1-ounce bars of sweetened chocolate and packets of salt and pepper. The ration was issued in a sealed tin packet that weighed one pound, to be carried in an infantryman's top tunic pocket, and was designed for emergency use when the troops were unable to be supplied with food. It was later discontinued by the adoption of the "Reserve Ration", but findings from the development and use of the Iron Ration went into the development of the emergency D-ration.
"Reserve ration" (1917–1937)
The Reserve Ration was issued during the later part of World War I to feed troops who were away from a garrison or field kitchen. It originally consisted of of bacon or of meat (usually canned corned beef), two cans of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, a packet of of pre-ground coffee, a packet of of granulated sugar, and a packet of of salt. There was also a separate "tobacco ration" of of tobacco and 10 cigarette rolling papers, later replaced by brand-name machine-rolled cigarettes.
After the war, there were attempts to improve the ration based on input from the field. In 1922, the ration was reorganized to consist of of meat (usually beef jerky), of canned corned beef or chocolate, of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, coffee and sugar. In 1925, the meat ration was replaced with canned pork and beans. In 1936, there was an attempt at variety by having an "A"-menu of corned beef and a "B"-menu of pork and beans. This was cancelled upon introduction of the new Field Ration, Type C, in 1938.
Field ration, Type C (1938–1945)
The original Type C ration, commonly known as the C-Ration, was intended to replace the Reserve Ration as a short-term individual ration designed for short use, to be supplemented by the D-Ration emergency ration.
Development of a replacement for the Reserve Ration was undertaken by the newly formed Quartermaster Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory in Chicago in 1938 with the aim of producing a ration that was more palatable, nutritionally balanced, and had better keeping qualities.
The first Type C ration consisted of a 'meat' unit (M-unit) (reduced to after being field tested during the 1940 Louisiana maneuvers). In the initial Type C ration, there were only three variations of the main course: meat and beans, meat and potato hash, or meat and vegetable stew. Also issued was one bread-and-dessert can, or B-unit. Each daily ration (i.e. enough food for one soldier for one day) consisted of six cans (three M-units and three B-units), while an individual meal consisted of one M-unit and one B-unit. The original oblong can was replaced with the more common cylindrical design in June 1939 due to mass production problems with the former shape of can.
The C-Ration can was about tall and in diameter. It was made of non-corrugated tinplate, had a visible tin solder seam, and incorporated an opening strip. A key for use on the opening strip was soldered to the base of every B unit can.
The first C-Ration cans had an aluminized finish, but in late 1940, this was changed to a gold lacquer finish to improve corrosion resistance. There was noticeable variation in the depth of gold color in World War II vintage cans, because of the large number of suppliers involved. Late in the war this was changed to drab green paint, which remained standard through the remainder of the C-ration's service life, as well as that of its (very similar) successor, the Meal Combat Individual (MCI).
During the war, soldiers frequently requested that the cylindrical cans be replaced with flat, rectangular ones (similar to a sardine can), comparable to those used in the earliest versions of contemporary K rations, because of their compactness and packability; but this was deemed impractical because of the shortage of commercial machinery available to produce rectangular cans. After 1942 the K ration too, reverted to the use of small round cans.
Initially, C-Ration cans were marked only with paper labels, which soon fell off and made a guessing game out of evening meals; US Soldiers and Marines receiving an unpopular menu item several nights in a row often found themselves powerless to bargain for a more palatable one.
The C-Ration was, in general, not well liked by U.S. Army or Marine forces in World War II, who found the cans heavy and cumbersome, and the menu monotonous after a short period of time.Koehler, Franz A., Special Rations for the Armed Forces: Army Operational Rations – A Historical Background, QMC Historical Studies, Historical Branch, Office of the Quartermaster General, Washington, D.C. (1958) There were also inevitable problems with product consistency given the large number of suppliers involved and the pressures of wartime production. When issued to British or other Commonwealth forces formerly issued hardtack and bully beef-type rations, the C ration was initially accepted, but monotony also became a chief complaint after a few days of consumption. Australian forces tended to dislike the C ration, finding the canned food items generally bland, overly soft in texture, and unappealing. Originally intended only for infrequent use, the exigencies of combat sometimes forced supply authorities to make the C ration the only source of sustenance for several weeks in succession. In 1943, a ration board reviewing medical examinations of soldiers after long-term use of Type C rations recommended that they be restricted to a maximum of five continuous days in the absence of supplementation with other rations.
While the initial specification was officially declared obsolete in 1945, and production of all Type C rations ended in 1958, existing stockpiles of both original and revised Type C rations continued to be issued to troops serving in Korea and even as late as the Vietnam War. A Marine tank commander serving in Vietnam in 1968 noted his unit was frequently supplied with older stocks of C rations, complete with early 1950s dates on the cans.
"M" Unit
The M-unit contained a canned entrée originally made of stew meat (a mixture of beef and pork) seasoned with salt, various spices, and chopped onions. They initially came in three varieties: Meat Stew with Beans, Meat with Vegetable Hash, and Meat Stew with Vegetables (carrots and potatoes). The commonplace nature of the menu was intentional, and designed to duplicate the menu items (hash, stews, etc.) soldiers were normally served as A- or B-rations in Army mess halls.
Another new menu item, "Meat & Spaghetti in Tomato Sauce", was added in 1943. In late 1944 "Chopped Ham, Egg, and Potato", "Meat and Noodles", "Pork and Rice", "Frankfurters and Beans", "Pork and Beans", "Ham and Lima Beans", and "Chicken and Vegetables" were introduced in an attempt to increase the C rations' period of continuous use. The unpopular Meat Hash and equally unpopular experimental "Mutton Stew with Vegetables" meal were dropped. In the final revision, "Beef Stew with Vegetables" was added in 1945. By all accounts, after the meat hash and mutton stew, the Ham and Lima Beans entrée was the most unpopular; despite continued negative field reports, it inexplicably remained a standard entrée item not only during World War II, but also during the Korean War and Vietnam War.
"B" Unit
The B-unit (bread and dessert portion) contained several calorie-dense crackers, 3 sugar tablets, 3 dextrose energy tablets, and a packet or small can of beverage mix (instant coffee, powdered synthetic lemon drink, containing the rations' main source of vitamin C; or bouillon soup powder). Later revisions added orange drink powder (1944), sweetened cocoa powder (1944), and grape drink powder (1945), all enriched with Vitamin C, to the list of beverages. In 1941, the energy tablets were replaced with loose candy, such as candy-coated peanuts or raisins, Charms hard candy, or Brachs chocolate or vanilla caramels. Due to spoilage, the loose candy was replaced in 1944 with a chocolate disk (e.g. Brachs fudge disk) or a cookie sandwich (e.g., Jim Dandee), and the number of biscuits was reduced to 4.
Another B-unit, consisting of pre-mixed oatmeal cereal, was introduced in 1944 as a breakfast ration that was usually paired with the "Ham, Egg, and Potato" Meal.
Accessory pack
The inclusion of additional accessories and condiments led to the development of an accessory package.
The brown butcher paper accessory pack contained sugar tablets, halazone water purification tablets (for a brief period in 1945), a flat wooden spoon, a piece of candy-coated chewing gum, 3 "short" sample 3-packs or one "long" sample 9-pack of commercial-grade cigarettes and a book of 20 cardboard moisture-resistant matches, a paper-wrapped P-38 can opener printed with instructions for its proper use, and typically 22.5 sheets of toilet paper (compared to 3 sheets for the British Army). The P-38 can openers were generally worn on the GI's "dog tag" chain to facilitate opening the next meal's cans.
In 1945, the accessory pack was modified. Per the order of the Surgeon General, the halazone tablets were removed and salt tablets were added. Also, feedback from the field revealed that some soldiers opened up accessory packs just to get the cigarettes and threw away the rest of the items. To reduce waste, the accessory pack was now divided into the "short" pack with cigarettes and matches, and the "long" pack containing the other accessories.
Cigarette brands issued included Camel, Chelsea, Chesterfield, Craven A, Lucky Strike, Old Gold, Philip Morris, Player's, Raleigh, and Wings.
Crates
The rations came packed in a small rectangular wooden crate that weighed 40 lbs. and had a volume of 1.12 cubic feet. Each crate contained 8 daily rations of 3 meals each for a total of 24 "M" units, 24 "B" units, and 24 accessory packs.
Early rations came with a variety of 8 Meat and Beans, 8 Meat & Vegetable Hash, and 8 Meat & Vegetable Stew "M" units and 24 "B" units. Later rations (c.1944–1945) added a breakfast meal of 8 Chopped Ham, Egg, & Potato "M"-units and 8 Compressed Cereal "B"-units in place of the Meat and Vegetable Hash''. Alternate "M"-unit menu items came packed in cases of 24 "M" units (and 24 "B" units) rather than a mixed 8-8-8 menu like the main items.
Field ration, Type E (1946–1948)
After World War II there was an attempt to combine the best features of the C-ration and the K-ration into a new individual ration. Called the E-ration, it was for all intents and purposes the same canned C-ration, with the addition of some new components. In field testing, the bread component of the E-ration was found to be so unpalatable that the E-ration was quickly dropped from classification and inventory.
Ration, Individual, Combat, Type C (Revised) (1948–1958)
After the failure of the E-Ration, ration planners decided to save costs by returning to the basic C-ration designation, intermittently revised with new menus and item specifications.
Type C-2 ration (1948–1951)
The C-2 ration was described in TB-QM-53, Department of the Army, dated March 1948, as an individual ration which consisted of packaged pre-cooked foods which could be eaten hot or cold. It replaced the World War II C-Ration, and later, the short-lived E-Ration. It could be carried and prepared by the individual soldier. The revised C-Ration was now intended for feeding combat troops continuously, up to three weeks (21 days). Due to the required individual portability of this ration, maximum nourishment had to be provided in the smallest physical unit. The components of this ration were prepared in five different menus.
Each menu included an accessory packet which consisted of essential toilet articles, tobacco, and confections.
Type C-3 ration (1951–1953)
In 1951, a new C-3 menu for the Type C ration was introduced. The C-3 ration was composed of the same five menus of the C-2, but offered greater variety. In addition to new and improved “B” (bread) and “M” (meat) units, each menu contained an accessory packet, fruit, and cigarettes. The ration was very heavy, weighing 5 lbs. 8.5 oz. [2.5 kg.], and was packed in 8 small cans in a cardboard box. There were 6 daily ration boxes per cardboard case.
Three “M” (meat) components, which offered 10 different varieties of meat entrées.
Chopped Eggs and Ham
Pork and Beans
Meat Chunks and Beans
Three “B” (bread) components consisting of:
B-1: a unit of 5 crackers, a packet of soluble coffee, a packet of powdered milk, a packet of granulated sugar, a cocoa disc, and a tin of jam.
B-2: a unit of 5 crackers, a packet of soluble coffee, a packet of powdered milk, a packet of granulated sugar, 1 cookie sandwich, and 1 chocolate fudge disc.
B-3: a unit of 5 crackers, a packet of soluble coffee, a packet of powdered milk, a packet of granulated sugar, 2 cookie sandwiches, and a tin of jam.
B-4: a unit of pre-mixed and compressed cereal.
One can of fruit.
One sundries can containing the accessory packet: (Chewing gum, toilet paper, a P-38 can opener, granulated salt, and a flat wooden spoon) and the cigarette packet: (one 9-pack of cigarettes and a book of matches).
Field cooking equipment was not required for the preparation of this ration. The C-3 ration was more adequate than the original C ration in respect to its nutritional value.
Type C-4 ration (1954–1958)
In 1954, the C-4 ration was developed as a modification of the C-3 ration, and was called Ration, Combat, Individual. It included the issue of two cans of fruit for 2 meals to replace the one can issued for one meal in the C-3 ration.
A sample C-4 ration (stamped March 1954) contained:
1 instruction sheet
2 cheese bars (1.5 net ounces/43 g net)
2 cereal class 5 bars (1.5 net ounces/43 g net)
3 type XII style 1 enriched chocolate bars (1 ounce/28 g)
1 jelly bar (2 ounces/56 g)
2 Fruit Cake Bars (2 ounces/56 g)
3 sticks Topps peppermint chewing gum
3 Domino sugar packets
3 Nestea "soluble tea product" packets
1 packet of pure soluble sugar
1 packet of soluble cream product
1 bottle water purification tablets (iodine)
1 plastic bag
End of the C-Ration
At its introduction, the QMC stated that the Type C ration was intended for short-term use for periods not to exceed three days. After the war, in light of field evaluation reports of monotony, the QMC Food Services Branch used this limitation as a defense to the largely negative response to the C ration during the war, while at the same time advocating standardization on the C-Ration as the sole individual packaged ration for U.S. troops. Not only did the QMC decide not to develop or introduce new alternative lightweight individual rations, it successfully campaigned for the elimination of alternatives, including the K-ration, Mountain ration, Jungle ration, and even the 10-in-1 group ration (which had proven somewhat useful in boosting nourishment and alleviating complaints of monotony for men living for extended periods on C-Rations or K-Rations).
Instead, the C-Ration, still designated as a packaged ration intended for infrequent or short-term use, went through a series of largely unsuccessful minor revisions. This decision resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of packaged ration that despite meal variances, was neither suited to varied field environments nor for long-term use. Troops continued to complain of the monotony of a single class of field ration with one or more unpalatable menu items, especially where A and B rations were not available for extended periods.
Primarily implemented due to cost concerns, the selection of a heavy canned wet ration resulted in a severe weight penalty for troops marching on foot and forced to carry a multi-day supply of rations. The overuse of the canned wet ration reached an extreme during the Vietnam War, where American troops resorted to placing stacked ration cans in socks to save bulk and reduce noise on patrol, while their enemy increased their mobility by carrying lightweight rations of dry rice. The Quartermaster Branch's insistence on canned wet rations for all postwar field issue, and the failure to develop a suitable lightweight dehydrated or other dry ration for jungle and other extreme environments led directly to the hurried development of the LRP ration or Long Range Patrol ration in 1966.
Starting in 1958, C-Rations were slowly replaced by the nearly identical canned Meal, Combat, Individual ration.
These rations were issued for most of the next two plus decades, until they were replaced by Meal Ready to Eat or MREs in the early 1980s.
Influence
The C-Rations during the Korean War led later to the introduction of instant coffee to South Korea.
See also
5-in-1 ration
Meal, Combat, Individual ration
K-ration
United States military ration
Notes
Further reading
Arnold, Bruce Makoto. Your Money Ain't No Good O'er There': Food as Real and Social Currency in the Pacific Theater of World War II". Special Issue: Food on the Home Front, Food on the Warfront: World War II and the American Diet, Food and Foodways. 25, No. 2 (2017).
External links
C-Rations Through WW II
C-Rations After WW II
Military food of the United States
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204046
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Jakob%20Bodmer
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Johann Jakob Bodmer
|
Johann Jakob Bodmer (19 July 16982 January 1783) was a Swiss author, academic, critic and poet.
Life
Born at Greifensee, near Zürich, and first studying theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian history at the Carolinum academy in Zürich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735 became a member of the Cantonal Council. He died at Zürich in 1783.
Works
His major writings are the treatises Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie (1740; this and following years link to corresponding "[year] in poetry" articles) and Kritische Betrachtungen über die poetischen Gemählde der Dichter (1741), in which he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction imposed upon it by French pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics Die Sundflutz and Noah (both 1751) are imitations of Klopstock's Messias, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities. He also issued editions of the Minnesingers and part of the Nibelungenlied.
He published (1721–1723), in conjunction with Johann Jakob Breitinger and others, Die Discourse der Mahlern, a weekly journal after the model of The Spectator. In it, German poetry was severely criticised for its servility to French models. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost (Johann Miltons Episches Gedichte von dem Verlohrnen Paradiese, 1742), he tried to make English literature accessible in Germany.
He formed a German literary school in opposition to Johann Christoph Gottsched of Leipzig, with whom he carried on a prolonged controversy.
References
This work in turn cites:
T. W. Danzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848)
J. Crüger, J. C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger (Stuttgart, 1884)
F. Braitmaier, Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing (Leipzig, 1888)
Denkschrift zu Bodmers 200. Geburtstag (Zürich, 1900)
External links
Library of the World's Best Literature, Ancient and Modern volume 5, edited by Charles Dudley Warner 1896 Johann Jakob Bodmer entry
18th-century Swiss historians
Swiss literary critics
18th-century Swiss journalists
Swiss male poets
People from Uster District
1698 births
1783 deaths
Greifensee, Zürich
Carolinum, Zurich, faculty
18th-century Swiss poets
18th-century male writers
|
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204047
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Christoph%20Gottsched
|
Johann Christoph Gottsched
|
Johann Christoph Gottsched (2 February 1700 – 12 December 1766) was a German philosopher, author and critic of the Age of Enlightenment.
Biography
He was born at Juditten (Mendeleyevo) near Königsberg (Kaliningrad), Brandenburg-Prussia, the son of a Lutheran clergyman, and was baptised in St. Mary's Church. He studied philosophy and history at the University of Königsberg, but immediately on taking the degree of Magister in 1723, he fled to Leipzig in order to avoid being drafted into the Prussian army. In Leipzig, he enjoyed the protection of J. B. Mencke, who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde", was a well-known poet and president of the Deutschübende poetische Gesellschaft in Leipzig. Of this society, Gottsched was elected "Senior" in 1726, and in the next year reorganised it under the title of the Deutsche Gesellschaft.
As editor of the weeklies Die vernünftigen Tadlerinnen (1725–26) and Der Biedermann (1727), Gottsched started on his career of untiring critical activity, continued later in other literary journals. Directing his criticism at first chiefly against the bombast and absurd affectations of the Second Silesian School, he proceeded to lay down strict laws for the composition of poetry. He insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws of French classicism. He enunciated rules by which the playwright must be bound (such as the Ständeklausel), and abolished bombast and buffoonery from the serious stage. He insisted on the observance of the dramatic unities.
In his efforts toward the reformation of the German drama, Gottsched was aided by his wife, Luise, a prolific writer and translator, and had the cooperation of the theatrical manager Johann Neuber and his wife, Caroline. They succeeded in bringing about a considerable change in the condition of the German stage by substituting for the prevailing operatic performances translations of French dramas and original plays, and by banishing from it the coarse buffooneries of Hanswurst (Jack Pudding).
In 1730, Gottsched was appointed an extraordinary professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Leipzig. He was also a corresponding member of the first learned society of the Habsburg monarchy, the Societas eruditorum incognitorum in Olmütz (Olomouc), and was published in the Society's journal, which was the first scientific journal in the Habsburg monarchy.
Eventually, Gottsched went too far in his criticism. He refused to recognise the work of Klopstock and Lessing. In 1740, he came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger. Under the influence of Addison and contemporary Italian critics, they demanded that the poetic imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules. As examples, they pointed to English poets, especially Milton. Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English writers, clung tenaciously to his principle that poetry must be the product of rules and, in the fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zürich, he was ultimately defeated.
In 1741, he fell out with Caroline Neuber regarding practical stage matters, and even placed himself in opposition to his wife. His influence speedily declined, and before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly. He died in Leipzig at the age of 66.
Works
Gottsched's chief work was his Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst für die Deutschen (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His Ausführliche Redekunst (1728) and his Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst (1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which Der sterbende Cato (1732), an adaptation of Joseph Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. His Deutsche Schaubühne (6 volumes, 1740–1745) contained mainly translations from the French, but also some works written by himself, his wife, and others. With this, he provided the German stage with a classical repertory. His bibliography of the German drama, Nötiger Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst (1757–1765), intended to contain an account of all previous German plays, though not complete is still valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary criticism.
Gottsched wrote the texts of two secular cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach: Laß, Fürstin, laß noch einen Strahl (BWV 198) and Willkommen! Ihr herrschenden Götter der Erden (BWV Anh. 13, music lost).
Family
His first wife, Luise Kulmus, was also a prominent author. She died in 1762. After a three-year mourning period, in 1765 in Camburg, Saale, Gottsched married his 19-year-old second wife, Ernestine Susanne Katharina Neunes (1746–1811).
Notes
External links
1700 births
1766 deaths
18th-century German writers
18th-century Lutherans
18th-century Prussian people
Linguists of German
German philosophers
Writers from Königsberg
University of Königsberg alumni
Leipzig University faculty
18th-century German male writers
|
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] |
204048
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huff%20and%20puff%20apparatus
|
Huff and puff apparatus
|
The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration. A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube. The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in, the other as the pupil breathes out. A suitable carbon dioxide indicator, such as limewater or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath. This turns the bicarbonate into milky white substance.
See also
Respiration (physiology)
Science education
|
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204051
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barthold%20Heinrich%20Brockes
|
Barthold Heinrich Brockes
|
Barthold Heinrich Brockes (September 22, 1680 – January 16, 1747) was a German poet.
He was born in Hamburg and educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums. He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after extensive travels in Italy, France and the Netherlands, settled in Hamburg in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate, and entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from 1735 to 1741) he spent as Amtmann (bailiff) at Ritzebüttel. He died in Hamburg.
Brockes' poetic works were published in a series of nine volumes under the fantastic title Irdisches Vergnügen in Gott (1721–1748); he also translated Giambattista Marino's La Strage degli innocenti (1715), Alexander Pope's Essay on Man (1740) and James Thomson's The Seasons (1745). His poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of the change which came over German literature at the beginning of the 18th century. His libretto Der für die Sünden der Welt gemarterte und sterbende Jesus (1712), also known as the Brockes Passion, was one of the first passion oratorios—a free, poetic meditation on the passion. It was quite popular and was set to music by Reinhard Keiser (1712), Georg Philipp Telemann (1716), George Frideric Handel (1716), Johann Mattheson (1718), Johann Friedrich Fasch (1723), Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel (1725), and Johann Caspar Bachofen (1759), among others.
He was one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic imitations of Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple diction. He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen to the new poetry of nature which originated in England. His verses, artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential attitude towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which was new to German poetry and prepared the way for Klopstock.
References
Brockes' autobiography, published by JM Lappenberg in the Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburger Geschichte, ii. pp. 167 if. (1847)
Alois Brandl, B. H. Brockes (1878)
David Strauss, Brockes und H. S. Reimarus (Gesammelte Schriften, ii).
External links
Ida Kimber
1680 births
1747 deaths
Writers from Hamburg
German poets
German oratorio and passion librettists
German male poets
German-language poets
People educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums
Senators of Hamburg (before 1919)
University of Halle alumni
Leiden University alumni
|
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] |
204055
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gott%20strafe%20England
|
Gott strafe England
|
"Gott strafe England" was an anti-British slogan used by the German Army during World War I. The phrase literally means "May God punish England". It was created by the German-Jewish poet Ernst Lissauer (1882–1937), who also wrote the poem Hassgesang gegen England (lit. "Hate song against England", better known as "Hymn of Hate").
History
In the hysterical atmosphere brought on by World War I, Lissauer's Hassgesang became an instant success. Rupprecht of Bavaria, commander of the Sixth Army, ordered that copies be distributed among his troops. The Kaiser was pleased enough to confer upon the author the Order of the Red Eagle. An informative account of Lissauer and the "Hymn of Hate" can be found in Stefan Zweig's The World of Yesterday.
Despite the general atmosphere of condemnation against Britain for "causing the war", the Hassgesang was not without its critics. The Frankfurter Zeitung was bold enough to denounce the "impotent hatred that spits at us everywhere".
With one or two exceptions it was not widely popular among Lissauer's fellow Jews, who had a tendency to identify with England's liberal tradition.
The publicist Benjamin Segel said that the poem did not contain "as much as a spark of Jewish sentiment." Lissauer's song and slogan proved to be similarly less popular within the wider German intelligentsia. The painter, photographer, and caricaturist Helmut Herzfeld went so far as to change his given name in protest to an English one and to anglicize his surname, henceforth to be known as John Heartfield.
Unofficial stamps with the motto were produced by organisations, such as the "Federation of the Germans in Lower Austria". In at least 1916 browncoal bricks were embossed with the motto "Gott Strafe England" and sold in the Netherlands.
In England in 1916, the music hall singer, Tom Clare wrote a comic song "My Hymn of Hate" in a comic vein giving a list of people and phenomena that he hated. The list included, for example, journalists who criticized how the war was being run, but did not want to join the army themselves.
In 1946, in Hamburg, "Ausgebombte" (bombed out refugees) demonstrators sang the song.
Other uses
English poet J. C. Squire uses the phrase in his poem "God Heard the Embattled Nations":
George Bellows created a lithograph titled "Gott Strafe".
Louis Raemaekers created a cartoon titled "Gott strafe England".
The phrase gave rise to the term "Strafing" and to the nickname "Strafer" that was given to the British General William Gott in World War II.
See also
Anti-British sentiment
References
Germany–United Kingdom relations
German words and phrases
Anti-British sentiment
World War I propaganda
Opposition to the British Empire
Quotations from military
1910s neologisms
de:Liste geflügelter Worte/G#Gott strafe England!
|
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204063
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Arnett
|
Peter Arnett
|
Peter Gregg Arnett (born 13 November 1934) is a New Zealand-born American journalist. He is known for his coverage of the Vietnam War and the Gulf War. He was awarded the 1966 Pulitzer Prize in International Reporting for his work in Vietnam from 1962 to 1965, mostly reporting for the Associated Press.
Arnett also worked for National Geographic magazine, and later for various television networks, most notably for nearly two decades at CNN. Arnett published a memoir, Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Baghdad, 35 Years in the World's War Zones (1994). In March 1997, Arnett interviewed Osama bin Laden, leader of Al-Qaeda. The journalism school at the Southern Institute of Technology in New Zealand was named for Arnett.
Early life
Arnett was born in 1934 in Riverton, in New Zealand's Southland region. His first job as a journalist was with The Southland Times.
Vietnam
During his early years in journalism, Arnett worked in Southeast Asia, largely based in Bangkok. In 1960 he started publishing a small English-language newspaper in Laos. Eventually, he made his way to Vietnam, which the French had abandoned after being defeated at Dien Bien Phu by communists from North Vietnam.
Arnett became a reporter for the Associated Press, based in Saigon in the South, in the years when the United States began to get involved in the civil conflict and through the Vietnam War. On 7 July 1963, in what became known as the Double Seven Day scuffle, he was injured in a widely reported physical altercation between a group of western journalists and South Vietnamese undercover police. The reporters were trying to cover Buddhist protests against the South Vietnamese government. His articles, such as "Death of Supply Column 21," about an event during Operation Starlite in August 1965, resulted in raising the ire of the American government, which had been increasing the number of forces in the region.
Arnett accompanied troops on dozens of missions, including the battle of Hill 875, in November 1967. An American detachment was sent to rescue another unit that was stranded in hostile territory, and the rescuers were nearly killed during the operation. In September 1972, Arnett joined a group of U.S. peace activists, including William Sloane Coffin and David Dellinger, on a trip to Hanoi, North Vietnam, to accept three American prisoners of war for return to the United States.
Arnett wrote in an unvarnished manner when reporting stories of ordinary soldiers and civilians. Arnett's writing was often criticized by administration spokesmen as negative, who wanted to keep reporting of the war positive. General William Westmoreland, President Lyndon B. Johnson and others in power put pressure on the AP to get rid of or transfer Arnett from the region.
In what is considered one of his iconic dispatches, published on 7 February 1968, Arnett wrote about the Battle of Bến Tre: "'It became necessary to destroy the town to save it,' a United States major said today. He was talking about the decision by allied commanders to bomb and shell the town regardless of civilian casualties, to rout the Vietcong." The quotation was gradually altered in subsequent publications, eventually becoming the more familiar, "We had to destroy the village in order to save it." The accuracy of the original quotation and its source have often been called into question. Arnett never revealed his source, except to say that it was one of four officers he interviewed that day. US Army Major Phil Cannella, the senior officer present at Bến Tre, suggested that the quotation might have been a distortion of something he said to Arnett. The New Republic at the time attributed the quotation to US Air Force Major Chester L. Brown. In Walter Cronkite's 1971 book, Eye on the World, Arnett reasserted that the quotation was something "one American major said to me in a moment of revelation."
Arnett was one of the last western reporters remaining in Saigon after its fall and capture by the People's Army of Vietnam. Occupying soldiers showed him how they had entered the city.
Arnett wrote the 26-part mini-series documentary, Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War (1980), produced by Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
At the time of the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Arnett was working for Parade magazine. With a contact named Healy, he entered Afghanistan illegally from Pakistan; both men were dressed in traditional clothing as natives and led by Mujahideen guides. They continued to a Jalalabad hideaway of approximately fifty rebels. The trip came to an end when Healy fell into the Kunar River, ruining the pair's cameras. Later, Arnett would recount the story to journalist Artyom Borovik, who was covering the Soviet side of the war.
Gulf War
Beginning in 1981, Arnett worked for CNN for 18 years, ending in 1999. During the Gulf War, he became a household name worldwide as the only reporter to have live coverage directly from Baghdad, especially during the first 16 hours. His dramatic reports often were accompanied by the sound of air raid sirens blaring and US bombs exploding in the background. Together with two other CNN journalists, Bernard Shaw and John Holliman, Arnett brought continuous coverage from Baghdad for the 16 initial intense hours of the war (17 January 1991). Although 40 foreign journalists were present at the Al-Rashid Hotel in Baghdad at the time, only CNN possessed the means — a private phone line connected to neighboring Amman, Jordan — to communicate to the outside world. CNN broadcast Arnett's extended call live for several hours, with a picture of Arnett as video. Soon the other journalists left Iraq, including the two CNN colleagues, which left Arnett as the sole remaining reporter.
His accounts of civilian damage caused by the bombing were not well received by the coalition war administration. Its spokesmen had emphasized terms such as "smart bombs" and "surgical precision" in their public statements, in an effort to project keeping civilian casualties would be at a minimum. White House sources would later attack Arnett, saying that he was being used as a tool for Iraqi disinformation.
Two weeks into the war, Arnett was able to obtain an exclusive, uncensored interview with Saddam Hussein. Due to Arnett's reporting from the "other side", for a period of five weeks, the Gulf War was the first to be broadcast live on TV.
About halfway through the war, representatives of the CIA approached Arnett. They believed that the Iraqi military was operating a high-level communication network from the basement of the Al Rashid Hotel, which is where Arnett and other staff from CNN were staying. The CIA wanted him out so the Air Force could bomb the hotel, but Arnett refused. He said he had been given a tour of the hotel and denied there was such a facility.
Interview with Osama Bin Laden
In March 1997, Arnett of CNN interviewed Osama bin Laden, leader of Al-Qaeda, after Bin Laden declared jihad on the United States. Asked by Arnett, "What are your future plans?", Bin Laden said, "You'll see them and hear about them in the media, God willing".
Operation Tailwind
In 1998, Arnett narrated a report on the joint venture (between CNN and Time magazine) program called NewsStand, covering "Operation Tailwind" in Laos in 1970.
The report, titled The Valley of Death, claimed that in 1970, the United States Army had used sarin, a nerve gas, against a group of deserting U.S. soldiers in Laos. The men who allegedly conducted the attack were an elite Green Beret A-Team. The report was expressly approved by both CNN Chairman Tom Johnson and CNN President Rick Kaplan. In response, the Pentagon commissioned another report contradicting that of CNN's. CNN subsequently conducted its own investigation. It concluded that the "journalism [in the Valley of Death] was flawed" and retracted the story. While all 12 men of the Green Beret A-Team were wounded in action during Operation Tailwind, no sarin was involved.
Due to a number of rebuttals claiming the CNN report was flawed, three or more of the individuals responsible were fired or forced to resign. Arnett was reprimanded, and left the network in April 1999, apparently due to "lingering fallout" from Tailwind.
Invasion of Iraq 2003
On assignment for NBC and National Geographic, Arnett went to Iraq in 2003 to cover the U.S. invasion. After a press meeting there, he granted an interview to state-run Iraqi TV on 31 March 2003. In it he said:
Earlier in the interview he said:
When Arnett's remarks sparked a "firestorm of protest", NBC initially defended him, saying he had given the interview as a professional courtesy and that his remarks were "analytical in nature". A day later, though, NBC, MSNBC and National Geographic all severed their relationships with Arnett. In response to Arnett's statement on Iraqi TV, NBC stated:
Arnett responded:
Later that day, Arnett was hired by the British tabloid, The Daily Mirror, which had opposed the war. A couple of days later he also received work from Greek television channel NET television, and Belgian VTM.
Academic career
After retiring as a field reporter in 2007, Arnett lives in Los Angeles.
He also teaches journalism at Shantou University in China. In New Zealand, the Peter Arnett School of Journalism was named for him at the Southern Institute of Technology; the journalism school closed in 2015.
Personal life
In 1964, Arnett married Nina Nguyen, a Vietnamese woman. They had two children, Elsa and Andrew. Nina and Peter separated in 1983, divorced more than 20 years later, then reconciled in 2006.
Elsa Arnett attended Stuyvesant High School in New York and Harvard University. After graduating, she went into journalism, became a reporter, worked for several months on The Washington Post as an intern and then joined The Boston Globe. She worked with her father on his 1994 memoir about his reporting life. Elsa Arnett is married to former White House lawyer John Yoo.
In the 2007 New Year Honours, Arnett was appointed an Officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to journalism.
In popular culture
Peter Arnett appeared in Robert Wiener's book Live from Baghdad. He appeared as a character in the 2002 HBO film of the same name, where he was portrayed by actor Bruce McGill.
The book, as well as the film, features Arnett's work as part of Wiener's crew in Baghdad. Arnett joined the team as tensions between Iraq and the West were escalating toward an imminent military encounter. CNN sent Arnett to Baghdad because of his experience in covering military conflicts. Arnett was part of the live coverage beginning on 16 January 1991, the start of the Gulf War air campaign, where he and colleagues Bernard Shaw and John Holliman kept broadcasting from their Al-Rasheed Hotel room amid extensive aerial bombing by the Western Coalition forces.
Arnett's interview with Bin Laden in 1997 became the subject of the movie 'A War Story' produced for television. Peter's role was played by John Leigh.
Selected works
Live from the Battlefield: From Vietnam to Baghdad: 35 Years in the World's War Zones. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.
Saigon Has Fallen: A Wartime Recollection by the Pulitzer Prize-Winning Journalist. New York: Rosetta Books/Associated Press, 2015
See also
CNN controversies
List of New Zealand television personalities
References
Bibliography
External links
Sully, François, "Associated Press' Peter Arnett testing the first flame thrower captured from the Vietcong in Vietnam", photograph; 8 December 1965. Copyright Healey Library, UMass Boston; via openvault.wgbh.org.
American television reporters and correspondents
American war correspondents
American war correspondents of the Vietnam War
War correspondents of the Vietnam War
1934 births
Living people
CNN people
People from Riverton, New Zealand
Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners
New Zealand television presenters
New Zealand emigrants to the United States
Officers of the New Zealand Order of Merit
People with acquired American citizenship
Ngāi Tahu
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists
|
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] |
204064
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vesuvius%20%281806%29
|
USS Vesuvius (1806)
|
USS Vesuvius was a bomb ketch, and the first ship of the United States Navy named for the Italian volcano.
Vesuvius was built by Jacob Coffin at Newburyport, Massachusetts. She was launched on 31 May 1806 and commissioned in or before September 1806, with Lieutenant James T. Leonard in command.
Service history
Vesuvius departed Boston, Massachusetts, for the Gulf of Mexico, but, while en route on 19 October, ran aground in the Gulf of Abaco. The ship lost her rudder and floated free only after her crew had jettisoned all of her guns and their carriages; her shot and shell; and even part of the kentledge. She finally reached New Orleans, Louisiana, on 27 November.
Repaired and rearmed with ten 6-pounders (2.7 kg), the ship subsequently sailed for Natchez, Mississippi, and operated out of that port from February 1807 until returning to New Orleans on 30 May. Vesuvius was then ordered north for further repairs and arrived at New York City on 16 August.
The ship apparently remained in the New York area until the spring 1809, when she again sailed for New Orleans. Embarking upon duties to suppress slave traders and pirates operating out of the trackless bayous, Vesuvius cruised off the mouth of the muddy Mississippi River and into the Gulf of Mexico, alert for any sign of illegal activity.
The crew's vigilance was rewarded in February 1810 when, under the command of Lieutenant Benjamin F. Read, Vesuvius gave chase to a pirate vessel off the mouth of the Mississippi and captured Duc de Montebello, a schooner named by Frenchmen who had been expelled from Cuba by the Spanish government. Dispatched to New Orleans, the buccaneer ship was condemned. In the same month, boats from Vesuvius, under the command of Midshipman F.H. Gregory, captured pirate schooner Diomede and slaver Alexandria, the latter with a full cargo of slaves on board and flying British colors.
Four months later, Commander David Porter, commander of the New Orleans station, embarked in Vesuvius before the bomb ketch departed New Orleans on 10 June 1810, bound via Havana, Cuba, for Washington, DC. Also making the passage were Porter's wife and the Porters' ward, eight-year-old James Glasgow Farragut. The lad would later change his name to David Glasgow Farragut and ultimately become the Navy's first admiral.
After repairs at the Washington Navy Yard, the ketch pressed on for New York and arrived on 6 September 1810. Vesuvius was placed in ordinary, and her crew was transferred to .
In 1816, Vesuvius served as a receiving ship at New York. A survey conducted in April 1818 revealed that the cost to repair and refit the ship would be, in the survey's words, "exorbitant." Still carried on the Naval Vessel Registry as a receiving ship through 1821, Vesuvius was broken up in June 1829 after being damaged beyond repair on 4 June when the old steamship Fulton exploded alongside.
References
Ketches of the United States Navy
Bomb vessels
Ships built in Newburyport, Massachusetts
1806 ships
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20United%20Kingdom%20general%20election
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1987 United Kingdom general election
|
The 1987 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 11 June 1987, to elect 650 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The election was the third consecutive general election victory for the Conservative Party, and second landslide under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher, who became the first Prime Minister since the Earl of Liverpool in 1820 to lead a party into three successive electoral victories.
The Conservatives ran a campaign focusing on lower taxes, a strong economy and strong defence. They also emphasised that unemployment had just fallen below the 3 million mark for the first time since 1981, and inflation was standing at 4%, its lowest level since the 1960s. National newspapers also continued to largely back the Conservative Government, particularly The Sun, which ran anti-Labour articles with headlines such as "Why I'm backing Kinnock, by Stalin".
The Labour Party, led by Neil Kinnock following Michael Foot's resignation in the aftermath of their landslide defeat at the 1983 general election, was slowly moving towards a more centrist policy platform following the promulgation of a left-wing one under its previous leader Michael Foot. The main aim of the Labour Party was simply to re-establish itself as the main progressive centre-left alternative to the Conservatives, after the rise of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) forced Labour onto the defensive. Indeed, the Labour Party succeeded in doing so at this general election. The Alliance between the SDP and the Liberal Party was renewed but co-leaders David Owen and David Steel could not agree whether to support either major party in the event of a hung parliament.
The Conservatives were returned to government, having suffered a net loss of only 21 seats, leaving them with 376 MPs and a reduced but still strong majority of 102 seats. Labour succeeded in resisting the challenge by the SDP–Liberal Alliance to maintain its position as HM Official Opposition. Moreover, Labour managed to increase its vote share in Scotland, Wales and the North of England. Yet Labour still returned only 229 MPs to Westminster, and in certain London constituencies which Labour had held before the election; the Conservatives actually made gains.
The election was a disappointment for the Alliance, which saw its vote share fall and suffered a net loss of one seat as well as former SDP leader Roy Jenkins losing his seat to Labour. This led to the two parties merging completely soon afterwards to become the Liberal Democrats. In Northern Ireland, the main unionist parties maintained their alliance in opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement, however the Ulster Unionists lost two seats to the Social Democratic and Labour Party. One of the UUP losses was former Cabinet Minister, Enoch Powell; famous for his stance against immigration and formerly a Conservative.
The 1987 general election was the last in which the Conservatives won the popular vote in a general election by more than 10 points until the 2019 general election, and the last time they would hold more than 336 seats in the House of Commons until 2019.
The 50th Parliament is the last time to date that a Conservative government has lasted a full term with an overall majority of seats in Parliament, as the small 1992 election majority had dwindled to nil by the 1997 dissolution, it had to form a coalition with the Liberal Democrats to form a government in 2010, and the narrow majority gained at the 2015 general election was lost when a snap election was called two years later and resulted in a hung parliament; with Labour making their first net gains in twenty years.
The election night was covered live on the BBC and presented by David Dimbleby, Peter Snow and Sir Robin Day. It was also broadcast on ITV and presented by Sir Alastair Burnet, Peter Sissons and Alastair Stewart.
The 1987 general election saw the election of the first Black Members of Parliament: Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng and Bernie Grant, all as representatives for the Labour Party. MPs leaving the House of Commons as a result of this election included former Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan, Keith Joseph, Jim Prior, Ian Mikardo, former SDP leader and Labour Cabinet Minister Roy Jenkins, former Health Minister Enoch Powell (who had defected to the UUP in Northern Ireland in 1974 after from the Conservatives) and Clement Freud.
Campaign and policies
The Conservative campaign emphasised lower taxes, a strong economy and defence, and also employed rapid-response reactions to take advantage of Labour errors. Norman Tebbit and Saatchi and Saatchi spearheaded the Conservative campaign. However, when on "Wobbly Thursday" it was rumoured a Marplan opinion poll showed a narrow 2% Conservative lead, the "exiles" camp of David Young, Tim Bell and the Young & Rubicam firm advocated a more aggressively anti-Labour message. This was when, according to Young's memoirs, Young got Tebbit by the lapels and shook him, shouting: "Norman, listen to me, we're about to lose this fucking election." In his memoirs Tebbit defends the Conservative campaign: "We finished exactly as planned on the ground where Labour was weak and we were strong—defence, taxation, and the economy." During the election campaign however Tebbit and Thatcher argued.
Bell and Saatchi and Saatchi produced memorable posters for the Conservatives, such as a picture of a British soldier's arms raised in surrender with the caption "Labour's Policy On Arms"—a reference to Labour's policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament. The first Conservative party political broadcast played on the theme of "Freedom" and ended with a fluttering Union Jack, the hymn I Vow to Thee, My Country (which Thatcher would later quote in her "Sermon on the Mound") and the slogan "It's Great To Be Great Again".
The Labour campaign was a marked change from previous efforts; professionally directed by Peter Mandelson and Bryan Gould, it concentrated on presenting and improving Neil Kinnock's image to the electorate. Labour's first party political broadcast, dubbed Kinnock: The Movie, was directed by Hugh Hudson of Chariots of Fire fame, and concentrated on portraying Kinnock as a caring, compassionate family man. It was filmed at the Great Orme in Wales and had "Ode to Joy" as its music. He was particularly critical of the high unemployment that the government's economic policies had resulted in, as well as condemning the wait for treatment that many patients had endured on the National Health Service. Kinnock's personal popularity jumped 16 points overnight following the initial broadcast.
On 24 May, Kinnock was interviewed by David Frost and claimed that Labour's alternative defence strategy in the event of a Soviet attack would be "using the resources you've got to make any occupation totally untenable". In a speech two days later Thatcher attacked Labour's defence policy as a programme for "defeat, surrender, occupation, and finally, prolonged guerrilla fighting ... I do not understand how anyone who aspires to Government can treat the defence of our country so lightly".
During the 1987 election campaign, the Conservative Party (under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher) issued attack posters claiming that the Labour Party wanted the book Young, Gay and Proud to be read in schools, as well as Police: Out of School, The Playbook for Kids about Sex, and The Milkman's on his Way, which, according to the Monday Club's Jill Knight MP – who introduced Section 28 and later campaigned against same-sex marriage – were being taught to "little children as young as five and six", which contained "brightly coloured pictures of little stick men showed all about homosexuality and how it was done", and "explicitly described homosexual intercourse and, indeed, glorified it, encouraging youngsters to believe that it was better than any other sexual way of life".
Endorsements
The following newspapers endorsed political parties running in the election in the following ways:
Opinion polling
Results
The Conservatives were returned by a third landslide victory with a comfortable majority, down slightly on 1983 with a swing of 1.5% towards Labour. This marked the first time since the passing of the Great Reform Act in 1832 that a party leader had won three consecutive elections, although the Conservative Party had won three consecutive contests in the 1950s under different leaders (Churchill in 1951, Eden in 1955 and Macmillan in 1959) and early in the century, the Liberals also had three successive wins under two leaders (Henry Campbell Bannerman in 1906 and Herbert Asquith twice in 1910). The Conservative lead over Labour of 11.4% was the second-greatest for any governing party since the Second World War; only being bettered by the previous 1983 result.
The BBC announced the result at 02:35. Increasing polarisation marked divisions across the country; the Conservatives dominated Southern England and took additional seats from Labour in London and the rest of the South, but performed less well in Northern England, Scotland and Wales, losing many of the seats they had won there at previous elections. Yet the overall result of this election proved that the policies of Margaret Thatcher retained significant support, with the Conservatives given a third convincing majority.
Despite initial optimism and the professional campaign run by Neil Kinnock, the election brought only twenty additional seats for Labour from the 1983 Conservative landslide. In many southern areas, the Labour vote actually fell, with the party losing seats in London. However, it represented a decisive victory against the SDP–Liberal Alliance and marked out the Labour Party as the main contender to the Conservative Party. This was in stark contrast to 1983, when the Alliance almost matched Labour in terms of votes; although Labour had almost 10 times as many seats as the Alliance due to the structure of the First-Past-The-Post voting system.
The result for the Alliance was a disappointment, in that they had hoped to overtake Labour as the Official Opposition in the UK in terms of vote share. Instead, they lost Roy Jenkins' seat and saw their vote share drop by almost 3%, with a widening gap of 8% between them and the Labour Party (compared to a 2% gap four years before). These results would eventually lead to the end of the Alliance and the birth of the Liberal Democrats.
Most of the prominent MPs retained their seats. Notable losses included: Enoch Powell (the controversial former Conservative Cabinet Minister who had defected to the Ulster Unionist Party) and two Alliance members: Liberal Clement Freud and former SDP leader Roy Jenkins (a former Labour Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer). Neil Kinnock increased his share of the vote in Islwyn by almost 12%. Margaret Thatcher increased her share of the vote in her own seat in Finchley, but the Labour vote increased in the Prime Minister's constituency; thereby slightly reducing her majority.
In Northern Ireland, the various unionist parties maintained an electoral pact (with few dissenters) in opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement. However, the Ulster Unionists lost two seats to the Social Democratic and Labour Party.
The election victory won by the Conservatives could also arguably be attributed to the rise in average living standards that had taken place during their time in office. As noted by Dennis Kavanagh and David Butler in their study on the 1987 general election:
:
|-
|+ style="caption-side: bottom; font-weight:normal" |All parties gaining over 500 votes listed.
|}
Votes summary
Seats summary
Incumbents defeated
See also
List of MPs elected in the 1987 United Kingdom general election
1987 United Kingdom general election in England
1987 United Kingdom general election in Scotland
1987 United Kingdom general election in Wales
1987 United Kingdom general election in Northern Ireland
1987 United Kingdom local elections
Notes
References
Biographies
Scholarly sources
Manifestos
The Next Moves Forward, 1987 Conservative Party manifesto
Britain will win with Labour, 1987 Labour Party manifesto
Britain United: The Time Has Come, 1987 SDP–Liberal Alliance manifesto
1987
General election
United Kingdom general election
|
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204067
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Martin%20Lappenberg
|
Johann Martin Lappenberg
|
Johann Martin Lappenberg (July 30, 1794 – November 28, 1865) was a German diplomat and historian.
Biography
He was born at Hamburg, where his father, Valentin Anton Lappenberg (1759–1819), held an official position. He attended the Johanneum and the Akademisches Gymnasium of Hamburg. Like his father he studied medicine, but afterwards history, at the University of Edinburgh. He continued to study history in London, at Frederick William University of Berlin and at Göttingen, where he graduated as doctor of laws in 1816. In 1820 he was sent by the Hamburg senate as Minister Resident to the Prussian court in Berlin. In 1823 he became keeper of the Hamburg archives. In this office, he had the fullest opportunities for the laborious and critical research work upon which rests his reputation. He was in this office until 1863, when a serious eye problem compelled him to resign. In 1850 he represented Hamburg in the German parliament at Frankfurt, and he died at Hamburg.
Works
Lappenberg's most important work is his Geschichte von England, which deals with the history of England from the earliest times to 1154. This work was published in two volumes at Hamburg in 1834–1837. It has been translated into English by Benjamin Thorpe as History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings (1845), and History of England under the Norman Kings (Oxford, 1857), and was continued in three additional volumes from 1154 to 1509 by R. Pauli.
His other works deal mainly with the history of Hamburg, and include:
Hamburgische Chroniken in niedersächsischer Sprache (Hamburg: Perthes & Mauke, 1852–1861; reprint Niederwalluf: Sändig, 1971, )
Geschichtsquellen des Erzstiftes und der Stadt Bremen (Bremen: Heyse, 1841; reprint Aalen: Scientia-Verlag, 1967)
Hamburgisches Urkundenbuch (Hamburg: Perthes, Besser & Mauke, 1842)
Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu London (Hamburg: Langhoff, 1851; reprint Osnabrück: Zeller, 1967)
Hamburgische Rechtsalterthümer (Hamburg: Meissner, 1845)
Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse (Hamburg, 1830), as editor, continuation of the work of GF Sartorius.
For the Monumenta Germaniae historica he edited the Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg, the Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum of Adam of Bremen and the Chronica Slavorum of Helmold, with its continuation by Arnold of Lübeck. Lappenberg, who was a member of numerous learned societies in Europe, wrote many other historical works.
References
Attribution
1794 births
1865 deaths
Writers from Hamburg
German historians
Hanseatic diplomats
Members of the Frankfurt Parliament
German male non-fiction writers
|
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204068
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Thorpe
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Benjamin Thorpe
|
Benjamin Thorpe (1782 – 19 July 1870) was an English scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature.
Biography
In the early 1820s he worked as a banker in the House of Rothschild, in Paris. There he met Thomas Hodgkin, who treated him for tuberculosis.
After studying for four years at Copenhagen University, under the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask, Thorpe returned to England in 1830. In a few years he established a reputation as an Anglo-Saxon scholar.
In recognition of unremunerative work, Thorpe was granted a civil list pension of £160 in 1835, and on 17 June 1841 this was increased to £200 per annum. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Munich, and of the Society of Netherlandish Literature at Leyden He died at Chiswick in July 1870.
Bibliography
In 1830 Thorpe brought out at Copenhagen an English version of Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar (a second edition of this appeared at London). That same year he moved to London with his new wife Mary Otte and her daughter Elise Otté. Thorpe educated and oppressed his step daughter and she had a troubled relationship and unattributed partnership with him throughout his life.
In 1832 he published at London Cædmon's Metrical Paraphrase of Parts of the Holy Scriptures in Anglo-Saxon; with an English Translation, Notes, and a Verbal Index, which was well reviewed. It was followed in 1834 by the Anglo-Saxon Version of the Story of Apollonius of Tyre and by Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, a textbook which was adopted at Oxford by Robert Meadows White. The Analecta was used, with Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Guide, for 40 years.
In 1835 Thorpe published Libri Psalmorum Versio antiqua Latina and then Ancient Laws and Institutes of England (1840). Two more volumes were published by Thorpe in 1842, The Holy Gospels in Anglo-Saxon and Codex Exoniensis, a Collection of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, with English Translation and Notes, an edition of the poems in the Exeter Book with English translation. Next came, for the Ælfric Society, The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church,' with an English version, published in ten parts between 1843 and 1846.
In 1834 Thorpe had begun a translation of Johann Martin Lappenberg's works on old English history, but was deterred. By 1842 he had started another version, with alterations, corrections, and notes of his own; it was published in two volumes in 1845 as A History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings. It was followed eventually by a version of Lappenberg's History of England under the Norman Kings (1857). Thorpe's two-volume edition of Florence of Worcester was issued in 1848–49.
For the publisher Edward Lumley Thorpe produced Northern Mythology (1851) with notes and illustrations. It was followed in 1853 by Yule Tide Stories which appeared in Bohn's Antiquarian Library. For the same library he translated in 1854 Pauli's Life of Alfred the Great, with Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Orosius. In 1855 appeared Thorpe's Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf, with parallel prose translation, notes, glossary, and indexes. He had planned this work as early as 1830, and his text was collated with the Cottonian MS before John Mitchell Kemble's; the scorched edges of the manuscript suffered further shortly afterwards.
In 1861 Thorpe edited for the Rolls Series of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, according to the several Authorities. In the first volume are printed synoptically the Corpus Christi, Cambridge, the Bodleian, and the various Cottonian texts, with facsimiles and notes, while in volume two appeared the translation. Four years later, through the support of Joseph Mayer of Liverpool, Thorpe was able to publish his supplement to Kemble's Codex Diplomaticus ævi Saxonici.<ref>Diplomatarium Anglicum Ævi Saxonici: a Collection of English Charters (605–1066), containing Miscellaneous Charters, Wills, Guilds, Manumissions, and Aquittances, with a translation of the Anglo-Saxon’ (London).</ref> His final work, done for Trübner in 1866, was a translation of the Elder Edda''.
References
Attribution
External links
Analecta Anglo-Saxonica (1868)
Brief entry on Thorpe in Notes and Queries, 1898
1782 births
1870 deaths
University of Copenhagen alumni
Anglo-Saxon studies scholars
Historians of the British Isles
British textbook writers
English historians
English translators
Germanic studies scholars
Translators from Old English
Translators from Old Norse
Writers on Germanic paganism
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Translators of the Poetic Edda
19th-century British translators
|
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204073
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vesuvius%20%281846%29
|
USS Vesuvius (1846)
|
USS Vesuvius (1845) was a 239-ton steamer acquired by the United States Navy for use during the Mexican–American War which was an armed military conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas.
Vesuvius, outfitted with a heavy 10-inch mortar that was designed to attack and damage land-based fortifications, was assigned by the Navy to operations in the Mexican battle zones.
Built in New York in 1845
Vesuvius – a coastal Cargo ship built in 1845 at Williamsburg, New York, as Saint Mary – was acquired by the Navy at New York City in 1846 for use with the blockading squadrons in the Gulf of Mexico.
Mexican–American War operations
Records of the ship's service are sketchy at best, especially for her early service in the Navy. However, reports indicate that she apparently operated as Vesuvius, off Vera Cruz, although one source dates her renaming as occurring on 5 January 1847. In August 1846, after many members of her crew contracted yellow fever while she was stationed off Vera Cruz, Vesuvius put into Bermuda en route north for recuperation.
Laguna del Carmen operations
She was probably refitted at New York, as records indicate that, under the command of Comdr. George A. Magruder, she departed from that port towards the end of the winter of 1846 and 1847, arriving at Laguna del Carmen, Mexico, on 7 March 1847, for blockade duty. Vesuvius was assigned to the port of Laguna. At this juncture, Commodore Matthew Galbraith Perry – commanding the Gulf Squadron—appointed Magruder the military governor of the town, and the commander was of great value to Perry as an administrator. The majority of time spent by Vesuvius on the Gulf station was spent at Laguna, where she logged the shipping movements of vessels both inside and outside the harbor.
Attack on Tuxpan, Mexico
In the spring of 1847, when Commodore Perry launched his expedition against Tuxpan, Vesuvius was withdrawn temporarily from Laguna to support the operation. The Mexicans defending the town with 650 men led by General Cos were ideally situated to command its approaches.
The assault on the Mexican defensive works was launched by a 1,500-man landing force drawn from the ships' crews. Twenty-five officers and men from Vesuvius, led by Commander Magruder, took part in this action and were present when the flag of the United States was raised over the captured city.
Assault against Tabasco, Mexico
Twelve days later, Perry launched an all-out assault against Tabasco, the last remaining large port commanded by the Mexicans on the Gulf coast. Although captured earlier by American forces, Tabasco had fallen again to Mexican hands. After leaving guardships at Coatzacoalcos and Tuxpan, Perry arrived off Frontera on 14 June 1847, at the mouth of the river which led to Tabasco.
Shifting his flag again to Scorpion, Perry and his squadron commenced the passage up the tortuous channels. At "Devil's Bend," concealed Mexican sharpshooters opened fire from the dense chaparral along the riverbank. Scorpion, Washington, Vesuvius, and the flat-bottomed "surfboats" returned the fire; Vesuvius''' 10-inch mortar shells dispersed the snipers; thus allowing the squadron to continue its way upriver.
At six in the evening, the squadron anchored for the night and arranged barricades about the decks to protect the American sailors against sniper fire. During the night, Mexican forces placed obstructions in the only navigable channel.
Scaling the cliff, and taking the fort
Meanwhile, landing parties from Perry's ships stealthily scaled the steep cliffs which rose from the river. They then rushed the works in a sudden assault which surprised the Mexican troops and put them to flight. During the attack, the gunboats forced their way up the river under the command of Lt. David Dixon Porter, who would later win fame during the American Civil War.
Fort Iturbide, mounting six guns, soon fell to a landing force commanded by Lt. Porter, thus clearing the final obstacle from the road to Tabasco. Accordingly, detachments from Scorpion and Spitfire took possession of this objective on the 16th.
Patrol operations Vesuvius remained in the Gulf of Mexico, at Laguna, through the end of the year 1847. Under the command of Lt. Sylvanus William Godon, the brig captured American schooner Wasp on 10 October 1847, which was engaged in illicit trading, and later captured four bungos. Vesuvius'' moved to Campeche on 8 March 1848 and then back to Laguna late in April. She operated there until sailing north in mid-summer.
The brig arrived at Norfolk, Virginia, on 1 August and was sold there the following October.
References
Brigs of the United States Navy
Gunboats of the United States Navy
Mexican–American War ships of the United States
1845 ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmold
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Helmold
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Helmold of Bosau (ca. 1120 – after 1177) was a Saxon historian of the 12th century and a priest at Bosau near Plön. He was a friend of the two bishops of Oldenburg in Holstein, Vicelinus (died 1154) and Gerold (died 1163), who did much to Christianize the Polabian Slavs.
History
Helmold was born near Goslar. He grew up in Holstein, and received his instruction in Brunswick from Gerold, the future bishop of Oldenburg (1139–42). Later he came under the direction of Vicelinus, the Apostle of the Wends, first in the Augustinian monastery of Faldera, afterwards known as Neumünster (1147–53). He became a deacon about 1150, and finally became a parish priest in 1156 at Bosau on Großer Plöner See.
At Bishop Gerold's instigation Helmold wrote his Chronica Slavorum, a history of the conquest and conversion of the Polabian Slavs from the time of Charlemagne (about 800) to 1171. The purpose of this chronicle was to demonstrate how Christianity and the German nationality gradually succeeded in gaining a footing among the Wends, especially in the eastern portion of Holstein. As an eyewitness he gives a clear description in fluent Latin of Vicelinus's missionary labors, of the founding of the bishopric in Oldenburg, of the transfer of this bishopric to Lübeck when German commerce at the latter place had become more important than in the former city, of the spread of German influence among the Wends, of the merciless subjugation and extermination of these, and of the summoning to their lands of foreign settlers, principally Westphalian and Dutch. The work is divided into two parts: the first covers a period closing with the year 1168, while the second continues to the year 1171. This second part, however, was written subsequently to 1172.
Helmold was a critical historian, calling Henry the Lion "out for money", and criticizing the Wendish Crusades. He said that among the troops of Henry the Lion during the Wendish Crusade, there was "only talk of money, never about Christianity" and missionary conversion of the Slavs.
Helmold drew his knowledge of the earliest period from the church history of Adam of Bremen and the Saxon records bearing on Henry IV, besides the life of Willehadus, the list of Ansgarius, and perhaps also a life of Vicelinus, but the summaries which he made of these records are unreliable. He is, however, the most important source of information for the history of his own period, his account of which rests on the verbal information of Vicelinus and of Gerold. His fund of information becomes noticeably meager after the latter's death in 1163. His trustworthiness was seriously questioned in the 19th century (see particularly Sehirren, Beiträge zur Kritik holsteinischer Geschichtsquellen, Leipzig, 1876) owing to his antagonism towards the Archbishops of Bremen and his partiality for the Oldenburg-Lübeck bishopric, but it should not be supposed that he was guilty of an intentional falsification of facts. The chronicle was first published in 1556 at Frankfurt, and later in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores, XXI (1868), 11-99, and in "Script. rer. Germ."
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was Helmold's patron. The chronicle was continued down to 1209 by Abbot Arnold of Lübeck.
Notes
References
The Chronica were first edited by Siegmund Schorkel (Frankfort am Main, 1556). The best edition is by J.M. Lappenberg in Monumenta Germaniae hist. scriptores, XXI (1868).
For critical works on the Chronica see August Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. medaevius. Helmoldus.
Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, II (1894), 338-41.
Potthast, Bibliotheca historica, I (1896), 576.
This article incorporates text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article "Helmold" by Patricius Schlager, a publication now in the public domain.
"Helmold Of Bosau". Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD. Accessed May 14, 2007.
Helmold von Bosau
Attribution
12th-century births
12th-century deaths
12th-century historians
German chroniclers
People from the Duchy of Holstein
12th-century German Roman Catholic priests
Christians of the Wendish Crusade
German male non-fiction writers
12th-century German writers
12th-century Latin writers
People from Ostholstein
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsuzsanna%20Budapest
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Zsuzsanna Budapest
|
Zsuzsanna Emese Mokcsay (born 30 January 1940 in Budapest, Hungary) is a Hungarian author, activist, journalist, playwright and songwriter living in America who writes about feminist spirituality and Dianic Wicca under the pen name Zsuzsanna Budapest or Z. Budapest. She is the founder of the Susan B. Anthony Coven #1, which was founded in 1971 as the first women-only witches' coven. She founded the female-only type of Dianic Wicca.
She is the founder and director of the Women's Spirituality Forum, a nonprofit organization featuring lectures, retreats and other events, and was the lead of a cable TV show called 13th Heaven. She had an online autobiography entitled Fly by Night, and wrote for the religion section of the San Francisco Examiner on subjects related to Pagan religions. Her play The Rise of the Fates premiered in Los Angeles in the mid-seventies. She is the composer of several songs including "We All Come From the Goddess". She lives near Santa Cruz, California.
Early life
Z. Budapest was born in Budapest, Hungary. Her mother, Masika Szilagyi, was a medium, a practicing witch, and a professional sculptress whose work reflected themes of Goddess and nature spirituality. In 1956, when the Hungarian Revolution began, she fled to Austria as a political refugee. She finished high school in Innsbruck, graduated from a bilingual gymnasium, and won a scholarship to the University of Vienna where she studied languages.
Budapest immigrated to the United States in 1959, where she studied at the University of Chicago, with groundbreaking originator of the art of improvisation, Viola Spolin, and the improvisational theater group The Second City. She married and had two sons, Laszlo and Gabor, but later divorced. She realized she is a lesbian and chose, in her words, to avoid the "duality" between man and woman.
Career
She moved to Los Angeles from New York City in 1970, and became an activist in the women's liberation movement. She was on the staff of the first Women's Center in the U.S. there for many years, and became the Founder and High Priestess of Susan B. Anthony Coven #1, the first women-only witches' coven, which was founded in 1971. She was responsible for the creation of an Anti-Rape Squad and the Take Back the Night Movement in Southern California, and facilitated many of their street marches.
Controversy
Transphobia
Z Budapest is considered by many in the Neopagan community to be transphobic. Famously, she conducted a ritual exclusive to cis women by the Circle of Cerridwen at PantheaCon in February 2011. This caused a lot of backlash that led many to criticize Dianic Wicca as inherently transphobic. Participants and authors in the neopagan scene wrote articles, staged silent protests and wrote open letters to Budapest.
Arrested for Tarot Reading
In 1975, she was arrested for "fortune telling" at her candle and book store in Venice, California following a "sting" by an undercover police woman Rosalie Kimberlin, who received a tarot reading from her. Subsequently, Budapest was charged with violating a municipal by-law, Code 43.30, which meant fortune telling was unlawful. Budapest and her defence team described her as "the first witch prosecuted since Salem," and the ensuing trial became a focus for media and pagan protesters. Budapest was found guilty.
Duly, Budapest and her legal counsel set out to establish Wicca, and more specifically Dianic Wicca, as a bona fide religion. The state's Supreme Court reversed the guilty verdict as unconstitutional and in violation of the Freedom of Religion Act.
Following her conviction, she engaged in nine years of appeals on the grounds that reading the Tarot was an example of women spiritually counselling women within the context of their religion. With pro bono legal representation she was acquitted, and the laws against "fortune telling" were struck from California law.
"We All Come From The Goddess"
In 2012, Budapest requested via Facebook that the song she wrote, "We All Come From The Goddess", be performed as written and not be altered to include male gods. She initially stated that anyone changing her song was cursed, but clarified in comments section of this post that she was joking.
Television
Budapest claims that her first job in television was as a Color Girl for the CBS Network in New York; that she was assigned to The Ed Sullivan Show, and that it was her face that CBS adjusted their camera's settings to. In the eighties, she created the TV show 13th Heaven, which ran on syndicated cable in the San Francisco Bay area for seven years.
Books
The Feminist Book of Lights and Shadows, (1975) Feminist Wicca, Luna Publications
The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries: Feminist Witchcraft, Goddess Rituals, Spellcasting and Other Womanly Arts (1989) Wingbow Press ,
The Grandmother of Time: A Woman's Book of Celebrations, Spells, and Sacred Objects for Every Month of the Year, (1989) HarperOne ,
Grandmother Moon: Lunar Magic in Our Lives—Spells, Rituals, Goddesses, Legends, and Emotions Under the Moon (1991) HarperSanFrancisco
Grandmother Moon (2011) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781460911402
The Goddess in the Office: A Personal Energy Guide for the Spiritual Warrior at Work (1993) HarperOne ,
Goddess Gets to Work (2012) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781477589540
The Goddess in the Bedroom: A Passionate Woman's Guide to Celebrating Sexuality Every Night of the Week (1995) HarperSanFrancisco ,
Summoning the Fates: A Woman's Guide to Destiny (1999) Three Rivers Press ,
Summoning the Fates: A Guide to Destiny and Sacred Transformation (2013) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781492150886
Celestial Wisdom for Every Year of Your Life: Discover the Hidden Meaning of Your Age (with Diana Paxson) (2003) Weiser Books ,
Rasta Dogs (2003) Xlibris Corporation ,
Selene, the Most Famous Bull-Leaper on Earth (1976) Diana Press
Selene, the Most Famous Bull-Leaper on Earth (2011) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781460999349
Z's Easy Tarot (2012) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781479128099
My Dark Sordid Past As A Heterosexual (2014) Amazon CreateSpace (self-published) / 9781500988906
Play
The Rise of the Fates: A Woman's Passion Play 1976
Filmography
The Occult Experience 1987 Cinetel Productions Ltd (released on VHS by Sony/Columbia-Tristar August 5, 1992)
Gathering the Goddess, a documentary of her first festival (in south central Texas) DVD-R Amazon CreateSpace Title #306207
Gathering the Goddess (held in LaHonda, California) In Development
Z Budapest's Goddess Kits: Sex & Goddess DVD-R Amazon CreateSpace Title #306094
See also
Dianic Wicca
Goddess movement
References
Sources
Women's Leadership in Marginal Religions by Catherine Lowman Wessinger (1993) University of Illinois Press ,
Feminist Foremothers in Women's Studies, Psychology, and Mental Health by Phyllis Chesler, Esther D. Rothblum, and Ellen Cole (1995) Haworth Press ,
The Witch in History: Early Modern and Twentieth-Century Representations by Diane Purkiss (1996) Routledge ,
Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America by Eugene V. Gallagher and W. Michael Ashcraft (2006) Greenwood Publishing Group ,
Changing of the Gods: Feminism and the End of Traditional Religions by Naomi R. Goldenberg (1980) Beacon Press ,
Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America by Helen A. Berger (2006) University of Pennsylvania Press ,
The New Religious Movements Experience in America by Eugene V. Gallagher (2004) Greenwood Publishing Group ,
Thealogy and Embodiment: the Post-Patriarchal Reconstruction of Female Sacrality by Melissa Raphael (1996) Continuum International Publishing Group ,
Living in the Lap of the Goddess by Cynthia Eller (1995) Beacon Press ,
Voices from the Pagan Census: A National Survey of Witches and Neo-Pagans in the United States by Helen A. Berger, Evan A. Leach, Leigh S. Shaffer (2003) University of South Carolina Press ,
Daughters of the Goddess: Studies of Healing, Identity, and Empowerment by Wendy Griffin (1999) Rowman Altamira ,
New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought by Wouter J. Hanegraaff (1998) SUNY Press ,
Being a Pagan: Druids, Wiccans, and Witches Today by Ellen Evert Hopman & Lawrence Bond (2001) Inner Traditions / Bear & Company, ,
Introduction to Pagan Studies by Barbara Jane Davy (2006) Rowman Altamira ,
The Michigan Womyn's Music Festival: An Amazon Matrix of Meaning by Ph D Laurie J Kendall (2008) Lulu.com, ,
Goddess as Nature: Towards a Philosophical Thealogy by Paul Reid-Bowen (2007) Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ,
Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America by Margot Adler (2006) Penguin Books ,
The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology by Susan Frank Parsons(2002) Cambridge University Press ,
Caretaking a New Soul: Writing on Parenting from Thich Nhat Hahn to Z Budapest by Anne Carson (1999) Crossing Press ,
Women's Culture: The Women's Renaissance of the Seventies by Gayle Kimball (1981) Scarecrow Press
Woman of Power (1987) Published by Woman of Power, Inc. (Original from the University of California)
The Fabric of the Future: Women Visionaries of Today Illuminate the Path to Tomorrow by Mary Jane Ryan, Patrice (INT) Wynne, Ken (FRW) Wilber (2000) Conari ,
Goddesses and the Divine Feminine: A Western Religious History by Rosemary Radford Ruether (2006) University of California Press ,
Ritual and Symbol in Peacebuilding'' by Lisa Schirch (2005) Kumarian Press, Inc. ,
External links
Z. Budapest's Personal Website
1940 births
Living people
Activists from Oakland, California
American feminist writers
American occultists
Dianic Wicca
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
American spiritual writers
American Wiccans
Lesbian feminists
Lesbian writers
Journalists from Oakland, California
Wiccan feminists
LGBT Wiccans
Hungarian women writers
B
Feminist spirituality
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers
Pseudonymous women writers
21st-century American women
|
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] |
204077
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Potthast
|
August Potthast
|
August Potthast (13 August 1824, Höxter, Province of Westphalia13 February 1898, Leobschütz), was a German historian, was born at Höxter, and was educated at Paderborn, Münster and Berlin.
He assisted GH Pertz, the editor of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, and edited the Regesta pontificum romanorum, 1198-1304 (Berlin, 1874–1875). From 1874 to 1894 he was librarian of the German Reichstag.
Potthast is chiefly known through his monumental Bibliotheca historica medii aevi (1862), a guide to the sources of European history in the Middle Ages. The work, in the form of an index, gives particulars of practically all the historical writers of Europe and their work between 375 and 1500. A new and enlarged edition appeared at Berlin in 1896.
References
1824 births
1898 deaths
People from Höxter
People from the Province of Westphalia
German historians
19th-century historians
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
|
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204079
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Heinrich%20Pertz
|
Georg Heinrich Pertz
|
Georg Heinrich Pertz (28 March 17957 October 1876) was a German historian.
Personal life
Pertz was born in Hanover on 28 March 1795. His parents were the court bookbinder Christian August Pertz and Henrietta Justina née Deppen.
He married twice. His first marriage was in 1827 with Julia Philippa Pertz, née Garnett (born 1793; died 22 or 25 July 1852). She was a daughter of the English astronomer John Garnett. Their first son was born prior to the marriage (Karl August Pertz, born 21 May 1825 in Hanover) and they had four more children, Karl August Friedrich Pertz (1828-1881), his twin sister (1828 - 20 January 1829), Georg Pertz (1830–1870) and the engineer Hermann Pertz (1833–1881), who died while building a railway in England.
His second marriage in 1854 was with Leonora Horner, who was a daughter of the Scottish geologist, social and educational reformer Leonard Horner. They had several children including the botanist Dora Pertz.
He died 7 October Munich in 1876 while attending the sittings of a historical commission. He is buried in Berlin.
Career
From 1813 to 1818 he studied history and philology at the University of Göttingen, chiefly under A. H. L. Heeren. His graduation thesis, published in 1819, on the history of the Merovingian Mayors of the Palace, attracted the attention of the Prussian reformer Baron Stein, by whom he was employed in 1820 to edit the Carolingian chroniclers for the newly founded Historical Society of Germany. In search of materials for this purpose, Pertz made a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return in 1823 Stein entrusted him with publication of the series Monumenta Germaniae Historica, texts of all important historical writers on German affairs before 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal archives, and other valuable documents, such as letters, falling within this period. Pertz made frequent research visits to the leading libraries and public record offices of Europe.
In 1821 he was made secretary of the archives, and in 1827 principal keeper of the royal library at Hanover; from 1832 to 1837 he edited the Hannoverische Zeitung, and more than once sat as representative in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1842 he was chief librarian at the Royal Library in Berlin, where he shortly afterwards was made a privy councillor and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He resigned all his appointments in 1874.
The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of his resignation 24 folio volumes in the series Scriptores, Leges, and Diplomata had appeared. This work for the first time made possible the existence of the modern school of scientific historians of medieval Germany. In connection with the Monumenta Pertz also began the publication of a selection of sources in octavo format, the Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum. Among his other literary works was an edition of the Gesammelte Werke of Leibniz, and a life of Stein (Leben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols, 1849–1855)).
Works
Legacy
A street in Hanover's Kleefeld district was named Pertzstrasse in his honour in 1937.
References
External links
1795 births
1876 deaths
Writers from Hanover
German historians
German male non-fiction writers
|
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204080
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vesuvius%20%281888%29
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USS Vesuvius (1888)
|
USS Vesuvius, the third ship of the United States Navy named for the Italian volcano, was a unique vessel in the Navy inventory which marked a departure from more conventional forms of main battery armament. She is considered a dynamite gun cruiser and was essentially an operational testbed for large dynamite guns.
Vesuvius was laid down in September 1887 at Philadelphia by William Cramp & Sons Ships and Engine Building Company, subcontracted from the Pneumatic Dynamite Gun Company of New York City. She was launched on 28 April 1888 sponsored by Miss Eleanor Breckinridge and commissioned on 2 June 1890 at the Philadelphia Navy Yard with Lieutenant Seaton Schroeder in command.
Dynamite guns
Vesuvius carried three 15-inch (38 cm) cast-iron pneumatic guns, invented by D. M. Medford and developed by Edmund Zalinski, a retired officer of the United States Army. They were mounted forward side by side at a fixed elevation of 16 degrees. Gun barrels were 55 feet (17 meters) long with the muzzles extending 15 feet (4.6 meters) through the deck 37 feet (11 meters) abaft the bow. In order to train these weapons, the ship had to be aimed, like a gun, at its target. Compressed air from a 1000 psi (70 atm) reservoir projected the shells from the dynamite guns. Two air compressors were available to recharge the reservoir.
The shells fired from the guns were steel or brass casings 7 feet (2 meters) long with the explosive contained in the conical forward part of the casing and spiral vanes on the after part to rotate the projectile. The explosive used in the shells themselves was actually a "desensitized blasting gelatin" composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. It was less sensitive to shock than regular dynamite, but still sensitive enough that compressed air, rather than powder, had to be utilized as the propellant. Shells containing 550 pounds (250 kg) of explosive had a maximum range of 1 mile (1.6 km), but range could be extended to 4000 yards (3.7 km) by reducing projectile weight to 200 pounds (100 kg). Maximum muzzle velocity was 800 feet (250 meters) per second. Range could be reduced by releasing less compressed air from the reservoir. Ten shells per gun were carried on board, and 15 shells were fired in 16 minutes 50 seconds during an 1889 test. The shells employed an electrical fuze which could be either set to explode on contact or delayed to explode underwater.
Service history
Shakedown cruise
Vesuvius sailed for New York shortly after commissioning and then joined the Fleet at Gardiner's Bay, New York, on 1 October 1890. She operated off the east coast with the North Atlantic Squadron into 1895. Highlights of this tour of duty included numerous port visits and participation in local observances of holidays and festivals, as well as gunnery practice and exercises. Experience showed that the ship's unique main battery had two major drawbacks: first, the range was too short; second, the method of aiming was crude and inaccurate.
Spanish–American War
Decommissioned on 25 April 1895 for major repairs, Vesuvius re-entered service on 12 January 1897 with Lieutenant Commander John E. Pillsbury in command. The ship got underway from Philadelphia Navy Yard, bound for Florida, and operated off the east coast through the spring of the following year, 1898. By this time, American relations with Spain were worsening. The American Fleet gathered in Florida waters, and Vesuvius hurried south from Newport, Rhode Island, and arrived at Key West, Florida, on 13 May. She remained there until 28 May, when she headed for blockade duty in Cuban coastal waters. Vesuvius performed special duties at the discretion of the Fleet Commander in Chief and served as a dispatch vessel between Cuba and Florida into July 1898.
On 13 June, Vesuvius conducted the first of eight shore bombardment missions against Santiago, Cuba. The cruiser stealthily closed the shore under cover of darkness, loosed a few rounds of her 15-inch dynamite charges, and then retired to sea. Psychologically, Vesuviuss bombardment caused great anxiety among the Spanish forces ashore, for her devastating shells came in without warning, unaccompanied by the roar of gunfire usually associated with a bombardment. Admiral Sampson wrote accordingly, that Vesuvius bombardments had "great effect." Although the dynamite guns were relatively quiet, detonation of their large high explosive shells sounded different from contemporary gunpowder-filled artillery shells; and soldiers observed the explosions "made holes like the cellar of a country house."
Post-war conversion
After hostilities with Spain ended later that summer, Vesuvius sailed north and called at Charleston, South Carolina, New York, and Newport, before reaching Boston, Massachusetts. Taken out of active service on 16 September 1898, Vesuvius remained at the Boston Navy Yard until 1904, when she began conversion to a torpedo-testing vessel. Vesuvius lost her unique main battery and acquired four torpedo tubes — three 18 inch (450 mm) and one 21-inch. Recommissioned on 21 June 1905, Vesuvius soon sailed for the Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, Rhode Island to begin her new career.
She conducted torpedo experiments at the station for two years until decommissioned on 27 November 1907 for repairs. Recommissioned again on 14 February 1910, Vesuvius remained at Newport for the next 11 years, on occasion serving as station ship, into 1921.
In May 1913, a torpedo fired from Vesuvius ran a circular course and punctured the hull of the ship. Damage control efforts by her crew and the quick judgment of her commanding officer, Chief Gunner Thomas Smith, prevented her from sinking before she was intentionally run aground on Prudence Island in Narragansett Bay.
She was decommissioned and ordered appraised for sale on 21 April 1922 to J. Lipsitz and Company of Chelsea, Massachusetts.
Awards
Sampson Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal
World War I Victory Medal
Legacy
The ship's bell of Vesuvius is on display in the administration building of the Rhode Island Veterans Home in Bristol, Rhode Island.
A model of Vesuvius was shown in Alec Baldwin's office on the TV series 30 Rock.
There is a model of Vesuvius on display at the National Museum of the United States Navy at the Washington Navy Yard.
Vesuvius is listed in the book The World's Worst Warships by Anthony Preston.
See also
USS Vesuvius (AE-15)
USS Katahdin
References
Bibliography
R. Busetto, La USS Vesuvius, in Rivista Marittima, 1997, vol. 507, p. 81
The White Squadron. [Toledo, Ohio]: Woolson Spice Co., 1891.
External links
navsource.org: USS Vesuvius
hazegray.org: Photographs of the Vesuvius
Spanish–American War cruisers of the United States
Cruisers of the United States Navy
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1888 ships
|
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