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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1879%20in%20literature
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1879 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1879.
Events
January 1 – Benjamin Henry Blackwell opens the first Blackwell's bookshop, in Oxford.
January 11 – During construction of an extension to Birmingham Central Library in England, a fire destroys 50,000 books and the original manuscript of the Coventry Mystery Plays (including the "Coventry Carol").
September – The English critic and poet Theodore Watts-Dunton takes the alcoholic poet Algernon Charles Swinburne into permanent care at his Putney home.
September 6 – Arthur Conan Doyle has his first story, "The Mystery of Sasassa Valley", published anonymously in Chambers's Journal.
October 10 – The collected works of the American poet Ethel Lynn Beers are published as All Quiet Along The Potomac and Other Poems. The title poem is her best-known work. On the following day she dies aged 52 at Orange, New Jersey.
December – Walter Besant persuades Thomas Hardy to become a founder-member of The Rabelais Club in London, which holds a literary dinner once every two months. Other members include the novelists Henry James, Bret Harte, Oliver Wendell Holmes and George du Maurier.
December 21 – The first production of Henrik Ibsen's controversial "modern drama" A Doll's House takes place at the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen, after publication there on December 4.
unknown dates
Publication of the first complete edition of Georg Büchner's works, edited by Karl Emil Franzos, is completed in Frankfurt. It includes the first printing of the play Wozzeck, left unfinished on the writer's death in 1837.
The Swiss publisher Birkhäuser is founded in Basel.
New books
Fiction
W. Harrison Ainsworth – Beau Nash
Emilia Pardo Bazán – Pascual López: autobiografía de un estudiante de medicina (Pascual López: Autobiography of a Medical Student)
Mary Elizabeth Braddon
The Cloven Foot
Vixen
Wilkie Collins
The Fallen Leaves
A Rogue's Life
Alphonse Daudet – Kings in Exile (Les Rois en Exil)
Silas Hocking – Her Benny
Joris-Karl Huysmans – Les Soeurs Vatard
Henry James – Daisy Miller
Reinis and Matīss Kaudzīte – Mērnieku laiki (Times of the Land-Surveyors – first novel in Latvian)
Charles Kickham – Knocknagow, or The Homes of Tipperary
Pierre Loti – Aziyadé
George Meredith – The Egoist
John Boyle O'Reilly – Moondyne
Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai – Prathapa Mudaliar Charithram (The Life of Prathapa Mudaliar, written 1857; first novel in Tamil)
Shi Yukun (credited) – The Tale of Loyal Heroes and Righteous Gallants (忠烈俠義傳)
August Strindberg – The Red Room (Roda Rummet)
Anthony Trollope
Cousin Henry
The Duke's Children (serialization begins)
John Caldigate
Jules Verne
The Begum's Fortune (Les Cinq cents millions de la Bégum)
Tribulations of a Chinaman in China (Les Tribulations d'un Chinois en Chine)
Friedrich Theodor Vischer – Auch einer: eine Reisebekanntschaft
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Jack and Jill: A Village Story
E. W. Cole – Cole's Funny Picture Book
Evelyn Whitaker – Laddie
Drama
Vasile Alecsandri – Despot-Vodă
Émile Augier – Les Fourchambault
Edmond Gondinet – Les Tapageurs
James Herne – Hearts of Oak
Henrik Ibsen – A Doll's House
George Robert Sims – Crutch and Toothpick
Poetry
Ethel Lynn Beers – All Quiet Along The Potomac and Other Poems
Kate Greenaway – Under the Window: Pictures & Rhymes for Children
Non-fiction
Lewis Carroll – Euclid and his Modern Rivals
Charles Darwin – The Life of Erasmus Darwin
Emilia, Lady Dilke (as E. F. S. Pattison) – The Renaissance of Art in France
Edward Dowden – Southey
Gottlob Frege – Begriffsschrift (Concept Writing)
Henry George – Progress and Poverty
Agnes Giberne – Sun, Moon and Stars: Astronomy for Beginners
George Grove (ed.) – A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1st edition begins publication
Yngvar Nielsen – Reisehaandbog over Norge (Travel Manual to Norway)
Robert Louis Stevenson – Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes
Births
January 1 – E. M. Forster, English novelist and critic (died 1970)
January 26 – Alfred Eckhard Zimmern, German-born English historian and political scientist (died 1957)
February 13 – Sarojini Naidu (née Chattopadhyay), Indian poet and politician (died 1949)
February 17 – Dorothy Canfield Fisher, American activist and novelist (died 1958)
March 14 – Harold Monro, English poet and promoter of poetry (died 1932)
April 14 – James Branch Cabell, American novelist (died 1958)
May 8 – Ioan C. Filitti, Romanian historian, political theorist and essayist (died 1945)
June 4 – Percy Lubbock, English essayist, critic and biographer (died 1965)
July 19 – Ferenc Móra, Hungarian children's writer and editor (died 1934)
July 20 – Claude Scudamore Jarvis, English writer, Arabist and naturalist (died 1953)
August 19 – Lascăr Vorel, Romanian visual artist and short story writer (died 1918)
September 19 – Louis Joseph Vance, American novelist (died 1933)
October 2 – Wallace Stevens, American poet (died 1955)
November 19 – Mait Metsanurk, Estonian author and playwright (died 1957)
December 3 – Kafū Nagai (永井 荷風), Japanese novelist (died 1959)
December 24 – Émile Nelligan, French Canadian poet (died 1941)
Deaths
January 16 – Octave Crémazie, "the father of French Canadian poetry" (born 1827)
February 28 – Hortense Allart, French feminist novelist (born 1801)
March 3
William Howitt, English historical writer and poet (born 1792)
Annie Keary, English novelist, poet and children's writer (born 1825)
March 9 – Mark Prager Lindo, Dutch historian (born 1819)
March 19 – Claire Clairmont, English-born diarist and correspondent (born 1798)
April 8 – Anthony Panizzi, Italian-born English librarian (born 1797)
April 21 – George Hadfield, English radical author and politician (born 1787)
April 25 – Charles Tennyson Turner, English poet (born 1808)
April 30 – Sarah Josepha Hale, American novelist and poet (born 1788)
June 1 – Louisa Caroline Huggins Tuthill, American children's author (born 1799)
June 3 – Frances Ridley Havergal, English religious poet (born 1836)
June 19 – George W. M. Reynolds, English popular novelist (born 1814)
July 4 – Sarah Dorsey, American novelist and historian (born 1829)
July 30 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian poet and journalist (born 1818)
September 20 – Rosanna Eleanor Leprohon, Canadian novelist and poet (born 1829)
September 23 – Francis Kilvert, English diarist and cleric (born 1840)
October 11 – Ethel Lynn Beers, American poet (born 1827)
October 13 – Henry Charles Carey, American economist (born 1793)
October 28 – Marie Roch Louis Reybaud, French political economist (born 1799)
October 31
Jacob Abbott, American children's writer (born 1803)
John Baldwin Buckstone, English dramatist (born 1802)
November 23 – Louisa Susannah Cheves McCord, American political essayist (born 1810)
December 27 – William Hepworth Dixon, English historian, traveller and journal editor (born 1821)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – Thomas Mosse Macdonald
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204082
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold%20Hermann%20Ludwig%20Heeren
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Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren
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Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren (25 October 1760, Arbergen6 March 1842, Göttingen) was a German historian. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History.
Biography
Heeren was born on 25 October 1760 in Arbergen near Bremen, a small village in which his father was a clergyman. He spent the first 15 years of his life in Arbergen, where he was privately educated. From the beginning of the year 1776, shortly after his father had been appointed Prediger at the cathedral at Bremen, he attended the cathedral school there. At Michelmas 1779 he went on to the university at Göttingen, in accord with his father's wish that he work toward a degree in theology.
Having begun his studies at Göttingen, Heeren, like so many ambitious young men of that period, decided against theology as a vocation. (This did not, however, denote a turning away from religion; Heeren would remain sympathetic to religious belief throughout his life.) By Christian Gottlob Heyne he was introduced to philology, and by Ludwig Timotheus Spittler to the study of history. After much vacillation, Heeren let himself be persuaded by Spittler that his primary talent lay in historical research. It was the decisive moment of his young life.
With Heyne's blessing, Heeren decided to pursue an academic career. In 1784, having received his degree as a Doctor of Philosophy, he simultaneously earned the right to teach at Göttingen as a Privatdocent or adjunct professor. Though he recognized almost immediately that his true vocation lay elsewhere, his first scholarly work was in philology. In 1785 he published an edition of De encomiis by the rhetorician Menander, and proposed as well a critical edition of the of Johannes Stobaeus. In connection with this work, as well as in hopes of improving his health, he then undertook (in July 1785) a trip to Italy, Paris, and the Netherlands. He spent seven months in Rome. Having a congenial personality, he immediately made himself at home there. Before departing he, the son of a Reformed clergyman, would earn the patronage of several Cardinals of the Catholic Church. He then passed two months in Paris.
After nearly two years he returned to Göttingen. With the sponsorship of Heyne, whose influence in Hannover was then at its height, and whose son-in-law he would later (1796) become, he was in June 1787 named to the faculty of the university itself as an außerordentlicher Professor of Philosophy. At Göttingen, such established scholars as Johann Christoph Gatterer, August Ludwig von Schlözer and Spittler were still active as historians. Now making his first appearance as a public lecturer, Heeren was careful to confine his teaching to a middle ground between History and Philology, partly out of diffidence and partly of a congenital indecisiveness. He thus avoided for some years a direct commitment to the discipline in which he would later become famous. During this period Heeren undertook with his friend Thomas Christian Tychsen a “Library of Ancient Literature and Art,” which had a short-lived existence. At the same time he initiated publication of the edition of Johannes Stobaeus's Eclogues that he had prepared years earlier. The first part appeared at Easter in 1792. The edition would reach its conclusion with the fourth part some nine years later. The reception given the first part was by not encouraging; the work of Thomas Gaisford and Augustus Meineke would eventually supplant the completed edition.
Seeing that his true gift was not for philological work, Heeren only now moved decisively toward historical scholarship as his chosen field. External circumstances also played a role. In 1794 he was named ordentlicher Professor of Philosophy, although still without a specific area of specialization. But at this point Gatterer and Schlözer had begun visibly to age. Spittler would leave Göttingen entirely in 1797. Gradually, therefore, place was made for Heeren as a historian, despite the fact that, at this point, he could scarcely claim to stand on an equal footing with such established senior scholars. He officially assumed the title of professor of history in 1801.
Heeren had given lectures on ancient history as early a 1790. His new circumstances soon brought out his talent as a historian of classical antiquity, in which he would achieve both intellectual fulfillment and great scholarly eminence. From his earlier lectures grew his magisterial Politics, Trade, and Commerce in the Ancient World, which would go through numerous later editions, with Heeren providing fundamental revisions as it continued to appear. With the appearance of the first edition, Heeren awoke to find himself famous. Even today, when Heeren has become a minor figure in the story of nineteenth-century German scholarship, his name continues to be associated with this work.
Part of its success was due to Heeren's fortunate choice of subject. Trade and commerce, hitherto neglected by historians, was now not only being pursued but, in Heeren's work, made the subject of thorough research. With good reason, it has been supposed that Heeren's Bremen background and his childhood memories of that thriving commercial city were responsible for his taking this particular direction. But to explain the overwhelmingly favorable reception that greeted Politics, Trade, and Commerce in the Ancient World, one must also take into account Heeren's considerable talent as a writer, as well as an acute historical sense and a sharply critical spirit without which a work on such a subject could not have failed to be dull reading.
Outside Germany, Heeren's volume earned immediate acclaim. It was soon translated into several foreign languages. The effect of this reception on Heeren was lasting, no doubt explaining why, in his unpublished autobiographical writings, he would continue to lay particular stress on the importance of what he called the “politico-mercantile” dimension of history. As a Göttingen professor, however, Heeren did not confine himself to that subject. He earned an enviable reputation as a teacher. As a writer, he would be recognized for his broad range of historical interests. Although they would later pass into relative obscurity, his History of Ancient Civilizations (Göttingen, 1799) and his History of European States and their Colonies (Göttingen 1809) met with the success of his earlier work, going through numerous editions. Though he would show himself to have little real feel for medieval history, he did venture some work in that direction as well. His History of Classical Literature Since the Revival of Learning (Göttingen, 1792–1802, 2 vols) was by his contemporaries judged something of a failure. On the other hand, his Untersuchungen über die Kreuzzüge, translated into French as Essai sur l'influence des croisades ("Essay on the Influence of the Crusades") by his friend Charles de Villers, would in 1806 be awarded a prize by the Institute de France.
Heeren had little interest in contemporary politics, and would later be criticized in his own country for having taken refuge in the study of antiquity when German politics were moving toward the crisis of 1848. This refusal of political engagement, Franz Xaver von Wegele would write a generation later in the Allegemeinen Deutschen Biographie, was largely responsible for “the rapid fading of what had once been his shining star” (das rasche Verbleichen seines einst strahlenden Gestirnes).
Nonetheless, Heeren did not let his powers wane in his later years. He widened the scope of his university lectures to include recent work in demography and geography. After Johann Gottfried Eichhorn’s death in 1827 he took over the editorship of the Göttische Gelehrte Anzeigen. He deposited in the Göttingen Societät der Wissenschaften his research materials on the sources used by various ancient historians and geographers, inspiring a number of his students, most notably Georg Heinrich Pertz, to embark on similar research in other historical periods. Nonetheless, he would live to see his own reputation eclipsed by members of a rising generation, with his own colleagues among those who joined the attacks on certain of his own chief works.
In Göttingen itself Heeren's name would be all but forgotten. Twenty years earlier, when G.H. Pertz and Friedrich August Ukert had initiated their ambitious project on the History of the European States, it was Heeren that they had eagerly besought as their main editor. When he died on 6 March 1842 in his eighty-second year, his passing was hardly noticed by those in the immediate vicinity. Only six students from the university would follow Heeren's coffin to his grave. At the time of his death, few recalled how immensely influential had been his writings, and how distinguished his reputation as a historian, in his own time.
Sources
The above article is a translation of the original entry by Franz Xaver von Wegele in the Allegemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 11 (1880), 244–246.
Works
Heeren's chief works are:
Ideen über Politik, den Verkehr, und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt (2 vols., Göttingen, 1793–1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824–1826; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1833)
Geschichte des Studiums der classischen Litteratur seit dem Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften (2 vols., Göttingen, 1797–1802)
Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums (Göttingen, 1799)
Geschichte des europäischen Staatensystems (Göttingen, 1800)
Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge für Europa (Göttingen, 1808; French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the Institute of France.
Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical sketches of Johannes von Müller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Timotheus Spittler (Berlin, 1812); and Christian Gottlob Heine (Göttingen, 1813). With Friedrich August Ukert (1780–1851) he founded the famous historical collection, Geschichte der europäischen Staaten (Gotha, 1819 seq.), and contributed many papers to learned periodicals.
A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice, was published in 15 volumes (Göttingen, 1821–1830).
Notes
References
Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig. A Manual of the History of the Political System of Europe and its Colonies (HG Bohn, 1846). online
Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig. Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity (HG Bohn, 1847). online
Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig. Historical Researches into the Politics, intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians and Egyptians (HG Bohn, 1857). online
External links
1760 births
1842 deaths
German historians
Writers from Bremen
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Göttingen faculty
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
German male non-fiction writers
|
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] |
204083
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1878%20in%20literature
|
1878 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1878.
Events
January 28 – The Yale News becomes the first daily college newspaper in the United States.
June – Robert Louis Stevenson's three linked detective fiction short stories The Suicide Club featuring Prince Florizel begin publication in The London Magazine.
June 10 – Konrad Korzeniowski, the future English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, sets foot on British soil for the first time, at Lowestoft from the SS Mavis.
July – The Scottish poetaster William McGonagall, a self-described "poet and tragedian", journeys on foot from Dundee to Balmoral Castle over mountainous terrain and through a thunderstorm in a fruitless attempt to perform his verse before Queen Victoria.
August 3 – Guy de Maupassant writes to Gustave Flaubert, complaining about his monotonous life and his new job as an employee of the Ministry of Public Instruction in France.
October – The Peabody Institute Library (later George Peabody Library) opens to the public in Baltimore, Maryland.
December 30 – Henry Irving's production of Hamlet, with himself in the title rôle playing opposite Ellen Terry as Ophelia, opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London (of which they have taken over the management).
unknown dates
The Johns Hopkins University Press is established in Baltimore, Maryland, as the University Publication Agency, making it the oldest continuously operating university press in the United States.
The Remington No. 2 typewriter, the first with a shift key enabling production of lower as well as upper case characters, is introduced in the United States.
New books
Fiction
W. Harrison Ainsworth – Beatrice Tyldesley
Rebecca Agatha Armour – Lady Rosamond's Secret. A Romance of Fredericton
Walter Besant and James Rice – The Monks of Thelema
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – An Open Verdict
Ellen Buckingham Mathews (pseudonym Helen Mathers) – Cherry Ripe
Wilkie Collins – The Haunted Hotel
Theodor Fontane – Vor dem Sturm (Before the Storm)
Anna Katharine Green – The Leavenworth Case
Thomas Hardy – The Return of the Native (serialized in Belgravia)
Henry James
Daisy Miller
The Europeans
William Hurrell Mallock
The New Paul and Virginia
The New Republic
Margaret Oliphant – The Primrose Path
José Maria de Eça de Queiroz – Cousin Bazilio (O Primo Basílio)
Anne Eliza Smith – Seola
Harriet Beecher Stowe – Poganuc People: Their Loves and Lives
Leo Tolstoy – Anna Karenina («Анна Каренина», book publication)
Émile Zola – Une Page d'amour
Children and young people
Randolph Caldecott – The House that Jack Built
Hector Malot – Sans Famille (Nobody's Boy)
Jules Verne – Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen (Un Capitaine de quinze ans)
Evelyn Whitaker – Miss Toosey's Mission. A Tale
Drama
José Echegaray – En el pilar y en la cruz (The Stake and the Cross)
W. S. Gilbert – The Ne'er-do-Weel
Poetry
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy – The Dream of Councillor Popov (satire)
Non-fiction
François Callet – Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara
Richard Jefferies – The Gamekeeper at Home
Friedrich Nietzsche – Human, All Too Human (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches)
Robert Louis Stevenson – An Inland Voyage
Births
January 4 – A. E. Coppard, English short story writer and poet (died 1957)
January 6 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (died 1967)
January 12 – Ferenc Molnár (Ferenc Neumann), Hungarian playwright and novelist (died 1952)
March 14 – Victor Bridges, English novelist, playwright and poet (died 1972)
April 15 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and poet writing in German (died 1956)
June 1 – John Masefield, English poet (died 1967)
June 12 – James Oliver Curwood, American author (died 1927)
August 2 – Berta Ruck, Indian-born Welsh romantic novelist (died 1978)
August 10 – Louis Esson, Scottish-born Australian poet and playwright (died 1943)
September 20 – Upton Sinclair, American novelist (died 1968)
September 22 – F. J. Harvey Darton English children's literature historian and publisher (died 1936)
November 25 – Georg Kaiser, German dramatist (died 1945
Deaths
January 19 – Ede Szigligeti, Hungarian dramatist (born 1814)
February 1 – George Cruikshank, English illustrator (born 1792)
April 24 – Heinrich Leo, Prussian historian (born 1799)
April 25 – Anna Sewell, English novelist (born 1820)
May 28 – Sophie de Choiseul-Gouffier, Lithuanian novelist (born 1790)
July 1 – Catherine Winkworth, English translator (born 1827)
August 13
George Gilfillan, Scottish poet and author (born 1813)
Elizabeth Prentiss, American poet and hymnist (born 1818)
November 3 – Frances Freeling Broderip (née Hood), English children's writer
November 17 – Karl Theodor Keim, German theologian (born 1825)
December 5 – George Whyte-Melville, Scottish-born novelist (hunting accident, born 1821)
December 19 – Bayard Taylor, American poet (born 1825)
December 31 – Giulietta Pezzi, Italian novelist, journalist, and poet (born 1810)
Awards
Newdigate prize – Oscar Wilde, "Ravenna"
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204085
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1877%20in%20literature
|
1877 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1877.
Events
January 24 – Émile Zola's L'Assommoir (sometimes translated as "The Dram Shop"), seventh in his novel sequence Les Rougon-Macquart, is first published in book format a few weeks after its serialisation ends in Le Bien public (Paris). It sells more than 50,000 copies by the end of the year.
February 24–March 17 – Robert Louis Stevenson's first published work of fiction, the novella "An Old Song", appears anonymously in four episodes in the magazine London. It was first attributed to Stevenson in 1980.
July – The ending of Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina is published in Russkiy vestnik.
July 15 – "Coppino Law" in Italy makes elementary schools mandatory, free and secular.
October – Robert Louis Stevenson publishes the short story "A Lodging for the Night" (in Temple Bar magazine), later collected in New Arabian Nights.
October 15 – Edward L. Wheeler's first story featuring Deadwood Dick, set on the American frontier, opens the first number of Beadle's Half-Dime Library, published in New York.
November 5 – The Mitchell Library is established in Glasgow.
November 14 – Henrik Ibsen's first contemporary realist drama The Pillars of Society is premièred at the Odense Teater (having been first published on October 11 in Copenhagen).
November 24 – Anna Sewell's novel Black Beauty, his grooms and companions: the autobiography of a horse "translated from the equine" is published by Jarrolds of Norwich in England. Her only book, published five months before her death arising from long-standing illness, it rapidly establishes its position as an all-time bestseller, going on to sell fifty million copies and becoming the sixth best seller in the English language.
December 30 – Swedish dramatist August Strindberg marries his mistress, the divorced actress Siri von Essen, a member of the Finnish-Swedish minor nobility.
New books
Fiction
R. M. Ballantyne – The Settler and the Savage
R. D. Blackmore – Erema; or, my father's sin
Ned Buntline – Buffalo Bill Trails the Devil Head
Bankim Chatterjee
Chandrasekhar
Rajani
Ion Creangă – Harap Alb
Fyodor Dostoevsky – "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" (Сон смешного человека, short story)
Maria Fetherstonhaugh – Kilcorran
Gustave Flaubert – Three Tales
Henry James – The American
Jan Neruda – Povídky malostranské (Tales of the Little Quarter)
Margaret Oliphant – Carità
William Clark Russell – The Wreck of the Grosvenor
Theodor Storm – Aquis Submersus
Anthony Trollope
The American Senator
Is He Popenjoy?
Jacint Verdaguer – L'Atlàntida
Jules Verne
Hector Servadac
Les Indes noires
Émile Zola – L'Assommoir
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Under the Lilacs
Mary Louisa Molesworth (Mrs. Molesworth) – The Cuckoo Clock
Anna Sewell – Black Beauty
Amy Catherine Walton (Mrs. O. F. Walton) – A Peep Behind the Scenes
Drama
James Albery – The Pink Dominos
José Echegaray – Saint or Madman? (O locura o santidad)
W. S. Gilbert – Engaged
Henrik Ibsen – The Pillars of Society (Samfundets støtter)
Adolphe L'Arronge – Hasemann's Daughters
Poetry
Edward Lear – Laughable Lyrics (published December 1876, dated 1877)
Stéphane Mallarmé – Poésies
Non-fiction
Henry Spencer Ashbee (as Pisanus Fraxi) – Index Librorum Prohibitorum: being Notes Bio- Biblio- Icono- graphical and Critical on Curious and Uncommon Books
Helena Blavatsky – Isis Unveiled
Florence Caddy – Household Organisation
Amelia Edwards – A Thousand Miles up the Nile
Henry Miers Elliot (ed. by John Dowson) – The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians
Kenneth Mackenzie – Royal Masonic Cyclopedia
Lewis H. Morgan – Ancient Society
Shen Fu (沈復) – Six Records of a Floating Life (autobiography; first printed edition)
Births
January 4 – Sextil Pușcariu, Romanian linguist, philologist and journalist (died 1948)
February 7 – Alfred Williams, English "hammerman poet" (died 1930)
March 6 – Rose Fyleman, English writer and poet (died 1957)
April 14 – Donald Maxwell, English travel writer and illustrator (died 1936)
April 29 – Henri Stahl, Romanian historian, short story writer, memoirist and stenographer (died 1942)
June 11 – Renée Vivien, born Pauline Mary Tarn, English-born French-language Symbolist poet (died 1909)
July 2 – Hermann Hesse, German-Swiss poet, novelist and painter (died 1962)
August 27 – Lloyd C. Douglas, American novelist and pastor (died 1951)
September 1 – Rex Beach, American novelist and playwright (died 1949)
September 9 – James Agate, English diarist and critic (died 1947)
November 15 – William Hope Hodgson, English fiction writer (killed in action 1918)
Deaths
April – Ernst Moritz Ludwig Ettmüller, German philologist (born 1802)
June 15 – Caroline Norton (née Caroline Sheridan), English poet, pamphleteer and social reformer (born 1808)
June 17 – John Stevens Cabot Abbott, American historian and pastor (born 1805)
September 12 – Emily Pepys, English child diarist (born 1833)
October 10 – Johann Georg Baiter, Swiss philologist and critic (born 1801)
October 16 – Théodore Barrière, French dramatist (born 1823)
October 28 – Julia Kavanagh, Irish novelist (born 1824)
December 12 – José de Alencar, Brazilian novelist (born 1829)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20von%20M%C3%BCller
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Johannes von Müller
|
Johannes von Müller (3 January 1752 – 29 May 1809) was a Swiss historian.
Biography
He was born at Schaffhausen, where his father was a clergyman and rector of the gymnasium. In his youth, his maternal grandfather, Johannes Schoop (1696–1757), roused in him an interest in the history of his country. At the age of eight he is said to have written a history of Schaffhausen, and at eleven he knew the names and dates of all the kings of the four great monarchies. His ardour for historical studies was further stimulated by Schlözer, when Müller went (1769–1771) to the University of Göttingen, nominally to study theology. In July 1771 he undertook a sketch of Swiss history for a publisher of Halle, but his theological studies and the preparation of a Latin dissertation on the Bellum cimbricum (publ. in 1772) prevented much progress.
In April 1772 he passed his theological examination, and soon after became professor of Greek at the Collegium Humanitatis in Schaffhausen. He now began to devote his leisure hours to the investigation of Swiss chronicles and documents. Early in 1774, on the advice of his friend Charles Victor de Bonstetten, he gave up this post and became tutor in the Tronchin family at Geneva. But in 1775 he resigned this position also, and passed his time with various friends, as Francis Kinloch from South Carolina, in Geneva and Vaud, engaged in carrying his historical scheme into effect. Having accumulated much material, he began the actual composition of his work in the spring of 1776, and the printing in the summer of 1777. But difficulties arose with the censor, and matters came to a standstill.
In 1778–1779 Müller delivered a set of lectures on universal history (revised between 1782 and 1784), which were published as Vierundzwanzig Bücher allgemeiner Geschichte in 1811, and often republished. In 1780 the first volume (extending to 1388) of his Geschichten der Schweizer appeared, nominally at Boston (to avoid the censor), though really at Bern; and it was well received. In 1781 he published at Berlin, in French, his Essais historiques. During his visit to Berlin, he had an interview with Frederick the Great from whom he had hoped to obtain an office, but he did not receive it. He was on his way back to Switzerland when the landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) named him professor of history at the Collegium Carolinum. He stayed at Kassel till 1783, publishing in 1782 his Reisen der Päpste, a book wherein certain leanings towards Romanism are visible, also his distrust of emperor Joseph II's hegemonial politics.
On his return to Geneva (1783) he accepted the post of reader to the brother of his old patron, Tronchin, and occupied himself with remodelling his published work of 1780. In order to improve his financial position, he accepted early in 1786 the post of librarian to Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal, the prince-elector and of archbishop of Mainz, who bestowed many important offices upon him and obtained his elevation to nobility from the emperor Leopold II. in 1791. In June 1786 he issued vol. i. (reaching to 1412) and two years later vol. ii. (to 1436) of the definitive form of his Swiss history, which was received with great praise. In 1787 he issued an important political tract, Zur Darstellung des Fürstenbundes, and also Briefe zweier Domherren. But in October 1792 Mainz was taken by the French, so that Müller had to seek for another post. In February 1793 he entered the service of Emperor Francis II as an imperial aulic councillor.
At Vienna he spent many years, becoming chief librarian of the imperial library in 1800, and in 1795 he issued vol. iii. (to 1443) of his Swiss history. In 1804 he became historiographer, war councillor, and member of the Academy at Berlin. In 1805 vol. iv. (to 1475) of his Swiss history appeared. He edited the works of Herder, and wrote various treatises for the Academy, including Über die Geschichte Friedrich's II (On the history of Frederick II).
In 1806 he became strongly inclined towards Napoleon, by whom he was received in audience after the Battle of Jena (November 1806), and from whom he accepted (end of 1807) the office of secretary of state for the Kingdom of Westphalia, exchanging this position early in 1808 for the posts of privy councillor and general director of public instruction. At the end of 1808 he published vol. v. (to 1489) of his great work. He died at Kassel on 29 May 1809.
Works
Müller's works were published under the care of his brother Johann Georg Müller (1759–1819), pupil of Johann Gottfried Herder, at Tübingen, in 27 vols. (1810–1819), and re-issued, in 40 vols., at Stuttgart (1831–1835). Vols. 1-3 contain a revised, but unfinished, German version of Müller's Universal History. The Swiss History was re-issued at Leipzig and Zurich, in 15 vols. (1824–1853), with continuations by Robert Glutz-Blotzheim (to 1517), J. J. Hottinger (to 1531), Louis Vulliemin (to 1712), and Charles Monnard (to 1815). A French translation of the German edition (as above) appeared, in 18 vols., at Paris and Geneva (1837–1851).
Important minor works are Essais historiques, published in French under the auspices of Frederick the Great (Berlin, 1780); Reisen der Päpste (new ed., Aix-la-Chapelle, 1831; French translation, 1859), written against the anti-papal reforms of Joseph II, although he was a Protestant; and Vierundzwanzig Bücher allgemeiner Geschichten, lectures delivered in Switzerland (3 vols., Tübingen, 1811; often republished).
Müller's letters to Füsslin (1771–1807) were issued at Zürich (1812), and those to Charles Bonnet, etc., at Stuttgart (1835). Many letters addressed to him by various friends were published by Maurer-Constant, in 6 vols. (Schaffhausen, 1839–1840); and those written to him by his brother (1770–1809), Johann Georg Müller, appeared, under the editorship of Eduard Haug and André Weibel, at Frauenfeld (2 vols., 1893) and Göttingen (6 vols. 2009-2011).
References
Attribution
This work in turn cites the biographies by Heeren (1809), Döring (1835) and Monnard (1839); and biographies in G. v. Wyss's Geschichte der Historiographie in der Schweiz (Zürich, 1895), pp. 305–311, and in the Festschrift der Stadt Schaffhausen (Schaffhausen, 1891), pt. v. pp. 83–99. It also notes that F. Schwarz's pamphlet, J. von Müller und seine Schweizergeschichte (Bâle, 1884), traces the genesis of the Swiss History.
Biographies by Karl Henking (1909–28) (to 1804), Karl Schib (1967) and Matthias Pape (1989) (1793–1807)
Gordon A. Craig, “Johannes von Müller: The Historian in Search of a Hero,” in: The American Historical Review 74 (1969), pp. 1487–1502.
External links
1752 births
1809 deaths
People from Schaffhausen
Swiss historians
Swiss male writers
German untitled nobility
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
University of Göttingen alumni
LGBT writers from Switzerland
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204088
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry%20Cathedral
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Coventry Cathedral
|
The Cathedral Church of Saint Michael, commonly known as Coventry Cathedral, is the seat of the Bishop of Coventry and the Diocese of Coventry within the Church of England. The cathedral is located in Coventry, West Midlands, England. The current bishop is Christopher Cocksworth and the current dean is John Witcombe.
The city has had three cathedrals. The first was St Mary's, a monastic building, of which only a few ruins remain. The second was St Michael's, a 14th-century Gothic church later designated as a cathedral, which remains a ruined shell after its bombing during the Second World War. The third is the new St Michael's Cathedral, built immediately adjacent after the destruction of the former.
St Mary's Priory
Coventry had a medieval cathedral that survived until the Reformation. This was St Mary's Priory and Cathedral, 1095 to 1102, when Robert de Limesey moved the bishop's see from Lichfield to Coventry, until 1539 when it fell victim to Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries. Prior to 1095, it had been a small Benedictine monastery (endowed by Leofric, Earl of Mercia and his wife Godiva in 1043), Shortly after 1095 rebuilding began and by the middle of the 13th century it was a cathedral of in length and included many large outbuildings. Leofric was probably buried within the original Saxon church in Coventry. However, records suggest that Godiva was buried at Evesham Abbey, alongside her father confessor, Prior Æfic. It was the only medieval cathedral to be demolished at the Reformation.
St Michael's Cathedral
First structure
St Michael's Church was largely constructed between the late 14th century and early 15th century from red sandstone. It was one of the largest parish churches in England when, in 1918, it was elevated to cathedral status on the creation of the Diocese of Coventry. This St Michael's Cathedral now stands ruined, bombed almost to destruction during the Coventry Blitz of 14 November 1940 by the German Luftwaffe. Only the tower, spire, the outer wall and the bronze effigy and tomb of its first bishop, Huyshe Yeatman-Biggs, survived. The ruins of this older cathedral remain hallowed ground and are listed at Grade I. Following the bombing of the cathedral in 1940, Provost Richard Howard had the words "Father Forgive" inscribed on the wall behind the altar of the ruined building. The spire rises to 284 feet (87 metres) to the base of the weathervane, and is the tallest structure in the city. It is also the third tallest cathedral spire in England, with only Salisbury and Norwich cathedrals rising higher. When the height of the weathervane is included, it is 290 feet (88 metres) high.
Present structure
The current St Michael's Cathedral, built next to the remains of the old, was designed by Basil Spence and Arup, built by John Laing and is a Grade I listed building.
The selection of Spence for the work was a result of a competition held in 1950 to find an architect for the new Coventry Cathedral; his design was chosen from over two hundred submitted. Spence (later knighted for this work) insisted that instead of rebuilding the old cathedral, it should be kept in ruins as a garden of remembrance and that the new cathedral should be built alongside, the two buildings together effectively forming one church. The use of Great Gate sandstone for the new Coventry Cathedral provides an element of unity between the buildings.
The foundation stone of the new cathedral was laid by Elizabeth II on 23 March 1956. The unconventional spire or flèche is tall and was lowered onto the flat roof by a helicopter, flown by Wing Commander John Dowling in April 1962.
The cathedral was consecrated on 25 May 1962, and Benjamin Britten's War Requiem, composed for the occasion, was premiered in the new cathedral on 30 May to mark its consecration.
Coventry's new cathedral adopted a modernist design. The interior is notable for its huge tapestry (once thought to be the world's largest) of Christ, designed by Graham Sutherland, the emotive sculpture of the Mater Dolorosa by John Bridgeman in the East end, and the Baptistry window designed by John Piper (made by Patrick Reyntiens), of abstract design that occupies the full height of the bowed baptistery, which comprises 195 panes, ranging from white to deep colours. The stained glass windows in the Nave, by Lawrence Lee, Keith New and Geoffrey Clarke, face away from the congregation. Spence's concept for these Nave windows was that the opposite pairs would represent a pattern of growth from birth to old age, culminating in heavenly glory nearest the altar—one side representing Human, the other side, the Divine. Also worthy of note is the Great West Window known as the Screen of Saints and Angels, engraved directly onto the screen in expressionist style by John Hutton. A pane of the Hutton window, depicting The Angel with the Eternal Gospel, was smashed during a burglary in January 2020. (Although referred to as the West Window, this is the 'liturgical west' opposite the altar which is traditionally at the east end. In this cathedral the altar is actually at the north end.) The foundation stone, the ten stone panels inset into the walls of the cathedral called the Tablets of the Word, and the baptismal font were designed and carved by the émigré German letter carver Ralph Beyer. The lectern has a bookrest in the form of an eagle, by the sculptor Elisabeth Frink. She also designed the canopy for the Bishop's throne.
Theological emphasis
As the cathedral was built on the site of a Benedictine monastery, there has always been a Benedictine influence on the cathedral community. A number of the cathedral staff become third order (lay) Benedictines and there are often cathedral retreats to Burford Priory. Since the opening of the new cathedral in 1962 there has been an evangelical emphasis. This has been strengthened by the former Dean, John Irvine, who was involved in creating the Alpha Course and previously served at Holy Trinity Brompton, and also as vicar of the first Brompton church plant, St Barnabas, Kensington. The cathedral has a strong emphasis on the Bible and aims to be a centre for good preaching and training for the diocese. It runs regular mission events such as the innovative Spirit of Life days where over 2,000 local residents are encouraged to explore their faith in God through Christian spirituality.
The cathedral is also known for innovation in its services. As well as the expected traditional services (on Sundays, eucharist at 10:30 am and choral evensong at 4 pm), there is a 6 pm Sunday service with contemporary music, preaching and prayer ministry. The Cathedral Youth Work runs Goth church and Urban Church outreach congregations for local groups of young people, an equipping and supporting cell group for youth workers within Coventry churches as well as a number of other regular groups. There continues to be a strong influence of reconciliation within the theology (both vertical: reconciling people to God; and horizontal: reconciling individuals and groups). This is present throughout the ministry of the cathedral but is most clearly seen in the International Centre for Reconciliation and the International Network of Communities of the Cross of Nails. The reconciliation work exists locally in reconciling churches and community groups but also internationally (predominantly in the Middle East and central Africa) working with terrorists and dictators as well as local churches, tribes and gangs.
Justin Welby (then a canon of the cathedral) established a special day for bereaved parents in the cathedral after the death of his own daughter. There is now an annual service commemorating the lives of children who have died. A book with the names of lost children is on display in the cathedral and anyone who has lost a child under any circumstances can ask for their child's name to be added to the book.
Symbols of reconciliation
The old cathedral grounds are home to a number of symbols of reconciliation, to complement the church's mission.
The Charred Cross
The Charred Cross was created after the cathedral was bombed during the Coventry Blitz of the Second World War. The cathedral stonemason, Jock Forbes, saw two wooden beams lying in the shape of a cross and tied them together. A replica of the Charred Cross built in 1964 has replaced the original in the ruins of the old cathedral on an altar of rubble. The original is now kept on the stairs linking the cathedral with St Michael's Hall below.
The Cross of Nails
The Cross of Nails, also created after the Blitz, was made of three nails from the roof truss of the old cathedral by Provost Richard Howard of Coventry Cathedral at the suggestion of a young friend, the Reverend Arthur Philip Wales. It was later transferred to the new cathedral, where it sits in the centre of the altar cross. It has become a symbol of peace and reconciliation across the world. There are over 330 Cross of Nails Centres all over the world, all of them bearing a cross made of three nails from the ruins, similar to the original one. When there were no more of these nails, a continuing supply have come from a prison in Germany. They are coordinated by the International Centre for Reconciliation.
One of the crosses made of nails from the old cathedral was donated to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church in Berlin, which was destroyed by Allied bombing and is also kept as a ruin alongside a newer building. A replica of the cross of nails was also donated to the Chapel of Reconciliation (Kapelle der Versöhnung) which forms part of the Berlin Wall Memorial.
A medieval cross of nails has also been carried on board all British warships which subsequently bear the name . The cross of nails was on board the Type 42 destroyer when she was sunk by enemy action in the Falklands War. The cross was salvaged by Royal Navy divers, and presented to Coventry Cathedral by the ship's Captain and colleagues. The cross was subsequently presented first to the next in 1988 until she was decommissioned in 2002, and then to , which is affiliated to Coventry, during her commissioning ceremony on 6 May 2011 by Captain David Hart-Dyke, the commanding officer of Coventry when she was sunk.
The Stalingrad Madonna
A copy of the Stalingrad Madonna by Kurt Reuber that was drawn in 1942 in Stalingrad (now Volgograd) is shown in the cathedrals of all three cities (Berlin, Coventry and Volgograd) as a sign of the reconciliation of the three countries that were once enemies.
The statue of Reconciliation
In 1994 the cathedral received a copy of the statue Reconciliation, by Josefina de Vasconcellos. Originally created in 1977 and entitled Reunion, it had been presented to the University of Bradford's Peace Studies department. After repairs and renaming, a bronze cast of the statue was presented to the cathedral in 1995, to mark the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II. Similar copies are held at the Hiroshima Peace Park in Japan, at the Stormont Estate in Northern Ireland, and at the Chapel of Reconciliation in Berlin.
The BBC broadcast a documentary in 1962 entitled Act of Faith, narrated by Leo Genn, detailing the history of Coventry Cathedral, its destruction and rebuilding.
Music
The precentor of the new Coventry Cathedral at the opening service was Joseph Poole. The service was televised and watched by many.
Organ
The cathedral has a pipe organ by Harrison & Harrison dating from 1962. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register.
Directors of music
Assistant organists
Allan Hawthorne-Baker 1934–1939
Michael Burnett
Robert George Weddle 1964–1972 (then organist)
J. Richard Lowry 1972–1976
Ian Little 1976–1977 (then organist)
Paul Leddington Wright 1977–84 (then organist)
Timothy Hone (1984-87)
Chris Argent (1987-1990)
David Poulter 1990–1995 (then director of music)
Daniel Moult 1995–2002
Martyn Lane
Alistair Reid 2004–2011
Laurence Lyndon-Jones 2011–2013
Rachel Mahon 2018–2020
Dean and chapter
As of 1 December 2020:
Dean: John Witcombe (since 19 January 2013)
Canon Precentor and Sub-Dean: David Stone (canon since 5 September 2010; sub-dean since April 2014)
Canon Pastor: Kathryn Fleming (since 31 May 2014)
Canon for Reconciliation: vacant since 27 January 2019
Burials
Gerard la Pucelle, Bishop of Coventry (1183–1184)
Huyshe Yeatman-Biggs, Bishop of Coventry (1918–1922): a bronze effigy of him, commissioned by Hamo Thornycroft, was the only artefact to survive the bombing of the old Coventry Cathedral in 1940
Gallery
See also
Dean of Coventry Chronological list of Provosts and Deans
List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom
Grade I listed buildings in Coventry
Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church, its German counterpart in Berlin
Coventry Chronicle
References
External links
Coventry Cathedral official website
Further reading about Coventry's three Cathedrals
Virtual tour of both the new cathedral and the ruins
The Cross of Nails website
Flickr images tagged Coventry Cathedral
Details of the organ from the National Pipe Organ Register
Photograph of interior prior to destruction
"Like a Phoenix from the Ashes: The Medieval Stained Glass of Coventry Cathedral"—Vidimus article about the cathedral's medieval stained glass
Coventry
Basil Spence buildings
British churches bombed by the Luftwaffe
Buildings and structures in Coventry
Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II
Buildings and structures in the West Midlands (county)
Churches completed in 1962
Churches in Coventry
Demolished buildings and structures in the United Kingdom
Diocese of Coventry
Grade I listed cathedrals
Grade I listed churches in the West Midlands (county)
Ruins of churches destroyed during World War II
Ruins in the West Midlands (county)
Tourist attractions in Coventry
|
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204090
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1876%20in%20literature
|
1876 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1876.
Events
February 24 – The stage première of the verse-play Peer Gynt by Henrik Ibsen (published 1867) with incidental music by Edvard Grieg, takes place in Christiania, Norway.
February/March – The Harvard Lampoon humor magazine is founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
March 14 – Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Roma established in Rome.
March
American librarian Melvil Dewey first publishes the Dewey Decimal Classification system.
George Bernard Shaw moves permanently from Dublin to England, after which he begins his writing career as the ghostwriter of a musical column in London satirical weekly The Hornet.
April – Émile Zola's L'Assommoir begins serialization in Le Bien public. Its low-life themes cause it to be suspended after six episodes; serialization resumes in July in La République des lettres.
July – William Heffer takes over his first bookshop in Cambridge (England), primarily as a stationer at this date.
December – The first United States edition of Mark Twain's first individual extended work of fiction, the Bildungsroman The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, illustrated by True Williams, is published by the American Publishing Company. An authorised non-illustrated British edition has appeared in early June from Chatto & Windus in London (with the first review appearing on June 24 in a British magazine) and pirated editions have appeared in Canada and Germany.
unknown dates
The first (1594) edition of Christopher Marlowe's play Edward II is discovered.
The Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord opens in Paris.
New books
Fiction
W. H. Ainsworth
Chetwynd Calverley
The Leaguer of Lathom
Machado de Assis – Helena
Isabella Banks (Mrs. G. Linnæus Banks) – The Manchester Man
Walter Besant and James Rice – The Golden Butterfly
Rhoda Broughton – Joan
Robert Buchanan – The Shadow of the Sword
Wilkie Collins – The Two Destinies
Alphonse Daudet – Jack
Fyodor Dostoevsky – A Gentle Creature
George Eliot – Daniel Deronda
Benito Pérez Galdós – Doña Perfecta
John Habberton – Helen's Babies
Thomas Hardy – The Hand of Ethelberta
Joris-Karl Huysmans – Martha
Jens Peter Jacobsen – Fru Marie Grubbe
Herman Melville – Clarel
Anthony Trollope – The Prime Minister (complete in book form)
Jules Verne – Michael Strogoff
Charlotte M. Yonge – The Three Brides
Émile Zola – Son Excellence Eugène Rougon
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Rose in Bloom
Mark Twain – The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Drama
Émile Augier – Madame Caverlet
Rosario de Acuña – Rienzi el tribuno
W. S. Gilbert – Dan'l Druce, Blacksmith
Henrik Ibsen – Peer Gynt
Poetry
Lewis Carroll – The Hunting of the Snark
Edward Lear – Laughable Lyrics (published December, dated 1877)
Julia A. Moore – The Sentimental Song Book
Non-fiction
Michael Foster – Textbook of Physiology
William Ewart Gladstone – Bulgarian Horrors
Professor Louis Hoffmann (Angelo John Lewis) – Modern Magic
Søren Kierkegaard (died 1855) – Judge for Yourselves! (Dømmer selv!)
Friedrich Nietzsche – Untimely Meditations (Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen)
Robert's Rules of Order
George Smith (ed.) – The Chaldean Account of Genesis
Births
January 4 – Paola Drigo, Italian writer (died 1938)
January 12 – Jack London, American writer (died 1916)
February 11 – Mary Frances Dowdall, English novelist and non-fiction writer (died 1939)
February 16 – G. M. Trevelyan, English historian (died 1962)
March 4 – Léon-Paul Fargue, French poet (died 1947)
April 13 – Sidney Bradshaw Fay American historian (died 1967)
April 22 – Ole Edvart Rolvaag, Norwegian-American writer (died 1931)
May 10 – Ivan Cankar, Slovene dramatist and poet (died 1918)
June 2 – Konstantin Trenyov, Russian dramatist (died 1945)
July 1 – Susan Glaspell, American playwright and novelist (died 1948)
July 12 – Max Jacob, French poet (died 1944)
September 13 – Sherwood Anderson, American novelist (died 1941)
October 31 – Natalie Clifford Barney, American writer and patron (died 1972)
November 1 – Anne de Noailles, French writer (died 1933)
December 22 – Thomas Mofolo, Sotho novelist (died 1948)
Deaths
January 7 – Juste Olivier, Swiss poet (born 1807)
January 19 – George Julius Poulett Scrope, English political economist (born 1797)
February 1 – Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Tamil scholar and poet (born 1815)
February 3 – Gino Capponi, Italian historian (born 1792)
February 6 – Georgiana Chatterton, English novelist and travel writer (born 1806)
February 27 – Afanasy Shchapov, Russian historian (born 1830)
March 2 – Johannes Falke, German historian (born 1823)
May 7 – William Buell Sprague, American biographer (born 1795)
May 13 – Joshua Hobson, English pamphleteer (born 1810)
May 24 – Henry Kingsley, English novelist (born 1830)
May 26 – František Palacký, Czech historian (born 1798)
June 8 – George Sand, French novelist (born 1804)
June 14 – Catherine Crowe, English novelist and children's writer (born 1803)
June 20 – John Neal, American novelist and critic (born 1793)
June 27 – Harriet Martineau, English philosopher and social theorist (born 1802)
July 14 – James Henry, Irish poet and scholar (born 1798)
July 24 – John William Kaye, English military historian (born 1814)
July 25 – Robert Caesar Childers, French-born English orientalist (born 1838)
October 7 – Georg Heinrich Pertz, German historian (born 1795)
November 24 – Maria Francesca Rossetti, English critic and translator (born 1827)
November 28 – Chandos Wren-Hoskyns, English agricultural writer and landowner (born 1812)
December 30 – Christian Winther, Danish lyric poet (born 1796)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204091
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1875%20in%20literature
|
1875 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1875.
Events
January 16 – Henry James Byron's comedy Our Boys opens at the Vaudeville Theatre in London. It becomes the world's longest-running play so far, with 1,362 performances up to April 1879. It also opens this year in New York, at the New Fifth Avenue Theatre.
February/March – Arthur Rimbaud meets Paul Verlaine in Stuttgart, Germany, after Verlaine's release from prison, and gives him the manuscript of his poems Illuminations. Rimbaud stops writing literature entirely at the age of 20.
February 12 – Robert Louis Stevenson is introduced (by Leslie Stephen) to fellow writer W. E. Henley, at the time (August 1873–April 1875) a patient of surgeon Joseph Lister in the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. He will be the model for Long John Silver. Henley also meets his future wife while in hospital and writes the poems collected as In Hospital.
April 28 - Henry James publishes Transatlantic Sketches
October 1 – American poet and short story writer Edgar Allan Poe is reburied in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Baltimore, Maryland, with a larger memorial marker. Controversy arises years later as to whether the correct body was exhumed.
December 5–6 – The German emigrant ship SS Deutschland runs aground in the English Channel, causing the death of 157 passengers and crew and inspiring Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem The Wreck of the Deutschland. This introduces his innovative sprung rhythm and metre, but is rejected for publication in 1876. It will not appear finally until 1918.
unknown dates
The Flammarion publishing firm is founded in Paris, France.
Isaac K. Funk establishes the U.S. publisher I. K. Funk & Company, predecessor of Funk & Wagnells.
Caroline M. Hewins begins a children's library in Hartford, Connecticut, after becoming librarian of the local Young Men's Institute.
Nebelspalter is founded by Jean Nötzli of Zürich (Switzerland) as an "illustrated humorous political weekly".
New books
Fiction
W. Harrison Ainsworth – The Goldsmith's Wife
R. D. Blackmore – Alice Lorraine
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Hostages to Fortune
Wilkie Collins – The Law and the Lady
Alphonse Daudet – Contes du Lundi
Fyodor Dostoevsky – The Raw Youth
Bonifaciu Florescu – Etiam contra omnes (Even against All)
Benito Pérez Galdós – Saragossa
William Dean Howells – A Foregone Conclusion
Henry James – Roderick Hudson
Julia Kavanagh – John Dorrien
Helen Mathers – Comin' thro' the Rye
Karl May – Old Firehand
George Meredith – Beauchamp's Career
José Maria de Eça de Queiroz – O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro: Scenes of Religious Life)
Anthony Trollope – The Way We Live Now (serial publication ends in September; publication in two book volumes in June)
Jules Verne – The Survivors of the Chancellor (Le Chancellor: Journal du passager J.-R. Kazallon)
Edmund Yates – Two, by Tricks
Charlotte Mary Yonge – The Brother's Wife
Émile Zola – La Faute de l'Abbé Mouret (The Sin of Father Mouret)
Children and young people
Georgina Castle Smith – Froggy's Little Brother (approximate year)
Louisa May Alcott – Eight Cousins
George MacDonald – The Lost Princess (originally The Wise Woman)
Mary Louisa Molesworth (Mrs. Molesworth) – Tell Me a Story
Drama
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson – En fallit (The Bankrupt)
Henri de Bornier – La Fille de Roland
H. J. Byron – Our Boys
José Echegaray – En el puño de la espada (The Handle of the Sword)
Guy de Maupassant – À la feuille de rose, maison turque
Alfred Tennyson – Queen Mary
Poetry
Wilfrid Scawen Blunt – Sonnets and Songs of Proteus
Alice Meynell – Preludes
See also 1875 in poetry
Non-fiction
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 1
Swami Dayanand – Satyarth Prakash
Bartolomé de las Casas (died 1566) – History of the Indies (written 1527–61)
Edward Dowden – Shakspere: A Critical Study of His Mind and Art
Mary Baker Eddy – Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures
Warren Felt Evans – Soul and Body
Francis Galton – "The History of Twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture" (Fraser's Magazine, vol. 12, pp. 566–76)
Mark Pattison – Isaac Casaubon, 1559–1614
Baron Jules Dupotet de Sennevoy – La Magie dévoilée
Lysander Spooner – Vices Are Not Crimes, A Vindication of Moral Liberty
John Addington Symonds
The Age of the Despots (first volume of Renaissance in Italy)
Picturesque Europe
Births
January 4 – William Williams (Crwys), Welsh poet (died 1968)
February 8 – Valentine O'Hara, Irish author and authority on Russia and Baltic (died 1945)
March 30 – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, English writer (died 1956)
April 1 – Edgar Wallace (Richard Horatio Edgar), English thriller writer (died 1932)
April 9 – Jacques Futrelle, American author (died in Titanic 1912)
April 18
Oskar Ernst Bernhardt (Abdruschin), German author (died 1941)
Katherine Thurston (Katherine Cecil Madden), Irish novelist (died 1911)
June 6 – Thomas Mann, German novelist and Nobel Prize winner (died 1955)
June 24 – Forrest Reid, Irish novelist and literary critic (died 1947)
July 9 – W. W. Greg, English literary scholar (died 1959)
July 19 – Alice Dunbar Nelson African American poet, journalist and political activist of the Harlem Renaissance (died 1935)
July 26 – Antonio Machado, Spanish poet (died 1939)
August 21 – Winnifred Eaton, Canadian author (died 1954)
August 26 – John Buchan, Scottish novelist and diplomat (died 1940)
September 1 – Edgar Rice Burroughs, American popular novelist (died 1950)
October 13 – Armand Praviel, French poet, novelist, and journalist (died 1944)
October 25 – Carolyn Sherwin Bailey, American author and educator (died 1961)
October – George Ranetti, Romanian humorist and playwright (died 1928)
December 4 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian poet (died 1926)
unknown date – Gertrude Minnie Faulding, English children's writer and novelist (died 1961)
Deaths
January 3 – Pierre Larousse, French grammarian and lexicographer (born 1817)
January 23 – Charles Kingsley, English novelist and cleric (born 1819)
March 1 – Tristan Corbière, French poet (born 1845)
March 25 – Louis Amédée Achard, French novelist (born 1814)
April 20 – Emilia Marryat, English children's writer (born c. 1835)
June 2 – Józef Kremer, Polish philosopher (born 1806)
June 4 – Eduard Mörike, German poet (born 1804)
June 18 – António Feliciano de Castilho, Portuguese poet and author (born 1800)
August 4 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish fairy-tale writer (born 1805)
August 12 – János Kardos, Slovenian Evangelical priest, teacher, and writer (born 1801)
August 19 – Robert Elis (Cynddelw), Welsh writer (born 1812)
October 10 – Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Russian poet, novelist and dramatist (born 1817)
October 24 – Jacques Paul Migne, French priest, theologian, and publisher (born 1800)
November 17 – Hilario Ascasubi, Argentine poet (born 1807)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204092
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapsid
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Therapsid
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Therapsida is a major group of eupelycosaurian synapsids that includes mammals and their ancestors. Many of the traits today seen as unique to mammals had their origin within early therapsids, including limbs that were oriented more underneath the body, as opposed to the sprawling posture of many reptiles and salamanders.
Therapsids evolved from "pelycosaurs", specifically within the Sphenacodontia, more than 272 million years ago. They replaced the "pelycosaurs" as the dominant large land animals in the Middle Permian through to the Early Triassic. In the aftermath of the Permian–Triassic extinction event, therapsids declined in relative importance to the rapidly diversifying reptiles during the Middle Triassic.
The therapsids include the cynodonts, the group that gave rise to mammals in the Late Triassic around 225 million years ago. Of the non-mammalian therapsids, only cynodonts survived the beyond the end of the Triassic, with the only other remaining group of therapsids to have survived into the Late Triassic, the dicynodonts, becoming extinct towards the end of the period. The last remaining non-mammalian cynodonts were the tritylodonts, which persisted into the Early Cretaceous.
Characteristics
Jaw and teeth
Therapsids' temporal fenestrae were larger than those of the pelycosaurs. The jaws of some therapsids were more complex and powerful, and the teeth were differentiated into frontal incisors for nipping, great lateral canines for puncturing and tearing, and molars for shearing and chopping food.
Posture
Therapsid legs were positioned more vertically beneath their bodies than were the sprawling legs of reptiles and pelycosaurs. Also compared to these groups, the feet were more symmetrical, with the first and last toes short and the middle toes long, an indication that the foot's axis was placed parallel to that of the animal, not sprawling out sideways. This orientation would have given a more mammal-like gait than the lizard-like gait of the pelycosaurs.
Physiology
The physiology of therapsids is poorly understood. Most Permian therapsids had a pineal foramen, indicating that they had a parietal eye like many modern reptiles and amphibians. The parietal eye serves an important role in thermoregulation and the circadian rhythm of ectotherms, but is absent in modern mammals, which are endothermic. Near the end of the Permian, dicynodonts, therocephalians, and cynodonts show parallel trends towards loss of the pineal foramen, and the foramen is completely absent in probainognathian cynodonts. Evidence from oxygen isotopes, which are correlated with body temperature, suggests that most Permian therapsids were ectotherms and that endothermy evolved convergently in dicynodonts and cynodonts near the end of the Permian. In contrast, evidence from histology suggests that endothermy is shared across Therapsida, whereas estimates of blood flow rate and lifespan in the mammaliaform Morganucodon suggest that even early mammaliaforms had reptile-like metabolic rates. Evidence for respiratory turbinates, which have been hypothesized to be indicative of endothermy, was reported in the therocephalian Glanosuchus, but subsequent study showed that the apparent attachment sites for turbinates may simply be the result of distortion of the skull.
Integument
The evolution of integument in therapsids is poorly known, and there are few fossils that provide direct evidence for the presence or absence of fur. The most basal synapsids with unambiguous direct evidence of fur are docodonts, which are mammaliaforms very closely related to crown-group mammals. Fossilized facial skin from the dinocephalian Estemmenosuchus has been described as showing that the skin was glandular and lacked both scales and hair.
Coprolites containing what appear to be hairs have been found from the Permian. Though the source of these hairs is not known with certainty, they may suggest that hair was present in at least some Permian therapsids.
The closure of the pineal foramen in probainognathian cynodonts may indicate a mutation in the regulatory gene Msx2, which is involved in both the closure of the skull roof and the maintenance of hair follicles in mice. This suggests that hair may have first evolved in probainognathians, though it does not entirely rule out an earlier origin of fur.
Whiskers probably evolved in probainognathian cynodonts. Some studies had inferred an earlier origin for whiskers based on the presence of foramina on the snout of therocephalians and early cynodonts, but the arrangement of foramina in these taxa actually closely resembles lizards, which would make the presence of mammal-like whiskers unlikely.
Evolutionary history
Therapsids evolved from a group of pelycosaurs called sphenacodonts. Therapsids became the dominant land animals in the Middle Permian, displacing the pelycosaurs. Therapsida consists of four major clades: the dinocephalians, the herbivorous anomodonts, the carnivorous biarmosuchians, and the mostly carnivorous theriodonts. After a brief burst of evolutionary diversity, the dinocephalians died out in the later Middle Permian (Guadalupian) but the anomodont dicynodonts as well as the theriodont gorgonopsians and therocephalians flourished, being joined at the very end of the Permian by the first of the cynodonts.
Like all land animals, the therapsids were seriously affected by the Permian–Triassic extinction event; the very successful gorgonopsians and the biarmosuchians dying out altogether and the remaining groups—dicynodonts, therocephalians, and cynodonts—reduced to a handful of species each by the earliest Triassic. The dicynodonts, now represented by a single group of large stocky herbivores, the Kannemeyeriiformes, and the medium-sized cynodonts (including both carnivorous and herbivorous forms), flourished worldwide throughout the Early and Middle Triassic. They disappear from the fossil record across much of Pangea at the end of the Carnian (Late Triassic), although they continued for some time longer in the wet equatorial band and the south.
Some exceptions were the still further derived eucynodonts. At least three groups of them survived. They all appeared in the Late Triassic period. The extremely mammal-like family, Tritylodontidae, survived into the Early Cretaceous. Another extremely mammal-like family, Tritheledontidae, are unknown later than the Early Jurassic. Mammaliaformes was the third group, including Morganucodon and similar animals. Some taxonomists refer to these animals as "mammals", though most limit the term to the mammalian crown group.
The non-eucynodont cynodonts survived the Permian–Triassic extinction; Thrinaxodon, Galesaurus and Platycraniellus are known from the Early Triassic. By the Middle Triassic, however, only the eucynodonts remained.
The therocephalians, relatives of the cynodonts, managed to survive the Permian-Triassic extinction and continued to diversify through the Early Triassic period. Approaching the end of the period, however, the therocephalians were in decline to eventual extinction, likely outcompeted by the rapidly diversifying Saurian lineage of diapsids, equipped with sophisticated respiratory systems better suited to the very hot, dry and oxygen-poor world of the End-Triassic.
Dicynodonts were among the most successful groups of therapsids during the Late Permian, and survived through to near the end of the Triassic.
Mammals are the only living therapsids. The mammalian crown group, which evolved in the Early Jurassic period, radiated from a group of mammaliaforms that included the docodonts. The mammaliaforms themselves evolved from probainognathians, a lineage of the eucynodont suborder.
Classification
Six major groups of therapsids are generally recognized: Biarmosuchia, Dinocephalia, Anomodontia, Gorgonopsia, Therocephalia, and Cynodontia. A clade uniting therocephalians and cynodonts, called Eutheriodontia, is well-supported, but relationships among the other four clades are controversial. The most widely accepted hypothesis of therapsid relationships, the Hopson and Barghausen paradigm, was first proposed in 1986. Under this hypothesis, biarmosuchians are the earliest-diverging major therapsid group, with the other five groups forming the Eutherapsida, and within Eutherapsida, gorgonopsians are the sister taxon of eutheriodonts, together forming the Theriodontia. Hopson and Barghausen did not initially come to a conclusion about how dinocephalians, anomodonts, and theriodonts were related to each other, but subsequent studies suggested that anomodonts and theriodonts should be classified together as the Neotherapsida. However, there remains debate over these relationships; in particular, some studies have suggested that anomodonts, not gorgonopsians, are the sister taxon of Eutheriodontia, other studies have found dinocephalians and anomodonts to form a clade, and both the phylogenetic position and monophyly of Biarmosuchia remain controversial.
In addition to the six major groups, there are several other lineages and species of uncertain classification. Raranimus from the early Middle Permian of China is likely to be the earliest-diverging known therapsid. Tetraceratops from the Early Permian of the United States has been hypothesized to be an even earlier-diverging therapsid, but more recent study has suggested it is more likely to be a non-therapsid sphenacodontian.
Biarmosuchia
Biarmosuchia is the most recently-recognized therapsid clade, first recognized as a distinct lineage by Hopson and Barghausen in 1986 and formally named by Sigogneau-Russell in 1989. Most biarmosuchians were previously classified as gorgonopsians. Biarmosuchia includes the distinctive Burnetiamorpha, but support for the monophyly of Biarmosuchia is relatively low. Many biarmosuchians are known for extensive cranial ornamentation.
Dinocephalia
Dinocephalia comprises two distinctive groups, the Anteosauria and Tapinocephalia.
Historically, carnivorous dinocephalians, including both anteosaurs and titanosuchids, were called titanosuchians and classified as members of Theriodontia, while the herbivorous Tapinocephalidae were classified as members of Anomodontia.
Anomodontia
Anomodontia includes the dicynodonts, a clade of tusked, beaked herbivores, and the most diverse and long-lived clade of non-cynodont therapsids. Other members of Anomodontia include Suminia, which is thought to have been a climbing form.
Gorgonopsia
Gorgonopsia is an abundant but morphologically homogeneous group of saber-toothed predators.
Therocephalia
It has been suggested that Therocephalia might not be monophyletic, with some species more closely related to cynodonts than others. However, most studies regard Therocephalia as monophyletic.
Cynodontia
Cynodonts are the most diverse and longest-lived of the therapsid groups, as Cynodontia includes mammals. Cynodonts are the only major therapsid clade to lack a Middle Permian fossil record, with the earliest-known cynodont being Charassognathus from the Wuchiapingian age of the Late Permian. Non-mammalian cynodonts include both carnivorous and herbivorous forms.
See also
Evolution of mammals
Timeline of the evolutionary history of life
Vertebrate paleontology
Notes
References
Further reading
Benton, M. J. (2004). Vertebrate Palaeontology, 3rd ed., Blackwell Science.
Carroll, R. L. (1988). Vertebrate Paleontology & Evolution. W. H. Freeman & Company, New York.
Kemp, T. S. (2005). The origin and evolution of mammals. Oxford University Press.
Romer, A. S. (1966). Vertebrate Paleontology. University of Chicago Press, 1933; 3rd ed.
Bennett, A. F., & Ruben, J. A. (1986). "The metabolic and thermoregulatory status of therapsids." In The ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 207-218.
External links
"Therapsida: Mammals and extinct relatives" Tree of Life
"Therapsida: overview" Palaeos
Cisuralian first appearances
Extant Permian first appearances
Fossil taxa described in 1905
Taxa named by Robert Broom
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey%20Ilyushin
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Sergey Ilyushin
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Sergey Vladimirovich Ilyushin (; – 9 February 1977) was a Soviet aircraft designer who founded the Ilyushin aircraft design bureau. He designed the Il-2 Shturmovik, which made its maiden flight in 1939. It is the most produced warplane, and remains the second most-produced aircraft in history, with some 36,000+ built, behind the US Cessna 172.
Biography
Early years
Born in the village of Dilyalevo, Vologodsky Uyezd, Vologda Governorate Russian Empire as the youngest of 11 children in a peasant family, the largely self-taught Ilyushin left home at an early age. He worked as a factory laborer, ditch-digger at construction sites, and cleaner of gutters at a dye plant in Petrograd. In 1910, he learned that jobs were available at Kolomyazhsky Racetrack as a groundskeeper. The racetrack was also the site of the first All-Russia Festival of Ballooning in autumn of 1910, and Ilyushin assisted in unpacking crates and setting up equipment. He was also able to meet many of Russia's pioneer aviators, an event that awoke his interest in aviation.
In 1911 he returned to his native village to work as a carter of a dairy plant. The following year, he worked as a construction worker for the Amur Railway, and in 1913 he was in Tallinn as a worker in a shipyard.
With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Ilyushin was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, serving with the infantry, and later (as he was literate) as a clerk in the military administration of Vologda. When a request came for seven volunteers to serve in the fledgling Aviation Section, he was quick to volunteer. He worked at first as a mechanic and member of the ground crew. In the summer of 1917, he was qualified as a pilot.
In March 1918, with the withdrawal of the Provisional Government from the war, Ilyushin was demobilized and sent back to his native village. He helped supervise the increasing nationalization of factories in the area and in October 1918 joined the Bolshevik party. With the Russian Civil War, Ilyushin was drafted into the Red Army in May 1919, working as aviation technician of VVS RKKA (Red Army). That autumn, a White Movement Avro 504 biplane made a forced landing near Petrozavodsk. Ilyushin led a team which dismantled it, and sent it to Moscow where it was reverse-engineered into the Soviet U-1 trainer, of which 737 examples were subsequently built.
Work in aviation
In the autumn of 1921 Ilyushin left military service; he entered the Institute of Engineers of the Red Air Fleet (renamed the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy on 9 September 1922) on 21 September 1921. During his student years he concentrated on the design of gliders, taking part in numerous competitions. In 1925 one of his designs was sent to a competition in Germany, where it took first prize for flight time.
Ilyushin obtained a degree in engineering in 1926 and served until November 1931 as an aeroplanes section manager within the , with involvement in the development of the design requirements for the new aeroplanes of Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov and Andrei Tupolev. This time he was also appointed Assistant Chief of the Air Force Research and Test Institute. Upon his own request in November 1931 he was reassigned to TsAGI Design Bureau and worked there till 1933. In 1933 Ilyushin became chief of the which later grew into the Ilyushin OKB (the bureau behind all Soviet aircraft abbreviated IL-#, a military- and civil-aviation supergiant and major global brand) in 1935.
His single-engined Ilyushin Il-2 ground-attack aircraft, the single most-produced combat aircraft design in history (with 36,183 examples), and the Ilyushin Il-4 twin-engined bomber (of which just over 5,200 examples were built) were used extensively in World War II, on all fronts where the Soviets fought.
After the war, Ilyushin concentrated primarily on commercial airliners, such as the Ilyushin Il-18 and Ilyushin Il-62, which saw extensive use with Aeroflot and with numerous Soviet client states. In 1967 he was given the honorary rank of General-Colonel of Engineering/Technical Service. He became an Academician of the USSR Academy of Science in 1968. He remained the chief designer at the Ilyushin OKB until his retirement due to illness in 1970.
From 1937 to 1970 Ilyushin also served as a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. He died in 1977 in Moscow and was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery.
Awards and honors
Hero of Socialist Labour (1941, 1957, 1974)
Stalin Prize (1941, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1947, 1950, 1952)
USSR State Prize (1971)
Lenin Prize (1960)
Order of Lenin (1937, 1941, 1945, twice in 1954, 1964, 1971, 1974)
Order of Suvorov 1st and the 2nd class (1945, 1944)
Order of the October Revolution (1969)
Order of the Red Banner (1944, 1950)
Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1939)
Order of the Red Star (1933, 1967)
International Air & Space Hall of Fame inductee (2006).
See also
His son Vladimir Ilyushin
References
Further reading
Pederson, Jay. International Directory of Company Histories, Vol.24, St James Press (1998)
Bull, Stephan. Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation, Greenwood (2004)
Gordon, Yefim. Soviet Air Power in World War II. Midland Publishing (2008)
1894 births
1977 deaths
People from Vologodsky District
People from Vologodsky Uyezd
Bolsheviks
First convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Second convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Third convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Fourth convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Fifth convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Sixth convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Seventh convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Ilyushin
Russian aerospace engineers
Soviet aerospace engineers
20th-century Russian engineers
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Lenin Prize winners
Stalin Prize winners
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 2nd class
Knights of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute employees
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204096
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1874%20in%20literature
|
1874 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1874.
Events
January – Thomas Hardy's Far From the Madding Crowd, the first novel set specifically in Thomas Hardy's Wessex, begins publication as an anonymous serial in The Cornhill Magazine, It appears on November 23 in two volumes from his publisher, Smith, Elder & Co. of London.
February – Anthony Trollope's satirical novel The Way We Live Now (set in 1872, written in 1873) begins publication in monthly shilling parts in London, as one of the last major Victorian novels published in that format. It is completed and appears in two volumes in 1875.
February 11 – Alexandre Dumas, fils, is admitted to the Académie française.
March – Arthur Rimbaud moves to London with the French poet Germain Nouveau.
October – The German literary and political periodical Deutsche Rundschau is established by Julius Rodenberg in Berlin.
November – After completing a four-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds at Waldheim, Saxony, Karl May has his first story, "Die Rose von Ernstthal" ("The Story of Rose Ernstthal"), published.
unknown dates
Arthur William à Beckett joins the staff of Punch.
Johan Nicolai Madvig begins to lose his sight, forcing him to give up most of his research and writing.
New books
Fiction
Thomas Bailey Aldrich – Prudence Palfrey
José de Alencar – Ubirajara
Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly – Les Diaboliques
R. M. Ballantyne – The Pirate City
Ambrose Bierce – Cobwebs from an Empty Skull
Andrew Blair – Annals of the Twenty-Ninth Century
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Lost For Love
William Wells Brown – The Rising Son
Marcus Clarke – For the Term of His Natural Life (book publication)
Wilkie Collins – The Frozen Deep and Other Stories
Alphonse Daudet – Fromont jeune et Risler aîné
Amelia Edwards – A Night on the Borders of the Black Forest
George Eliot – Middlemarch (first single-volume publication)
Gustave Flaubert – The Temptation of Saint Anthony
Émile Gaboriau – Other People's Money / A Great Robbery
Thomas Hardy – Far From the Madding Crowd
Marie Howland – Papa's Own Girl
Victor Hugo – Ninety-Three
J.-K. Huysmans – Le Drageoir aux épices
Nikolai Leskov – A Decayed Family («Захуда′лый род», Zakhudaly rod published serially in Russkiy Vestnik)
Eliza Lynn Linton – Patricia Kemball
George Meredith – Beauchamp's Career
Margaret Oliphant – A Rose in June
Theodor Storm
Paul the Puppeteer (Pole Poppenspäler)
Viola Tricolor
Anthony Trollope
Harry Heathcote of Gangoil: A Tale of Australian Bush Life
Lady Anna
Juan Valera y Alcalá-Galiano – Pepita Jiménez
Jules Verne – The Mysterious Island (L'Île mystérieuse)
Mrs. Henry Wood – Johnny Ludlow
Edmund Yates – The Impending Sword
Émile Zola – La Conquête de Plassans
Children and young people
Emilia Marryat – Amongst the Maoris
Mrs. O. F. Walton – Christie's Old Organ
Drama
José Echegaray – La esposa del vengador (The Avenger's Wife)
Adolphe d'Ennery and Eugène Cormon – The Two Orphans (Les Deux Orphelines)
Sami Frashëri – Besâ yâhut Âhde Vefâ (Albanian: Besa ose Mbajtja e Fjalës; English: Besa or The Given Word of Trust)
W. S. Gilbert
Charity
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern: A tragic episode in three tabloids (published; first performed 1891)
Henry Glapthorne (died c. 1643) – The Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne: Now first collected with illustrative notes and a memoir of the Author
Victorien Sardou – La Haine (Hatred)
Jules Verne and Adolphe d'Ennery – Around the World in Eighty Days (stage adaptation)
Poetry
Stéphane Mallarmé – "L'après-midi d'un faune"
Paul Verlaine – Romances sans paroles
Non-fiction
Franz Brentano – Psychologie vom Empirischen Standpunkte (Psychology from Empirical Standpoints)
William Cullen Bryant – Picturesque America, vol. 2
John William Draper – A History of the Conflict between Religion and Science
Gustav Jaeger – Deutschlands Tierwelt nach ihren Standorten (Germany's Animal Life by Location)
Robert C. Kedzie – Shadows from the Walls of Death
Henry Maudsley – Mental Responsibility in Health and Disease (also as Responsibility in Mental Illness)
John Neal – Portland Illustrated
Elise Otté – Scandinavian History
Antonio Raimondi – El Perú
Dorothy Wordsworth (died 1855) – Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland, A. D. 1803
Births
January 16 – Robert W. Service, English-born Canadian poet (died 1958)
January 17 – Thornton Burgess, American children's writer (died 1965)
January 25 – W. Somerset Maugham, British novelist (died 1965)
February 1 – Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian writer (died 1929)
February 3 – Gertrude Stein, American-born writer and arts patron (died 1946)
February 9 – Amy Lowell, American poet (died 1925)
February 11 – Elsa Beskow (Elsa Maartman), Swedish children's book and fairy-tale writer (died 1953)
February 13 – Elsa Lindberg, Swedish writer of harem stories (died 1944)
February 27 – F. M. Cornford, English classicist and poet (died 1943)
March 20 – Börries von Münchhausen, German poet (died 1945)
March 26 – Robert Frost, American poet (died 1963)
May 29 – G. K. Chesterton, English novelist, writer and poet (died 1936)
June 20 – Trumbull Stickney, American poet (died 1904)
July 29 – August Stramm, German Expressionist poet and playwright (killed in action 1915)
August 8 – Tristan Klingsor (Arthur Justin Léon Leclère), French poet (died 1966)
October 6 – Ursula Bethell, English-born New Zealand poet (died 1945)
November 30:
Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian novelist (died 1942)
Paul Zarifopol, Romanian critic (died 1934)
December 12 – Volter Kilpi, Finnish novelist (died 1939)
c. December 13 – Radu D. Rosetti, Romanian poet and playwright (died 1964)
December 26 – J. H. M. Abbott, Australian novelist and poet (died 1953)
December 31 – Holbrook Jackson, English journalist, writer, publisher and bibliophile (died 1948)
Deaths
January 24 – Adam Black, Scottish publisher (born 1784)
January 26 – Giuseppe Rovani, Italian novelist (born 1818)
February 8 – David Strauss, German theologian (born 1808)
February 9 – Jules Michelet, French historian (born 1798)
February 23 – Shirley Brooks, English journalist and novelist (born 1816)
March 3 – Francis Mason, English-born American grammarian and translator (born 1799)
March 4 – Ada Clare, American journalist (born 1834)
March 24 – Joseph Tracy, American newspaper editor and historian (born 1793)
June 19 – Jules Janin, French critic (born 1804)
July 7 – John Heneage Jesse, English historian (born 1815)
July 8 – Agnes Strickland, English popular historian and poet (born 1796)
July 12 – Fritz Reuter, German novelist (born 1810)
August 8 – Augustin Theiner, German theologian and historian (born 1804)
September 20 – Victor Séjour, American-born Creole novelist and dramatist writing in French (born 1817)
October 5 – Bryan Procter, English poet (born 1787)
October 24 – Thomas Miller, English poet (born 1807)
November 20 – Tom Hood, English humorist (born 1835)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
204098
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20California%20%28ACR-6%29
|
USS California (ACR-6)
|
The second USS California (ACR-6), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 6", and later renamed San Diego, was a United States Navy armored cruiser.
She was launched on 28 April 1904 by Union Iron Works, San Francisco, California, sponsored by Miss Florence Pardee, daughter of California governor George C. Pardee, and commissioned on 1 August 1907, Captain V. L. Cottman in command.
Service history
Pre-World War I
Joining the 2nd Division, Pacific Fleet, California took part in the Naval Review at San Francisco in May 1908 for the Secretary of the Navy Victor H. Metcalf. Aside from a cruise to Hawaii and Samoa in the fall of 1909, the cruiser operated along the west coast, sharpening her readiness through training exercises and drills, until December 1911, when she sailed for Honolulu, and in March 1912 continued westward for duty on the Asiatic Station. After this service representing American power and prestige in the Far East, she returned home in August 1912, and was ordered to Corinto, Nicaragua, then embroiled in internal political disturbance. Here she protected American lives and property, then resumed her operations along the west coast; she cruised off California, and kept a watchful eye on Mexico, at that time also suffering political disturbance. During that time in Mexico, she was involved in an international incident in which two of her crew were shot and killed.
California was renamed San Diego on 1 September 1914, in order to free up her original name for use with the . She served as flagship for Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet, intermittently until a boiler explosion put her in Mare Island Navy Yard in reduced commission through the summer of 1915. The boiler explosion occurred in January 1915 and the actions of Ensign Robert Cary and Fireman Second Class Telesforo Trinidad during the event earned them both the Medal of Honor. San Diego after spending time at Guaymas, went on to repair at Mare Island. Afterwards, she served as a popular attraction during the Panama–California Exposition. San Diego returned to duty as flagship through 12 February 1917, when she went into reserve status until the opening of World War I.
World War I
Placed in full commission on 7 April, the cruiser operated as flagship for Commander, Patrol Force, Pacific Fleet, until 18 July, when she was ordered to the Atlantic Fleet. Reaching Hampton Roads, Virginia, 4 August, she joined Cruiser Division 2, and later bore the flag of Commander, Cruiser Force, Atlantic, which she flew until 19 September.
San Diegos essential mission was the escort of convoys through the first dangerous leg of their passages to Europe. Based in Tompkinsville, New York, and Halifax, Nova Scotia, she operated in the weather-torn, submarine-infested North Atlantic safely convoying all of her charges to the ocean escort.
Loss
Early on 18 July 1918, San Diego left the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard bound for New York where she was to meet and escort a convoy bound for France. Her captain — Harley H. Christy — ordered a zigzag course at a speed of . Visibility was reported as being from . In his report to a Board of Inquiry on the cruiser's loss, Christy stated that all lookouts, gun watches, and fire control parties were at their appointed stations and on full alert, and that all necessary orders to safeguard the watertight integrity of the ship in dangerous waters had been given and were being carried out.
At 11:05 the next day, 19 July, San Diego was steaming northeast of the Fire Island Lightship when an explosion occurred on the cruiser's port side adjacent to the port engine room and well below the waterline. The bulkhead at the site of the explosion was warped so that the watertight door between the engineroom and No. 8 fireroom could not be shut, and both compartments immediately flooded. Captain Christy assumed that the ship had been torpedoed and immediately sounded submarine defense quarters and ordered all guns to open fire on anything resembling a periscope. He called for full speed ahead on both engines and hard right rudder, but was told that both engines were out of commission and that the machinery compartments were rapidly flooding. The ship had taken on a 9° list and water began pouring in through one of the gun ports, flooding the gun deck. As water poured into the gun deck it also entered coal chutes and air ducts, further increasing list.
Informed that the ship's radio was not working, Christy dispatched the gunnery officer to the mainland with a boat crew to summon rescue vessels.
About 10 minutes after the explosion, the cruiser began to sink. Orders were given to lower the liferafts and boats. Captain Christy held off giving the order to abandon ship until he was certain that San Diego was going to capsize, when the crew abandoned the vessel in a disciplined and orderly manner. Christy was rescued by a crewman named Ferdinando Pocaroba. She had sunk in 28 minutes with the loss of six lives, the only major warship lost by the United States after its involvement in World War I. Two men were killed instantly when the explosion occurred, a crewman who had been oiling the port propeller shaft was never seen again, a man was killed by one of the smokestacks breaking loose as the ship capsized, one was killed when a liferaft fell on his head, and the sixth was trapped inside the crow's nest and drowned.
Meanwhile, the gunnery officer had reached shore at Point O' Woods, New York after a two-hour trip, and vessels were at once sent to the scene.
The Navy Department was informed that a German minelaying submarine was operating off the east coast of the US and the US Naval Air Service was put on alert. Aircraft of the First Yale Unit, based at Bay Shore, Long Island, attacked what they thought was a submerged submarine lying on the seabed in around and dropped several bombs; it turned out to be San Diego.
Cause
Captain Christy was of the opinion, following the sinking, that San Diego had been sunk by a torpedo. However, there was no evidence of a U-boat in the area at the time, and no wake of a torpedo was seen by the lookouts. While it was reported that five or six mines had been found in the area, the idea that she had struck a mine was also considered unlikely as it was thought that a mine would have been more likely to detonate at the bow or the forward part of the ship. It was subsequently reported that experienced merchant officers believed that a mine was the probable cause, due to the violence of the explosion and the rapidity with which the ship sank. In August 1918, the Naval Court of Inquiry appointed to investigate the loss of the cruiser concluded that San Diego had been sunk by a mine, mentioning that six contact mines had been located by naval forces in the vicinity of the spot where she had sunk.
In 1999, a theory was advanced that a German spy Kurt Jahnke had planted explosives aboard causing the sinking. The claim was contested by the Naval Historical Center.
In July 2018, USNI News reiterated that the cause of the sinking of San Diego was still unknown. However, the German submarine, had earlier laid a number of mines along the south shore of Long Island, and the sinking of San Diego was attributed to her. Naval records recovered in Germany after the war had shown that U-156 had been operating off the coast of New York, laying mines.
In December 2018, at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union, Alexis Catsambis, an underwater archaeologist with the Navy, stated "We believe that U-156 sunk San Diego". Flooding patterns studied "weren't consistent with an explosion set inside the vessel", while the hole "didn't look like a torpedo strike." "Torpedoes of the time carried more explosives than mines – and would have shown more immediate damage," stated University of Delaware marine scientist Arthur Trembanis, who took part in the latest wreck study. Mines were anchored at optimal depths to tear open warships, according to Ken Nahshon, another researcher. The mine in question hit an "unguarded lower part of the ship, where the hull was only about a half-inch thick", he argued.
Wreck
The wreck presently lies in of water, with the highest parts just below the surface, and as a result is one of the most popular shipwrecks in the US for scuba diving. Unfortunately the wreck lies inverted (upside-down) and has decayed over the last century. More scuba divers have died over the years on the wreck than the number of crew killed in its sinking, but this has not diminished its popularity. Nicknamed the "Lobster Hotel" for the abundance of lobsters living there, it is also a home to many kinds of fish. The wreck lies at , approximately due south of the intersection of Route 112 and Montauk Highway in Patchogue, New York.
The wreck is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Legacy
In 2015, a print first engraved in 1915, was issued by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.
See also
- a US armored cruiser lost during World War I before American involvement in 1917.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
United Nations. Reports of International Arbitral Awards, 1929. Volume IV pp. 416–417.
External links
hazegray.org: USS California / San Diego
USS San Diego Lost at Sea Memorial Unveiled (23 May 2019), video produced for U.S. WWI Centennial Commission.
USS San Diego Shipwreck Expo site
Catalogue of ship's and crew's libraries of the U.S.S. California (1905)
Suffolk County, New York
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built in San Francisco
1904 ships
Banana Wars ships of the United States
World War I cruisers of the United States
Ships sunk by mines
World War I shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
Shipwrecks of the New York (state) coast
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Shipwrecks on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
United States Navy California-related ships
Maritime incidents in 1918
National Register of Historic Places in Suffolk County, New York
Ships built by Union Iron Works
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204100
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Hermann%20Weisse
|
Christian Hermann Weisse
|
Christian Hermann Weisse (; ; Weiße in modern German; 10 August 1801 – 19 September 1866) was a German Protestant religious philosopher and professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig. He was the son of theologian (1766–1832).
Biography
Weisse was born in Leipzig, and studied at the university there, at first adhering to the Hegelian school of philosophy. In the course of time, his ideas changed, and became close to those of Schelling in his later years. He developed (along with I. H. Fichte with whom he regularly corresponded after 1829) a new speculative theism, and became an opponent of Hegel's idealism. In his addresses on the future of the Protestant Church (Reden über die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche, 1849), he finds the essence of Christianity in Jesus' conceptions of the heavenly Father, the Son of Man and the kingdom of Heaven. In his work on philosophical dogmatics (Philosophische Dogmatik oder Philosophie des Christentums, 3 vols., 1855–1862) he seeks, by idealizing all the Christian dogmas, to reduce them to natural postulates of reason or conscience.
Weisse was the first theologian to propose the two-source hypothesis (1838), which is still held by a majority of biblical scholars today. In the two-source hypothesis, the Gospel of Mark was the first gospel to be written and was one of two sources to the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, the other source being the Q document, a lost collection of Jesus's sayings.
Weisse was a contributor to I. H. Fichte's academic journal Zeitschrift für Philosophie und spekulative Theologie.
He died in his native city of Leipzig, aged 65.
Works
System der Ästhetik (2 vols., 1830)
Die Idee der Gottheit (1833)
Die philosophische Geheimlehre von der Unsterblichkeit des menschlichen Individuums (1834)
Büchlein von der Auferstehung (1836)
Die evangelische Geschichte, kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (2 vols., 1838)
Reden über die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche (1849)
Philosophische Dogmatik oder Philosophie des Christentums (3 vols., 1855–1862)
Die Evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwärtigen Stadium (1856)
Psychologie und Unsterblichkeitslehre (edited by R. Seydel, 1869)
Notes
References
This work in turn cites:
Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890)
Rudolf Seydel, Christian Hermann Weisse (1866)
Rudolf Seydel, Religion und Wissenschaft (1887)
External links
1801 births
1866 deaths
Writers from Leipzig
German philosophers
19th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century philosophers
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
|
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204102
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1873%20in%20literature
|
1873 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1873.
Events
January 1 – Chicago Public Library opens in an old water tank in the aftermath of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
March 3
The United States Congress enacts the Comstock Law, making it illegal to send any "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" books through the mail.
The first performance of W. S. Gilbert and Gilbert Arthur à Beckett's play The Happy Land at the Royal Court Theatre, London, parodies William Ewart Gladstone, Robert Lowe, and Acton Smee Ayrton, respectively the prime minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and First Commissioner of Works.
March 10 - The first Azerbaijani play The Adventure of a Miser (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lenkaran) by Mirza Fatali Akhundov was performed by Hasan bey Zardabi and dramatist Najaf bey Vazirov.
March 18 – Leo Tolstoy begins his novel Anna Karenina, which is serialized in Russkiy Vestnik (Moscow) between 1873 and 1877.
July – Thomas Hardy's novel A Pair of Blue Eyes completes its serialization in Tinsley's Magazine (begun September 1872) and appears in book format in London. Although this is Hardy's third novel, it is the first to bear his name on publication in the U.S.
July 10 – Paul Verlaine shoots and wounds Arthur Rimbaud in Brussels.
November – The children's periodical St. Nicholas Magazine begins publication by Scribner and Company in New York under the editorship of Mary Mapes Dodge.
December 18 – Louisa May Alcott's family satire "Transcendental Wild Oats" is published in the newspaper The Independent.
unknown dates
Serialisation of the novel Night and Morning (original author not acknowledged, but in fact by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1841) as Xinxi xiantan by "Lishao Jushi" (probably Jiang Qizhang) begins in the Shanghai monthly Yinghuan Suoji, the first secular fiction translated from English into Chinese.
Charles M. Barnes opens his book printing business in Wheaton, Illinois, United States; it is a forerunner of publisher Barnes & Noble.
In Berlin, the Romanian poet Mihai Eminescu is known to be working on the verse fairy tale "Girl in the Garden of Gold" (Fata-n grădina de aur). He will revisit the text regularly during the next decade, eventually producing his masterpiece Luceafărul (published April 1883).
Bertha Kinsky becomes governess to the Suttner family.
New books
Fiction
Louisa May Alcott – Work: A Story of Experience
Hortense Allart – Les Enchantements de Prudence avec George Sand
Ambrose Bierce – The Fiend's Delight
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Publicans and Sinners
Rhoda Broughton
Nancy
Tales for Christmas Eve
Bankim Chatterjee – The Poison Tree
Wilkie Collins
Miss or Mrs.?
The New Magdalen
Sami Frashëri – Ta'aşşûk-ı Tal'at ve Fitnât (The Love Between Talat and Fitnat)
Émile Gaboriau – La Corde au cou
Thomas Hardy – A Pair of Blue Eyes
William Dean Howells – A Chance Acquaintance
Nikolai Leskov – The Enchanted Wanderer («Очарованный странник», novella serialized in Russkiy Mir)
George MacDonald – The History of Gutta-Percha Willie, the Working Genius
Benito Pérez Galdós – Trafalgar (first of his Episodios Nacionales)
Anne Thackeray Ritchie – Old Kensington
Karolina Světlá – Nemodlenec
Anthony Trollope – Phineas Redux (serialization)
Mark Twain (with Charles Warner) – The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today
Jules Verne – Around the World in Eighty Days (Le Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours, book publication and first English translation)
Émile Zola – Le Ventre de Paris
Children
Georgina Castle Smith (pseudonym Brenda) – Nothing to Nobody
Charlotte Mary Yonge – Aunt Charlotte's Stories of Bible History
Helen Zimmern – Stories in Precious Stones
Drama
W. S. Gilbert – The Realm of Joy
Henrik Ibsen
Emperor and Galilean (first published)
Love's Comedy (first performed)
Adolphe L'Arronge – My Leopold
Émile Zola – Thérèse Raquin (adaptation by author)
Poetry
Paul Bourget – Au bord de la mer
Robert Browning – Red Cotton Night-Cap Country
Tristan Corbière – only published work included in Les Amours Jaunes
Edmund Gosse – On Viol and Flute
Arthur Rimbaud – Une Saison en Enfer
Non-fiction
Samuel Butler – The Fair Haven
Alexandre Dumas (posthumous) – Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine
Anna Leonowens – The English Government at the Siamese Court
Émile Littré – Dictionnaire de la langue française
Walter Pater – Studies in the History of the Renaissance
Leslie Stephen – Essays on Free Thinking and Plain Speaking
Charlotte Mary Yonge – Life of John Coleridge Patteson
Births
January 1 – Mariano Azuela, Mexican writer (died 1952)
January 7 – Charles Péguy, French poet and essayist (killed in action 1914)
January 9 – Hayim Nahman Bialik, Russian-born Hebrew-language poet (died 1934)
January 20 – Johannes V. Jensen, Danish writer and Nobel Prize winner (died 1950)
January 28 – Colette (Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette), French novelist (died 1954)
February 23 (O. S. February 10) – Haralamb Lecca, Romanian dramatist, poet and translator (died 1920)
March 10 – Jakob Wassermann, German novelist (died 1934)
March 20 – Constantin Banu, Romanian politician, journalist, cultural promoter and aphorist (died 1940)
Before March 29 (date of baptism) – Peig Sayers (Máiréad Sayers), Irish seanchaí (traditional storyteller) (died 1958)
April 22 – Ellen Glasgow, American novelist (died 1945)
May 17 – Henri Barbusse, French novelist (died 1935)
June 8 – José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), Spanish novelist (died 1967)
June 16 – Lady Ottoline Morrell (Ottoline Cavendish-Bentinck), English patron of the arts (died 1938)
September 8 – Alfred Jarry, French dramatist (died 1907)
October 1 – Ludovic Dauș, Romanian novelist and dramatist (died 1954)
October 10 – George Cabot Lodge, American poet (died 1909)
November 13 – Oliver Onions (George Oliver), English novelist and ghost story writer (died 1961)
December 3 – Ilie Bărbulescu, Romanian linguist and journalist (died 1945)
December 7 – Willa Cather, American novelist (died 1947)
December 17 – Ford Madox Ford, English novelist (died 1939)
December 29 – Ovid Densusianu, Romanian poet, philologist and journalist (died 1938)
unknown date – Henric Streitman, Romanian essayist and journalist (died 1949)
Deaths
January 9 – Sigurd Abel, German historian (born 1837)
January 10 – Francesco Dall'Ongaro, Italian poet and dramatist (born 1808)
January 16 – Ulrika von Strussenfelt, Swedish novelist (born 1801)
January 18 – Edward Bulwer-Lytton, English novelist and playwright (born 1803)
February 1 – Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda, Cuban-born novelist (born 1814)
February 7 – Sheridan Le Fanu, Irish writer (born 1814)
February 24 – Spiridon Trikoupis, Greek author and orator (born 1788)
May 8 – John Stuart Mill, English philosopher (born 1806)
May 22 – Alessandro Manzoni, Italian poet and novelist (born 1785)
May 27 – Pierre-Antoine Lebrun, French poet (born 1785)
July 13 – Caroline Clive, English poet and author (born 1801)
August 15 – Edward Meredith Cope, English classicist (born 1818)
September 25 – Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, Italian novelist (born 1804)
September 26 – Julius Roerich Benedix, German dramatist (born 1811)
September 28 – Émile Gaboriau, French crime novelist (born 1832)
October 4 – Margaret Gatty, English children's author (born 1809)
November 6 – Manuel Bretón de los Herreros, Spanish playwright (born 1796)
Unknown date – Harriet Ward, English non-fiction and fiction writer (born 1808)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204104
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Maryland%20%28ACR-8%29
|
USS Maryland (ACR-8)
|
The second USS Maryland (ACR-8/CA-8), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 8", and later renamed Frederick, was a United States Navy armored cruiser.
She was laid down on 7 October 1901 by the Newport News Drydock & ShipbuildingCo., Newport News, Virginia, launched on 12 September 1903, sponsored by Miss Jennie Scott Waters; and commissioned on 18 April 1905, Captain Royal R. Ingersoll in command.
Service history
Pre-World War I
In October 1905, following shakedown, Maryland joined the Atlantic Fleet for operations along the east coast and in the Caribbean, where she took part in the 1906 winter maneuvers off Cuba. The next summer, she conducted a training cruise for Massachusetts Naval Militiamen, and then readied for transfer to the Pacific. Departing Newport on 8 September 1906, she sailed – via San Francisco and Hawaii — for the Asiatic Station, where she remained until October 1907. She then returned to San Francisco and for the next decade she cruised throughout the Pacific, participating in survey missions to Alaska (1912 and 1913); carrying United States Secretary of State Knox to Tokyo for the funeral of Emperor Meiji Tenno (September 1912); steaming off the Central American coast to aid, if necessary, Americans endangered by political turmoil in Mexico and Nicaragua (1913, 1914, and 1916); and making numerous training cruises to Hawaii and the South-Central Pacific. Interestingly she was the recipient of torpedo damage, from a practice torpedo fired by on August 24, 1912. Maryland was performing maneuvers with both Grampus and in one of the first documented simulated attacks by submarines on capital ships, as many believed that submarines were too slow, dirty, and fragile to be effective weapons. The practice torpedo, which was fitted with collapsible warhead to avoid damage, actually punctured Marylands hull 9 feet below the waterline causing enough flooding to take on a 5 degree list. The exercise required the Navy to rethink torpedo and submarine defenses for ships large than armored cruisers.
World War I
When the United States Congress declared war on Imperial Germany on 6 April 1917, the armored cruiser, renamed Frederick'''---in order to free up her original name for use with the ---on 9 November 1916, was en route from Puget Sound to San Francisco. Taking on men and supplies at the latter port, she got underway for the Atlantic. From May 1917 – January 1918, she patrolled the southeastern Atlantic off the coast of South America. On 1 February, she was assigned to escort duty in the North Atlantic, and until the signing of the Armistice, she convoyed troopships east of the 37th meridian. By 20 November, she was attached to the Cruiser and Destroyer Force, and before mid-1919 had completed six round trips returning troops from France. Detached from that duty, she entered the Philadelphia Navy Yard where she was briefly placed in reduced commission.
Inter-war periodFrederick crossed the Atlantic again, carrying the US Olympic Team to Antwerp, Belgium, as she conducted a naval reservist training cruise in July 1920. At the end of that year, she returned to the Pacific Fleet. Serving as flagship of the Train, Pacific Fleet, for the next year, she conducted only one lengthy cruise, to South America in March 1921. Operations off the west coast took up the remainder of her active duty career, and on 14 February 1922 she decommissioned and entered the Reserve Fleet at Mare Island. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 13 November 1929 and sold on 11 February 1930.
In 1921, Frederick was used for several scenes in Harold Lloyd's first full-length film, the comedy A Sailor-Made Man. Camera (vol. 4, no. 29, p. 8) mentions a dinner party for the cast that was given by the officers of the ship.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History.'' Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
External links
hazegray.org: USS Maryland / Frederick
Camera excerpt mentioning the movie
Mare Island Navy Yard – 1928. Elbridge Ayer Burbank pencil sketch.
Photo gallery at Naval Historical Center
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
1903 ships
Banana Wars ships of the United States
World War I cruisers of the United States
United States Navy Maryland-related ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1872%20in%20literature
|
1872 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1872.
Events
March
The Federation of Madrid expels Paul Lafargue and all other signatories to an ostensibly subversive article in La Emancipación.
Serialisation of Sheridan Le Fanu's Gothic vampire novella Carmilla ends in the monthly The Dark Blue. Later this year it appears in his collection In a Glass Darkly. Set in the Duchy of Styria, it helps to introduce the lesbian vampire genre.
June 19 – The Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire is founded in Strasbourg as the Kaiserliche Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek zu Straßburg, a public regional and academic library for the new German territory of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen) after destruction of its predecessors in the Siege of Strasbourg in the Franco-Prussian War.
July – Rose la Touche rejects a proposal from John Ruskin for the last time.
July 7 – Paul Verlaine abandons his family for London with Arthur Rimbaud.
September 13 (O. S.: September 1) – Romanian poet Mihai Eminescu first attends the literary club Junimea of Iași and reads out his fantasy story Poor Dionis (Sărmanul Dionis). It is poorly received by the Junimists.
September 30 – George MacDonald arrives in Boston for a lecture tour of the United States.
November (approximate date) – Lafcadio Hearn becomes a reporter on the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer.
December 3 – George Smith presents the first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh to a meeting of the Society of Biblical Archaeology in London.
December 22 – Jules Verne's novel Around the World in Eighty Days (Le Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours) finishes serialisation (since November 2) in the daily Le Temps, the day after the concluding date of the narrative.
unknown dates
Benito Pérez Galdós begins Trafalgar, the first in the series of historical novels known as Episodios Nacionales.
The first university course in American Literature is held at Princeton University by John Seely Hart.
The Scottish Gaelic magazine Féillire first appears as Almanac Gàilig air son 1872 in Inverness.
New books
Fiction
Machado de Assis – Ressurreição
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – To the Bitter End
Rhoda Broughton
Good-bye, Sweetheart!
Poor Pretty Bobby
Samuel Butler – Erewhon
Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Parisians
Wilkie Collins – Poor Miss Finch
Annie Hall Cudlip – A Passion in Tatters
Alphonse Daudet – Tartarin de Tarascon
Fyodor Dostoevsky – Demons (Бесы, Bésy)
Alexandre Dumas, père – Création et rédemption
George Eliot – Middlemarch (serial publication concluded)
Mihai Eminescu – Poor Dionis (Sărmanul Dionis)
Thomas Hardy (by the author of Desperate Remedies) – Under the Greenwood Tree
Mór Jókai
Eppur si muove – És mégis mozog a Föld (And yet the Earth moves)
The Man with the Golden Touch (Az arany ember)
Sheridan Le Fanu
In a Glass Darkly
Willing to Die
Nikolai Leskov – The Cathedral Folk (Соборяне, Soboryane)
Eliza Lynn Linton – The True History of Joshua Davidson, Christian and Communist
Margaret Oliphant – At His Gates
Bayard Taylor – Beauty and The Beast, and Tales of Home
Anthony Trollope – The Golden Lion of Granpere
Jules Verne
The Adventures of Three Englishmen and Three Russians in South Africa (Aventures de trois Russes et de trois Anglais dans l'Afrique australe)
The Fur Country (Le Pays des fourrures)
Émile Zola – La Curée
Children and young adults
R. D. Blackmore – The Maid of Sker
Frances Freeling Broderip – Tiny Tadpoles, and Other Tales
Juliana Horatia Ewing – A Flat Iron for a Farthing
George MacDonald – The Princess and the Goblin
Susan Coolidge – What Katy Did (first in the What Katy Did series of five books)
Ouida – A Dog of Flanders
Drama
François Coppée – Les Bijoux de la Délivrance
Franz Grillparzer – The Jewess of Toledo (Die Jüdin von Toledo, first performed posthumously, written 1851)
Prosper Mérimée – La Chambre bleue (published posthumously)
August Strindberg – Master Olof
Ivan Turgenev – A Month in the Country («Месяц в деревне», Mesiats v derevne, first performed)
Poetry
José Hernández – Martín Fierro (first part)
Non-fiction
Chambers's English Dictionary
William Cullen Bryant – Picturesque America, vol. 1
John Evans – The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain
Warren Felt Evans – Mental Medicine
Sophia Jex-Blake – Medical Women: A Thesis and a History
Friedrich Nietzsche – The Birth of Tragedy (Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik)
Alexandru Papadopol-Calimah – Scrieri vechi perdute atingetóre de Dacia (Old Lost Writings Relating to Dacia; first installments)
Henry Wilson – History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, vols. 1 & 2
Births
January 31 – Zane Grey, American Western novelist (died 1939)
April 4 – Frida Uhl, Austrian writer (died 1943)
May 2 – Ichiyō Higuchi, Japanese writer (died 1896)
May 21 (May 9 O.S.) – Teffi, born Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya, Russian-born humorist (died 1952)
May 31 – W. Heath Robinson, English cartoonist and illustrator (died 1944)
June 27 – Paul Laurence Dunbar, African American poet, novelist and playwright (died 1906)
August 24 – Max Beerbohm, English essayist and parodist (died 1956)
September 15 – Frances Garnet Wolseley, English horticulturist and garden writer (died 1936)
September 22 – Eleanor Hallowell Abbott, American fiction writer and poet (died 1958)
October 8 – John Cowper Powys, Anglo-Welsh novelist (died 1963)
October 10 – Arthur Talmage Abernethy, American theologian and poet (died 1956)
October 18 (October 6 O.S.) – Mikhail Kuzmin, Russian poet, novelist and composer (died 1936)
October 20 – F. M. Mayor, English novelist (died 1932)
December 28 – Pío Baroja, Spanish novelist (died 1956)
Deaths
January 21 – Franz Grillparzer, Austrian poet and dramatist (born 1791)
February 6 – Sir Thomas Phillipps, English book collector (born 1792)
March 4 – Carsten Hauch, Danish poet (born 1790)
March 10 – Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian philosopher, journalist and politician (born 1805)
March 11 – Emily Taylor, English author, poet and hymn writer (born 1795)
April 1 – Frederick Denison Maurice, English theologian (born 1805)
April 13 – Samuel Bamford, English essayist and poet (born 1788)
April 20 – Ljudevit Gaj, Croatian linguist and journalist (born 1809)
May 13 – Moritz Hartmann, German poet (born 1821)
May 29 – Frank Key Howard, American journalist and memoirist (born 1826)
June 1 – Charles Lever, Irish novelist (born 1806)
July 25 – Gregorio Gutiérrez González, Colombian poet (born 1826)
August 8 – Heinrich Abeken, German theologian (born 1809)
September 22 – Vladimir Dal, Russian lexicographer (born 1801)
September 18 – Herbert Haines, English historian and Anglican theologian (born 1826)
October 10 – Fanny Fern, American journalist, novelist and children's writer (born 1811)
October 21 – Jean-Henri Merle d'Aubigné, Swiss historian (born 1794)
November 16 – William Gilham, American military writer (born 1818)
December 23 – Théophile Gautier, French poet and novelist (born 1811)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
204110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Gott
|
William Gott
|
Lieutenant-General William Henry Ewart Gott, & Bar, MC (13 August 1897 – 7 August 1942), nicknamed "Strafer", was a senior British Army officer who fought during both World War I and World War II, reaching the rank of lieutenant-general while serving with the British Eighth Army. In August 1942 he was appointed as successor to General Claude Auchinleck as commander of the Eighth Army. On the way to take up his command he was killed when his plane was shot down. His death led to the appointment of Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery in his place.
Military career
Educated at Harrow School, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the King's Royal Rifle Corps (KRRC) in 1915, and served with distinction with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France during World War I. His nickname "Strafer" was a pun on the German war slogan Gott strafe England (God punish England). He was promoted to the rank of captain in January 1921, and attended Staff College, Camberley from January 1931. He was promoted major in July 1934, having been made a brevet major earlier in January. His service during the interwar period included a posting as adjutant to a territorial battalion, and a period of postings in India as a general staff officer (GSO2) and Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General.
North African campaigns
Having been promoted lieutenant colonel in October 1938 to command the 1st Battalion, KRRC on its transfer from Burma to Egypt to become part of the Mobile Division (later to become 7th Armoured Division, the "Desert Rats"), Gott held a succession of posts in the division; he was successively chief staff officer of the division (General Staff Officer, Grade I, ranked lieutenant colonel) commander of the Support Group as acting brigadier, and General Officer Commanding acting major-general of the 7th Armoured Division.
While under Gott's command the Support Group performed well from the beginning of the campaign; skirmishing along the frontier from June 1940; conducting a planned withdrawal in September during the Italian invasion of Egypt, and during Operation Compass in December which saw the conquest of Cyrenaica and the destruction of the Italian Tenth Army the following February.
Following the arrival of the German Afrika Korps, under the command of Erwin Rommel, the Axis counter-attack in April, 7th Support Group, which had been refitting in the Delta, was called upon to stabilize the front and to reform the retreating forces, which was achieved at the Libyan-Egyptian border.
In May Gott was placed in command of a mixed force to plan and conduct the ambitious Operation Brevity, which succeeded in re-taking the Halfaya Pass, but failed in its wider objectives.
A subsequent larger scale operation, Operation Battleaxe, in which the Support Group also took part was also a failure and led to a reorganisation of the commands in the Western Desert which included Gott's promotion to command the 7th Armoured Division.
During the next major Commonwealth offensive, Operation Crusader, in November 1941, 7th Armoured Division was severely mauled by the Afrika Korps at the battle of Sidi Rezegh, but kept the field and contributed to the British Eighth Army's ultimate success.
Gott's permanent rank had been made up to full colonel in October 1941 and he was promoted to acting lieutenant-general and given command of XIII Corps in early 1942.
During the Battle of Gazala, the 8th Army's performance was fatally handicapped by a breakdown in relations at all levels; within XIII Corps during this period Gott's relationship with his subordinate Dan Pienaar, the commander of 1st South African Division, had deteriorated completely.
Of XIII Corps performance in the action, the stand by 150th Brigade, and the breakout by 50th Division are notable, while the low point was the loss of Tobruk with its entire garrison during the withdrawal to Egypt.
XIII Corps was able to withdraw in good order to the Alamein position and was instrumental in fighting the Axis to a standstill there in the First Battle of El Alamein.
Death
In August 1942, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill removed General Sir Claude Auchinleck as Commander-in-Chief Middle East and acting General Officer Commanding Eighth Army. Gott's aggressive, somewhat impetuous, personality appealed to Churchill, and he was strongly recommended by Anthony Eden, who had served with Gott during World War I. Gott was therefore chosen to take over Eighth Army. This was despite the reservations of Auchinleck and General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS). Brooke knew Gott very well and had a high opinion of his abilities. However, a number of factors, including a personal interview with Gott on 5 August (during which Brooke realized that Gott had "...tried most of his ideas on the Boche...") led Brooke to conclude that "We want someone with new ideas and plenty of confidence in them..." and that Gott was tired and had temporarily lost his drive, having been in the desert since the start of the war. He also felt that Gott needed more experience before taking an army command.
Before he could take up his post, Gott was killed when the transport plane he was traveling in was shot down and destroyed while returning to Cairo from the battle area. The aircraft, a Bristol Bombay of No. 216 Squadron RAF flown by 19-year-old Flight Sergeant Hugh "Jimmy" James, was intercepted and shot down by Unteroffizier Bernd Schneider and Emil Clade of Jagdgeschwader 27 (Fighter Wing 27). With both engines out, the pilot had made a successful crash landing, but two German Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters attacked the crashed plane, strafing it until the Bombay was totally wrecked. Those who were unable to escape from the downed Bombay (including Gott) were killed. Gott's body was buried at the El Alamein War Cemetery. His replacement was Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, who had been Brooke's preferred choice. The Burg el Arab-Heliopolis route was "considered so safe that no escort had been found necessary for Winston (Churchill) when we flew out" but an individual German plane driven out of high altitude combat came across the slow transport plane. It was later reported that multiple Messerschmitt Bf 109s attacked the ill-fated transport plane. The Germans knew before the British that Gott was dead: the German air crews had been greeted on their return to base with: "Congratulations, gentlemen. You have just killed General Strafer Gott, the new commander of 8th Army!” It is thought the Germans broke the code used by a loquacious American air attaché in Cairo, Bonner Fellers, and intercepted an operational broadcast.
Assessment
A big man with an aggressive, outgoing personality, he was popular with soldiers under his command, but as a senior commander he was considered by some to be out of his depth.
John Bierman and Colin Smith say that Gott was much admired for his personal qualities, but lacked real military skill. He was one of the few senior officers who was "well known and well liked by the rank and file". However, "a cold appraisal of his soldiering in North Africa reveals no stunning display of tactics or Rommel-esque grip that bends scarred and exhausted men to the will of the born leader." Field Marshal Sir Michael Carver, one of Gott's officers, took a similar view. He stated that Gott was the one person to whom "all, high and low, turned for advice, sympathy, help and encouragement", but he also believed that Gott was "too good a man to be a really great soldier". Gott's own view, as expressed to Alan Brooke was that he was the wrong man for the task, though he was soldier enough to take it on if ordered to. Churchill himself seems to have accepted that he made a mistake in appointing Gott instead of Montgomery, after seeing how Montgomery had revitalised the Eighth Army.
His daughters presented his medals to the Royal Green Jackets (Rifles) Museum in 2012.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Nash, N.S., 'Strafer' – The Desert General: The Life and Killing of Lieutenant General WHE Gott CB CBE DSO*MC", Pen and Sword, 2013
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Generals of World War II
|-
1897 births
1942 deaths
British Army generals of World War II
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army personnel killed in World War II
British World War I prisoners of war
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
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People educated at Harrow School
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Recipients of the Military Cross
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204111
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa%20Elena%20Velasco
|
María Elena Velasco
|
María Elena Velasco Fragoso (17 December 1940 – 1 May 2015) was a Mexican actress, comedian, singer-songwriter, dancer, screenwriter, film producer, and one of Mexico's few major female film directors. She is best known for creating and portraying La India María, a comical character based on indigenous Mexican women.
Early life
Velasco was born in Puebla, to Tomás Velasco Saavedra, a railway mechanic, and María Elena Fragoso Peón. She had three siblings, Gloria, Tomás and Susana.
After the death of Tomás Velasco, the family moved to Mexico City, where she worked as a dancer at the Teatro Tívoli. Later, she became one of the showgirls of the Teatro Blanquita, where she also participated in sketches starring comedians such as José "El Ojón" Jasso and Óscar Ortiz de Pinedo, among others.
Career
In 1962, her popularity at the Teatro Blanquita attracted the attention of producer Miguel Morayta, who cast her in her first film role in the drama Los derechos de los hijos (1963), starring Elvira Quintana and Carlos Agostí. Juan Bustillo Oro gave her the small part of Petra, a maid, in México de mis recuerdos (1963). In 1964, she began to include comedic material to her appearances in sketches and, in the meantime, played servants in television programs. She soon developed a comedy character named Elena María, a rural Mexican woman. Her breakthrough came when director Fernando Cortés recommended her to portray an indigenous woman named "María" in one of Mantequilla's sketches. The character was dressed in traditional garb consisting of traditionally braided and ribboned hair and colorful native-type blouses and skirts. In an effort to make her portrayal more authentic, she observed the gestures and mannerisms of indigenous women; her own mother made dresses for the character. She later appeared in the western El bastardo (1968), where she was credited for the first time as "María Elena Velasco 'La India María'".
In 1969, Velasco appeared as La India María in a comic segment of the weekly program Siempre en domingo, hosted by Raúl Velasco (who is unrelated to María Elena). The segment quickly became a hit and she starred in other successful television programs. Her first La India María film, Tonta, tonta, pero no tanto (1972), was directed by Fernando Cortés; in total, Cortés directed eight La India María films until his death in 1979. The enormous success of the film spawned a series of low-budget comedies that became a mainstay in Mexican movie theaters. Velasco won a Silver Goddess Award for Best Comedic Performance for ¡El que no corre... vuela! (1982). She made her directorial debut in El coyote emplumado (1983). She also starred the television series Ay María, qué puntería (1998).
Personal life
In the early 1960s, Velasco met Russian-born Mexican film actor and choreographer Julián de Meriche (born Vladimir Lipkies Chazan) at the Teatro Blanquita. They married and had two children, producer-director Iván Lipkies and actress, screenwriter and producer Ivette Eugenia Lipkies, also known as Goretti Lipkies. She later said: "My husband was worth gold, I will not lie and say he was the perfect man, but he was the love of my life." She also had a daughter with Raul Velasco named Marina Velasco who was given up and kept a secret ,
Death
Her death was announced over Twitter by the Instituto Mexicano de Cinematografía on 1 May 2015; the cause of death was not made public, but it was known that she had been suffering from stomach cancer.
Performances
Film
Television
Stage
Discography
La mejor cantante de todas las grabadoras (1971)
De chile, de dulce y de manteca (1982)
References
Further reading
External links
1940 births
2015 deaths
20th-century Mexican actresses
21st-century Mexican actresses
Actresses from Puebla
Best Adapted Screenplay Ariel Award winners
Deaths from stomach cancer
Deaths from cancer in Mexico
Golden Age of Mexican cinema
Mexican film actresses
Mexican screenwriters
Mexican women singer-songwriters
Mexican singer-songwriters
Mexican stage actresses
Mexican television actresses
Mexican women comedians
Mexican women film directors
Mexican women film producers
Musart Records artists
People from Puebla (city)
Mexican people of Basque descent
Mexican people of Spanish descent
Mexican people of Italian descent
Mexican people of indigenous peoples descent
|
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] |
204112
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersa%20Matruh
|
Mersa Matruh
|
Mersa Matruh (, ), also transliterated as Marsa Matruh, is a port in Egypt and the capital of Matrouh Governorate. It is located west of Alexandria and east of Sallum on the main highway from the Nile Delta to the Libyan border. The city is also accessible from the south via another highway running through the Western Desert towards Siwa Oasis and Bahariya Oasis.
In ancient Egypt and during the reign of Alexander the Great, the city was known as Amunia. In the Ptolemaic Kingdom and later during the Byzantine Empire, it was known as Paraitónion (). During the Roman Empire, it was called Paraetonium in Latin, which became () after the mid-7th Century Arab conquest of Egypt. As a British military base during World War II, several battles were fought around its environs as the German Afrika Korps attempted to capture the port. It fell to the Germans during the Battle of Mersa Matruh, but was recaptured following the Second Battle of El Alamein.
Mersa Matruh is served by Mersa Matruh International Airport. The city features soft white sand beaches and calm transparent waters; the bay is protected from the high seas by a series of rocks forming a natural breakwater, with a small opening to allow access for light vessels.
History
Mersa Matruh started as a small fishing town during Ancient Egyptian times and the reign of Alexander The Great and was named Amunia. There are ruins of a temple for Ramesses II (1200 BC). The city became known as Paraitonion in the Ptolemaic era. Ovid wrote that its goddess is Isis. After Egypt came under Roman rule, the town became an important harbor for trade and shipping goods and crops to Rome.
After the Arabic conquest, the city's name changed to Al-Baretun. The city also bore other names from at least the beginning of 20th century – Berek Marsa, Port Mhaddra (Mithr) and Port Bardiah.
During World War II, the British Army's Baggush Box was located to the east. Starting with the completion of an extension from the previous railhead at Fuka in February 1936, Mersa Matruh was the terminus for a single-track railway, which passed through El Alamein. Mersa Matruh served as a vital British military base during World War II and was a major objective of Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps, which captured it during the Battle of Mersa Matruh.
Geography
Climate
Mersa Matruh has a hot desert climate (BWh) according to Köppen climate classification, but winds blowing from the Mediterranean Sea greatly moderate the temperature, making its summers moderately hot and humid while its winters mild and moderately wet. Summers are sunny and dry, while in the colder months, there is some rain and cloud cover. Sleet and hail are common in Winter.
Mersa Matruh and Port Said have the coolest summer days of all Egyptian cities and resorts, although not significantly cooler than other northern coastal places. Additionally Rafah, Alexandria, Abu Qir, Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr el-Dawwar and Mersa Matruh are the wettest in Egypt.
Another source shows more precipitation and stabler average temperatures.
Main sights
Ruins of the Temple of the King, Pharaoh Ramesses II (1200 BC)
Drowned city of Caesar.
Drowned Palace of Cleopatra.
Egyptian Fleet Anchorage which was built by the Ptolemies. The remains of the naval installations still stand west of the port.
Coptic Chapel: built in the early Coptic age, it contains several caves bearing inscriptions.
Rommel's Hideout: A cave, hewn in the rock, where Rommel drew up plans of his military operations. It has now been turned into a military museum.
The British Cemetery: Thousands of rock-hewn tombstones stand in straight rows amidst a fenced garden.
The German Cemetery: It is a fortress like memorial that was built on a height overlooking the sea.
The Italian Cemetery: It is a high tower fort standing on a high hill. The walls of the building are covered with marble.
Main beaches
Ageebah Beach: About 28 km west of Mersa Matruh downtown, it is distinguished by its numerous natural cave
Al-Obayed Beach: About 20 km west of Mersa Matruh downtown
Rommel Bay.
See also
List of cities and towns in Egypt
Northern coast of Egypt
References
External links
Marsa Matrouh images
Sources
Governorate capitals in Egypt
Populated places in Matrouh Governorate
Populated coastal places in Egypt
Tourism in Egypt
Mediterranean port cities and towns in Egypt
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1871%20in%20literature
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1871 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1871.
Events
January 1 – The children's literary magazine Young Folks begins publication in the United Kingdom as Our Young Folks' Weekly Budget.
January – John Ruskin begins publishing Fors Clavigera, his originally monthly "letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain".
March 18–May 28 – The Paris Commune is influential on the literary figures in the city at the time and far beyond:
Jules Vallès publishes his newspaper Le Cri du Peuple February 22–May 23 (with interruptions).
At the beginning of April, Victor Hugo moves to Brussels to take care of the family of his son, who has just died, but closely follows events in Paris, on April 21 publishing the poem "Pas de représailles" (No reprisals) and on June 11 writing the poem "Sur une barricade" (On the barricade).
Émile Zola, as a journalist for Le Sémaphore de Marseille, reports the fall of the Commune, and is one of the first reporters to enter the city during Semaine sanglante (Bloody Week, beginning May 21).
October – "Thomas Maitland", i. e. Robert Williams Buchanan, attacks Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of what Buchanan calls the "Fleshly School" of English poetry in The Contemporary Review. On December 16 Rossetti replies in "The Stealthy School of Criticism" in the Athenaeum.
November 25 – First performance of The Bells starring Henry Irving at the Lyceum Theatre, London, the actor's first great success. On the same night, he breaks up permanently with his wife when she criticises his choice of profession.
December – Publication of George Eliot's novel Middlemarch in eight parts commences.
unknown date – George Allen and Sons, publishers, predecessors of Allen & Unwin, is established in London.
New books
Fiction
William Black – A Daughter of Heth
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Fenton's Quest
George Eliot – Middlemarch (first of eight installments)
Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Coming Race
Vanchinbalyn Injinash – The Blue Chronicle (köke sudur, Хөх судар; completed in MS)
Henry James – Watch and Ward
George Meredith – The Adventures of Harry Richmond
William Gifford Palgrave – Personal Narrative of a Year’s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862–63)
Emily Spender – Restored (feminist novel)
Mark Twain
Eye Openers
Screamers
Giovanni Verga – (The Sparrow; book publication)
Jules Verne – A Floating City
Émile Zola – La Fortune des Rougon
Children and young people
Alexander Afanasyev (collected) – «Русские детские сказки» (Russian Children's Fairy Tales)
Louisa M. Alcott – Little Men
Lewis Carroll – Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There
George MacDonald – At the Back of the North Wind
Samuel Smiles – A Boy's Voyage Round the World
Johanna Spyri – Ein Blatt auf Vrony’s Grab (A Note on Vrony's Grave)
Drama
François Coppée
Fais ce que Dois
L'Abandonnée
W. S. Gilbert – Pygmalion and Galatea
Leopold David Lewis – The Bells (adapted from Erckmann-Chatrian's Le Juif Polonais)
Alexander Ostrovsky – The Forest (, Les)
Dobri Voynikov – The Phoney Civilization (, Krivorazbranata tsivilizatsiya)
Non-fiction
Charles Darwin – The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
Edward Burnett Tylor – Primitive Culture
Births
January 9 – Eugène Marais, South African lawyer, naturalist, poet and writer (died 1936)
February 22 – John Langalibalele Dube, Zulu writer (died 1946)
February 25 (February 13 OS) – Lesya Ukrainka, Ukrainian poet and writer (died 1913)
February 28 – Manuel Díaz Rodríguez, Venezuelan writer and politician (died 1927)
March 5 – Rosa Luxemburg, Polish-born German revolutionary socialist (died 1919)
March 27 – Heinrich Mann, German narrator, dramatist and essayist (died 1950)
June 17 – James Weldon Johnson, American writer and activist (died 1938)
May 14 – Caton Theodorian, Romanian dramatist and novelist (died 1939)
June 5 – Nicolae Iorga, Romanian historian, politician, culture critic, poet and playwright (died 1940)
July 3 – W. H. Davies, Welsh poet (died 1940)
July 10 – Marcel Proust, French novelist (died 1922)
August 21 (August 9 OS) – Leonid Andreyev, Russian short story writer and playwright (died 1919)
August 27 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist (died 1945)
September 27 – Grazia Deledda, Italian writer and Nobel Prize winner (died 1926)
October 7 – , German fiction writer (died 1943)
October 10 – Wickham Steed, English journalist, editor and historian (died 1956)
October 30 – Paul Valéry, French poet (died 1945)
November 1 – Stephen Crane, American novelist (died 1900)
November 10 – Winston Churchill, American novelist (died 1947)
Deaths
January 12 – Auguste Anicet-Bourgeois, French dramatist (born 1806)
February 4 – Hermann, Fürst von Pückler-Muskau, German travel and gardening writer (born 1785)
February 12 – Alice Cary, American poet (tuberculosis, born 1820)
March 17 – Robert Chambers, Scottish writer and publisher (born 1802)
March 28 – Joseph Isidore Samson, French playwright and actor (born 1793)
July 6 – Castro Alves, Brazilian poet and playwright (tuberculosis;born 1847)
July 31 – Phoebe Cary, American poet (born 1824)
July 15 – Ján Chalupka, Slovak dramatist (born 1791)
September 16 – Jan Erazim Vocel, Czech poet, archaeologist, historian and cultural revivalist (born 1803)
November 2 – Athalia Schwartz, Danish writer, journalist and educator (born 1821)
December 8 – Thomas Gaspey, English novelist and journalist (born 1788)
December 21 – Luise Aston, German author and feminist (born 1814)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benghazi
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Benghazi
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Benghazi () (lit. Son of [the] Ghazi) is a city in Libya. Located on the Gulf of Sidra in the Mediterranean, Benghazi is a major seaport and the second-most populous city in the country, as well as the largest city in Cyrenaica, with an estimated population of 632,937 in 2019.
A Greek colony named Euesperides had existed in the area from around 525 BC. In the 3rd century BC, it was relocated and refounded as the Ptolemaic city of Berenice. Berenice prospered under the Romans, and after the 3rd century AD it superseded Cyrene and Barca as the centre of Cyrenaica. The city went into decline during the Byzantine period and had already been reduced to a small town before its conquest by the Arabs. In 1911, Italy captured Benghazi and the rest of Tripolitania from the Ottomans. Under Italian rule, Benghazi witnessed a period of extensive development and modernization, particularly in the second half of the 1930s. The city changed hands several times during World War II and was heavily damaged in the process. After the war Benghazi was rebuilt and became the co-capital of the newly independent Kingdom of Libya. Following the 1969 coup d'état by Muammar Gaddafi, Benghazi lost its capital status and all government offices relocated to Tripoli.
On 15 February 2011, an uprising against the government of Muammar Gaddafi occurred in the city. The revolts spread by 17 February to Bayda, Tobruk, Ajdabya, Al Marj in the East and Zintan, Zawiya in the West, calling for the end of the Gaddafi Regime. Benghazi was taken by Gaddafi opponents on 21 February, who founded the National Transitional Council. On 19 March 2011, the city was the site of the turning point of the Libyan Civil War, when the Libyan Army attempted to score a decisive victory against the NTC by attacking Benghazi, but was forced back by local resistance and intervention from the French Air Force authorized by UNSC Resolution 1973 to protect civilians, allowing the rebellion to continue.
Benghazi remains a centre of Libyan commerce, industry, transport and culture. It continues to hold institutions and organizations normally associated with a capital city, including several national government buildings as well as the National Library of Libya.
History
Ancient Greek Colony
The ancient Greek city that existed within the modern day boundaries of Benghazi was founded around 525 BC; at the time, it was called Euesperides () and Hesperis ().
Euesperides was most likely founded by people from Cyrene or Barce, which was located on the edge of a lagoon which opened from the sea. At the time, this area may have been deep enough to receive small sailing vessels. The name was attributed to the fertility of the neighborhood, which gave rise to the mythological associations of the garden of the Hesperides. The ancient city existed on a raised piece of land opposite of what is now the Sidi-Abayd graveyard in the Northern Benghazi suburb of Sbikhat al-Salmani (al-Salmani Marsh).
The city is first mentioned by ancient sources in Herodotus' account of the revolt of Barca and the Persian expedition to Cyrenaica in c. 515 BC, where it is stated that the punitive force sent by the satrap of Egypt conquered Cyrenaica as far west as Euesperides. The oldest coins minted in the city date back to 480 BC. One side of those coins has an engraving of Delphi. The other side is an engraving of a silphium plant, once the symbol of trade from Cyrenaica because of its use as a rich seasoning and as a medicine. The coinage suggests that the city must have enjoyed some autonomy from Cyrene in the early 5th century BC, when the issues of Euesperides had their own types with the legend EU (ES), distinct from those of Cyrene.
The city was in hostile territory and was surrounded by inhospitable tribes. The Greek historian Thucydides mentions a siege of the city in 414 BC, by Libyans who were probably the Nasamones: Euesperides was saved by the unexpected arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus and his fleet, who were blown to Libya by contrary winds on their way to Sicily.
One of the Cyrenean kings whose fate is connected with the city is Arcesilaus IV. The king used his chariot victory at the Pythian Games of 462 BC to attract new settlers to Euesperides, where Arcesilaus hoped to create a safe refuge for himself against the resentment of the people of Cyrene. This proved ineffective, since when the king fled to Euesperides during the anticipated revolution (around 440 BC), he was assassinated, thus terminating the almost 200-year rule of the Battiad dynasty.
An inscription found there and dated around the middle of the 4th century BC states that the city had a constitution similar to that of Cyrene, with a board of chief magistrates (ephors) and a council of elders (gerontes). Later in the 4th century BC, during the unsettled period which followed Alexander's death, the city backed the losing side in a revolt by the Spartan adventurer Thibron; trying to create an empire for himself, he was defeated by the Cyreneans and their allies.
After the marriage around the middle of the 3rd century BC of Ptolemy III to Berenice, daughter of the Cyrenean Governor Magas, many Cyrenaican cities were renamed to mark the occasion. Euesperides became Berenice and the change of name also involved a relocation. Its desertion was probably due to the silting up of the lagoons; Berenice, the place they moved to, lies underneath Benghazi's modern city centre. The Greek colony had lasted from the 6th to the mid-3rd centuries BC.
Romans and Christianity
Modern Benghazi, on the Gulf of Sidra, lies a little southwest of the site of the ancient Greek city of Berenice or Berenicis or Bernici. That city was traditionally founded in 446 BC (different sources give different dates like 347 BC or 249 BC), by a brother of the king of Cyrene, but got the name Berenice only when it was refounded in the 3rd century BC under the patronage of Berenice (Berenike), the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes, the ruler of Egypt. The new city was later given the name Hesperides, in reference to the Hesperides, the guardians of the mythic western paradise. The name may have also referred to green oases in low-lying areas in the nearby coastal plain.
Benghazi later became a Roman city and greatly prospered for 600 years. The city superseded Cyrene and Barca as the chief center of Cyrenaica after the 3rd century AD and during the Persian attacks; in 642–643 -when was conquered by the Arabs and partially destroyed- it had dwindled to an insignificant village among magnificent historic ruins.
In its more prosperous period, Berenice became a Christian bishopric. The first of its bishops whose name is recorded in extant documents is Ammon, to whom Dionysius of Alexandria wrote in about 260. Dathes was at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and Probatius at a synod held in Constantinople in 394. No longer a residential bishopric, Berenice is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Ottoman province
In the 13th century, the small settlement became an important player in the trade growing up between Genoese merchants and the tribes of the hinterland. In 16th century maps, the name of Marsa ibn Ghazi appears.
Benghazi had a strategic port location, one that was too useful to be ignored by the Ottomans.
In 1578, the Turks conquered Benghazi and it was ruled from Tripoli by the Karamanlis from 1711 to 1835; it then passed under direct Ottoman rule until 1911. Greek and Italian sponge fishermen worked its coastal waters. In 1858, and again in 1874, Benghazi was devastated by bubonic plague.
Italian colonial rule
In 1911, Benghazi was invaded and conquered by the Italians. Nearly half the local population of Cyrenaica under the leadership of Omar Mukhtar resisted the Italian occupation.
In the early 1930s, the revolt was over and the Italians—under governor Italo Balbo—started attempts to assimilate the local population with pacifying policies: a number of new villages for Cyrenaicans were created with health services and schools.
Additionally Cyrenaica was populated by more than 20,000 Italian colonists in the late 1930s, mainly around the coast of Benghazi. Benghazi population was made up of more than 35 per cent of Italians in 1939.
As a consequence, there was in Cyrenaica and mostly in Benghazi a huge economic development in the second half of the 1930s. Benghazi grew to be a modern city with a new airport, new railways station, new seaplane station, an enlarged port and many facilities. Benghazi was going to be connected in 1940 by a new railway to Tripoli, but in summer of that year war started between Italians and British and infrastructure development came to a standstill.
World War II
In World War II Benghazi changed hands several times. During Operation Compass the city was captured from the Italians by Combe Force on 6 February 1941.
Benghazi was recaptured by Axis powers, led by general Erwin Rommel of the German Africa Corps, on 4 April.
It was taken again during Operation Crusader by the British on 24 December only to change hands again on 29 January 1942 in the Rommel Afrika Corps' push to Egypt.
During the fateful Battle of El Alamein– from Alexandria, Egypt–British troops led by general Bernard Montgomery again defeated the Afrika Corps which then made a long steady retreat westward passing through Benghazi for the final time. On 20 November, Benghazi was captured by the British Eighth Army and thereafter held by the British.
In August 1943 from Benina airport of Benghazi started the US attack on the Ploiești oil refineries with 178 B-24 bombers (called Operation Tidal Wave), after an Italian "Arditi" paratroopers attack that destroyed some Allied aircraft in June 1943.
Contemporary Benghazi
Heavily bombed in World War II, Benghazi was later rebuilt with the country's newly found oil wealth as a gleaming showpiece of modern Libya. It became the capital city of Emirate of Cyrenaica (1949–1951) under Idris Senussi I. In 1951, Cyrenaica was merged with Tripolitania and Fezzan to form the independent Kingdom of Libya, of which both Benghazi and Tripoli were capital cities.
Benghazi lost its capital status when the Free Officers under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d'état in 1969, whereafter all government institutions were concentrated in Tripoli, Even though King Idris was forced into exile and the monarchy abolished, support for the Senussi dynasty remained strong in Cyrenaica. This was emphasized by real or perceived injustices from the government towards the people of Benghazi, including the demolition in the year 2000 of the arena of football club Alahly Benghazi S.C., following anti-government protests.
On 15 April 1986, U.S. Air Force and Navy planes bombed Benghazi and Tripoli. President Ronald Reagan justified the attacks by claiming Libya was responsible for terrorism directed at the United States, including the bombing of La Belle discothèque in West Berlin ten days before.
2011 Revolution
In February 2011, peaceful protests erupted in Benghazi that were brutally suppressed by Gaddafi's armed forces and loyalists. The violence urged the people to fight back and try to overthrow Gaddafi from power in The Libyan Revolution. At least 500 people were killed in the protests against the government.
The former Libyan flag used in the Kingdom of Libya was used by many protesters as an opposition flag. Demonstrators were also seen carrying images of King Idris I. Benghazi and the Cyrenaica have been traditional strongholds of the royal Senussi dynasty.
As of 21 February, the city was reported to be largely controlled by the opposition. The widely loathed mayor, Huda Ben Amer, nicknamed "the Executioner", fled the city for Tripoli. Residents organised to direct traffic and collect refuse. By 24 February, a committee made up of lawyers, judges and respected local people had been formed in order to provide civic administration and public services within the city. Two local radio stations, operated by Voice of Free Libya, along with a newspaper, were also established.
From 26 February to 26 August, Benghazi was the temporary headquarters of the National Transitional Council which is led by the former justice minister, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, until Tripoli was liberated.
On 19 March, pro-Gaddafi forces almost defeated the rebellion when they began attacking the city of Benghazi in a major offensive, but were forced back the next day when NATO forces began implementing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.
On 1 June, explosives were detonated in a car near the Tibesti Hotel, with a rebel spokesman calling the bombing a "cowardly act". It was suspected that an officer was killed, and many people started to shout out anti-Gaddafi chants while the Tibesti was cordoned off.
On 19 May 2012, residents of Benghazi voted in historic local elections; this was the first time such elections have been held in the city since the 1960s, and turnout was high.
2012 attack on U.S. diplomatic mission
On 11 September 2012, the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi was attacked by a heavily armed group of 125–150 gunmen, whose trucks bore the logo of Ansar al-Sharia, a group of Islamist militants, also known as Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, working with the local government to manage security in Benghazi. U.S. Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens, Foreign Service Information Management Officer (IMO) Sean Smith, and CIA contractors and former Navy SEALS Tyrone S. Woods and Glen Doherty were killed during a series of raids, commencing at nightfall and continuing into the next morning. Ten others were injured.
Second Libyan Civil War
Following the outbreak of the second Libyan Civil War in 2014, Benghazi became the subject of heavy fighting between the Libyan National Army-aligned House of Representatives government, and the Islamist Shura Council of Benghazi Revolutionaries and ISIL-aligned Wilayat Barqa, which were entrenched in various pockets in the city. During the closing months of the battle, between late-2016 and mid-2017, much of the urban center in and around the remaining Shura Council pocket in the central coastal quarters of Suq Al-Hout and al-Sabri suffered heavy bombardment and war damage. Wilayat Barqa militants reportedly fled Benghazi in early January, while the LNA's General Khalifa Haftar declared the city cleared of the Shura Council on 5 July 2017. Despite Haftar's declaration of the liberation of the city, dozens of gunmen remained fortified and besieged in Sidi Akribesh, according to sources close to military. LNA captured the last militant-held district in December 2017.
Administrative divisions
Benghazi is one of Libya's 22 shabiyahs (people's districts). Benghazi Baladiyat is divided into 32 Basic People's Congress administrative divisions, in which the responsibilities of the corresponding political units of the same name fall.
The official 32 Basic People's Congresses of Benghazi are:
Population
Demographics
As with other cities in Libya, there is a reasonable amount of ethnic diversity in Benghazi. The people of eastern Libya, Benghazi included, have in the past always been of predominantly Arab descent. In recent times, however, there has been an influx of African immigrants into Benghazi. There are also many Egyptian immigrants in Benghazi. A small Greek community also exists in Benghazi. The Greek island of Crete is a short distance from Benghazi, and many families in Benghazi today bear Cretan surnames. There are even a few Italian-related families, left from the colonial times before World War II.
The overwhelming majority of Libyans in Benghazi were of Berber descent until the arrival of Bani Salim (Arabic tribe). In the 11th century, the Sa'adi tribes from the Banu Sulyam migrated to Cyrenaica; each sub-tribe from the Sa'adi historically controlled a section of Cyrenaica. Benghazi and its surrounding areas were controlled by Barghathi tribe. In modern times, Benghazi has seen a lot of Libyans from different parts of the country move into the city, especially since the Kingdom era. Many came to Benghazi from Misrata. Thus Benghazi has always been seen as a welcoming city, a city which the local Bedouins refer to as '' which can be translated as, 'Benghazi raises the lost', as many immigrants who arrived from the Western Maghreb or the former Al Andalus came with little money, clothes or food and were looked after very generously by the local Bedouin population as well as those arriving following the Italian war from western Libya.
Religion
The predominant religion in Benghazi is Islam. Practically all of the city's inhabitants are Sunni Muslims. During Islamic holidays such as Ramadan, most abstain from food; restaurants are usually empty during the day, with the exception of some expatriates and tourists. Alcohol is banned by law in Benghazi and throughout Libya in accordance with Islamic principles. The conservative Islamic nature of Benghazi creates a strong sense of family life in the city – practically all teenagers and young adults live at home until they get married. Many Muslims in Benghazi adhere to the traditional Maliki school of religious law, however much less so than in decades past. In recent years, more people are beginning to practice Salafism with the spread of literalist inclined Islamic television channels. It is not uncommon therefore to see woman wearing black niqabs and men with full beards in Benghazi because of the existence of such schools, although not exclusively for that purpose. The Senussi order from which the royal dynasty sprang has traditionally enjoyed strong support in Benghazi and the Cyrenaica.
For Muslims, there are many mosques throughout Benghazi; the oldest and best known such as the Atiq and Osman mosques are located in and around the medina.
There is also a small Christian community in the city. The Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Benghazi's Franciscan Church of the Immaculate Conception serves Benghazi's Latin Catholic community of roughly 4,000; there is also a decommissioned cathedral church (1929–1939; closed 1977; currently abandoned). For Egyptian Copts, there is a Coptic Orthodox church (which was formerly the grand synagogue) with two serving priests.
Jews lived in Benghazi, as they did elsewhere in Libya, from Roman times until 1967 when most were airlifted out after a series of riots in the years after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. There are no Jews remaining in Libya today.
Education
The oldest university in Libya is the University of Libya, founded by royal decree in 1955. It was initially housed in the royal Al Manar Palace before receiving its own campus in 1968. It was later split and became known as University of Benghazi. There are some private universities such as Libyan International Medical University.
Education in Benghazi, as throughout Libya, is compulsory and paid entirely by taxpayers. Compulsory education continues until ninth grade. There are many public primary and secondary schools scattered throughout the city, as well as some private schools.
University education is also paid entirely by taxpayers for all Libyan citizens in Benghazi. There are many other foreign schools such as Benghazi European School and private schools.
The country's largest library, containing over 300,000 volumes, is affiliated with the university.
International schools include:
International School Benghazi
Benghazi European School
British School in Benghazi
Geography
Benghazi is one of the sub-regions of the area referred to as Cyrenaica, the others being the Jebel Akhdar and the coastal plain running east of Apollonia. Cyrenaica is surrounded by desert on three sides, hence in ancient times the most accessible civilisation was to the North, across the Mediterranean, in Crete and Greece, only away.
Benghazi is surrounded by the "barr", arid steppe. The Jebel Akhdar, literally, "the Green Mountain", just north of Benghazi, rises to the east. Here the vegetation and climate is more Mediterranean in feel with none of the desert landscapes found further south. A large section of the western Jebel Akhdar is taken up by the fertile Marj plain. Further east is the second level of the Jebel Akhdar, between and over above sea level, often thickly wooded and cut by ravines. Annual rainfall here, especially around Cyrene, can reach . It was this fertile site northeast of Benghazi that the Greeks chose for their settlement. The soil in Benghazi is a rich red colour and very clayey. Sirocco winds are not uncommon in the city, and as such, many of Benghazi's smaller streets and buildings can be quite dusty.
To the north, below the steep cliffs of the plateau, lies a narrow belt of Mediterranean farmland. Olives and other Mediterranean fruits and vegetables are grown here. To the south, the forest and farmland gives way to juniper bush maquis and pre-desert scrub with some winter grazing.
As a district, Benghazi borders Hizam Al Akhdar, which surrounds it on land.
Natural recreation and parks
Although Benghazi does not have a high percentage of green space per resident, there are a few public parks and green recreational areas in the city. Perhaps the most famous is the zoological garden and theme park in Al-Fuwayhat also known as Benghazi Zoo; the park is referred to locally as al-Bosco, an Italian name for wood (as in "Belleau Wood", not as in "wood plank"). The park is a combination of a zoo with trees planted during Italian rule and which contains wild cats, primates, elephants, birds and other animals, and a small theme park containing electrical rides, added later in the 1980s as part of a redevelopment of the entire site. It is one of the most popular parks in Benghazi, and is very busy on public holidays, as well as amongst school children and scouts on outings.
On Gamal Abdel Nasser Street is 23 July Park, another large green space which faces the Tibesti Hotel and borders the waterfront. The park is popular amongst teenagers, and families on Thursday nights (as Friday is a day off work throughout Libya). Another large and popular park is al-Buduzira in North Benghazi on the al-'Uruba Road in al-Kwayfiya. The park surrounds a natural lake, and is more rugged in nature than the city parks. A section of al-Buduzira is also a water park with large slides, whilst the southern part of the park has picnic areas which are popular in the summers.
Climate
Benghazi has a warm semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with hot and dry, prolonged summers and mild to cool, slightly wet winters. In the north of the city lies the Mediterranean-climate 'Jabal Al-Akhdar' (Green Mountains), and in the south the climate is becoming desert-like. Summers in Benghazi are hot and rainless, but with high levels of humidity. Winters are mild with occasional rain. Annual rainfall is low at per year. The city's local water supply is supplemented by groundwater transported from the aquifers of southern Libya along the Great Manmade River.
Economy
Benghazi, as the principal city of eastern Libya, is one of Libya's major economic centres. The city has an important port which is vital to the economy, as Libya imports many foodstuffs and manufactured products. Benghazi is also an industrial and commercial centre in Libya. Major manufactured goods include processed food, textiles, tanning, processed salt and construction materials, particularly cement; a large cement factory is located in al-Hawari. Food processing is based on local fish, imported goods, and the produce of irrigated coastal lowlands and the nearby Jabal al-Akdhar Mountains, including cereal, dates, olives, wool and meat.
Finance is also important to the city's economy, with the Libyan Bank of Commerce and Development maintaining branches in Benghazi; the Bank's headquarters is a high office tower on Gamal Abdel Nasser Street in el-Berka. Other large banks include the Central Bank of Libya office in the city centre.
The oil industry drives the city's commerce. Large national companies such as the Al-Brega Oil Marketing Company and the Arabian Gulf Oil Company are important to the city's economy and employ many people. An increase in consumer prices has been coupled with an increase in the importance of the retail sector to the city's economy. In recent years, international franchises such as United Colors of Benetton, H&M and Nike have opened in Benghazi.
Tourism is still in its very early stages in Libya. The industry is however growing in importance in Benghazi. The majority of tourists that visit Eastern Libya use Benghazi as a base for which to explore the Greek ruins in Cyrene or to make desert excursions south in Kufra. The two main hotels in the city are the Tibesti Hotel and Uzu Hotel, and several other hotels have opened in recent years to cater for increased demand. Handicrafts are found in the many souks in the city, but are of little significance to the economy.
Skanska built a good connection of speedways and flyovers in the decades after the Libyan revolution in 1969; this has made the transport of goods between Benghazi and other cities easier. Benghazi's air transport uses Benina International Airport; numerous daily flights leave for Tripoli and connections are also available to other African, Asian and European cities.
In April 2012, the Libyan economy ministry announced plans for creating a free trade area in Benghazi.
Transport
Benghazi is a transport hub in Eastern Libya and is an important city on the northern coastal road that crosses the country. An efficiently designed system of roads, bridges and underpasses cover Benghazi, however traffic jams and poorly maintained streets are not uncommon. A microbus system covers many areas of the city and has its base in Al-Funduq. National and international bus services also leave from Al-Fudnuq from the central bus station. , earthworks were underway in the city for a rail network which will traverse northern Libya.
Benina International Airport serves national and international flights.
The Benghazi port is a vital terminal for the region, and allows for the import and export of national and international goods and food products.
The city's road network is generally well designed. An efficient system of highways, flyovers, ringroads and underpasses serve the city, and allow for the transport of goods and vehicles. The roads are not always well-maintained however, and often have incorrect, poorly visible or no road markings, as well as potholes in some roads and inner-city streets. In recent years, a rapid increase in car ownership has meant that traffic jams, lack of parking spaces and overcrowding are also not uncommon, especially on smaller streets. Road accidents are also on the rise because of the increase in vehicles and the subsequent lax in attention given by authorities to dangerous driving. In a rare RTA conflict health study, road traffic accidents were studied during the period of the 2011 armed conflict, in which Benghazi was a focal point of events. It was found that while the number of road traffic accidents had decreased during the period of the war, the morbidity and mortality of the injured had increased significantly.
There is no systemised public transport system in Benghazi despite the city's size and significance. A popular system of microbuses has developed in recent years; bus journeys run on fixed routes and passengers can embark and disembark anywhere on the route. Most microbuses stop at Al-Funduq or have the end of Souq Al-Jarid in Al-Funduq as their final destination. National and international coach services depart and arrive at Benghazi's coach station at Al-Funduq with regular journeys to Tripoli, as well as international services to Cairo, Amman and Damascus.
Until the 1960s there were two small railways, built by the Italians, departing from Benghazi and served with classical Littorine: Benghazi-Barce and Benghazi-Soluch. But recently huge railway plans were supported by Gaddafi: work started in September 2008 on a new railway network that would connect to major cities of western Libya at Sirte. Russian Railways is responsible for the three-year contract. In the future, a rail link may be built to both Tunisia and Egypt forming a North African coastal rail network.
Cityscape
The city is divided into many neighbourhoods, some of which were founded during Italian Colonial rule and many which have developed as a result of modern urban sprawl. The different neighbourhoods vary in their levels of economic prosperity, as well as their cultural, historic and social atmosphere. Generally, the city is roughly divided into the following areas: Central Benghazi (colloquially referred to as al-Blaad by locals) – includes the medina, and the old quarter, Central Districts which circle the downtown – Al-Sabri, Sidi Abayd, Sidi Hsayn, Al-Berka, Al-Salmani, Al-Hadaa'ik, Al-Fuwayhat and Al-Keesh, Central Suburbs – Al-Laythi, Bu Atni, Al-Quwarsha, Al-Hawari, Coastal Districts – Al-Kwayfiya (North), Garyounis, Bu-Fakhra and Jarrutha (South), and the Distant Suburbs – Gimeenis, Benina and Sidi Khalifa.
Central Benghazi is where the majority of Benghazi's historical monuments are located, and has the city's most popular tourist attractions. Virtually all of Benghazi's theatres, libraries, best clothing stores, markets and old mosques can be found there. The Italian quarter is also located in the centre. The central districts are mostly residential and commercial areas such as Sidi Hsayn. The central suburbs are almost entirely residential and more like little towns in their own right; Al-Quwarsha is a good example of this. The coastal districts (especially the southern districts) are where Benghazi's beaches can be found. Some sections have become more popular as residential areas in recent years (such as Qanfuda). These areas are still primarily recreational however, and many beach condominium resorts (known locally as chalets) have been built in previous years such as those at al-Nakheel beach, and the Nayrouz condominiums.
Culture
Benghazi is one of the cultural centres of Libya and is a base for tourists, visitors and academics in the region. Throughout its history, Benghazi has developed with a certain level of independence from the more Maghreb oriented capital Tripoli. This has influenced the city, and as such, the cultural atmosphere in Benghazi is more Arab in nature than that in Tripoli. An influx immigrants including Egyptian, Iraqi, Palestinian, Sudanese and Syrian immigrants have also influenced the city's culture to a certain extent in recent years.
The city centre contains a few local theatres, as well as the Dar al-Kutub National Library in Al-Funduq, where the works of popular local novelists like Sadeq Naihoum and Khalifa al-Fakhri can be found. Different architectural styles attest to the different empires that have controlled the city throughout history. Sport is also important in the city; two of Libya's most successful football clubs are based in Benghazi.
Architecture
There is a variety of architectural styles in Benghazi, which reflect the number of times the city has changed hands throughout its history. Arab, Ottoman and Italian rule have influenced the different streetscapes, buildings and quarters in Benghazi.
Ancient architectural remains of the Greek and later Roman settlement of Berenice can be found by the Italian lighthouse. There is a trace of the 3rd century BC wall built by the Greeks, four Roman peristyle houses, six wine vats. A Byzantine church also exists on the site, with a mosaic still intact. These ruins formed the northern part of the ancient city, which extended south and east but now lies buried beneath the modern city.
The next oldest section of the city is the Medina quarter, which began to grow sometime under Medieval Arab rule, and is still intact today. This quarter stretches out from the Northern shores of the harbour, and covers an area roughly bounded by Ahmed Rafiq al-Mahdawi Street to the North-west, al-Jezayir Street to the South-east and 23 July Street to the South-west. The heart of the medina is Maydan al-Hurriya (Freedom Square); to the northeast of this is the covered Souq al-Jareed.
The largest Ottoman architectural monument in Benghazi is the late 19th-century Ottoman palace in El-Berka; built during the rule of Rashid Pasha II. The front elevation was completed in 1895, whilst the side sections were added later during Italian rule. The white and green structure houses 360 rooms; and is on a tract of land where Gamal Abdel Nasser Street meets al-Saqzali Street; south of the 28 March football stadium.
The house of Omar Pasha Mansour El Kikhia, an Ottoman Pasha from a prominent Benghazi family, represents a good example of Ottoman residential architecture with several balconies, stone archways, and an open courtyard containing a fountain. The home was recently restored, remodeled and converted into the Bait-al Medina al-Thaqafi museum.
Benghazi came under Italian rule in the early part of the 20th century. Some examples of Italianate, as well as modernist colonial architecture from this period remain today. Under the governorships of Generals Ernesto Mombelli and Attilio Teruzzi in the 1920s, the buildings commissioned in Benghazi had an eclectic architectural language that embodied a Western conception of Eastern architecture. An example of this is the Municipal palace built in 1924, which stands in Maydan al-Hurriya (Freedom Square). The building combines Moorish arches with Italianate motifs on the façade. Italians even did the first architectural plan of Benghazi. in the 1930s, with a new railway station and promenade.
The largest colonial building from this Italian period is the Benghazi Cathedral in Maydan El Catedraeya (Cathedral Square), which was built in the 1920s and has two large distinct domes.
Benghazi was heavily bombed during World War II, and so the majority of buildings in the city are examples of modern or contemporary architecture. The central business district was built mostly in the 1960s and 1970s with Libya's newfound oil wealth. The highest building in Benghazi is the Tibesti Hotel on Gamal Abdel Nasser Street built in 1989. Another prominent example of modern architecture in Benghazi is the Da'wah al-Islamiyah Building, which has a series of distinctive cubes piled in the shape of a pyramid.
Important colonial buildings designed during Italian rule include the Berenice Cinema (currently under renovation) which was designed Marcello Piacentini and Luigi Piccinato in 1928.
Sports
Benghazi is the second largest city in Libya, and as such, has some of the best sports facilities in the country. The city has various sporting centres of different standards, such as football stadia, beach clubs (where many water sports are played), as well as several other public and private facilities. Benghazi has hosted many national sports events throughout the years, as well as more significant international competitions such as the African Cup of Nations.
Football is the most-popular sport in Benghazi, and two of Libya's most-successful football clubs, Al-Ahly Benghazi and Al-Nasr Benghazi, are based in the city. The two teams have won the Libyan Premier League five times; Al Ahly four and Al Nasr only one. The most-important football event that took place in Benghazi was the 1982 African Cup of Nations. The city hosted six group games and a semifinal in the March 28 Stadium, Libya's second-largest stadium. The city will very likely be the scene of more games when Libya re-hosts the African Cup of Nations in 2013.
The largest sporting centre in Benghazi is the Medina al-Riyadhia (Sports City). The complex is situated just south of the city centre, and houses the 28 March Stadium, and the Slayman al Tharrat basketball stadium – several matches of the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship were hosted at the arena. The complex also has a sports hall for indoor sports, a tennis stadium and several small tennis courts. The facility was built in the 1950s and is therefore quite outdated; the stadia have nonetheless undergone maintenance work in recent years. Sports City was recently closed down for a complete redevelopment of the site. , the 28 March Stadium was undergoing demolition work, and a new 45,000 all seater stadium was to be constructed in its place. A second smaller stadium was to be built on-site, and the entire site was to undergo redevelopment before its reopening in 2011, and its use in the 2013 African Nations Cup.
The Eastern suburb of Sidi Khalifa accommodates an equestrian sports facility. The 'Martyrs of Benghazi's Riding Club' boasts a number of female members who, at least until 2016, engaged in sportive competition.
Benghazi is a coastal city, and its beaches are an important location for sporting activities. The coast at Jeliana is home to the Milaha Beach Club amongst others. Wind surfing and swimming are two of the most popular water sports. There are also several contact sport clubs in the city –judo and taekwondo are popular men's sports in Benghazi. In recent times, rugby sevens has seen great success with three clubs in the vicinity. Gyms have also become more popular in the city in recent years, because of a greater concern for healthy living amongst Libyans.
Food
Food and drink is very important to the culture of the people of Benghazi, as it is in the rest of Libya. Many of the dishes and ingredients used are passed down as tradition from generation to generation. The main ingredients that are used in their cuisine are olive oil, garlic, palm dates, grains, and milk. These products are natural to this area, and these ingredients are very common to much of North Africa and the Mediterranean. Another tradition of Libyan culinary culture is tea. Tea from Benghazi has a uniquely thick, bitter taste. Tea drinking is a social activity that close friends and relatives usually take part in.
Benghazi is home to many distinctive dishes that can be prepared at home. Bazin is one of the most well known of these dishes. Bazin is a dish consisting of a small loaf of heated dough and a meat or vegetable sauce. The dough can be ripped into bite-sized pieces and dipped into the sauce. This dish uses essential ingredients such as garlic and oil. One common dessert that can be found in Benghazi is deep fried dates. These are often served with milk.
Notable people
Notable people from Benghazi include:
Khadījah Jahamī, broadcaster
Fadwa El Gallal, journalist
See also
List of cities in Libya
2012 Benghazi attack
HIV trial in Libya
Notes from Hell
References
External links
Zum.de's History of Cyrenaica
Google
University of Benghazi
Libyan International Medical University
GCatholic – former cathedral
Libya lifts 'HIV medics' sentence, but then Libya to execute 'HIV medics'
Lexicorient.com's article on Benghazi
Photos of Italian Benghazi
Maps showing Benghazi.
UPI Archives – Airstrike against Libya
525 BC
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Libya
Ancient Greek geography of North Africa
+
Districts of Libya
Port cities and towns in Libya
Populated places established in the 6th century BC
Roman sites in Libya
Populated places in Benghazi District
Greek colonies in Libya
6th-century BC establishments
Baladiyat of Libya
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204116
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baggush%20Box
|
Baggush Box
|
The Baggush Box was a British Army field fortification built in the Western Desert near Maaten Baggush, east of Mersa Matruh during the Western Desert Campaign of World War II.
Background
The box was built by men of the Western Desert Force (Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor) as a tented camp, with offices, said to be bomb-proof dug under sand dunes, as a temporary billet for troops taking part in operations against the Italian invasion of Egypt in 1940 by the Italian 10th Army. O'Connor opened his headquarters on 8 June. An airfield was a short distance inland and served as the headquarters of the Desert Air Force (Air Commodore Raymond Collishaw).
Prelude
On 28 June, Marshal of the Air Force () Italo Balbo, Governor-General of Libya and Commander-in-Chief of Italian North Africa ( ASI), flew a reconnaissance sortie over Sidi Barrani and Maaten Baggush. Balbo's aircraft was shot down by the cruiser San Giorgio in Tobruk harbour and the occupants killed while coming in to land; Balbo was replaced by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani.
On 26 November, O'Connor held a meeting at the Baggush Box after the completion of "Training Exercise No. 1", a rehearsal for Operation Compass, in which attacks on fortified positions had been practised, the troops not being told that the positions were replicas of the Italian camps at Nibeiwa and the Tummars. The officers with O'Connor reported that the method laid down in The Division in Attack was too slow and sacrificed surprise, leaving the attackers vulnerable to air attack. The Air Officer Commanding in Chief, Air Marshal Arthur Longmore, was being pressured from London to send formations to Greece and to provide air cover for Operation Compass, he stripped the air defences of Egypt of two squadrons and a flight, which he placed at O'Connor's disposal.
Before the offensive began O'Connor vacated the Baggush Box for a forward headquarters and Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland Wilson the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the British Troops in Egypt took over the headquarters.
Footnotes
References
External links
Australia in the War of 1939–1945: To Benghazi
The Sheep Dog Remembers
Military installations of the United Kingdom
Mersa Matruh
Western Desert campaign
|
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] |
204117
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fechner
|
Fechner
|
Fechner is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Carl-A. Fechner (born 1952), German documentary filmmaker
Christian Fechner (1944–2008), French film producer and screenwriter
Gino Fechner (born 1997), German footballer
Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), German experimental psychologist, physicist and philosopher
Harry Fechner (born 1950), German football defender
Johannes Fechner (born 1965), German politician
Max Fechner (1892–1973), Minister of Justice of the GDR
Robert Fechner (1876–1939), American union leader
Sebastian Fechner (born 1983), Polish footballer
See also
Fechner color, an illusion of color
Weber–Fechner law
Fechner (crater), a lunar crater
11041 Fechner (1989 SH2), a main-belt asteroid discovered on 1989 by E. W. Elst
German-language surnames
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortification
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Fortification
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A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin fortis ("strong") and facere ("to make").
From very early history to modern times, defensive walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an ever-changing world of invasion and conquest. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its 'cyclopean' walls). A Greek phrourion was a fortified collection of buildings used as a military garrison, and is the equivalent of the Roman castellum or English fortress. These constructions mainly served the purpose of a watch tower, to guard certain roads, passes, and borders. Though smaller than a real fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch and maintain the border.
The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called "castrametation" since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble and command a specific defensive territory.
Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles.
Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so the walls were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes to improve protection.
The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare well against the effects of high explosive, and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells. Steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations.
Nomenclature
Many United States Army installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Indeed, during the pioneering era of North America, many outposts on the frontiers, even non-military outposts, were referred to generically as forts. Larger military installations may be called fortresses; smaller ones were once known as fortalices. The word fortification can also refer to the practice of improving an area's defense with defensive works. City walls are fortifications but are not necessarily called fortresses.
The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castrametation since the time of the Roman legions. The art/science of laying siege to a fortification and of destroying it is commonly called siegecraft or siege warfare and is formally known as poliorcetics. In some texts this latter term also applies to the art of building a fortification.
Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifications are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials. Field fortifications—for example breastworks—and often known as fieldworks or earthworks, are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable and with materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light timber, or sandbags (see sangar). An example of field fortification was the construction of Fort Necessity by George Washington in 1754.
There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. This is employed when in the course of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being available. An example of this is the construction of Roman forts in England and in other Roman territories where camps were set up with the intention of staying for some time, but not permanently.
Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that it describes a residence of a monarch or noble and commands a specific defensive territory. An example of this is the massive medieval castle of Carcassonne.
History
Neolithic Europe
From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for many cities. In Bulgaria, near the town of Provadia a walled fortified settlement today called Solnitsata starting from 4700 BC had a diameter of about 300 feet (100 meters), was home to 350 people living in two-storey houses, and was encircled by a fortified wall. The huge walls around the settlement, which were built very tall and with stone blocks which are 6 feet (2 meters) high and 4.5 feet (1.5 meters) thick, make it one of the earliest walled settlements in Europe but it is younger than the walled town of Sesklo in Greece from 6800 BC. Uruk in ancient Sumer (Mesopotamia) is one of the world's oldest known walled cities. The Ancient Egyptians also built fortresses on the frontiers of the Nile Valley to protect against invaders from neighbouring territories, as well as circle-shaped mud brick walls around their cities. Many of the fortifications of the ancient world were built with mud brick, often leaving them no more than mounds of dirt for today's archaeologists.
A massive prehistoric stone wall surrounded the ancient temple of Ness of Brodgar 3200 BC in Scotland. Named the "Great Wall of Brodgar" it was four metres thick and four metres tall. The wall had some symbolic or ritualistic function. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples and defensive walls.
Neolithic Indus Valley
Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dykes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities bickered constantly about the control of prime agricultural land. Mundigak (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks. The entire city of Kerma in Nubia was encompassed by fortified walls surrounded by a ditch. Archaeology has revealed various Bronze Age bastions and foundations constructed of stone together with either baked or unfired brick.
Bronze Age Europe
In Bronze Age Malta, some settlements also began to be fortified. The most notable surviving example is Borġ in-Nadur, where a bastion built in around 1500 BC was found. Babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate. Exceptions were few—notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, choosing to rely on their militaries for defence instead. Initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its 'cyclopean' walls). In classical era Greece, the city of Athens built two parallel stone walls, called the Long Walls, that reached their fortified seaport at Piraeus a few miles away.
In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements known as oppida, whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in the Mediterranean. The fortifications were continuously being expanded and improved. Around 600 BC, in Heuneburg, Germany, forts were constructed with a limestone foundation supported by a mudbrick wall approximately 4 metres tall, probably topped by a roofed walkway, thus reaching a total height of 6 metres. The wall was clad with lime plaster, regularly renewed. Towers protruded outwards from it.
The Oppidum of Manching (German: Oppidum von Manching) was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt), Bavaria (Germany). The settlement was founded in the 3rd century BC and existed until c. 50–30 BC. It reached its largest extent during the late La Tène period (late 2nd century BC), when it had a size of 380 hectares. At that time, 5,000 to 10,000 people lived within its 7.2 km long walls. The oppidum of Bibracte is another example of a Gaulish fortified settlement.
Ancient Rome
The Mura aureliane are a line of city walls built between 271 AD and 275 AD in Rome, Italy, during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus. The walls enclosed all the seven hills of Rome plus the Campus Martius and, on the right bank of the Tiber, the Trastevere district. The river banks within the city limits appear to have been left unfortified, although they were fortified along the Campus Martius. The full circuit ran for surrounding an area of . The walls were constructed in brick-faced concrete, thick and high, with a square tower every 100 Roman feet (). In the 5th century, remodelling doubled the height of the walls to . By 500 AD, the circuit possessed 383 towers, 7,020 crenellations, 18 main gates, 5 postern gates, 116 latrines, and 2,066 large external windows.
The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls. The most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln. Hadrian's Wall was built by the Roman Empire across the width of what is now northern England following a visit by Roman Emperor Hadrian (AD 76–138) in AD 122.
India
A number of forts dating from the Later Stone Age to the British Raj may be found in India. "Fort" is the word used in India for all old fortifications. Numerous Indus Valley Civilization sites exhibit evidences of fortifications. While Dholavira has stone-built fortification walls, Harrapa is fortified using baked bricks; sites such as Kalibangan exhibit mudbrick fortifications with bastions and Lothal has a quadrangular fortified layout. Evidence also suggested of fortifications in Mohenjo-daro. Even a small town – for instance, Kotada Bhadli, exhibiting sophisticated fortification-like bastions – shows that nearly all major and minor towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were fortified. Forts also appeared in urban cities of the Gangetic valley during the second urbanisation period between 600 and 200 BC, and as many as 15 fortification sites have been identified by archaeologists throughout the Gangetic valley, such as Kaushambi, Mahasthangarh, Pataliputra, Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Rajgir, and Lauria Nandangarh. The earliest vedic brick fortification occurs in one of the stupa mounds of Lauria Nandangarh, which is 1.6 km in perimeter and oval in plan and encloses a habitation area. India currently has over 180 forts, with the state of Maharashtra alone having over 70 forts, which are also known as durg, many of them built by Shivaji, founder of the Maratha state. A large majority of forts in India are in North India. The most notable forts are the Red Fort at Delhi, the Red Fort at Agra, the Chittor Fort and Mehrangarh Fort in Rajasthan, the Ranthambhor Fort, Amer Fort and Jaisalmer Fort also in Rajasthan and Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh.
China
Large tempered earth (i.e. rammed earth) walls were built in ancient China since the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC); the capital at ancient Ao had enormous walls built in this fashion (see siege for more info). Although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States (481–221 BC), mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The Great Wall of China had been built since the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC), although its present form was mostly an engineering feat and remodelling of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD).
In addition to the Great Wall, a number of Chinese cities also employed the use of defensive walls to defend their cities. Notable Chinese city walls include the city walls of Hangzhou, Nanjing, the Old City of Shanghai, Suzhou, Xi'an and the walled villages of Hong Kong. The famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Forbidden City made up the inner portion of the Beijing city fortifications.
Philippines
Spanish colonial fortifications
During the Spanish Era several forts and outposts were built throughout the archipelago. Most notable is Intramuros, the old walled city of Manila located along the southern bank of the Pasig River. The historic city was home to centuries-old churches, schools, convents, government buildings and residences, the best collection of Spanish colonial architecture before much of it was destroyed by the bombs of World War II. Of all the buildings within the 67-acre city, only one building, the San Agustin Church, survived the war.
Partial listing of Spanish forts:
Intramuros, Manila
Cuartel de Santo Domingo, Santa Rosa, Laguna
Fuerza de Cuyo, Cuyo, Palawan
Fuerza de Cagayancillo, Cagayancillo, Palawan
Real Fuerza de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza, Zamboanga City
Fuerza de San Felipe, Cavite City
Fuerza de San Pedro, Cebu
Fuerte dela Concepcion y del Triunfo, Ozamiz, Misamis Occidental
Fuerza de San Antonio Abad, Manila
Fuerza de Pikit, Pikit, Cotabato
Fuerza de Santiago, Romblon, Romblon
Fuerza de Jolo, Jolo, Sulu
Fuerza de Masbate, Masbate
Fuerza de Bongabong, Bongabong, Oriental Mindoro
Cotta de Dapitan, Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte
Fuerte de Alfonso XII, Tukuran, Zamboanga del Sur
Fuerza de Bacolod, Bacolod, Lanao del Norte
Guinsiliban Watchtower, Guinsiliban, Camiguin
Laguindingan Watchtower, Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental
Kutang San Diego, Gumaca, Quezon
Baluarte Luna, Luna, La Union
Local fortifications
The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes built their so-called idjang on hills and elevated areas to protect themselves during times of war. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived.
The Igorots built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the width in height around 2000 BC.
The Muslim Filipinos of the south built strong fortresses called kota or moong to protect their communities. Usually, many of the occupants of these kotas are entire families rather than just warriors. Lords often had their own kotas to assert their right to rule, it served not only as a military installation but as a palace for the local Lord. It is said that at the height of the Maguindanao Sultanate's power, they blanketed the areas around Western Mindanao with Kotas and other fortifications to block the Spanish advance into the region. These kotas were usually made of stone and bamboo or other light materials and surrounded by trench networks. As a result, some of these kotas were burned easily of destroyed. With further Spanish campaigns in the region, the Sultanate was subdued and majority of Kotas dismantled or destroyed. Kotas were not only used by the Muslims as defense against Spaniards and other foreigners, renegades and rebels also built fortifications in defiance of other chiefs in the area. During the American occupation, rebels built strongholds and the Datus, Rajahs or Sultans often built and reinforced their kotas in a desperate bid to maintain rule over their subjects and their land. Many of these forts were also destroyed by American expeditions, as a result, very very few kotas still stand to this day.
Notable Kotas:
Kota Selurong: an outpost of the Bruneian Empire in Luzon, later became the City of Manila.
Kuta Wato/Kota Bato: Literally translates to "stone fort" the first known stone fortification in the country, its ruins exist as the "Kutawato Cave Complex"
Kota Sug/Jolo: The capital and seat of the Sultanate of Sulu. When it was occupied by the Spaniards in the 1870s they converted the kota into the world's smallest walled city.
Pre-Islamic Arabia
During Muhammad's lifetime
During Muhammad's era in Arabia, many tribes made use of fortifications. In the Battle of the Trench, the largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad, dug a trench, which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate cavalry (consisting of horses and camels) useless, locking the two sides in a stalemate. Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Medina-allied Banu Qurayza to attack the city from the south. However, Muhammad's diplomacy derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. The well-organized defenders, the sinking of confederate morale, and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco.
During the Siege of Ta'if in January 630, Muhammad ordered his followers to attack enemies who fled from the Battle of Hunayn and sought refuge in the fortress of Taif.
Islamic world
Africa
The walls of Benin are described as the world's second longest man-made structure, as well as the most extensive earthwork in the world, by the Guinness Book of Records, 1974.
The walls may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE or, during the first millennium CE.
Strong citadels were also built other in areas of Africa. Yorubaland for example had several sites surrounded by the full range of earthworks and ramparts seen elsewhere, and sited on ground. This improved defensive potential- such as hills and ridges. Yoruba fortifications were often protected with a double wall of trenches and ramparts, and in the Congo forests concealed ditches and paths, along with the main works, often bristled with rows of sharpened stakes. Inner defenses were laid out to blunt an enemy penetration with a maze of defensive walls allowing for entrapment and crossfire on opposing forces.
A military tactic of the Ashanti was to create powerful log stockades at key points. This was employed in later wars against the British to block British advances. Some of these fortifications were over a hundred yard long, with heavy parallel tree trunks. They were impervious to destruction by artillery fire. Behind these stockades numerous Ashanti soldiers were mobilized to check enemy movement. While formidable in construction, many of these strongpoints failed because Ashanti guns, gunpowder and bullets were poor, and provided little sustained killing power in defense. Time and time again British troops overcame or bypassed the stockades by mounting old-fashioned bayonet charges, after laying down some covering fire.
Defensive works were of importance in the tropical African Kingdoms. In the Kingdom of Kongo field fortifications were characterized by trenches and low earthen embankments. Such strongpoints ironically, sometimes held up much better against European cannon than taller, more imposing structures.
Medieval Europe
Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards.
The founding of urban centres was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in eastern Europe, were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of Eastern Colonisation. These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect the current level of military development.
During the Renaissance era, the Venetian Republic raised great walls around cities, and the finest examples, among others, are in Nicosia (Cyprus), Rocca di Manerba del Garda (Lombardy) and Palmanova (Italy), or Dubrovnik (Croatia), which proved to be futile against attacks but still stand to this day. Unlike Venetians the Ottomans used to built smaller fortifications but in greater numbers, and only rarely fortified entire settlements such as Počitelj, Vratnik and Jajce in Bosnia.
Development after introduction of firearms
Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by the arrival of cannons on the 14th century battlefield. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes.
This placed a heavy emphasis on the geometry of the fortification to allow defensive cannonry interlocking fields of fire to cover all approaches to the lower and thus more vulnerable walls.
The evolution of this new style of fortification can be seen in transitional forts such as Sarzanello in North West Italy which was built between 1492 and 1502. Sarzanello consists of both crenellated walls with towers typical of the medieval period but also has a ravelin like angular gun platform screening one of the curtain walls which is protected from flanking fire from the towers of the main part of the fort. Another example are the fortifications of Rhodes which were frozen at 1522 so that Rhodes is the only European walled town that still shows the transition between the classical medieval fortification and the modern ones.
Fortifications also extended in depth, with protected batteries for defensive cannonry, to allow them to engage attacking cannon to keep them at a distance and prevent them bearing directly on the vulnerable walls.
The result was star shaped fortifications with tier upon tier of hornworks and bastions, of which Fort Bourtange is an excellent example. There are also extensive fortifications from this era in the Nordic states and in Britain, the fortifications of Berwick-upon-Tweed and the harbour archipelago of Suomenlinna at Helsinki being fine examples.
19th century
The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare well against the effects of high explosive and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells.
Worse, the large open ditches surrounding forts of this type were an integral part of the defensive scheme, as was the covered way at the edge of the counter scarp. The ditch was extremely vulnerable to bombardment with explosive shells.
In response, military engineers evolved the polygonal style of fortification. The ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly into the native rock or soil, laid out as a series of straight lines creating the central fortified area that gives this style of fortification its name.
Wide enough to be an impassable barrier for attacking troops, but narrow enough to be a difficult target for enemy shellfire, the ditch was swept by fire from defensive blockhouses set in the ditch as well as firing positions cut into the outer face of the ditch itself.
The profile of the fort became very low indeed, surrounded outside the ditch covered by caponiers by a gently sloping open area so as to eliminate possible cover for enemy forces, while the fort itself provided a minimal target for enemy fire. The entrypoint became a sunken gatehouse in the inner face of the ditch, reached by a curving ramp that gave access to the gate via a rolling bridge that could be withdrawn into the gatehouse.
Much of the fort moved underground. Deep passages and tunnels now connected the blockhouses and firing points in the ditch to the fort proper, with magazines and machine rooms deep under the surface. The guns, however, were often mounted in open emplacements and protected only by a parapet; both in order to keep a lower profile and also because experience with guns in closed casemates had seen them put out of action by rubble as their own casemates were collapsed around them.
Gone were citadels surrounding towns: forts were to be moved to the outside of the cities some 12 km to keep the enemy at a distance so their artillery could not bombard the city center. From now on a ring of forts were to be built at a spacing that would allow them to effectively cover the intervals between them.
The new forts abandoned the principle of the bastion, which had also been made obsolete by advances in arms. The outline was a much simplified polygon, surrounded by a ditch. These forts, built in masonry and shaped stone, were designed to shelter their garrison against bombardment. One organizing feature of the new system involved the construction of two defensive curtains: an outer line of forts, backed by an inner ring or line at critical points of terrain or junctions (see, for example, Séré de Rivières system in France).
Traditional fortification however continued to be applied by European armies engaged in warfare in colonies established in Africa against lightly armed attackers from amongst the indigenous population. A relatively small number of defenders in a fort impervious to primitive weaponry could hold out against high odds, the only constraint being the supply of ammunition.
20th and 21st centuries
Steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. In the 1930s and 1940s, some fortifications were built with designs taking into consideration the new threat of aerial warfare, for example Fort Campbell in Malta. Despite this, only underground bunkers are still able to provide some protection in modern wars. Many historical fortifications were demolished during the modern age, but a considerable number survive as popular tourist destinations and prominent local landmarks today.
The downfall of permanent fortifications had two causes:
The ever-escalating power, speed, and reach of artillery and air power meant that almost any target that could be located could be destroyed, if sufficient force were massed against it. As such, the more resources a defender devoted to reinforcing a fortification, the more combat power that fortification justified being devoted to destroying it, if the fortification's destruction was demanded by an attacker's strategy. From World War II, bunker busters were used against fortifications. By 1950, nuclear weapons were capable of destroying entire cities, and produced dangerous radiation. This led to the creation of civilian nuclear air raid shelters.
The second weakness of permanent fortification was its very permanency. Because of this it was often easier to go around a fortification and, with the rise of mobile warfare in the beginning of World War II, this became a viable offensive choice. When a defensive line was too extensive to be entirely bypassed, massive offensive might could be massed against one part of the line allowing a breakthrough, after which the rest of the line could be bypassed. Such was the fate of the many defensive lines built before and during World War II, such as the Siegfried Line, the Stalin Line and the Atlantic Wall. This was not the case with the Maginot Line; it was designed to force the Germans to invade other countries (Belgium or Switzerland) to go around it, and was successful in that sense.
Instead field fortification rose to dominate defensive action. Unlike the trench warfare which dominated World War I, these defences were more temporary in nature. This was an advantage because since it was less extensive it formed a less obvious target for enemy force to be directed against.
If sufficient power were massed against one point to penetrate it, the forces based there could be withdrawn and the line could be re-established relatively quickly. Instead of a supposedly impenetrable defensive line, such fortifications emphasized defence in depth, so that as defenders were forced to pull back or were overrun, the lines of defenders behind them could take over the defence.
Because the mobile offensives practised by both sides usually focused on avoiding the strongest points of a defensive line, these defences were usually relatively thin and spread along the length of a line. The defence was usually not equally strong throughout however.
The strength of the defensive line in an area varied according to how rapidly an attacking force could progress in the terrain that was being defended—both the terrain the defensive line was built on and the ground behind it that an attacker might hope to break out into. This was both for reasons of the strategic value of the ground, and its defensive value.
This was possible because while offensive tactics were focused on mobility, so were defensive tactics. The dug in defences consisted primarily of infantry and antitank guns. Defending tanks and tank destroyers would be concentrated in mobile brigades behind the defensive line. If a major offensive was launched against a point in the line, mobile reinforcements would be sent to reinforce that part of the line that was in danger of failing.
Thus the defensive line could be relatively thin because the bulk of the fighting power of the defenders was not concentrated in the line itself but rather in the mobile reserves. A notable exception to this rule was seen in the defensive lines at the Battle of Kursk during World War II, where German forces deliberately attacked into the strongest part of the Soviet defences seeking to crush them utterly.
The terrain that was being defended was of primary importance because open terrain that tanks could move over quickly made possible rapid advances into the defenders' rear areas that were very dangerous to the defenders. Thus such terrain had to be defended at all cost.
In addition, since in theory the defensive line only had to hold out long enough for mobile reserves to reinforce it, terrain that did not permit rapid advance could be held more weakly because the enemy's advance into it would be slower, giving the defenders more time to reinforce that point in the line. For example, the battle of the Hurtgen Forest in Germany during the closing stages of World War II is an excellent example of how difficult terrain could be used to the defenders' advantage.
After World War II, ICBMs capable of reaching much of the way around the world were developed, and so speed became an essential characteristic of the strongest militaries and defenses. Missile silos were developed, so missiles could be fired from the middle of a country and hit cities and targets in another country, and airplanes (and air carriers) became major defenses and offensive weapons (leading to an expansion of the use of airports and airstrips as fortifications). Mobile defenses could be had underwater, too, in the form of nuclear submarines capable of firing missiles. Some bunkers in the mid to late 20th century came to be buried deep inside mountains and prominent rocks, such as Gibraltar and the Cheyenne Mountain Complex. On the ground itself, minefields have been used as hidden defences in modern warfare, often remaining long after the wars that produced them have ended.
Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, providing a buffer between potentially hostile militaries.
Military airfields
Military airfields offer a fixed "target rich" environment for even relatively small enemy forces, using hit-and-run tactics by ground forces, stand-off attacks (mortars and rockets), air attacks, or ballistic missiles. Key targets – aircraft, munitions, fuel, and vital technical personnel – can be protected by fortifications.
Aircraft can be protected by revetments, Hesco barriers, or hardened aircraft shelters which will protect from many types of attack. Larger aircraft types tend to be based outside the operational theatre.
Munition storage follows safety rules which use fortifications (bunkers and bunds) to provide protection against accident and chain reactions (sympathetic detonations). Weapons for rearming aircraft can be stored in small fortified expense stores closer to the aircraft. At Bien Hoa South Vietnam on the morning of 16 May 1965, as aircraft were being re-fuelled and armed, a chain reaction explosion destroyed 13 aircraft, killed 34 personnel, and injured over 100; this, along with damage and losses of aircraft to enemy attack (by both infiltration and stand off attacks), led to the construction of revetments and shelters to protect aircraft throughout South Vietnam.
Aircrew and ground personnel will need protection during enemy attacks and fortifications range from culvert section "duck and cover" shelters to permanent air-raid shelters. Soft locations with high personnel densities such as accommodation and messing facilities can have limited protection by placing prefabricated concrete walls or barriers around them, examples of barriers are Jersey Barriers, T Barriers or Splinter Protection Units (SPUs). Older fortification may prove useful such as the old 'Yugo' pyramid shelters built in the 1980s which were used by US personnel on 8 Jan 2020 when Iran fired 11 ballistic missiles at Ayn al-Asad Airbase in Iraq.
Fuel is volatile and has to comply with rules for storage which provide protection against accident. Fuel in underground bulk fuel installations is well protected though valves and controls are vulnerable to enemy action. Above ground tanks can be susceptible to attack.
Ground support equipment will need to be protected by fortifications to be usable after an enemy attack.
Permanent (concrete) guard fortifications are safer, stronger, last longer and are more cost effective than sandbag fortifications. Prefabricated positions can be made from concrete culvert sections. The British Yarnold Bunker is made from sections of a concrete pipe.
Guard Towers provide increased field of view but a lower level of protection.
Dispersal and camouflage of assets can supplement fortifications against some forms of airfield attack.
Counter-insurgency
Just as in colonial periods, comparatively obsolete fortifications are still used for low-intensity conflicts. Such fortifications range in size from small patrol bases or forward operating bases up to huge airbases such as Camp Bastion/Leatherneck in Afghanistan. Much like in the 18th and 19th century, because the enemy is not a powerful military force with the heavy weaponry required to destroy fortifications, walls of gabion, sandbag or even simple mud can provide protection against small arms and anti-tank weapons – although such fortifications are still vulnerable to mortar and artillery fire.
Forts
Forts in modern American usage often refer to space set aside by governments for a permanent military facility; these often do not have any actual fortifications, and can have specializations (military barracks, administration, medical facilities, or intelligence).
However, there are some modern fortifications that are referred to as forts. These are typically small semi permanent fortifications. In urban combat they are built by upgrading existing structures such as houses or public buildings. In field warfare they are often log, sandbag or gabion type construction.
Such forts are typically only used in low level conflict, such as counterinsurgency conflicts or very low level conventional conflicts, such as the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, which saw the use of log forts for use by forward platoons and companies. The reason for this is that static above ground forts can not survive modern direct or indirect fire weapons larger than mortars, RPGs and small arms.
Prisons and others
Fortifications designed to keep the inhabitants of a facility in rather than attacker out can also be found, in prisons, concentration camps, and other such facilities, with supermaxes having some of the strongest of those. Those are covered in other articles, as most prisons and concentration camps are not primarily military forts (although forts, camps, and garrison towns have been used as prisons and/or concentration camps; such as Theresienstadt, Guantanamo Bay detention camp and the Tower of London for example).
See also
Border fence
Castra
Cavin
Citadel
Coastal fortification
Defense line
Defensive wall
Hesco bastion
Imperial fortress
Kuruwa, walls of a Japanese castle
List of fortifications
List of forts
Military camp
Slighting
Fort components
Abatis
Banquette
Barbed wire, razor wire, wire entanglement, and wire obstacle
Bartizan
Bastion
Berm
Capital
Caponier
Casemate
Castle walls
Czech hedgehog
Defensive fighting position
Ditch
Embrasure
Glacis
Gun turret
Keep
Lunette
Machicolation
Outwork
Palisade
Parapet
Pillbox
Postern
Ravelin
Rampart
Revetment
Sandbag
Sangar
Scarp and Counterscarp
Turret
Zwinger
Types of forts and fortification
Blockhouse
Bunker
Castle
Chinese city wall
Compound
Defensive wall
Diaolou
Fire support base
Flak tower
Fortress church or fortified church
Grad, a Slavic wooden fortified settlement
Gusuku, fortifications in the Ryukyu Islands
Korean fortress
Hill fort
Land battery
Martello tower
Medieval fortification
Missile launch facility
Pā, a 19th-century Māori fortification
Peel tower
Polygonal fort
Promontory fort
Redoubt
Stockade
Star fort
Fortification and siege warfare
Medieval warfare
Military engineering
Military history
Siege
Siege engine
Notable experts
Henri Alexis Brialmont
César Cui
Bernard de Gomme
Francesco Laparelli
Mozi
Diades of Pella
James of Saint George
Fritz Todt
Menno van Coehoorn
Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban
Maximilian von Welsch
Notes
References
Bibliography
Murray, Nicholas. “The Development of Fortifications,” The Encyclopedia of War, Gordon Martel (ed.). WileyBlackwell, 2011.
Murray, Nicholas. The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914. Potomac Books Inc. (an imprint of the University of Nebraska Press), 2013.
Osadolor, Osarhieme Benson, "The Military System of Benin Kingdom 1440–1897]," (UD), Hamburg University: 2001 copy
July, Robert Pre-Colonial Africa, Charles Scribner, 1975
Thornton, John Kelly Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800, Routledge: 1999
External links
Fortress Study Group
ICOFORT
Military strategy
Military installations
Forts
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204119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870%20in%20literature
|
1870 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1870.
Events
January 19 – Ivan Turgenev attends and writes about the public execution by guillotine of the spree killer Jean-Baptiste Troppmann outside the gates of La Roquette Prisons in Paris.
March 7 – Thomas Hardy meets his first wife, Emma Gifford, in Cornwall.
March 28 – Serialisation of Kenward Philp's The Bowery Detective in The Fireside Companion (New York) begins, the first known story to include the word detective in the title.
April–September – The serialisation of Charles Dickens' last novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, is left unfinished on his death on June 9 at Gads Hill Place in Kent, from a stroke, aged 58.
May – Karl May begins a second four-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds, at Waldheim, Saxony.
Spring – Serial publication begins of Aleksis Kivi's only novel Seitsemän veljestä ("Seven Brothers"), the first notable novel in the Finnish language.
August 24/25 – Libraries of the University of Strasbourg and the City of Strasbourg at Temple Neuf are destroyed by fire during the Siege of Strasbourg in the Franco-Prussian War, resulting in the loss of 3,446 medieval manuscripts, including the original 12th-century Hortus deliciarum compiled by Herrad of Landsberg, the Apologist codex containing the only text of the early Epistle to Diognetus, and rare Renaissance books.
September 17 – The first performance of Alexander Pushkin's play Boris Godunov (1825) is given at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg by members of the Alexandrinsky Theatre.
c. September 20 – Friedrich Engels moves permanently to London from Manchester.
December 18 – The Russian literary weekly Niva («Ни́ва», "Cornfield") is first published by Adolf Marks in Saint Petersburg.
unknown date – Construction of the David Sassoon Library in Bombay, India, is completed.
New books
Fiction
Thomas Bailey Aldrich – The Story of a Bad Boy
Thomas Archer – The Terrible Sights of London
Rhoda Broughton – Red as a Rose is She
Wilkie Collins – Man and Wife
José Maria de Eça de Queiroz and Ramalho Ortigão – (The Mystery of the Sintra Road)
Charles Dickens – The Mystery of Edwin Drood
Benjamin Disraeli – Lothair
Fyodor Dostoevsky – The Eternal Husband («Вечный муж», Vechny muzh)
Edward Jenkins – Ginx's Baby: his birth and other misfortunes
Mór Jókai – Fekete gyémántok (Black Diamonds, i. e. coal)
Aleksis Kivi – Seitsemän veljestä (Seven Brothers)
Jonas Lie – Den Fremsynte (The Visionary or Pictures From Nordland)
George Meredith – The Adventures of Harry Richmond (begins serial publication)
William Morris – The Earthly Paradise
Leopold von Sacher-Masoch – Venus in Furs (Venus im Pelz)
Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin – The History of a Town («История одного города», Istoriya odnogo goroda)
Bayard Taylor – Joseph and His Friend: A Story of Pennsylvania
Anthony Trollope – The Vicar of Bullhampton
Jules Verne
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (Vingt mille lieues sous les mers)
Around the Moon (Autour de la Lune)
Charlotte M. Yonge – The Caged Lion
Children and young people
John Neal — Great Mysteries and Little Plagues
Drama
James Albery – Two Roses
Ludwig Anzengruber (as L. Gruber) – Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld (The Priest of Kirchfeld)
Henry James Byron – Uncle Dick's Darling
Pietro Cossa – Nero
Lydia Koidula
Maret ja Miina (or Kosjakased; The Betrothal Birches)
Saaremaa Onupoeg (The Cousin from Saaremaa)
Lord Newry – Ecarte
George Sand and Sarah Bernhardt – L'Autre
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy – Tsar Boris («Царь Борис», published)
Poetry
Bret Harte – The Heathen Chinee
Edward Lear – Nonsense Songs, Stories, Botany, and Alphabets (dated 1871), including "The Owl and the Pussycat"
Giovanni Marradi – Canzone moderne
Dante Gabriel Rossetti – Poems, including "Jenny" and a fragment of "The House of Life"
Non-fiction
J. E. Austen-Leigh – A Memoir of Jane Austen
Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1st edition)
Richard William Church – Life of St. Anselm
Hargrave Jennings – The Rosicrucians, their Rites and Mysteries
Henry Maudsley – Body and Mind
William Robinson – The Wild Garden
Births
January 3 – Henry Handel Richardson (Ethel Florence Lindesay Richardson), Australian novelist (died 1946)
March 5 – Frank Norris, American novelist (died 1902)
April 7 – Gustav Landauer, German philosopher and revolutionary (murdered 1919)
June 25 – Erskine Childers, Irish novelist (executed 1922)
July 27 – Hilaire Belloc, French-born English writer, poet and satirist (died 1953)
October 18 – Petre P. Negulescu, Romanian philosopher (died 1951)
October 22 (October 10 OS) – Ivan Bunin, Russian-born writer, recipient of Nobel Prize in Literature (died 1953)
October 29 – Gerald Duckworth, English publisher (died 1937)
December 17 – Ioan A. Bassarabescu, Romanian short story writer and politician (died 1952)
December 18 – Saki (Hector Hugh Munro), English short story writer and dramatist (killed in action 1916)
Deaths
February 25 – Henrik Hertz, Danish poet (born 1797)
April 24 – Louisa Stuart Costello, Irish writer on history and travel (born 1799)
June 9 – Charles Dickens, English novelist (born 1812)
June 11 – William Gilmore Simms, American poet, novelist and historian (born 1806)
July 19 – Benjamin Thorpe, scholar of Old English (born c. 1782)
July 20 – Jules de Goncourt, French novelist and critic (syphilis, born 1830)
July 24 – Anders Abraham Grafström, Swedish poet and historian (born 1790)
September 12 – Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author and explorer (born 1836)
November 4 – Comte de Lautreamont (Isidore Lucien Ducasse), French poet and writer (born 1846)
December 5 – Alexandre Dumas, père, French novelist (born 1802)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amin%20al-Husseini
|
Amin al-Husseini
|
Mohammed Amin al-Husseini ( 1897
– 4 July 1974) was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in Mandatory Palestine.
Al-Husseini was the scion of the al-Husayni family of Jerusalemite Arab notables,
who trace their origins to the eponymous grandson of Muhammad. After receiving an education in Islamic, Ottoman, and Catholic schools, he went on to serve in the Ottoman army in World War I. At war's end he stationed himself in Damascus as a supporter of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Following the Franco-Syrian War and the collapse of Arab Hashemite rule in Damascus, his early position on pan-Arabism shifted to a form of local nationalism for Palestinian Arabs and he moved back to Jerusalem. From as early as 1920 he actively opposed Zionism, and was implicated as a leader of the 1920 Nebi Musa riots. Al-Husseini was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for incitement but was pardoned by the British. In 1921, Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner appointed him Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, a position he used to promote Islam while rallying a non-confessional Arab nationalism against Zionism.
During the period 1921–1936 he was considered an important ally by the British authorities.
His opposition to the British peaked during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. In 1937, evading an arrest warrant, he fled Palestine and took refuge successively in the French Mandate of Lebanon and the Kingdom of Iraq, until he established himself in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. During World War II he collaborated with both Italy and Germany by making propagandistic radio broadcasts and by helping the Nazis recruit Bosnian Muslims for the Waffen-SS (on the ground that they shared four principles: family, order, the leader and faith). On meeting Adolf Hitler he requested backing for Arab independence and support in opposing the establishment in Palestine of a Jewish national home. Upon the end of the war he came under French protection, and then sought refuge in Cairo to avoid prosecution for war crimes.
In the lead-up to the 1948 Palestine war, Husseini opposed both the 1947 UN Partition Plan and King Abdullah's designs to annex the Arab part of British Mandatory Palestine to Jordan, and, failing to gain command of the "Arab rescue army" () formed under the aegis of the Arab League, built his own militia, . In September 1948 he participated in the establishment of an All-Palestine Government. Seated in Egyptian-ruled Gaza, this government won limited recognition by Arab states but was eventually dissolved by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1959. After the war and subsequent Palestinian exodus, his claims to leadership were wholly discredited and he was eventually sidelined by the Palestine Liberation Organization, losing most of his residual political influence.
He died in Beirut, Lebanon in July 1974.
Husseini was and remains a highly controversial figure. Historians dispute whether his fierce opposition to Zionism was grounded in nationalism or antisemitism or a combination of both. Opponents of Palestinian nationalism have pointed to Husseini's wartime residence and propaganda activities in Nazi Germany to associate the Palestinian national movement with European-style anti-semitism.
Early life
Amin al-Husseini was born around 1897
in Jerusalem, the son of the mufti of that city and prominent early opponent of Zionism, Tahir al-Husayni.
The al-Husseini clan consisted of wealthy landowners in southern Palestine, centered around the district of Jerusalem. Thirteen members of the clan had been Mayors of Jerusalem between 1864 and 1920. Another member of the clan and Amin's half-brother, Kamil al-Husayni, also served as Mufti of Jerusalem. In Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini attended a Qur'an school (), and Ottoman government secondary school (rüshidiyye) where he learned Turkish, and a Catholic secondary school run by French missionaries, the Catholic Frères, where he learned French. He also studied at the Alliance Israélite Universelle with its Jewish director Albert Antébi. Antébi considered al-Husseini his pupil, and refers to him in a letter.
In 1912 he studied Islamic law briefly at Al-Azhar University in Cairo and at the , under Rashid Rida, a salafi scholar, who was to remain Amin's mentor till his death in 1935.
Though groomed to hold religious office from youth, his education was typical of the Ottoman effendi at the time, and he only donned a religious turban in 1921 after being appointed mufti. He studied for two years under Rashid Rida, until the First World War forced him to break his studies in 1914. Until Rida's death in 1935, Husseini took his instructions on doctrinal questions. However, he wasnt a doctrinaire adherent of Rashid Rida's fundamentalist Wahhabi theology.
In 1913, approximately at the age of 16, al-Husseini accompanied his mother Zainab to Mecca and received the honorary title of Hajj. Prior to World War I, he studied at the School of Administration in Constantinople, the most secular of Ottoman institutions.
World War I
With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, al-Husseini received a commission in the Ottoman Army as an artillery officer and was assigned to the Forty-Seventh Brigade stationed in and around the city of Izmir. In November 1916 he obtained a three-month disability leave from the army and returned to Jerusalem. He was recovering from an illness there when the city was captured by the British a year later. The British and Sherifian armies, for which some 500 Palestinian Arabs were estimated to have volunteered, completed their conquest of Ottoman-controlled Palestine and Syria in 1918.
As a Sherifian officer, al-Husseini recruited men to serve in Faisal bin Al Hussein bin Ali El-Hashemi's army during the Arab Revolt, a task he undertook while employed as a recruiter by the British military administration in Jerusalem and Damascus. The post-war Palin Report noted that the English recruiting officer, Captain C. D. Brunton, found al-Husseini, with whom he cooperated, very pro-British, and that, via the diffusion of War Office pamphlets dropped from the air promising them peace and prosperity under British rule, "the recruits (were) being given to understand that they were fighting in a national cause and to liberate their country from the Turks". Nothing in his early career to this point suggests he had ambitions to serve in a religious office: his interests were those of an Arab nationalist.
Early political activism
In 1919, al-Husseini attended the Pan-Syrian Congress held in Damascus where he supported Emir Faisal for King of Syria. That year al-Husseini founded the pro-British Jerusalem branch of the Syrian-based "Arab Club" (), which then vied with the Nashashibi-sponsored "Literary Club" () for influence over public opinion, and he soon became its president. At the same time, he wrote articles for the (Southern Syria). The paper was published in Jerusalem beginning in September 1919 by the lawyer Muhammad Hassan al-Budayri, and edited by Aref al-Aref, both prominent members of al-Nadi al-'Arabi.
Al-Husseini was a strong supporter of the short-living Arab Kingdom of Syria, established in March 1920. In addition to his support to pan-Arabist policies of King Faisal I, al-Husseini tried to destabilize the British rule in Palestine, which was declared to be part of the Arab Kingdom, even though no authority was exercised in reality.
During the annual Nabi Musa procession in Jerusalem in April 1920, violent rioting broke out in protest at the implementation of the Balfour Declaration which supported the establishment in Palestine of a homeland for the Jewish people. Much damage to Jewish life and property was caused. The Palin Report laid the blame for the explosion of tensions on both sides.
Ze'ev Jabotinsky, organiser of Jewish paramilitary defences, received a 15-year sentence. Al-Husseini, then a teacher at the Rashidiya school, near Herod's Gate in East Jerusalem, was charged with inciting the Arab crowds with an inflammatory speech and sentenced in absentia to 10-years imprisonment by a military court, since by then he had fled to Syria. It was asserted soon after, by Chaim Weizmann and British army Lieutenant Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, who worked in close concert, that al-Husseini had been put up to inciting the riot by British Field-marshal Allenby's Chief of Staff, Colonel Bertie Harry Waters-Taylor, to demonstrate to the world that Arabs would not tolerate a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
The assertion was never proven, and Meinertzhagen was dismissed.
After the April riots an event took place that turned the traditional rivalry between the Husseini and Nashashibi clans into a serious rift, with long-term consequences for al-Husseini and Palestinian nationalism. According to Sir Louis Bols, great pressure was brought to bear on the military administration from Zionist leaders and officials such as David Yellin, to have the mayor of Jerusalem, Musa Kazim Pasha al-Husayni, dismissed, given his presence in the demonstration of the previous March. Colonel Storrs, the Military Governor of Jerusalem, removed him without further inquiry, replacing him with Raghib al-Nashashibi of the rival Nashashibi clan. This, according to the Palin report, "had a profound effect on his co-religionists, definitely confirming the conviction they had already formed from other evidence that the Civil Administration was the mere puppet of the Zionist Organization."
Until late 1920, al-Husseini focused his efforts on Pan-Arabism and the ideology of a Greater Syria in particular, with Palestine understood as a southern province of an Arab state, whose capital was to be established in Damascus. Greater Syria was to include territory of the entire Levant, now occupied by Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestinian Authority and Israel. The struggle for Greater Syria collapsed after France defeated the Arab forces in Battle of Maysalun in July 1920. The French army entered Damascus at that time, overthrew King Faisal and put an end to the project of a Greater Syria, put under the French Mandate in accordance with the prior Sykes-Picot Agreement. Palestinian notables responded to the disaster by a series of resolutions at the 1921 Haifa conference, which set down a Palestinian framework and passed over in silence the earlier idea of a south confederated with Syria. This framework set the tone of Palestinian nationalism for the ensuing decades.
Al-Husseini, like many of his class and period, then turned from Damascus-oriented Pan-Arabism to a specifically Palestinian ideology, centered on Jerusalem, which sought to block Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine.
The frustration of pan-Arab aspirations lent an Islamic colour to the struggle for independence, and increasing resort to the idea of restoring the land to Dar al-Islam. From his election as Mufti until 1923, al-Husseini exercised total control over the secret society, ("The Self-Sacrificers"), which, together with ("Brotherhood and Purity"), played an important role in clandestine anti-British and anti-Zionist activities, and, via members in the gendarmerie, had engaged in riotous activities as early as April 1920.
Mufti of Jerusalem
Sir Herbert Samuel, recently appointed British High Commissioner, declared a general amnesty for those convicted of complicity in the riots of 1920, excluding only Amin and Al Aref. During a visit later that year to the Bedouin tribes of Transjordan who harboured the two political refugees, Samuel offered a pardon to both and Al Aref accepted with alacrity. Husseini initially rebuffed the offer, on the grounds that he was not a criminal. He accepted the pardon only in the wake of the death of his half-brother, the mufti Kamil al-Husayni, in March 1921. Elections were then held, and of the four candidates running for the office of Mufti, al-Husseini received the fewest votes, the first three being Nashashibi candidates. Nevertheless, Samuel was anxious to keep a balance between the al-Husseinis and their rival clan the Nashashibis. A year earlier the British had replaced Musa al-Husayni as Mayor of Jerusalem with Raghib al-Nashashibi. They then moved to secure for the Husseini clan a compensatory function of prestige by appointing one of them to the position of mufti, and, with the support of Raghib al-Nashashibi, prevailing upon the Nashashibi front-runner, Sheikh Hussam ad-Din Jarallah, to withdraw. This automatically promoted Amin al-Husseini to third position, which, under Ottoman law, allowed him to qualify, and Samuel then chose him as Mufti. His initial appointment was as Mufti, but when the Supreme Muslim Council was created in the following year, Husseini demanded and received the title Grand Mufti that had earlier been created, perhaps on the lines of Egyptian usage,
by the British for his half-brother Kamil. The position came with a life tenure.
In 1922, al-Husseini was elected president of the Supreme Muslim Council which had been created by Samuel in 1921.
Matthews argues that the British considered the combinations of his profile as an effective Arab nationalist and a scion of a noble Jerusalem family "made it advantageous to align his interests with those of the British administration and thereby keep him on a short tether.". The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds
and the orphan funds, worth annually about £50,000, as compared to the £600,000 in the Jewish Agency's annual budget.
In addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine. Among other functions, these courts were entrusted with the power to appoint teachers and preachers.
The British initially balanced appointments to the Supreme Muslim Council between the Husseinis and their supporters (known as the , or council supporters) and the Nashashibis and their allied clans (known as the , the opposition). The , were more disposed to a compromise with the Jews, and indeed had for some years received annual subventions from the Jewish Agency. During most of the period of the British mandate, bickering between these two families seriously undermined any Palestinian Arab unity. In 1936, however, they achieved a measure of concerted policy when all the Palestinian Arab groups joined to create a permanent executive organ known as the Arab Higher Committee under al-Husseini's chairmanship.
Haram ash-Sharif and the Western Wall
The Supreme Muslim Council and its head al-Husseini, who regarded himself as guardian of one of the three holy sites of Islam, launched an international campaign in Muslim countries to gather funds to restore and improve the (Noble Sanctuary) or Temple Mount, and particularly the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock shrine (which houses also the holiest site in Judaism).
The whole area required extensive restoration, given the disrepair into which it had fallen from neglect in Ottoman times. Jerusalem was the original direction towards which Muslims prayed, until the Qibla was reorientated towards Mecca by Mohammed in the year 624. Al-Husseini commissioned the Turkish architect Mimar Kemalettin.
In restoring the site, al-Husseini was also assisted by the Mandatory power's Catholic Director of Antiquities, Ernest Richmond.
Under Richmond's supervision, the Turkish architect drew up a plan, and the execution of the works gave a notable stimulus to the revival of traditional artisan arts like mosaic tessellation, glassware production, woodcraft, wicker work and iron-mongering.
Al-Husseini's vigorous efforts to transform the Haram into a symbol of pan-Arabic and Palestinian nationalism were intended to rally Arab support against the postwar influx of Jewish immigrants. In his campaigning, al-Husseini often accused Jews of planning to take possession of the Western Wall of Jerusalem, which belonged to the waqf of Abu Madyan as an inalienable property, and rebuild the Temple over the Al-Aqsa Mosque. He took certain statements, for example, by the Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook regarding the eventual return in time of the Temple Mount back to Jewish hands, and turned them to a concrete political plot to seize control of the area.
Al-Husseini's intensive work to refurbish the shrine as a cynosure for the Muslim world, and Jewish endeavours to improve their access to, and establish a ritually appropriate ambiance on the plaza by the Western Wall, led to increased conflict between the two communities, each seeing the site only from their own traditional perspective and interests. Zionist narratives pinpointed al-Husseini's works on, and publicity about, the site and threats to it, as attempts to restore his own family's waning prestige. Arab narratives read the heightened agitation of certain Jewish groups over the Wall as an attempt to revive diaspora's interest in Zionism after some years of relative decline, depression and emigration.
Each attempt to make minor alterations to the status quo, still governed by Ottoman law, was bitterly protested before the British authorities by the Muslim authorities. If Muslims could cite an Ottoman regulation of 1912 specifically forbidding objects like seating to be introduced, the Jews could cite testimonies to the fact that before 1914 certain exceptions had been made to improve their access and use of the Wall.
The decade witnessed several such episodes of strong friction, and the simmering tensions came to a head in late 1928, only to erupt, after a brief respite, into an explosion of violence a year later.
1929 Palestine riots
Prelude
On 10 August 1928, a constituent assembly convened by the French in Syria was rapidly adjourned when calls were made for a reunification with Palestine.
Al-Husseini and Awni Abd al-Hadi met with the Syrian nationalists
and they made a joint proclamation for a unified monarchical state under a son of Ibn Sa'ud. On the 26th,
the completion of the first stage of restoration work on the Haram's mosques was celebrated with great pomp, in the presence of representatives from the Muslim countries which had financed the project, the Mandatory authorities, and Abdullah, Emir of Transjordan. A month later, an article appeared in the Jewish press proposing the purchase and destruction of houses in the Moroccan quarter bordering on the wall to improve pilgrim access and thereby further the "Redemption of Israel."
Soon after, on 23 September,
Yom Kippur, a Jewish beadle introduced a screen to separate male and female worshippers at the Wall. Informed by residents in the neighbouring Mughrabi quarter, the waqf authority complained to Harry Luke, acting Chief Secretary to the Government of Palestine, that this virtually changed the lane into a synagogue, and violated the status quo, as had the collapsible seats in 1926. British constables, encountering a refusal, used force to remove the screen, and a jostling clash ensued between worshippers and police.
Zionist allegations that disproportionate force had been employed during what was a solemn occasion of prayer created an outcry throughout the diaspora. Worldwide Jewish protests remonstrated with Britain for the violence exercised at the Wall. The Jewish National Council Vaad Leumi "demanded that British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews". In reply, the Muslims organized a Defence Committee for the Protection of the Noble Buraq,
and huge crowd rallies took place on the Al-Aqsa plaza in protest. Work, often noisy, was immediately undertaken on a mosque above the Jewish prayer site. Disturbances such as opening a passage for donkeys to pass through the area, angered worshippers. After intense negotiations, the Zionist organisation denied any intent to take over the whole Haram Ash-Sharif, but demanded the government expropriate and raze the Moroccan quarter. A law of 1924 allowed the British authorities to expropriate property, and fear of this in turn greatly agitated the Muslim community, though the laws of donation of the waqf explicitly disallowed any such alienation. After lengthy deliberation, a White Paper was made public on 11 December 1928 in favour of the status quo.
After the nomination of the new High Commissioner Sir John Chancellor to succeed Lord Plumer in December 1928, the question was re-examined, and in February 1929 legal opinion established that the mandatory authority was within its powers to intervene to ensure Jewish rights of access and prayer. Al-Husseini pressed him for a specific clarification of the legal status quo regarding the Wall. Chancellor mulled weakening the SMC and undermining al-Husseini's authority by making the office of mufti elective. The Nabi Musa festival of April that year passed without incident, despite al-Husseini's warnings of possible incidents. Chancellor thought his power was waning, and after conferring with London, admitted to al-Husseini on 6 May that he was impotent to act decisively in the matter. Al-Husseini replied that, unless the Mandatory authorities acted, then, very much like Christian monks protecting their sacred sites in Jerusalem, the sheikhs would have to take infringements of the status quo into their own hands, and personally remove any objects introduced by Jews to the area. Chancellor asked him to be patient, and al-Husseini offered to stop works on the Mount on condition that this gesture not be taken as a recognition of Jewish rights. A change of government in Britain in June led to a new proposal: only Muslim works in the sector near where Jews prayed should be subject to mandatory authorisation: Jews could employ ritual objects, but the introduction of seats and screens would be subject to Muslim authorisation. Chancellor authorised the Muslims to recommence their reconstructive work, while, responding to further Zionist complaints, prevailed on the SMC to stop the raucous Zikr ceremonies in the vicinity of the wall.
He also asked the Zionist representatives to refrain from filling their newspapers with attacks on the government and Muslim authorities. Chancellor then departed for Europe where the Mandatory Commission was deliberating.
Riots
With Chancellor abroad, and the Zionist Commission itself, with its leader Colonel Frederick Kisch, in Zürich for the 16th Zionist Congress (attended also by Ze'ev Jabotinsky), the SMC resumed works, confidentially authorised, on the Haram only to be met with outcries from the Jewish press. The administration rapidly published the new rules on 22 July, with a serious error in translation that fueled Zionist reports of a plot against Jewish rights.
A protest in London led to a public declaration by a member of the Zionist Commission that Jewish rights were bigger than the status quo, a statement which encouraged in turn Arab suspicions that local agreements were again being overthrown by Jewish intrigues abroad. News that the Zurich Congress, in creating the Jewish Agency on 11 August, had brought unity among Zionists and the world Jewish community, a measure that would greatly increase Jewish investment in British Palestine,
set off alarm bells. On 15 August, Tisha B'Av, a day memorializing the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the revisionist Betar movement, despite Pinhas Rutenberg's plea on 8 August to the acting High Commissioner Harry Luke to stop such groups from participating, rallied members from Tel Aviv to join them in the religious commemoration. Kisch, before leaving, had banned Jewish demonstrations in Jerusalem's Arab quarters. The Betar youth gave the ceremony a strong nationalist tinge by singing the Hatikvah, waving the flag of Israel, and chanting the slogan "The Wall is Ours".
The following day coincided with (or ), the anniversary of the birth of Islam's prophet, Muhammad. Muslim worshippers, after prayers on the esplanade of the Haram, passed through the narrow lane by the Wailing Wall and ripped up prayer books, and kotel notes (wall petitions), without harming however three Jews present. Contacted by Luke, al-Husseini undertook to do his best to maintain calm on the Haram, but could not stop demonstrators from gathering at the Wall.
On 17 August a young Jewish boy was stabbed to death by Arabs while retrieving a football, while an Arab was badly wounded in a brawl with Palestinian Jews.
Strongly tied to the anti-Hashemite party,
and attacked by supporters of Abdullah in Transjordan for misusing funds marked out for campaigning against France, al-Husseini asked for a visa for himself and Awni Abd al-Hadi to travel to Syria, where the leadership of the Syrian anti-French cause was being contested.
Averse to his presence in Syria, the French asked him to put off the journey. Meanwhile, despite Harry Luke's lecturing journalists to avoid reporting such material, rumors circulated in both communities, of an imminent massacre of Jews by Muslims, and of an assault on the Haram ash-Sharif by Jews. On 21 August a funeral cortège, taking the form of a public demonstration for the dead Jewish boy, wound its way through the old city, with the police blocking attempts to break into the Arab quarters. On the 22nd, Luke convoked representatives of both parties to calm things down, and undersign a joint declaration. Awni Abd al-Hadi and Jamal al-Husayni were ready to recognize Jewish visiting rights at the Wall in exchange for Jewish recognition of Islamic prerogatives at the Buraq. The Jewish representative, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, considered this beyond his brief—which was limited to an appeal for calm—and the Arabs in turn refused. They agreed to pursue their dialogue the following week.
On 23 August, a Friday, two or three Arabs were murdered in the Jewish quarter of Mea Shearim.
It was also a day of Muslim prayer. A large crowd, composed of many people from outlying villages, thronged into Jerusalem, many armed with sticks and knives. It is not known whether this was organized by al-Husseini or the result of spontaneous mobilisation. The sermon at Al-Aqsa was to be delivered by another preacher, but Luke prevailed on al-Husseini to leave his home and go to the mosque, where he was greeted as "the sword of the faith" and where he instructed the preacher to deliver a pacific sermon, while sending an urgent message for police reinforcements around the Haram. In response to the peaceful address, extremists harangued the crowd, accusing al-Husseini of being an infidel to the Muslim cause. The same violent accusation was launched in Jaffa against sheikh Muzaffir, an otherwise radical Islamic preacher, who gave a sermon calling for calm on the same day.
An assault was launched on the Jewish quarter. Violent mob attacks on Jewish communities, fueled by wildfire hearsay about ostensible massacres of Arabs and attempts to seize the Wall, took place over the following days in Hebron, Safed and Haifa. In all, in the killings and subsequent revenge attacks, 136 Arabs and 135 Jews died, while 340 of the latter were wounded, as well as an estimated 240 Arabs.
Aftermath
Two official investigations were subsequently conducted by the British and the League of Nations's Mandatory Commission. The former, The Shaw Report, concluded that the incident on 23 August consisted of an attack by Arabs on Jews, but rejected the view that the riots had been premeditated. Al-Husseini certainly played an energetic role in Muslim demonstrations from 1928 onwards, but could not be held responsible for the August riots, even if he had "a share in the responsibility for the disturbances". He had nonetheless collaborated from the 23rd of that month in pacifying rioters and reestablishing order. The worst outbreaks occurred in areas, Hebron, Safed, Jaffa, and Haifa where his Arab political adversaries were dominant. The root cause of the violent outbreaks lay in the fear of territorial dispossession.
In a Note of Reservation, Mr. Harry Snell, who had apparently been swayed by Sir Herbert Samuel's son, Edwin Samuel
states that, although he was satisfied that the Mufti was not directly responsible for the violence or had connived at it, he believed the Mufti was aware of the nature of the anti-Zionist campaign and the danger of disturbances. He therefore attributed to the Mufti a greater share of the blame than the official report had. The Dutch Vice-Chairman of the Permanent Mandates Commission, M. Van Rees, argued that "the disturbances of August 1929, as well as the previous disturbances of a similar character, were, in brief, only a special aspect of the resistance offered everywhere in the East, with its traditional and feudal civilisation, to the invasion of a European civilisation introduced by a Western administration" but concluded that in his view "the responsibility for what had happened must lie with the religious and political leaders of the Arabs".
In London, Lord Melchett demanded his arrest for orchestrating all anti-British unrest throughout the Middle East. Consular documentation discarded the plot thesis rapidly, and identified the deeper cause as political, not religious, namely in what the Palin report had earlier identified
as profound Arab discontent over Zionism. Arab memoirs on the (troubles) follow a contemporary proclamation for the Defence of the Wall on 31 August, which justified the riots as legitimate, but nowhere mention a coordinated plan. Izzat Darwaza, an Arab nationalist rival of al-Husseini, alone asserts, without details, that al-Husseini was responsible. Al-Husseini in his Judeophobic memoirs () never claimed to have played such a role.
The High Commissioner received al-Husseini twice officially on 1 October 1929 and a week later, and the latter complained of pro-Zionist bias in an area where the Arab population still viewed Great Britain favorably. Al-Husseini argued that the weakness of the Arab position was that they lacked political representation in Europe, whereas for millennia, in his view, the Jews dominated with their genius for intrigue. He assured Chancellor of his cooperation in maintaining public order.
Political activities, 1930–1935
By 1928–1929 a coalition of a new Palestinian nationalist group began to challenge the hegemony so far exercised by al-Husseini. The group, more pragmatic, hailed from the landed gentry and from business circles, and was intent on what they considered a policy of more realistic accommodation to the Mandatory government. From this period on, a rift emerged, that was to develop into a feud between the directive elite of Palestinian Arabs.
In 1931, al-Husseini founded the World Islamic Congress, on which he was to serve as president. Versions differ as to whether or not al-Husseini supported Izz ad-Din al-Qassam when he undertook clandestine activities against the British Mandate authorities. His appointment as imam of the al-Istiqlal mosque in Haifa had been approved by al-Husseini. Lachman argues that he secretly encouraged, and perhaps financed al-Qassam at this period. Whatever their relations, the latter's independent activism, and open challenge to the British authorities appears to have led to a rupture between the two. He vigorously opposed the Qassamites' exactions against the Christian and Druze communities.
In 1933, according to Alami, the mufti expressed interest in Ben Gurion's proposal of a Jewish-Palestine as part of a larger Arab federation.
By 1935 al-Husseini did take control of one clandestine organization, of whose nature he had not been informed until the preceding year,
which had been set up in 1931 by Musa Kazim al-Husayni's son, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni and recruited from the Palestinian Arab Boy Scout movement, called the "Holy Struggle" ().
This and another paramilitary youth organization, , paralleled the clandestine Jewish Haganah. Rumours, and occasional discovery of caches and shipments of arms, strengthened military preparations on both sides.
1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
On 19 April 1936, a wave of protest strikes and attacks against both the British authorities and Jews was unleashed in Palestine. Initially, the riots were led by Farhan al-Sa'di, a militant sheik of the northern al-Qassam group, with links to the Nashashibis. After the arrest and execution of Farhan, al-Husseini seized the initiative by negotiating an alliance with the al-Qassam faction. Apart from some foreign subsidies, including a substantial amount from Fascist Italy,
he controlled waqf and orphan funds that generated annual income of about 115,000 Palestine pounds. After the start of the revolt, most of that money was used to finance the activities of his representatives throughout the country. To Italy's Consul-General in Jerusalem, Mariano de Angelis, he explained in July that his decision to get directly involved in the conflict arose from the trust he reposed in Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's backing and promises. Upon al-Husseini's initiative, the leaders of Palestinian Arab clans formed the Arab Higher Committee under the Mufti's chairmanship. The Committee called for nonpayment of taxes after 15 May and for a general strike of Arab workers and businesses, demanding an end to the Jewish immigration. The British High Commissioner for Palestine, Sir Arthur Wauchope, responded by engaging in negotiations with al-Husseini and the Committee. The talks, however, soon proved fruitless. Al-Husseini issued a series of warnings, threatening the "revenge of God Almighty" unless the Jewish immigration were to stop, and the general strike began, paralyzing the government, public transportation, Arab businesses and agriculture.
As the time passed, by autumn the Arab middle class had exhausted its resources. Under these circumstances, the Mandatory government was looking for an intermediary who might help persuade the Arab Higher Committee to end the rebellion. Al-Husseini and the Committee rejected King Abdullah of Transjordan as mediator because of his dependence on the British and friendship with the Zionists, but accepted the Iraqi Foreign Minister Nuri as-Said. As Wauchope warned of an impending military campaign and simultaneously offered to dispatch a Royal Commission of Inquiry to hear the Arab complaints, the Arab Higher Committee called off the strike on 11 October. When the promised Royal Commission of Inquiry arrived in Palestine in November, al-Husseini testified before it as chief witness for the Arabs.
In July 1937, British police were sent to arrest al-Husseini for his part in the Arab rebellion, but, tipped off, he managed to escape to the sanctuary of asylum in the Haram. He stayed there for three months, directing the revolt from within. Four days after the assassination of the Acting District Commissioner for that area Lewis Yelland Andrews by Galilean members of the al-Qassam group on 26 September, al-Husseini was deposed from the presidency of the Muslim Supreme Council, the Arab Higher Committee was declared illegal, and warrants for the arrest of its leaders were issued, as being at least "morally responsible", though no proofs existed for their complicity.
Of them only Jamal al-Husayni managed to escape to Syria: the remaining five were exiled to the Seychelles. Al-Husseini was not among the indicted but, fearing imprisonment, on 13–14 October, after sliding under cover of darkness down a rope from the Haram's wall, he himself fled, in a Palestine Police Force car to Jaffa where he boarded a tramp steamer that conveyed him to Lebanon, disguised as a Bedouin, where he reconstituted the committee under his leadership. Though terrorism was used by both sides, Al-Husseini's tactics, his abuse of power to punish other clans, and the killing of political adversaries he considered "traitors",
alienated many Palestinian Arabs. One local leader, Abu Shair, told Da'ud al-Husayni, an emissary from Damascus who bore a list of people to be assassinated during the uprising "I don't work for ('Husayni-ism') but for (nationalism)." He remained in Lebanon for two years, under French surveillance in the Christian village of Zouk, but, in October 1939, his deteriorating relationship with the French and Syrian authorities – they had asked him to make a public declaration of support for Great Britain and France, – led him to withdraw to the Kingdom of Iraq. By June 1939, after the disintegration of the revolt, Husseini's policy of killing only proven turncoats changed to one of liquidating all suspects, even members of his own family, according to one intelligence report.
The rebellion itself had lasted until March 1939, when it was finally quelled by British troops, assisted by Zionist forces, with a 10/1 advantage over Palestinians. Al-Husseini was sufficiently depressed by the outcome, and the personal loss of many friends and relatives, that he contemplated suicide, according to the French High Commissioner in Lebanon. The Revolt nonetheless forced Britain to make substantial concessions to Arab demands. Jewish immigration was to continue but under restrictions, with a quota of 75,000 places spread out over the following five years. On the expiry of this period further Jewish immigration would depend on Arab consent. Besides local unrest, another key factor in bringing about a decisive change in British policy was Nazi Germany's preparations for a European war, which would develop into a worldwide conflict. In British strategic thinking, securing the loyalty and support of the Arab world assumed an importance of some urgency.
While Jewish support was unquestioned, Arab backing in a new global conflict was by no means assured. By promising to phase out Jewish immigration into Palestine, Britain hoped to win back support from wavering Arabs. Husseini, allied to radical elements in exile, hailing from provincial Palestinian families, convinced the AHC, against moderate Palestinian families who were minded to accept it, to reject the White Paper of 1939, which had recommended an Arab-majority state and an end to building a Jewish national home. The rejection was based on its perceived failure to promise an end to immigration; the land policy it advocated was thought to provide imperfect remedies: and the promised independence appeared to depend on Jewish assent and cooperation. Husseini, who also had personal interests threatened by these arrangements, also feared that acceptance would strengthen the hand of his political opponents in the Palestine national movement, such as the Nashashibis. Schwanitz and Rubin argued that Husseini was a great influence on Hitler and that his rejectionism was, ironically, the real causal factor for the establishment of the state of Israel, a thesis Mikics, who regards Husseini as a "radical anti-semite", finds both "astonishing" and "silly", since it would logically entail the collateral thesis that the Zionist movement triggered the Holocaust.
Neve Gordon writes that al-Husseini regarded all alternative nationalist views as treasonous, opponents became traitors and collaborators, and patronizing or employing Jews of any description illegitimate. From Beirut he continued to issue directives. The price for murdering opposition leaders and peace leaders rose by July to 100 Palestine pounds: a suspected traitor 25 pounds, and a Jew 10. Notwithstanding this, ties with the Jews were reestablished by leading families such as the Nashashibis, and by the Fahoum of Nazareth.
Ties with the Axis Powers during World War II
The Nazis generally regarded Arabs with contempt. Hitler himself had in 1937 spoken of them as "half-apes". Throughout the interwar period, Arab nationalists bore Germany no ill-will, despite its earlier support for the Ottoman Empire. Like many Arab countries, it was perceived as a victim of the post-World War I settlement. Hitler himself often spoke of the "infamy of Versailles". Unlike France and Great Britain it had not exercised imperial designs on the Middle East, and its past policy of non-intervention was interpreted as a token of good will. While the scholarly consensus is that Husseini's motives for supporting the Axis powers and his alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were deeply inflected by anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist ideology from the outset, some scholars, notably Renzo De Felice, deny that the relationship can be taken to reflect a putative affinity of Arab nationalism with Nazi/Fascist ideology, and that men like Husseini chose them as allies for purely strategic reasons,
on the grounds that, as Husseini later wrote in his memoirs, "the enemy of your enemy is your friend". British policy was to ease Husseini "into oblivion" by ignoring him, Nuri al-Said, mediating, endeavoured to get him to side with the Allies against the Germans. The overture was considered then rebuffed: according to Philip Mattar, Husseini was reluctant to lend his voice in support of Britain "because it had destroyed Palestinian villages, executed and imprisoned Palestinian fighters, and exiled their leaders".
When Husseini eventually met with Hitler and Ribbentrop in 1941, he assured Hitler that "The Arabs were Germany's natural friends because they had the same enemies... namely the English, the Jews, and the Communists".
Pre-war
It has often been stated that the Nazis inspired and financed the Arab Revolt. According to Philip Mattar, there is no reliable evidence to support such a claim. In 1933, within weeks of Hitler's rise to power in Germany, the German Consul-General in Jerusalem for Palestine, Heinrich Wolff, sent a telegram to Berlin reporting al-Husseini's belief that Palestinian Muslims were enthusiastic about the new regime and looked forward to the spread of Fascism throughout the region. Wolff met al-Husseini and many sheikhs again, a month later, at Nabi Musa. They expressed their approval of the anti-Jewish boycott in Germany and asked Wolff not to send any Jews to Palestine. Wolff subsequently wrote in his annual report for that year that the Arabs' political naïvety led them to fail to recognize the link between German Jewish policy and their problems in Palestine, and that their enthusiasm for Nazi Germany was devoid of any real understanding of the phenomenon. The various proposals by Palestinian Arab notables like al-Husseini were rejected consistently over the years out of concern to avoid disrupting Anglo-German relations, in line with Germany's policy of not imperilling their economic and cultural interests in the region by a change in their policy of neutrality, and respect for British interests. Hitler's essentially precluded significant assistance to Arab leaders.
Italy also made the nature of its assistance to the Palestinian contingent on the outcome of its own negotiations with Britain, and cut off aid when it appeared that the British were ready to admit the failure of their pro-Zionist policy in Palestine. Al-Husseini's adversary, Ze'ev Jabotinsky had at the same time cut off Irgun ties with Italy after the passage of antisemitic racial legislation.
Though Italy did offer substantial aid, some German assistance also trickled through. After asking the new German Consul-General, Hans Döhle on 21 July 1937 for support, the Abwehr briefly made an exception to its policy and gave some limited aid. But this was aimed to exert pressure on Britain over Czechoslovakia. Promised arms shipments never eventuated. This was not the only diplomatic front on which al-Husseini was active. A month after his visit to Döhle, he wrote to the American Consul George Wadsworth (August 1937), to whom he professed his belief that America was remote from imperialist ambitions and therefore able to understand that Zionism "represented a hostile and imperialist aggression directed against an inhabited country". In a meeting with Wadsworth on 31 August, he expressed his fears that Jewish influence in the United States might persuade the country to side with Zionists. In the same period he courted the French government by expressing a willingness to assist them in the region.
Al-Husseini in Iraq
With the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 the Iraqi Government complied with a British request to break off diplomatic relations with Germany, interned all German nationals, and introduced emergency measures putting Iraq on a virtual war-footing. Husseini in the meantime had quietly slipped out of Beirut with his family on 14 October 1939, reaching Baghdad two days later. There he was welcomed as the leading Arab nationalist of his day, and heir to King Faisal, modern Iraq's founder.
A circle of 7 officers who had opposed this government decision and the measures taken had invited him, with Nuri as-Said's agreement, to Iraq, and he was to play an influential role there in the following two years.
Nuri as-Said hoped to negotiate concessions on Palestine with the British in exchange for a declaration of support for Great Britain. A quadrumvirate of four younger generals among the seven, three of whom had served with al-Husseini in World War I, were hostile to the idea of subordinating Iraqi national interests to Britain's war strategy and requirements. They responded to high public expectations for achieving independence from Britain, and deep frustration at the treatment of Palestinians by the latter.
In March 1940, the nationalist Rashid Ali replaced Nuri as-Said. Ali made covert contacts with German representatives in the Middle East, though he was not yet an openly pro-Axis supporter, and al-Husseini's personal secretary Kemal Hadad acted as a liaison between the Axis powers and these officers.
As the European situation for the Allies deteriorated, Husseini advised Iraq to adhere to the letter to their treaty with Great Britain, and avoid being drawn into the war in order to conserve her energies for the liberation of Arab countries. Were Russia, Japan and Italy to side with Germany however, Iraqis should proclaim a revolt in Palestine. In July 1940 Colonel S. F. Newcombe managed to work out an agreement with Nuri al-Sa'id, who was then Foreign Minister, and the Palestinians Jamal al-Husayni and Musa al-'Alami to the effect that Palestinian Arabs would back Britain and assent to the White Paper of 1939 in exchange for an immediate implementation of the clause regarding the country's independence. Iraq undertook to place half of its army under Allied command outside the country's borders. On 29 August, the British however reneged on the agreement, which even Husseini had initially opposed vehemently until the Iraqi government brought pressure to bear on him. The British backtracked out of fear over the hostile reaction the accord might stir up among the Jews of Palestine, and among American Jews, whose opinion was important were Britain to gain American support in the war. That summer, Britain dropped all attempts to deal with al-Husseini, and he threw in his lot with Germany. The Mufti's dissatisfaction with Nuri's pro-British politics, in the meantime, was exacerbated by the latter's refusal to intervene with the British on behalf of the families, all of whom he knew, of 39 Palestinians who had been sentenced to death in secret trials for, in Husseini's view, the crime of defending their country.
On 23 May 1940, Pinhas Rutenberg had suggested to a British official, Bruce Lockhart, that the Mufti be assassinated. The idea was broadly discussed only months later. The War Office and Winston Churchill formally approved his assassination in November of that year, but the proposal was shelved after objections arose from the Foreign Office, concerned at the impact an attempt on his life might have in Iraq where his resistance to the British was widely admired. After the coup of April 1941, British called on assistance from the Irgun, after General Percival Wavell had one of their commanders, David Raziel, released from his imprisonment in Palestine. They asked him if he would undertake to kill or kidnap the Mufti and destroy Iraq's oil refineries. Raziel agreed on condition he be allowed to kidnap the Mufti. Raziel and other Irgun militants were flown to the RAF base at Habbaniyya where he died two days later, on 20 May 1941, when the car he was travelling in was strafed by a German plane.
Al-Husseini used his influence and ties with the Germans to promote Arab nationalism in Iraq. He was among the key promoters of the pan-Arab Al-Muthanna Club, and supported the coup d'état by Rashid Ali in April 1941. When the Anglo-Iraqi War broke out, during which Britain used a mobile Palestinian force of British and Jewish troops, and units from the Arab Legion al-Husseini used his influence to issue a fatwa for a holy war against Britain. The situation of Iraq's Jews rapidly deteriorated, with extortions and sometimes murders taking place. Following the Iraqi defeat and the collapse of Rashid Ali's government, the Farhud pogrom in Baghdad, led by members of the Al-Muthanna Club, which had served as a conduit for German propaganda funding, erupted in June 1941. It was the first Iraqi pogrom in a century, one fueled by violent anti-Jewish feelings stirred over the preceding decade by the ongoing conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine.
When the Iraqi resistance collapsed – given its paucity, German and Italian assistance played a negligible role in the war – al-Husseini escaped from Baghdad on 30 May 1941 to Persia (together with Rashid Ali), where he was granted legation asylum first by Japan, and then by Italy. On 8 October, after the occupation of Persia by the Allies and after the new Persian government of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi severed diplomatic relations with the Axis powers, al-Husseini was taken under Italian protection. In an operation organized by Italian Military Intelligence (, or SIM). Al-Husseini was not welcome in Turkey, nor given permission nor visa to enter; however, he traveled through Turkey with the help of Italian and Japanese diplomats to get to Bulgaria and eventually Italy.
In Nazi-occupied Europe
Al-Husseini arrived in Rome on 10 October 1941. He outlined his proposals before Alberto Ponce de Leon. On condition that the Axis powers "recognize in principle the unity, independence, and sovereignty, of an Arab state, including Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Transjordan", he offered support in the war against Britain and stated his willingness to discuss the issues of "the Holy Places, Lebanon, the Suez Canal, and Aqaba". The Italian foreign ministry approved al-Husseini's proposal, recommended giving him a grant of one million lire, and referred him to Benito Mussolini, who met al-Husseini on 27 October. According to al-Husseini's account, it was an amicable meeting in which Mussolini expressed his hostility to the Jews and Zionism.
Back in the summer of 1940 and again in February 1941, al-Husseini submitted to the Nazi German Government a draft declaration of German-Arab cooperation, containing a clauseGermany and Italy recognize the right of the Arab countries to solve the question of the Jewish elements, which exist in Palestine and in the other Arab countries, as required by the national and ethnic () interests of the Arabs, and as the Jewish question was solved in Germany and Italy.
Encouraged by his meeting with the Italian leader, al-Husseini prepared a draft declaration, affirming the Axis support for the Arabs on 3 November. In three days, the declaration, slightly amended by the Italian foreign ministry, received the formal approval of Mussolini and was forwarded to the German embassy in Rome. On 6 November, al-Husseini arrived in Berlin, where he discussed the text of his declaration with Ernst von Weizsäcker and other German officials. In the final draft, which differed only marginally from al-Husseini's original proposal, the Axis powers declared their readiness to approve the elimination () of the Jewish National Home in Palestine.
On 20 November, al-Husseini met the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and was officially received by Adolf Hitler on 28 November. Hitler, recalling Husseini, remarked that he "has more than one Aryan among his ancestors and one who may be descended from the best Roman stock." He asked Adolf Hitler for a public declaration that "recognized and sympathized with the Arab struggles for independence and liberation, and that would support the elimination of a national Jewish homeland". Hitler refused to make such a public announcement, saying that it would strengthen the Gaullists against the Vichy France,
but asked al-Husseini "to lock ...deep in his heart" the following points, which Christopher Browning summarizes as follows, that
Germany has resolved, step by step, to ask one European nation after the other to solve its Jewish problem, and at the proper time, direct a similar appeal to non-European nations as well. When Germany had defeated Russia and broken through the Caucasus into the Middle East, it would have no further imperial goals of its own and would support Arab liberation... But Hitler did have one goal. "Germany's objective would then be solely the destruction of the Jewish element residing in the Arab sphere under the protection of British power". (). In short, Jews were not simply to be driven out of the German sphere but would be hunted down and destroyed even beyond it.
A separate record of the meeting was made by Fritz Grobba, who until recently had been the German ambassador to Iraq. His version of the crucial words reads "when the hour of Arab liberation comes, Germany has no interest there other than the destruction of the power protecting the Jews".
Al-Husseini's own account of this point, as recorded in his diary, is very similar to Grobba's. According to Amin's account, however, when Hitler expounded his view that the Jews were responsible for World War I, Marxism and its revolutions, and this was why the task of Germans was to persevere in a battle without mercy against the Jews, he replied: "We Arabs think that Zionism, not the Jews, is the cause of all of these acts of sabotage."
In December 1942, al-Husseini held a speech at the celebration of the opening of the Islamic Central Institute () in Berlin, of which he served as honorary chair. In the speech, he harshly criticised those he considered as aggressors against Muslims, namely "Jews, Bolsheviks and Anglo-Saxons." At the time of the opening of the Islamic Central Institute, there were an estimated 3,000 Muslims in Germany, including 400 German converts. The Islamic Central Institute gave the Muslims in Germany institutional ties to the "Third Reich".
Fritz Grobba wrote on 17 July 1942 that the Mufti himself had visited Oranienburg concentration camp and that "the Jews aroused particular interest among the Arabs. ... It all made a very favorable impression on the Arabs." This is cited in confirmation of the view that an associate of al-Husseini's together with three associates of the former Iraqi Prime Minister certainly must have visited the Sachsenhausen concentration camp as part of a German secret police "training course" in July 1942. At the time, the Sachsenhausen camp, set up by the Nazi authorities as a "model camp" to be shown off to both domestic and foreign visitors, housed large numbers of Jews, but was only transformed into a death camp in the following year. The camp was presented during their tour as a re-educational institution, and they were shown the high quality of objects made by inmates, and happy Russian prisoners who, reformed to fight Bolshevism, were paraded, singing, in sprightly new uniforms. They left the camp very favourably impressed by its programme of educational indoctrination. In his memoirs, he recalls Himmler telling him how shocked he was to observe Jewish kapos abusing fellow Jews and that Himmler claimed he had the culprits punished.
The Holocaust
Al-Husseini and the Holocaust
Al-Husseini has been described by the American Jewish Congress as "Hitler's henchman"
and some scholars, such as Schwanitz and Rubin, have argued that Husseini made the Final Solution inevitable by shutting out the possibility of Jews escaping to Palestine.
In his memoirs al-Husseini recalled that Heinrich Himmler, in the summer of 1943, while confiding some German war secrets, inveighed against Jewish "war guilt", and revealed the ongoing extermination (in Arabic, ) of the Jews.
Gilbert Achcar, referring to this meeting with Himmler, observes:
The Mufti was well aware that the European Jews were being wiped out; he never claimed the contrary. Nor, unlike some of his present-day admirers, did he play the ignoble, perverse, and stupid game of Holocaust denial... . His would not allow him to justify himself to the Jews... .gloating that the Jews had paid a much higher price than the Germans... he cites... : "Their losses in the Second World War represent more than thirty percent of the total number of their people ...". Statements like this, from a man who was well placed to know what the Nazis had done ... constitute a powerful argument against Holocaust deniers. Husseini reports that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler ... told him in summer 1943 that the Germans had "already exterminated more than three million" Jews: "I was astonished by this figure, as I had known nothing about the matter until then." ... Thus. in 1943, Husseini knew about the genocide... .
The memoir then continues:-
Himmler asked me on the occasion: "How do you propose to settle the Jewish question in your country?" I replied: "All we want from them is that they return to their countries of origin." He (Himmler) replied: "We shall never authorize their return to Germany."
Wolfgang G. Schwanitz doubts the sincerity of his surprise since, he argues, Husseini had publicly declared that Muslims should follow the example Germans set for a "definitive solution to the Jewish problem".
Subsequently, the Mufti declared in November 1943
It is the duty of Muhammadans [Muslims] in general and Arabs in particular to ... drive all Jews from Arab and Muhammadan countries... . Germany is also struggling against the common foe who oppressed Arabs and Muhammadans in their different countries. It has very clearly recognized the Jews for what they are and resolved to find a definitive solution [] for the Jewish danger that will eliminate the scourge that Jews represent in the world.
At the Nuremberg trials, one of Adolf Eichmann's deputies, Dieter Wisliceny, stated that al-Husseini had actively encouraged the extermination of European Jews, and that al-Husseini had a meeting with Eichmann at his office, during which Eichmann gave him a view of the current state of the "Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe" by the Third Reich. The allegation is dismissed by most serious historians.
A single affidavit by Rudolf Kastner reported that Wisliceny told him that he had overheard Husseini say he had visited Auschwitz incognito in Eichmann's company.
Eichmann denied this at his trial in Jerusalem in 1961. He had been invited to Palestine in 1937 with his superior Hagen by a representative of the Haganah, Feival Polkes, Polkes supported German foreign policy in the Near East and offered to work for them in intelligence. Eichmann and Hagen spent one night in Haifa but were refused a visa to stay any longer. They met Polkes in Cairo instead.
Eichmann stated that he had only been introduced to al-Husseini during an official reception, along with all other department heads, and there is no evidence, despite intensive investigations, that show the mufti to have been a close collaborator
of Eichmann, exercising influence over him or accompanying on visits to death camps. The Jerusalem court accepted Wisliceny's testimony about a key conversation between Eichmann and the mufti, and found as proven that al-Husseini had aimed to implement the Final Solution. Hannah Arendt, who was present at the trial, concluded in her book, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, that the evidence for an Eichmann- al-Husseini connection was based on rumour and unfounded.
Rafael Medoff concludes that "actually there is no evidence that the Mufti's presence was a factor at all; the Wisliceny hearsay is not merely uncorroborated, but conflicts with everything else that is known about the origins of the Final Solution." Bernard Lewis also called Wisliceny's testimony into doubt: "There is no independent documentary confirmation of Wisliceny's statements, and it seems unlikely that the Nazis needed any such additional encouragement from the outside." Bettina Stangneth called Wisliceny's claims "colourful stories" that "carry little weight".
Al-Husseini's attempts to block Jewish refugees
The Mufti opposed all immigration of Jews into Palestine, and during the war he campaigned against the transfer of Jewish refugees to Palestine. No evidence has been forthcoming to show he was opposed to transferring Jews to countries outside the Middle East. The Mufti's numerous letters appealing to various governmental authorities to prevent Jewish refugees from emigrating to Palestine have been republished and widely cited as documentary evidence of his participative support for the Nazi genocide. For instance, Husseini intervened on 13 May 1943, before the meeting with Himmler when he was informed of the Holocaust, with the German Foreign Office to block possible transfers of Jews from Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania to Palestine, after reports reached him that 4,000 Jewish children accompanied by 500 adults had managed to reach Palestine. He asked the Foreign Minister "to do his utmost" to block all such proposals, and this request was complied with. According to Idith Zertal, none of the documents presented at Eichmann's trial prove that it was the Mufti's interference, in these "acts of total evil," that prevented the children's rescue. In June 1943 the Mufti recommended to the Hungarian minister that it would be better to send Jews in Hungary to concentration camps in Poland rather than let them find asylum in Palestine. A year later, on 25 July 1944 he wrote to the Hungarian foreign minister to register his objection to the release of certificates for 900 Jewish children and 100 adults for transfer from Hungary, fearing they might end up in Palestine. He suggested that if such transfers of population were deemed necessary, then
I ask your Excellency to permit me to draw your attention to the necessity of preventing the Jews from leaving your country for Palestine, and if there are reasons which make their removal necessary, it would be indispensable and infinitely preferable to send them to other countries where they would find themselves under active control, for example, in Poland, thus avoiding danger and preventing damage.
Achcar quotes the Mufti's memoirs about these efforts to influence the Axis powers to prevent emigration of Eastern European Jews to Palestine:
We combatted this enterprise by writing to Ribbentrop, Himmler, and Hitler, and, thereafter, the governments of Italy, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and other countries. We succeeded in foiling this initiative, a circumstance that led the Jews to make terrible accusations against me, in which they held me accountable for the liquidation of four hundred thousand Jews who were unable to emigrate to Palestine in this period. They added that I should be tried as a war criminal in Nuremberg.
In September 1943, intense negotiations to rescue 500 Jewish children from the Arbe concentration camp collapsed due to the objection of al-Husseini who blocked the children's departure to Turkey because they would end up in Palestine.
Intervention in Palestine and Operation Atlas
The Mufti collaborated with the Germans in numerous sabotage and commando operations in Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine, and repeatedly urged the Germans to bomb Tel Aviv and Jerusalem "in order to injure Palestinian Jewry and for propaganda purposes in the Arab world", as his Nazi interlocutors put it. The proposals were rejected as unfeasible. The Italian Fascists envisaged a project to establish him as head of an intelligence centre in North Africa, and he agreed to act as commander of both regular and irregular forces in a future unit flanking Axis troops to carry out sabotage operations behind enemy lines.
Operation ATLAS was one such joint operation. A special commando unit of the Waffen SS was created, composed of three members of the Templer religious sect in Palestine, and two Palestinian Arabs recruited from the Mufti's associates, Hasan Salama and Abdul Latif (who had edited the Mufti's Berlin radio addresses). It has been established that the mission, briefed by al-Husseini before departure, aimed at establishing an intelligence-gathering base in Palestine, radioing information back to Germany, and buying support among Arabs in Palestine, recruiting and arming them to foment tensions between Jews and Arabs, disrupting the Mandatory authorities and striking Jewish targets.
The plan ended in fiasco: they received a cold reception in Palestine, three of the five infiltrators were quickly rounded up, and the matériel seized. Their air-dropped cargo was found by the British, and consisted of submachine guns, dynamite, radio equipment, 5,000 Pound sterling, a duplicating machine, a German-Arabic dictionary, and a quantity of poison. Michael Bar-Zohar and Eitan Haber, have claimed that the mission included a plan to poison the Tel Aviv water supply, There is no trace of this poison plot in the standard biographies, Palestinian and Israeli, of Husseini.
Propaganda
Throughout World War II, al-Husseini worked for the Axis Powers as a broadcaster in propaganda targeting Arab public opinion. He was thereby joined by other Arabs such as Fawzi al-Qawuqji and Hasan Salama. The Mufti was paid "an absolute fortune" of 50,000 marks a month (when a German field marshal was making 25,000 marks a year), the equivalent today of $12,000,000 a year. Walter Winchell called him "the Arabian Lord Haw-Haw". Only about 6,300 Arab soldiers ended up being trained by German military organisations, no more than 1,300 from Palestine, Syria and Iraq combined. In contrast, Britain managed to recruit 9,000 from Palestine alone and a quarter of a million North African troops served in the French Army of Liberation where they made up the majority of its dead and wounded.
The Mufti also wrote a pamphlet for the 13th SS Handschar division, translated as Islam i Zidovstvo (Islam and Judaism) which closed with a quotation from Bukhari-Muslim by Abu Khurreira that states: "The Day of Judgement will come, when the Muslims will crush the Jews completely: And when every tree behind which a Jew hides will say: 'There is a Jew behind me, Kill him!". Some accounts have alleged that the Handschar was responsible for killing 90% of Bosnian Jews. However, Handschar units were deployed only after most of the Jews in Croatia had been deported or exterminated by the Ustase regime. One report, however, of a Handschar patrol murdering some Jewish civilians in Zvornik in April 1944 after their real identity was revealed, is plausible.
On 1 March 1944, while speaking on Radio Berlin, al-Husseini said: "Arabs, rise as one man and fight for your sacred rights. Kill the Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history, and religion. This saves your honor. God is with you." This statement has been described as incitement to genocide.
Recruitment
Among the Nazi leadership, the greatest interest in the idea of creating Muslim units under German command was shown by Heinrich Himmler, who viewed the Islamic world as a potential ally against the British Empire and regarded the Nazi-puppet Independent State of Croatia as a "ridiculous state". Himmler had a romantic vision of Islam as a faith "fostering fearless soldiers", and this probably played a significant role in his decision to raise three Muslim divisions under German leadership in the Balkans from Bosnian Muslims and Albanians: the 13th Handschar,
the 21st Skanderbeg, and the 23rd Kama (Shepherd's dagger). Riven by interethnic conflict, the region's Jewish, Croat, Roma, Serb and Muslim communities suffered huge losses of life,
Bosnian Muslims losing around 85,000 from a genocidal Chetnik ethnic cleansing operations alone.
The Muslims had three options: to join the Croatian Ustaše, or the Yugoslav partisans, or to create local defense units. Following a tradition of service in the old Bosnian regiments of the former Austro-Hungarian army, they chose an alliance with Germany, which promised them autonomy. Husseini, having been petitioned by the Bosnian Muslim leaders, was well informed of their plight.
Dissatisfied with low enlistment, Himmler asked the mufti to intervene. Husseini negotiated, made several requests, mostly ignored by the SS, and conducted several visits to the area. His speeches and charismatic authority proved instrumental in improving enlistment notably. In one speech he declared that
Those lands suffering under the British and Bolshevist yoke impatiently await the moment when the Axis (powers) will emerge victorious. We must dedicate ourselves to unceasing struggle against Britain – that dungeon of peoples – and to the complete destruction of the British Empire. We must dedicate ourselves to unceasing struggle against Bolshevist Russia because communism is incompatible with Islam.
One SS officer reporting on impressions from the mufti's Sarajevo speech said Husseini was reserved about fighting Bolshevism, his main enemies being Jewish settlers in Palestine and the English. During a visit in July 1943 the Mufti said: "The active cooperation of the world's 400 million Muslims with their loyal friends, the German, can be of decisive influence upon the outcome of the war. You, my Bosnian Muslims, are the first Islamic division [and] serve as an example of the active collaboration....My enemy's enemy is my friend." Himmler in addressing the unit on another occasion declared "Germany [and] the Reich have been friends of Islam for the past two centuries, owing not to expediency but to friendly conviction. We have the same goals."
In an agreement signed by Husseini and Himmler on 19 May 1943, it was specified that no synthesis of Islam and Nationalism was to take place.
Husseini asked that Muslim divisional operations to be restricted to the defense of the Moslem heartland of Bosnia and Herzegovina; that partisans be amnestied if they laid down their arms; that the civilian population not be subject to vexations by troops; that assistance be offered to innocents injured by operations; and that harsh measures like deportations, confiscations of goods, or executions be governed in accordance with the rule of law. The Handschar earned a repute for brutality in ridding north-eastern Bosnia of Serbs and partisans: many local Muslims, observing the violence, were driven to go over to the communist partisans. Once redeployed outside Bosnia, and as the fortunes of war turned, mass defections and desertions took place, and Volksdeutsche were drafted to replace the losses. The mufti blamed the mass desertions on German support for the Četniks. Many Bosnians in these divisions who survived the war sought asylum in Western and Arab countries, and of those settling in the Middle East, many fought in Palestine against the new state of Israel.
Reacting to the formation by Great Britain of a special Jewish legion in the Allied cause, Husseini urged Germany to raise a similar Arab legion. Husseini helped organize Arab students, POWs and North African emigres in Germany into the "Arabisches Freiheitkorps", an Arab Legion in the German Army that hunted down Allied parachutists in the Balkans and fought on the Russian front.
Activities after World War II
Arrest and flight
After the end of the Second World War, al-Husseini attempted to obtain asylum in Switzerland but his request was refused. He was taken into custody at Konstanz by the French occupying troops on 5 May 1945, and on 19 May, he was transferred to the Paris region and put under house arrest.
At around this time, the British head of Palestine's Criminal Investigation Division told an American military attaché that the Mufti might be the only person who could unite the Palestinian Arabs and "cool off the Zionists".
Henri Ponsot, a former ambassador of France in Syria, led the discussions with him and had a decisive influence on the events. The French authorities expected an improvement in France's status in the Arab world through his intermediaries and accorded him "special detention conditions, benefits and ever more important privileges and constantly worried about his well-being and that of his entourage". In October, he was even given permission to buy a car in the name of one of his secretaries and enjoyed some freedom of movement and could also meet whoever he wanted. Al-Husseini proposed to the French two possibilities of cooperation: "either an action in Egypt, Iraq and even Transjordan to calm the anti-French excitement after the events in Syria and because of its domination in North Africa; or that he would take the initiative of provocations in [Palestine], in Egypt and in Iraq against Great Britain", so that the Arabs countries will pay more attention to British policy than to that of France. Al-Husseini was very satisfied with his situation in France and stayed there for a full year.
As early as 24 May, Great Britain requested al-Husseini's extradition, arguing that he was a British citizen who had collaborated with the Nazis. Despite the fact that he was on the list of war criminals, France decided to consider him as a political prisoner and refused to comply with the British request. France refused to extradite him to Yugoslavia where the government wanted to prosecute him for the massacres of Serbs. Poussot believed al-Husseini's claims that the massacre of Serbs had been performed by General Mihailovic and not by him. Al-Husseini also explained that 200,000 Muslims and 40,000 Christians had been assassinated by the Serbs and that he had established a division of soldiers only after Bosnian Muslims had asked for his help, and that Germans and Italians had refused to provide any support to them. In the meantime, Zionist representatives—fearing that al-Husseini would escape—backed Yugoslavia's request for extradition. They claimed that al-Husseini was also responsible for massacres in Greece and pointed out his action against the Allies in Iraq in 1941; additionally they requested the support of the United States in the matter.
Members of the Jewish Agency, who loathed Husseini as a Nazi collaborator, and who were aware that states were competing to employ Nazis and Nazi collaborators, gathered war-crimes documentation on al-Husseini's role in the Holocaust. This was done in order to prevent his reinstatement to a leadership position in Palestine, in an attempt to have him arrested and prosecuted, and in the context of an intensive public relations exercise to establish a Jewish state in Mandatory Palestine. The reputation of Haj Amin al-Husseini among Jews in the immediate postwar period is indicated by the observation by Raul Hilberg that when culpability for The Destruction of the European Jews was debated in 1945, al-Husseini was the only specific individual singled out to be put on trial.
In June 1945, Yishuv leaders decided to eliminate al-Husseini. Although al-Husseini was located by Jewish Army members who began to plan an assassination, the mission was canceled in December by Moshe Sharett or by David Ben-Gurion, probably because they feared turning the Grand Mufti into a martyr.
A campaign of intimidation was launched to convince the mufti that at Léon Blum's request he would be handed over to the British. In September, the French decided to organize his transfer to an Arab country. Egypt, Saudi Arabia or Yemen were considered and diplomatic contacts were made with their authorities and with the Arab League.
On 29 May, after an influential Moroccan had organized his escape, and the French police had suspended their surveillance, al-Husseini left France on a TWA flight for Cairo using travel papers supplied by a Syrian politician who was close to the Muslim Brotherhood. It took more than 12 days for the French foreign minister to realize he had fled, and the British were not able to arrest him in Egypt, after that country granted him political asylum.
On 12 August 1947, al-Husseini wrote to French foreign minister Georges Bidault, thanking France for its hospitality and suggesting that France continue this policy to increase its prestige in the eyes of all Muslims. In September, a delegation of the Arab Higher Committee went to Paris and proposed that Arabs would adopt a neutral position on the North African question in exchange of France's support in the Palestinian question.
Post-war Palestinian political leadership
In November 1945, at the initiative of the Arab League, the "Arab Higher Committee" (AHC) was reestablished as the supreme executive body that represented the Arabs in Mandatory Palestine. This 12-member AHC included Husseini supporters and some members of political parties that opposed the Grand Mufti and his allies. The dispute between Husseini-supporters and their opposition was inflamed by the return of Jamal al Husseini to the Middle East and his resumption of political activity. In March 1946 the AHC was disbanded, and then Jamal reconstituted it as an organization exclusively staffed by Husseini political allies and family-members. The Arab League foreign ministers intervened in May 1946 by replacing both the AHC and the opposing "Arab Higher Front" with the "Arab Higher Executive" (AHE) to represent Palestinian Arabs. Haj Amin al Husseini was the chairman of the AHE, even though he was absent, and Jamal acted as Vice-Chairman. The Husseini faction dominated the nine-member AHE. Subsequently, Haj Amin returned to Egypt and began his practical leadership of the Palestinian Arabs while residing in Cairo. The name of the AHE was changed back to AHC in January 1947.
1948 Palestine war
The U.N. Partition Resolution
When the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine delivered its recommendations for the partition of Palestine, the High Commissioner of Palestine, Alan Cunningham sent emissaries to Cairo to sound out the Mufti, though transferring any power of state to him was unthinkable.
Musa Alami surmised that the mufti would agree to partition if he were promised that he would rule the future Arab state.
According to Issa Khalaf there are no indications to substantiate this claim.
The wartime reputation of Haj Amin al-Husseini was employed as an argument for the establishment of a Jewish State during the deliberations at UN in 1947. The Nation Associates under Freda Kirchwey prepared a nine-page pamphlet with annexes for the United Nations entitled The Arab Higher Committee, Its Origins, Personnel and Purposes. This booklet included copies of communications between Haj Amin al-Husseini and high ranking Nazis (e.g. Heinrich Himmler, Franz von Papen, Joseph Goebbels), the Mufti's diary account of meeting Hitler, several letters to German officials in several countries where he requested that Jews never be permitted to emigrate from Europe to a Jewish Home in Palestine, and many photographs of the Mufti, Rashid Ali, and other Arab politicians in the company of Nazis and their Italian and Japanese allies. It claimed to demonstrate that German Nazis and Palestinian politicians (some of whom were requesting recognition at the UN in 1947 as representatives of the Palestinian Arab population) had made common cause during World War II in their opposition to the establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine. In May 1948, the Israeli government thanked Kirchwey for "having a good and honorable share of our success", at least partly as a consequence of distributing information on al-Husseini to the UN representatives.
On the eve of the United Nations' partition of Mandatory Palestine, King Abdullah, who shared with Zionists a hostility to Palestinian nationalism, reached a secret entente with Golda Meir to thwart the mufti and annex the part of Palestine in exchange for Jordan's dropping its opposition to the establishment of a Jewish state. The meeting, in Shlaim's words, "laid the foundations for a partition of Palestine along lines radically different from the ones eventually envisaged by the United Nations". Husseini's popularity in the Arab world had risen during his time with the Nazis, and Arab leaders rushed to greet him on his return, and the masses accorded him an enthusiastic reception, an attitude which was to change rapidly after the defeat of 1948. Elpeleg writes that "to a certain extent" Husseini was chosen as the "scapegoat" for this defeat.
The war
On 31 December 1947, Macatee, the American consul general in Jerusalem, reported that terror ruled Palestine, and that partition was the cause of this terror. According to Macatee, the Palestinian Arabs did not dare to oppose Haj Amin, but they did not rally en masse around his flag in the war against the Zionists.
From his Egyptian exile, al-Husseini used what influence he had to encourage the participation of the Egyptian military in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. He was involved in some high level negotiations between Arab leaders—before and during the War—at a meeting held in Damascus in February 1948, to organize Palestinian Field Commands and the commanders of the Holy War Army. Hasan Salama and Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (Amin al-Husseini's nephew), were allocated the Lydda district and Jerusalem respectively. This decision paved the way for undermining the Mufti's position among the Arab States. On 9 February 1948, four days after the Damascus meeting, he suffered a severe setback at the Arab League's Cairo session, when his demands for more Palestinian self-determination in areas evacuated by the British, and for financial loans were rejected. His demands included the appointment of a Palestinian Arab representative to the League's General Staff, the formation of a Palestinian Provisional Government, the transfer of authority to local National Committees in areas evacuated by the British, and both a loan for Palestinian administration and an appropriation of large sums to the Arab Higher Executive for Palestinian Arabs entitled to war damages.
The Arab League blocked recruitment to al-Husseini's forces, and they collapsed following the death of one of his most charismatic commanders, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, on 8 April 1948.
Anwar Nusseibeh, a supporter of the Mufti, said the Mufti refused to issue arms to anyone except his loyal supporters, and only recruited loyal supporters for the forces of the Holy War Army. This partially accounts for the absence of an organized Arab force and for the insufficient amount of arms, which plagued the Arab defenders of Jerusalem.
Establishment of All-Palestine Government
Following rumors that King Abdullah I of Transjordan was reopening the bilateral negotiations with Israel that he had previously conducted clandestinely with the Jewish Agency, the Arab League—led by Egypt—decided to set up the All-Palestine Government in Gaza on 8 September 1948, under the nominal leadership of al-Husseini. Avi Shlaim writes:
The decision to form the Government of All-Palestine in Gaza, and the feeble attempt to create armed forces under its control, furnished the members of the Arab League with the means of divesting themselves of direct responsibility for the prosecution of the war and of withdrawing their armies from Palestine with some protection against popular outcry. Whatever the long-term future of the Arab government of Palestine, its immediate purpose, as conceived by its Egyptian sponsors, was to provide a focal point of opposition to Abdullah and serve as an instrument for frustrating his ambition to federate the Arab regions with Transjordan.
The All-Palestine Government was declared in Gaza on 22 September, in a way as a countermeasure against Jordan. According to Moshe Ma'oz this was "a mere tool to justify Cairo's occupation of the Gaza Strip". Pre-conference by the Arab League obtained an agreement to have Ahmad Hilmi Pasha preside over the government, while giving al-Husseini a nominal role, devoid of responsibilities. A Palestinian National Council was convened in Gaza on 30 September 1948, under the chairmanship of Amin al-Husseini. On 30 September, al-Husseini was elected unanimously as president, but had no authority outside the areas controlled by Egypt. The council passed a series of resolutions culminating on 1 October 1948 with a declaration of independence over the whole of Palestine, with Jerusalem as its capital.
The All-Palestine Government was hence born under the nominal leadership of Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, named as its president.
Ahmed Hilmi Abd al-Baqi was named Prime Minister. Hilmi's cabinet consisted largely of relatives and followers of Amin al-Husseini, but also included representatives of other factions of the Palestinian ruling class. Jamal al-Husayni became foreign minister, Raja al-Husayni became defense minister, Michael Abcarius was finance minister, and Anwar Nusseibeh was secretary of the cabinet. Twelve ministers in all, living in different Arab countries, headed for Gaza to take up their new positions. The decision to set up the All-Palestine Government made the Arab Higher Committee irrelevant.
Jordan's Abdullah retaliated on 2 October by organizing a Palestinian congress, which countermanded the decision taken in Gaza. Abdullah regarded the attempt to revive al-Husseini's Holy War Army as a challenge to his authority and on 3 October, his minister of defense ordered all armed bodies operating in the areas controlled by the Arab Legion to be disbanded. Glubb Pasha carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently. Nonetheless, Egypt, which manipulated its formation, recognized the All-Palestine Government on 12 October, followed by Syria and Lebanon on 13 October, Saudi Arabia the 14th and Yemen on the 16th. Iraq's decision to the same was made formally on the 12th, but was not made public. Both Great Britain and the US backed Jordan, the US saying that the mufti's role in World War II could be neither forgotten nor pardoned. The sum effect was that:
The leadership of al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Arab Higher Committee, which had dominated the Palestinian political scene since the 1920s, was devastated by the disaster of 1948 and discredited by its failure to prevent it.
The nakba narratives, according to Hillel Cohen, tend to ignore the open resistance to al-Husseini by many influential Palestinians. A member of the Darwish family on expressing dissent with Husseini's war objective in favour of negotiation was told by the mufti: – "when the sword talks, there is no place for talking". Many recalled his policy of assassinating mukhtars in the Revolt of 1936–39 and viewed Husseini and his kind as "an assembly of traitors". The opposition of a relevant percentage of the Palestinian society to al-Husseini goes back to an earlier period and was also connected to the British way of dealing with the local majority: "The present administration of Palestine", lamented for example the representatives of the Palestine Arab Delegation in a letter to British public opinion in 1930, "is appointed by His Majesty's Government and governs the country through an autocratic system in which the population has no say".
Exile from Palestine
Although al-Husseini had been removed from the Supreme Muslim Council and other administrative roles by the British government in 1937, they did not remove him from the post of mufti of Jerusalem. They later explained this as due to the lack of legal procedure or precedent.
However, on 20 December 1948, Abdullah announced his replacement as mufti by his long-term rival Husam Al-din Jarallah.
The king was assassinated on 20 July 1951, on the eve of projected secret talks with Israel, by a militant, Mustafa Ashu, of the , while entering the Haram ash-Sharif to pray. There is no evidence al-Husseini was involved, though Musa al-Husayni was among the six indicted and executed after a disputed verdict. Abdullah was succeeded by King Talal—who refused to allow al-Husseini entry into Jerusalem. Abdullah's grandson, Hussein, who had been present at the murder, eventually lifted the ban in 1967, receiving al-Husseini as an honoured guest in his Jerusalem royal residence after uprooting the PLO from Jordan.
The Palestinian Government was entirely relocated to Cairo in late October 1948 and became a government-in-exile, gradually losing any importance. Having a part in the All-Palestine Government, al-Husseini also remained in exile at Heliopolis in Egypt throughout much of the 1950s. As before 1948, when the Yishuv believed the ex-Mufti's hand could be detected "behind every anti-Jewish pogrom, murder, and act of sabotage", Israel persisted in asserting that al-Husseini was behind many border raids from Jordanian and Egyptian-held territory, and Egypt expressed a readiness to deport him if evidence were forthcoming to substantiate the charges.
The All-Palestine Government was eventually dissolved in 1959 by Nasser himself, who envisaged a United Arab Republic embracing Syria, Egypt and Palestine. That year he moved to Lebanon. He refused requests to lend his support to the emergent PLO after the Six-Day War of 1967, was opposed to the creation of a Palestinian state on the West Bank after 1967, and his closest collaborator, Emil Ghuri, continued to work for the Jordanian monarchy even after the Jordanian Civil War there in 1970.
Al-Husseini died in Beirut, on 4 July 1974. He had wished to be buried on the Haram ash-Sharif in Jerusalem. However, Israel had captured East Jerusalem during the 1967 Six-Day War. The Supreme Muslim Council asked the Israeli government permission to bury him there but permission was refused. Three days later, al-Husseini was buried in Beirut. Within two years, the Christian Lebanese Phalange sacked his villa, and stole his files and archives. His granddaughter married Ali Hassan Salameh, the founder of PLO's Black September, who was later killed by Mossad for his involvement in the Munich massacre. According to Zvi Elpeleg, almost all trace of his memory thereafter vanished from Palestinian awareness, and Palestinians have raised no monument to his memory, or written books commemorating his deeds.
Amin al-Husseini and antisemitism
The earlier biographical works on Husseini were characterized by extreme partisanship, with supporters among his Arab contemporaries showcasing his role as the central figure in an Arab revolt that was thwarted by British and Zionist conspiracies, and Zionist histories vilified him as a Muslim fanatic chiefly responsible for the disasters that befell Palestinians in 1948. Al-Husseini's first biographer, Moshe Pearlman, described him as virulently antisemitic, as did, a decade and a half later, Joseph Schechtman. Both have been accused by Philip Mattar of relying on press reports and lacking sufficient background understanding.
There is no doubt Husseini became robustly anti-Semitic and convinced himself, using arguments based on Biblical, Talmudic, and Quranic passages, that Jews were enemies of God, engaged in a global conspiracy, and practicing the ritual use of Christian blood. More recent biographers like Philip Mattar and Elpeleg, writing in the late 1980s and early 1990s, began to emphasize his nationalism. Peter Wien judges that his behaviour in World War II deserved the image among Zionists of him as an "arch villain", but adds that Israeli and Zionist leaders have long since used this to denigrate the Palestinian resistance against the Israeli occupation as inspired by Nazism from the beginning and thus fundamentally anti-semitic.
Scholarly opinion is divided on the issue, with many scholars viewing him as a staunch antisemite while some deny the appropriateness of the term, or argue that he became antisemitic.
Robert Kiely sees Husseini as moving "incrementally toward anti-Semitism as he opposed Jewish ambitions in the region." Historian Zvi Elpeleg, who formerly governed both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, while rehabilitating him from other charges, concludes his chapter concerning al-Husseini's involvement in the extermination of the Jews as follows
[i]n any case, there is no doubt that Haj Amin's hatred was not limited to Zionism, but extended to Jews as such. His frequent, close contacts with leaders of the Nazi regime cannot have left Haj Amin any doubt as to the fate which awaited Jews whose emigration was prevented by his efforts. His many comments show that he was not only delighted that Jews were prevented from emigrating to Palestine, but was very pleased by the Nazis' Final Solution.
Walter Laqueur, Benny Morris, Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers, the evidential basis for whose claims in their book, translated as "Nazi Palestine" were questioned by Michael Sells as based on selective statements by a few writers taken at face value, share the view that al-Husseini was biased against Jews, not just against Zionists. Morris, for instance, notes that al-Husseini saw the Holocaust as German revenge for a putative Jewish sabotaging of their war effort in World War I,
and has said, "Haj Amin al-Husseini was an antisemite. This is clear from his writings. I am not saying he was just an anti-Zionist, he hated the Jews, 'Jews were evil'".
In a study dedicated to the role and use of the Holocaust in Israeli nationalist discourse, Zertal, reexamining al-Husseini's antisemitism, states that "in more correct proportions, [he should be pictured] as a fanatic nationalist-religious Palestinian leader".
There is no consensual verdict among historians concerning the degree to which Husseini might have been involved in or exposed to knowledge of the Holocaust. Wolfgang G. Schwanitz does remark that in his memoirs, Husseini recalled Himmler telling him how during the deportation of Dutch Jews, only Jews accepted the offer of payment in lieu of information on those trying to escape being caught by the Nazis. He also recorded that Himmler told him how shocked he was to observe Jewish kapos abusing fellow Jews and that Himmler claimed he had the culprits punished. In this way, it has been argued, he imitated the Nazis who were destroying them, by implicitly portraying the Jews as morally inferior. Husseini also states in his memoirs, that he had visited Alfred Rosenberg's Institute for Study of Judaism which had failed to find any way to civilise the Jewish people.
Evaluations of Husseini's historical significance
Philip Mattar states the overriding cause behind the dispossession of Palestinians lay in the Balfour Declaration, British policies and the combined military superiority of Yishuv forces and the Mandatory army. Husseini's initial moderation and then failure to compromise was a contributory factor, but not decisive. Zvi Elpeleg on the other hand compares him to Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and even to Theodor Herzl.
Robert Fisk, discussing the difficulties of describing al-Husseini's life and its motivations, summarized the problem in the following way:
(M)erely to discuss his life is to be caught up in the Arab–Israeli propaganda war. To make an impartial assessment of the man's career—or, for that matter, an unbiased history of the Arab–Israeli dispute—is like trying to ride two bicycles at the same time.
Peter Novick has argued that the post-war historiographical depiction of al-Husseini reflected complex geopolitical interests that distorted the record.
The claims of Palestinian complicity in the murder of the European Jews were to some extent a defensive strategy, a preemptive response to the Palestinian complaint that if Israel was recompensed for the Holocaust, it was unjust that Palestinian Muslims should pick up the bill for the crimes of European Christians. The assertion that Palestinians were complicit in the Holocaust was mostly based on the case of the Mufti of Jerusalem, a pre-World War II Palestinian nationalist leader who, to escape imprisonment by the British, sought refuge during the war in Germany. The Mufti was in many ways a disreputable character, but post-war claims that he played any significant part in the Holocaust have never been sustained. This did not prevent the editors of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Holocaust from giving him a starring role. The article on the Mufti is more than twice as long as the articles on Goebbels and Göring, longer than the articles on Himmler and Heydrich combined, longer than the article on Eichmann—of all the biographical articles, it is exceeded in length, but only slightly, by the entry for Hitler.
In October 2015, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu claimed that Hitler at the time was not thinking of exterminating the Jews, but only of expelling them, and that it was al-Husseini who inspired Hitler to embark on a programme of genocide to prevent them from coming to Palestine. Netanyahu's remarks were broadly criticized, and dismissed by Holocaust scholars from Israel and Germany. Christopher Browning called the claim a "blatantly mendacious attempt to exploit the Holocaust politically", "shameful and indecent" as well as fraudulent, aimed at stigmatizing and delegitimizing "any sympathy or concern for Palestinian rights and statehood".
The official German transcript of the meeting with Hitler contains no support for Netanyahu's assertion.
In 1947 Simon Wiesenthal alleged that Eichmann had accompanied Husseini on an inspection tour of both Auschwitz and Majdanek, and that the mufti had praised the hardest workers at the crematoria. His claim was unsourced. The charge was recycled with added colour by Quentin Reynolds, unfounded on any evidence, at the time of the trial of Adolf Eichmann. Various sources have repeatedly alleged that he visited other concentration camps, and also the death camps of Auschwitz, Majdanek, Treblinka and Mauthausen, but according to Höpp there is little conclusive documentary evidence to substantiate these other visits.
Gilbert Achcar sums up al-Husseini's significance:
One must note in passing that Amin al-Husseini's memoirs are an antidote against Holocaust denial: He knew that the genocide took place and boasted of having been perfectly aware of it from 1943 on. I believe he is an architect of the Nakba (the defeat of 1948 and the departure of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who had been driven out of their lands) in the sense that he bears a share of responsibility for what has happened to the Palestinian people.
Dani Dayan, who became chairman of Yad Vashem in 2021, told Haaretz that he resisted "wild attacks" in refusing to display the photograph of al-Husseini meeting Hitler. He said "Those who want me to put it up aren't really interested in the Mufti's part in the Holocaust, which was limited anyway, but seek to harm the image of the Palestinians today. The Mufti was an antisemite. But even if I abhor him, I won't turn Yad Vashem into a tool serving ends not directly related to the study and memorialization of the Holocaust. Hasbara, to use a term, is an utterly irrelevant consideration that shall not enter our gates."
Works by Amin al-Husseini
The Causes of the Palestine Catastrophe (1948 in Arabic).
The Lie of the Palestinians Sold their Land (1954 in Arabic, a letter of response published from Egypt). ()
Facts about the Palestinian Matter (1954 in Arabic, Cairo). ()
The Memoirs of Amin al-Husseini, covering the period 1937 to 1948. (First published in 1975 in Arabic, republished in Syria as a whole book in 1999. Originally Published progressively as monthly articles in the Palestine Magazine between 1967 and 1975 over 75 episodes)
Biographies of Amin al-Husseini
1988, Ibrahim Abu Shaqra, Al-Hajj Amin al-Husseini: From his Birth until the 1936 Revolt. . (Lattakia: Dar al-Manara). Abu Shaqra also published a second edition in 1989 in Damscus with further details covering events post-1936.
1998, Philip Mattar, The Mufti of Jerusalem, Al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Palestinian National Movement, Columbia University Press
1993, Zvi Elpeleg, '' The Grand Mufti: Haj Amin Al-Hussaini, Founder of the Palestinian National Movement, Routledge
See also
Palestinian nationalism
Palestinian political violence
Army of Shadows: Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948
Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world
Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Formerly hosted at lse.ac.uk
External links
Husseini, Haj Amin (1895–1974) at passia.org (with photos)
1890s births
1974 deaths
20th-century Palestinian people
Al-Azhar University alumni
Amin
Arab collaborators with Nazi Germany
Arab people in Mandatory Palestine
Grand Muftis of Jerusalem
Islam and antisemitism
Islam in Jerusalem
Mandatory Palestine people of World War II
Nazi propagandists
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Palestinian Arab nationalists
Palestinian imams
Palestinian politicians
Palestinian refugees
Palestinian Sunni Muslims
People from Jerusalem
People of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Wolff%20%28philosopher%29
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Christian Wolff (philosopher)
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Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf, ; also known as Wolfius; ennobled as Christian Freiherr von Wolff in 1745; 24 January 1679 – 9 April 1754) was a German philosopher. Wolff was the most eminent German philosopher between Leibniz and Kant. His main achievement was a complete oeuvre on almost every scholarly subject of his time, displayed and unfolded according to his demonstrative-deductive, mathematical method, which perhaps represents the peak of Enlightenment rationality in Germany.
Following Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Wolff also wrote in German as his primary language of scholarly instruction and research, although he did translate his works into Latin for his transnational European audience. A founding father of, among other fields, economics and public administration as academic disciplines, he concentrated especially in these fields, giving advice on practical matters to people in government, and stressing the professional nature of university education.
Life
Wolff was born in Breslau, Silesia (now Wrocław, Poland), into a modest family. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Jena, soon adding philosophy.
In 1703, he qualified as Privatdozent at Leipzig University, where he lectured until 1706, when he was called as professor of mathematics and natural philosophy to the University of Halle. By this time he had made the acquaintance of Gottfried Leibniz (the two men engaged in an epistolary correspondence), of whose philosophy his own system is a modified version.
At Halle, Wolff at first restricted himself to mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague, he added physics, and soon included all the main philosophical disciplines.
However, the claims Wolff advanced on behalf of philosophical reason appeared impious to his theological colleagues. Halle was the headquarters of Pietism, which, after a long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolff's professed ideal was to base theological truths on mathematically certain evidence. Strife with the Pietists broke out openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of stepping down as pro-rector, delivered an oration "On the Practical Philosophy of the Chinese" (Eng. tr. 1750), in which he praised the purity of the moral precepts of Confucius, pointing to them as an evidence of the power of human reason to reach moral truth by its own efforts.
On 12 July 1723, Wolff held a lecture for students and the magistrates at the end of his term as a rector. Wolff compared, based on books by the Flemish missionaries François Noël (1651–1729) and Philippe Couplet (1623–1693), Moses, Christ, and Mohammed with Confucius.
According to Voltaire, Prof. August Hermann Francke had been teaching in an empty classroom but Wolff attracted with his lectures around 1,000 students from all over.
In the follow-up, Wolff was accused by Francke of fatalism and atheism, and ousted in 1723 from his first chair at Halle in one of the most celebrated academic dramas of the 18th century. His successors were Joachim Lange, a pietist, and his son, who had gained the ear of the king Frederick William I. (They claimed to the king if Wolff's determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be punished as he would have acted only as it was necessarily predetermined that he should, which so enraged the king that he immediately deprived Wolff of his office, and ordered Wolff to leave Prussian territory within 48 hours or be hanged.)
The same day, Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently proceeded to Marburg, Hesse-Kassel, to whose university (the University of Marburg) he had received a call even before this crisis, which was now renewed. The Landgrave of Hesse received him with every mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his expulsion drew universal attention to his philosophy. It was everywhere discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared for or against it before 1737, not reckoning the systematic treatises of Wolff and his followers.
According to Jonathan I. Israel, "the conflict became one of the most significant cultural confrontations of the 18th century and perhaps the most important of the Enlightenment in Central Europe and the Baltic countries before the French Revolution."
Prussian crown prince Frederick defended Wolff against Joachim Lange and ordered the Berlin minister Jean Deschamps, a former pupil of Wolff, to translate Vernünftige Gedanken von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen überhaupt into French. Frederick proposed to send a copy of Logique ou réflexions sur les forces de l'entendement humain to Voltaire in his first letter to the philosopher from 8 August 1736. In 1737, Wolff's Metafysica was translated into French by Ulrich Friedrich von Suhm (1691–1740). Voltaire got the impression Frederick had translated the book himself.
In 1738, Frederick William began the hard labour of trying to read Wolff. In 1740, Frederick William died, and one of the first acts of his son and successor, Frederick the Great, was to acquire him for the Prussian Academy. Wolff refused, but accepted on 10 September 1740 an appointment in Halle.
His entry into the town on 6 December 1740 took on the character of a triumphal procession. In 1743, he became chancellor of the university, and in 1745, he received the title of Freiherr (Baron) from the Elector of Bavaria, possibly the first scholar to have been created hereditary Baron of the Holy Roman Empire on the basis of his academic work.
When Wolff died on 9 April 1754, he was a very wealthy man, owing almost entirely to his income from lecture-fees, salaries, and royalties. He was also a member of many academies. His school, the Wolffians, was the first school in the philosophical sense to be associated with a German philosopher. It dominated Germany until the rise of Kantianism.
Wolff was married and had several children.
Philosophical work
Wolffian philosophy has a marked insistence everywhere on a clear and methodic exposition, holding confidence in the power of reason to reduce all subjects to this form. He was distinguished for writing copies in both Latin and German. Through his influence, natural law and philosophy were taught at most German universities, in particular those located in the Protestant principalities. Wolff personally expedited their introduction inside Hesse-Cassel.
Until the 1960s, it was usually maintained by historians that Wolff's philosophy amounted to a common-sense adaptation or watering-down of the Leibnizian system; or, more charitably, Wolff was said to have methodized and "reduced" to dogmatic form the thoughts of his great predecessor. The Wolffian system retains the determinism and optimism of Leibniz, but the monadology recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder into souls or conscious beings on the one hand and mere atoms on the other. The doctrine of the pre-established harmony also loses its metaphysical significance (while remaining an important heuristic device), and the principle of sufficient reason is once more discarded in favor of the principle of contradiction which Wolff seeks to make the fundamental principle of philosophy.
Wolff had philosophy divided into a theoretical and a practical part. Logic, sometimes called philosophia rationalis, forms the introduction or propaedeutics to both.
Theoretical philosophy had for its parts ontology or philosophia prima as a general metaphysics, which arises as a preliminary to the distinction of the three special metaphysics on the soul, world and God: rational psychology, rational cosmology, and rational theology. The three disciplines are called empirical and rational because they are independent of revelation. This scheme, which is the counterpart of religious tripartition in creature, creation, and Creator, is best known to philosophical students by Kant's treatment of it in the Critique of Pure Reason.
In the "Preface" of the 2nd edition of Kant's book, Wolff is defined as "the greatest of all dogmatic philosophers." Wolff was read by Søren Kierkegaard's father, Michael Pedersen. Kierkegaard himself was influenced by both Wolff and Kant to the point of resuming the tripartite structure and philosophical content to formulate his own three Stages on Life's Way.
Wolff saw ontology as a deductive science, knowable a priori and based on two fundamental principles: the principle of non-contradiction ("it cannot happen that the same thing is and is not") and the principle of sufficient reason ("nothing exists without a sufficient reason for why it exists rather than does not exist"). Beings are defined by their determinations or predicates, which can't involve a contradiction. Determinates come in 3 types: essentialia, attributes, and modes. Essentialia define the nature of a being and are therefore necessary properties of this being. Attributes are determinations that follow from essentialia and are equally necessary, in contrast to modes, which are merely contingent. Wolff conceives existence as just one determination among others, which a being may lack. Ontology is interested in being at large, not just in actual being. But all beings, whether actually existing or not, have a sufficient reason. The sufficient reason for things without actual existence consists in all the determinations that make up the essential nature of this thing. Wolff refers to this as a "reason of being" and contrasts it with a "reason of becoming", which explains why some things have actual existence.
Practical philosophy is subdivided into ethics, economics and politics. Wolff's moral principle is the realization of human perfectionseen realistically as the kind of perfection the human person actually can achieve in the world in which we live. It is perhaps the combination of Enlightenment optimism and worldly realism that made Wolff so successful and popular as a teacher of future statesmen and business leaders.
Works
Wolff's most important works are as follows:
Dissertatio algebraica de algorithmo infinitesimali differentiali (Dissertation on the Algebra of Solving Differential Equations Using Infinitesimals; 1704)
Anfangsgründe aller mathematischen Wissenschaften (1710); in Latin, Elementa matheseos universae (1713–1715)
Vernünftige Gedanken von den Kräften des menschlichen Verstandes (1712). French translation by Jean Des Champs, Logique, Berlin: 1736. English translation by anonymous, Logic, London: 1770. Unfortunately, the English version is a translation of Des Champs's French edition instead of the original German of Wolff's Vernünftige Gedanken.
Vern. Ged. von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen überhaupt (1719)
Vern. Ged. von der Menschen Thun und Lassen (1720)
Vern. Ged. von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen (1721)
Vern. Ged. von den Wirkungen der Natur (1723)
Vern. Ged. von den Absichten der natürlichen Dinge (1724)
Vern. Ged. von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Menschen, Thieren und Pflanzen (1725); the last seven may briefly be described as treatises on logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, political philosophy, theoretical physics, teleology, physiology
Philosophia rationalis, sive logica (1728)
Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia (1730)
Cosmologia generalis (1731)
Psychologia empirica (1732)
Psychologia rationalis (1734)
Theologia naturalis (1736–1737)
Kleine philosophische Schriften, collected and edited by G.F. Hagen (1736–1740).
Philosophia practica universalis (1738–1739)
Jus naturae and Jus Gentium. Magdeburg, 1740–1748.
English trans.: Marcel Thomann, trans. Jus naturae. NY: Olms, 1972.
Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractum (The Law of Nations According to the Scientific Method) (1749)
Philosophia moralis (1750–1753).
Wolff's complete writings have been published since 1962 in an annotated reprint collection:
Gesammelte Werke, Jean École et al. (eds.), 3 series (German, Latin, and Materials), Hildesheim-[Zürich-]New York: Olms, 1962–.
This includes a volume that unites the three most important older biographies of Wolff.
An excellent modern edition of the famous Halle speech on Chinese philosophy is:
Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica / Rede über die praktische Philosophie der Chinesen, Michael Albrecht (ed.), Hamburg: Meiner, 1985.
See also
Mons Wolff
Wawrzyniec Mitzler de Kolof
Notes
References
Sources
Blackwell, Richard J. "Christian Wolff's Doctrine of the Soul," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1961, 22: 339–354. in JSTOR
Corr, Charles A. "Christian Wolff and Leibniz," Journal of the History of Ideas, April 1975, Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 241–262 in JSTOR
Goebel, Julius, "Christian Wolff and the Declaration of Independence", in Deutsch-Amerikanische Geschichtsblätter. Jahrbuch der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Gesellschaft von Illinois 18/19 (Jg. 1918/19), Chicago: Deutsch-Amerikanische Gesellschaft von Illinois, 1920, pp. 69–87, details Wolff's impact on the Declaration of Independence.
Jolley, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz (Cambridge University Press, 1995), the standard source in English; includes biography and details of his work in many fields
Richards, Robert J. "Christian Wolff's Prolegomena to Empirical and Rational Psychology: Translation and Commentary," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 124, No. 3 (30 June 1980), pp. 227–239 in JSTOR
Vanzo, Alberto. "Christian Wolff and Experimental Philosophy", Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy 7.
European Journal of Law and Economics 4(2) (Summer 1997), special issue on Christian Wolff, reprinted 1998 in the Gesammelte Werke, 3rd Ser. Note especially the essays by Jürgen G. Backhaus ("Christian Wolff on Subsidiarity, the Division of Labor, and Social Welfare"), Wolfgang Drechsler ("Christian Wolff (1679–1754): A Biographical Essay"), Erik S. Reinert and Arno Mong Daastøl ("Exploring the Genesis of Economic Innovations: The religious Gestalt-Switch and the Duty to Invent as Preconditions for Economic Growth"), and Peter R. Senn ("Christian Wolff in the Pre-History of the Social Sciences").
External links
Christian Wolff's Ontology: Existence as "Complement of Possibility"
Selected Bibliography on the Metaphysical Works of Christian Wolff
Wolff from Hegel's Lectures on the History of Philosophy
1679 births
1754 deaths
Writers from Wrocław
People from Austrian Silesia
Enlightenment philosophers
Barons of Germany
German philosophers
German Lutherans
Leipzig University faculty
University of Halle faculty
University of Marburg faculty
Barons of the Holy Roman Empire
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
18th-century German writers
18th-century German male writers
18th-century philosophers
University of Jena alumni
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] |
204123
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Wolf
|
Christian Wolf
|
Christian Wolf is a German designer of board games. He has won the As d'Or for Tutankhamen and the Kinderspiel des Jahres for Klondike in 2001; both were collaborations with Stefanie Rohner.Wolf is an entrepreneur and shareholder & CEO of Anduud City FC in Mongolia.
References
Board game designers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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204126
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Capuzzo
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Fort Capuzzo
|
Fort Capuzzo was a fort in the colony of Italian Libya, near the Libyan-Egyptian border, next to the Italian Frontier Wire. The Litoranea Balbo ran south from Bardia to Fort Capuzzo, inland, west of Sollum, then east across the Egyptian frontier to the port, over the coastal escarpment. The fort was built during Italian colonial repression of Senussi resistance in the Second Italo-Senussi War (1923–1931), as part of a barrier on the Libya-Egypt and Libya-Sudan borders.
The Frontier Wire and a series of forts including Fort Capuzzo, were used to stop the Senussi from moving freely across the border. The fort had four crenellated walls enclosing a yard. Living quarters had been built around the edges and provided the base for border guards and Italian army armoured car patrols. A track ran south from the fort, just west of the frontier wire and the border, to Sidi Omar, Fort Maddalena and Giarabub. The fort changed hands several times during the Western Desert Campaign (1940–1943) of the Second World War.
Background
In 1922, Benito Mussolini continued the of Libya, in the Second Italo-Sanussi War The Frontier wire was built by the Italian army, under the command of General Rodolfo Graziani, in the winter of 1930–1931, as a means to repress Senussi resistance against the Italian colonisation. The frontier wire and fort system was used to hinder the movement of Senussi fighters and materials from Egypt. The wire comprised four lines of high stakes in concrete bases, laced with barbed wire long, just inside the border from El Ramleh on the Gulf of Sollum, past Fort Capuzzo to Sidi Omar, then south, slightly to the west of the 25th meridian east, the Libya-Egypt and Libya-Sudan borders. Three large forts at Amseat (Fort Capuzzo), Scegga (Fort Maddalena) and Giarabub and six smaller ones at El Ramleh on the gulf of Sollum, at Sidi Omar, Sceferzen, Vescechet, Garn ul Grein and El Aamara along the wire. The wire was patrolled using armoured cars and aircraft from the forts, by the Italian army and border guards, who attacked anyone seen in the frontier zone.
Second World War
1940
On 14 June 1940, four days after the Italian declaration of war on Britain, the 7th Hussars and elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, Gladiators of 33 Squadron Royal Air Force (RAF) and Blenheims of 211 Squadron captured Fort Capuzzo; the 11th Hussars took Fort Maddalena about further south. The fort was not occupied long for lack of troops and equipment but demolition parties visited each night to destroy Italian ammunition and vehicles. For the rest of June, the British patrolled to the north, south and west and began the Siege of Giarabub. The Italian 10th Army concentrated in the area from Bardia to Tobruk and brought forward the Maletti Group, a combined tank, infantry and artillery force, equipped with a company of Fiat M11/39 medium tanks, which were superior to their older L3/33 tankettes.
The Italians reoccupied Fort Capuzzo and held it with part of the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" ( Francesco Argentino). On 29 June, the Maletti Group repulsed British tanks with its artillery and then defeated a night attack. During the frontier skirmishes from 11 June to 9 September, the British claimed to have inflicted for a loss of On 16 December, during Operation Compass (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) the 4th Armoured Brigade of the Western Desert Force captured Sidi Omar and the Italians withdrew from Sollum, Fort Capuzzo and the other frontier forts; Number Supply Depot was established at the fort for the 7th Armoured Division.
1941
On 10 April, after the Axis advance from El Agheila, small British mobile columns began to harass units around Fort Capuzzo, which was captured by the Germans on 12 April. Attacks by from 25 to 26 April, led the British columns to fall back. During Operation Brevity (15–16 May) an operation to capture the area between Sollum and the fort and inflict casualties, the 22nd Guards Brigade Group and the 4th RTR was to capture the fort and then attack northwards. The operation began on 15 May and the fort was captured by the 1st Durham Light Infantry (1st DLI) and a squadron of I tanks. A counter-attack by II Battalion, Panzer Regiment 5 (with eight operational tanks) inflicted many losses and forced the 1st DLI back to Musaid. The German force advanced from Fort Capuzzo on the following afternoon.
Three Italian battalions with artillery from the 102nd Motorised Division "Trento" took over the area between Sollum, Musaid and Fort Capuzzo. Late on 15 June, the 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR) attacked Fort Capuzzo during Operation Battleaxe (15–17 June) and scattered the defenders. The British tanks broke through but infantry were slow to follow up and the tanks were not able rapidly to exploit the success. Next day, the 22nd Guards Brigade consolidated at the fort and Panzer Regiment 8 attacked near Capuzzo, only to be repulsed by the 4th Armoured Brigade. German attempts to work round the British flank failed but reduced the tank regiments in the area to On 17 June, the danger of encirclement increased as German attacks reached Sidi Suleiman and the 22nd Guards Brigade was ordered to retreat at The remnants of the armoured brigades covered the British withdrawal, eventually to the start line, assisted by the RAF. On 22 November, the fort was captured by the 2nd New Zealand Division, during Operation Crusader (18 November – 30 December) which then advanced on Tobruk, apart from the 5th New Zealand Brigade which remained to capture the Sollum barracks.
1942
Axis forces recaptured the fort around 22 June 1942, after the Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June 1942) capturing of fuel and of foodstuffs, despite demolitions since the British withdrawal from Gazala has begun on 14 June. After the Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October – 11 November 1942) Fort Capuzzo changed hands for the last time. German rearguards retired from Sidi Barrani on 9 November; next day, the 22nd Armoured Brigade advanced on Fort Capuzzo from the south and by 11 November, the last Axis troops had withdrawn from the frontier, despite orders to hold the area from Halfaya to Sollum and Sidi Omar.
Post war
After the Allied conquest in 1943, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were ruled under the British Military Administration of Libya until Libyan independence in 1951, as a kingdom under Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi (King Idris of Libya). Fort Capuzzo and the frontier wire disappeared into obscurity.
See also
Frontier Wire (Libya)
Italian Libya
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Photo of Fort Capuzzo in November 1942
1943 Drawing by Jack Crippen
Wikimapia
Fort Capuzzo Desert War.net
New Zealand soldiers at Fort Capuzzo, circa December 1941
Capuzzo
Battles involving Italy
World War II sites in Libya
Cyrenaica
Western Desert campaign
Italy–Libya relations
F
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Bonnet
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Charles Bonnet
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Charles Bonnet (; 13 March 1720 – 20 May 1793) was a Genevan naturalist and philosophical writer. He is responsible for coining the term phyllotaxis to describe the arrangement of leaves on a plant. He was among the first to notice parthenogenetic reproduction in aphids and established that insects respired through their spiracles. He was among the first to use the term "evolution" in a biological context. Deaf from an early age, he also suffered from failing eyesight and had to make use of assistants in later life to help in his research.
Life and work
Bonnet was born in Geneva, the son of Pierre Bonnet and Anne-Marie Lullin de Châteauvieux. Although originally from France, the family had been driven into Geneva by religious persecution of Protestants in the 16th century. At age seven he lost hearing which pushed him into an interest in the natural world. His schoolmates troubled him due to the hearing handicap and the parents took him out and had a private tutor. Bonnet seems never to have left the Geneva region, and does not appear to have taken any part in public affairs except for the period between 1752 and 1768, during which he was a member of the council of the republic. The last twenty five years of his life he spent quietly in the country, at Genthod, near Geneva, where he died after a long and painful illness on 20 May 1793. His wife was a lady of the family of De la Rive. They had no children, but Madame Bonnet's nephew, the celebrated Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, was brought up as their son.
Bonnet made law his profession, but his favourite pursuit was the study of natural science. The account of the ant-lion in Noël-Antoine Pluche's Spectacle de la nature, which he read in his sixteenth year, turned his attention to insect life. He procured RAF de Réaumur's work on insects, and with the help of live specimens succeeded in adding many observations to those of Réaumur and Pluche. In 1740, Bonnet communicated to the Academy of Sciences a paper containing a series of experiments establishing what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids or tree-lice, which obtained for him the honour of being admitted as the youngest corresponding member of the academy. During that year he had been in correspondence with his uncle Abraham Trembley who had recently discovered the hydra. This little creature became the hit of all the salons across Europe once philosophers and natural scientists saw its amazing regenerative capabilities. In 1741, Bonnet began to study reproduction by fusion and the regeneration of lost parts in the freshwater hydra and other animals; and in the following year he discovered that the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies is performed by pores, to which the name spiracles has since been given. In 1743, he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in the same year he became a doctor of laws—his last act in connection with a profession which had ever been distasteful to him. In 1753, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and on 15 December 1769 a foreign member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
His first published work appeared in 1745, entitled Traité d'insectologie, in which were collected his various discoveries regarding insects, along with a preface on the development of germs and the scale of organized beings. Botany, particularly the leaves of plants, next attracted his attention; and after several years of diligent study, rendered irksome by the increasing weakness of his eyesight, he published in 1754 one of the most original and interesting of his works, Recherches sur l'usage des feuilles dans les plantes. In this book, he observes that gas bubbles form on plant leaves that have been submerged in water, indicating gas exchange; and among other things he advances many considerations tending to show (as was later done by Francis Darwin) that plants are endowed with powers of sensation and discernment. But Bonnet's eyesight, which threatened to fail altogether, caused him to turn to philosophy. In 1754 his Essai de psychologie was published anonymously in London. This was followed by the Essai analytique sur les facultés de l'âme (Copenhagen, 1760), in which he develops his views regarding the physiological conditions of mental activity. He returned to physical science, but to the speculative side of it, in his Considerations sur les corps organisées (Amsterdam, 1762), designed to refute the theory of epigenesis, and to explain and defend the doctrine of pre-existent germs. In his Contemplation de la nature (Amsterdam, 1764–1765; translated into Italian, German, English and Dutch), one of his most popular and delightful works, he sets forth, in eloquent language, the theory that all the beings in nature form a gradual scale rising from lowest to highest, without any break in its continuity. His last important work was the Palingénésie philosophique (Geneva, 1769–1770); in it he treats of the past and future of living beings, and supports the idea of the survival of all animals, and the perfecting of their faculties in a future state. Bonnet's complete works appeared at Neuchâtel in 1779–1783, partly revised by himself.
In 1760 he described a condition now called Charles Bonnet Syndrome, in which vivid, complex visual hallucinations (fictive visual percepts) occur in psychologically normal people. (He documented it in his 87-year-old grandfather, who was nearly blind from cataracts in both eyes but perceived men, women, birds, carriages, buildings, tapestries and scaffolding patterns.) Most people affected are elderly with visual impairments, however the phenomenon does not occur only in the elderly or in those with visual impairments; it can also be caused by damage elsewhere in their optic pathway or brain.
Bonnet's philosophical system may be outlined as follows. Man is a compound of two distinct substances, mind and body, the one immaterial and the other material. All knowledge originates in sensations; sensations follow (whether as physical effects or merely as sequents Bonnet will not say) vibrations in the nerves appropriate to each; and lastly, the nerves are made to vibrate by external physical stimulus. A nerve once set in motion by a particular object tends to reproduce that motion; so that when it a second time receives an impression from the same object it vibrates with less resistance. The sensation accompanying this increased flexibility in the nerve is, according to Bonnet, the condition of memory. When reflection—that is, the active element in mind—is applied to the acquisition and combination of sensations, those abstract ideas are formed which, though generally distinguished from, are thus merely sensations in combination only. That which puts the mind into activity is pleasure or pain; happiness is the end of human existence.
Bonnet's metaphysical theory is based on two principles borrowed from Leibniz: first, that there are not successive acts of creation, but that the universe is completed by the single original act of the divine will, and thereafter moves on by its own inherent force; and secondly, that there is no break in the continuity of existence. The divine Being originally created a multitude of germs in a graduated scale, each with an inherent power of self-development . At every successive step in the progress of the universe, these germs, as progressively modified, advance nearer to perfection; if some advanced and others did not there would be a gap in the continuity of the chain. Thus not man only but all other forms of existence are immortal . Nor is man's mind alone immortal; his body also will pass into the higher stage, not, indeed, the body he now possesses, but a finer one of which the germ at present exists within him. It is impossible, however, to reach absolute perfection, because the distance is infinite.
In this final proposition, Bonnet violates his own principle of continuity, by postulating an interval between the highest created being and the Divine. It is also difficult to understand whether the constant advance to perfection is performed by each individual, or only by each race of beings as a whole. There seems, in fact, to be an oscillation between two distinct but analogous doctrines—that of the constantly increasing advancement of the individual in future stages of existence, and that of the constantly increasing advancement of the race as a whole according to the successive evolutions of the globe. In Philosophical Palingesis, or Ideas on the Past and Future States of Living Beings (1770), Bonnet argued that females carry within them all future generations in a miniature form. He believed these miniature beings, sometimes called homonculi, would be able to survive even great cataclysms such as the biblical Flood; he predicted, moreover, that these catastrophes brought about evolutionary change, and that after the next disaster, men would become angels, mammals would gain intelligence, and so on.
Bonnet had an influence on other philosophers and pre-evolutionary thinkers; James Burnett, Lord Monboddo is known to have studied his publications on insects and to have been influenced as he developed concepts on progression of species (evolution).
Works
Books
Traité d'insectologie ou Observations sur quelques espèces de vers d'eau douce, qui coupés par morceaux, deviennent autant d'animaux complets, 1745.
Recherches sur l'usage des feuilles dans les plantes, 1754.
Essai de psychologie, 1754.
Essai analytique sur les facultés de l'âme, 1760.
Considérations sur les corps organisés, two volumes, 1762
Contemplation de la nature, two volumes, 1764. A German translation was made by Jakob Friedrich Klemm.
La palingénésie philosophique [archive], 1769. An English translation of certain portions of the Palingénésie philosophique was published in 1787, under the title Philosophical and Critical Inquiries concerning Christianity.
Œuvres d'histoire naturelle et de philosophie, 8 volumes 1779–1783.
Mémoires autobiographiques, Paris, Vrin, 1948.
Correspondence
Lettre de M. Charles Bonnet. Au sujet du discours de M. J. J. Rousseau de Genève, sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes. Reproduction, in Rousseau's Works, of Bonnet's letter published in the Mercure de France.
Two letters in French from Bonnet to Lazzaro Spallanzani.
Jean-Paul Nicolas, La correspondance Charles Bonnet—Michel Adanson, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 1969
Letters published by the Duke of Caraman, including an exchange with Gabriel Cramer on human freedom.
Bibliography
Biography
A Lemoine, Charles Bonnet (Paris, 1850)
Victor Antoine Charles de Riquet de Caraman, Charles Bonnet, philosophe et naturaliste (Paris, 1859)
Max Offner, Die Psychologie Charles Bonnet (Leipzig, 1893);
Joh. Speck, in Arch. f. Gesch. d. Philos x. (1897), xi. (1897), pp. 58 foIl., Xi. (1898) pp. 1–211
Jean Trembley, Vie privée et littéraire de Charles Bonnet, 1794.
Secondary work
Isaac Salomon Anspach, Discours du citoyen Isaac Salomon Anspach, prononcé le jeudi 8 d'août 1793 l'an 2 de l'Égalité, après le placement de l'inscription en l'honneur de Charles Bonnet.
Peter J. Bowler, " Bonnet and Buffon : theories of generation and the problem of species", dans Journal for the history of biology, 6, 1973, p. 259-281.
Marino Buscaglia and René Sigrist (ed), " Charles Bonnet, savant et philosophe (1720-1793)". Actes du Colloque international de Genève (25-27 novembre 1993) , Genève, 1994 (Mémoires de la Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genève, vol. 47).
Jacques Marx, Charles Bonnet contre les Lumières (1738-1850), Oxford, The Voltaire Foundation, 1976 (2 vol.)
Georges Cuvier and Madeleine de Saint-Agy, "De Bonnet et de ses travaux", Histoire des sciences naturelles : depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, Volume 4, 1843, p. 244–263.
Raymond Savioz, La philosophie de Charles Bonnet de Genève, Paris, Vrin, 1948.
René Sigrist, " L'expérimentation comme rhétorique de la preuve : l'exemple du Traité d'insectologie de Charles Bonnet", in Revue d'Histoire des Sciences, 54/4, 2001, p. 419–449.
René Sigrist, La Nature à l'épreuve. Les débuts de l'expérimentation à Genève (1670-1790), Paris, Classiques Garnier, 2011, p. 225-263, 292-309 et 536-576.
References
Sources
External links
Works by Charles Bonnet at the Biodiversity Heritage Library
A Compendium of Natural Philosophy 1836 English translation
Charles Bonnet Syndrome Informational Pamphlet
1720 births
1793 deaths
Scientists from the Republic of Geneva
18th century in Geneva
People from Geneva
Proto-evolutionary biologists
18th-century naturalists
18th-century botanists
Entomologists
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
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204129
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi%20Barrani
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Sidi Barrani
|
Sidi Barrani ( ) is a town in Egypt, near the Mediterranean Sea, about
east of the Egypt–Libya border, and around from Tobruk, Libya.
Named after Sidi es-Saadi el Barrani, a Senussi sheikh who was a head of its Zawiya, the village is mainly a Bedouin community. It has food, gasoline outlets and one small hotel, but virtually no tourist activity or visited historical curiosities. It is the site of an Egyptian Air Force base.
History
Located close to the Roman city of Zygra, in the Roman province of Libya Inferior, Sidi Barrani is often mentioned in historical records to mark the limit of the initial Italian invasion of Egypt from Libya. The Italian Tenth Army built a series of forts in the vicinity.
American Field Service volunteers, providing ambulance services and serving with the British 8th Army were based in the area, in June 1942, 30 miles east of Sidi Barrani.
Sidi Barrani was a destination during the total solar eclipse on October 3, 2005, as expeditions traveled to the best observation point, Zawiet Mahtallah, east of Sidi Barrani.
Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh), but it is part of the northern coast of Egypt which has moderated temperatures.
In popular media
In Kurt Vonnegut's novel Bluebeard, Sidi Barrani is the site where Dan Gregory (a tormenting magazine illustrator and Nazi sympathizer) was killed on 7 December 1940 during the Battle of Sidi Barrani. The battle continued until 10 December, in which 30,000 British troops defeated almost 80,000 Italian soldiers holding the town.
"Did I ever tell you about the time I was in Sidi Barrani?" was a catchphrase for Kenneth Horne in the BBC radio comedy show Much-Binding-in-the-Marsh which ran from 1944 to 1954 and was initially about life on a mythical Royal Air Force (RAF) station.
Spike Milligan was, according to his memoirs, posted to Sidi Barrani during the Second World War.
References
External links
Photograph of twilight Sidi Barrani solar eclipse (Oct. 2005, copyright 2005–2007 Magyar Csillagászati Egyesület): Hungarian-foto Sidi-twilight (540x345, 38 KB).
Photograph of solar eclipse at Sidi Barrani (Oct. 2005, copyright 2005–2007 Magyar Csillagászati Egyesület): Hungarian-foto Sidi-eclipse (9 KB).
Photograph of Sidi Barrani observers (Oct. 2005, copyright 2005–2007 Magyar Csillagászati Egyesület): Hungarian-foto Sidi-people (50 KB).
Populated places in Matrouh Governorate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Prince%20Edward%20Island
|
Coat of arms of Prince Edward Island
|
The coat of arms of Prince Edward Island was begun when the shield and motto in the achievement were granted in 1905 by royal warrant of the King Edward VII.
History
In the chief of the shield is the lion passant (or "leopard") of England. The lower portion depicts three oak saplings, representing the Island's three counties, beneath a mature oak that originally represented Great Britain. Prior to the adoption of the current coat of arms, the trees were used, without the lion, as the symbol of the province.
The additions to the arms were granted on 26 April 2002, and the process was completed on 13 December 2002, when the Right Honourable Adrienne Clarkson, Governor General of Canada, unveiled the crest, supporters, and compartment, after which the full achievement was taken into official use. This was requested by Prince Edward Island Premier Pat Binns to commemorate the 150th anniversary of responsible government on the island.
Symbolism
The crest is a blue jay holding in its beak a sprig of red oak, both symbols of the island. The crown represents royal sovereignty and its use in the arms is an honour granted by the Queen.
The supporters are silver foxes, rare animals native to the region; fur farming was perfected on Prince Edward Island, and Island silver fox fur was prized. The fox also represents sagacity and wit. To denote other Island industries, one fox wears a garland of potato blossoms, and another one wears a length of fishing net.
The compartment centres on a Mi'kmaq eight-pointed star symbol representing the sun; this is surrounded by roses for England, lilies for France, thistles for Scotland, and shamrocks for Ireland, as well as Lady's Slippers, the floral emblem of the island.
The island's motto, Parva sub ingenti (the small under the protection of the great), is taken from Virgil's Georgics. The full quotation is:
...etiam Parnasia laurus parva sub ingenti matris se subicit umbra.'''
...so too a small plant, beneath its mother's mighty shade, upshoots the laurel-tree of Parnassus.
It has been the island's motto since 1769.
Blazon
The shield was blazoned by Royal Warrant on 30 May 1905, as:Argent on an island Vert, to the sinister an oak tree fructed, to the dexter thereof three oak saplings sprouting all proper, on a chief Gules a lion passant guardant Or.
The warrant also specified the motto Parva sub ingenti.
This was augmented by proclamation, recorded in the PEI Royal Gazette, 21 December 2002, with the following:A HELMET: Or mantled Gules doubled Argent with a wreath of these colours;AND FOR A CREST: On a grassy mount a blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) reguardant crowned with the Royal Crown and bearing in its beak a leaf of the red oak tree (Quercus rubra L.) fructed proper;AND FOR SUPPORTERS: Two foxes (Vulpes fulva) Sable embellished Argent, that to the dexter gorged with a collar of potato blossoms proper, that to the sinister gorged with a length of fishnet Argent, both on a mount Vert set with a Mi'kmaq star Azure between lady's slipper flowers (Cypripedium acaule), red roses, thistles, shamrocks and white lilies proper.''
See also
Symbols of Prince Edward Island
Flag of Prince Edward Island
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
Heraldry
External links
Armorial Bearings (Government of Prince Edward Island)
Arms of Prince Edward Island in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges
Prince Edward Island
Provincial symbols of Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island
2002 establishments in Prince Edward Island
1905 establishments in Canada
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace%20B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict%20de%20Saussure
|
Horace Bénédict de Saussure
|
Horace Bénédict de Saussure (17 February 1740 – 22 January 1799) was a Genevan geologist, meteorologist, physicist, mountaineer and Alpine explorer, often called the founder of alpinism and modern meteorology, and considered to be the first person to build a successful solar oven.
Life and work
Horace Bénédict de Saussure was born 17 February 1740, in Conches, near Geneva (today in Switzerland but then an independent republic), and died in Geneva 22 January 1799.
Saussure's family were Genevan patricians. His father, Nicolas de Saussure, was an agriculturist and author. Because his mother was sickly, Saussure was brought up by his mother's sister and her husband the Genevan naturalist Charles Bonnet who sparked Horace-Bénédict's early interest in botany. After attending the "Collège" of his hometown, he completed his studies at the Geneva Academy in 1759 with a dissertation on heat (Dissertatio physica de igne). In 1760, he made the first of numerous trips to Chamonix Valley, at the foot of Mont Blanc, to collect plant specimens for the noted Swiss anatomist, physiologist and botanist Albrecht von Haller. In 1760, Saussure offered a reward to the first man to reach the summit of Mont Blanc. Inspired by his uncle, Charles Bonnet, the young Saussure also did research on the physiology of plants and published Observations sur l'écorce des feuilles et des pétales (1762). The same year, at 22, he was elected professor of philosophy at the Academy of Geneva, where he lectured on physics one year, and on logic and metaphysics the next. He taught there until 1786, occasionally also lecturing on geography, geology, chemistry, and even astronomy.
Saussure's early interest in botanical studies and glaciers soon led him to undertake other journeys across the Alps. In 1767, he completed his first tour of Mont-Blanc, a trip that did much to reveal the topography of the snowy portions of the Alps of Savoy. He also carried out experiments on heat and cold, on the weight of the atmosphere and on electricity and magnetism. For this, he devised what became one of the first electrometers. Other trips led him to Italy, where he studied Mt. Etna and other volcanoes (1772–73), and to the extinct volcanoes of the Auvergne, in France.
Although a patrician, Saussure held liberal views that induced him to present in 1774 a plan for the development of scientific education in the Geneva College, which would be open to all citizens, but this attempt failed. He was more successful in advocating the creation of the "Société des Arts" (1776), inspired by the London Society for the Improvement of Arts.
Beginning in 1774, Saussure sought to reach the summit of Mont-Blanc on the side of Val Veny (now Italy) accompanied by the Courmayeur alpine guide Jean-Laurent Jordaney on the Miage glacier and on Mont Crammont. In 1776 he ascended the Buet (3,096 m). He climbed the Crammont in 1774 and again in 1778, in which year he also explored the Valsorey glacier, near the Great St Bernard. In 1780 he climbed the Roche Michel, above the Mont Cenis Pass. In 1785, he made an unsuccessful attempt on Mont-Blanc by the Aiguille du Goûter route. Two Chamonix men, Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat, attained the summit in 1786, by way of the Grands Mulets, and in 1787 Saussure himself made the third ascent of the mountain. His achievements did much to attract tourists to places such as Chamonix.
Obsessed by the measurement of meteorological phenomena, Saussure invented and improved many kinds of apparatus, including the magnetometer, the cyanometer for estimating the blueness of the sky, the diaphanometer for judging the clarity of the atmosphere, the anemometer and the mountain eudiometer. Of particular importance was a hair hygrometer that he devised and used for a series of investigations on atmospheric humidity, evaporation, clouds, fogs and rain (Essais sur l'Hygrométrie, 1783). This instrument sparked a bitter controversy with Jean-André Deluc, who had invented a whalebone hygrometer.
In 1788, Saussure spent 17 days making meteorological observations and physical measurements on the Col du Géant (3,371 m).
In 1789, Saussure climbed the Pizzo Bianco near Macugnaga, to observe the east wall of Monte Rosa, and crossed the Theodulpass (3,322 m) to Zermatt, which he was the first traveler to visit. On that occasion he climbed from the pass up the Klein Matterhorn (3,883 m), while in 1792 he spent three days making observations on the same pass without descending to Zermatt and then visited the Theodulhorn (3,472 m).
All of Saussure's observations and experiments from seven Alpine journeys were summed up and published in four quarto volumes, under the general title of Voyages dans les Alpes (1779 – 1796) (There was an octavo issue in eight volumes, issued from 1780 to 1796). The non-scientific portions of the work were first published in 1834, and often since, as Partie pittoresque des ouvrages de M. de Saussure.
Significance
The Alps were the focus of Saussure's investigations. He saw them as the grand key to the true theory of the earth, and they gave him the opportunity to study geology in a manner never previously attempted. Saussure closely examined the inclination of the strata, the nature of the rocks, the fossils and the minerals.
Saussure had a thorough knowledge of the chemistry of the day and applied it to the study of minerals, water and air. His geological observations made him a firm believer in the Neptunian theory: He regarded all rocks and minerals as deposited from aqueous solution or suspension, and attached much importance to the study of meteorological conditions. His work with rocks, erosion, and fossils also led him to believe that the earth was much older than generally thought and formed part of the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution.
Saussure carried barometers and boiling-point thermometers to the summits of the highest mountains, and estimated the relative humidity of the atmosphere at different heights, its temperature, the strength of solar radiation, the composition of air and its transparency. Then, he investigated the temperature of the earth at all depths to which he could drive his thermometer staves, and the course, conditions and temperature of streams, rivers, glaciers and lakes, even of the sea.
Saussure adapted the thermometer to many purposes: for ascertaining the temperature of the air he used one with a fine bulb hung in the shade or whirled by a string, the latter form being converted into an evaporimeter by inserting its bulb into a piece of wet sponge and making it revolve in a circle of known radius, at a known rate; for experiments on the earth and in deep water he employed large thermometers wrapped in non-conducting coatings so as to render them extremely sluggish, and capable of long retaining the temperature once they had attained it.
With these instruments Saussure showed that the bottom water of deep lakes is uniformly cold at all seasons, and that seasonal changes in temperature take six months to penetrate to a depth of 30 ft. in the earth. He recognized the immense advantages to meteorology of high-level observation stations, and whenever it was practicable he arranged for simultaneous observations to be made at different altitudes for as long periods as possible.
Saussure was particularly influential as a geologist, and although his ideas on the underlying principles were often erroneous, he was instrumental in greatly advancing that science. He was an early user of the term "geology"—see the "Discours préliminaire" to volume I of his Voyages, published in 1779—though by no means its inventor as some have claimed, the English word having been used in the 1680s and its Latin counterpart "geologia" during the previous several centuries.
In 1767, Saussure constructed the first known Western solar oven, trying several designs before determining that a well-insulated box with three layers of glass to trap outgoing thermal radiation produced the most heat. The highest temperature he reached was , which he found did not vary significantly when the box was carried from the top of Mt. Crammont in the Swiss Alps down to the Plains of Cournier, 4,852 feet lower in altitude and warmer in temperature, thereby establishing that the external air temperature played no significant role in this solar heating effect.
In 1784, Saussure was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; in 1788, a foreign member of the Royal Society of London; in 1791, an associate foreign member of l'Académie des sciences de Paris.
Saussure died in 1799 in Geneva.
Recognition
The genus of plants Saussurea, some adapted to growing in extreme high-alpine climates, is named after him and his plant-physiologist son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure. The Alpine Botanical Garden Saussurea, located at Pavillon du Mont Fréty, first station for the Skyway Monte Bianco cable car, in Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, is named after it.
His work as a mineralogist was also recognized. Saussurite is named after him. The lunar crater Saussure is also named after him.
Saussure was honoured by being depicted on the 20 Swiss franc banknote of the sixth issue of Swiss National Bank notes (1979 to 1995, when replaced by the eighth issue; the notes were recalled in 2000 and will become valueless on 1 May 2020).
Saussure's son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure was a noted specialist in plant chemistry and an early pioneer in photosynthesis research.
His daughter Albertine Necker de Saussure was a pioneer in the education of women.
His great-grandson Ferdinand de Saussure was an important linguist and semiotician.
Trivia
In his On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, whilst discussing how reason affects our perception of distance, Arthur Schopenhauer includes an anecdote that Saussure, "when on the Mont Blanc,... saw so enormous a moon rise, that, not recognizing what it was, he fainted with terror".
Notes
References
Lives by J Senebier (Geneva, 1801), by Cuvier in the Biographie universelle, and by A. P. de Candolle in Décade philosophique
articles by E. Naville in the Bibliothèque universelle (March, April, May 1883)
chaps. v.-viii. of Ch. Durier's Le Mont-Blanc (Paris, various editions between 1877 and 1897).
René Sigrist, Le capteur solaire de Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. Genèse d'une science empirique. Geneva, Passé-Présent / Jullien, 1993.
Albert V. Carozzi & Gerda Bouvier, The scientific library of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1797): annotated catalog of an 18th-century bibliographic and historic treasure, Geneva, 1994 (Mémoires de la SPHN, t. 46).
René Sigrist (ed.), H.-B. de Saussure (1740–1799): un regard sur la terre. Geneva, Georg, 2001.
External links
Pictures and texts of "Les Voyages dans les Alpes" by H. B. de Saussure can be found in the database VIATIMAGES.
Horace-Benedict de Saussure and his Hot Boxes of the 1700s
Horace-Bénédict de Saussure works available online
(1796–1808) Voyages dans les Alpes, précédés d'un essai sur l'histoire naturelle des environs le Genève, 4 vol. – Linda Hall Library
(1796) "Agenda, Ou tableau général des observations et des recherches dont les résultats doivent servir de base à la théorie de la terre." Journal des mines, no. 20. Paris, an. 4 (1796); p. 1–70. – Linda Hall Library
1740 births
1799 deaths
Scientists from the Republic of Geneva
18th century in Geneva
People from Geneva
mountain climbers
18th-century physicists
18th-century Protestants
18th-century botanists
Botanists with author abbreviations
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
18th-century naturalists
Scientific instrument makers
Horace Benedict
|
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204148
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20South%20Carolina%20%28BB-26%29
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USS South Carolina (BB-26)
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USS South Carolina (BB-26), the lead ship of her class of dreadnought battleships, was the fourth ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the eighth state. She was also the first American dreadnought; though she did not incorporate turbine propulsion like , South Carolinas design included revolutionary aspects as well, primarily the superfiring arrangement of her main battery. The ship was laid down in December 1906 and launched in July 1908 before being commissioned into the US Atlantic Fleet in March 1910.
South Carolina spent much of her career in the Atlantic and Caribbean patrolling the eastern coast of the United States. She made two trips to Europe in 1910 and 1911 and participated in a visit by a German cruiser squadron in 1912. In 1913–14, she frequently patrolled the coast of Mexico to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution, and in April 1914 she took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, South Carolina trained sailors for the rapidly expanding wartime navy, and in late 1918, she was assigned to convoy escort duty. An accident with her propellers in September kept her from active service for the remainder of the conflict. In 1919, she made four trips to bring American soldiers back from Europe. Midshipmen training cruises followed in 1920–21, but the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 cut her career short. She was broken up for scrap as part of the arms limitation treaty, starting in mid-1924.
Design
South Carolina was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft vertical triple-expansion engines rated at and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . She had a crew of 869 officers and men.
The ship was armed with a main battery of eight /45 caliber Mark 5 guns in four twin gun turrets on the centerline, which were placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-two /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.
South Carolinas main armored belt was thick over the magazines, over the machinery spaces, and elsewhere. The armored deck was thick. The gun turrets had 12 inch thick faces, while the supporting barbettes had 10 inch thick armor plating. Ten inch thick armor also protected the casemate guns. The conning tower had 12 inch thick sides.
Service history
The keel for South Carolina was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 18 December 1906. The completed hull was launched on 1 July 1908. Fitting-out work was completed by the end of February 1910, and she was commissioned into the fleet on 1 March. She was then assigned to the Atlantic Fleet. Five days after her commissioning, the ship steamed out of Philadelphia for her shakedown cruise, which took the ship to the Caribbean Sea and included stops in the Danish West Indies and Cuba, before returning to the United States for a visit to Charleston in her namesake state, which lasted from 10 to 15 April. Sea trials followed; they were conducted off the Virginia Capes and outside Provincetown, Massachusetts. South Carolina then visited New York City on 17–18 June to take part in a reception for former President Theodore Roosevelt. The ship spent most of the rest of the year conducting fleet maneuvers, training naval militia, and receiving repairs at Norfolk, Virginia.
On 1 November 1910, South Carolina left the United States for a trip to Europe with the 2nd Battleship Division. During the tour, the Division stopped in Cherbourg and Portland. The ships arrived back in Norfolk on 12 January 1911, where South Carolina entered the shipyard for maintenance. She then returned to the fleet, which conducted battle training off the coast of New England. The ship made a short stop in New York City before joining the 2nd Battleship Division for another tour of Europe. This trip included stops in Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Kronstadt. On the way back from Kronstadt, South Carolina stopped in Kiel, where the German Kaiser Wilhelm II was hosting the annual Kieler Woche (Kiel Week) sailing regatta. South Carolina arrived off Provincetown on 13 July and continued to the Chesapeake Bay, where she conducted battle practice.
In late 1911, South Carolina was present for a naval review in New York City before conducting training exercises with the 1st Squadron off Newport, Rhode Island. The ship then steamed south on 3 January 1912 for training exercises off Guantánamo Bay, Cuba before returning to Norfolk on 13 March. She cruised the east coast of the United States from March to late June. That month, she participated in a reception for a visit by the German battlecruiser and the light cruisers and in New York. On 30 June, South Carolina returned to Norfolk for an overhaul. In early October, the ship steamed to New York for a visit that lasted from 11 to 15 October. The first half of November was spent conducting training exercises off New England and the Virginia Capes. She then steamed south with the Special Service Division for a tour of the Caribbean; stops included Pensacola, New Orleans, Galveston, and Veracruz.
Unrest in the Caribbean and World War I
South Carolina was back in Norfolk by 20 December, where she remained until 6 January 1913. She then departed for another trip south, this time to Colón, Panama, at the entrance to the recently completed Panama Canal. The ship then took part in maneuvers off Guantánamo Bay before returning to Norfolk on 22 March. Another cruise off the east coast of the United States followed, and included a stop in New York from 28 to 31 May, where the USS Maine National Monument was dedicated. The ship briefly trained midshipmen from the US Naval Academy in June before departing at the end of the month for Mexico. There, she cruised off Tampico and Veracruz to protect American interests during the Mexican Civil War. She returned to Norfolk for an overhaul in September that lasted until January 1914.
South Carolina then took part in training exercises off Culebra Island. On 28 January, the ship sent a contingent of Marines ashore in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, to secure the American embassy during a period of unrest in the country, as well as to set up a radio station there. She left the city on 14 April after tensions calmed following the election of President Oreste Zamor. South Carolina coaled at Key West before continuing on to Veracruz, where she took part in the occupation of the city. The ship left Veracruz in July and spent the next several months cruising off the Dominican Republic and Haiti to monitor the political situations in the neighboring countries. She returned to Norfolk on 24 September; by this time, World War I had broken out in Europe, though the United States initially remained neutral.
On 14 October, the ship went to Philadelphia for an overhaul that lasted until 20 February 1915. She thereafter steamed to Cuba for the routine peacetime training maneuvers. At the time, tensions between the United States and Germany were high due to the sinking of the passenger ship by a U-boat, though the Germans agreed to suspend their unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. For the next two years, she followed the same pattern: training exercises off Cuba in the first quarter of the year, followed by maneuvers off Newport, and periodic maintenance at the end of the year at Philadelphia. On 6 April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany over the latter's resumption of the unrestricted submarine campaign earlier that year. South Carolina continued to cruise off the east coast of the United States through August 1918.
Starting in September, South Carolina and the pre-dreadnoughts of the Atlantic Fleet began escorting convoys to France. On 6 September, she departed with the pre-dreadnoughts and to protect a fast HX troopship convoy. On 16 September, the three battleships left the convoy in the Atlantic and steamed back to the United States, while other escorts brought the convoy into port. On the 17th, South Carolina lost her starboard propeller, which forced her to reduce speed to using only the port shaft. On 20 September, the port engine stopped after a throttle valve broke down. She got underway temporarily using an auxiliary throttle before severe vibration forced her to stop for six hours while the main throttle was fixed. Four days later, the ships reached the United States and South Carolina made her way to Philadelphia for repairs. After South Carolina returned to service, she participated in gunnery training, which continued until Germany signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the fighting in Europe. In mid-February 1919, South Carolina began the first of four round trips between the United States and Brest, France to bring American soldiers back from Europe. In the course of the voyages, the last of which concluded in late July, the ship had carried over 4,000 soldiers home. She then went to the Norfolk Navy Yard for a lengthy overhaul.
Later career
After returning to service, the ship took on a contingent of midshipmen for a training cruise to the Pacific. On 5 June 1920, South Carolina began the voyage, crossing into the Pacific via the Panama Canal. She stopped in Hawaii before continuing on to the west coast of the United States, with visits in Seattle, San Francisco, and San Diego. She left the last port on 11 August and arrived back in Annapolis on 2 September. After disembarking the midshipmen there, she went to Philadelphia, where she remained for seven months. South Carolina returned to sea in early April 1921 for training off Culebra Island, followed by exercises in Chesapeake Bay. Another training cruise for midshipmen began on 29 May, this time to Europe. Ports of call included Christiana, Norway, and Lisbon, Portugal. She returned to Annapolis via Guantanmo Bay on 30 August before proceeding to Philadelphia the next day.
In the years immediately following the end of the Great War, the United States, Britain, and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs. All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill-advised, and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations, which produced the Washington Naval Treaty, signed in February 1922. Under the terms of Article II of the treaty, South Carolina and her sister Michigan were to be scrapped. The ship was decommissioned on 15 December, but was not formally stricken from the Naval Vessel Register until 10 November 1923. She was sold for scrap on 24 April 1924 and subsequently dismantled.
The ship's silver service was commissioned by the state of South Carolina and was presented on 11 April 1910. After South Carolina was withdrawn from service in 1922, the service was given to the South Carolina chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution for display at the Old Exchange. Following the outbreak of World War II, the service was hidden in the basement of the Old Exchange for safekeeping. In 1947, they were retrieved and sent to the South Carolina Governor's Mansion, where they are currently on display.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
External links
NavSource Online: Battleship Photo Archive BB-26 USS SOUTH CAROLINA
South Carolina-class battleships
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1908 ships
World War I battleships of the United States
United States Navy South Carolina-related ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlangen
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Erlangen
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Erlangen (; East Franconian: Erlang, Bavarian: Erlanga) is a Middle Franconian city in Bavaria, Germany. It is the seat of the administrative district Erlangen-Höchstadt (former administrative district Erlangen), and with 113,758 inhabitants (as of 30 June 2019), it is the smallest of the eight major cities (":de: Großstadt“) in Bavaria. The number of inhabitants exceeded the threshold of 100,000 in 1974, making Erlangen a major city according to the statistical definition officially used in Germany.
Together with Nuremberg, Fürth, and Schwabach, Erlangen forms one of the three metropoles in Bavaria. With the surrounding area, these cities form the European Metropolitan Region of Nuremberg, one of 11 metropolitan areas in Germany. The cities of Nuremberg, Fürth, and Erlangen also form a triangle on a map, which represents the heartland of the Nuremberg conurbation.
An element of the city that goes back a long way in history, but is still noticeable, is the settlement of Huguenots after the withdrawal of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Today, many aspects of daily life in the city are dominated by the Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg and the Siemens technology group.
Geography
Erlangen is located on the edge of the Middle Franconian Basin and at the floodplain of the Regnitz River. The river divides the city into two halves of about equal sizes. In the western part of the city, the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal lies parallel to the Regnitz.
Neighboring municipalities
The following municipalities or nonmunicipal areas are adjacent to the city of Erlangen. They are listed clockwise, starting in the north:
The unincorporated area Mark, the municipalities Möhrendorf, Bubenreuth, Marloffstein, Spardorf, and Buckenhof, and the forest area Buckenhofer Forst (all belonging to the district of Erlangen-Höchstadt), the independent cities of Nuremberg and Fürth, the municipality Obermichelbach (district of Fürth), the city of Herzogenaurach, and the municipality Hessdorf (both in the district of Erlangen-Höchstadt).
City arrangement
Erlangen officially consists of nine districts and 40 statistical districts, 39 of which are inhabited. In addition, the urban area is subdivided into twelve land registry and land law relevant districts whose boundaries deviate largely from those of the statistical districts. The districts and statistical districts are partly formerly independent municipalities, but also include newer settlements the names of which have also been coined as district names. The traditional and subjectively perceived boundaries of neighborhoods often deviate from the official ones.
Districts and statistical districts
Gemarkungen
Erlangen is divided into the following Gemarkungen:
Historical city districts
Some still common names of historical districts were not taken into account with the official designations. Examples are:
Brucker Werksiedlung (in Gemarkung Bruck)
Erba-Siedlung (in Gemarkung Bruck, am Anger)
Essenbach (near Burgberg, north of Schwabach)
Heusteg (in Gemarkung Großdechsendorf)
Königsmühle (in Gemarkung Eltersdorf)
Paprika-Siedlung (in Gemarkung Frauenaurach)
Schallershof (in Gemarkung Frauenaurach)
Siedlung Sonnenblick (in Gemarkung Büchenbach)
Stadtrandsiedlung (in Gemarkung Büchenbach)
St. Johann (in the statistical district Alterlangen)
Werker (near Burgberg, east of the Regnitz)
Zollhaus (eastern city center)
Climate
Erlangen is located in a transition zone from maritime to continental climate: the city is relatively low in precipitation (650mm per year), as usual in continental climate, but relatively warm with an annual mean temperature of 8.5 °C. The castle mountain in particular protects the area of the core city from cold polar air. In contrast, the Regnitzgrund is the cause of frequent fog.
History
Overall history
Early history
In the prehistory of Bavaria, the Regnitz valley already played an important role as a passageway from north to south. In Spardorf a blade scraper was found in loess deposits, which could be attributed to the Gravettians, which places it at an age of about 25,000 years. Due to the relatively barren soils in the area farming and settlements could only be detected at the end of the Neolithic (2800-2200 BC). The "Erlanger Zeichensteine" (Erlangen Sign Stones, sandstone plates with petroglyphs) in the Mark-Forst north of the city also originated in this time period. The stone plates were later reused as grave borders in the Urnfield period (1200–800 BC).
Once investigated in 1913, it was found that the burial mound in Kosbach contained finds from the urnfield time as well as from the Hallstatt and La Tène period. Next to the hill, the so-called "Kosbacher Altar", which was originated in the late Hallstatt period (about 500 BC), was constructed. The altar is unique in this form and consists of a square stone setting with four upright, figural pillars at the corners and one under the center. The reconstruction of the site can be visited in the area, the middle guard is exhibited in the Erlangen city museum.
From Villa Erlangen to the Thirty Years' War
Erlangen is first mentioned by name in a document from 1002. The origin of the name Erlangen is not clear. Attempts of local research to derive the name of alder (tree species) and anger (meadow ground), do not meet toponymical standards.
As early as 976, Emperor Otto II had donated the church of St. Martin in Forchheim with accessories to the diocese of Würzburg. Emperor Henry II confirmed this donation in 1002 and authorized its transfer from the bishopric to the newly founded Haug Abbey. In contrast to the certificate of Otto II, the accessories, which also included the "villa erlangon" located in Radenzgau, were described in more detail here. At that time the Bavarian Nordgau extended to the Regnitz in the west and to the Schwabach in the north. Villa Erlangon must therefore have been located outside of these borders and thus not in the area of today's Erlangen Altstadt. However, as the name Erlangen is unique to today's town in Germany, the certificate could have only referred to it. The document also provides an additional piece of evidence: In 1002, Henry II bestowed further areas west of the Regnitz, including one mile from the Schwabach estuary to the east, one mile from this mouth upstream and downstream. These two squares are described in the document only by their lengths and the two river names. No reference to a specific place is given. They are also unrelated to the accessories of St. Martin, which included the villa erlangon, another reason why it must have been physically separated from the area of the two miles. Size and extent of the two squares correspond approximately to the area requirement of a village at the time, which supports the assumption that at the time of certification a settlement was under construction, which should be legitimized by this donation and later, as in similar cases, has adopted th name of the original settlement. The new settlement was built in a triangle, today bordered by the streets Hauptstraße, Schulstraße and Lazarettstraße, on a flooding-free sand dune.
Only 15 years later, in 1017, Henry II confirmed an exchange agreement, through which St. Martin and its accessories (including Erlangen) were given to the newly founded Bishopric of Bamberg, where it remained until 1361. During these centuries, the place name appears only sporadically.
On 20 August 1063, Emperor Henry IV created two documents "actum Erlangen" while on a campaign. Local researchers therefore concluded that Erlangen must have already gained so much in extent that in 1063, Henry IV took his residence there with many princes and bishops and was therefore the seat of a King's Court. It was even believed that this court could have been located in the Bayreuther Straße 8 and given away without mention by the certificate of 1002. Other evidence of this estate is also missing. It is regarded as most likely today, that Henry IV was not residing in the "new" Erlangen, but rather in the older villa erlangon, as the north–south valley road changed to the left river bank of the Regnitz and then ran in the direction of Alterlangen, Kleinseebach-Baiersdorf to the north, to avoid the heights of the Erlangen Burgberg.
Otherwise, Erlangen was usually only mentioned if the bishop pledged it due to lack of money. How exactly the village developed is unknown. Only the designation "grozzenerlang" in a bishop's urbarium from 1348 may be an indication that the episcopal village had outstripped the original villa erlangon.
In December 1361, Emperor Charles IV bought "the village Erlangen including all rights, benefits and belongings". and incorporated it into the area designated as New Bohemia, which was a fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Under the crown of Bohemia, the village developed rapidly. In 1367 the emperor spent three days in Erlangen and gave the "citizen and people of Erlangen" grazing rights in the imperial forest. In 1374, Charles IV granted the inhabitants of Erlangen seven years of tax exemption. The money should instead be used to "improve" the village. At the same time he lent the market right to Erlangen. Probably soon after 1361, the new ruler of the administration of the acquired property west of the town built the Veste Erlangen, on which a bailiff resided. King Wenceslaus built a mint and officially granted township to Erlangen in 1398. He also gave the usual town privileges: Collection of tolls, construction of a department store with bread and meat bank and the construction of a defensive wall.
Two years later, in 1400, the prince-electors unelected. He sold his Frankish possessions, including Erlangen, to his brother-in-law, the Nuremberg burgrave Johann III due to lack of funds in 1402. During the process of division of the burggrave property in Franconia, Erlangen was added to the Upper Principality, the future Principality of Bayreuth. The Erlangen coining facility ceased its operation because the Münzmeister was executed for counterfeiting in Nuremberg.
During the Hussite Wars the town was completely destroyed for the first time in 1431. The declaration of war by Margrave Albrecht Achilles to the city of Nuremberg in 1449 led to the First Margrave War. However, as the army of Albrecht could not completely enclose the city, Nuremberg troops broke out again and devastated the Margravial towns and villages. As reported by a Nuremberg chronicler, they "burnt the market at most in Erlangen and brought a huge robbery". As soon as the town had recovered, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria attacked the Margrave in 1459. Erlangen was raided and plundered again, this time by Bavarian troops. In the following years the town recovered again. Erlangen was spared from the Peasants' War in 1525 and the introduction of the Reformation in 1528 was peaceful. However, when Margrave Albert Alcibiades triggered the Second Margrave War, Erlangen was attacked again by the Nurembergers and partially destroyed. It was even considered to completely abandon the town. Because Emperor Charles V imposed the imperial ban on Albrecht, the Nurembergers incorporated Erlangen into their own territory. Albrecht died in January 1557. His successor, George Frederick, requested that the imperial sequestration over the Principality of Kulmbach be reversed and was able to take back the government one month later. Under his rule, the town recovered from the war damage and remained unharmed until well into the Thirty Years' War.
Little is known about the place itself and about the people who lived here during this period.
From 1129, members of the noble family "von Erlangen" appear as witnesses in notarizations. They were probably ministers of the von Gründlach family. The family had numerous possessions in and around Erlangen as antecedents of the von Gründlach imperial fiefdom. Despite multiple mentions in documents, it is no longer possible to establish a line of ancestry. At the beginning of the 15th century the family died out.
In a foundation deed of 1328 a property is mentioned on which "heinrich the old sits". Twenty years later, in the Episcopal Urbar of 1348 (see above), seven landowners who were obliged to pay interest were named. For the first time, the entire city is recorded in the register of the Common Penny of 1497: 92 households with 212 adults (over 15 years). If one assumes 1.5 children under the age of 15 per household, the population is calculated to be around 350. This figure is unlikely to have changed much in the subsequent period. The Urbar of 1528 lists 83 taxable house owners and the Türkensteuerliste of 1567 97 heads of households, plus five children under guardianship. A complete list of all households, including tenants, arranged by street, was drawn up in 1616 by the Old Town priest Hans Heilig: At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the city counted 118 households with about 500 persons.
The old town of Erlangen has been completely destroyed several times, most recently in the great fire of 1706. Only parts of the city wall date back to the late Middle Ages. After the fire of 1706, the cityscape with its street layout had to be rigorously adapted to the regular street scheme of the newly built "Christian-Erlang", which had its own administration (judicial and chamber college) until the administrative reform of 1797. Only the streets Schulstraße, Lazarettstraße and Adlerstraße were spared. The low cellars, however, survived all destruction and fires mostly unscathed. Above them, the buildings were newly erected. For this reason, two Erlangen architects have been surveying the cellars of the old town on behalf of the Heimat- und Geschichtsverein since 1988. At the same time, the city archaeology of Erlangen has excavated in the courtyard of the Stadtmuseum. Both measures give an approximate picture of the late medieval or early modern location: Pfarrstraße ran further north, northern Hauptstraße somewhat further east than today. The western houses at Martin-Luther-Platz protruded to different extents into today's area; on its eastern side the buildings ran diagonally from today's Neue Straße to the city gate "Oberes Tor" (between Hauptstraße 90 and 91). The eastern city wall first led south from Lazarettstraße, then turned slightly southwest from Vierzigmannstraße and cut the base of today's Old Town Church at the northeast corner of the nave. Foundations of this wall, which run exactly in the described direction, were discovered during the excavations in the courtyard of the town museum. Outside the upper gate the upper suburb began to develop. In front of the city gate "Bayreuther Tor" was the lower suburb (Bayreuther Straße to Essenbacher Straße) with the mill at the Schwabach. The Veste was located in the west of the city.
Foundation of the new town
After the Thirty Years' War, the town was rebuilt relatively quickly. On 2 December 1655 the parish church was consecrated to the title of Holy Trinity. The situation changed in 1685 when French king Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted Calvinist subjects - called Huguenots by their opponents - religious freedom since 1598. The revocation triggered a wave of refugees of about 180,000 Huguenots who settled mainly in the Dutch Republic, the British Isles, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden and some German principalities. A small number of religious refugees later went to Russia and the Dutch and British colonies.
Margrave Christian Ernst also took advantage of this situation and offered the refugees the right to settle in his principality, which was still suffering from the consequences of the Thirty Years' War, in order to promote its economy in the sense of mercantilism through the settlement of modern trades. He was thus one of the first Lutheran princes in Germany to accept Calvinists into his country and even to guarantee them the freedom to practise their religion. The first six Huguenots reached Erlangen on 17 May 1686, about 1500 followed in several waves. In addition, several hundred Waldensians came, however, as they were unable to settle down they moved on in 1688. Even before it was foreseeable how many refugees could be expected, the margrave decided to found the new town of Erlangen as a legally independent settlement south of the small town called Altstadt Erlangen. The rational motive of promoting the economy of one's own country was associated with the hope of wealth as a city founder, which was typical of absolutism.
The new city was conveniently located on one of the most important trade and travel routes to and from Nuremberg. Water was to be drained from the nearby Regnitz for a canal necessary for certain trades, however this failed due to the sandy ground. The plan of the city, which at first sight appeared simple, but was in fact extremely differentiated and highly sophisticated, was designed by the margravial master builder Johann Moritz Richter using the "golden ratio" and ideal criteria. The rectangular layout is characterised by the main street, which is designed as an axis of symmetry and has two unequal squares, and the "Grande Rue", which surrounds the inner core and whose closed corners, designed as right angles, act like hinges, giving the entire layout strength and unity. As the plan made clear, it was not the design of the individual buildings that was important, but the overall uniformity of the entire city. Even today, the historical core is characterised by this uniform, relatively unadorned facades of the two-storey and three-storey houses in straight rows with the eaves side facing the street. The construction of the town began on 14 July 1686 with the laying of the foundation stone of the Huguenot Church. In the first year about 50 of the planned 200 houses were completed. The influx of the Huguenots did not meet expectations, because their refugee mentality did not change into an immigrant mentality until 1715. The change of mentality happened in this year, as the peace treaties after the War of the Spanish Succession ruled out their return to France, but also because the Margrave was engaged as commander in the War of the Palatinate Succession against France from 1688 to 1697. Therefore, further expansion stagnated. It was not until 1700 that he received new impetus from the construction of the margravial palace and the development of Erlangen into a royal seat and one of the six provincial capitals. After a major fire destroyed almost the entire old part of the town of Erlangen on 14 August 1706, it was rebuilt on the model of the new town with straightened street and square fronts and a two-storey, somewhat more individually designed house type. In Erlangen, this resulted in the special case of two neighbouring planned cities, which is probably unique in the history of European ideal cities. The old city of Erlangen, which was actually older and still managed independently until 1812, is younger in terms of architectural history than the new city of Erlangen.
The new town, named after its founder Christian-Erlang in 1701, became not only the destination of the Huguenots, but also of Lutherans and German Reformed, who had been granted the same privileges as the Huguenots. In 1698, approximately 1000 Huguenots and 317 Germans lived in Erlangen. Due to immigration, however, the Huguenots soon became a French-speaking minority in a German city. The French influence diminished further in the following years. In 1822, the last service in French was held in the Huguenot Church.
Erlangen in the Kingdom of Bavaria
In 1792 Erlangen and the Principality of Bayreuth became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. As Napoleon won the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the two principalities were brought under French rule as a province. In 1810 the principality of Bayreuth was sold to the allied kingdom of Bavaria for 15 million francs. In 1812 the old town and the new town - until then still called Christian-Erlang - were united to form one town, which received the name Erlangen. In the period that followed, the city and its infrastructure were rapidly expanded. Especially the opening of the Ludwig Canal and the railway connections as well as the garrison and the university gave important impulses for the urban development.
Already with the Bavarian community reform of 1818, the city received its own administration, which was later called "free of district". In 1862 the district office Erlangen was formed, from which the administrative district Erlangen emerged.
Weimar Republic
After their defeat in the First World War, the antidemocratic parties NSDAP, DNVP and KPD also gained strong popularity in Erlangen due to high inflation, reparations payments and the world economic crisis. A two-tier society was established, which was reinforced by industrial settlements. In the city council, state parliament and Reichstag elections, the SPD initially held a relatively stable majority of 40%. On the other hand, there were the parties of the centre and the right, whose supporters came from the middle class, the university and the civil service. The NSDAP was represented in the city council from 1924. Five years later, the Erlangen university became the first German university with its student representation controlled by the party, making it a centre of nationalist and anti-democratic sentiment. Many students and professors became intellectual pioneers of National Socialism. From 1930 onwards, the political situation escalated, fuelled by mass unemployment caused by the Great Depression. Both left and right unions organised marches and caused street fights. Despite the strong influx in popularity of the NSDAP, the SPD won 34% of the votes in the 1933 Reichstag election (average: 18.3%).
During Nazism
After the seizure of power by the NSDAP, boycotts of Jewish shops, the desecration and destruction of the monument dedicated to the Jewish professor and Erlangen honorary citizen Jakob Herz on Hugenottenplatz and the burning of books also took place in Erlangen. The NSDAP-controlled city council made Chancellor Hitler, President von Hindenburg and Gauleiter Streicher honorary citizens, the main street was renamed Adolf-Hitler-Straße ("Adolf-Hitler-Street"). During the Reichspogromnacht, the Jewish families from Erlangen (between 42 and 48 persons), Baiersdorf (three persons) and Forth (seven persons) were rounded up and humiliated in the courtyard of the former town hall (Palais Stutterheim), their flats and shops partly destroyed and plundered, then the women and children were taken to the Wöhrmühle (an island in the Regnitz river in Erlangen), the men to the district court prison and then to Nuremberg to prison. Those who could not leave Germany in the following wave of emigration were deported to concentration camps, where most were murdered. In 1944 the city was declared "free of Jews", although a "Half-Jew" stayed in town until the end of the war, protected by the police chief.
As the academic community supported NS politics to a large extent, there was no active resistance from the university. In the sanatorium and nursing home (today part of the Clinic am Europakanal), forced sterilisations and selections of patients for the National Socialist "euthanasia murders (Aktion T4)" took place.
From 1940, prisoners of war and forced labourers were deployed in the Erlangen armament factories. In 1944 they already accounted for 10% of the population of Erlangen. Their accommodation in barrack camps and treatment were inhuman.
In 1983, Erlangen was one of the first cities in Bavaria to begin to reappraise its National Socialist history in an exhibition at the city's museum. In the same year, Adolf Hitler and Julius Streicher were officially deprived of their honorary citizenship, which had automatically expired with their death, as a symbolic gesture of distance.
After the Second World War
During the Second World War, 4.8% of Erlangen was destroyed by bombings; 445 flats were completely destroyed. When the American troops moved in on 16 April 1945, the local commander of the German troops, Lieutenant Werner Lorleberg handed over the city without a fight, thus avoided a battle inside the city area that would have been pointless and costly. Lorleberg himself, who until the end was regarded as a supporter of the National Socialist regime, died at Thalermühle on the same day. Whether he was shot by German soldiers when he tried to persuade a scattered task force to give up, or whether he committed suicide there after the surrender message was delivered, is not conclusively clarified. Lorlebergplatz in Erlangen, named after him, reminds us of him. The note about Lorleberg, which is attached to the place, refers to his death, which had saved Erlangen from destruction.
After the handover of the city, American tanks severely damaged the last preserved city gate (the Nuremberg Gate built in 1717), which was blown up shortly afterwards. This probably also happened at the instigation of shopkeepers living in the main street who, like the passing American troops, found the baroque gate an obstacle to traffic because of its relatively narrow passage. The other city gates had already been demolished in the 19th century.
During the district and area reform in 1972, the district of Erlangen was united with the district of Höchstadt an der Aisch. Erlangen itself remained an independent town and became the seat of the new administrative district. Through the integration of surrounding communities, the city was considerably enlarged, so that in 1974 it exceeded the 100,000-inhabitant limit and thus became a major city of Germany. In 2002 Erlangen celebrated its thousandth anniversary.
On 25 May 2009, the city was awarded the title of Ort der Vielfalt (German for "Place of Diversity") by the Federal Government in the context of an initiative launched in 2007 by the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and the Federal Government Commissioner for Migration, Refugees and Integration to strengthen the commitment of municipalities to cultural diversity. Erlangen was awarded the title "Federal Capital for Nature and Environmental Protection" in 1990 and 1991 for its highly successful policy of creating a balance between economy and ecology. It was the first German prizewinner and the first regional authority to be included in the list of honour of the United Nations Environment Agency in 1990. Due to the above-average proportion of medical and medical-technical facilities and companies in relation to the number of inhabitants, Lord Mayor Siegfried Balleis developed the vision of developing Erlangen into the "Federal Capital of Medical Research, Production and Services" by 2010 when he took office in 1996.
History of the Erlangen Garrison
Until the 18th century, the margrave's soldiers were quartered with private individuals during missions in the Erlangen area. After the city was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810, it made several attempts to set up a garrison, mainly for economic reasons, but without success at first. When in 1868 the general compulsory military service was introduced with the option to do military service and study at the same time, the garrison became a vital location factor for the city and especially for the university. A renewed application was successful, so that on 12 March 1868 the 6th Hunter Battalion moved into Erlangen. The Bavarian Army was housed in various municipal buildings and used, among other things, today's Theaterplatz square for its exercises. In addition, a shooting range was set up in the Meilwald forest.
In 1877 the first hunting barracks were completed in the Bismarckstraße (name of street in Erlangen). One year later the hunter battalion was replaced by the III Battalion of the Royal Bavarian 5th Infantry Regiment Grand Duke of Hesse. In 1890 the entire 19th Infantry Regiment was stationed, which resulted in the construction of the Infantry Barracks and the drill ground. In 1893 a "Barrack Casernement" was established in the north-west corner of the drill ground and used as a garrison hospital from 1897. On 1 October 1901, the 10th Field Artillery Regiment moved into the town, for which the artillery barracks were erected. At that time the city had about 24,600 inhabitants, 1160 students and now a total of 2200 soldiers, whom the population held in high esteem, especially after the military successes against France in 1870/71.
In World War I, both Erlangen regiments, which were subordinated to the 5th Royal Bavarian Division, fought exclusively on the Western Front. Over 3,000 soldiers lost their lives. After the war Erlangen retained its status as a garrison town. Since the Treaty of Versailles stipulated a reduction of the army to 100,000 soldiers, only the training battalion of the 21st (Bavarian) Infantry Regiment of the newly founded Reichswehr remained in the city.
During the time of National Socialism, the reintroduction of compulsory military service in 1935 and the German re-armament also led to a massive expansion of the military installations in Erlangen. The Rhineland barracks, in which various infantry units were stationed one after the other, the tank barracks, in which the Panzer Regiment 25 was stationed from October 1937, a catering office, an ammunition and equipment depot and a training area were built in the Reichswald forest near Tennenlohe.
The invasion of troops by the 7th US Army on 16 April 1945 meant not only the end of World War II for Erlangen, but also the end as a location for German troops. Instead, US American units moved into the military facilities, which had remained undestroyed, and have even been considerably expanded since the reactivation of the 7th US Army in 1950/51: The area of the now Ferris Barracks (named after Lt. Geoffrey Ferris, who died in Tunisia in 1943) was extended to 128 hectares, the living area for the soldiers and their relatives to 8.5 hectares and the training area in Tennenlohe to 3240 hectares. On average, 2500 soldiers and 1500 relatives were stationed in Erlangen in the 1980s.
The population of Erlangen met the presence of the Americans with mixed feelings. Although their protective function during the Cold War and the jobs associated with stationing were welcomed, the frequent conflicts between the soldiers and the civilian population and numerous manoeuvres were a constant source of offence. The first open protests took place during the Vietnam War. These were directed against the training area and the shooting range in Tennenlohe, where even nuclear weapons were suspected, as well as against the ammunition bunkers in the Reichswald. Helmut Horneber, who had been responsible for the American training area for many years as forest director, pointed out in 1993 how exemplarily the American troops had protected the forest areas.
Due to the numerous problems, there were already considerations in the mid-1980s to relocate the garrison from the urban area. After the opening of the Inner German border in 1989, there were growing signs of an imminent withdrawal. In 1990/91 the troops stationed in Erlangen (as part of the VII US Corps) were detached for deployment in the Gulf War. After the end of the Gulf War, the dissolution of the site began and was completed in July 1993. On 28 June 1994, the properties were officially handed over to the German federal government. This marked the end of Erlangen's 126-year history as a garrison town.
History of the Erlangen University
The second decisive event for the development of Erlangen was the foundation of the university, in addition to the foundation of the Neustadt. Plans already existed during the Reformation, but it was not until 1742 that Margrave Frederick of Brandenburg-Bayreuth donated a university for the residence city of Bayreuth, which was moved to Erlangen in 1743. The institution, which was equipped with modest means, wasn't met with much approval at first. Only when Margrave Charles Alexander of Brandenburg-Ansbach put it on a broader economic footing did the number of students slowly increase. Nevertheless, it remained below 200 and dropped to about 80 when the margraviate was incorporated into the kingdom of Bavaria. The threatened closure was only averted because Erlangen had the only Lutheran theological faculty in the kingdom.
Like the other German universities, the boom came at the beginning of the 1880s. The number of students rose from 374 at the end of the winter semester 1869/70 to 1000 in 1890. While in the early years law students were at the forefront, at the beginning of the Bavarian period the Faculty of Theology was the most popular. It was not until 1890 that the Faculty of Medicine overtook it. The number of full professors rose from 20 in 1796 to 42 in 1900, almost half of whom were employed by the Faculty of Philosophy, which also included the natural sciences. These did not form their own faculty until 1928. Today there are almost 39,000 students, 312 chairs and 293 professorships in five faculties (as of winter semester 2018/19). At the beginning of the 2011/12 winter semester, Erlangen University was one of the twelve largest universities in Germany for the first time.
In 1897 the first women were allowed to study, the first doctorate was awarded to a woman in 1904. After its founder, Margrave Friedrich, and its patron, Margrave Alexander, the university was named Friedrich-Alexander University.
Incorporations into the municipal area
Formerly independent communities and districts that were incorporated into the city of Erlangen:
1 May 1919: Sieglitzhof (municipality of Spardorf)
1 April 1920: Alterlangen (community of Kosbach)
1 August 1923: Büchenbach and hamlet of Neumühle
15 September 1924: Bruck
1960: Parts of Eltersdorf
1 January 1967: Kosbach, Häusling and Steudach
1 July 1972: Eltersdorf, Frauenaurach, Großdechsendorf, Hüttendorf, Kriegenbrunn, Tennenlohe
1 July 1977: Königsmühle (City of Fürth)
Above all, the incorporation during the municipal reform in 1972 contributed significantly to the fact that Erlangen exceeded the 100,000-inhabitant limit in 1974 and thus officially became a city.
Historical population
In the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, only a few hundred people lived in Erlangen. Due to numerous wars, epidemics and famines, the increase in population was very slow. In 1634, as a result of the destruction in the Thirty Years' War, the town was completely deserted. In 1655, the population reached 500 again, therefore reaching pre war levels. On 8 March 1708 Erlangen was declared the sixth state capital. By 1760, the population had risen to over 8000. Due to the famines 1770–1772, the population declined to 7224 in 1774. After an increase to approximately 10,000 people in 1800, the population of Erlangen fell once again as a result of the Napoleonic wars and reached 8592 in 1812.
During the 19th century, this number doubled to 17,559 in 1890. Due to numerous incorporations, the population of the city rose to 30,000 by 1925 and again in the following decades, reaching 60,000 in 1956. Because of district and areal reforms in 1972, the population of the city exceeded the limit of 100,000 in 1974, making Erlangen a major city.
Increased demand for urban homes has led the population to grow further in the 2000s, with predictions claiming the city would reach over 115,000 residents in the 2030s within the current urban area.
Religion
Denomination statistics
In 2016, 28.6% of the inhabitants were Protestants and 28.1% Roman Catholics. 43.3% belonged to other denominations or religious communities or were nondenominational.
Protestant Churches
The population of Erlangen initially belonged to the Diocese of Würzburg, from 1017 to the Archdiocese of Bamberg. In 1528, the first Lutheran priest was appointed by the mayor and the council and the Reformation was introduced, so that Erlangen remained a Protestant town for many years. In the new town founded in 1686 by Margrave Christian Ernst for the French religious refugees, there were only Protestant congregations. The French Reformed community existed from 1686 and after the settlement of Protestant refugees from German-speaking Switzerland and the Palatinate, a German Protestant community was founded in 1693.
In 1802 the Protestant communities of Erlangen were placed under the control of the Royal Prussian Consistory in Ansbach and after the transfer of the city to Bavaria they became part of the Protestant Church of the Kingdom of Bavaria, which initially comprised Lutheran and Reformed communities. At the same time Erlangen became the seat of a deanery which united all congregations.
In 1853 the Reformed congregations of Bavaria received their own synod and in 1919 they formally separated from the Evangelical Church of Bavaria. Since then there have been two Protestant regional churches in Bavaria, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria and the "Reformed Synod in Bavaria right of the Rhine", which since 1949 had called itself "Evangelical Reformed Church in Bavaria". The latter had for many years the seat of its Moderamen in Erlangen. Through the unification of the German Reformed and the former French Reformed congregations, there was only one Reformed congregation in Erlangen since 1920, but several Lutheran congregations. The Lutheran congregations still belong today to the deanery of Erlangen, which had been founded as deanery for both confessions and since 1919 only serves the Lutheran congregations. It is part of the Nuremberg church district.
The Reformed congregation Erlangen is meanwhile part of the Evangelical Reformed Church. Here it belongs to the Synodal Association XI.
In the Lutheran Church, the regional church communities with their own worship services and offers exist as special forms of congregation. The ELIA congregation has existed since 1993. This arose from a conflict in the church in Bruck over the Charismatic Movement. At first the abbreviation ELIA stood for "Erlanger Laien im Aufbruch" (Erlanger laymen on the move), today the congregation interprets ELIA as "Engagiert, Lebensnah, Innovativ, Ansteckend" (committed, close to life, innovative, contagious). The congregation is bound to the national church by an agreement, but finances and organizes itself like the communities themselves. In 2002 ELIA was awarded the "Fantasie des Glaubens" (Fantasy of Faith) prize by the EKD for the LebensArt church service project.
Catholic Churches
Before the Reformation
For a long time, local researchers believed that the oldest church in Erlangen had been built on the Martinsbühl, centuries before the town was first mentioned in a document in 1002. This assumption cannot be proven by any sources. In contrast, the first documented church in today's urban area is the church of the royal court of Büchenbach, which was built as early as 996.
In Erlangen itself, a property deal from the year 1288 gives the first indication of church life, because it was recorded "in cimiterio", i.e. on a cemetery. At that time cemeteries were always built around churches, and, as can be concluded from later sources, this church stood where today the Altstädter Kirche stands at Martin-Luther-Platz. Bone finds during civil engineering work - most recently in 2003 during the redesign of Martin Luther Square - confirm this layout of the medieval churchyard. In the period that followed, numerous foundations for this church were testified to the "salvation and nucz" of souls. Her patrocinium, "frawenkirchen" (Church of Our Lady, thus consecrated to St. Mary), can be concluded from a donation of 1424.
In 1435 the church, which had been the daughter church of St. Martin in Forchheim up until this point, was elevated to its own parish. The main task of the Erlangen priest was the pastoral care in the city of Erlangen and the St. Martin's Chapel on the Martinsbühl, which was now named for the first time. Furthermore, the document of elevation determines the pastoral care of the surrounding villages of Bubenreuth, Bräuningshof, Marloffstein, Spardorf and Sieglitzhof, whose inhabitants visited the chapel of the Virgin Mary, were pastorally cared for from this chapel and were provided with the sacraments. This addition confirms that there was at least one vicar at the Frauenkirche (Church of Our Lady) before it was elevated to a parish church. The ecclesiastical life was accordingly pronounced and varied at the time. In addition to the parish priest, there were two vicars for the early and middle mass. Whether the financially very badly equipped Mass Beneficiaries were always occupied is not known. With the introduction of the Reformation by Margrave George the Pious in 1528 in Erlangen, the Catholic life of the church was extinguished completely for many years. Only few things from this time remain today: five figures of saints from the former Marienkirche, which today are placed on the northern altar wall in the Altstädter Trinity Church, a measuring cup and the equestrian statue of Saint Martin, which is exhibited annually on St. Martin's Day in the Martinsbühler church.
From the Thirty Years' War to the first mass celebration
According to the agreements of the Peace of Westphalia, Erlangen remained Protestant territory after the end of the Thirty Years' War. Only with the foundation of "Christian Erlang", i.e. the Neustadt, were Catholics allowed to move in, provided they contributed to the construction of the new town. In 1711, the Margrave only granted them the minimum confessional rights guaranteed by the Peace of Westphalia: the Freedom of thought. Baptisms, marriages and funerals were to be carried out according to Protestant rites, and children were to be educated in the Protestant religion. As the number increased, Catholics pushed for more religious rights from about 1730 onwards. The construction of a prayer house, which Margrave Friedrich had promised several times, always failed due to the fierce resistance of the magistrate and the Protestant or French Reformed clergy.
The accession of Frederick the Great to the throne marked the beginning of the age of enlightened absolutism. Under the influence of Frederick's tolerance policy, the position of margravial rule gradually changed. When in 1781 the administration of the Franconian Knights' Circle was transferred to Erlangen, Margrave Alexander granted the Catholic nobles permission for private services. This right was also claimed by their servants. On 16 January 1783 Alexander decided to establish a Catholic private service in Erlangen. In the large hall of the Old Town Hall a mass was celebrated again on 11 April 1784, the first after more than 250 years. In the same year, permission was granted to build a prayer house.
From the prayer house to the parish Herz Jesus
The permission to build a church was subject to heavy conditions: Only a simple prayer house without a tower, bells and organ was permitted. The church services were only allowed to be held with the doors closed, baptisms, weddings and funerals were still reserved for the Protestant clergy. The prayer house was erected far outside the city - at today's Katholischer Kirchplatz (Catholic Church Square) - and ceremoniously opened on St. Peter and Paul's Day in 1790.
The Catholic community, which soon grew with the arrival of French emigrants who had fled from the turmoil of the revolution, found itself in an economic emergency due to constantly changing political conditions. The archdiocese of Bamberg belonged to the electorate of Bavaria since 1803. Erlangen was Prussian until 1806, then French for four years. As subjects employed abroad, the Erlangen clergymen of Bamberg received no salary. This problem was not solved until Erlangen was integrated into Bavaria.
The previous Erlangen Curate was elevated to parish status in 1813, during which time the relationship between the confessions had relaxed completely. When the Catholic priest Rebhahn was buried in 1843, the entire Protestant and Reformed clergy followed the procession. Under his successor, Pankratius von Dinkel, the later bishop of Augsburg, the nave (now the transept) was given its present form in 1850, and a tower was erected in front of the west façade. In the second half of the 19th century - also due to the new garrison - the number of Catholics soon grew to 6,000. A further new building was therefore necessary, which was erected perpendicular to the old base of the building. This gave the church its present appearance in 1895. With the reconstruction, the patronage changed from Schmerzensreiche Mutter (Our Lady of Sorrows) to Herz Jesus (Sacred Heart). Since then, the interior of the Herz Jesu Church has been drastically altered several times, most recently in 2008. Only the baptismal font and a wooden statue of the Good Shepherd remind us of the former prayer house.
Developments in the 20th century
With the reconstruction of 1895 the extension possibilities of the old prayer house were exhausted. The number of Catholics in Erlangen grew through immigration and incorporation, especially after the Second World War, so that today there is only a slight predominance in favour of Protestants. Beginning in 1928, the number of parishes in Erlangen rose from one to twelve within 70 years.
The following parishes were newly founded:
1928 St. Bonifaz in the former southeast of the city area
1967 Heilig Kreuz in Bruck
1968 St. Sebald in the Sebaldussiedlung and parts of the Röthelheimpark
1970 St. Heinrich in Alterlangen
1973 St. Theresia in Sieglitzhof
1979 Heilige Familie in Tennenlohe
1998 Zu den heiligen Aposteln in Büchenbach
The following parishes were incorporated into the city area:
1923 St. Xystus, Büchenbach (with branch community Albertus Magnus in Frauenaurach)
1924 St. Peter und Paul, Bruck
1972 St. Kunigund, Eltersdorf
1972 Unsere Liebe Frau, Dechsendorf
Since 1937 Erlangen has been the seat of a dean's office, which was reorganized in the course of the state territorial reform on 1 November 1974. In addition to the Erlangen parishes, it also includes neighbouring congregations from the districts of Erlangen-Höchstadt and Forchheim.
Judaism
In 1432 Jews were first mentioned in a document in Erlangen, as was a rabbi in 1478. On 26 March 1515, the Margrave's Diet decided to expel the Jews. This probably also ended the existence of the Erlangen Jewish community. In 1711 Margrave Christian Ernst assured the Huguenot inhabitants of the Neustadt that they would not be allowed to settle or trade in the city. Jewish life was therefore restricted to Erlangen's neighbouring communities of Bruck, Baiersdorf and Büchenbach.
Since 1431 Jews lived in Bruck, in 1604 a "Judenhaus" (Jews' house) is mentioned, which probably served as a synagogue for the still small Jewish community of six families (1619). However, after their number quickly grew to 37 families (1763), a new synagogue was built in 1707. In 1811 the community had 184 members (approx. 15% of the population at that time), in 1859 it had 108.
In Baiersdorf, a Jewish community was first mentioned in a document from 1473, but the beginning of its existence is suspected to be earlier, especially because the oldest gravestones on the Jewish cemetery date back to the early 14th century. This cemetery had a wide catchment area as far as Forchheim and Fürth. Already in 1530 a synagogue existed, although after the expulsion of the Jews from the margraviate in 1515 only one Jewish family lived in Baiersdorf. After its destruction in the Thirty Years' War, the synagogue was rebuilt in 1651. The community had grown from nine families in 1619 to 83 families in 1771. As the second largest Jewish community in the Markgraftum Brandenburg-Bayreuth, it was also the seat of the state rabbinate. In 1827 the Jewish community reached its largest number of members with 440 members (30% of the population).
In Büchenbach the Bamberg cathedral provost allowed Jews to settle in 1681. A Jewish community was formed, which had 74 members in 1811 and built a synagogue in 1813. In 1833 103 Jews lived in the village.
In 1861 the Bavarian parliament introduced general freedom of movement for Jews in Bavaria. This made it possible for Jews to settle in Erlangen. Many Jewish families from the surrounding communities moved to Erlangen because of better prospects, at the same time the communities in Bruck, Baiersdorf and Büchenbach shrank, with Büchenbach's community being dissolved as early as 1874. In 1867, the new Erlangen congregation already had 67 members, who became an independent religious congregation on 15 March 1873. The community in Bruck was merged into it. In 1891 the community inaugurated its own cemetery. On the other hand, the Rabbinate of Baiersdorf was dissolved in 1894, and after 1900 no Jews lived in Bruck. The Erlangen community, on the other hand, included prominent personalities such as the physician and honorary citizen Jakob Herz and the mathematician Emmy Noether. A monument to the former was erected on 5 May 1875 and destroyed on 15 September 1933. Since 1983, a stele has commemorated this process with an inscription: Wir denken an Jakob Herz, dem Bürger dieser Stadt ein Denkmal setzten und zerstörten. (We think of Jakob Herz, the citizen of this town, for who the citizens of this town erected a monument and destroyed it.)
During the National Socialist era, the number of Erlangen Jews initially fell from 120 to 44 by 1938. During the Kristallnacht, the Erlangen prayer hall was destroyed and the synagogue in Baiersdorf demolished. On 20 October 1943, the last Jewish inhabitant of Erlangen was deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp. 77 members of the Jewish community of Erlangen died there.
Of the original Jewish inhabitants, Rosa Loewi and her daughter Marga returned to Erlangen on 16 August 1945, before both emigrated to the United States one year later. In 1980, Lotte Ansbacher (died 19 December 2010) was the last survivor of the Holocaust in Erlangen to return permanently to her hometown, presumably to take up the legacy of her aunt Helene Aufseeser. A special feature of Erlangen was the position created in 1980 of an honorary "representative for former Jewish fellow citizens". In this function, Ilse Sponsel (1924–2010) worked tirelessly to establish and maintain contacts with the surviving Erlangen Jews and their families and to investigate the history and fate of the Jews who perished in the Holocaust in Erlangen, Baiersdorf and the surrounding area. Until the 1970s, the number of Jews grew to such an extent that the publisher Shlomo Lewin planned to establish a new community. On 19 December 1980 he was murdered with his domestic partner Frida Poeschke, presumably by a member of the far-right terrorist group Wehrsportgruppe Hoffmann. However, there was no conviction, as the alleged perpetrator Uwe Behrendt later committed suicide. After this crime, the community was not founded. This idea only gained new momentum with the influx of Jewish emigrants from the former Soviet Union. On 1 December 1997, an Israelite religious community was founded in Erlangen with 300 members in 2000. On 2 April 2000, the congregation inaugurated a new prayer room in Hauptstraße. After a synagogue inaugurated on 9 March 2008 had to be abandoned due to problems with the landlord of the house, a building could be rented in Rathsberger Str. 8b and the new synagogue opened here on 13 June 2010.
Islam
The Türkisch-Islamischer Kulturverein Erlangen (DITIB, Turkish-Islamic Cultural Association Erlangen) has existed in Erlangen since 1981. Since then, other associations such as the Islamische Studentenverein Erlangen (Islamic Student Association Erlangen) in 1984 and the Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft (Islamic Religious Community) in 1995 have also emerged. Since December 1999, these three have together formed the Islamische Religionsgemeinschaft Erlangen e. V. (Islamic Religious Community Erlangen), which takes care of Islamic religious education at state schools. The subject "Islamic religious instruction in German language" was introduced for the first time in Bavaria at the Erlangen Pestalozzi primary school in 2001 at a state school. Proper "Islamic instruction" as a subject of instruction was introduced for the first time in all of Germany at the primary school Brucker Lache.
In addition to the three associations mentioned above, the Turkish Association for Social Services has also existed since 1993.
Seventh-day Adventist Church
The Seventh-day Adventists have been represented in Erlangen since at least 1903. In 1995 they moved into the new community centre in Bruck. In 2003, another congregation (ERlebt) was founded, which gathered in Hindenburgstraße; the latter also inaugurated a new congregation hall in Bruck in October 2007. There is good cooperation between the two communities. The Adventists take an active part in the events in Erlangen. Their social commitment can be seen among other things in the scout work ("Erlanger Markgrafen") or in public blood donation campaigns, which are carried out in the community rooms. Both communities carry out the annual campaign "Kinder helfen Kindern" (Children help children), in which Christmas packages are sent to children in need throughout Eastern Europe. The association "Christen für Kultur e. V." (Christians for culture e. V.) was founded in 1999 by Adventists from Erlangen.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses registered their first meeting in Erlangen on 22 March 1923, but the police did not approve it. After the ban in April 1933 there was increased repression, which led to the murder of member Gustav Heyer in the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre on 20 January 1942. The Gustav-Heyer-Straße in Bruck has been a reminder of this since 2000. 1948 saw the reorganization of the community, which split into two subcommunities in 1975. In 1980 the Jehovah's Witnesses built their own assembly room ("Kingdom Hall") in Bruck.
Politics
Since at least the 14th century there has been a city council in Erlangen's old town. The city was headed by two mayors who changed every four weeks. From 1715 there were even four mayors.
The Neustadt, however, was initially administered by the Reformed presbytery. In 1697 there were four mayors who held office for one year each, three of them French and one German. From 1701 there were four mayors and eight councillors who served for two years. Then the administration was reorganized several times.
After the unification of the old town and the new town in 1812, the Bavarian municipal edict was introduced. From 1818, the town was led by a first mayor, who was usually awarded the title of Oberbürgermeister from 1918. Since 1952, the First Mayor has always held the title of Lord Mayor in accordance with the Bavarian municipal regulations.
From 1818 there was also a city magistrate with ten, from 1900 twelve magistrate councillors and as a second chamber the municipal representatives with 30, from 1900 36 members. After the Second World War there was only one city council. In 1978, Wolfgang Lederer from the Grüne Liste was the first Green politician to move into a Bavarian city council.
In the districts of Eltersdorf, Frauenaurach, Großdechsendorf, Hüttendorf, Kosbach (with Steudach and Häusling), Kriegenbrunn and Tennenlohe, which were incorporated into Erlangen in 1967 and 1972 respectively, a local advisory board was set up. The number of members of the local advisory board depends on the number of inhabitants of the respective areas and varies between five and seven. The local advisory councils are appointed by the political parties according to the last local election result and elect a chairman from among their members. The local advisory councils are consulted on important matters concerning their districts.
There is also a youth parliament in Erlangen which is elected every two years by the 12- to 18-year-olds. Seniors are represented by a seniors' advisory board (the first in Bavaria), people with a migration background by the foreigners' and integration advisory board. In addition, there are a number of other advisory councils that advise the city council on specific topics.
In addition to the political parties and municipal committees, various organisations in Erlangen are active in local politics. These include initiatives that are founded on the basis of specific topics (see in particular referendums) and then dissolve again. The "Altstadtforum" is a non-party alliance of 19 organisations (including all parties represented in the city council, citizens' initiatives and associations). It advocates an attractive, liveable and sustainable old town in Erlangen.
Bundestag
Erlangen has a constituency in the Bundestag, currently represented by Stefan Müller from the CSU.
Mayors of Erlangen
The Oberbürgermeister (Lord Mayor) of the City of Erlangen is elected directly. Florian Janik has been in office since 2014. The city council elects at least one second mayor as deputy mayor and can also elect a third mayor. Currently these are Susanne Lender-Cassens (Green List) and Elisabeth Preuß (FDP).
First mayors or lord mayors since 1818 were:
City council
The city council consists of the mayor and 50 other members. It was last elected in 2014. As the strongest faction, the CSU has 17 seats, the SPD has 15 (and additionally the Lord Mayor), the joint election proposal of Alliance 90/The Greens and Grüner Liste has 8, the FDP has 4, the Erlanger Linke, the ÖDP and the Free Voters each have 2 seats. CSU, SPD, GL and FDP each form a parliamentary group, FW and dp a committee community.
The majority in the city council forms a so-called "traffic light coalition" consisting of SPD, Green/Green List and FDP, which has 28 votes including the mayor.
Referenda
The population in Erlangen is comparatively politically active and makes particular use of the opportunity for direct democracy, as shown by the high number of referendums in recent years, which have all achieved the necessary turnout to be legally binding:
1998: Sale of Erlanger Stadtwerke (result: against sale)
1998: Through road Röthelheimpark (result: for road)
2000: Underground car park Theaterplatz (Result: against underground car park)
2004: Erlangen Arcaden (construction of a shopping centre) (result: for Arcaden)
2005: Privatisation Erlanger Bäder (result: against privatisation)
2005: Relocation of taxi stand in old town (result: for relocation)
2005: Erlangen Arcaden (citizens' petition and council petition, result: pro council petition)
2011: Industrial estate G6 Tennenlohe (council petition, result: against industrial estate)
2016: Stadt-Umland-Bahn (StUB) (citizens' petition, result: against withdrawal from the StUB project)
2017: Landesgartenschau 2024, result: rejected; demolition ERBA, result: accepted
2018: Continuation of preliminary investigation of West III residential area (result: rejected)
National, state and regional elections
Together with the district of Erlangen-Höchstadt, Erlangen forms the constituency of Erlangen for national elections. The current directly elected member of parliament is Stefan Müller (CSU). Martina Stamm-Fibich (SPD) is also a member of the German Bundestag. Both delegates do not live in the Erlangen city area.
For the Landtagswahlen (state elections), the constituency of Erlangen-Stadt comprises the city of Erlangen as well as Möhrendorf and Heroldsberg from the district of Erlangen-Höchstadt. Directly elected representative is Joachim Herrmann (CSU). In addition, Christian Zwanziger (Greens), who was elected via the Middle Franconian district list, is also represented in the state parliament.
The electoral district for the Bezirkstag of Middle Franconia is identical to the Landtag's electoral district. The directly elected representative was Max Hubmann (CSU) until his death in 2018. In addition, Gisela Niclas (SPD) from the city of Erlangen is a member of the district council, she was elected via the list of her party. Susanne Lender-Cassens (Greens), who was also elected in 2013, resigned after she was elected second mayor.
Coat of arms
Blazon: "Divided and split at the top; in the front in silver a red eagle turned to the left, golden crowned and guarded, red tongued with golden clover stems and a breastplate quartered by silver and black; in the back in silver a golden crowned and reinforced, red tongued black eagle with a golden neck crown, clover sticks and the golden capital letters E and S on its chest; below in blue over a silver crenellated wall a double-tailed golden crowned, red tongued lion."
This is the small town coat of arms. If the three parts of the coat of arms are shown on separate plates, above which the customs bracken head with black and silver helmet covers can be seen, then it is the large city coat of arms.
Coat of arms explanatory note: The lion in the lower part of the coat of arms stands for the old town of Erlangen. This is the Luxembourg-Bohemian lion, which has been documented in the city seals since 1389. In the upper half are the Brandenburg and Prussian eagle, which symbolise the new town of Erlangen. They adorned the Neustadt coat of arms since 1707. The letters E and S stand for Elisabeth Sophie, the wife of Margrave Christian Ernst.
The city flag is white-red.
Signet
Since 1977, the city of Erlangen has been using a signet with the lettering Stadt Erlangen, created in 1976 by the Munich designer Walter Tafelmaier, who graphically implemented the motto "Erlangen - open by tradition", as a distinctive mark alongside the city coat of arms. On a square ground plan, 24 individual squares are arranged in five vertical and horizontal rows in such a way that a free space is left out in the middle of the right-hand side. The city signet symbolises the ground plan of the baroque planned city, the missing square stands for the openness of the city. According to the city encyclopaedia, the signet and motto recall "the repeated admission of refugees and immigrants from within Germany and abroad and their great importance for the development of the community".
In 2007, following the suggestion of the Lord Mayor, there were considerations to reinstate the coat of arms for representational purposes. However, according to online surveys, this was rejected by the majority of citizens and was subsequently not pursued further.
International relations
Erlangen is the base of the Deutsch-Französisches Institut.
Twin towns – sister cities
Erlangen is twinned with:
Beşiktaş, Turkey (2003)
Bolzano, Italy (2018)
Eskilstuna, Sweden (1961)
Jena, Germany (1987)
Rennes, France (1964)
Riverside, United States (2013)
San Carlos, Nicaragua (1989)
Stoke-on-Trent, England, United Kingdom (1989)
Umhausen, Austria (2006)
Vladimir, Russia (1983)
Further partnerships
Erlangen also cooperates with:
Most, Czech Republic (1949)
Shenzhen, China (1997)
Cumiana, Italy (2001)
Economy
In 2016, Erlangen, within the city limits, achieved a gross domestic product (GDP) of €10.003 billion and thus occupied 36th place in the ranking of German cities according to economic performance. The GDP per capita in the same year was 91,531 € (Bavaria: 44,215 €/ Germany 38,180 €) and was the fourth highest of all independent cities in Germany. In 2016 there were about 113,200 persons employed in the city. The unemployment rate was 3.4% in December 2018 and thus above the Bavarian average of 2.7%.
The economy in Erlangen is essentially shaped by the activities of Siemens AG and its affiliated companies, as well as by the Friedrich-Alexander-University. As a business location, the city is one of the most attractive in Germany. In an analysis of the competitiveness of all 402 German independent cities and districts conducted by the Swiss company Prognos in 2016, the city ranked 6th (2013: 3rd). The city achieved far above-average values, particularly in terms of growth.
The economy before the foundation of the Huguenot city in 1686
Until the foundation of the Neustadt in 1686 by Margrave Christian Ernst, the economy of Erlangen consisted almost exclusively of agriculture. The floodplains of the rivers Regnitz and Schwabach offered good locations for fields and meadows, which were irrigated by water wheels. The rivers themselves offered opportunities for fishing. The forest east of the Regnitz, including the quarries located there, formed an essential basis of life for the early citizens of Erlangen for centuries. The castle hill favoured the cultivation of fruit and wine due to its climate. Beekeeping was also practised around the town.
In addition to agriculture, there was a small-scale industry producing for local needs. Thus in 1619 a barber, a cooper, a glazier, a locksmith, a blacksmith, a carpenter, a wainwright, a bricklayer, two butchers, two millers, two shoemakers, three carpenters, five bakers, five tailors, five stonemasons, eight clothiers and several innkeepers and brewmasters offered their services in Erlangen.
The recurrent warlike events proved to be devastating for the economic development. As Erlangen was completely destroyed in the Thirty Years' War, the population was wiped out or expelled.
The development of commerce 1686 to 1812
After the disastrous consequences of the Thirty Years' War, Margrave Christian Ernst endeavoured to revive the economy, which had been completely devastated. He therefore had wealthy or economically efficient Huguenots recruited (who were not accepted in Neustadt an der Aisch) and settled them in the newly founded Huguenot city (Neustadt) in 1686. This active economic policy initially helped to establish the stocking makers' trade, a technically advanced branch of industry that was virtually unknown in Germany. In addition, hat manufacture, glove production and white tanning developed into important branches of industry.
Initially almost exclusively in French hands, these trades became increasingly German due to German immigration. Thus in 1775, of the total of 277 master stocking makers, only 19 were still of French origin. Only the glove-making and white tannery remained French monopolies until 1811. With the German immigration, other branches of trade came to Erlangen, such as calico printing, which also gained supra-regional importance and was one of the largest businesses in Erlangen at the end of the 18th century.
Due to the export-oriented economy of the Huguenot town, Erlangen was considered a "factory town", a type that was also represented in Franconia by Fürth and Schwabach.
Industrialization 1812–1945
The reorganization of Central Europe after the Napoleonic wars and the subsequent protectionist tariff policy led to the loss of traditional sales markets and thus to the decline of Erlangen's industries. By 1887, stocking manufacture had practically ceased. The calico factories and hat factories also disappeared. Only tanners and glove makers were able to survive into the 20th century.
In the middle of the 19th century, the Erlangen economy slowly consolidated at a low level. In addition to agriculture, the remaining commercial enterprises and local crafts, industry increasingly appeared as the fourth branch of the economy. Beer was the main product. The cellars in the Burgberg were excellently suited for maturing and storing the beers, resulting in a high-quality product that was in demand worldwide. At the end of 1860 Erlangen exported three times as much beer as Munich. The invention of the cooling machine at the beginning of the 1880s brought the high production levels to an abrupt end. Today there are only two breweries left in Erlangen.
In addition to the production of beer, the manufacture of combs became very important. With the help of the first steam engine of Erlangen the entrepreneur Johann Georg Bücking produced about 1.2 million combs in 1845. Thus the family business dominated the entire German, European and North American market. Another internationally active entrepreneur was Emil Kränzlein with his brush factory in the Östliche Stadtmauerstraße (Eastern Town Wall Streat), which employed more than 400 people before the First World War and sold its products worldwide.
The foundation of the cotton mill Baumwollspinnerei AG in 1880 opened a new branch of industry in Erlangen. Through several mergers, the Baumwollindustrie Erlangen-Bamberg (ERBA) was created in 1927, employing over 5000 people before the Second World War.
Another business that was essential for the future economic development of Erlangen was the workshop of the university mechanic Erwin Moritz Reiniger, in which he manufactured optical and precision mechanical devices from 1876. In 1886, this became the Reiniger, Gebbert & Schall company, which was already cooperating successfully with the medical faculty of the university. After the development of the X-ray machine in 1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen in Würzburg, Reiniger immediately contacted the company and agreed to manufacture X-ray equipment in his Erlangen factory. In 1925 Siemens & Halske AG acquired the company and incorporated its own department for medical technology. Before the Second World War, more than 2000 employees were already working at the Erlangen location of Siemens-Reiniger-Werke, whose central administration had already been relocated from Berlin to Erlangen in 1943. From 1947 onwards, the city was also the headquarters of the company from which today's Siemens Healthineers Sector of Siemens AG emerged.
From 1908, the pencil sharpener industry, which at times served 80% of the world market, also achieved global importance.
In 1919 the entrepreneur Paul Gossen founded the Paul Gossen Co. K.-G., a factory of electrical measuring instruments in Baiersdorf, which moved its headquarters to Erlangen in the following year. The company mainly manufactured measuring instruments such as the world's first photoelectric exposure meter OMBRUX from 1933 onwards. The company building on Nägelsbachstraße, which still exists today, was erected between 1939 and 1943. In 1963 the company became part of Siemens AG. Today the Gossen company no longer exists.
Economic development caused by Siemens after 1945
The end of the Second World War had far-reaching consequences for the Erlangen economy: The two Berlin-based Siemens companies Siemens & Halske (S&H) and Siemens-Schuckert Werke (SSW) had already taken measures for a new beginning before the foreseeable collapse. Special teams (so-called group management) were to prepare the move to Munich (S&H) and Hof (SSW). Due to the proximity to the Soviet zone, however, the Hof group around Günther Scharowsky soon looked for a new location, which was found after several soundings in undamaged Erlangen. The fact that there was already a Siemens site in Erlangen in the form of Siemens-Reiniger-Werke played a major role in this search.
It was started on 25 June 1945 with an advance team of two men. At the beginning of 1946 there were already 200 SSW employees, who were distributed over 15 locations due to the shortage of space. To remedy the situation, the new Siemens administration building, also known as the "Raspberry Palace" because of its color, was erected in 1948-1953 according to plans by Hans Hertlein on what was then the largest construction site in southern Germany. Large housing estates were built south of it for the employees. In the following years further office buildings were constructed: The Bingelhaus (1956–1958), the "Glaspalast" (Glass Palace) administration tower designed by Hans Maurer (Architect) (1959–1962) and the Siemens Research Center (1959–1968). In no other Bavarian city was as much and as long built after the Second World War as in Erlangen.
In 1956 SSW employed more than 6,000 people, in 1966 already more than 10,000. The merger of the three Siemens companies SSW, SRW and S&H to form Siemens AG in 1966 caused a renewed economic boost. Between 1985 and 1995 alone, the company invested one billion DM in the Erlangen site. The number of employees reached its highest level to date in 1986 with 31,000. Due to relocations to Nuremberg-Moorenbrunn and Forchheim, the number of employees today is approximately 24,000 (as of 30 September 2011). In addition to the Siemens Healthcare Sector (medical technology), the Industry (automation and drive technology), Energy (power generation, power transmission and distribution) and Infrastructure & Cities Sectors (mobility, rail technology, smart grid technology) and numerous staff departments are represented in Erlangen. In the 1970s there was a 900 m long Maglev line on the research site, on which the Erlangen test vehicle (EET 01) was running. After the departure of the American troops, the new Röthelheimpark district was built on the vacated site, where Siemens Medizintechnik (Siemens Medical Technology) built further production facilities and office buildings. The Reiniger und Schall building, which housed the core of the Medizintechnik Group after the Second World War, was donated to the city of Erlangen at the end of 2000 to mark the city's upcoming anniversary. In addition to municipal departments, since March 2012 it has housed the "Siemens Unternehmensarchiv für medizinische Technik" (Siemens Company Archive for Medical Technology), which visualizes the history of this Siemens Division in an exhibition area (opening 2013).
The residential area "Im Museumswinkel" has been located on the remaining area of the former company grounds since 2008.
Numerous other Siemens subsidiaries and Siemens holdings are also located in Erlangen.
Other internationally active businesses
Through the merger of Siemens' and Areva's nuclear division, the subsequent withdrawal of Siemens AG from the program and Areva's focus on the nuclear business, Erlangen became the headquarters of AREVA GmbH with 3,350 employees at the site.
Additionally, Solar Millennium, another globally active company in the energy sector, had established itself in Erlangen. Solar Millennium was founded in 1998 and planned and constructed solar power plants based on parabolic trough technology. The company has been insolvent since 2011.
Publicis is a multinational advertising service provider with headquartered in France and is the third-largest advertising service provider worldwide. The Erlangen branch was the largest in Germany before being dissolved in 2019.
KUM GmbH & Co KG was the second oldest manufacturer of pencil sharpeners and is today internationally active as a manufacturer of school and office supplies.
Valeo Siemens eAutomotive, a manufacturer of components for electric cars, was founded in 2016 and is based in Erlangen.
The large German shipping line Hapag-Lloyd, headquartered in Hamburg, has named some of their vessels 'Erlangen Express', to honour the importance of Erlangen's industry and trade.
Key aspects of current economic policy
Promotion of business start-ups and innovative technologies
The promotion of progress and innovation and the creation of an investment-friendly environment have a long tradition in Erlangen. Thus, the Innovations- und Gründerzentrum Nürnberg-Fürth-Erlangen GmbH (IGZ) (Innovation and Start-up Centre Nuremberg-Fürth-Erlangen) was founded in Tennenlohe in 1985/86 together with the cities of Fürth and Nuremberg. New companies emerged from this start-up centre, which set new impulses for economic life and were later successfully placed on the stock exchange. These include WaveLight AG and November AG.
In 2003, the IGZ was supplemented by the Medical Technology Innovation Center (IZMP), which supports in particular start-ups and innovative companies in the fields of medical technology, pharmaceutical research and biotechnology and genetic engineering. In March 2006 the foundation stone for a first extension of the IZMP was laid.
Furthermore, the "Erlangen AG" was founded as a union of science and economy with the aim of systematically and consistently developing new knowledge resources, showing ways into new markets and internationally marketing the positive differentiating features of the location.
As a result of many years of efforts to promote new, innovative technologies, Erlangen was the first Bavarian city to be awarded the title of most business-friendly municipality by the Bavarian state government in 1998.
Medicine and medical technology
A competence center for medicine, medical technology and the pharmaceutical industry was formed as a cooperation between the Friedrich-Alexander-University, the Waldkrankenhaus, the Klinikum am Europakanal, the Siemens Healthcare Division and over 100 medium-sized companies. Nearly one in four employees works in the medical technology and healthcare sectors. This locational advantage is to be further expanded in the future. The city has set itself the goal of becoming the German capital of medical research, production and services. In order to include the surrounding region in these efforts, the Medical Valley European Metropolitan Region Nuremberg was founded.
Points of interest
The University of Erlangen-Nuremberg (Friedrich-Alexander-Universität) was founded in 1742 by Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, in the city of Bayreuth, but was relocated to Erlangen the next year. Today, it features five faculties; some departments (Economics and Education) are located in Nuremberg. About 39,000 students study at this university, of which about 20,000 are located in Erlangen.
The Botanischer Garten Erlangen is a botanical garden maintained by the university.
Bergkirchweih
The Bergkirchweih is an annual beer festival, similar to the Oktoberfest in Munich but smaller in scale. It takes place during the twelve days before and after Pentecost (that is, 49 days after Easter); this period is called the "fifth season" by the locals. The beer is served at wooden tables in one-litre stoneware jugs under the trees of the "Berg", a small, craggy, and wooded hill with old caves (beer cellars) owned by local breweries. The cellars extend for throughout the hill (the "Berg") and maintain a constant cool underground temperature. Until Carl von Linde invented the electric refrigerator in 1871, this was considered to be the largest refrigerator in Southern Germany.
The beer festival draws more than one million visitors annually. It features carnival rides of high tech quality, food stalls of most Franconian dishes, including bratwurst, suckling pig, roasted almonds, and giant pretzels.
It is commonly known by local residents as the "Berchkärwa" (pronounced "bairch'-care-va") or simply the "Berch", like in "Gehma auf'n Berch!" ("Let's go up the mountain!").
This is an outdoor event frequented and enjoyed by Franconians. Despite a relatively high number of visitors, it is not commonly known by tourists, or people living outside Bavaria.
Environmental protection
Environmental protection and nature conservation have enjoyed a high status in Erlangen since the beginning of the environmental movement in Germany in the early 1970s. A number of national and international awards attest to the success of these efforts. In 1988 the city was awarded the title "Partner of the European Environmental Year 1987/88" and in 1990 and 1991 the title "Federal Capital for Nature and Environmental Protection". The year 2007 was proclaimed the environmental year by the city administration with the motto "Natürlich ERLANGEN" (German for "natural/organic Erlangen"). One focus is the expansion of photovoltaics. From 2003 to 2011, the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems in Erlangen has increased more than twentyfold to 16,700 kW, covering more than 2.0% of Erlangen's electricity requirements annually. Erlangen participates in the so-called Solarbundesliga (Federal Solar League). In the competition between cities, Erlangen reached third place in 2012 and second in the European Solar League.
Since 2007, Erlangen has been the first city in Germany in which every school has its own solar power system installed. The data of the solar systems at the schools are presented in the so-called climate protection school atlas on the Internet. In 2011, a solar city map was set up on the Internet in which installed solar systems could be entered.
Traffic
As early as the 1970s, ground work was being made for today's high share of bicycles in total traffic through a bicycle-friendly transport policy of then mayor Dietmar Hahlweg. He paid particular attention to the introduction of cycling lanes on pedestrian paths. Throughout the entire population the bicycle is a common means of transport. Cyclers wearing suits and carrying briefcases are not an unusual sight. In the past, Erlangen and Münster regularly fought over the title of the most bicycle-friendly city in Germany.
With the use of natural gas buses in public transport, the Erlangen municipal utilities have also made a contribution to reducing CO2 emissions and particulate matter. Furthermore, there have been pushes from both SPD and CSU politicians to introduce electric busses into the city's fleet. However, despite both Nuremberg and Fürth having already introduced such vehicles, there are no concrete plans for Erlangen to follow suit.
Nature and landscape conservation
In the city area, two areas have been declared nature reserves (NSG) and thus enjoy the highest protection for plants and animals in accordance with Article 7 of the Bavarian Nature Conservation Act. These are:
The Brucker Lache wetland biotope, designated a nature reserve in 1964, was extended in 1984 from its original 76 ha to 110 ha. To the south of the nature reserve lies the Tennenlohe Forest Experience Centre, one of nine forest experience centres run by the Bavarian Forest Administration.
The nature reserve Exerzierplatz, a 25 ha sandy biotope, which was established in October 2000 is part of the Franconian sand axis.
In addition to the nature reserves, Erlangen has 21 landscape reserves with a total area of 3538 ha, i.e. almost half of the entire city area. In contrast to nature reserves, these focus on the protection of special landscapes and their recreational value as well as the preservation of an efficient natural balance. Landscape reserves include:
The Holzweg (German for wooden path) in Büchenbach, a traditional connection path between Büchenbach and the Mönau forest area, where the inhabitants of Büchenbach supplied themselves with wood for centuries. This has created a hollow path sunken lane edges are overgrown with species-rich low-nutrient grassland vegetation.
The Calcareous grassland on the so-called "Riviera", a footpath along the Schwabach (Rednitz). This area was declared a protected landscape area at the beginning of 2000.
The Hutgraben Winkelfelder and Wolfsmantel (186 ha), a watercourse springing in a slope basin west of Kalchreuth, which flows into the Regnitz west of Eltersdorf. This area was declared a protected landscape area in 1983.
The Bimbachtal, located in southwestern Büchenbach, was declared a landscape conservation area in 1983.
The 56 ha sized area of Grünau
The area around the Great Bishop's Pond (Dechsendorfer Weiher) (169 ha)
The Mönau (570 ha)
The Dechsendorf Lohe (70 ha)
The Seebachgrund (112 ha)
The Moorbach valley (50 ha)
The Regnitz valley (883 ha)
The Meilwald forest with ice pit (224 ha)
The Schwabach valley (66 ha)
The Steinforst ditch with the Kosbach pond and permanent forest strip east of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (157 ha)
The Rittersbach creek (66 ha)
The preservation strip on both sides of the A3 motorway (47 ha)
The monastery forest (197 ha)
The Aurach valley (182 ha)
Römerreuth and surroundings (110 ha)
The Bachgraben ditch (9 ha)
The Brucker Lache (331 ha)
Sport
The city's main sports club is HC Erlangen who play in the top division. However, they have played their home games at Arena Nürnberg since 2014 due to having no suitable venue for Bundesliga level Handball in Erlangen.
The city also has several lower league football teams; FSV Erlangen-Bruck, BSC Erlangen and SC Eltersdorf.
The former army barracks had a baseball diamond for use by the soldiers and their families which was kept in place after the garrison left and is now used by the Erlangen White Sox. The Erlangen Sharks are a local American football team that plays on an adjacent grass field also used by other parts of Spielvereinigung Erlangen to which both the Sharks and the White Sox belong.
Notable people
Though a small village for much of its history and now only a small city of only 100k inhabitants, Erlangen has made significant contributions to the world, primarily through its many Lutheran theologians, to its University of Erlangen-Nuremberg scholars, and the Siemens pioneers in science and technology.
Among its noted residents are:
Johann de Kalb (1721–1780), Soldier, War of Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, Major General in the American Revolutionary War, namesake of many American towns
Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller (1725–1776), zoologist, known to the classification of several new species, especially birds
Eugenius Johann Christoph Esper (1742–1810), scientist, botanist, first to begin research into Paleopathology
Johann Schweigger (1779–1857), chemist, physicist, mathematician, named "Chlorine", and invented the Galvanometer
August Friedrich Schweigger (1783–1921), botanist, zoologist, known for taxonomy including the discovery of several turtle species
Georg Ohm (1789–1854), German scientist, famous for Ohm's Law regarding electric current, and the measurement unit Ohm
Karl Heinrich Rau (1792–1870), economist, published an influential encyclopedia of all "relevant" economic knowledge of his time
Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1794–1868), botanist, explorer, famous expedition into Brazil (1817–1820)
Adolph Wagner (1835–1917), economist, founding proponent of Academic Socialism and State Socialism
Paul Zweifel (1848–1927), gynecologist, proved that the fetus was metabolically active, paving the way for new fetal research
Emmy Noether (1882–1935), mathematician, groundbreaking work on abstract algebra and theoretical physics
Fritz Noether (1884–1941), mathematician, political prisoner, younger brother of Emmy Noether, imprisoned in Soviet Russia
Ernst Penzoldt (1892–1955), artist, famous German author, painter, and sculptor
Eduard Hauser (soldier) (1895–1961), German officer, general in World War II
Heinrich Welker (1912–1981), theoretical physicist, made numerous inventions in the early electrical engineering fields
Rudolf Fleischmann (1903–2002), scientist, nuclear physicist, member of the Uranium Club, theorist on isotope separation
Bernhard Plettner (1914–1997), electrical engineer and Business Administration, CEO for Siemens AG (1971–1981)
Helmut Zahn (1916–2004), scientist, chemist, one of the first to discover the properties of Insulin
Walter Krauß (1917–1943), Luftwaffe officer
Hans Lotter (1917–2008), officer in World War II, escaped from POW camp and wrote memoirs about it
Georg Nees (1926–2016), Graphic Artist, expanded ALGOL computer language, pioneer in digital art and sculptures
Elke Sommer (born 1940), entertainer, Golden Globe Award-winning actress from television and film, early Playboy playmate
Heinrich von Pierer (born 1941), Business Administration, CEO for Siemens AG (1992–2005), advisor to numerous governmental figures
Gerhard Frey (born 1944), mathematician, worked on Elliptic Curve and helped prove Fermat's Last Theorem
Karl Meiler (1949–2014), tennis player, moderately successful in Doubles Tennis in the 1970s.
Willi Kalender (born 1949), medical physicist, pioneer in CT Scan technology and research into numerous diseases
Karlheinz Brandenburg (born 1954), sound engineer, contributor to the invention of the format MPEG Audio Layer III, or MP3
Klaus Täuber (born 1958), footballer, played for several Bundesliga teams from the mid 1970s–1980s, managed at lower levels
Lothar Matthäus (born 1961), German Football legend, World Cup Winning Captain, Bayern Captain, first FIFA World Player of the Year
Michael Buehl (born 1962), professor of chemistry, University of St Andrews, Scotland, UK
Jürgen Teller (born 1964), fine art and fashion photography, worked for numerous magazines and designers, often with Björk
Katrin Müller-Hohenstein (born 1965), journalist
Hisham Zreiq (born 1968), award-winning Palestinian Christian Independent filmmaker, poet and visual artist
Peter Wackel (born 1977), singer, with 6 albums and over 25 singles, he has a niche singing Schlager musik
Flula Borg (born 1982), entertainer, DJ, hip-hop artist, internet sensation, film critic
For a more complete list, visit :Category:People from Erlangen
References
External links
erlangeninfo.de Erlangen City Guide
University of Erlangen
Ferris Barracks – former US Army Kaserne in Erlangen
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] |
204157
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Tailwind
|
Operation Tailwind
|
Operation Tailwind was a covert incursion by a small unit of United States Army and allied Montagnard forces into southeastern Laos during the Vietnam War, conducted from 11 to 14 September 1970. Its purpose was to create a diversion for a Royal Lao Army offensive and to exert pressure on the occupation forces of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN). A company-sized element of US Army Special Forces and Montagnard commando (Hatchet Force) of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG or SOG) conducted the operation.
Nearly 30 years later, CNN/Time magazine jointly developed an investigative report that was both broadcast and published in June 1998 about Operation Tailwind. The TV segment was produced by April Oliver, Jack Smith, Pam Hill, and others. It was narrated by Peter Arnett, noted for war reporting, who had received a 1966 Pulitzer Prize for his work from Vietnam and who had worked with CNN for 18 years.
Entitled Valley of Death, the report claimed that US air support had used sarin nerve gas against opponents, and that other war crimes had been committed by US forces during Tailwind. In response the Pentagon conducted an investigation, as did CNN; the news organizations together ultimately retracted the report, and fired the producers responsible. April Oliver and Jack Smith sued CNN in a challenge of their dismissals and reached separate settlements with the network. After being reprimanded by CNN, Arnett resigned from the organization.
Several individuals who were sources for the reports, whose images were shown in the reports, or who were otherwise identified with the reports, brought other legal actions against CNN and Time Warner. A decision by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in one of the cases states that the Tailwind reports did not defame the plaintiff who was a source for the reports. It noted that the plaintiff, in his interviews with CNN, "admitted the truth of each of the three facts he now challenges."
Operation
During late 1970 the overall US-supported military effort in the covert war in the Kingdom of Laos was floundering. Operation Gauntlet, a multi-battalion Royal Lao Army offensive intended to protect Paksong and the strategic Bolovens Plateau, was failing. They appealed to headquarters of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG or SOG) in Saigon requesting aid from the highly classified unit; specifically, they asked for a unit to enter near Chavane and disrupt PAVN defenses. Colonel John Sadler, SOG's commander, agreed to undertake the mission. However none of his cross-border reconnaissance teams had ever operated so deep in Laos, and the target area was 20 miles (30 km) beyond the unit's authorized area of operations.
The mission was launched by three platoons of Command and Control Central's (Kontum) Hatchet Company B and two United States Air Force Pathfinder Teams. The 110 Montagnards and 16 Americans, under the command of Captain Eugene McCarley, were heli-lifted from a launch site at Dak To to a landing zone (LZ) in a valley to the west, near Chavane. The distance to the target was so great that the men were lifted by three United States Marine Corps (USMC) Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters from HMH-463, escorted by 12 USMC and Army Bell AH-1 Cobra gunships.
On the morning of the third day, the Americans overran a PAVN bivouac and killed 54 troops. They questioned why the Vietnamese had not fled the area, but members of the Hatchet Force discovered a bunker buried beneath of earth. Inside they found a huge cache of PAVN maps and documents. They had overrun the PAVN logistical headquarters that controlled all of Laotian Route 165. The forces quickly filled two footlockers with the intelligence haul and the Hatchet Force began to seek a way out. The PAVN were closing in, but McCarley dropped off elements at three separate (and smaller) landing zones, catching the PAVN unprepared.
Casualties incurred during the operation amounted to three Montagnards killed in action and 33 wounded, while all 16 Americans were wounded. Two CH-53s were shot down during the operation. The efforts of SOG medic Sergeant Gary Michael Rose were considered critical to the survival of many of the Hatchet Force. He was recommended for the Medal of Honor for his actions. He instead received the Distinguished Service Cross. This was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which President Donald Trump presented to him on October 23, 2017.
Valley of Death
In 1998 Cable News Network (CNN) launched NewsStand CNN & Time, a collaboration with Time magazine on reporting to be both broadcast and published in print form. On 7 June 1998 a report about Operation Tailwind, entitled Valley of Death, was broadcast as the premiere episode of the new program.
The segment analyzed and criticized Operation Tailwind. It alleged that US aircraft, in an unprecedented reversal of policy and breach of international treaties, had used sarin nerve gas ("GB" in US/NATO nomenclature) against North Vietnamese ground troops who were attacking the landing zones during the extraction of the forces. The Pentagon did not dispute that some chemical agent was used, nor that both North Vietnamese and American soldiers struggled against its effects. However, most witnesses, sworn and unsworn, said that only a potent tear gas (most likely a CN/CS mixture) was used. According to reporting, others insisted it was sarin, or a combination of tear gas and sarin.
A second element of the reporting was an allegation that Operation Tailwind had been devised to eliminate a group of Americans who had defected to the enemy and were holed up in a Laotian village. According to the report, the nerve agent had been sprayed from aircraft twice: once to prep the village and once during extraction of troops. The report claimed that more than 100 Laotian men, women, and children had been killed during the attack on the village.
The broadcast (and the published Time magazine article of June 15) appeared to be reliably sourced. Admiral Thomas Moorer, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the time of Tailwind, appeared to say that nerve agents had been used, and not just during this operation. However, Admiral Moorer later told investigators that he "never confirmed anything" to CNN regarding Operation Tailwind, that he had no knowledge of the use of Sarin or the targeting of defectors, and he believed that producer April Oliver had asked him "trick" questions. But later again, in sworn deposition testimony taken during the suit of one of the producers, Admiral Moorer reviewed April Oliver's notes of her interviews of him, including his responses to her questions. He did not make any significant objections to their accuracy.
Former SOG Lieutenant Robert Van Buskirk (one of the three platoon leaders) and three of the participating SOG sergeants allegedly gave information that supported the allegations as presented in the televised and published investigative report. Van Buskirk said that the Montagnard Hatchet Force was exposed on the landing zone ("LZ") when the teargas agent was deployed to drive the enemy back. He also said that he saw his men (who were not equipped with gas masks) convulsing when the wind blew the agent back upon the LZ.
The CNN/Time reports suggested that war crimes had been committed. The Pentagon launched its own investigation.
Aftermath
CNN and Time magazine undertook an internal investigation. New York attorney Floyd Abrams, a constitutional lawyer, was hired to conduct the investigation for them. They jointly concluded that the journalism of the report was "flawed," and the report should be publicly retracted, with apologies made to persons and institutions cited in it. The two key CNN producers of the report, April Oliver and Jack Smith, were fired outright when they refused to resign. Senior producer Pam Hill of CNN resigned. Reporter Peter Arnett was reprimanded and soon resigned, going to work for HDNet and then NBC.
Abrams later said that he had urged CNN/Time Warner to retract the report, but to acknowledge that it may have had truth to it. He said, retraction "doesn't necessarily mean that the story isn't true. … Who knows? Someday we might find other information. And, you know, maybe someday I'll be back here again, having done another report saying that, 'You know what? It was all true.'"
In early July 1998, Tom Johnson, CNN News Group Chairman, President and CEO, issued a statement about the findings of the internal investigation. He pledged acceptance of the findings and reiterated that the allegations in Valley of Death and related reports "cannot be supported." He said there was insufficient evidence that sarin or any other deadly gas was used, nor could CNN confirm that American deserters were targeted, or whether they were at the camp in Laos.
As a supplement to CNN's retraction, on July 2 and July 5, 1998, the company aired retraction broadcasts that sought to portray some of the sources for the Tailwind reports as unreliable.
Oliver and Smith were chastised but unrepentant. They put together a 77-page document supporting their side of the story; it included testimony from military personnel apparently confirming the use of sarin. Active and retired military personnel consulted by the media, including CNN's own military analyst, USAF Major General Perry Smith (ret), noted that a particularly strong, non-lethal formulation of "CS" teargas was used during Tailwind. But they said that it should not be confused with sarin, which is categorized as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations.
In addition to compiling this report, Oliver and Smith both challenged their dismissals by filing suits against CNN. Oliver settled out of court for a reputed $1 million. Smith also eventually settled for an unknown amount. By June 2000, less than two years later, none of the executives responsible for hiring and firing the two, including Chairman Johnson, remained with CNN.
Several individuals who were sources for the reports, whose images were shown in the reports, or who were otherwise identified with the reports, brought other legal actions against CNN and Time Warner. These actions were combined by the Judicial Panel for Multidistrict Litigation and were assigned to the United States District Court in the Northern District of California. They became collectively known as the "Operation Tailwind" litigation.
CNN and Time Warner defended its reports from claims of defamation, and most of these actions were dismissed by the court. In none of these cases did the court find that the original Tailwind reports had defamed anyone.
A decision by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in one of the cases states that the Tailwind reports did not defame the plaintiff who was a source for the reports. It noted that the plaintiff, in his interviews with CNN, "admitted the truth of each of the three facts he now challenges." The Ninth Circuit said that CNN may have subsequently defamed this source in its retraction broadcast's statement seeking to portray the source as "unreliable". The court concluded that the question of whether the source was defamed by CNN in that retraction broadcast "merits further development", and the appeals court remanded "this issue to the district court for further proceedings."
In popular culture
The HBO series The Newsroom featured a major storyline in its second season that explored the fictional ACN's coverage of "Operation Genoa." This was loosely based on CNN's coverage of Tailwind.
References
External links
CNN Retraction
The Department of Defense report
CNN's report
Collection of Tailwind material from aim.org
Short interview of April Oliver at the World Socialist website
One-hour audio interview of April Oliver on Black Op Radio – show 5a &5b
Chapter authored by April Oliver in the book "Abuse Your Illusions" published by Disinformation
John Stryker Meyer on Jocko Wilink Podcast #248 providing insider knowledge on Tailwind Operation
Conflicts in 1970
1970 in Vietnam
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War
Battles involving the United States
History of Laos
1970 in Laos
Laotian Civil War
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1970
September 1970 events in Asia
|
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] |
204159
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20U.S.%20states%20and%20territories%20by%20unemployment%20rate
|
List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate
|
The list of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate compares the seasonally adjusted unemployment rates by state and territory, sortable by name, rate, and change. Data are provided by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in its Geographic Profile of Employment and Unemployment publication.
While the non-seasonally adjusted data reflects the actual unemployment rate, the seasonally adjusted data removes time from the equation.
Unemployment rate by jurisdiction
Data for all U.S. states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico is from September 2021, data from the Virgin Islands is from December 2019, data for Guam is from September 2019, data for American Samoa is from 2018, and data for the Northern Mariana Islands is from April 2010. Because data for the Northern Mariana Islands is more than 5 years old, it is not ranked in the table below.
See also
List of U.S. States by employment rate
Job creation index
Unemployment in the United States
References
External links
Comparison of Unemployment Benefits by State
Economy of the United States
Unemployment rate
States
unemployment rate
United States, unemployment rate
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatidae
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Anatidae
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The Anatidae are the biological family of water birds that includes ducks, geese, and swans. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on all the world's continents except Antarctica. These birds are adapted for swimming, floating on the water surface, and in some cases diving in at least shallow water. The family contains around 174 species in 43 genera. (The magpie goose is no longer considered to be part of the Anatidae and is now placed in its own family, Anseranatidae.)
They are generally herbivorous, and are monogamous breeders. A number of species undertake annual migrations. A few species have been domesticated for agriculture, and many others are hunted for food and recreation. Five species have become extinct since 1600, and many more are threatened with extinction.
Description and ecology
The ducks, geese, and swans are small- to large-sized birds with a broad and elongated general body plan. Diving species vary from this in being rounder. Extant species range in size from the cotton pygmy goose, at as little as 26.5 cm (10.5 in) and 164 g (5.8 oz), to the trumpeter swan, at as much as 183 cm (6 ft) and 17.2 kg (38 lb). The wings are short and pointed, and supported by strong wing muscles that generate rapid beats in flight. They typically have long necks, although this varies in degree between species. The legs are short, strong, and set far to the back of the body (more so in the more aquatic species), and have a leathery feel with a scaly texture. Combined with their body shape, this can make some species awkward on land, but they are stronger walkers than other marine and water birds such as grebes or petrels. They typically have webbed feet, though a few species such as the Nene have secondarily lost their webbing. The bills are made of soft keratin with a thin and sensitive layer of skin on top (which has a leathery feel when touched). For most species, the shape of the bill tends to be more flattened to a greater or lesser extent. These contain serrated lamellae which are particularly well defined in the filter-feeding species.
Their feathers are excellent at shedding water due to special oils. Many of the ducks display sexual dimorphism, with the males being more brightly coloured than the females (although the situation is reversed in species such as the paradise shelduck). The swans, geese, and whistling-ducks lack sexually dimorphic plumage. Anatids are vocal birds, producing a range of quacks, honks, squeaks, and trumpeting sounds, depending on species; the female often has a deeper voice than the male.
Anatids are generally herbivorous as adults, feeding on various water-plants, although some species also eat fish, molluscs, or aquatic arthropods. One group, the mergansers, are primarily piscivorous, and have serrated bills to help them catch fish. In a number of species, the young include a high proportion of invertebrates in their diets, but become purely herbivorous as adults.
Breeding
The anatids are generally seasonal and monogamous breeders. The level of monogamy varies within the family; many of the smaller ducks only maintain the bond for a single season and find a new partner the following year, whereas the larger swans, geese and some of the more territorial ducks maintain pair bonds over a number of years, and even for life in some species. However, forced extrapair copulation among anatids is common, occurring in 55 species in 17 genera.
Anatidae is a large proportion of the 3% of bird species to possess a penis, though they vary significantly in size, shape, and surface elaboration. Most species are adapted for copulation on the water only. They construct simple nests from whatever material is close at hand, often lining them with a layer of down plucked from the mother's breast. In most species, only the female incubates the eggs. The young are precocial, and are able to feed themselves from birth. One aberrant species, the black-headed duck, is an obligate brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nests of gulls and coots. While this species never raises its own young, a number of other ducks occasionally lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics (members of the same species) in addition to raising their own broods.
Relationship with humans
Duck, eider, and goose feathers and down have long been popular for bedspreads, pillows, sleeping bags, and coats. The members of this family also have long been used for food.
Humans have had a long relationship with ducks, geese, and swans; they are important economically and culturally to humans, and several duck species have benefited from an association with people. However, some anatids are damaging agricultural pests, and have acted as vectors for zoonoses such as avian influenza.
Since 1600, five species of ducks have become extinct due to the activities of humans, and subfossil remains have shown that humans caused numerous extinctions in prehistory. Today, many more are considered threatened. Most of the historic and prehistoric extinctions were insular species, vulnerable due to small populations (often endemic to a single island), and island tameness. Evolving on islands that lacked predators, these species lost antipredator behaviours, as well as the ability to fly, and were vulnerable to human hunting pressure and introduced species. Other extinctions and declines are attributable to overhunting, habitat loss and modification, and hybridisation with introduced ducks (for example the introduced ruddy duck swamping the white-headed duck in Europe). Numerous governments and conservation and hunting organisations have made considerable progress in protecting ducks and duck populations through habitat protection and creation, laws and protection, and captive-breeding programmes.
Systematics
The name Anatidae for the family was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820. While the status of the Anatidae as a family is straightforward, and which species properly belong to it is little debated, the relationships of the different tribes and subfamilies within it are poorly understood. The listing in the box at right should be regarded as simply one of several possible ways of organising the many species within the Anatidae; see discussion in the next section.
The systematics of the Anatidae are in a state of flux. Previously divided into six subfamilies, a study of anatomical characters by Livezey suggests the Anatidae are better treated in nine subfamilies. This classification was popular in the late 1980s to 1990s. But mtDNA sequence analyses indicate, for example, the dabbling and diving ducks do not belong in the same subfamily.
While shortcomings certainly occur in Livezey's analysis, mtDNA is an unreliable source for phylogenetic information in many waterfowl (especially dabbling ducks) due to their ability to produce fertile hybrids, in rare cases possibly even beyond the level of genus (see for example the "Barbary duck"). Because the sample size of many molecular studies available to date is small, mtDNA results must be considered with caution.
While a comprehensive review of the Anatidae which unites all evidence into a robust phylogeny is still lacking, the reasons for the confusing data are at least clear: As demonstrated by the Late Cretaceous fossil Vegavis iaai — an early modern waterbird which belonged to an extinct lineage—the Anatidae are an ancient group among the modern birds. Their earliest direct ancestors, though not documented by fossils yet, likewise can be assumed to have been contemporaries with the non-avian dinosaurs. The long period of evolution and shifts from one kind of waterbird lifestyle to another have obscured many plesiomorphies, while apomorphies apparently are quite often the result of parallel evolution, for example the "non-diving duck" type displayed by such unrelated genera as Dendrocygna, Amazonetta, and Cairina. For the fossil record, see below.
Alternatively, the Anatidae may be considered to consist of three subfamilies (ducks, geese, and swans, essentially) which contain the groups as presented here as tribes, with the swans separated as subfamily Cygninae, the goose subfamily Anserinae also containing the whistling ducks, and the Anatinae containing all other clades.
Genera
For the living and recently extinct members of each genus, see the article List of Anatidae species.
Subfamily: Dendrocygninae (one pantropical genus, of distinctive long-legged goose-like birds)
Dendrocygna, whistling ducks (8 living species)
Thalassornis, white-backed duck
Subfamily: Anserinae, swans and geese (3–7 extant genera with 25–30 living species, mainly cool temperate Northern Hemisphere, but also some Southern Hemisphere species, with the swans in one genus [two genera in some treatments], and the geese in three genera [two genera in some treatments]. Some other species are sometimes placed herein, but seem somewhat more distinct [see below])
Cygnus, true swans (6 species, 4 sometimes separated in Olor)
Anser, grey geese and white geese (11 species)
Branta, black geese (6 living species)
Subfamily: Stictonettinae (one genus in Australia, formerly included in the Oxyurinae, but with anatomy suggesting a distinct ancient lineage perhaps closest to the Anserinae, especially the Cape Barren goose)
Stictonetta, freckled duck
Subfamily: Plectropterinae (one genus in Africa, formerly included in the "perching ducks", but closer to the Tadorninae)
Plectropterus, spur-winged goose
Subfamily: Tadorninae – shelducks and sheldgeese (This group of larger, often semiterrestrial waterfowl can be seen as intermediate between Anserinae and Anatinae. The 1986 revision has resulted in the inclusion of 10 extant genera with about two-dozen living species [one probably extinct] in this subfamily, mostly from the Southern Hemisphere but a few in the Northern Hemisphere; the affiliations of several presumed tadornine genera has later been questioned and the group in the traditional lineup is likely to be paraphyletic.)
Pachyanas, Chatham Island duck (prehistoric)
Tadorna, shelducks (6 species, 1 probably extinct) – possibly paraphyletic
Radjah, Radjah shelduck
Salvadorina, Salvadori's teal
Centrornis, Madagascar sheldgoose (prehistoric, tentatively placed here)
Alopochen, Egyptian goose and Mascarene shelducks (1 living species, 2 extinct)
Neochen, (2 species)
Chloephaga, sheldgeese (4 species)
Hymenolaimus, blue duck
Merganetta, torrent duck
Subfamily: Aythyinae, diving ducks (Some 15 species of diving ducks, of worldwide distribution, in two to four genera; The 1986 morphological analysis suggested the probably extinct pink-headed duck of India, previously treated separately in Rhodonessa, should be placed in Netta, but this has been questioned. Furthermore, while morphologically close to dabbling ducks, the mtDNA data indicate a treatment as distinct subfamily is indeed correct, with the Tadorninae being actually closer to dabbling ducks than the diving ducks)
Netta, red-crested pochard and allies (4 species, 1 probably extinct)
Aythya, pochards, scaups, etc. (12 species)
Subfamily: Anatinae, dabbling ducks and moa-nalos (The dabbling duck group, of worldwide distribution, were previously restricted to just one or two genera, but had been extended to include eight extant genera and about 55 living species, including several genera formerly known as the "perching ducks"; mtDNA on the other hand confirms that the genus Anas is over-lumped and casts doubt on the diving duck affiliations of several genera [see below]. The moa-nalos, of which four species in three genera are known to date, are a peculiar group of flightless, extinct anatids from the Hawaiian Islands. Gigantic in size and with massive bills, they were believed to be geese, but have been shown to be actually very closely related to mallards. They evolved filling the ecological niche of turtles, ungulates, and other megaherbivores.
Anas: pintails, mallards, etc. (40–50 living species, 3 extinct)
Chendytes, diving-geese (extinct c. 450–250 BCE, A basal member of the dabbling duck clade)
Spatula, shovelers
Mareca, wigeons and gadwalls
Lophonetta, crested duck
Speculanas, bronze-winged duck
Amazonetta, Brazilian teal
Sibirionetta, Baikal teal
Chelychelynechen, turtle-jawed moa-nalo (prehistoric)
Thambetochen, large-billed moa-nalos (2 species, prehistoric)
Ptaiochen, small-billed moa-nalo (prehistoric)
Tribe: Mergini, eiders, scoters, sawbills and other sea-ducks (There are 9 extant genera and some 20 living species; most of this group occur in the Northern Hemisphere, but a few [mostly extinct] mergansers in the Southern Hemisphere)
Shiriyanetta (prehistoric)
Polysticta, Steller's eider
Somateria, eiders (3 species)
Histrionicus, harlequin duck (includes Ocyplonessa)
Camptorhynchus, Labrador duck (extinct)
Melanitta, scoters (6 species)
Clangula, long-tailed duck (1 species)
Bucephala, goldeneyes (3 species)
Mergellus, smew
Lophodytes, hooded merganser
Mergus, mergansers (4 living species, 1 extinct).
Tribe: Oxyurini, stiff-tail ducks (a small group of 3–4 genera, 2–3 of them monotypic, with 7–8 living species)
Oxyura, stiff-tailed ducks (5 living species)
Nomonyx, masked duck
Heteronetta, black-headed duck
Unresolved: The largest degree of uncertainty concerns whether a number of genera are closer to the shelducks or to the dabbling ducks. See also the monotypic subfamilies above, and the "perching ducks"
Coscoroba, coscoroba swan – Anserinae or same subfamily as Cereopsis?
Cereopsis, Cape Barren goose – Anserinae, Tadorninae, or own subfamily?
Biziura, musk ducks (1 living species)
Cnemiornis, New Zealand geese (prehistoric) – as Cereopsis
Malacorhynchus, pink-eared ducks (1 living species) – Tadorninae, Oxyurinae or Dendrocheninae?
Sarkidiornis, comb duck – Tadorninae or closer to dabbling ducks?
Tachyeres, steamer ducks (4 species) – Tadorninae or closer to dabbling ducks?
Cyanochen, blue-winged goose – Tadorninae or more distant clade?
Nettapus, pygmy geese (3 species) – Anatinae or part of Southern Hemisphere radiation?
Pteronetta, Hartlaub's duck – traditionally dabbling ducks, but may be closer to Cyanochen
Cairina, Muscovy duck and white-winged duck (2 species) – traditionally dabbling ducks, but may be paraphyletic, with one species in Tadorninae and the other closer to diving ducks
Aix, Mandarin duck and wood duck (2 species) – dabbling ducks or Tadorninae?
Callonetta, ringed teal – dabbling ducks or Tadorninae?
Chenonetta, maned duck (1 living species) – dabbling ducks or Tadorninae? Includes Euryanas.
Marmaronetta, marbled duck – formerly dabbling ducks; actually a diving duck or a distinct subfamily
Prehistoric species
From subfossil bones found on Kauai (Hawaiian Islands), two enigmatic waterfowl are known. The living and assignable prehistoric avifauna of the archipelago contains as Anseriformes Branta geese and their descendants, and the moa-nalos as mentioned above. The following taxa, although certainly new species, cannot be assigned even to subfamily; that Kauai is the oldest of the large Hawaiian Islands, meaning the species may have been evolving in isolation for nearly 10 mya (since the Late Miocene), does not help in determining their affinities:
Long-legged "shelduck", Anatidae sp. et gen. indet.
Kaua'i mole duck, Talpanas lippa
Similarly, Branta rhuax from the Big Island of Hawaii, and a gigantic goose-like anatid from Oahu are known only from very incomplete, and in the former case much damaged, bone fragments. The former has been alleged to be a shelduck, but this was generally dismissed because of the damage to the material and biogeographic considerations. The long-legged Kauai bird, however, hints at the possibility of a former tadornine presence on the archipelago.
Fossil Anatidae
The fossil record of anatids is extensive, but many prehistoric genera cannot be unequivocally assigned to present-day subfamilies for the reasons given above. For prehistoric species of extant genera, see the respective genus accounts.
Dendrocheninae – a more advanced relative of the whistling-ducks or an ancestral relative of stifftail ducks paralleling whistling-ducks; if not extinct possibly belong in Oxyurinae (including Malacorhynchus)
Mionetta (Late Oligocene – Middle Miocene of C Europe) – includes "Anas" blanchardi, "A." consobrina, "A." natator, "Aythya" arvernensis
Manuherikia (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Dendrochen (Early – Late? Miocene) – includes "Anas" integra, "A." oligocaena
Dendrocheninae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Argentina)
Anserinae
Cygnavus (Early Oligocene of Kazakhstan – Early Miocene of Germany)
Cygnopterus (Middle Oligocene of Belgium – Early Miocene of France) – sometimes included in Cygnavus
Megalodytes (Middle Miocene of California, US)
"cf. Megalodytes" (Haraichi Middle Miocene of Annaka, Japan)
Anserobranta (Late Miocene of C Europe) – includes "Anas" robusta, validity doubtful
Presbychen (Temblor Late Miocene of Sharktooth Hill, US)
Afrocygnus (Late Miocene – Early Pliocene of EC Africa)
Paracygnus (Kimball Late Pliocene of Nebraska, US)
Eremochen (Pliocene)
Tadorninae
Australotadorna (Late Oligocene – Early Miocene of Australia)
Miotadorna (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Tadorninae gen. et sp. indet. (Calvert Middle Miocene of Maryland, US)
Balcanas (Early Pliocene of Dorkovo, Bulgaria) – may be synonym of Tadorna or even common shelduck
Anabernicula (Late Pliocene ? – Late Pleistocene of SW and W North America)
Brantadorna (Middle Pleistocene of Vallecito Creek, US)
Nannonetta (Late Pleistocene of Peru)
Anatinae
Sinanas (Middle Miocene)
Wasonaka (Middle Pliocene)
Oxyurinae
Pinpanetta (Late Oligocene – Early Miocene of Australia)
Dunstanetta (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand) – tentatively placed here
Tirarinetta (Pliocene of Australia)
Incertae sedis
"Anas" luederitzensis (Kalahari Early Miocene of Lüderitzbucht, Namibia) – anatine?
Matanas (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Anatidae gen. et sp. indet. MNZ S42797 (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
"Oxyura" doksana (Early Miocene of Dolnice, Czech Republic)
"Aythya" chauvirae (Middle Miocene of Sansan, France and Credinţa, Romania) – 2 species
Anatidae gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Nördlinger Ries, Germany) – tadornine?
Anatidae gen. et sp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszõlõs, Hungary)
"Anas" meyerii (Middle Miocene of Öhningen, Germany) Described from a single badly crushed tarsometatarsus and phalanges. This species was named in 1867 by Milne-Edwards and then recombined in 1964 by Brodkorb to the genus Aythya. This species is currently regarded as Aves incertae sedis.
"Anas" velox (Middle–Late? Miocene of C Europe) – anatine? May include "A." meyerii
"Anas" albae (Late Miocene of Polgárdi, Hungary) – mergine? Formerly in Mergus
"Anas" isarensis (Late Miocene of Aumeister, Germany) – anatine?
"Anser" scaldii (Late Miocene of Antwerp, Belgium) – anserine or tadornine
Anatidae gen. et sp. indet. (Waite Late Miocene of Alcoota, Australia) – anatine, oxyurine?
Anatidae gen. et sp. indet. (Waite Late Miocene of Alcoota, Australia) – tadornine?
"Anas" eppelsheimensis (Early Pliocene of Eppelsheim, Germany) – anatine?
Aldabranas (Late Pleistocene of Aldabra, Indian Ocean) – anatine or tadornine
"Chenopis" nanus (Pleistocene of Australia) – at least 2 taxa, may be living species
Garganornis (Late Miocene of Gargano, Italy)
Mioquerquedula (Middle Miocene of Mongolia)
Putative or disputed prehistoric anatids are:
Romainvillia (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene) – anseranatid or anatid (own subfamily)
Loxornis (Deseado Early Oligocene of Argentina)
Paracygnopterus (Early Oligocene of Belgium and England)
Teleornis (Deseado Early Oligocene of Argentina)
Guguschia (Late Oligocene of Pirəkəşkül, Azerbaijan) – anserine or Pelagornithidae (same as Caspiodontornis?)
Chenornis (Early Miocene) – anserine or Phalacrocoracidae
Paranyroca (Rosebud Early Miocene of Bennett County, US) – anatid (own subfamily) or distinct family?
Eoneornis (Miocene of Argentina) – anatine? A nomen dubium
Eutelornis (Miocene of Argentina) – anatine?
The Middle Oligocene Limicorallus (from Chelkar-Teniz (Kazakhstan) was sometimes considered an anserine. It is now recognized as a primitive cormorant. The middle Eocene Eonessa was formerly thought to belong to Anatidae, however reexamination of the holotype in 1978 resulted in the genus being placed as Aves incertae sedis.
References
Further reading
Johnsgard, Paul A. (2010): Ducks, Geese, and Swans of the World, Revised edition
Johnsgard, Paul A. (2010): Waterfowl of North America, Revised edition
External links
Anatidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Anatidae sounds on the xeno-canto collection
Anatidae stamps – Stamps on ducks, swans and geese
Bird families
Waterfowl
Extant Rupelian first appearances
Taxa named by William Elford Leach
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-salamu%20alaykum
|
As-salamu alaykum
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As-salamu alaykum (, , ) is a greeting in Arabic that means "Peace be upon you". The salām (سَلَام) (meaning “Peace”) is a religious salutation among Muslims when greeting, though it is also used by Arabic speakers of other religions, such as Arab Christians, as well as by Muslims generally. In colloquial speech, often only the first part of the phrase (i.e. Salām, "peace") is used to greet a person. The typical response to the greeting is wa ʿalaykumu s-salām (, ), "And peace be upon you." The complete phrase is as-salāmu ʿalaykum wa-raḥmatu -llāhi wa-barakātuh (, ), "Peace be upon you, as well as the mercy of God and his blessings."
This greeting in its abbreviated form, salām (), has come to be used as the general salutation in other languages as well. Among Christians, during Mass or other liturgical services, the priest or pastor and the congregation often use the salutation, "peace be with you," sometimes replying, "and also with you."
Pronunciation
The phrase is normally pronounced according to local dialects of speakers and is very often shortened.
For example:
In Egypt: ,
By native English-speaking Muslims: ,
Grammatical variants
The expression commonly uses the second person plural masculine, even when used to address one person. It may be modified by choosing the appropriate enclitic pronoun to address a person in the masculine and feminine singular form, the dual form, or the feminine plural form. The conjugations are as follows (note: according to the standard pronunciation rules of Classical Arabic, the last short vowel in each word is not pronounced in pausa):
A third-person variant, ʿalayhi as-salām, "peace be upon him", is often used by Muslims for prophets other than Muhammad and other holy personalities, such as angels.
In Islam
The origin of the greeting of 'As-salaamu alaykum' (Peace be upon you) dates back to the first human - Adam:
Abu Huraira reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Allah said: Go and greet with peace these groups of assembled angels and listen to how they greet you, for this will be the greeting among your progeny. Adam said: Peace be upon you. The angels said: Peace be upon you and the mercy of Allah. Thus, they added the mercy of Allah”
The final Prophet said, “None of you will enter paradise until you believe and you will not believe until you love one another. Shall I not tell you about something which, if you do it, you will love one another? Spread salaam amongst yourselves.”
It is also preferred to use the greeting when arriving and also while leaving. It was reported that Abu Hurairah said "When one of you joins a gathering, let him say 'Peace'. When he wants to get up and leave, let him say 'Peace'. The former is not more important than the latter" (Hasan hadith reported in Jami' at-Tirmidhi).
According to several hadiths, Prophet Muhammad was asked who should begin the greeting and he said, "The one who is riding should greet the one who is walking and the one who is walking should greet the one who is sitting and the smaller group should greet the larger group" (Sahih al-Bukhari, 6234; Muslim, 2160).
It is also stated that one should give the Salam greeting upon entering a house. This is based upon a verse of the Quran: "However, when you enter houses, greet one another with a greeting ˹of peace˺ from Allah, blessed and good. This is how Allah makes His revelations clear to you, so perhaps you will understand." (An-Nur 24:61).
The phrase appears a total of 7 times in the Quran, each time as salamun ʿalaykum (). In Classical Arabic, used in the Qur'an and early Hadith manuscripts, the phrase is spelled as . In Rasm, it is written as .
Surah Al-An'am (6), Ayah 54:
Surah Al-A'raf (7), Ayah 46:
Surah Ar-Ra'd (13), Ayah 24:
Surah An-Nahl (16), Ayah 32:
Surah Maryam (19), Ayah 47:
Surah Al-Qasas (28), Ayah 55:
Surah Az-Zumar (39), Ayah 73:
Other variants, such as salamun ʿalā (), or the term salam () alone is also mentioned in several other Ayahs of the Qur'an.
Usage by non-Arabic speakers
In Iran, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan and Tajikistan, Salâm () is used alone more frequently, with occasional use of Salam-o aleykom. Goodbye is supplanted by a Khudâ hâfez (), meaning "with the protection of God", with the occasional use of beh salâmat (), meaning "[go] with peace".
In Albania and Kosovo, a diminutive form in the Albanian language, Selamun Alejkem or Selamun Alejqum is rarely used, the 'q' being a voiceless palatal stop typical of Balkan Turkish and Thracian Turkish phonology.
In Amharic, the native Amharic term Selam is used in place of Tadias, which is the equivalent of "What's up".
In Turkey, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, many religious people use "Äs-sälamwaleykum" and shake hands and it is the same for saying "Hello"; more secular and non-religious people say "Selam" and in Kazakhstan say "Sälem" or "Sälemetsız be" as an equivalent to "Hello" or "Hi". However, many Turks pronounce it differently as "Selamün aleyküm".
In Pakistan, the greeting is also associated with shaking right hands and is also often accompanied with a hug when meeting infrequently (only between the same gender). In some places, people put a hand on their heart as they shake your hand and greet. Also, the full greeting is preferred versus the shorter greeting, "salam". Goodbye is supplanted by a "Khuda Hafiz" or a variation, "Allah Hafiz", both of which mean "May God keep you safe".
In India, the greeting mostly among Muslims is a simple handshake or hug, As-salamu alaykum or the shorter greeting "Salam" is used in informal situations. Goodbye is supplanted by a "Khuda Hafiz" or an alternative form, "Allah Hafiz", both of which mean "May God keep you safe".
In Bangladesh, Assalamu alaikum () is the most common Muslim greeting. Some Muslims greet their elders with these words whilst raising their right hand to the forehead. "Salam alaikum" is a regional variety of this Bengalized Arabic term. Assalamu alaikum is even used as to say goodbye, while many others say "Khoda Hafez" or "Allah Hafez", due to Pakistani influences in the country before independence.
In Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, Assalomu aleykum is used as an informal greeting.
In Indonesia, the greeting is usually accompanied with a kind of two-handed "handshake", whereby the shaker's palms remain closed, and the fingers alone open to admit the other's proffered hand – which briefly touches the proffered's fingers or fingertips alone. In this way more adherent males and females may greet through touching – but remain true to the Islamic or cultural teachings forbidding physical contact between the genders. Occasionally, the right hand will touch the left breast or heart area after this. In Indonesia's Javanese/Sasak culture, a remnant of feudalism is retained, where an elder's proffered right hand is taken and pressed briefly against the forehead. Some may instead briefly kiss the hand or the main ring. This is very common for young children to greet older relatives (of their parents' age, though, on occasion, if very polite children, younger). In slang words, this greeting is sometimes referred as "samlekom".
Shortening the greeting to acronyms, such as A.S., As'kum (in Malaysia), or AsA is becoming common amongst Internet users in chat rooms and by people using SMS. This trend is similar to writing (S) or SAWS in place of ṣallā llāhu ʿalayhi wa-sallam.
In Chechnya and other parts of the Caucasus, Salam Aleykum is used to say hi.
In Senegal which has a majority of Muslims with Sufi-orientation, it is a common greeting. Spelled and pronounced in Wolof: "(a)sala maaleykum", and the reply "maa lekum salaam."
In Xinjiang, China, "Essalam eleykum" is used as a greeting by Uyghurs, and the reply is "We'eleykum essalam".
In Portuguese, the expression "salamaleque" gained a totally distinct and curious meaning: because of the habit of Arabic cultures to bow down and wave the hand from the front ahead in greeting a person, the expression "salamaleque" is applied to exaggerated movements or acts in order to appear to be formal or entertaining or even fancy. "Os rapazes chegaram cheios de salamaleques". "Salamelecco" has the same meaning also in Italian.
In Israel or among Hebrew speakers, Shalom aleichem shālôm ʻalêḵem) is a greeting in meaning "peace be upon you." The response is aleichem shalom ("unto you peace") ().
In Malta, "Is-sliem għalikom" is often used in Catholic Church masses as a way of greeting, often by the priest, as a way of saying "peace be upon you". As the Maltese language derives from Arabic, it inherited and still uses Arabic terms for religion amongst other things.
See also
Peace be upon him
Salawat
Shahadah
Adhan
Dhikr
Tashahhud
Pax vobiscum (equivalent Christian phrase)
Shalom alechem (equivalent Hebrew phrase)
Š-L-M
References
External links
A brief illustrated guide to understanding Islam
How to pronounce As salamu alaykum in Arabic
How To Pronounce Assalamualaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh in Arabic
How to pronounce Walaikum Assalam in Arabic
Arabic words and phrases
Arabic words and phrases in Sharia
Greeting words and phrases
Islamic honorifics
Islamic terminology
Religion and peace
|
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204182
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anseriformes
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Anseriformes
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Anseriformes is an order of birds also known as waterfowl that comprises about 180 living species of birds in three families: Anhimidae (three species of screamers), Anseranatidae (the magpie goose), and Anatidae, the largest family, which includes over 170 species of waterfowl, among them the ducks, geese, and swans. Most modern species in the order are highly adapted for an aquatic existence at the water surface. With the exception of screamers, males have penises, a trait that has been lost in the Neoaves. Due to their aquatic nature, most species are web-footed.
Evolution
Anseriformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during the Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the galliformes. These two groups only occupied two ecological niches during the Mesozoic, living in water and on the ground, while the toothed enantiornithes were the dominant birds that ruled the trees and air. The asteroid that ended the Mesozoic destroyed all trees as well as animals in the open, a condition that took centuries to recover from. The anseriformes and galliformes are thought to have survived in the cover of burrows and water, and not to have needed trees for food and reproduction.
The earliest Cretaceous anseriform found so far is Vegavis, a goose-like waterfowl thought to have lived as long as 66 million years ago. Some members apparently surviving the KT extinction event, including presbyornithids, thought to be the common ancestors of ducks, geese, swans, and screamers, the last group once thought to be galliformes, but now genetically confirmed to be closely related to geese. The first known duck fossils start to appear about 34 million years ago.
Waterfowl are the best-known examples of sexually antagonistic genital coevolution in vertebrates, causing genital adaptations to coevolve in each sex to advance control over mating and fertilization. Sexually antagonistic coevolution (or SAC) occurs as a consequence of sexual conflict between males and females, resulting in coevolutionary process that reduce fit, or that functions to decrease ease of having sex.
Taxonomy
The Anseriformes and the Galliformes (pheasants, etc.) are the most primitive neognathous birds, and should follow ratites and tinamous in bird classification systems. Together they belong to the Galloanserae. Several unusual extinct families of birds like the albatross-like pseudotooth birds and the giant flightless gastornithids and mihirungs have been found to be stem-anseriforms based on common features found in the skull region, beak physiology and pelvic region. The genus Vegavis for a while was found to be the earliest member of the anseriform crown group but a recent 2017 paper has found it to be just outside the crown group in the family Vegaviidae.
Below is the general consensus of the phylogeny of anseriforms and their stem relatives.
Systematics
Anatidae systematics, especially regarding placement of some "odd" genera in the dabbling ducks or shelducks, is not fully resolved. See the Anatidae article for more information, and for alternate taxonomic approaches. Anatidae is traditionally divided into subfamilies Anatinae and Anserinae. The Anatinae consists of tribes Anatini, Aythyini, Mergini and Tadornini. The higher-order classification below follows a phylogenetic analysis performed by Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and John Boyd's website.
Order Anseriformes
?†Conflicto Claudia P. Tambussi et al. 2019
†Naranbulagornis Zelenkov 2019
Suborder Anhimae Wetmore & Miller 1926
Genus †Chaunoides de Alvarenga 1999
Family Anhimidae Stejneger 1885 (screamers)
Genus Anhima (Linnaeus 1766) Brisson 1760 (Horned screamer)
Genus Chauna Illiger 1811
Suborder Anseres (true anseriformes)
Superfamily Anseranatoidea
Family Anseranatidae Sclater 1880
Genus †Anserpica Mourer-Chauviré, Berthet & Hugueney 2004
Genus †Eoanseranas Worthy & Scanlon 2009 (Hand's dawn magpie goose)
Genus †Anatalavis Olson & Parris 1987 (Late Cretaceous/Early Paleocene – Early Eocene)
Genus Anseranas (Latham 1798) Lesson 1828 (Magpie goose)
Superfamily Anatoidea
Family †Presbyornithidae Wetmore 1926 (wading-"geese")
Genus †Teviornis Kuročkin, Dyke & Karhu 2002
Genus †Telmabates Howard 1955
Genus †Headonornis (Lydekker 1891) Harrison & Walker 1976
Genus †Presbyornis Wetmore 1926
Genus †Wilaru Boles et al. 2013
Family †Paranyrocidae Miller & Compton 1939
Genus †Paranyroca Miller & Compton 1939 (Rosebud Early Miocene of Bennett County, USA)
Family Anatidae Leach 1820 (almost 150 species)
Subfamily †Romainvilliinae Lambrecht 1933
Genus †Romainvillia Lebedinský 1927 (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene)
Genus †Saintandrea Mayr & De Pietri 2013
Subfamily Dendrocygninae Reichenbach 1849–50
Genus Dendrocygna Swainson 1837 (whistling ducks)
Genus Thalassornis Eyton 1838 (White-backed duck)
Subfamily †Dendrocheninae Livezey & Martin 1988
Genus †Dendrochen Miller 1944
Genus †Manuherikia Worthy et al. 2007
Genus †Mionetta Livezey & Martin 1988
Subfamily Stictonettinae
Genus Stictonetta (Gould 1841) Reichenbach 1853 (Freckled duck)
Subfamily Anserinae Vigors 1825 sensu Livezey 1996 (swans and geese)
Genus †Anserobranta Kuročkin & Ganya 1972
Genus †Asiavis Nesov 1986
Genus †“Chenopis” De Vis 1905
Genus †Cygnavus Lambrecht 1931
Genus †Cygnopterus Lambrecht 1931
Genus †Eremochen Brodkorb 1961
Genus †Megalodytes Howard 1992
Genus †Paracygnus Short 1969
Genus †Presbychen Wetmore 1930
Genus †Cnemiornis Owen 1866 (New Zealand Geese)
Genus Coscoroba (Molina 1782) Reichenbach 1853 (Coscoroba swan)
Genus Cereopsis Latham 1801 (Cape Barren goose)
Genus Cygnus Garsault 1764
Genus †Afrocygnus chauvireae Louchart et al. 2005
Genus Branta Scopoli 1769
Tribe Anserini Vigors 1825
Genus Anser Brisson 1760
Subfamily Tadorninae Reichenbach 1849–50 (shelducks and sheldgeese)
Genus †Australotadorna Worthy 2009
Genus †Brantadorna Howard 1964
Genus †Centrornis Andrews 1897 (Malagasy sheldgoose)
Genus †Miotadorna Worthy et al. 2007 (St. Bathans shelduck)
Genus †Nannonetta Campbell 1979
Genus †Pleistoanser Agnolín 2006
Genus Plectropterus (Linnaeus 1766) (Spur-winged goose)
Genus Merganetta Gould 1842 (Torrent duck)
Genus Chloephaga Eyton 1838
Genus Neochen Oberholser 1918
Genus Cyanochen (Rüppell 1845) Bonaparte 1856 (Blue-winged goose)
Genus Tadorna Boie 1822
Genus Radjah Reichenbach, 1853
Genus Alopochen Stejneger 1885
Genus Cairina (Linnaeus 1758) Fleming 1822 (Muscovy duck)
Genus Hymenolaimus (Gmelin 1789) Gray 1843 (Blue duck)
Genus Sarkidiornis Eyton 1838
Genus Tachyeres Owen 1875 (Steamer ducks)
Subfamily Anatinae Vigors 1825 sensu Livezey 1996
Genus Aix Boie 1828
Genus Callonetta Delacour 1936 (Ringed teal)
Genus Chenonetta von Brandt 1836 (Australian wood duck)
Genus Biziura Stephens 1824 (musk ducks)
Genus Pteronetta (Cassin 1860) Salvadori 1895 (Hartlaub's duck)
Genus Marmaronetta (Ménétries 1832) Reichenbach 1853 (Marbled duck)
Genus Asarcornis (Müller 1842) Salvadori 1895 (White-winged duck)
Genus Netta Kaup 1829
Genus Lophonetta (King 1828) Riley 1914 (Crested duck)
Genus Amazonetta (Gmelin 1789) von Boetticher 1929 (Brazilian teal)
Genus †Dunstanetta Worthy et al. 2007 (Johnstone's duck)
Genus †Lavadytis Stidham & Hilton 2015
Genus †Pinpanetta Worthy 2009
Genus †Tirarinetta Worthy 2008
Tribe Oxyurini Swainson 1831 (stiff-tailed ducks and allies)
Genus Heteronetta (Merrem 1841) Salvadori 1865 (Black-headed duck)
Genus Nomonyx (Linnaeus 1766) Ridgway 1880 (Masked duck)
Genus Oxyura Bonaparte 1828
Genus Nettapus von Brandt 1836 (Pygmy geese)
Genus †Anabernicula Ross 1935
Genus Malacorhynchus Swainson 1831 (Pink-eared duck)
Genus Salvadorina Rothschild & Hartert 1894 (Salvadori's teal)
Genus Speculanas (King 1828) von Boetticher 1929 (Bronze-winged duck)
Tribe Mergini Rafinesque 1815 (eiders, scoters, mergansers and other sea-ducks)
Genus †Chendytes Miller 1925
Genus †Shiriyanetta Watanabe & Matsuoka 2015
Genus Histrionicus Lesson 1828 (Harlequin duck)
Genus †Camptorhynchus (Gmelin 1789) Bonaparte 1838 (Labrador duck)
Genus Clangula Leach 1819 (Long-tailed duck)
Genus Polysticta stelleri (Pallas 1769) Eyton 1836 (Steller's eider)
Genus Somateria Leach 1819 (Eiders)
Genus Melanitta Boie 1822 (Scoters)
Genus Bucephala Baird 1858
Genus Mergellus Selby 1840 (Smew)
Genus Lophodytes (Linnaeus 1758) Reichenbach 1853 (Hooded merganser)
Genus Mergus Linnaeus 1758 non Brisson 1760
Tribe Anatini Vigors 1825 sensu Livezey 1996 (dabbling ducks and moa-nalos)
Genus †Matanas Worthy et al. 2007 (Enright's duck)
Genus Anas Linnaeus 1758
Genus Sibirionetta (Georgi 1775) (Baikal teal)
Genus Mareca (Stephens 1824)
Genus Spatula Boie 1822
Tribe Aythyini Delacour and Mayr, 1945 (diving ducks)
Genus Aythya Boie 1822
Some fossil anseriform taxa not assignable with certainty to a family are:
†Proherodius (London Clay Early Eocene of London, England) – Presbyornithidae?
†Garganornis ballmanni Meijer 2014
Unassigned Anatidae:
†"Anas" albae Jánossy 1979 [?Mergus]
†"Anas" amotape Campbell 1979
†"Anas" isarensis Lambrecht 1933
†"Anas" luederitzensis
†"Anas" sanctaehelenae Campbell 1979
†"Anas" eppelsheimensis Lambrecht 1933
†"Oxyura" doksana Mlíkovský 2002
†"Anser" scaldii ["Anas" scaldii]
†Ankonetta larriestrai Cenizo & Agnolín 2010
†Cayaoa bruneti Tonni 1979
†Eoneornis nomen dubium
†Eutelornis
†Aldabranas cabri Harrison & Walker 1978
†Chenoanas deserta Zelenkov 2012
†Cygnopterus alphonsi Cheneval 1984 [non Cygnavus senckenbergi Mlíkovský 2002]
†Helonetta brodkorbi Emslie 1992
†Loxornis clivus Ameghino 1894
†Mioquerquedula minutissima Zelenkov & Kuročkin 2012 [Anas velox Milne-Edwards 1867]
†Paracygnopterus scotti Harrison & Walker 1979
†Proanser major Umanskaya 1979
†Teleornis Ameghino 1899
†Protomelanitta Zelenkov 2011
†Nogusunna conflictoides Zelenkov 2011
†Sharganetta mongolica Zelenkov 2011
Metopiana Bonaparte 1856 [Metopias Heine & Reichenow 1890; Phoeonetta Delacour 1937; Netta (Phoeoaythia) Delacour 1937]
†Bambolinetta (Portis 1884) Mayr & Pavia 2014 [Anas lignitifila Portis 1884]
†Heteroanser vicinus (Kuročkin 1976) Zelenkov 2012 [Heterochen vicinus Kuročkin 1976; Anser vicinus (Kuročkin 1976) Mlíkovský & Švec 1986]
†Sinanas Yeh 1980
†Talpanas Olson & James 2009 (Kaua'i mole duck)
†Wasonaka Howard 1966
†Chelychelynechen Olson & James 1991 (turtle-jawed moa-nalo)
†Ptaiochen Olson & James 1991 (small-billed moa-nalo)
†Thambetochen Olson & Wetmore 1976
In addition, a considerable number of mainly Late Cretaceous and Paleogene fossils have been described where it is uncertain whether or not they are anseriforms. This is because almost all orders of aquatic birds living today either originated or underwent a major radiation during that time, making it hard to decide whether some waterbird-like bone belongs into this family or is the product of parallel evolution in a different lineage due to adaptive pressures.
"Presbyornithidae" gen. et sp. indet. (Barun Goyot Late Cretaceous of Udan Sayr, Mongolia) – Presbyornithidae?
UCMP 117599 (Hell Creek Late Cretaceous of Bug Creek West, USA)
Petropluvialis (Late Eocene of England) – may be same as Palaeopapia
Agnopterus (Late Eocene – Late Oligocene of Europe) – includes Cygnopterus lambrechti
"Headonornis hantoniensis" BMNH PAL 4989 (Hampstead Early Oligocene of Isle of Wight, England) – formerly "Ptenornis"
Palaeopapia (Hampstead Early Oligocene of Isle of Wight, England)
"Anas" creccoides (Early/Middle Oligocene of Belgium)
"Anas" skalicensis (Early Miocene of "Skalitz", Czech Republic)
"Anas" risgoviensis (Late Miocene of Bavaria, Germany)
†"Anas" meyerii Milne-Edwards 1867 [Aythya meyerii (Milne-Edwards 1867) Brodkorb 1964]
†Eonessa anaticula Wetmore 1938 {Eonessinae Wetmore 1938}
Phylogeny
Living Anseriformes based on the work by John Boyd.
Molecular studies
Studies of the mitochondrial DNA suggest the existence of four branches – Anseranatidae, Dendrocygninae, Anserinae and Anatinae – with Dendrocygninae being a subfamily within the family Anatidae and Anseranatidae representing an
independent family. The clade Somaterini has a single genus Somateria.
See also
List of Anseriformes by population
List of Anseriformes
References
Cited texts
Murray, P. F. & Vickers-Rich, P. (2004) Magnificent Mihirungs: The Colossal Flightless Birds of the Australian Dreamtime. Indiana University Press.
Bird orders
Extant Maastrichtian first appearances
Late Cretaceous taxonomic orders
Paleocene taxonomic orders
Eocene taxonomic orders
Oligocene taxonomic orders
Miocene taxonomic orders
Pliocene taxonomic orders
Pleistocene taxonomic orders
Holocene taxonomic orders
Taxa named by Johann Georg Wagler
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] |
204185
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Perry%20%28inventor%29
|
Stephen Perry (inventor)
|
Stephen Perry was a 19th-century British inventor and businessman. His corporation was the Messers Perry and Co, Rubber Manufacturers of London, which made early products from vulcanised rubber. On 17 March 1845, Perry received a patent for the rubber band.
References
See also
Other people surnamed Perry
British inventors
Year of death missing
Year of birth missing
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus%20West%20Field
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Cyrus West Field
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Cyrus West Field (November 30, 1819July 12, 1892) was an American businessman and financier who, along with other entrepreneurs, created the Atlantic Telegraph Company and laid the first telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean in 1858.
Early life
Field was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts to Rev. David Dudley Field, a Congregational clergyman, and Submit Dickinson Field, daughter of Revolutionary War Captain Noah Dickinson from Somers, Connecticut. The eighth of ten children, he was the brother of David Dudley Field Jr., Henry Martyn Field, and Stephen Johnson Field, the 38th United States Supreme Court Justice, among other siblings. When he was 15 years old, Field came to New York City, where he was hired as an errand boy in the A. T. Stewart & Co., a dry goods merchant firm. He entered a business apprenticeship, and earned fifty dollars at his first year as a storeroom clerk; his pay was doubled the following year. After three years, he came back to Stockbridge, but returned to New York later in his career. Field married Mary Bryan Stone on December 2, 1840, two days after he turned twenty one, and they had seven children.
Getting started in business
Although Field had many available career options, he chose business. This was a great move for Field. At first, he worked for his brothers, David Dudley Field Jr. and Matthew Dickinson Field. In 1838, he accepted an offer from his brother Matthew to become his assistant in the paper manufacturing venture, the Columbia Mill, in Lee, Massachusetts. In Spring 1840, he went into business by himself, manufacturing paper in Westfield, Massachusetts. The same year, he became a junior partner in the E. Root & Co., a wholesale paper firm based in New York with responsibilities to oversee clients and conduct sales away from New York. After six months, E. Root & Co. failed leaving large debts. Field negotiated with creditors, dissolved the old firm, and started a new partnership with his brother-in-law, Joseph F. Stone, registered as Cyrus W. Field & Co. He stayed in business and was furnishing supplies for the Northeast mills, such as owned by Crane & Company, and buying the finished product wholesale. Through his hard work and long hours, the young paper merchant was able to repay the settled debts and succeed in business by servicing the burgeoning penny press and the need for stocks and bonds, becoming eventually one of the richest men in New York. In March, 1853, he repaid all previously cancelled debt due to insolvency of E. Root & Co. debts in full amount with interest, being under no legal obligation to do so. Among the answers received, one particularly stated,
Midlife
Business earnings permitted Field to partially retire at the age of 34 with a fortune of $250,000 and build a home in Gramercy Park. In 1853, Field financed an expedition to South America with his artist friend Frederic Edwin Church, during which they explored present-day Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama. They followed the route taken by Alexander von Humboldt over 50 years earlier. Church's sketches of the landscapes and volcanoes on this trip, and on a subsequent trip in 1857 with artist Louis Rémy Mignot, inspired some of his most famous paintings upon his return to New York. Field's list of "Places of Interest to Visit" in South America reflected his interests, including business interests: bridges, volcanoes, waterfalls, and cities, as well as gold mines and the emerald mines of Muzo.
Field turned his attention to telegraphy after he was contacted in January 1854 by Frederick Newton Gisborne, a British engineer, who aimed to establish a telegraph connection between St. John's, Newfoundland and New York City, started the work, but failed due to the lack of capital. Later that year he, with Peter Cooper, Abram Stevens Hewitt, Moses Taylor and Samuel F.B. Morse, joined the so-called Cable Cabinet of entrepreneurs, investors and engineers. Through this Cable Cabinet, Field became instrumental in laying a telegraph line connecting St. John's, Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, coupling with telegraph lines from the U.S. American investors took over Gisborne's venture and formed a new company called the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company (N.Y.N.L.T.C.) after Field convinced the Cable Cabinet to extend the line from Newfoundland to Ireland .
The next year the same investors formed the American Telegraph Company and began buying up other companies, rationalizing them into a consolidated system that ran from Maine to the Gulf Coast; the system was second only to Western Union's.
In 1857, after securing financing in England and backing from the American and British governments, the Atlantic Telegraph Company began laying the first transatlantic telegraph cable, utilizing a shallow submarine plateau that ran between Ireland and Newfoundland. The cable was officially opened on August 16, 1858, when Queen Victoria sent President James Buchanan a message in Morse code. Although the jubilation at the feat was widespread, the cable itself was short-lived: it broke down three weeks afterward, and was not reconnected until 1866.
During the Panic of 1857, Field's paper business suspended, and Peter Cooper, his neighbor in Gramercy Park, was the only one that kept him from going under.
On August 26, 1858, Field returned to a triumphant homecoming at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, saluting this Massachusetts boy made good. "This has been a great day here," trumpeted The New York Times, "The occasion was the reception of the welcome of Cyrus W. Field, Esq., the world-renowned parent of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable scheme, which has been so successfully completed."
Field's activities brought him into contact with a number of prominent persons on both sides of the Atlantic – including Lord Clarendon and William Ewart Gladstone, the British Finance Minister at the time. Field's communications with Gladstone would become important in the middle of the American Civil War, when three letters he received from Gladstone between November 27, 1862 and December 9, 1862 caused a furor, because Gladstone appeared to express support of the secessionist southern states in forming the Confederate States of America.
In 1866, Field laid a new, more durable trans-Atlantic cable using Brunel's . Great Eastern was, at the time, the largest ocean-going ship in the world. His new cable provided almost instant communication across the Atlantic. On his return to Newfoundland, he grappled the cable he had attempted to lay the previous year and made it into a backup wire to the main cable.
In 1867, Field received a gold medal from the U.S. Congress and the grand prize at the International Exposition in Paris for his work on the transatlantic cable.
Later years
In the 1870s-80s, Field entered into transportation business. He served as president of the New York Elevated Railroad Company in 1877-1880 and collaborated with Jay Gould on developing the Wabash Railroad. Field also loaned Henry W. Grady the $20,000 used for Grady to buy a one-quarter interest in the Atlanta Constitution newspaper. He also owned the Mail and Express, a New York newspaper. Bad investments deprived Field of his fortune. He lived modestly during the last five years of his life in his native Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and died in 1892 at the age of 72. He is buried in Stockbridge Cemetery
Commemoration
Field and his wife are buried in Stockbridge, Massachusetts in the Stockbridge Cemetery in Berkshire County. His headstone reads: CYRUS WEST FIELD To whose courage, energy and perseverance the world owes The Atlantic Telegraph.
In December 1884, the Canadian Pacific Railway named the community of Field, British Columbia, Canada in his honor.
Cyrus Field Road, in Irvington, New York, where he died, is named after him.
Ardsley, New York was named after Field's ancestor, Zechariah Field, on Cyrus Field's request. Zechariah Field was born in East Ardsley, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, and immigrated to America in 1629.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Carter, Samuel. Cyrus Field: Man of Two Worlds. New York: Putnam, 1968.
Hearn, Chester G. "Circuits in the Sea: the Men, the Ships, and the Atlantic Cable. Westport: Connecticut, Praeger, 2004"
Gordon, John Steele. A Thread Across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable. New York: Harper Perennial, 2003.
Judson, Isabella F. Cyrus W. Field, His Life and Work, 1819-1892. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1896.
Klein, Carole. Gramercy Park: An American Bloomsbury. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.
Thompson, Robert L. Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1947.
External links
Bill Burns. History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications: Cyrus W. Field, Atlantic-Cable.com
Cyrus Field (1819-1892), The Great Transatlantic Cable, PBS
1819 births
1892 deaths
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
People from Stockbridge, Massachusetts
19th-century American businesspeople
Telegraphy
Submarine communications cables
People from Irvington, New York
|
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204194
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader
|
Nader
|
Nader is a masculine given name and surname of Arabic origin ( Nādir, meaning "rare", "unique") and may refer to:
Persons
Given name
Nader Shah, former Shah of Iran (Persia)
Nader Batmanghelidj, (1904–1998) Iranian army general
Nader al-Dahabi (born 1946), Prime Minister of Jordan
Nader Darehshori, businessman in the United States
Nader Engheta, Iranian scientist and engineer
Wael Nader al-Halqi, Syrian politician
Nader Matar, Lebanese footballer
Nader El-Sayed, Egyptian footballer
Nader Jahanbani, Iranian army officer
Surname
Abdel Nader, Egyptian-American basketball player
Alireza Nader, American academic
Claire Nader, American social scientist
George Nader, Arab-American actor and uncle of Michael Nader
George Nader, Lebanese-American businessman, lobbyist, and convicted sex offender
Hassan Nader, retired Moroccan football player
Laura Nader, American professor of anthropology
Nader Nader, Russian businessman of Syrian origin
Michael Nader, American actor
Ralph Nader, American attorney, citizen activist and four time third-party presidential candidate
Rose Nader, American social activist and mother of Ralph Nader
Shafeek Nader, community advocate and brother of Ralph Nader
Other uses
Nader, an Arabic word used in Hadith evaluation, which can be translated to mean "rare" or "unique"
(also Näder): German surname, meaning embroiderer or tailor
A slang term for tornadoes
See also
Nadir (disambiguation)
Nadir (name)
Nater (disambiguation), includes a list of people with surname Nater
References
Arabic-language surnames
Arabic masculine given names
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Sapp
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Bob Sapp
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Robert Malcolm Sapp (born September 22, 1973) is an American mixed martial artist, kickboxer, professional wrestler, actor, and former American football player. He is currently under contract with Rizin Fighting Federation. Sapp has a combined fight record of 24–39–1, mostly fighting in Japan. He is well known in Japan, where he has appeared in numerous commercials, television programs, and various other media, and has released a music CD, Sapp Time. He is known their as a gaijin tarento (foreign-born talent). He is currently working sporadically for various MMA promotions in the U.S., Japan, and Europe.
Sapp played college football as a guard for the Washington Huskies with whom he won the Morris Trophy. He was drafted in the third round of the 1997 NFL draft by the Chicago Bears with whom he played for one season seeing no game action before playing with the Minnesota Vikings for another two seasons, only playing in one game. He later began a career in professional wrestling before branching out into mixed martial arts and kickboxing, where he initially enjoyed significant success and popularity before eventually developing a reputation as a tomato can.
American football career
Sapp began his athletic career in high school playing football at Mitchell High School in Colorado Springs, Colorado. He received a football scholarship to the University of Washington, where he won the Morris Award in 1996. He took part in "The Whammy in Miami", the Washington Huskies' upset win over the Miami Hurricanes that broke the latter's 58 game home winning streak.
Sapp was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the third round (69th overall) of the 1997 NFL Draft. He signed with the Minnesota Vikings after being released by the Bears. However, his career took a hit after he was suspended by the NFL in 1998 for alleged steroid abuse. He spent two seasons with the Vikings and only played in one game.
Afterwards, Sapp was left in poverty after being defrauded by his economic advisor, and was resorted to working at a funeral home moving coffins to make a living. He eventually decided to pursue a career in professional wrestling on the advice of his friend Mike Morris, who saw a chance for Sapp on it.
Professional wrestling
Early career (2001–2002)
Bob Sapp's professional wrestling career started in NWA Wildside in 2001, before he was quickly contracted by World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as a developmental wrestler. There he started honing his "The Beast" persona, which at this stage was a villainous, feral tarzan-like gimmick, but his development was cut short when the company was bought out by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). He left professional wrestling for many years, attracted instead to a fighting career under the training of fellow WCW developmental wrestler Sam Greco.
New Japan Pro-Wrestling and All Japan Pro Wrestling (2002–2005)
In 2002, riding his success in K-1, Sapp made his professional wrestling debut for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Introduced as a member of chairman Antonio Inoki's army of fighters, Sapp replaced an injured Yoshihiro Takayama in his October 14 match against Manabu Nakanishi. The two exchanged taunts and attacks on the weeks leading to the match, with Sapp ultimately winning after executing his finishing move, the Beast Bomb, on the ringside, where he left Nakanishi to be counted out. This victory led to many other wrestlers to suggest to take their chance against Sapp, among them Yuji Nagata and Takayama himself, but the American refrained from participating.
Sapp balanced his NJPW appearances with similar ventures in All Japan Pro Wrestling, where he intruded to challenge Bill Goldberg and Keiji Mutoh. He first appeared in Wrestle-1, a copromotion between K-1 and AJPW, where he faced Mutoh's alter ego The Great Muta in November 2002. Sapp defeated him after pinning him with a diving headbutt. He returned to the event in January 2003, where he wrestled his kickboxing rival Ernesto Hoost, yet this time Sapp lost after Hoost's cornerman Johann Vos intervened in the bout.
In October 2003, Sapp returned to NJPW, taking part again of Inoki's MMA army along with Takayama, Kazuyuki Fujita, Shinsuke Nakamura and Minoru Suzuki to face Nakanishi, Nagata, Hiroshi Tanahashi, Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Seiji Sakaguchi. He followed by some team matches along with Nakamura and AJPW's Keiji Mutoh, but his main push would come in his singles career. On March 28, 2004, Sapp defeated Kensuke Sasaki to win the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, becoming the first (and only, to date) African-American to hold the title. After successfully defending the title against Shinsuke Nakamura on May 3 at Nexess, Sapp forfeited the title due to having lost to Kazuyuki Fujita in a mixed martial arts fight.
In 2005, Sapp returned to Wrestle-1, taking part on its inaugural Grand Prix tournament and beating Giant Bernard and Jun Akiyama in road to the finals. However, Wrestle-1 was discontinued before the tournament could win.
Hustle (2007–2008)
On October 16, 2007, Sapp made a surprise appearance at Hustle's Korakuen Hall event, attacking Razor Ramon HG and his partner Wataru Sakata. Sapp aligned himself with Generalissimo Takada's villainous Monster Army. After defeating Razor Ramon RG in his debut match for the company, it was announced that he would wrestle at the Hustlemania Yokohama Arena event. His opponent was later confirmed to be Razor Ramon HG, whom Sapp went on to defeat.
Sapp was later put into a tag team with fellow superheavyweight Monster Bono, but a falling out between the two due to miscommunications in the ring led Sapp to attack Bono with a chair. Sapp and Bono entered a short feud, which culminated with the American's victory and Bono's expulsion from the Monster Army. Sapp then started teaming up with Commander An Jo, eventually entering another feud with Hustle Army member Wataru Sakata. Sapp was defeated by him, breaking his winning streak in professional wrestling. He would try to bounce back by participating in the Hustle Grand Prix 2008, but he was shockingly eliminated by Osaka Pro Wrestling representative Zeus after having beaten Tiger Jeet Singh. After another short rivalry with Genichiro Tenryu, Sapp was defeated in a rematch against Bono as his last appearance for Hustle.
Independent circuit (2008)
In 2008, Sapp began to participate in WWA, a pro wrestling organization in South Korea. On October 26, 2009, Sapp captured the WWA Heavyweight title by defeating Lee Wang-pyo. On July 24, 2011, Sapp made his debut for Dramatic Dream Team (DDT) at Ryōgoku Peter Pan 2011, using a "Beast will fight for money" gimmick. In a comedy match, he was defeated by Danshoku Dino, a wrestler with a homosexual character, being pinned after a kiss and a Gaydo Clutch.
Return to New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2012–2013)
At a NJPW event on December 20, 2012, Toru Yano announced that Sapp would represent the villainous Chaos stable on January 4, 2013, at Wrestle Kingdom 7 in Tokyo Dome. At the event, Sapp teamed with Yano, Takashi Iizuka and Yujiro Takahashi in an eight-man tag team match, where they were defeated by Akebono, Manabu Nakanishi, MVP and Strong Man. Sapp made another appearance for New Japan on April 7, 2013, at Invasion Attack, where he and Chaos stablemates Takashi Iizuka, Tomohiro Ishii and Yoshi-Hashi were defeated by Akebono, Hiroyoshi Tenzan, Manabu Nakanishi and Super Strong Machine in another eight-man tag team match.
Wrestle-1 (2013)
On September 8, Sapp took part in the Wrestle-1 promotion's inaugural event, teaming with Keiji Mutoh in a main event tag team match, where they defeated René Duprée and Zodiac.
Inoki Genome Federation (2014)
In 2014, he would compete in the Inoki Genome Federation (IGF) and would lose to Aztecaser in his debut match.
Kickboxing and mixed martial arts career
In 2002, after Sapp was released from WCW, he was picked up by FX for its amateur boxing show The Toughman Competition. Sapp was pitted against William "The Refrigerator" Perry as a pro wrestling representative and, despite not having any prior boxing experience, won by knocking out Perry in round 2. Then Sapp's friend and trainer Sam Greco showed his match to Kazuyoshi Ishii, chairman of Japanese kickboxing promotion K-1. Ishii then invited Sapp to Japan in order to start a career in the ring, seeing a combination of great potential and great marketability in him. After training for six months in United States in the AMC Pankration and Team Quest gyms, he would be sent to mixed martial arts company Pride Fighting Championship, which had expressed interest on him too, in order to make his professional debut first under such rules. Sapp competed under both rulesets indistinctly for the rest of his career, usually for the promotion K-1.
K-1 and Japanese promotions
2002
After arriving to Japan, Sapp debuted in Pride as a K-1 representative against former professional wrestler and longtime Fighting Network RINGS competitor Yoshihisa Yamamoto, who he finished by TKO at 2:44 of the first round by way of wild hooks. The bout, which attracted 10 million viewers, quickly turned Sapp into a fan favorite due to his size, charisma and aggression, and prepared him for his kickboxing debut against Tsuyoshi Nakasako a month later. Sapp lost by disqualification in 1:30 when he pushed Nakasako to the corner, threw him to the ground and rained illegal strikes on him until being restrained by ring crew. The act caused a brawl on the ring when the cornermen jumped in, but Sapp was surprisingly received with cheers from the crowd. He became an overnight sensation in Japan afterwards, appearing on numerous television shows and advertisements and becoming K-1's most popular fighter. Sapp contributed by creating an outrageous public persona, nicknamed "The Beast", under which he played an unhinged, loudmouthed, yet also humorous version of himself.
Sapp's second Pride match was against two-time RINGS Openweight Champion Kiyoshi Tamura. Though Tamura was a highly respected fighter who held wins over the likes of Pat Miletich, Jeremy Horn and Renzo Gracie, he was giving up 150 lbs to his foe and was quickly overwhelmed by the much larger American, succumbing to strikes just 11 seconds into the bout.
In a show held by both Pride and K-1 called "Dynamite", Sapp faced then Pride champion Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira. The latter had originally been slated for a kickboxing bout against K-1 fighter Mark Hunt, but negotiations fell out, as Nogueira had proposed to fight two separate bouts under mixed martial arts and kickboxing rules respectively, which was rejected by Hunt. The Pride champion then accepted to fight Sapp as a replacement, noting that "nobody wanted to fight Sapp, and some other Pride fighters already had their fights matched." Due to the usual size disparity, this time amounting to 127 pounds, Nogueira accepted a special rule to ban knee strikes on the ground, making it a more even affair. Despite this, the match would quickly become a memorable battle of strength against technique.
Sapp opened the match almost finishing Nogueira in mere seconds, as the latter charged with a takedown only to be lifted and slammed onto his head. Sapp looked to repeat the technique, but Nogueira managed to avoid it and momentarily ready Sapp for an unsuccessful armbar. Taking his turn, Sapp started punishing him with ground and pound through the Brazilian's guard, nullifying his armlocks by sheer strength and landing powerbombs every time Nogueira tried his trademark triangle choke. The bout continued this way, with Nogueira trying fruitless submissions from the bottom while Sapp grinded him with heavy blows, until action finally slowed down into the second round, as Sapp was unaccustomed to such a long time of fighting. Nogueira, who had endured the beating through impressive will and looked "only half-conscious" according to reviewers, finally pulled a tired Sapp down and mounted him. The Brazilian seized an armbar and, although Sapp blocked it, he had no left energy to resist and had to concede the hold and the match.
The fight received critical acclaim by reviewers, with website Ichiban Puroresu calling it "an awesome fight" and "better drama than any fight this year," Keith Vargo commenting that "victory and defeat were changing sides so fast that either man could have won any moment," and Scott Newman opining it was "probably the best heavyweight fight [he had] ever seen in fact." Mirko Cro Cop, who would defeat Sapp in K-1, was quoted as, "It was the craziest fight I've ever seen. I couldn't believe that 'Minotauro' was able to survive all the things that happened to him. He almost broke his spine. Unbelievable." Sapp himself was praised by his performance, to the extent Pride commentators Stephen Quadros and Bas Rutten speculating he could become a major fighter with only more training. He actually expressed desire for a rematch, but Nogueira, who came from the fight with both cheekbones broken, actively rejected it.
Sapp stated interest in fighting Fedor Emelianenko after he won the Pride Heavyweight Championship from Nogueira, which Emelianenko accepted, though joking he would have to gain 70 kg to face Sapp in even terms. Nothing of this materialized, and Sapp would never again compete in Pride, instead focusing his attention on K-1. When Sapp returned to the kickboxing ring the next month, this time against Cyril Abidi and with K-1 chairman Kazuyoshi Ishii as a special referee, he scored his first kickboxing victory, cornering his opponent and unloading punches and hammerfists on him for the KO.
His greatest in-ring success, though, would come in his match over K-1 legend Ernesto Hoost. They first met at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2002 Final Elimination on October 5, 2002, where Sapp replaced an injured Cro Cop in his bout against Hoost. The latter was expected to win thanks to his experience and technical superiority despite being outweighed by over 100 pounds, but Sapp claimed he would not need more than the first round to defeat Hoost, thus setting up an anticipated matchup. Once the fight came around, all while under a television viewership of 19.8%, Sapp surprised the crowd when he started dominating Hoost effectively through his already known charging strategy. By pushing Hoost against the ring's corners and unloading punches there with all of his strength, Sapp controlled the entire the first round, and still landed controversially three more punches after the bell sounded. After the round, the ring doctor declared Hoost was unable to continue due to cuts, and Sapp was ultimately deemed winner while Hoost collapsed visibly in his corner, fulfilling his previous prediction.
His solid victory over Hoost, much like his dominant effort with Nogueira, proved that the trust put on Sapp by K-1 executives had not been in vain. Sapp would compare his situation to "taking someone off the streets and throwing him into the ring with Mike Tyson and then watching that person win," given how much he had accomplished with so little experience and training. According to future adversary Mirko Cro Crop, Sapp's reputation caused that many potential opponents were scared to fight him, both in Pride and K-1. However, Hoost was reportedly discontent with the match's refereeing, citing the illegalities committed by Sapp, and expressed desire for a rematch.
Two months later, Sapp was slated to fight Semmy Schilt at K-1 World Grand Prix 2002 Final quarter-finals, but an injury suffered by the latter granted Hoost his second chance as a replacement. Sapp declared he would finish him in one round again. The bout would be a more even affair, however, as although Sapp looked to use his familiar strategy, this time Hoost scored a knockdown through two well placed body blows and survived the first round. Hoost followed on this tactic at the second, but Sapp eventually stunned him and knocked him down in return via repeated arm clubs to the head. The fighters went back and forth for the rest of the assault, until a drained Sapp finally managed to corner Hoost and overwhelm him with unanswered haymakers. At this point, referee Nobuaki Kakuda stopped the fight and gave Sapp the win. Those last seconds were a new source of controversy, as while Hoost was receiving continuous punishment, the stoppage still happened before he fell down. A worn Sapp forfeited his place in the tournament due to exhaustion and an injured hand, being ironically replaced by Hoost himself, who went to win the cup.
At the ending of 2002, Sapp fought professional wrestler Yoshihiro Takayama at the Inoki Bom-Ba-Ye event. After rushing Takayama to the ground as usual, Sapp proved he had his own way with basic submissions by transitioning to an armbar from mount, making the wrestler tap out. Their fight reached a 24.5 rating in TV. By this time, Sapp's media schedule had grown up so much that he found himself without time to properly train for his fighting career. His trainer Matt Hume would describe it as, "if he would have had time to dedicate to strict training, he would have been
a better fighter, however K-1 and Bob's priority was media exposure, so we accepted it and worked with it."
2003
Sapp's first defeat came at his fourth match, pitted against former K-1 champion Mirko Cro Cop on March 30, 2003. Despite being dedicated to mixed martial arts at the moment, Cro Cop had accepted the bout due to a lack of fighters willing to matchup with Sapp after his 2002 performance. Sapp also prepared specially for the fight, learning proper muay thai and rumoredly training under Bas Rutten. Although Sapp pushed the fight for a minute, the mobile Cro Cop landed a liver shot and followed with a left hand that broke completely Sapp's orbital bone, making him collapse on the mat and give up while in visible pain. He would need urgent surgery to repair the damage. Both Sapp and Cro Cop later talked about rematching under MMA rules, but this never came to fruition. Before this, Sapp had been placed in an upcoming fight against Francisco Filho, which had to be scrapped due to Sapp being ruled out from competition due to the injury.
A month later, hoping to capitalize on the success of Sapp and others, K-1 made a new fighting division called "Beast" (Sapp's nickname), which featured superheavyweights fighters such as Choi Hong-man. However, the division was stopped after two events due to disappointing reviews and gate takes. Still, Sapp was perceived to play a role in popularizing superheavyweights like Choi or Giant Silva in the sport, which he considered an accomplishment.
In August, Sapp participated in a special K-1 event in Las Vegas, where he went against Ultimate Fighting Championship veteran Kimo Leopoldo. Sapp had trained orthodox kickboxing with fellow UFC champion Maurice Smith for the match, and it could be noted in several powerful punches and knees that stunned Leopoldo. However, Sapp's stamina started to falter, which a slightly better conditioned Leopoldo capitalized on to take his turn, eventually knocking Sapp down at the end of the round. Controversy happened before the second, as referee Nobuaki Kakuda seemed to be deliberately giving Sapp time to recover, but the match continued anyway. Perceiving himself outclassed at a technical level, Sapp decided to return to his old bullrushing style, which paid off quickly by knocking Leopoldo down with a left hand. The UFC fighter tried to return the favor, but Sapp was already en route to overpower him and finally rendered him KO with an unchecked rabbit punch. In a marked contrast to Japan, American audiences booed Sapp.
The event in Las Vegas would not end with more controversy, as the victorious Sapp got in a verbal confrontation with former boxing Undisputed Heavyweight Champion Mike Tyson, who was sitting at ringside. Tyson jumped on the ring after Sapp and caused a brief brawl, after which Sapp and him exchanged challenges for a bout between the two. It was soon announced by K-1 that the match was in talks, with Tyson considering training with kickboxing coach Jacob Duran in case the bout was hosted under K-1 rules. However, Tyson's status as a convicted felon made him unable to get a visa to fight in Japan where the fight would have been most profitable. Other locations for the proposed fight were made, but the fight ultimately never happened.
Sapp returned to Japan in September, facing another superheavyweight, Stefan Gamlin, under MMA rules at K-1 Japan Grand Prix 2003. Despite being outweighed by the first time in his career, Sapp won in 0:52 with a guillotine choke. He continued challenging Tyson, claiming he would knock him out with high kicks, and also proposed a matchup against Francois Botha.
The next month, this time under K-1 rules, he fought Dutch champion Remy Bonjasky at the first round of the 2003 K-1 World Grand Prix. The match started with Bonjasky, famous for his flying knees and kicks, almost falling out the ring when Sapp threw him on the ropes in response to such attacks. The American chased a covered up Bonjasky through the ring while scoring punches and knees, but his opponent eventually bypassed his defense and landed a sharp roundhouse kick to end the first round. Bonkasky kept landing through the second, knocking Sapp down with a combination, but Sapp answered by pushing him to the ground and landing a heavy illegal punch. As Bonjasky refused to continue after the strike, Sapp was disqualified.
At the end of the year, Sapp was involved in a highly publicized matchup at K-1 PREMIUM 2003 Dynamite!! with former yokozuna Akebono Taro, who was doing his debut. The combined popularity of Sapp and Akebono attracted a crowd of 45,000 to the Nagoya Dome and granted the event a 43% viewership (roughly 54 million of the 127 million people in Japan at the time), making it the first time a combat sports event outdrew the NHK music festival Kōhaku Uta Gassen, Japan's traditionally biggest New Year's Eve show. The classical matchup of an American foreigner like Sapp against a Japanese national like Taro, a cultural contraposition, also gained comparisons with Japanese professional wrestling legend Rikidōzan in his bouts against The Sharpe Brothers. The match itself, however, was short and intense. Though outweighed by over 150 pounds, Sapp had the advantage at experience and stamina, allowing him endure Akebono's initially energetic sumo pushes in order to counterattack. He attacked Akebono with low kicks and punching combinations to the head and body, knocking him down twice before finishing him by KO at 2:58. After defeating Akebono, Sapp engaged in another verbal exchange with Mike Tyson about a possible match, although nothing came from it.
2004–2007
Sapp opened 2004 facing Dolgorsürengiin Sumyaabazar, multiple wrestling champion and brother to yokozuna Asashoryu, under a mixed martial arts ruleset at his own event, K-1 Beast. Showing improvement in his MMA technique, Sapp defended from his guard after being taken down, trading short strikes from there and threatening with Kimura locks. Sumyaabazar ended up passing his guard, but Sapp reversed and captured his back, almost closing a rear naked choke, Sumyaabazar had to abandon the match before the second round due to a groin injury. Only two weeks later, he fought against Seth Petruzelli, this time at kickboxing, but the result was similar: although he knocked Sapp down, Petruzelli injured his biceps and was forced to bow out.
After a 0:33 victory over muay thai journeyman Tommy Glanville, Sapp was pitted against wrestler Kazuyuki Fujita at K-1 Romanex. Although the American looked to strike, Fujita scored an early takedown and initiated a grappling scuffle. Sapp looked to defend from the bottom and at one point pursued a heel hook, transitioned into a toehold, but the Japanese escaped to his feet and started delivering soccer kicks with his wrestling shoes to Sapp's head. Fujita kept landing brutal kicks and punches to a desperately covered up Sapp until the latter tapped out at 2:15. After this sound loss, Sapp lost again in a two-round fight against Ray Sefo.
At K-1 Premium Dynamite!! Sapp faced Jérôme Le Banner in a special mixed rules match, in which first and third rounds would be under regular K-1 rules and under MMA rules the second and fourth. Sapp spent the first round covering and guarding up, almost being finished, but he recovered in the second one by taking down Le Banner and raining ground and pound from the mount. He kept the momentum at the third, utilizing a defensive strategy of charging and clinching to neutralize Le Banner; however, most of the action would take place at the fourth and last, which saw the two trading dominant positions and ended with Sapp looking for an armlock. Under the agreed upon rules, the fight was declared a draw. Sapp dedicated the fight to the memory of sparring partner Masaaki Miyamoto's father who recently passed away.
2005 would be a fruitful year for Sapp, starting by a win over judo medalist Kim Min-soo at K-1's new MMA sub-promotion Hero's. Although the debutant Kim, clad in a full judogi, managed to cut Sapp with an early punch, the American swiftly overpowered him and knocked him out to punches in a minute. This prepared Sapp for a run to the 2005 K-1 Hiroshima Grand Prix, where he would face three fighters on a single night in order to qualify for the 2005 K-1 World Grand Prix. In a departure from his explosive yet ephemeral performances up to the point, Sapp showcased greatly improved stamina and much better technique, gained both after intensive training under his long time friend Sam Greco.
Sapp met upcoming fighter Yoshihiro Nakao in the quarter-final, where he would fight all three rounds in dominant fashion. Nakao taunted Sapp during the fight, but the American kept landing kicks and knees in addition to his personal bullrushing style, including also previously unseen counterstrikes. After securing a unanimous decision, Sapp advanced round and faced young fighter Hiraku Hori, who had just defeated. This time Sapp increased his aggression and came near to finishing Hori early with a barrage of punches and a cut, but the Japanese resisted and kept him at bay with high kicks towards the end of the first round. The second would see Sapp uncharacteristically standing still and inviting his opponent to charge at him, which he capitalized on to knock down Hori with hooks before finishing him. The final saw Sapp being pitted against Tatsufumi Tomihira, a karateka famous for his own fouls. The American methodically dismantled Tomihira, scoring two consecutive knockdowns in the first seconds and almost finishing him in the last ones with a cornering barrage. After slowing down in the second and third rounds, where they exchanged kicks and punches, Sapp controlled him for a unanimous decision win, taking the victory at the tournament.
In the post-event interview, Greco praised Sapp's dedication, while Sapp himself gave a speech about his tenure. "I've had low points in my career, now this is a high point and I am enjoying it! I think I've proven I belong in K-1." As promised, Sapp won a prize of 5,000,000 yen and a place among the 16 fighters qualified for the K-1 World Grand Prix.
Shortly after, Sapp returned to MMA format for Hero's, where he was pitted against Russian sumo wrestler Alan Karaev. With Sapp's former opponent Akebono in attendance, Karaev surprised the American with aggression and a quick takedown to mount, but Sapp managed to get out after a failed rear naked choke attempt and hold his own mount for a longer time. Restarted the fight on the feet, Sapp knocked Karaev out with a left jab.
Come the K-1 Grand Prix 2005, Sapp was paired against fellow superheavyweight Choi Hong-man in the first round. Choi's large reach and great size allowed him to land hits regularly through Sapp's charges, but the latter pressed on and got an early knockdown by low kicks to the knee. However, although Sapp came aggressively again in the second round, his stamina started faltering, giving Choi the chance to unload multiple punches. Ultimately, a series of wild battles against an already similarly tired Choi were decided in the latter's favor, granting him a majority decision win.
On May 13, 2006, Sapp was to headline the K-1 show in the Netherlands against Ernesto Hoost, in which Hoost had stated that it was to be his last match in the Netherlands before his retirement. Sapp attended all the pre-fight press conferences and even attended the opening ceremonies for the show. It is unclear at the moment as to why, but Sapp pulled out of the event midway through the show. K-1 issued a statement claiming Sapp pulled out due to new demands he brought to promoters during the show. Sapp disagreed with K-1's account of events, claiming the promotion had tried to delay his payment without any contractual safety.
However, he did participate in 2007's K-1 event in the Amsterdam Arena, fighting as a replacement for Remy Bonjasky against Peter Aerts. Sapp lost the fight by KO within 20 seconds in the first round by a knee to the liver.
After his falling out with K-1, Sapp began to get offers from World Wrestling Entertainment as well as Total Nonstop Action Wrestling to work with them, but his K-1 contract prohibited him from going through with any return to the ring. It was reported WWE was considering an angle between Sapp and Chris Benoit in case they managed to clear his contract out, but they were unsuccessful. Sapp finally made a surprise return to the K-1 ring in Japan after a two-year absence against comedian and part-time K-1 competitor Bobby Ologun. Ologun was unable to mount any effective offense as he was quickly run down and overpowered by Sapp in the first round. Afterwards, with his K-1 contract finally done, Sapp signed up with Hustle and focused on his professional wrestling career.
After K-1; turn into a "tomato can"
Since his last matches for K-1 in 2007, Sapp continued his career for small promotions in a limited, non-competitive in-ring way that was described as throwing fights. He would step into the ring after great amounts of promotion, often against upcoming stars and heavily promoted local fighters, only to turtle down and tap out in a few seconds. This routine, labelled in sports as a "tomato can" act, effectively ended his already inconsistent reputation in the sports, attracting large losing streaks and the accusations of "making a mockery of the sport of MMA" and "being a one-man circus". His usual commentator Mirko Cro Cop expressed his belief that Sapp was intentionally allowing himself to lose against very inferior opponents.
When asked about it, Sapp denied he was throwing fights, and claimed he was doing this routine to collect quick paychecks in a late career he did not deem economically worthy to risk his health. He also pointed out a perceived injustice in contemporaneous MMA business, where fighters carrying accolades and important legacies would be left in economic instability after retiring. He explained:
Cage Rage, Strike Force and BAMMA
On February 10, 2007 it was announced by the United Kingdom's Cage Rage promotion that Sapp would appear on its Cage Rage 21 event on April 21, facing Gary Turner. The move was partly a retaliatory one, as the UFC had chosen to run its first British show in years that same night at the Manchester Evening News Arena, headlined by Mirko Cro Cop, Andrei Arlovski and British star Michael Bisping. Though Cage Rage promoter Andy Geer said that the UFC show would not affect ticket sales for CR21, the signing of Sapp was a clear sign that the company knew it would need a superstar draw in order to successfully compete with the American promotion. A few days before the event Bob Sapp pulled out of the scheduled fight. On short notice, Tank Abbott stepped in for Sapp and lost to Gary Turner.
Sapp faced the South African fighter Jan "The Giant" Nortje at the Strikeforce: At The Dome event in Tacoma, Washington, at the Tacoma Dome on February 23, 2008. Sapp was defeated at the 55-second mark of the first round by TKO after receiving an unanswered amount of punches. Sapp then returned to Japan on New Year's Eve 2008 and defeated Akihito Tanaka via first-round TKO.
Sapp lost to Japanese Ikuhisa Minowa at Dream 9 on May 26, 2009, due to Achilles lock. He fought and lost to Bobby Lashley at Ultimate Chaos in Biloxi, Mississippi, on June 27, 2009, due to first round tapout from strikes. On October 6, Sapp stood in for an injured Gegard Mousasi to face Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou in the semi-finals at Dream 11. He lost via TKO (punches) in the first round.
On November 27, Sapp fought against Swedish K-1 veteran Jörgen Kruth. The fight got a lot of publicity in Swedish and international press, but ended with an anticlimax when Sapp's corner threw in the towel after only 45 seconds, after Kruth hit Sapp with a knee to the liver.
Sapp was next going to face Stav Economou at BAMMA 5, but the event was canceled due to extreme weather conditions.
Dynamite, ONE and Legend
Sapp was scheduled to fight at K1 Dynamite!! 2010. He was set to battle Shinichi Suzukawa on New Year's Eve in a Pancrase-style matchup, but pulled out at the last minute due to contract disputes. When questioned about Sapp's refusal to fight on the day of the event, FEG President Sadaharu Tanikawa asked, "Does anyone actually care? I don't know the reasons why, but we did our best to make him fight. He just said he didn't want to. This is typical [of Sapp]." Sapp claims he refused to fight after promoters were contracted to pay him $30,000 for the fight, but Tanikawa only offered him $15,000 after he arrived in Japan for the event.
On February 11, 2012, Sapp debuted for the Asian ONE Fighting Championship promotion. He faced Rolles Gracie at ONE Fighting Championship: Battle of Heroes in Jakarta, Indonesia and lost via submission to strikes in the first round.
Sapp fought in the main event of the Super Fight League's inaugural event, SFL 1, against James Thompson on March 11, 2012. Sapp tapped out due to a Thompson takedown that caused a leg injury to Sapp in the first round.
He also fought Yōsuke Nishijima in Nishijima's retirement fight under kickboxing rules Legend 4 in Kumamoto, Japan on November 17, 2013. Sapp was dropped with a body shot, stood back up but was then finished with body shots followed by couple of right hooks.
Sapp announced his retirement in April 2014 citing that he'd paid off big medical bills and will be retiring with several million dollars in savings (including money doing work outside of fights).
Returning to kickboxing after a nearly two-year hiatus, Sapp appeared at Fight Night Saint Tropez on August 4, 2017 in Saint Tropez, France. He faced Greg Tony and lost the bout via TKO in the first round.
On January 27, 2018, Sapp faced Selcuk Ustabasi at MFC 24. Sapp lost the bout via TKO in the first round.
Rizin Fighting Federation
Sapp had a rematch against Akebono with shoot boxing rules on December 31, 2015 at Rizin Fighting Federation Grand Prix event. Unlike his usual performances, he won the fight by technical decision.
He returned in September 2018 at Rizin 13, where he fought former sumo Osunaarashi. Sapp received intense striking during the first round and was taken down at the second, but he reversed Osunaarashi as they fell and gained top position, from which he controlled the rest of the round. He went to dominate an uneventful last round for a unanimous decision and his first MMA win in nearly nine years.
Fighting style
Having no background in martial arts prior to his fighting career, Sapp's fighting style was relatively devoid of technique, and was more so distinguished by an aggressive usage of size and strength, pressuring his opponent's with an unorthodox "bullrush" technique (which he dubbed as "NFL Style"), whereby he would rush an opponent, usually at the beginning of the round, and overwhelm them with a barrage of punches.
Although defined by his brute strength, Sapp's wins over opponents such as Yoshihiro Takayama and Stefan Gamlin showed that he did possess a knowledge of basic submission techniques.
Personal life
In December 2017, it was reported in Japanese newspaper Shukan Bunshun that a woman claiming to be Sapp's girlfriend accused him of domestic violence. She provided photographs of the alleged injuries and told how she had been abused by Sapp for six years. Although the article included an apology message supposedly sent by him, Sapp did not make public comments about the accusation.
Championships and accomplishments
Kickboxing and mixed martial arts
Black Belt Magazine
2003 NHB Fighter of the Year
K-1
K-1 World Grand Prix 2005 in Hiroshima Tournament Winner
Nikkan Sports
Match of the Year (2002) vs. Ernesto Hoost (K-1, December 7)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
2002 Best Box Office Draw- K-1, PRIDE Fighting Championships
2003 Best Box Office Draw- K-1, PRIDE Fighting Championships
2002 Rookie of the Year- K-1, PRIDE Fighting Championships
Professional wrestling
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Nikkan Sports
Wrestler of the Year (2002)
Outstanding Performance Award (2002)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 26 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2004
Tokyo Sports
MVP Award (2002)
World Wrestling Association (Korea)
WWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Charismatic (2003)
Best Box Office Draw (2002, 2003)
Kickboxing record
Mixed martial arts record
|-
| Win
| align=center| 12–20–1
| Osunaarashi
| Decision (unanimous)
| Rizin 13
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 3:00
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–20–1
| Aori Gele
| TKO (punches)
| Road FC 32
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:35
| Changsha, China
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–19–1
| Edson França
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| OX MMA
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:35
| Fortaleza, Brazil
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–18–1
| Aleksander Emelianenko
| TKO (punches)
| Legend Fighting Show
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:18
| Moscow, Russia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–17–1
| Dusan Panajotovic
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Night of the Champions 2012
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:28
| Belgrade, Serbia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–16–1
| Jong Dae Kim
| TKO (punches)
| Road FC 8
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:58
| Wonju, South Korea
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–15–1
| Tolegen Akylbekov
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Bushido Lithuania vol.51
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:29
| Astana, Kazakhstan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–14–1
| Soa Palelei
| TKO (punches)
| Cage Fighting Championship 21
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:12
| Sydney, Australia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–13–1
| Mariusz Pudzianowski
| TKO (punches)
| KSW 19
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:40
| Lódz, Poland
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–12–1
| James Thompson
| TKO (leg injury)
| SFL 1
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:56
| Mumbai, India
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–11–1
| Rolles Gracie
| TKO (submission to punches)
| ONE Fighting Championship: Battle of Heroes
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:18
| Jakarta, Indonesia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–10–1
| Alexander Otsuka
| DQ (illegal slams)
| Accel – Vol. 18: X'mas Seiya Matsuri
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 1:43
| Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–9–1
| Maro Perak
| TKO (punches)
| Noc Gladijatora 6
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:04
| Dubrovnik, Croatia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–8–1
| Attila Uçar
| Submission (achilles lock)
| Premium Fight Night
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:56
| Vienna, Austria
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 11–7–1
| Stav Economou
| TKO (punches)
| ADFC: Round 3
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:45
| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 11–6–1
| Sascha Weinpolter
| Submission (forearm choke)
| K-1 ColliZion 2010 Croatia
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:03
| Split, Croatia
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 10–6–1
| Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou
| TKO (punches)
| Dream 11
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:31
| Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 10–5–1
| Bobby Lashley
| TKO (submission to punches)
| Fight Force International: Ultimate Chaos
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:18
| Biloxi, Mississippi, United States
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 10–4–1
| Ikuhisa Minowa
| Submission (achilles lock)
| Dream 9
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:16
| Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 10–3–1
| Akihito Tanaka
| TKO (punches)
| Fields Dynamite!! 2008
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 5:22
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 9–3–1
| Jan Nortje
| TKO (punches)
| Strikeforce: At The Dome
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:55
| Tacoma, Washington, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 9–2–1
| Bobby Ologun
| TKO (punches)
| K-1 Premium 2007 Dynamite!!
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:10
| Osaka, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 8–2–1
| Kim Jong Wang
| TKO (punches)
| Hero's 2005 in Seoul
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:08
| Seoul, South Korea
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 7–2–1
| Alan Karaev
| KO (punch)
| Hero's 2
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 3:44
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 6–2–1
| Min-Soo Kim
| KO (punches)
| Hero's 1
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:12
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Draw
| align=center| 5–2–1
| Jérôme Le Banner
| Draw
| K-1 PREMIUM 2004 Dynamite!!
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 3:00
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 5–2
| Kazuyuki Fujita
| TKO (submission to soccer kicks)
| K-1 MMA ROMANEX
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:15
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 5–1
| Dolgorsürengiin Sumyaabazar
| TKO (foot injury)
| K-1 Beast 2004 in Niigata
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 5:00
| Niigata, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 4–1
| Stefan Gamlin
| Submission (standing guillotine choke)
| K-1 Japan Grand Prix 2003
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:52
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 3–1
| Yoshihiro Takayama
| Submission (armbar)
| Inoki Bom-Ba-Ye 2002
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:16
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 2–1
| Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira
| Submission (armbar)
| Pride Shockwave
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 4:03
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 2–0
| Kiyoshi Tamura
| KO (punches)
| Pride 21
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:11
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–0
| Yoshihisa Yamamoto
| KO (punches)
| Pride 20
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:44
| Yokohama, Japan
|
Filmography
See also
List of professional wrestlers by MMA record
References
External links
Profile at K-1
1973 births
African-American male actors
African-American male professional wrestlers
African-American mixed martial artists
African-American players of American football
American expatriate sportspeople in Japan
American football offensive linemen
American male film actors
American male kickboxers
American male mixed martial artists
American male professional wrestlers
American sportspeople in doping cases
Doping cases in American football
Expatriate television personalities in Japan
Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
IWGP Heavyweight champions
Kickboxers from Colorado
Living people
Mixed martial artists from Colorado
New Japan Pro-Wrestling championships
Professional wrestlers from Colorado
Heavyweight kickboxers
Super heavyweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing wrestling
Washington Huskies football players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople
Mixed martial artists utilizing kickboxing
|
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] |
204198
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrick%20mat
|
Carrick mat
|
The carrick mat is a flat woven decorative knot which can be used as a mat or pad. Its name is based on the mat's decorative-type carrick bend with the ends connected together, forming an endless knot. A larger form, called the prolong knot, is made by expanding the basic carrick mat by extending, twisting, and overlapping its outer bights, then weaving the free ends through them. This process may be repeated to produce an arbitrarily long mat.
In its basic form it is the same as a 3-lead, 4-bight Turk's head knot. The basic carrick mat, made with two passes of rope, also forms the central motif in the logo of the International Guild of Knot Tyers.
When tied to form a cylinder around the central opening, instead of lying flat, it can be used as a woggle.
See also
List of knots
References
External links
Alternating knots and links
Fibered knots and links
Fully amphichiral knots and links
Hyperbolic knots and links
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacons%20for%20Defense%20and%20Justice
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Deacons for Defense and Justice
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The Deacons for Defense and Justice is an armed African-American self-defense group founded in November 1964, during the civil rights era in the United States, in the mill town of Jonesboro, Louisiana. On February 21, 1965—the day of Malcolm X's assassination—the first affiliated chapter was founded in Bogalusa, Louisiana, followed by a total of 20 other chapters in this state, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Alabama. It is intended to protect civil rights activists and their families. They are threatened both by white vigilantes and discriminatory treatment by police under Jim Crow laws. The Bogalusa chapter gained national attention during the summer of 1965 in its violent struggles with the Ku Klux Klan.
By 1968, the Deacons' activities were declining, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the entry of blacks into politics in the South, and the rise of the Black Power movement. Blacks worked to gain control of more political and economic activities in their communities.
A television movie, Deacons for Defense (2003), directed by Bill Duke and starring Forest Whitaker, was aired about the 1965 events in Bogalusa. The movie inspired Mauricelm-Lei Millere to meet Deacon Hicks at his Hicks House in Bogalusa, Louisiana. The Robert "Bob" Hicks House in Bogalusa commemorates one of the leaders of the Deacons in that city; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015. Fundraising continues for a civil rights museum in Bogalusa to honor the work of the Deacons for Defense; it was expected to open in 2018.
History
The Deacons were not the first champions of armed-defense during the civil rights movement, but in November 1964, they were the first to organize as a force.
According to historian Annelieke Dirks,
Even Martin Luther King Jr.—the icon of nonviolence—employed armed bodyguards and had guns in his house during the early stages of the Montgomery bus boycott in 1956. Glenn Smiley, an organizer of the nonviolent and pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), observed during a house visit to King that the police did not allow the minister a weapon permit, but "the place is an arsenal."
Smiley convinced King that he could not keep such weapons or plan armed "self-defense", as it was inconsistent with his public positions on non-violence. Dirks explored the emergence of black groups for self-defense in Clarksdale and Natchez, Mississippi from 1960 to 1965.
In many areas of the Deep South, local chapters of the Ku Klux Klan or other white insurgents operated outside the law, and white-dominated police forces practiced discrimination against blacks. In Jonesboro, an industrial town in northern Louisiana, the KKK harassed local activists, burned crosses on the lawns of African-American voters, and burned down five churches, a Masonic hall, and a Baptist center.
Scholar Akinyele O. Umoja notes that by 1965, both the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and CORE supported armed self-defense, although they had long promoted non-violence as a tactic to achieve civil rights. They began to believe that changes in federal law were not sufficient to advance civil rights or to protect activists locally. National CORE leadership, including James Farmer, publicly acknowledged a relationship between CORE and the Deacons for Defense in Louisiana. This alliance between the two organizations highlighted the concept of armed self-defense embraced by many blacks in the South, who had long been subject to white violence. A significant portion of SNCC's southern-born leadership and staff also supported armed self-defense.
Robert F. Williams, president of the NAACP chapter in Monroe, North Carolina, transformed his local NAACP chapter into an armed self-defense unit. He was criticized for this by the national leaders of the NAACP. After he was charged by the state with kidnapping a white couple whom he had sheltered during local violence related to the Freedom Riders in 1961, Williams and his wife left the country, going into exile in Cuba. After Williams' return in 1969, his trial on these charges was scheduled in 1975; that year the state reviewed the case and withdrew the charges. Fannie Lou Hamer of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party was another activist who armed herself; she said that in 1964 during Freedom Summer, she kept several loaded guns under her bed.
Founding of the Deacons for Defense
African Americans were harassed and attacked by white KKK vigilantes in the mill town of Jonesboro, Louisiana in 1964 including the torching of five churches, a Masonic hall and a Baptist center. Given these threats, Earnest "Chilly Willy" Thomas and Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick founded the Deacons for Defense in November 1964 to protect civil rights workers, their families and the black community against the local KKK. Most of the Deacons were veterans with combat experience from the Korean War and World War II.
Born in Jonesboro on November 20, 1935, Thomas grew up in the segregated state decades after the white-dominated state legislature had disenfranchised most blacks at the turn of the century and imposed Jim Crow laws. Drawn into local rivalries between black and white children for swimming hole rights, Thomas learned that rights and access come not to those who ask but rather those who fight.
In 1964, during Freedom Summer and a period of extensive voter education and organizing for registration, especially in Mississippi, the Congress of Racial Equality established a Freedom House in Jonesboro. It became a target of the Klan who resented white activists staying there. Because of repeated attacks on the Freedom House, as well as the church burnings, the Black community decided to organize to defend it.
Before The Deacons of Defense and Justice officially formed, two groups were operating in Jonesboro to protect African Americans. One group acted as sentries outside the Freedom House. This group was led by Percy Lee Bradford, a stock room worker, and Earnest Thomas. Fredrick Douglas Kirkpatrick, a high school teacher, organized a second group that volunteered to monitor police arrests of African Americans while also working to keep the community safe. Thomas was one of the first volunteers to guard the house. According to historian Lance Hill, "Thomas was eager to work with CORE, but he had reservations about the nonviolent terms imposed by the young activists." Around this time, CORE began protesting the segregation of a public swimming pool as well as the Jonesboro Public Library. In response to the protest the Ku Klux Klan and local police organized a caravan to intimidate the protesters and the African American community in Jonesboro. Thomas and Kirkpatrick organized a twenty men group to protect the citizens of Jonesboro, effectively starting the Deacons.
Thomas, who had military training, quickly emerged as the leader of this budding defense organization. He was joined by Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick, a civil rights activist and member of SCLC, who had been ordained that year as a minister in the Pentecostal Church of God in Christ. Coretta Jackson acted as treasurer for The Deacons Of Defense and Justice. We Had been arrested for possession of a concealed weapon while protecting protesting students. The Deacons had strict membership criteria for applicants. They accepted only male American citizens over the age of 21. They preferred married men with military service, as well as registered voters. They refused men with a reputation for "hotheadedness." They vigorously upheld their stance of only acting in defense. They continued guarding CORE as a means to further the overall civil rights agenda. Every member of the Deacons had to pledge his life for the defense of justice, black people, and for civil rights workers.
During the day, the men concealed their guns. At night they carried them openly, as was allowed by the law, to discourage Klan activity at the site and in the black community. In early 1965, Black students were picketing the local high school in Jonesboro for integration. They were confronted by hostile police ready to use fire trucks with hoses against them. A car carrying four Deacons arrived. In view of the police, these men loaded their shotguns. The police ordered the fire truck to withdraw. This was the first time in the 20th century, as Hill observes, that "an armed black organization had successfully used weapons to defend a lawful protest against an attack by law enforcement." Hill also wrote: "In Jonesboro, the Deacons made history when they compelled Louisiana governor John McKeithen to intervene in the city's civil rights crisis and require a compromise with city leaders — the first capitulation to the civil rights movement by a Deep South governor."
After traveling 300 miles to Bogalusa, in southeast Louisiana, on February 21, 1965, Kirkpatrick, Thomas and a CORE member worked with local leaders to organize the first affiliated Deacons chapter. Black activists in the company mill town were being attacked by the local and powerful Ku Klux Klan. The police and sheriff in Bogalusa as well as most government organizations were all infiltrated by the Klan. As a result, the only protection the people of Bogalusa had against the Klan was the Deacons. Although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had been passed, blacks were making little progress toward integration of public facilities in the city or registering to vote. Activists Bob Hicks (1929-2010), Charles Sims, and A. Z. Young, workers at the Crown-Zellerbach plant (Georgia-Pacific after 1985, later acquired by another), led this new chapter of the Deacons for Defense. Charles Sims, a World War II veteran was the president of the Bogalusa chapter of the Deacons. He acted as spokesman for the Deacons, demanding fair treatment and threatening violent retaliation in the event of attack. Sims considered the Deacons a "defense guard unit" who had formed simply "because we got tired of the women, the children being harassed by the white night-riders."
The Chicago Chapter of the Deacons for Defense and Justice was formed by Earnest Thomas, vice president of the Jonesboro chapter, in 1965. The Deacons intended to spread throughout the North and the West but were ultimately unsuccessful because their tactics were less effective outside of the South.
In the summer of 1965, the Bogalusa chapter campaigned for integration and came into regular conflict with the Klan in the city. The state police established a base there in the spring in expectation of violence after the Deacons organized. Before the summer, the first black deputy sheriff of the local Washington Parish was assassinated by whites.
The Deacons' militant confrontation with the Klan in Bogalusa throughout the summer of 1965 was planned to gain federal government intervention. These tactics proved successful when "in July 1965, escalating hostilities between the Deacons and the Klan in Bogalusa provoked the federal government to use Reconstruction-era laws to order local police departments to protect civil rights workers."
The Deacons also initiated a regional organizing campaign, founding a total of 21 formal chapters and 46 affiliates in other cities.
Role
The Deacons had a relationship with other civil rights groups that practiced non-violence. Such support by the Deacons allowed the NAACP and CORE to formally observe their traditional parameters of non-violence.
The Deacons provided protection for CORE leader, James Farmer in 1965. Farmer arrived in Bogalusa in order to aid in desegregation and required the protection of the Deacons. They ensured his safety from the time he arrived at the New Orleans airport and provided security while Farmer spoke and marched at desegregation events.
The Deacons attracted media attention for their protection of Charles Evers' desegregation campaign in Natchez, Mississippi. Attention was given to them because, unlike similar groups that had come before, the Deacons did not hide their names from the media. This coupled with their use of armed self-defense, and modest beginnings, made them heroes to harassed black communities.
After the successful integration of the Jonesboro Public Library, the Ku Klux Klan burned crosses in response. The Deacons wrote leaflets threatening to kill anyone who burned a cross. The leaflets were distributed into the homes of white people by their black house workers. The cross-burnings stopped in response.
On July 8, 1965, at a nonviolent march on city hall, hundreds of whites gathered to throw rocks at the assembled protesters. The white antagonists surrounded the protesters. A twenty-one year old insurance salesman and Air Force veteran named Henry Austin confronted the mob and fired a warning shot. He then shot an advancing attacker three times in the chest. After the shooting the mob dispersed. Both Austin and the attacker survived the encounter.
In Bogalusa, the Deacons worked with CORE on their campaigns. When the local police and Ku Klux Klan joined forces to attempt to harass two white CORE members and drive them out of town, the Deacons intervened on behalf of the white volunteers, protecting them from the police. The Deacons stood guard outside CORE headquarters and patrolled the African American community. The Deacons would protect both white and black activists as they canvassed looking for voters. They would also transport civil rights workers into and out of Bogalusa. There were by-laws that each member had to uphold. Sims was very clear about the roles of the Deacons: they were to act in self-defense only.
The Deacons were instrumental in other campaigns led by the Civil Rights Movement. Activist James Meredith organized the June 1966 March Against Fear, to go from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi. He wanted a low-key affair, but was shot and wounded early in the march. Other major civil rights leaders and organizations recruited hundreds and then thousands of marchers in order to continue Meredith's effort.
According to in a 1999 article, activist Stokely Carmichael encouraged having the Deacons provide security for the remainder of the march. After some debate, many civil rights leaders agreed, including Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Umoja wrote, "Finally, though expressing reservations, King conceded to Carmichael's proposals to maintain unity in the march and the movement. The involvement and association of the Deacons with the march signified a shift in the civil rights movement, which had been popularly projected as a 'nonviolent movement."'
Stokely Carmichael had first made a speech about Black Power in Mobile, Alabama in 1965, when marchers demonstrating for the vote reached the state capital from Selma. In 1967 Carmichael said, "Those of us who advocate Black Power are quite clear in our own minds that a 'non-violent' approach to civil rights is an approach black people cannot afford and a luxury white people do not deserve."
In his 2006 book, Hill discusses the difficulties in achieving change on the local level in the South after national leaders and activists left. He wrote,
the hard truth is that these organizations produced few victories in their local projects in the Deep South--if success is measured by the ability to force changes in local government policy and create self-governing and sustainable local organizations that could survive when the national organizations departed ... The Deacons' campaigns frequently resulted in substantial and unprecedented victories at the local level, producing real power and self-sustaining organizations.
According to Hill, local (armed) groups laid the foundation for equal opportunities for African Americans.
According to a 2007 article by Dirks, the usual histories of the Civil Rights Movement tend to overlook such organizations as the Deacons. She says there are several reasons: First, the dominant ideology of the Movement was one of non-violence. Second, threats to the lives of Deacons' members required them to maintain secrecy to avoid terrorist attacks. In addition, they recruited only mature male members, in contrast to other more informal self-defense efforts, in which women and teenagers sometimes played a role. Finally, the organization was relatively short-lived, fading by 1968. In that period, there was a national shift in attention to the issues of Blacks in the North and the rise of the Black Power movement in 1966. The Deacons were overshadowed by The Black Panther Party, which became noted for its militancy.
FBI investigation begins in 1965
In February 1965, after an article in The New York Times about the Deacons in Jonesboro, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover became interested in the group. His office sent a memo to its Louisiana field offices: "Because of the potential for violence indicated, you are instructed to immediately initiate an investigation of the DDJ [Deacons for Defense and Justice]." As was eventually exposed in the late 1970s, the FBI established the COINTELPRO program, through which its agents were involved in many illegal activities against organizations that Hoover deemed "a threat to the American way".
The Bureau ultimately produced more than 1,500 pages of comprehensive and relatively accurate records on the Deacons and their activities, largely through numerous informants close to or who had infiltrated the organization. Members of the Deacons were repeatedly questioned and intimidated by F.B.I. agents. Harvie Johnson (the last surviving original member of the Deacons for Defense and Justice) was interviewed by two agents during this period. He said they asked only how the Deacons obtained their weapons, never questioning him about the Klan activity or police actions they were responding to. Although the FBI and white media regarded the Deacons as bringers of race warfare, they actually worked closely with CORE in their nonviolent protests as a way to bring about change in Bogalusa. The Federal Government finally intervened and forced local police to uphold the law and protect citizens' right. As a result of the Deacons' actions the Klan had to restrict themselves to night terror raids. The Deacons served as a symbol of power and pride, and undermined the stereotype of black submission.
According to columnist Ken Blackwell in 2007, activist Roy Innis had said that the Deacons "forced the Klan to re-evaluate their actions and often change their undergarments".
Commemoration
The Robert "Bob" Hicks House in Bogalusa is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Robert "Bob" Hicks Foundation is in the process of restoring and preserving the house.
A civil rights museum in Bogalusa is planned to open in 2018; it will explain the role of the local Deacons for Defense and Justice in the city.
Representation in other media
Michael D'Antonio wrote a fictional short story, "Deacons for Defense", based on events in Bogalusa, Louisiana.
The Deacons in Bogalusa are the subject of a 2003 television movie, Deacons for Defense. Based on D'Antonio's story and produced by Showtime, it was directed by Bill Duke. The movie stars Academy Award winner Forest Whitaker, with Ossie Davis, and Jonathan Silverman. The film explores development of the group through events of 1964 and 1965. The plot follows the transition of a black family and community members from belief in non-violence to supporting armed self-defense.
See also
Robert F. Williams
T. R. M. Howard
Chambers v. Mississippi
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Adam Fairclough, Race and Democracy: The Civil Rights Struggle in Louisiana, 1915-1972, University of Georgia Press: 1995/reprint 1999
External links
Seth Hague, "Niggers Ain't Gonna Run This Town", 1997–1998, prize-winning student paper, Dept. of History, Loyola University New Orleans
Lance Hill, Southern Institute
"Deacons for Defense and Justice", FBI file
African Americans' rights organizations
History of Louisiana
African-American history of Louisiana
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nine%20Chapters%20on%20the%20Mathematical%20Art
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The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
|
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art () is a Chinese mathematics book, composed by several generations of scholars from the 10th–2nd century BCE, its latest stage being from the 2nd century CE. This book is one of the earliest surviving mathematical texts from China, the first being Suan shu shu (202 BCE – 186 BCE) and Zhoubi Suanjing (compiled throughout the Han until the late 2nd century CE). It lays out an approach to mathematics that centres on finding the most general methods of solving problems, which may be contrasted with the approach common to ancient Greek mathematicians, who tended to deduce propositions from an initial set of axioms.
Entries in the book usually take the form of a statement of a problem, followed by the statement of the solution and an explanation of the procedure that led to the solution. These were commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century.
History
Original book
The full title of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art appears on two bronze standard measures which are dated to 179 CE, but there is speculation that the same book existed beforehand under different titles.
Most scholars believe that Chinese mathematics and the mathematics of the ancient Mediterranean world had developed more or less independently up to the time when the Nine Chapters reached its final form. The method of chapter 7 was not found in Europe until the 13th century, and the method of chapter 8 uses Gaussian elimination before Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). There is also the mathematical proof given in the treatise for the Pythagorean theorem. The influence of The Nine Chapters greatly assisted the development of ancient mathematics in the regions of Korea and Japan. Its influence on mathematical thought in China persisted until the Qing Dynasty era.
Liu Hui wrote a very detailed commentary on this book in 263. He analyses the procedures of the Nine Chapters step by step, in a manner which is clearly designed to give the reader confidence that they are reliable, although he is not concerned to provide formal proofs in the Euclidean manner. Liu's commentary is of great mathematical interest in its own right. Liu credits the earlier mathematicians Zhang Cang (fl. 165 BCE - d. 142 BCE) and Geng Shouchang (fl. 75 BCE-49 BCE) (see armillary sphere) with the initial arrangement and commentary on the book, yet Han Dynasty records do not indicate the names of any authors of commentary, as they are not mentioned until the 3rd century.
The Nine Chapters is an anonymous work, and its origins are not clear. Until recent years, there was no substantial evidence of related mathematical writing that might have preceded it, with the exception of mathematical work by those such as Jing Fang (78–37 BCE), Liu Xin (d. 23), and Zhang Heng (78–139) and the geometry clauses of the Mozi of the 4th century BCE. This is no longer the case. The Suàn shù shū (算數書) or writings on reckoning is an ancient Chinese text on mathematics approximately seven thousand characters in length, written on 190 bamboo strips. It was discovered together with other writings in 1983 when archaeologists opened a tomb in Hubei province. It is among the corpus of texts known as the Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts. From documentary evidence this tomb is known to have been closed in 186 BCE, early in the Western Han dynasty. While its relationship to the Nine Chapters is still under discussion by scholars, some of its contents are clearly paralleled there. The text of the Suàn shù shū is however much less systematic than the Nine Chapters; and appears to consist of a number of more or less independent short sections of text drawn from a number of sources. The Zhoubi Suanjing, a mathematics and astronomy text, was also compiled during the Han, and was even mentioned as a school of mathematics in and around 180 CE by Cai Yong.
Western translations
The title of the book has been translated in a wide variety of ways.
In 1852, Alexander Wylie referred to it as Arithmetical Rules of the Nine Sections.
With only a slight variation, the Japanese historian of mathematics Yoshio Mikami shortened the title to Arithmetic in Nine Sections.
David Eugene Smith, in his History of Mathematics (Smith 1923), followed the convention used by Yoshio Mikami.
Several years later, George Sarton took note of the book, but only with limited attention and only mentioning the usage of red and black rods for positive and negative numbers.
In 1959, Joseph Needham and Wang Ling (historian) translated Jiu Zhang Suan shu as The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art for the first time.
Later in 1994, Lam Lay Yong used this title in her overview of the book, as did other mathematicians including John N. Crossley and Anthony W.-C Lun in their translation of Li Yan and Du Shiran's Chinese Mathematics: A Concise History (Li and Du 1987).
Afterwards, the name The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art stuck and became the standard English title for the book.
Table of contents
Contents of The Nine Chapters are as follows:
方田 Fangtian - Bounding fields. Areas of fields of various shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, and circles; manipulation of vulgar fractions. Liu Hui's commentary includes a method for calculation of π and the approximate value of 3.14159.
粟米 Sumi - Millet and rice. Exchange of commodities at different rates; unit pricing; the Rule of Three for solving proportions, using fractions.
衰分 Cuifen - Proportional distribution. Distribution of commodities and money at proportional rates; deriving arithmetic and geometric sums.
少廣 Shaoguang - Reducing dimensions. Finding the diameter or side of a shape given its volume or area. Division by mixed numbers; extraction of square and cube roots; diameter of sphere, perimeter and diameter of circle.
商功 Shanggong - Figuring for construction. Volumes of solids of various shapes.
均輸 Junshu - Equitable taxation. More advanced word problems on proportion, involving work, distances, and rates.
盈不足 Yingbuzu - Excess and deficit. Linear problems (in two unknowns) solved using the principle known later in the West as the rule of false position.
方程 Fangcheng - The two-sided reference (i.e. Equations). Problems of agricultural yields and the sale of animals that lead to systems of linear equations, solved by a principle indistinguishable from the modern form of Gaussian elimination.
勾股 Gougu - Base and altitude. Problems involving the principle known in the West as the Pythagorean theorem.
Major contributions
Real number system
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art does not discuss natural numbers, that is, positive integers and their operations, but they are widely used and written on the basis of natural numbers. Although it is not a book on fractions, the meaning, nature, and four operations of fractions are fully discussed. For example: combined division (addition), subtraction (subtraction), multiplication (multiplication), warp division (division), division (comparison size), reduction (simplified fraction), and bisector (average).
The concept of negative numbers also appears in "Nine Chapters of Arithmetic". In order to cooperate with the algorithm of equations, the rules of addition and subtraction of positive and negative numbers are given. The subtraction is "divide by the same name, benefit by different names. The addition is "divide by different names, benefit from each other by the same name. Among them, "division" is subtraction, "benefit" is addition, and "no entry" means that there is no counter-party, but multiplication and division are not recorded.
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art gives a certain discussion on natural numbers, fractions, positive and negative numbers, and some special irrationality. It basically has the prototype of real number system.
Gou Gu (Pythagorean) Theorem
The geometric figures included in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art are mostly straight and circular figures because of its focus on the applications onto the agricultural fields. In addition, due to the needs of civil architecture, The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art also discusses volumetric algorithms of linear and circular 3 dimensional solids. The arrangement of these volumetric algorithms ranges from simple to complex, forming a unique mathematical system.
Regarding the direct application of the Gou Gu Theorem, which is precisely the Chinese version of the Pythagorean Theorem, the book divides it into four main categories: Gou Gu mutual seeking, Gou Gu integer, Gou Gu dual capacity, Gou Gu similar.
Gou Gu mutual seeking discusses the algorithm of finding the length of a side of the right triangle while knowing the other two. Gou Gu integer is precisely the finding of some significant integer Pythagorean numbers, including famously the triple 3,4,5. Gou Gu dual capacity discusses algorithms for calculating the areas of the inscribed rectangles and other polygons in the circle, which also serves an algorithm to calculate the value of pi. Lastly, Gou Gu similars provide algorithms of calculating heights and lengths of buildings on the mathematical basis of similar right triangles.
Completing of squares and solutions of system of equations
The methods of completing the squares and cubes as well as solving simultaneous linear equations listed in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art can be regarded one of the major content of ancient Chinese mathematics. The discussion of these algorithms in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art are very detailed. Through these discussions, one can understand the achievements of the development of ancient Chinese mathematics.
Completing the squaring and cubes can not only solve systems of two linear equations with two unknowns, but also general quadratic and cubic equations. It is the basis for solving higher-order equations in ancient China, and it also plays an important role in the development of mathematics.
The "equations" discussed in the Fang Cheng chapter are equivalent to today's simultaneous linear equations. The solution method called "Fang Cheng Shi" is best known today as Gaussian elimination. Among the eighteen problems listed in the Fang Cheng chapter, some are equivalent to simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns, some are equivalent to simultaneous linear equations with 3 unknowns, and the most complex example analyzes the solution to a system of linear equations with up to 5 unknowns.
Significance
The word "Jiu", or "9", means more than just a digit in ancient Chinese. In fact, since it is the largest digit, it often refers to something of a grand scale or a supreme authority. Further, the word "Zhang", or "Chapter", also has more connotations than simply being the "chapter". It may refer to a section, several parts of an article, or an entire treatise. Given these historical understanding of ancient Chinese, the book The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is actually a somewhat mistranslation; it should really mean a grand book for mathematics.
In this light, many scholars of the history of Chinese mathematics compare the significance of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art on the development of Eastern mathematical traditions to that of Euclid's Elements on the Western mathematical traditions. However, the influence of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art stops short at the advancement of modern mathematics due to its focus on practical problems and inductive proof methods as opposed to the deductive, axiomatic tradition that Euclid's Elements establishes. The latter, which focuses on generalizations and abstractions naturally suit better for the development of modern mathematics.
However, it is dismissive to say that The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art has no impact at all on modern mathematics. The style and structure of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art can be best concluded as "problem, formula, and computation". This process of solving applied mathematical problems is now pretty much the standard approach in the field of applied mathematics.
Notable translations
Abridged English translation: Yoshio Mikami: "Arithmetic in Nine Sections", in The Development of Mathematics in China and Japan, 1913.
Highly Abridged English translation: Florian Cajori: "Arithmetic in Nine Sections", in A History of Mathematics, Second Edition, 1919 (possibly copied or paraphrased from Mikami).
Abridged English translation: Lam Lay Yong: Jiu Zhang Suanshu: An Overview, Archive for History of Exact Sciences, Springer Verlag, 1994.
A full translation and study of the Nine Chapters and Liu Hui's commentary is available in Kangshen Shen, The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, Oxford University Press, 1999.
A French translation with detailed scholarly addenda and a critical edition of the Chinese text of both the book and its commentary by Karine Chemla and Shuchun Guo is Les neuf chapitres: le classique mathématique de la Chine ancienne et ses commentaires. Paris: Dunod, 2004. .
German translation: Kurt Vogel, Neun Bücher Arithmetischer Technik, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn Braunsweig, 1968
Russian translation: E. I Beriozkina, Математика в девяти книгах (Mathematika V Devyati Knigah), Moscow: Nauka, 1980.
See also
Haidao Suanjing
History of mathematics
History of geometry
Notes
References
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Straffin, Philip D. "Liu Hui and the First Golden Age of Chinese Mathematics", Mathematics Magazine (Volume 71, Number 3, 1998): 163–181.
External links
Full text of the book (Chinese)
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, The
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, The
Han dynasty texts
Han dynasty literature
2nd-century books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Radice
|
William Radice
|
William Radice is a poet, writer and translator.
He is the senior lecturer in Bengali in the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
His research area is in Bengali language and literature.
He has translated several Bengali works, and works by Rabindranath Tagore and Michael Madhusudan Dutt.
He adapted the text Debotar Grash by Rabindranath Tagore as an opera libretto, which was set to music by Param Vir as Snatched by the Gods. He wrote the libretto for a children's opera Chincha-Chancha Cooroo or The Weaver's Wedding with music by Bernard Hughes.
He has published nine volumes of poetry ranging from Eight Sections (1974), Strivings (1980), Louring Skies (1985) and Gifts (2002) to his latest two books This Theatre Royal (2004) and Green, Red, Gold, a novel in 101 sonnets (2005) which were hailed by A. N. Wilson in The Daily Telegraph as stunning. He has also fore-worded the a collection of translated Tagore poems, Soaring High, written by Mira Rani Devi.
In 2002, he published the voluminous (784 pages) Myths and Legends of India, a collection of 112 of his own retellings with selections from P. Lal's ongoing transcreation of the Mahabharata. Along with the major Hindu myths, he has included legends and folk tales from Muslim, Buddhist, Jain, Syrian Christian and tribal sources.
His mother was the editor and translator Betty Radice.
Major publications
William Radice's Main Publications include:
Eight Sections (poems, Secker & Warburg, London, 1974)
Strivings (poems, Anvil Press, London, 1980)
The Stupid Tiger and Other Tales (tr. from Bengali, Andre Deutsch, London, 1981, 1988; Rupa & Co., Calcutta, 1987; HarperCollins, Delhi, 2000)
Louring Skies (poems, Anvil Press, London, 1985)
Selected Poems, 1970–81 (Writers Workshop, Calcutta, 1987)
Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Poems (tr., Penguin, 1985, rev. 1987; new ed., 1995; Penguin India, 1995)
The Translator's Art: Essays in Honour of Betty Radice (ed. with Barbara Reynolds, Penguin, 1987)
Char Baktrita ('Four Lectures', Bangla Academy, Dhaka, 1990)
Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Short Stories (tr., Penguin, 1991, rev. 1994; Penguin India, 1995) + Cuentos (tr. Angel Garcia Galiano, Madrid: PPC, 1996) and L'esquelet i altres narracions (tr. Marta Marín, Barcelona: Editorial Empúries, 2002)
Sakuntala (ed., Folio Society, London, 1992)
Snatched by the Gods, a libretto based on Tagore for an opera by Param Vir (Novello, London, 1992)
Rozsa Hajnoczy: Fire of Bengal (tr. from Hungarian by David Grant & Eva Wimmer, ed., University Press Ltd., Dhaka, 1993)
Juan Mascaró: The Creation of Faith/La Creació de la Fe (ed., Editorial Moll, Palma de Mallorca, 1994; Rupa & Co., Delhi, 1995; Bayeux Arts, Calgary, 1999)
The Retreat (poems, University Press Ltd., Dhaka, 1994)
Teach Yourself Bengali (Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1994)
Martin Kämpchen: The Honey-seller and Other Stories (tr. from German, Rupa & Co., Delhi, 1995)
Before and After (poems, Writers Workshop, Calcutta, 1995)
Rabindranath Tagore: The Post Office (play, tr., The Tagore Centre UK, 1995)
The One and the Many, readings from Tagore with photographs by John Berridge (ed., Bayeux Arts, Calgary, 1997)
Swami Vivekananda and the Modernisation of Hinduism (ed., OUP, Delhi, 1997, 1999)
Particles, Jottings, Sparks: The Collected Brief Poems of Rabindranath Tagore (HarperCollins, Delhi, 2000; Angel Books, London, 2001)
Myths and Legends of India (retold by W.R., Folio Society, London, 2001; Penguin India, 2002)
Gifts: Poems 1992–1999 (Grevatt & Grevatt, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2002)
Sigfrid Gauch: Traces of My Father (tr. from German, Northwestern University Press, Illinois, 2002)
A Hundred Letters from England ( Indialog Publications, New Delhi, 2003)
Poetry and Community: Lectures and Essays 1991–2001 (DC Publishers, Delhi, 2003)
Beauty, Be My Brahman: Indian Poems (Writers Workshop, Kolkata, 2004)
References
External links
William Radice Biography and photograph at W11 Children's Opera
Academics of SOAS University of London
Bengali–English translators
Bengali poetry in English translation
1951 births
Living people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo%20Cristofori
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Bartolomeo Cristofori
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Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (; May 4, 1655 – January 27, 1731) was an Italian maker of musical instruments famous for inventing the piano.
Life
The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth and death records, two wills, the bills he submitted to his employers, and a single interview carried out by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published journal article are preserved.
Cristofori was born in Padua in the Republic of Venice. Nothing is known of his early life. A tale is told that he served as an apprentice to the great violin maker Nicolò Amati, based on the appearance in a 1680 census record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house in Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens points out, this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since the census records an age of 13, whereas Cristofori according to his baptismal record would have been 25 at the time. Pollens also gives strong reasons to doubt the authenticity of the cello and double bass instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.
Probably the most important event in Cristofori's life is the first one of which we have any record: in 1688, at age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince Ferdinando de Medici. Ferdinando, a lover and patron of music, was the son and heir of Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Tuscany was at the time still a small independent state.
It is not known what led Ferdinando to recruit Cristofori. The Prince traveled to Venice in 1688 to attend the Carnival, so he may have met Cristofori passing through Padua on his way home. Ferdinando was looking for a new technician to take care of his many musical instruments, the previous incumbent having just died. However, it seems possible that the Prince wanted to hire Cristofori not just as his technician, but specifically as an innovator in musical instruments. It would be surprising if Cristofori at age 33 had not already shown the inventiveness for which he later became famous.
The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired as an inventor is as follows. According to Stewart Pollens, there were already several qualified individuals in Florence who could have filled the position; however, the Prince passed them over and paid Cristofori a higher salary than his predecessor. Moreover, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the many bills Cristofori submitted to his employer] there are no records of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could mean that Cristofori was expected to turn over the fruits of his experimentation to the court." Lastly, the Prince was evidently fascinated with machines (he collected over forty clocks, in addition to a great variety of elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested in the elaborate mechanical action that was at the core of Cristofori's work on the piano.
Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's memory of his conversation with the Prince at this time:
che fu detto al Principe, che non volevo; rispos' egli il farò volere io.
which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:
The prince was told that I did not wish to go; he replied that he would make me want to
This suggests that the Prince may have felt that Cristofori would be a prize recruit and was trying to charm him into accepting his offer; consistent again with the view that the Prince was attempting to recruit him as an inventor.
In any event, Cristofori agreed to the appointment, for a salary of 12 scudi per month. He moved rather quickly to Florence (May 1688; his job interview having taken place in March or April), was issued a house, complete with utensils and equipment, by the Grand Duke's administration, and set to work. For the Prince, he tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration work on valuable older harpsichords.
At this time, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany employed a large staff of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi. Cristofori's initial work space was probably in this area, which did not please him. He later told Maffei:
che da principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito
It was hard for me to have to go into the big room with all that noise (tr. Montanari)
Cristofori did eventually obtain his own workshop, usually keeping one or two assistants working for him.
Earlier instruments
During the remaining years of the 17th century, Cristofori invented two keyboard instruments before he began his work on the piano. These instruments are documented in an inventory, dated 1700, of the many instruments kept by Prince Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures that this inventory was prepared by a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his own in a 1716 letter.
The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the strings are slanted to save space), with disposition 1 x 8', 1 x 4'; most spinets have the simple disposition 1 x 8'. This invention may have been meant to fit into a crowded orchestra pit for theatrical performances, while having the louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.
The other invention (1690) was the highly original oval spinet, a kind of virginal with the longest strings in the middle of the case.
Cristofori also built instruments of existing types, documented in the same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian 2 x 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made of ebony.
The first appearance of the piano
It was thought for some time that the earliest mention of the piano is from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court musician, indicating that Cristofori was already working on the piano by 1698. However, the authenticity of this document is now doubted. The first unambiguous evidence for the piano comes from the 1700 inventory of the Medici mentioned in the preceding section. The entry in this inventory for Cristofori's piano begins as follows:
Un Arpicembalo di Bartolomeo Cristofori di nuova inventione, che fa' il piano, e il forte, a due registri principali unisoni, con fondo di cipresso senza rosa..." (boldface added)An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of new invention that produces soft and loud, with two sets of strings at unison pitch, with soundboard of cypress without rose..."
The term "Arpicembalo", literally "harp-harpsichord", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day. Edward Good infers that this is what Cristofori himself wanted his instrument to be called. Our own word for the piano, however, is the result of a gradual truncation over time of the words shown in boldface above.
The Medici inventory goes on to describe the instrument in considerable detail. The range of this (now lost) instrument was four octaves, C to c″″′, a standard (if slightly small) compass for harpsichords.
Another document referring to the earliest piano is a marginal note made by one of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a copy of the book Le Istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino. Meccoli wrote:
These are the ways in which it is possible to play the Arpicimbalo del piano e forte, invented by Master Bartolomeo Christofani of Padua in the year 1700, harpsichord maker to the Most Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)
According to Scipione Maffei's journal article, by 1711 Cristofori had built three pianos. The Medici had given one to Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome, and two had been sold in Florence.
Later life
Cristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died at the age of 50 in 1713. There is evidence that Cristofori continued to work for the Medici court, still headed by the Prince's father Cosimo III. Specifically, a 1716 inventory of the musical instrument collection is signed "Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode", indicating that Cristofori had been given the title of custodian of the collection.
During the early 18th century, the prosperity of the Medici princes declined, and like many of the other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work to others. The king of Portugal bought at least one of his instruments.
In 1726, the only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). It portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is almost certainly a piano. In his left hand is a piece of paper, believed to contain a diagram of Cristofori's piano action. The portrait was destroyed in the Second World War, and only photographs of it remain.
Cristofori continued to make pianos until near the end of his life, continually making improvements in his invention. In his senior years, he was assisted by Giovanni Ferrini, who went on to have his own distinguished career, continuing his master's tradition. There is tentative evidence that there was another assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first upright piano.
In his declining years Cristofori prepared two wills. The first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools to Giovanni Ferrini. The second will, dated March 23 of the same year, changes the provisions substantially, bequeathing almost all his possessions to the "Dal Mela sisters ... in repayment for their continued assistance lent to him during his illnesses and indispositions, and also in the name of charity." This will left the small sum of five scudi to Ferrini. Pollens notes further evidence from the will that this reflected no falling out between Cristofori and Ferrini, but only Cristofori's moral obligation to his caretakers. The inventor died on January 27, 1731 at the age of 75.
Cristofori's pianos
The total number of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown. Only three survive today, all dating from the 1720s.
A 1720 instrument is located in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Later builders have extensively altered this instrument: the soundboard was replaced in 1938, and the 54-note range was shifted by about half an octave, from F', G', A'–c''' to C–f''. Although this piano is playable, according to builder Denzil Wraight "its original condition ... has been irretrievably lost," and it cannot indicate what it sounded like when new.
A 1722 instrument is in the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome. It has a range of four octaves (C-c³) and includes an "una corda" stop; see below. This piano has been damaged by worms and is not playable.
A 1726 instrument is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum of Leipzig University. Four octaves (C-c³) with "una corda" stop. This instrument is not currently playable, though in the past recordings were made.
The three surviving instruments all bear essentially the same Latin inscription: "BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]", where the date is rendered in Roman numerals. The meaning is "Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date]."
Design
The piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted almost all of the features of the modern instrument. It differed in being of very light construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially loud tone. This continued to be the rule for pianos until around 1820, when iron bracing was first introduced. Here are design details of Cristofori's instruments:
Action
Piano actions are complex mechanical devices which impose very specific design requirements, virtually all of which were met by Cristofori's action.
First, a piano action must be arranged so that a key press does not actually lift the hammer all the way to the string. If it did, the hammer would block on the string and damp its vibrations. The position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in the key of Cristofori's action (see "I" in diagram below) is so adjusted that the hopper escapes from the 'notch' in the middle of the intermediate lever (G) just before the hammer (C) strikes the string, so that the hammer is not driven all the way but travels the remaining distance under its own momentum and then falls into the check (M). When the key is allowed to return to its position of rest, the jack springs back under the notch and a repeated blow is possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for repetition, the lightness of the action gives more facility for repetition than the heavier actions of the English type that developed in the first half of the 19th century, until these were provided with additions of one kind or another to facilitate repetition.
Second, a piano action must greatly amplify the motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an intermediate lever (G) was used to translate every key motion into a hammer motion eight times greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing the needed leverage in a small amount of space.
Third, after the hammer strikes the string, the action must avoid an unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the hammer bouncing up and down within the space confining it. In Cristofori's action, this was accomplished by two means. By lifting the intermediate lever with a jack that disengages in its highest position, the Cristofori action made it possible for the hammer to fall (after its initial blow) to a position considerably lower than the highest position to which the key had lifted it. By itself, this mechanism greatly reduces the chance of an unwanted second blow. Also, the Cristofori action included a check (also called "back check"; M) that catches the hammer and holds it in a partially raised position until the player releases the key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second blows.
The complexity of Cristofori's action and hence the difficulty of building it may have formed a barrier to later builders, who appear to have tried to simplify it. However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; the standard modern piano action is a still more complex and evolved version of Cristofori's original.
Hammers
The hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are made of paper, curled into a circular coil and secured with glue, and surmounted by a strip of leather at the contact point with the string. According to harpsichord maker and scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in "15th-century paper organ pipe technology". The purpose of the leather is presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the lower harmonics of string vibration by maintaining a broad area of contact at impact. The same goal of softness was achieved in later 18th-century pianos by covering the wooden hammers with soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by covering a wooden core with a thick layer of compressed felt.
As in modern pianos, the hammers are larger in the bass notes than in the treble.
Frame
Cristofori's pianos use an internal frame member (bentside) to support the soundboard; in other words, the structural member attaching the right side of the soundboard is distinct from the external case that bears the tension of the strings. Cristofori also applied this system to harpsichords. The use of a separate support for the soundboard reflects Cristofori's belief that the soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string tension. This may improve the sound, and also avoids the peril of warping—as harpsichord makers Kerstin Schwarz and Tony Chinnery point out , , a severely warped soundboard threatens a structural catastrophe, namely contact between strings and soundboard. Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in modern pianos, where the now-enormous string tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a separate iron frame (the "plate").
Wraight has written that the three surviving Cristofori pianos appear to follow an orderly progression: each has heavier framing than its predecessor. Wraight suggests that this would have been intentional, in that the heavier framing permitted tenser, thicker strings. This in turn increased the volume with which treble notes could be played without pitch distortion, a limitation that Wraight observes when playing replica instruments. Thus, it appears that the move toward heavier framing, a trend that dominates the history of the piano, may already have begun in Cristofori's own building practice.
Inverted wrest plank
On two of his surviving instruments, Cristofori employed an unusual arrangement of the tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, the tuning hammer is used on the top side of the wrest plank, but the strings are wrapped around the pins on the bottom side. This made it harder to replace broken strings, but it provided two compensating advantages. With the nut (front bridge) inverted as well, the blows of the hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly into place, rather than threatening to displace them. The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings lower in the instrument, permitting smaller and lighter hammers, hence a lighter and more responsive touch.
According to musical instrument scholar Grant O'Brien, the inverted wrestplank is "still to be found in pianos dating from a period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death." In modern pianos, the same basic principle is followed: the contact point for the vibrating length of the string that is close to the hammers is either an agraffe or the capo d'astro bar; these devices pull the string in the direction opposite to the hammer blow, just as in Cristofori's original arrangement.
Soundboard
Cristofori used cypress, the wood traditionally favored for soundboards in the Italian school of harpsichord making. Piano making after Cristofori's time ultimately settled consistently on spruce as the best material for soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages for cypress.
Strings
In Cristofori's pianos, there are two strings per note, throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in the mid and upper range, two in the upper bass, and one in the lower bass, with greater variation in thickness than Cristofori used. The strings are equally spaced rather than being grouped with strings of identical pitch closer together.
In two of the attested pianos, there is a forerunner of the modern soft pedal: the player can manually slide the entire action four millimeters to one side, so that the hammers strike just one of the two strings ("una corda"). It is possible however that this device was intended as an aid to tuning. In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings for each note, Ferrini allowed one set of harpsichord jacks to be disengaged but did not provide a una corda device for the hammer action.
The strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of the same period, although there are no original string gauge markings on any of the three surviving pianos to prove this. Thicker strings are thought to be better suited to the hammer blows. Comparing the two 1726 instruments, one a piano, the other a harpsichord, the lengths of the 8-foot strings are almost the same, certainly in the upper halves of the compasses of the two instruments.
It is difficult to determine what metal the strings of Cristofori's pianos were made of, since strings are replaced as they break, and sometimes restorers even replace the entire set of strings. According to Stewart Pollens, "the earlier museum records document that all three [attested] Cristofori pianos were discovered with similar gauges of iron wire through much of the compass, and brass in the bass." The New York instrument was restrung entirely in brass in 1970; Pollens reports that with this modification the instrument cannot be tuned closer than a minor third below pitch without breaking strings. This may indicate that the original strings did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might also be blamed on the massive rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.
More recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who have built replica Cristofori pianos, have taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except occasionally in very demanding locations (such as the upper range of a 2' harpsichord stop). Chinnery suggests that "cypress soundboards and brass strings go together: sweetness of sound rather than volume or brilliance."
Sound
According to Wraight, it is not straightforward to determine what Cristofori's pianos sounded like, since the surviving instruments (see above) are either too decrepit to be played or have been extensively and irretrievably altered in later "restorations". However, in recent decades, many modern builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, and particularly the recordings made on these instruments, has created an emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound. The sound of the Cristofori replicas is as close to the harpsichord as it is to the modern piano; this is to be expected given that their case construction and stringing are much closer to the harpsichord than to the piano. The note onsets are not as sharply defined as in a harpsichord, and the response of the instrument to the player's varying touch is clearly noticeable.
Some Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the external links below.
Initial reception of the piano
Knowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received comes in part from the article published in 1711 by Scipione Maffei, an influential literary figure, in the Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice. Maffei said that "some professionals have not given this invention all the applause it merits," and goes on to say that its sound was felt to be too "soft" and "dull"—Cristofori was unable to make his instrument as loud as the competing harpsichord. Yet Maffei himself was an enthusiast for the piano, and the instrument did gradually catch on and increase in popularity, in part due to Maffei's efforts.
One reason why the piano spread slowly at first was that it was quite expensive to make, and thus was purchased only by royalty and a few wealthy private individuals. The ultimate success of Cristofori's invention occurred only in the 1760s, when the invention of cheaper square pianos, along with generally greater prosperity, made it possible for many people to acquire one.
Subsequent technological developments in the piano were often mere "re-inventions" of Cristofori's work; in the early years, there were perhaps as many regressions as advances.
Surviving instruments
Nine instruments that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:
The three pianos described above.
Two oval spinets, from 1690 and 1693. The 1690 instrument is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali, part of the Galleria del Accademia in Florence. The 1693 oval spinet is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum of the University of Leipzig.
A spinettone, also in the Leipzig museum.
An early (17th century) harpsichord, with a case made of ebony. It is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali in Florence (part of the Galleria dell'Accademia). An image can be viewed at the website of harpsichord builder Tony Chinnery.
A harpsichord dated 1722, in the Leipzig museum.
A 1726 harpsichord, in the Leipzig museum. It has the disposition 1 x 8', 1 x 4', 1 x 2' and is the only known Italian harpsichord with a two-foot stop. The instrument illustrates Cristofori's ingenuity in the large number of levers and extensions that permit the player great flexibility in determining which strings will sound. There are six basic registrations: 8', 8'+4', 4', 4'+2', 2', 8'+ 4'+2'; in addition, the player may add 4', 2' or 4'+2' to the 8' stop just in notes of the bass range.
The later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, probably include work by assistant Giovanni Ferrini, who went on after the inventor's death to build pianos of wider range using the same basic design.
An apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking soundboard, keyboard, and action, is currently the property of the noted builder Tony Chinnery, who acquired it at an auction in New York. This instrument passed through the shop of the late 19th century builder/fraudster Leopoldo Franciolini, who reworked it with his characteristic form of decoration, but according to Chinnery "there are enough construction details to identify it definitely as the work of Cristofori".
There are also several fraudulent instruments attributed to Cristofori, notably a three-manual harpsichord once displayed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini of a single-manual instrument made in 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.
Assessments of Cristofori
Cristofori was evidently admired and respected in his own lifetime for his work on the piano. On his death, a theorbo player at the Medici court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:
1731, 27th [January], Bartolomeo Crisofani , called Bartolo Padovano, died, famous instrument maker to the Most Serene Grand Prince Ferdinando of fond memory, and he was a skillful maker of keyboard instruments, and also the inventor of the pianoforte, that is known through all Europe, and who served His Majesty the King of Portugal [João V], who paid two hundred gold louis d'or for the said instruments, and he died, as has been said, at the age of eighty-one years. [trans. Stewart Pollens; Cristofori was actually only 76 at his death]
An anonymous 18th-century music dictionary, found in the library of the composer Padre G. B. Martini, says of him
Christofori Bartolomeo of Padua died in Florence [...] was the famous harpsichord maker, a distinguished restorer rendering even better good instruments made by other past masters and he was also the inventor of harpsichords with hammers, which produce a different quality of sound both on account of the hammer striking the chord and the completely different internal structure of the body of the instrument, not visible from the outside [...] the best instruments that he made were for Ferdinando de' Medici Great Prince of Tuscany, his protector and son of the Grand Duke Cosimo III. [trans. Giuliana Montanari]
After his death, however, Cristofori's reputation went into decline. As Stewart Pollens has documented, in late 18th century France it was believed that the piano had been invented not by Cristofori but by the German builder Gottfried Silbermann. Silbermann was in fact an important figure in the history of the piano, but his instruments relied almost entirely on Cristofori for the design of their hammer actions. Later scholarship (notably by Leo Puliti) only gradually corrected this error.
In the second half of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with care, as part of the general increase in interest in early instruments that developed in this era (see authentic performance). The modern scholars who have studied Cristofori's work in detail tend to express their admiration in the strongest terms; thus the New Grove encyclopedia describes him as having possessed "tremendous ingenuity"; Stewart Pollens says "All of Cristofori's work is startling in its ingenuity"; and the early-instrument scholar Grant O'Brien has written
"The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest order and his genius has probably never been surpassed by any other keyboard maker of the historical period ... I place Cristofori shoulder to shoulder with Antonio Stradivarius."
Cristofori is also given credit for originality in inventing the piano. While it is true that there had been earlier, crude attempts to make piano-like instruments, it is not clear that these were even known to Cristofori. The piano is thus an unusual case in which an important invention can be ascribed unambiguously to a single individual, who brought it to an unusual degree of perfection all on his own.
See also
List of historical harpsichord makers
Notes
References
Fabbri, M. (1964) "Nuova luce sull'attività fiorentina di Giacomo Antonio Perti, Bartolomeo Cristofori e Giorgio Federico Haendel Valore storico e critico di una Memoria di Francesco M Mannucci', Chigiana, pp. 143–190. [Source of the now-doubted Mannucci diary]
A. Furnari and C. Vitali (1991) "Handels Italienreise neue Dokumente, Hypothesen und Interpretationen," Gottingen Handel-Beitrage, Kassel.
Gai, Vinicio (1969) "Gli strumenti musical della orte Medicea e il Museo del Conservatorio 'Luigi Cherubini' di Firenze" ("The musical instruments of the Medici court and the museum of the Luigi Cherubini conservatory in Florence"), Florence. pp. 6–22.
Good, Edward (2005) "What did Cristofori call his invention?," Early Music 33.1: 95–97.
Hubbard, Frank (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; .
Kottick, Edward (2003) A history of the harpsichord. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. , .
Kottick, Edward and George Lucktenberg (1997) Early Keyboard Instruments in European Museums. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Montenari, Giuliana (1991) "Bartolomeo Cristofori: A list and historical survey of instruments," Early Music, August 1991.
O'Brian, Michael. "Bartolomeo Cristofori", article in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, available as a pay Web site and in scholarly libraries.
Pollens, Stewart (1991) "Three Keyboard Instruments Signed by Cristofori's Assistant, Giovanni Ferrini," The Galpin Society Journal 44: 77–93.
Pollens, Stewart (1995) The Early Pianoforte. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Parakilas, James Piano Roles: Three Hundred Years of Life with the Piano (1999: Yale University Press, ).
Restle, Conny (1991) Bartolomeo Cristofori und die Anfänge des Hammerclaviers. Munich: Editio Maris.
"Pianoforte", article in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, available as a pay Web site and in scholarly libraries.
Schwarz, Kerstin (2002) "Bartolomeo Cristofori. Hammerflügel und Cembali im Vergleich", in Scripta Artium. Schriftenreihe zur Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte der Universität Leipzig 2:23–68.
van der Meer, John Henry (2005) "Review of Bartolomeo Cristofori: La Spinetta Ovale del 1690: Studi e richerche, edited by Gabriele Rossi Rognoni. The Galpin Society Journal 58:275–276.
Vogel, Benjamin (2003) "Action", in Robert Palmieri, ed., The Piano: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.
Wraight, Denzil (2006) "Recent approaches in understanding Cristofori's fortepiano," Early Music 34:635–644.
External links
The Metropolitan Museum's web page on its 1720 Cristofori piano
A page about the early piano, including an image of the 1722 Cristofori instrument in Rome.
Web page of the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome (no image, but information for visitors)
The Leipzig Musikinstrumenten-Museum's entry on its 1726 Cristofori piano.
Website of Tony Chinnery, harpsichord maker. Hear an original and a replica Cristofori.
O'Brien, Grant (2003) "Bartolomeo Cristofori/Giovanni Ferrini as restorers and re-builders. A 'Neapolitan' connection in two Italian harpsichords in Britain." Online at Claviantica.com.
Website of Kerstin Schwarz, piano and harpsichord maker. Animus-cristofori.com
Puliti, Leto (1874) "Della vita del Serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici Granprincipe di Toscana e della origine del pianoforte" ("On the life of His Serene Highness Ferdinando de Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, and on the origin of the pianoforte," Atti dell'Accademia del R. Istituto musicale di Firenze 12:92–240.
Wraight, Denzil "A Florentine Piano c.1730 for Early Piano Music", online at Denzilwraight.com.
1655 births
1731 deaths
Inventors of musical instruments
17th-century Italian inventors
Italian musical instrument makers
Harpsichord makers
Piano makers
Musicians from Padua
17th-century Italian musicians
18th-century Italian musicians
Engineers from Padua
18th-century Italian inventors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palembang
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Palembang
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Palembang () is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers on both banks of the Musi River on the eastern lowland of southern Sumatra. It had a population of 1,668,848 at the 2020 Census. Palembang is the second most populous city in Sumatra, after Medan, and the ninth most populous city in Indonesia.
The Palembang metropolitan area has an estimated population of more than 3.5 million in 2015. It comprises parts of regencies surrounding the city, including Banyuasin, Ogan Ilir, and Ogan Komering Ilir.
Palembang is one of the oldest cities in Southeast Asia. It was the capital of Srivijaya, a Buddhist kingdom that ruled much of the western Indonesian Archipelago and controlled many maritime trade routes, including the Strait of Malacca. a Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in the year 671 for 6 months.
Palembang was incorporated into the Dutch East Indies in 1825 after the abolition of the Palembang Sultanate. It was chartered as a city on 1 April 1906.
Palembang was the host city of the 2011 Southeast Asian Games and the 2018 Asian Games along with Jakarta. The first light rail system in Indonesia was operated in Palembang in July 2018.
The city is a major local tourist destination attracting a total of 2,011,417 tourists in 2017, however, it is not a well-known international tourist destination as foreign tourists only account for 9,850 out of the aforementioned total tourist arrivals. Traffic jams, floods, slums, pollution, and peatland fire are problems in Palembang.
Etymology
Some believe that the name "Palembang" is derived from the word limbang in Malay. By adding the prefix pe- which indicates a place or situation, the city's name means "a place to pan gold and diamond ores". It is said that during antiquity, the ruler ordered gold and diamond miners to pan their ores in the city for security and surveillance reasons.
Others say that the name comes from the word lembang in Malay. By adding the same prefix, the city's name means "a place where the water leaks". It also means "a place which was constantly inundated by water". It refers to the geographical features of Palembang, which is a wetland.
Some say that the name was given by four brothers who survived a shipwreck near Musi River during the Majapahit reign. It is said that on their way to a new colony in eastern Sumatra, when their ship was wrecked, all belongings in the ship sunk into the sea except a broken wooden box which the survivor used as rafts. The rafts were wobbled (limbang-limbang) by the waves until they drifted ashore to a land which was later named Palimbang by them.
Other people also said that it is from a student’s name of Sunan Gunung Jati, one of The Wali Songo which had major movements in spreading Islam around Indonesia. This student was a Chinese man named Pai Li Bang. Legend said that he wanted to go to Java to find his teacher, but instead his ship got into the shores of South Sumatra. People hailed him as a good and competent leader, in which later retranslated his name as the word Palembang to name the city.
Palembang also has a special Chinese character rendition like several cities in Indonesia. In Chinese, Palembang is written as 巨港 (). It refers to the city in the past which was once a bustling major port in Southeast Asia.
History
Srivijaya period
The Kedukan Bukit Inscription, which is dated 682 AD, is the oldest inscription found in Palembang. The inscription tells of a king who acquires magical powers and leads a large military force over water and land, setting out from Tamvan delta, arriving at a place called "Matajap," and (in the interpretation of some scholars) founding the polity of Srivijaya. The "Matajap" of the inscription is believed to be Mukha Upang, a district of Palembang.
According to George Coedes, "in the second half of the 9th century Java and Sumatra were united under the rule of a Sailendra reigning in Java...its centre at Palembang."
As the capital of the Srivijaya kingdom, this second oldest city in Southeast Asia has been an important trading centre in maritime Southeast Asia for more than a millennium. The kingdom flourished by controlling the international trade through the Strait of Malacca from the seventh to thirteenth century, establishing hegemony over polities in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Sanskrit inscriptions and Chinese travelogues report that the kingdom prospered as an intermediary in the international trade between China and India. Because of the Monsoon, or biannual seasonal wind, after getting to Srivijaya, traders from China or India had to stay there for several months waiting the direction of the wind changes, or had to go back to China or India. Thus, Srivijaya grew to be the biggest international trade centre, and not only the market, but also infrastructures for traders such as lodging and entertainment also developed. It functioned as a cultural centre as well. Yijing, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who stayed in today's Palembang and Jambi in 671, recorded that there were more than a thousand Buddhist monks and learned scholars, sponsored by the kingdom to study religion in Palembang. He also recorded that there were many "states" under the kingdom called Srivijaya (Shili Foshi).
In 990, an army from the Kingdom of Medang in Java attacked Srivijaya. Palembang was sacked and the palace was looted. Cudamani Warmadewa, however, requested protection from China. By 1006, the invasion was finally repelled. In retaliation, Srivijaya king sent his troops to assist King Wurawari of Luaram in his revolt against Medang. In subsequent battles, Medang Palace was destroyed and the royal family of Medang executed.
In 1068, King Virarajendra Chola of the Chola Dynasty of India conquered what is now Kedah from Srivijaya. Having lost many soldiers in the war and with its coffers almost empty due to the twenty-year disruption of trade, the reach of Srivijaya was diminished. Its territories began to free themselves from the suzerainty of Palembang and to establish many small kingdoms all over the former empire. Srivijaya finally declined with the military expedition by Javanese kingdoms in the thirteenth century.
Post-Srivijaya period
Prince Parameswara fled from Palembang after being crushed by Javanese forces, The city was then plagued by pirates, notably Chen Zuyi and Liang Daoming. In 1407, Chen was confronted at Palembang by the returning imperial treasure fleet under Admiral Zheng He. Zheng made the opening gambit, demanding Chen's surrender and the pirate quickly signalled agreement while preparing for a surprise pre-emptive strike. But details of his plan had been provided to Zheng by a local Chinese informant, and in the fierce battle that ensued, the Ming soldiers and Ming superior armada finally destroyed the pirate fleet and killed 5,000 of its men. Chen was captured and held for public execution in Nanjing in 1407. Peace was finally restored to the Strait of Malacca as Shi Jinqing was installed as Palembang's new ruler and incorporated into what would become a far-flung system of allies who acknowledged Ming supremacy in return for diplomatic recognition, military protection, and trading rights.
Palembang Sultanate
After the Demak Sultanate fell under Kingdom of Pajang, a Demak nobleman, Geding Suro with his followers fled to Palembang and established a new dynasty. It is from this period, that Islam became the dominant religion in Palembang. The Grand Mosque of Palembang was built in 1738 under the reign of Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin I Jaya Wikrama, and was completed in 1748. Settlements grew along the Musi River, with some houses built on rafts. The Sultanate legislated only citzens of Palembang could reside downstream of Seberang Ilir where the palace was located, whereas non-citizens were required to reside on the opposite bank known as Seberang Ulu.
Several local rivals, such as Banten, Jambi, and Aceh threatened the existence of the Sultanate. Meanwhile, the Dutch East India Company established a trade post in Palembang in 1619. In 1642, the company obtained monopoly over the ports pepper trade. Tensions mounted between the Dutch and locals, peaking in 1657 when a Dutch ship was attacked in Palembang. This provided opportunity for the company to launch a punitive expedition in 1659, in which the city was burnt to the ground.
During the Napoleonic Wars in 1812, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II repudiated British claims to suzerainty. The British responded by mounting a military expedition that captured Palembang and deposed the sultan. His younger brother, the pro-British Najamudinn, was installed onto the throne instead. The Dutch colonial government attempted to recover their influence at the court in 1816, but Sultan Najamuddin was uncooperative. An expedition launched by the Dutch in 1818 captured Sultan Najamudin and he was exiled to Batavia. A Dutch Army garrison was established in 1821, but Najamuddin attempted an attack and a mass poisoning of the garrison, which was intervened by the Dutch. Mahmud Badaruddin II was exiled to Ternate, and his palace was burned to the ground. The Sultanate was later abolished by Dutch and direct colonial rule was established.
Dutch colonial period
Following the Dutch abolition of the Palembang Sultanate in 1825, Palembang become the capital of the Residency of Palembang, encompassing the territory that would become the South Sumatra province after Indonesian independence. Its first resident was Jan Izaäk van Sevenhoven.
From the late nineteenth century, with the Dutch introduction of new export crops including robusta coffee, Palembang rose as an economic centre. During the early 20th century, the development of the petroleum and rubber industries in Palembang Residency drove the city's economic growth. This saw a growth in migrants, an increase in urbanisation, and development of the socioeconomic infrastructure. Palembang became the most populous urban centre outside Java.
Japanese occupation
An oil embargo had been imposed on Japan by the United States, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, and due to its oil refineries, Palembang was a high priority objective for Japanese forces. With the area's fuel supply and airfield, Palembang offered potential as a military base area, to both the Allies and the Japanese.
The main battle occurred during 13–16 February 1942. While the Allied planes were attacking Japanese shipping on 13 February, Kawasaki Ki-56 transport planes of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Chutai, Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF), dropped Teishin Shudan (Raiding Group) paratroopers over Pangkalan Benteng airfield. At the same time Mitsubishi Ki-21 bombers from the 98th Sentai dropped supplies for paratroopers. The formation was escorted by a large force of Nakajima Ki-43 fighters from the 59th and 64th Sentai. As many as 180 men from the Japanese 2nd Parachute Regiment, under Colonel Seiichi Kume, dropped between Palembang and Pangkalan Benteng, and more than 90 men came down west of the refineries at Plaju.
Although the Japanese paratroopers failed to capture the Pangkalan Benteng airfield, they managed to gain undamaged possession of the Plaju oil refinery. However, the second oil refinery in Sungai Gerong was demolished by the Allies. A counter-attack by Landstorm troops and anti-aircraft gunners from Prabumulih managed to retake the complex but took heavy losses. The planned demolition failed to do any serious damage to the refinery, but the oil stores were set ablaze. Two hours after the first drop, another 60 Japanese paratroopers were dropped near Pangkalan Benteng airfield.
As the Japanese landing force approached Sumatra, the remaining Allied aircraft attacked it, and the Japanese transport ship Otawa Maru was sunk. Hurricanes flew up the rivers, machine-gunning Japanese landing craft. However, on the afternoon of 15 February, all Allied aircraft were ordered to Java, where a major Japanese attack was anticipated, and the Allied air units had withdrawn from southern Sumatra by the evening of 16 February 1942. Other personnel were evacuated via Oosthaven (now Bandar Lampung) by ships to Java or India.
The Japanese managed to restore production at both main refineries, and these petroleum products were significant in their war effort. Despite Allied air raids, production was largely maintained. The city was defended from air attacks by the Imperial Japanese Army's Palembang Defense Unit.
In August 1944, USAAF B-29 bombers flying from India, raided the Palembang refineries in what was the longest range regular bombing mission of the war.
In January 1945, in Operation Meridian, the British Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm launched two major attacks on the two refinery complexes, against determined Japanese defence.
National revolution
On 8 October 1945, the Resident of South Sumatra, Adnan Kapau Gani, and Gunseibu officers raised the Indonesian flag during a ceremony. It was declared that Palembang Residency was under control of Republicans.
Palembang was occupied by the Dutch after an urban battle with Republicans on 1–5 January 1947, which is nicknamed Pertempuran Lima Hari Lima Malam (Five Days and Nights Battle). The battle ended with a ceasefire and the Republican forces retreated as far as from Palembang.
During the occupation, the Dutch formed the federal state of South Sumatra in September 1948. After the transfer of sovereignty on 27 December 1949, South Sumatra State, along with other federal states and the Republic formed a short-lived United States of Indonesia before the states were abolished and integrated back into the form of Republic on 17 August 1950.
Old Order and New Order period
During PRRI/Permesta rebellion, the rebel faction established Dewan Garuda (Garuda Council) in South Sumatra on 15 January 1957 under Lieutenant Colonel Barlian took over the local government of South Sumatra.
In April 1962, Indonesian government started the construction of Ampera Bridge which was completed and officially opened for public on 30 September 1965 by Minister/Commander of the Army Lieutenant General Ahmad Yani on 30 September 1965, only hours before he was killed by troops belonging to the 30 September Movement. At first, the bridge was known as the Bung Karno Bridge, after the president, but following his fall, it was renamed the Ampera Bridge. A second bridge in Palembang which crosses Musi River, Musi II Bridge was built on 4 August 1992.
On 6 December 1988, Indonesia government expanded Palembang's administrative area as far as 12 kilometers from the city center, with 9 villages from Musi Banyuasin integrated into 2 new districts of Palembang and 1 village from Ogan Komering Ilir integrated into Seberang Ulu I District.
During May 1998 riots of Indonesia, Palembang was also ravaged by riots with 10 burned shops, more than a dozen burned cars, and several injured people inflicted by rioters as students marching to the Provincial People's Representative Council office of South Sumatra. Thousands of police and soldiers were put on guard at various points in the city. The Volunteer Team for Humanity (Indonesian: Tim Relawan untuk Manusia, or TRUK) reported that cases of sexual assault also took place.
Reformasi period
In 1998, a sport complex along with its main stadium, Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, was built in Jakabaring, completed in 2004. It served as venues for 2004 Pekan Olahraga Nasional. Palembang became host of Pekan Olahraga Nasional in 2004 after 47 years it was last held outside Java and 51 years in Sumatra. 7 years later, Palembang became the host of the 2011 Southeast Asian Games along with Jakarta. In 2013, Indonesian government decide to replace the host of 2013 Islamic Solidarity Games from Pekanbaru to Palembang because several problems occurred in the former host, including Riau Governor, Rusli Zainal who stumbled over a corruption scandal. Palembang, together again with Jakarta, hosted the 2018 Asian Games.
Sixth president of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, declared Palembang as a "Water Tourism City" on 27 September 2005. More further on 5 January 2008, Palembang publicised its tourist attractions with the slogan "Visit Musi 2008".
Palembang completed its first flyover at Simpang Polda in September 2008. Second flyover in Jakabaring completed in 2015. In 2010, Palembang launched its bus transit system, Transmusi. Since 2015, Indonesian government began to upgrade Palembang's transportation capability with the construction of Indonesia's first light rail transit system from Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport to Jakabaring, the city's toll roads, two Musi River bridges, and two flyovers, all expected to be operational before 2018 Asian Games. The toll road began its operation in October 2017.
Geography and climate
Geography
At , Palembang occupies 400.61 km2 of vast lowland area east of Bukit Barisan Mountains in southern Sumatra with average elevation of , approximately from nearby coast at Bangka Strait. One of the largest rivers in Sumatra, the Musi River, runs through the city, dividing the city area into two major parts which are Seberang Ilir in the north and Seberang Ulu in the south. Palembang is also located on the confluence of two major tributaries of Musi River, which are Ogan River and Komering River. The river's water level is influenced by tidal cycle. In rainy season, many areas on the city are inundated by the river's tide.
Palembang's topography is quite different between Seberang Ilir and Seberang Ulu area. Seberang Ulu topography is relatively flat, meanwhile Seberang Ilir topography is more rugged with altitude variation between .
Climate
Palembang is located in the tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af) zone with significant rainfall even in its driest months. The climate in Palembang is often described with "hot, humid climate with a lot of rainfall throughout the year". The annual average temperature is around . Within tropical climate, except for precipitation and monsoonal wind direction, the city experiences no other seasonal change throughout the year. Average rainfall annually is . During its wettest months, the city's lowlands are frequently inundated by torrential rains. However, in its driest months, many peatlands around the city dried, making them more vulnerable to wildfires, causing prolonged haze in the city. Due to the city very low latitude, typhoon risk of the city is nearly absent.
Neighborhoods
Palembang is roughly divided by Musi River into two major areas known as Seberang Ilir (lit. "downstream bank") in the north and Seberang Ulu (lit. "upstream bank") in the south. Seberang Ilir is the main economic and political centre in Palembang and contained a prominent portion of the city's highrises. Seberang Ulu is undergoing massive development, especially in Jakabaring, with the construction of business centre, government building, and the most notably is the construction of the city's sport complex, Jakabaring Sport City.
Administration
Government
Palembang is administratively has a status as a city and has its own local government and legislative body. The executive head of Palembang is the Mayor. The mayor and members of representatives are locally elected by popular vote for a 5-year term. The city government enjoys greater decentralization of affairs than the provincial body, such as the provision of public schools, public health facilities and public transportation. Current Mayor of the city is Harnojoyo, previous vice mayor who is appointed because the previous mayor, Romi Herton was impeached because of a bribery scandal during his election. Besides Mayor and Vice Mayor, there is Palembang Municipal People's Representative Council, which is a legislative body of council members directly elected by the people in legislative elections every five years.
Administrative districts
Palembang consists of eighteen kecamatan (districts), each headed by a Camat. They are further divided again into 107 kelurahan (urban villages). They are listed below with their areas, their populations at the 2010 Census and the latest official estimates (as at mid 2019). The table also includes the numbers of kelurahan (urban villages) in each district, and its postal codes.
(a) Two additional districts - Ilir Timur Tiga (East Ilir III) and Jakabaring - were established in 2017 by splitting from Ilir Timur Dua (East Ilir II) and Seberang Ulu Satu (Upper Seberang I) districts respectively.
Note the affixes can be translated as: "Satu" = "One"; "Dua" = "Two"; "Tiga" = "Three"; "Timur" = "East"; "Barat" = "West".
Demography
Ethnicity and language
Palembang is an ethnically diverse city. The indigenous population in the region of Palembang are Malay people heavily influenced by Javanese culture. Many of them live in traditional settlements along the Musi River bank, although there has been a recent efflux of Malay to the outer suburbs. Many people of other ethnicities from other parts of South Sumatra and beyond also live in Palembang. There is also a significant Arab, Indian and Chinese communities who are inhabitants of Palembang. Arab Indonesian communities mainly live in several villages such as Kampong Al Munawwar in 13 Ulu, Kampong Assegaf in 16 Ulu, Kampong Al Habsyi in Kuto Batu, Kampong Jamalullail in 19 Ilir and Kampong Alawiyyin in Sungai Bayas, 10 Ilir. Conversely, Chinese Indonesian communities mainly live in commercial districts in Palembang although there are several traditional Chinese villages like Kampong Kapitan in 7 Ulu. And Indian in 18 Ilir.
The local language of Palembang, Musi (Baso Plembang), is considered a dialect of Malay with a significant portion being Javanese loanwords. This language are also adapted as one of the most common language to converse in Palembang for those who had settled for a long time in the city—originally or not. The natives originating from other parts of South Sumatra have their own regional languages, such as Komering, Besemah, Rawas and Semendo. Chinese languages are also largely used by local Chinese communities.
Religion
Palembang officially recognizes six religious faiths, of which the most widely held is Islam. According to the 2017 data from Badan Pusat Statistik Palembang, the population of Palembang was 92.22% Muslim, 3.91% Buddhist, 2.23% Protestant, 1.49% Roman Catholic, 0.13% Hindu, and 0.02% Confucianist. Muslims in Palembang are mainly from the Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam. There are several mosques with considerable heritage and historical significance, chiefly the Great Mosque of Palembang, which was built during the Palembang Sultanate era, widely regarded as the main mosque of Palembang.
Transportation
Before the operational of Ampera Bridge, there were more people in Palembang using water transportation. Large water vehicles such as river steamboat was used to transport people to and from inland. Some people also used smaller boat such as Kajang boat, a traditional boat with simple roof to carry people and goods. Nowadays, people in Palembang prefers road transportation over water one and private transportation over public one. Traffic jam often occurred in some main streets, especially during rush hour. Rail and air transportation is also available in Palembang.
Road
Transmusi
Since introduced in 2010, bus rapid transit becomes the main transportation in Palembang under the name Transmusi. Transmusi has no special lanes because the road in Palembang are too narrow to build it, so Transmusi often trapped in traffic jams. Transmusi has operated 8 routes (corridors) inside the city and 3 routes to and from the city.
Corridor 1 : Bus stop below the Ilir part of Ampera Bridge – Alang Alang Lebar Bus Station (KM 12)
Corridor 2 : Perumnas Bus Station – PIM (Palembang Indah Mall)
Corridor 3 : Plaju – PS Mall (Palembang Square Mall)
Corridor 4 : Jakabaring – Karya Jaya Bus Station (Kertapati)
Corridor 5 : Alang Alang Lebar Bus Station (KM 12) – Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport
Corridor 6 : Pusri – Palembang Square (PS)
Corridor 7 : Kenten – Dempo
Corridor 8 : Alang Alang Lebar Bus Station (KM 12) – Terminal Karya Jaya (Kertapati)
Pangkalan Balai Corridor : Alang Alang Lebar Bus Station (KM 12) – Pangkalan Balai
Indralaya Corridor : Terminal Karya Jaya – Indralaya
Unsri Corridor : Unsri Bukit – Unsri Indralaya
Public bus and angkot services
Palembang operates several bus and angkot routes. First angkots in Palembang were using Willys Jeep and was move called "Mobil Ketek" because of its engine sound. Public bus was introduced in 1990s and served some routes from Seberang Ilir neighborhoods such as Km.12, Perumnas, Pusri, and Bukit Besar to Seberang Ulu neighborhoods which are Kertapati, Plaju, and Jakabaring. It is one of the most beloved public transportation service because of its cheap price, but some old angkots need more care and they tend to be jam-packed with people. Because of aging vehicles and complaints in security and driver habits, Palembang public bus is planned to be removed gradually until 2018.
Palembang also operates several air-conditioned public bus to neighboring towns such as Kayuagung, Indralaya, Pangkalan Balai, Prabumulih, and Tanjung Api-Api.
Taxicab
Palembang also has a large number of taxis. The number has been rising since the National Games 2004 and SEA Games 2011, which both were held in Palembang.Popular taxi cab apps such as Bluebird are popular.
Becak and ojek
There are many becak (pedicabs) and ojek (motorcycle taxi) operated in Palembang. Becak are often found in more older settlements along Musi River than ojek which are mostly found in more recent settlements far from the river.
App-based taxi and ojek
Taxis and ojeks are available via Go-Jek and Grab. Because of protests from taxi drivers, angkot and ojek are often barred from taking passengers to/from some places, such as the airport.
Rail
Railway tracks were introduced by the Dutch in late 1800s. Railway tracks connect Palembang to provinces in southern Sumatra such as Bandar Lampung in Lampung Province, Rejang Lebong Regency in Bengkulu Province, and some main towns in South Sumatra such as Lubuklinggau, Prabumulih, Indralaya, Muara Enim, Lahat, Tebing Tinggi, Baturaja, and Martapura. The largest railway station in Palembang is Kertapati Station. There are plans to connect Palembang to other cities in Sumatra, ultimately connected existing railways in northern, western and southern Sumatra, forming Trans Sumatra Railway.
Palembang currently was the first Indonesian city to have a light rail system (and metro-like system in general), predating the opening of Jakarta LRT in 2019. The Palembang Light Rail Transit opened 1 August 2018 and became the first rail rapid transit in Indonesia. There are 13 stations along the LRT system, connecting Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport and Jakabaring Sport City.
Water
River transport
Palembang has several types of river transportation. The most traditional one is a motorboat called "perahu ketek", a wooden boat which using small engine and moves quite slow. Perahu ketek is often used especially by people who live on riverside to cross the river from one bank to another. Another type of river transportation is called "speedboat", a wooden motorboat which using more larger engine and designed to withstand the speed of the boat itself, far more faster than perahu ketek. Speedboats often used by the people outside Palembang, especially who lives in Musi River delta, to go to and from Palembang. Palembang also operates some larger riverboat for tourism activities.
Port
Currently Palembang also has two main ferry ports, Tanjung Api-api Port, located on sea-shore, outside the city, and Boom Baru Port inside the city. These ports operate ferries to Bangka, Belitung and Batam Island. There is a plan to build deep sea port in Tanjung Api-Api.
Air
The only public airport in Palembang is Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport. This airport provides domestic routes that connect Palembang with many cities in Indonesia, especially Jakarta, but also other towns in South Sumatra, such as Lubuklinggau and Pagaralam. It also has international routes to Singapore and Kuala Lumpur.
Economy
As the capital of South Sumatra and one of major cities in Indonesia, Palembang's economy depends highly on trading, service, transportation, manufacturing and construction sectors. GRDP of Palembang was Rp 118.77 trillion (US$9.01 billion) in 2016. Of this, the manufacturing and construction sectors take up the largest portions with 33.17 and 18.21 percent contributions, respectively. The minimum wage for 2017 is Rp 2,484,000 per month, somewhat higher than regencies in Java although lower than that of cities such as Medan or Surabaya.
Palembang is a part of Strategic Development Area of Merak - Bakauheni - Bandar Lampung - Palembang - Tanjung Api-Api (MBBPT). To accelerate the region development, Trans-Sumatra Toll Road is being constructed to eventually give Palembang a high-speed highway access to other cities in Sumatra, including Bengkulu in the west, Jambi in the north, and Bandar Lampung in the south.
Business and industry
Palembang is the regional business centre in southern Sumatra region encompassing Jambi, South Sumatra, Bengkulu, Bangka Belitung Islands and Lampung. Several main factories and industries in Indonesia are operating in Palembang such as fertiliser factory of Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang in Sei Selayur, portland cement factory of Baturaja Portland Cement in Kertapati and oil and gas refinery of Pertamina in Plaju. Several coal mining industries in South Sumatra also transport coal to the city by freight trains and by trucks before being shipped to Java or abroad.
In Indonesia, South Sumatra is the largest producer of rubber, estimated at over 940,000 tons of production in 2016, and over 850,000 tons of rubber were exported from Palembang in the same year. In 2014, there were 14 rubber processing factories in the city employing 4,000 people with a capacity of close to a million tons annually. There is however no specified industrial parks in the city.
At least 10,683 foreign tourists and 1,896,110 domestic tourists visited the city in 2016. Several hotels are operating in Palembang, many of them are opened after the 2004 Pekan Olahraga Nasional. Culinary business in Palembang is also developing. A ton of pempek is exported from Palembang to other cities in Indonesia and abroad daily.
Markets and commercial centres
Generally, there are two types of markets in Palembang, traditional market and modern market. From 30 traditional markets in Palembang, majority of traditional markets in Palembang is managed by PD Pasar Palembang Jaya meanwile the rest is owned by private or cooperative. Being in the central area of Palembang, 16 Ilir Market is the main traditional market in the city, while the area around the market, especially areas along Jalan Masjid Lama, Jalan Jendral Soedirman, Jalan Kolonel Atmo and Jalan Letkol Iskandar become bustling commercial centres integrated with one another. Another notable trading centre in Palembang is Cinde Market, one of the oldest market in Indonesia which was built first in 1957 with its unique mushroom pillars, then razed in 2017 to be replaced with more modern building.
Other modern commercial centers and malls are built in other parts of the city. Most of them are built in along Sekanak River corridor, including Palembang Indah Mall, Ramayana Palembang, Transmart Palembang, Palembang Icon, and Palembang Square, other notable malls such as Palembang Trade Center and OPI Mall are built in Patal Pusri and Jakabaring respectively. Two of main Indonesia retail giants, Indomaret and Alfamart also open their franchise stores in every part of the city.
Tourism
Palembang is known as Venetië Van Andalas (Venice of Sumatra), mainly because of the topography of the city which was dominated by Musi River and its tributaries. As a trading city since antiquity, Palembang is very heterogenous and its local culture and language is also influenced by many civilizations, most notably Chinese, Javanese, and Arabs. Several Dutch legacies in architecture can also seen in the city. The most notable landmarks in Palembang are Ampera Bridge, Musi River, Kuto Besak Fort, Kemaro Island, and Jakabaring Sport City.
Landmarks and Sights
Musi River, long river which divides Palembang into two parts, which are Seberang Ulu and Seberang Ilir. It is one of the longest rivers in Sumatra. Since antiquity, the Musi River has become the heart of Palembang and South Sumatra's economy. There are some landmarks along its bank, such as Ampera Bridge, Kuto Besak Fort, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Museum, Kemaro Island, 16 Ilir Market, traditional raft houses, Pertamina's oil refineries, Pupuk Sriwijaya (PUSRI) fertiliser plants, Bagus Kuning Park, Musi II Bridge, Kampong Al Munawar, etc.
Ampera Bridge, main city landmark, is a bridge crossed over above the Musi River which connects Seberang Ulu and Seberang Ilir area of Palembang.
Great Mosque of Palembang, also known as the Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Mosque, is the main mosque of Palembang located in the city centre. This mosque is built as the royal mosque of Palembang Sultanate and had undergone several renovations during Sultanate, Dutch, and Republic rule.
Kuto Besak Fort, located on the northern bank of the Musi River adjacent to Ampera Bridge and opposite to kampong Kapitan. The fort is built by Sultanate of Palembang, one of few surviving forts built by the local and not named after any European. Tourists are only allowed to see the fort from the outside as this fort is still owned by Tentara Nasional Indonesia, specifically the Health Department of Military Area Command II/Sriwijaya (Kesehatan Daerah Militer II/Sriwijaya) and has a function as a military hospital.
Kemaro Island, a small delta island of Musi River, located in eastern Palembang. This island houses several Chinese heritages in Palembang which are Kemaro Island Pagoda and Hok Tjiang Rio temple (福正廟). This island becomes more crowded during Chinese festivals specifically during Cap Go Meh on the final day of Chinese New Year celebrations. In front of the temple, there is a tomb which is believed to be a tomb of a legendary couple of Tan Bun An and Siti Fatimah who made this island during their death.
Kampong Arab Al-Munawar, one of kampong in Palembang which is inhabited by Arab Indonesian descendants. This kampong is renowned by the kampong's architecture and culture which is a mixture of local Malay and Arab, especially from Hadhrami. It has been long known that any visitors should dress politely in order to visit this area.
Kampong Kapitan, one of the oldest Chinese kampong in the city. The primary attraction is Tjoa Ham Hin's house with centuries-old furniture inside. There was also a nearby Chinese temple, which was one of the oldest in Palembang as well. Long before its existence as the Chinese settlement area, it was also called Tanggo Rajo where foreigners and newcomers from the archipelago stayed at.
Kantor Ledeng, the mayor office of Palembang. It was originally built as a water tower during Dutch rule.
Kambang Iwak, a pond located in Talang Semut close to Palembang mayor's residence. During Dutch rule, the area around the pond is the residence of Dutch people who works in the city, notable by European architecture on many houses around this pond and abundance of churches in this area. On the banks of this lake, there is a park and recreation arena which is always crowded by locals during weekends and holidays.
Punti Kayu Tourism Forest, city forest located about from the city centre with an area of and since 1998 designated as protected forests. In this forest there is a family recreation area and a local shelter a group of monkeys: long-tail macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and monkey (Macaca nemistriana) under the Sumatran Pine wood (Pinus mercussi).
Sriwijaya Kingdom Archaeological Park, the remnants of Sriwijaya site located on the banks of the River Musi. There is an inscription and stone relics, complex of ancient pond, artificial island and canals dated from the Srivijayan kingdom in this area. The Srivijaya Museum is located in this complex.
Bukit Seguntang archaeological park, located in the hills west of Palembang city. One of the most major historical areas among the Malay community, it is believed that Sang Sapurba the progenitor all of the Malay Kings descended from this important hill. It is currently turned into a recreational park by the local government. The tombs of the Srivijayan royal family is also being located in the area.
Monumen Perjuangan Rakyat / Monpera (People Struggle Monument), located in the city centre, adjacent to the Great Mosque and Ampera Bridge. Several relics during Indonesian National Revolution in South Sumatra are exhibited in this monument.
Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Museum, is the former Dutch-era resident office located near the Ampera Bridge and adjacent to Kuto Besak Fort. This museum located in the former royal palace of Palembang Sultanate which was demolished after Dutch conquest of Palembang. This museum exhibits several relics and historical objects with collections spanned from Srivijaya Kingdom period to Palembang Darussalam Sultanate era.
Museum Balaputradewa, the home of Rumah Limas featured on IDR 10000 banknote. This type of stilt house is the traditional house of the people of Palembang.
Rumah Limas Haji Aziz, a cultural home richly adorned with various traditional South Sumatran and Palembangese woodcarving. Visitors also have the option to dressed in the local classical attire in the abode.
Al-Qur'an Al-Akbar, the Grand Quran of Palembang, a giant complete replica of the Muslim holy book. The 5-story quran is a prominent religious site in the area.
Dekranasda Palembang, a collection of traditional Rumah adats from each South Sumatran regencies.
Parameswara Monument, a large sculpture to commemorate Parameswara, the Sultan of Malacca from Palembang. The monument is also erected to celebrate the unity between various southeast Asian nations and the brotherhood spirit among the Malay community,
Festivals
Bidar race, a traditional Malay rowing tournament is biannually held in Musi River especially on 17 August (Indonesia's Independence Day) and lesserly known 17 June (Palembang Establishment Day). Several bidar rowing teams will sprint across a stretch of Musi River from 35 Ilir Port to Ampera Bridge. The race is always accompanied with a boat carnival.
Ziarah Kubro, is a tradition held by several thousands of Muslims in Palembang before Ramadan by visiting several tombs of founding fathers, sultans and ulemas of Palembang Sultanate in Palembang.
Culture
Since antiquity, Palembang has been a major port city in Southeast Asia which absorbs neighbouring, as well as foreign, cultures and influences. Throughout its history, Palembang has attracted migrants from other regions in the archipelago, and has made this city as a heterogenous city. Although today the city had lost its function as the major port city in the archipelago, the remnants of its heyday still evident in its culture. Palembangnese people mainly adopt culture which is mainly an amalgamation of Malay and Javanese customs. Even now it can be seen in its culture and language. Word such as "wong (person)" is an example of Javanese loanword in Palembang language. Also the Javanese knight and noble honorific titles, such as Raden Mas or Raden Ayu is used by Palembang nobles, the remnant of Palembang Sultanate courtly culture. The tombs of the Islamic heritage was not different in form and style with Islamic tombs in Java.
Cuisine
Palembang cuisine is the second most well-known cuisine from Sumatra after Padang. They primarily use freshwater fish and prawn as ingredients due to the paramount role of the Musi River for the area. Spices are also generally included although not as liberal as its same-island counterpart. Malay, Indian, and Chinese culture has also influenced Palembang's culinary scene. Besides freshwater fish dishes, there are many variation of dishes, snacks, drinks, and sweets in Palembang cuisine. The most well known dishes in Palembang include pempek, tekwan, pindang patin, martabak HAR, and wide varieties of Bakmi which is a type of noodle dish. Numerous Palembang cuisines are highly influenced by Chinese culture.
Art
Textile
Palembang is mainly known for its artistic fabrics, songket. Songket is a hand-woven silk or cotton fabrics patterned with gold or silver threads. It is a luxury product traditionally worn during ceremonial occasions as sarong, shoulder cloths or head ties and tanjak, a headdress songket. During Srivijaya rule, songkets were often used at the court. Songkets are also traditionally worn as an apparel by the Malay royal families in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsular including Palembang Sultanate. Traditionally women are the weavers of songket, however in this modern time men also are known to weave it as well. There are six main patterns in Palembang songket which are songket lepus, songket tawur, songket tretes mender, songket bungo pacik, combinated songket, and songket limar. These patterns are not only used on songkets, but also as decoration for several structures in Palembang such as underpasses, flyovers, and bridges.
Woodcarving
Palembang is also known for its woodcarving. Palembang woodcarving are heavily influenced by Chinese culture with motifs such as jasmine or lotus. Palembang woodcarving style originally is used to wardrobe that stores songket fabrics. But nowadays it is often applied to house ornaments and also to many house applicants such as wooden display cabinets, wooden beds, aquariums, photo frames, mirrors, etc.
Dance
Folk dances have been performed by Palembangnese since antiquity. The most known folk dance of Palembang is Tanggai Dance which was considered sacred in the past since it was performed as an offering to Shiva. Nowadays it was performed in a lot of important ceremonies and weddings.
Theatrical Performance
In several occasions such as kenduri (communal feast), Palembangnese often hired several people to perform traditional theatrical performance called Dulmuluk, named after its main character, Raja Abdulmuluk Jauhari. Dulmuluk was known at first as a syair which was then adapted into local theatrical performance by Palembangnese in 1910. Dulmuluk often performed during night until the dawn of the next day.
Sport
Along with Jakarta, Palembang is notable as having served as a host city of the 2018 Asian Games, the first Asian Games hold officially by two cities and the fourth host city of Asian Games in Southeast Asia after Bangkok in 1998. Palembang is also the main host of 2011 Southeast Asian Games and hosted two matches of 2007 AFC Asian Cup. Sport facilities have been built across the city since 1971 to host Pekan Olahraga Mahasiswa (POM) IX, although the city's main sport complex, Jakabaring Sport City started its construction in 1998 and expanded later in 2010. In order to keep the sport complex into frequent uses, several plans have been raised by the government to encourage more sporting events into the city, included the purchase of an association football club, Persijatim Solo F.C in 2004 which then renamed to Sriwijaya F.C. Palembang also planned to build a race track inside the complex to host a MotoGP race in the city.
Football is regarded as the most popular sport in Palembang. Sriwijaya F.C is the only active professional football club in South Sumatra and widely followed across the province, especially in Palembang as its home base. During its home matches, the stadium often flooded with fans wears yellow shirts on south stands, green shirts on north stands, and black shirts on east stands, representing three main ultras of the club. Badminton, basketball, volleyball and futsal also get some wide attention in the city. Beside Sriwijaya F.C., notable sport teams in Palembang are BSB Hangtuah (basketball) and Palembang Bank Sumsel Babel (volleyball). An Indonesian badminton player, Mohammad Ahsan and Debby Susanto is also from Palembang.
Education
According to Ministry of Education and Culture, currently there are 462 elementary schools, 243 junior high schools, 140 high schools, and 80 vocational schools in Palembang; most of them privately owned. There are 26 Islamic boarding schools (pesantren) in Palembang as of 2015.
Christian schools and Buddhist Schools are also privately owned and funded. Study centers are available such as GO, Primagama, BKC, Nurul Fikri, BTA, and RuangGuru’s Brain Academy.
The city's universities and colleges include Sriwijaya University, Raden Fatah State Islamic University, Sriwijaya State Polytechnic, Muhammadiyah University of Palembang and Bina Darma University.
Other universities include Kader Bangsa, MDP, the Open University of Palembang, IBA , Indo Global Mandiri, PGRI, Tridinanti, Musi Charitas, and Indonesia Sport Polytechnic.
Twin towns – sister cities
Zhangzhou, China (since 2002)
Venice, Italy
The Hague, Netherlands
See also
Musi language
Srivijaya
References
External links
Official website – in Indonesian
Populated places in South Sumatra
Port cities and towns in Indonesia
Provincial capitals in Indonesia
Cities in Indonesia
Cities in South Sumatra
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarry
|
Quarry
|
A quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground. The operation of quarries is regulated in some jurisdictions to reduce their environmental impact.
The word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone.
Types of rock
Types of rock extracted from quarries include:
Chalk
China clay
Cinder
Clay
Coal
Construction aggregate (sand and gravel)
Coquina
Diabase
Gabbro
Granite
Gritstone
Gypsum
Limestone
Marble
Ores
Phosphate rock
Quartz
Sandstone
Slate
Travertine
Stone quarry
Stone quarry is an outdated term for mining construction rocks (limestone, marble, granite, sandstone, etc.). There are open types (called quarries, or open-pit mines) and closed types (mines and caves).
For thousands of years, only hand tools have been used in quarries. In the 18th century, the use of drilling and blasting operations was mastered.
Methods of quarrying
The method of removal of stones from their natural bed by using different operations is called quarrying. Methods of quarrying include:
a) Digging – This method is used when the quarry consists of small & soft pieces of stones.
b) Heating – This method is used when the natural rock bed is horizontal and small in thickness.
c) Wedging –This method is used when the hard rock consists of natural fissure. When natural fissures are absent then artificial fissures are prepared by drilling holes.
d) Blasting – It is the process of removal of stones with the help of controlled explosives is filled in the holes of the stones. Line of least resistance plays very important role in the blasting process.
Following steps are used in the blasting process;
1) Drilling holes – Blast holes are drilled by using drilling machines.
2) Charging – Explosive powders are fed into the cleaned & dried blast holes.
3) Tamping – The remaining portion of the blast holes are filled by clay, ash, fuse & wirings.
4) Firing –The fuses of blasting holes are fired by using electrical power supply or match sticks.
Slabs
Many quarry stones. such as marble, granite, limestone, and sandstone are cut into larger slabs and removed from the quarry. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen or luster. Polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of residential and commercial properties. Natural stone quarried from the earth is often considered a luxury and tends to be a highly durable surface, thus highly desirable.
Problems
Quarries in level areas with shallow groundwater or which are located close to surface water often have engineering problems with drainage. Generally the water is removed by pumping while the quarry is operational, but for high inflows more complex approaches may be required. For example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to more than below sea level.
To reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with clay was constructed around the entire quarry. Groundwater entering the pit is pumped up into the moat. As a quarry becomes deeper, water inflows generally increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal; this can become the limiting factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging.
Many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the more effective and famous examples of successful quarry restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC, Canada.
A further problem is pollution of roads from trucks leaving the quarries. To control and restrain the pollution of public roads, wheel washing systems are becoming more common.
Quarry lakes
Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes. Others are made into landfills.
Water-filled quarries can be very deep, often or more, and surprisingly cold, so swimming in quarry lakes is generally not recommended. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmer's muscles to suddenly weaken; it can also cause shock and even hypothermia. Though quarry water is often very clear, submerged quarry stones, abandoned equipment, dead animals and strong currents make diving into these quarries extremely dangerous. Several people drown in quarries each year. However, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites.
Such lakes, even lakes within active quarries, can provide important habitat for animals.
See also
List of quarries
List of quarries in the United States
Clay pit
Coal mining
Collecting fossils
Fair Stone standard
Gravel pit
List of minerals
List of rock types
List of stones
Miner
Mountaintop removal mining
Opencast mining
Quarry lake
Quarries (biblical)
References
S.K Duggal "Building Materials" (2003) 3rd revised edition
https://www.atlasobscura.com/categories/quarries
External links
Environmental impact of mining
Surface mining
|
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204230
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Zebrowski
|
George Zebrowski
|
George Zebrowski (born December 28, 1945) is an American science fiction author and editor who has written and edited a number of books, and is a former editor of The Bulletin of the Science Fiction Writers of America. He lives with author Pamela Sargent, with whom he has co-written a number of novels, including Star Trek novels.
Zebrowski won the John W. Campbell Memorial Award in 1999 for his novel Brute Orbits. Three of his short stories, "Heathen God," "The Eichmann Variations," and "Wound the Wind," have been nominated for the Nebula Award, and "The Idea Trap" was nominated for the Theodore Sturgeon Award.
Bibliography
Novels
The Omega Point (1972) [Omega Point #2]
The Star Web (1975)
Ashes and Stars (1977) [Omega Point #1
Sunspacer (1978)
Macrolife (1979)
A Silent Shout (1979)
Mirror of Minds (1983) [Omega Point #3]
The Omega Point Trilogy (1983)
The Stars Will Speak (1985)
Stranger Suns (1989)
Behind the Stars (1996)
Sunspacers Trilogy (1996)
The Killing Star (1996) with Charles Pellegrino
Brute Orbits (1998)
Cave of Stars (1999)
Empties (2009)
Star Trek novels
A Fury Scorned (1996). Co-written with Pamela Sargent. Based on Star Trek: The Next Generation television series.
Heart of the Sun (1997). Co-written with Pamela Sargent. Based on Star Trek: The Original Series television series.
Dyson Sphere (April, 1999). Co-written with Charles R. Pellegrino. Based on Star Trek: The Next Generation television series.
Across the Universe (October, 1999). Co-written with Pamela Sargent. Based on Star Trek: The Original Series television series.
Garth of Izar (2003). Co-written with Pamela Sargent. Based on Star Trek: The Original Series television series.
Collections
The Monadic Universe (1977)
Swift Thoughts (2002)
In the Distance, and Ahead in Time (2002)
Black Pockets: And Other Dark Thoughts (2006)
Anthologies edited
Human Machines: An Anthology of Stories About Cyborgs (1975) with Thomas Scortia
Tomorrow Today: No. 1 (1975)
Faster than Light (1976) with Jack Dann
Three in Space (1981) with Jack Dann and Pamela Sargent
Creations: The Quest for Origins in Story and Science (1983) with Isaac Asimov and Martin Greenberg
Nebula Awards 20 (1985)
Nebula Awards 21 (1986)
Synergy: New Science Fiction, Volume 1 (1987)
Nebula Awards 22 (1988)
Synergy: New Science Fiction, Volume 2 (1988)
Synergy: New Science Fiction, Volume 3 (1988)
Synergy: New Science Fiction, Volume 4 (1989)
Three in Time (1997) with Jack Dann and Pamela Sargent
Synergy SF: New Science Fiction (2004)
Nonfiction
Beneath the Red Star: Studies on International Science Fiction (1996)
Skylife: Space Habitats in Story and Science (2000) with Gregory Benford
References
Sources
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
SFWA
ISFDB
External links
Golden Gryphon Press official site - About Swift Thoughts
Golden Gryphon Press official site - About Black Pockets and Other Dark Thoughts
1945 births
Living people
American science fiction writers
Austrian emigrants to the United States
People from Villach
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
|
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204232
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrolife
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Macrolife
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Macrolife: A Mobile Utopia is a 1979 science fiction novel by American author George Zebrowski.
Plot introduction
By 2021, Earth's nations are at (relative) peace, and even the erstwhile poorer nations are beginning to enjoy stable political and economic regimes. The invention of a super-strong material named Bulerite is partially responsible for this, which enables Earth to, at last, initiate a burgeoning space industry. However, events unfold which result in the first "Macrolife" colony leaving the solar system for the nearer stars.
Explanation of the novel's title
Scientist Dandridge M. Cole originated the term "Macro Life" in his 1961 book The Ultimate Human Society, though the idea of using asteroids as mobile "societal containers" is a common theme in science, and science fiction.
Cole defined Macro Life as "life squared per cell", i.e. "Macro Life is to man what man is to the cell". Zebrowski, in the novel, regards Macrolife as an open-ended, expansive union of organic, cybernetic and machine intelligences (human and alien) with spacefaring as its means of dissemination.
Plot summary
The novel is split into three main sections.
(I) Sunspace: 2021 ... The Bulero family/corporation, inventors and marketers of Bulerite which is used to build the huge cities which house the Earth's (and colonies) teeming millions, are at the pinnacle of their influence and wealth. Unfortunately, it is discovered - too late - that the substance is inherently flawed, in that after a time it destabilizes and self-destructs with spectacular results. Gradually, all the Bulerite on Earth, and that on and in the space colonies throughout the solar system becomes unstable, causing destruction and megadeath.
The devastation precipitates a war with Earth's colonies on the outer planets, with whom a struggle for control of the solar system existed. Many nuclear-tipped missiles explode on Earth which adds to the Bulerite destabilization. The combination of the Bulerite and the nuclear explosions cause a mysterious shroud of radiation to envelop the Earth. All humans on the planet are assumed dead.
Before this final devastation, many refugees manage to escape to the Moon, Mars, and Asterome, an orbiting colony situated inside a hollowed-out asteroid at the Moon's L5 point. Included amongst the refugees are most of Bulero family who end up on Asterome.
The leadership of Asterome are now faced with several severe challenges: Handling the influx of refugees, removing any Bulerite used in the construction of Asterome, consolidating their resources now that the Earth can no longer supply them with finished goods, and preventing increasingly aggressive attempts by the outer colonies and remnants of Earth's government to take control and plunder Asterome.
When a means of providing Asterome with propulsion is discovered, the leadership of Asterome decide that leaving the solar system is the best option available to ensure Asterome's short-term survival as well as proving a way for Mankind to survive should the solar system be destroyed by the after-effects of Bulerite and war.
After overcoming attempts to stop them, Asterome finally manages to leave the solar system, heading for Alpha Centauri, the nearest star.
(II) Macrolife: 3000 ... A thousand years later, Asterome has grown by adding concentric layers of shells around itself, and is now host to millions of humans and Humanity II cybernetic organisms.
The invention of engines that can surpass the speed of light has made it possible for the colony to explore far and wide; the second part finds them studying a planet orbiting the star Praesepe over 500 light years away. John Bulero, a young clone of one of the original Bulero's, decides to see what life is like on a planet, and lives for a while amongst the natives, descendants of a human colony that has reverted to savagery. His experiences, while tragic, enable him to grow as an individual.
Eventually, Asterome travels back to the solar system to see how events there have unfolded. Their arrival coincides with the first time humans meet an intelligent alien species which is itself experimenting with Macrolife, and, together, the species begin a process of intermingling and further expansion into the universe.
(III) The Dream of Time ... A hundred billion years have passed, and Macrolife is now the dominant culture throughout the universe, which is, at this stage, beginning to contract into its final death throes. Most life is in the form of a Hyperpersonal Aggregate; an amalgam of individuals of all kinds. The aggregate re-individualizes John Bulero again, to help them solve the problem of how Macrolife can survive beyond the death of the Universe. Eventually, they discover many Macrolife survivors from many previous cycles of the universe, who help them to conquer time itself.
Characters in "Macrolife"
Richard Bulero : Central character.
Jack Bulero : Richard's father, head of Bulero Enterprises.
Janet Bulero : Richard's mother.
Samuel Bulero : Richard's uncle
Orton Blackfriar : lawyer ; Governor of New Mexico.
Margot Toren : Richard's girlfriend, later wife.
John Bulero : Clone of Samuel Bulero.
Rob Wheeler : John Bulero's exemplar.
Anulka : John Bulero's wife on the planet Lea.
Tomas Blakfar : Lean descendant of the Blackfriar family.
Follow ups
Several other books have been written to take place in the same fictional world:
Transfigured Night and Wayside World, two novelettes published in 1978, are "set in the planned Macrolife mosaic of short stories, novelettes, novellas, and novels". Wayside World (part of a shared-universe project generated by Poul Anderson) was also the name of a chapter in the novel.
In the Distance, and Ahead in Time a Macrolife novelette, was published in Amazing Stories in 1993. It was also the title of his 10-story short-story collection of 2002 ().
In 1999, Zebrowski wrote Cave of Stars, set in the same universe as Macrolife (though not a sequel).
Release details
1979, USA, Harper & Row (), Pub date ? ? 1979, hardback (First edition)
1980, UK, Orbit / Futura Pubns (), Pub date ? May 1980, paperback
1981, USA, Avon (), Pub date ? ? 1981, paperback
1990, USA, Easton Press (ISBN ?), Pub date ? ? 1990, hardback
2006, USA, Pyr (), Pub date 2 January 2006, hardback
2006, USA, Pyr (), Pub date 2 January 2006, paperback
See also
Spome
References
External links
Author's homepage
Infinity Plus interview with author
Scans from Dandridge Cole's Beyond Tomorrow
"A Scientist's Notebook", an essay by the author and Gregory Benford on SFsite
Reviews
Strange Horizons
Concatenation
SFF World
SF CrowsNest
1979 American novels
Transhumanist books
1979 science fiction novels
Human evolution books
American science fiction novels
Fiction set in 2021
Harper & Row books
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraticelli
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Fraticelli
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The Fraticelli (Italian for "Little Brethren") or Spiritual Franciscans were extreme proponents of the rule of Saint Francis of Assisi, especially with regard to poverty, and regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous, and that of individual churchmen as invalidating their status. They thus claimed that everyone else in the Church was damned and deprived of powers, and the Fraticelli were declared heretical in 1296 by Boniface VIII.
The name Fraticelli is used for various sects, which appeared in the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, principally in Italy, that separated from the Franciscan Order on account of the disputes concerning poverty. The Apostolics (also known as Pseudo-Apostles or Apostolic Brethren) are excluded from the category, because admission to the Order of St. Francis was expressly denied to their founder, Gerard Segarelli. The Apostolics had no connection to the Franciscans, in fact desiring to exterminate them. It is necessary to differentiate the various groups of Fraticelli, although the one term may be applied to all.
Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose is set against the prosecution of Fraticelli.
Word origin
Etymologically, Fraticelli is a diminutive derived from the Italian frate (plural frati), itself derived from Latin Frater 'brother', in Italian often shortened to Fra when referring to members of religious orders.
Frati was a designation of the members of the mendicant orders founded during the thirteenth century, principally the Franciscans. The Latin Fraterculus does not occur in the old records which concern the Fraticelli. Etymologically the name Friars Minor (Fratres Minores) is equivalent to the diminutive Fraticellus. The ideal of the founder of the Friars Minor, Saint Francis of Assisi, was that his disciples, by evangelical poverty, complete self-denial, and humility, should lead the world back to Christ. The Italian people designated as Fraticelli all the members of religious orders (particularly mendicants), and especially hermits, whether these observed monastic precepts or regulated their own lives.
Background
Early Franciscans were itinerant preachers, who, following their founder Francis of Assisi, took to heart Christ's injunction in Luke 9:3: "Take nothing for the journey — no staff, no bag, no bread, no money, no extra shirt." Living by such a rule required constant begging for alms, and over time this produced tensions, both with potential benefactors faced with repeated appeals from mendicant friars, and with established monastic orders accustomed to aid from the same pool of benefactors.
Over time, as the order grew, it faced the demands of caring for sick or elderly friars, and providing for its members sent to university for theological training. The order divided into two branches, the Zelanti, or Spirituals, and the Relaxati, known later as the Conventuals. The Zelanti strictly observed the poverty enjoined by the testament of Saint Francis, and lived isolated and simple lives. The Relaxati or 'Conventuals' lived in convents in the towns, tending the attached churches with the necessary liturgical furnishings and devoting themselves also to study and preaching, which required the accumulation and use of books.
In support of the friars' commitment to "holy poverty", Pope Gregory IX adopted a legal construct whereby gifts given to the Franciscans were vested in the Holy See, which granted the friars the mere use of it. In this way, they need not be perennially destitute. Pope Innocent IV gave the Franciscans permission to appoint "procurators" to buy, sell and administer goods given to them. Pope Nicholas III confirmed the arrangement in 1279, in the bull Exiit qui seminat. The "Zelanti" or "Spirituals" felt that this abrogated the spirit of the founder, and believed a restricted use of property was more in keeping with the rule. The differences were not fully adjusted nor was unity ever completely restored between the Spirituals and the main body of the order, the Community.
Various Fraticelli
Angelo da Clareno and the "Clareni"
The first Fraticelli group was begun by Brother Angelo da Clareno (or da Cingoli). Angelo and several brethren from the March of Ancona had been condemned (c. 1278) to imprisonment for life, but were liberated by the general of the order, Raimondo Gaufredi (1289–1295) and sent to Armenia, where the king, Hethum II, welcomed them. The local clergy, however, were less enthusiastic, and following popular agitations against them they were exiled from Armenia towards the end of 1293. They returned to Italy, where in 1294 Celestine V, noted for his asceticism but whose pontificate lasted scarcely six months, willingly permitted them to live as hermits in the strict observance of the Rule of St. Francis. Celestine absolved them of their vows of obedience to their Franciscan superiors, and constituted them as a separate group of Poor Hermits who could live at the monasteries of the Celestines. He also named Cardinal Napoleone Orsini as cardinal-protector.
After the abdication of Celestine V, his successor, Boniface VIII, revoked all Celestine's concessions, and the Clareni emigrated to Greece, where some of them attacked the legality of the papal action. The Conventuals persuaded Boniface that the Clareni still held for Celestine and did not recognize Boniface as pope. He then persuaded the Patriarch of Constantinople to take measures against them, and they moved to Thessaly. Seeking to defend themselves against the calumny, they returned to Italy, where their leader, Fra Liberatus, attempted a vindication of their rights, first with Boniface VIII (d. 11 October 1303), and then with Benedict XI, who also died prematurely (7 July 1304). On his journey to Clement V (1305–1314) at Lyon, Liberatus died (1307), and Angelo da Clareno succeeded to the leadership of the community.
Angelo remained in Central Italy until 1311, when he went to Avignon, where he was protected by his patrons Cardinals Giacomo Colonna and Napoleone Orsini Frangipani. There, he successfully defended himself against a charge of heresy that had been brought against him. He was finally acquitted after a tedious and searching examination.
Early in 1317 John XXII, pursuant to a decree of Boniface VIII, declared Angelo excommunicated and placed him in custody. He defended himself ably in his "Epistola Excusatoria", but John XXII refused to approve the "Clareni" as a religious congregation and compelled Angelo to adopt the habit of a Celestine hermit. Angelo remained at the papal court in Avignon until the death of his friend Cardinal Colonna in 1318, and then returned to Italy. The procurator of the Celestines refused to allow him to stay at the Celestine monasteries: he was instead welcomed by the Benedictine abbot Bartolomeo at the Sacro Speco di Subiaco. In 1334, John XXII ordered the guardian of the convent of Ara Coeli in Rome to take possession of the person of Angelo, but Abbot Bartholomew refused to hand him over.
It appears from the papal Bulls that the followers of Angelo established themselves in Central Italy, i.e., in the province of Rome, Umbria, and the March of Ancona, and also in Southern Italy (Campagna, Basilicata, and Naples). From Subiaco Angelo sent circular letters to his friars who live in hermitages or scattered in convents. He assumed charge of the congregation dissolved by the pope, appointing provincials, ministers and custodians, and establishing new friaries. John XXII and his immediate successors issued numerous decrees against the Fraticelli in the March of Ancona, where the bishops and minor feudal barons defended them stubbornly and successfully in spite of papal threats. As he grew increasingly infirm Angelo was less able to visit the friars scattered around Rome, Ancona, Naples, and Unbria, and communicated with them by letter. The lack of his personnel presence contributed to a decline in discipline.
His adherents considered their rule as representing the Gospel, and as the Pope, they reasoned, cannot dispense from the Gospel, so he cannot dispense from, or even explain, the rule in any other than a literal sense. After the controversy regarding poverty broke out (1321–1328), all the Fraticelli showed a stronger opposition to the papacy.
Angelo was able to move from Subiaco, heading towards the Kingdom of Naples, where the presence of Philip of Majorca and Provençal and Catalan Spirituals at the court of Queen Sancia guaranteed continuous assistance. Angelo died 15 July 1337, and the congregation, deprived of its leader, loosely organized to begin with, and hard pressed by the Inquisition, seems to have split into a number of groups.
Angelo was highly esteemed by the Augustinian Hermits, with whom he was on friendly terms, especially with Gentile da Foligno and Simone da Cassia, an ascetic writer of great repute. He corresponded with both, and, after the death of Angelo, Simone bitterly lamented the loss of a friend and spiritual adviser. It is likely that the Fraticelli whom Simone afterwards successfully defended against the Dominicans in the civil courts at Florence (c. 1355), where he was then preaching, were adherents of Clareno.
In April 1389, Fra Michele Berti, from Calci near Pisa, a member of the Ancona branch of Fraticelli, after preaching the Lenten course to his associates in Florence, was arrested as he was about to leave the city, and was condemned by the Franciscan Archbishop of Florence, Bartolomeo Oleari, to be burned at the stake. Berti died chanting the Te Deum, while his followers, unmolested by the authorities, exhorted him to remain steadfast (30 April 1389). To the end he maintained that John XXII had become a heretic by his four decretals, that he and his successors had forfeited the papacy, and that no priest supporting them could absolve validly.
The "Poor Hermits" of Monte della Majella, near Sulmona were adherents of Angelo da Clareno, and at one time afforded protection to the famous tribune of the people, Cola di Rienzi (1349). Fanatical as they were on the subject of poverty, they were, in accordance with ancient custom, sheltered by the Celestine monks in the nearby abbey of Santo Spirito. The origin of the Clareni, approved as true Franciscans by Sixtus IV in 1474, is unknown; nor is it clear whether they were "moderate" followers of Angelo who managed to remain within the bounds of orthodoxy or schismatics who, after breaking their communion with the papal authorities, retracted.
Fraticelli de paupere vita
Chronologically the second main group of Fraticelli were the Spirituals who fled from Tuscany to Sicily, and were surnamed at first the Rebellious Brothers and Apostates, but later the "Fraticelli de paupere vita".
When, in 1309, the differences between the Relaxati and the Spirituals had reached a critical point, Clement V cited representatives of both parties to appear before the Curia with a view to adjusting their disputes. The result of this conference was the Constitution "Exivi de Paradiso", enacted at the final session of the Council of Vienne (6 May 1312). This Constitution contained an explanation of the Rule of St. Francis along stricter lines than those of the Bull "Exiit qui seminat" of Nicholas III (14 August 1279), and justified the Spirituals in various matters. This proceeding, however, only provoked the Relaxati superiors to take energetic measures against the Zelanti.
Towards the end of 1312 a number of Tuscan Spirituals left their monasteries and took forcible possession of the monasteries of Carmignano (near Florence), Arezzo, and Asciano, putting the Relaxati to flight. About fifty, fearing punishment, fled to Sicily. Clement V, hearing of these events, commanded the Archbishop of Genoa and two other bishops to force them to return to obedience under penalty of excommunication. As nearly all disregarded this mandate, the prior of San Fidele at Siena, who had been commissioned to execute it, declared them excommunicated and placed their monasteries under interdict (14 May 1314). As it soon became impossible for them to remain in Tuscany, they all fled to Sicily, where they were joined by numerous Zelanti from Northern Italy and Southern France. King Frederick of Sicily, brother of King James II of Aragon, admitted them after they had submitted their statutes to his inspection. Fra Enrico da Ceva was now their leader.
John XXII (15 March 1317) admonished King Frederick to take severe measures against them. In a letter of the same date addressed by the cardinals at Avignon to the entire hierarchy of Sicily, special stress was laid on the fact that the fugitives had elected a superior general, provincials, and guardians. On 23 January 1318, Pope John XXII excommunicated them in the Bull "Gloriosam ecclesiam", specifying five errors, to wit: (1) they designated the Roman Church as carnal and corrupt, and themselves as spiritual; (2) they denied to the Roman priesthood all power and jurisdiction; (3) they forbade taking an oath; (4) they taught that priests in the state of sin could not confer the sacraments; and (5) they asserted that they alone were the true observers of the Gospel.
Banished from Sicily, where, however, some remained till at least 1328, they established themselves securely in Naples.
The Michaelites
This third group of the Fraticelli derive their name from Michael of Cesena, their chief representative and natural leader. It must be premised that this name was in vogue during the fifteenth century and that the party it designated exerted great influence in doctrinal matters on the other groups as early as 1329.
The controversy began at Narbonne in 1321 between the Dominicans and Franciscans. The main question at issue seems to have been whether it is heretical to assert that Christ and His Apostles possessed no property either in particular or in common. In 1321 the Dominican Inquisitor at Narbonne, John of Belna, declared heretical the teaching of an imprisoned Beghard of that region, who asserted that Christ and the Apostles owned nothing either individually or in common. The Franciscan lector, Bérenger Talon, defended the Beghard. Berenger refused to retract and was threatened with punishment by the inquisitor. The matter soon developed into a general controversy between the Dominicans and Franciscans. On this particular issue the Relaxati and Zelanti agreed citing the Bull of Nicholas III, "Exiit qui seminat", which had defined the poverty of the Franciscans, both individually and collectively, as equivalent to that of the Apostles, and had therefore transferred to the Roman Church all their holdings in land and houses, as had already been enacted by Innocent IV (14 November 1245).
Because of the important bearing of the controversy on the rule of the Friars Minor, a general chapter of the order was convoked at Perugia, in June of the year 1322, and the minister general, together with the other members of the chapter, caused two letters or communications to be published in which the mind of the chapter regarding the controversy is set forth at considerable length. Anticipating, on the advice of the Franciscan Cardinals Vitalis and Bertrand, the definitive decision of the pope, the chapter solemnly declared in favor of the "absolute poverty" of Christ (4 June 1322). This pronunciamento was signed by the general, Michael of Cesena, the provincial ministers of Southern Germany, England (William of Nottingham, not Occam), Aquitania, Northern France, and others, as well as by several renowned scholars. On 11 June the chapter solemnly published its decrees to all Christendom.
Indignant at the action of the chapter at Perugia, Pope John XXII published the Bull Ad conditorem canonum (8 December 1322), in which he renounces the dominion of all the goods of the Friars Minor hitherto assumed by the Roman pontiffs. He declared that the Roman Church renounced all its claims to the movable and immovable properties of the Franciscan Order and therewith returned them. John echoed Gerard of Abbeville, declaring that the ownership of a thing cannot be separated from its actual use or consumption. The Franciscans objected to this attack on their longstanding beliefs and customs and the poverty that was their hallmark.
In the name of the order Bonagrazia of Bergamo, a capable lawyer and up to that time a bitter enemy of the Zelanti, presented a daring protest against this Bull to the Consistory (14 January 1323). Although the pope thereupon revised the text of the Bull and reissued it under the original date, he incarcerated Bonagrazia and in the Bull "Cum inter nonnullos" (12 November 1323) declared heretical the assertion that Christ and the Apostles possessed no property either separately or collectively.
The controversy between the pope and the order soon took on a political character, the Minorites having been appointed counselors to Louis IV the Bavarian, King of Germany, who also was engaged in a conflict with the pope. The Sachsenhausen Appeal of the King Louis of 22 May 1324 was full of invectives against the "heretic who falsely designates himself Pope John XXII" for doing away with the poverty of Christ. This famous "Spiritualist excursus" is closely connected with the Appeal of Bonagrazia, and with writings of Ubertino of Casale and of Pietro di Giovanni Olivi. It is certain that it originated among the Franciscans who, under the protection of the king, aimed it at John XXII and his teaching, although Louis IV later denied all responsibility in the matter. The result was that Louis IV was excommunicated. The general chapter of the order, assembled at Lyon on 20 May 1325 under the presidency of Michael of Cesena, forbade any disrespectful reference to the pope.
On 8 June 1327, Michael received instructions to present himself at Avignon, a command which he obeyed in December 1327. The pope having sharply reproved him in public (9 April 1328) for the chapter's action at Perugia, he drew up a secret protest and, fearing punishment, fled, despite the orders of the pope, to Aigues-Mortes and thence to Pisa, together with Bonagrazia of Bergamo and William of Occam.
In the meantime, Louis the Bavarian had entered Rome with a German army, and had himself solemnly crowned Emperor of Rome by Sciarra Colonna (17 January 1328); on 12 May he nominated and had consecrated as antipope Pietro Rainalducci of Corvara, a Franciscan, under the name of Nicholas V. The three fugitives from Avignon accompanied Louis to Bavaria, where they remained till their deaths. After Louis IV had returned to Bavaria, Nicholas V, deprived of all support, took refuge with the Count of Donoratico.
John XXII deposed Michael as general of the order and appointed the Minorite Cardinal Bertrand de Turre vicar-general of the order to preside at the chapter to be held in Paris (2 June 1329). Obedient to John XXII, he induced the majority of the order to submit to the Apostolic See. Michael of Cesena and all his adherents, the Michaelites, were repudiated by the order. At the same time, by command of John XXII, papal proceedings were instituted against them everywhere. The Michaelites denied John's right to the papacy and denounced both him and his successors as heretics.
The proceedings against Michael were published in various localities. On 5 September 1328, John XXII commanded the imprisonment of Fra Azzolino, who was acting as Michael's vicar, and on 18 August 1331, the arrest of another vicar, Fra Thedino, who represented Michael in the March of Ancona.
Prominent among the followers of Michael were the more or less numerous Minorites in the monasteries of Todi and Amelia (against whom proceedings were instituted in 1329–30), of Cortona (1329), and of Pisa (1330), where, however, they appeared openly as late as 1354, and at Albigano, and Savonna (1329–1332). Papal decrees reveal the presence of Michaelites in England (1329), Germany (1322), Carcassonne, Portugal (1330), Spain (1329), Sicily and Lombardy (1329, 1334), Sardinia, Armenia, and other places.
The records of a process (1334) conducted in irregular form against the Fraticelli of the Franciscan monastery at Tauris, who had been reported by Dominicans, show that they inveighed openly against John XXII and upheld the views of Michael of Cesena, although in their apocalyptic manner they declared that the order of the Friars Minor was divided in three parts, and that only those would be saved who would journey to the East, i.e. themselves. It is uncertain whether these were identical with the Fraticelli in Armenia, Persia, and other oriental localities, where all bishops were commanded by Clement VI to prosecute them (29 May 1344). For a long time, the sect prospered exceedingly in the Duchy of Spoleto on account of the continual political turmoil. In a process instituted against a particular Umbrian group of Fraticelli in 1360, it is noted that Fra Francesco Niccolò of Perugia was their founder. They pretended to observe the Rule of St. Augustine, but were fanatical on the question of poverty and regarded all prelates as guilty of simony.
They imitated the Sicilian Fraticelli in their doctrines and methods of instruction. A letter is still extant which the Fraticelli of the Campagna (1353–1355) wrote to the magistrates of Narni when they heard that one of their number (Fra Stefano) had been cruelly imprisoned by the Inquisition of that city twelve or fifteen years before. In this letter, they petitioned the magistrates to liberate him according to the example of the cities of "Todi, Perugia, Assisi, and Pisa".
Naples
It subsequently becomes difficult to differentiate these groups with precision. In Naples and Calabria, where King Robert and Queen Sanzia exhibited special veneration for St. Francis and his humble followers, the chaplaincies were held by Franciscans. There resided Fra Philip of Majorca, a brother of the queen. Like his father, James II of Majorca, Philip was sympathetic towards the Spiritual Franciscans. He was also a great admirer of Angelo da Clareno. In 1328 Philip had petitioned John XXII for permission for himself and other Franciscans to observe literally the Rule of St. Francis, independently of the superiors of the order; the pope had refused. In a letter dated 10 August 1333, the pope was obliged to settle some doubts of the queen relating to the observance of "holy poverty", and the king had even composed a treatise favouring the views of the Chapter of Perugia (1322). The papal condemnations of the Fraticelli, therefore, had produced but slight results in the Kingdom of Naples.
On 1 August 1322, John XXII issued a general decree against the "Fraticelli de paupere vita", and after sending King Robert (4 February 1325) the Bulls specially directed against Fra Enrico da Ceva, on 10 May 1325, demanded their imprisonment at the hands of King Robert and of Charles, Duke of Calabria. The pope had to repeat this admonition several times (1327, 1330, 1331) to proceed against the Fraticelli. After this, some joined the Michaelites. The statement that some professed Mohammedanism may be based on fact, considering their situation and the local circumstances.
On 8 July 1331, the pope admonished King Robert to withhold no longer the papal decrees against Michael of Cesena nor prevent their publication in his kingdom. Philip of Majorca, however, preached openly against the pope. It was due to the influence of the royal family that Fra Andrea of Galiano, a court chaplain at Naples, was acquitted in the process instituted against him at Avignon in 1338, as he still continued his intercourse with Michael of Cesena and with the fifty Michaelites who resided for some time under the king's protection in the castle of Lettere near Castellamare, but who later (1235) humbly submitted to their lawful superiors.
In 1336, "short-robed" Fraticelli still occupied the monastery of Santa Chiara at Naples, founded by Queen Sanzia, and were established in other parts of the kingdom; their expulsion was demanded on 24 June 1336 by Benedict XII (1334–1342). In 1344, Clement VI (1342–1352) found it necessary to reiterate the earlier decrees.
Several followers of Clareno were in the territory of Naples in 1362. Louis of Durazzo (a nephew of Robert, King of Naples) maintained a number of Fraticelli in a hospital adjoining his castle, Monte Sant' Angelo, and attended their services. These Fraticelli were divided into three sects: those acknowledging Tommaso da Bojano, former Bishop of Aquino; the followers of the pretended minister general, Bernard of Sicily; and those who claimed Angelo da Clareno as their founder and acknowledged only his successor as their general. All three sects agreed in holding that the true papacy had ceased since the alleged heresy of John XXII, but the party of the minister general held it lawful to accept, in case of necessity, the ministrations of priests who adhered to the papacy.
Between 1363–1370, it at last became possible for Franciscans to take possession of several monasteries in Calabria and Sicily from which the Fraticelli had been expelled; but Gregory XI complained on 12 September 1372 that the "ashes and bones of Fraticelli were venerated as relics of saints in Sicily, and churches were even erected in their honour".
Other areas
The Fraticelli enjoyed complete liberty in Perugia. They lived where it best suited them, principally in the country-houses of the rich. They became so bold as to publicly insult the Minorites (Conventuals) in the monastery of San Francesco al Prato. It appears that these Fraticelli had elected their own popes, bishops and generals, and that they were split into various factions. The Conventuals, as their one means of defence, called in Fra Paoluccio of Trinci, the founder of the Observants, and ceded to him the small monastery on Monte Ripido near the city (1374). Fra Paoluccio was successful in his disputations with the Fraticelli, and when they had been clearly exposed as heretics, the people drove them from the city. These Fraticelli, and probably all the others of that period, were designated Fraticelli della opinione, perhaps on account of their opinion that the Roman papacy had ceased to exist with John XXII (1323) or Celestin V, and that they alone constituted the true Church. About this time, Fra Vitale di Francia and Fra Pietro da Firenze exercised a sort of generalship over the Fraticelli. They received protection and hospitality from rich and influential families in Apulia, around Rome, and in the March. One of their protectors was the knight Andreuccio de Palumbario, who sheltered them in his castle near Rieti, for which he was sharply called to account by Urban VI (4 May 1388). On the same day, the Benedictine Abbot of Farfa was reprimanded for a similar fault.
On 14 November 1394, Boniface IX empowered the Minorites of Terra di Lavoro to take possession of the monasteries deserted by the Fraticelli. Martin V conceded the same rights to the Franciscans of the Roman Province (14 November 1418) and, on 7 April 1426, transferred to them as a special grant the monastery of Palestrina, which had been a stronghold of the Fraticelli. In the same year, Martin V nominated St. John Capistran (27 May) and St. James of the March (11 October) as inquisitors general to take action against the Fraticelli. These promoters of order among the Franciscans fulfilled the duties of their office strictly and energetically and succeeded in striking at the very vitals of the sect. In 1415, the city of Florence had formally banished the "Fraticelli of the poor life, the followers of Michelino of Cesena of infamous memory", and in Lucca five Fraticelli, on trial, had solemnly abjured their error (1411). Martin V also ordered the Bishops of Porto and Alba to take steps against all Fraticelli "in the Roman province, the March of Ancona, the Duchy of Spoleto and other localities" (7 June 1427).
On 27 January of the same year, Martin V permitted the Observants of Ancona to occupy the monastery of the Fraticelli at Castro l'Ermita as a first step in the campaign against the Fraticelli of that neighbourhood. On 1 June 1428, he commanded the Bishop of Ancona to enforce his rulings strictly in Maiolati, to put all suspects to the rack, destroy their village, separate the children from heretical parents, and disperse the elder population. A circular letter, which the Fraticelli addressed to all Christendom, proved ineffectual and their doom was sealed. John of Capistrano and James of the March burned thirty-six of their establishments or dispersed the members and also a number were burned at the stake at Florence and Fabriano, at the latter place in the presence of the pope.
Later history
A form of Fraticelli was also represented by Philip of Berbegni, a fanatical and eccentric Observant of Spain (1433), who attempted to establish a strict society de la Capuciola, but met vigorous opposition from John Capistran, who issued a dissertation against him.
James of March, commissioned by Nicholas V to proceed against them (1449), wrote the "Dialogus contra Fraticellos", which he first published in 1452, making some additions to it later on. According to this the main establishments of the Fraticelli were situated in the valley of Jesi, at Maiolati, Poggio Cupo, Massaccia, and Mergo. They had also constituted bishops in other districts where there were a sufficient number of adherents. They made frequent journeys for propaganda purposes, especially in Tuscany. Some dressed partly as Minorites, some as hermits, often disguising themselves for the sake of protection. Their doctrine was a résumé of their former sectarian errors: the whole Roman Church had deserted the true Faith since the time of John XXII (1323); they alone constituted the true Church and retained the sacraments and the priesthood.
Only once again are measures known to have been taken against the Fraticelli, viz., in 1466, when a number of Fraticelli from Poli, near Palestrina, and Maiolati were captured at Assisi during the Portiuncula celebration. They were imprisoned in the castle of Sant' Angelo and proceedings instituted against them. Their protector at Poli, Count Stefano de' Conti, was imprisoned, but they also received the protection of the noble Colonna family of Palestrina. Tradition also mentions that the Fraticelli established many other colonies and that they had an important centre in Greece, whence they sent out emissaries and where they sought refuge from the aggressive measures of St. James of the March. They generally held their reunions at night in private houses and half of the inhabitants of Poli are said to have been among their adherents. The allegation that their religious services were defiled by immoral practices cannot be proved. According to their doctrine, as contained in the "Dialogus", immoral priests incurred the loss of the powers of order and jurisdiction. They had also their own bishop, Nicholas by name.
During this period numerous pamphlets were published controverting the errors of the Fraticelli. While the campaign was going on at Rome, information was brought concerning another sect similar to the Fraticelli, which had been discovered in Germany; but though these visionaries, led by Brothers Johann and Livin of Wirsberg, found adherents among the Mendicants in Bohemia and Franconia, they cannot be considered as Fraticelli. In spite of all persecutions, remnants of the original Fraticelli still survived, but their strength was crippled.
See also
Absolute Poverty of Christ
References
Bibliography
(in German and Latin)
Piron, S., Le mouvement clandestin des dissidents franciscains au milieu du XIVe siècle, Oliviana, 3, 2009, on-line http://oliviana.revues.org/index337.html
[especially the article by M. Brunner, pp. 353-375]
Other
Catholicism in the Middle Ages
Order of Friars Minor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo%20da%20Clareno
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Angelo da Clareno
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Angelo da Clareno (1247/1248 – 15 June 1337), also known as Angelo Clareno, was the founder and leader of one of the groups of Fraticelli in the early 14th century.
Life
Originally known as Pietro da Fossombrone, he was born about 1248, and entered the Franciscan order around 1270. Believing that the rule of St Francis was not being observed and interpreted according to the mind and spirit of the Seraphic Father, he retired to a hermitage with a few companions and formed a new branch of the order known as the "Clareni". The influence of the prophetical writings of Joachim of Floris, a Calabrian abbot, on Angelo and his followers, and in fact on the "Spirituals" generally of the thirteenth century, cannot be overrated.
By the Bull of Pope Sixtus IV, titled Dominus Noster Jesus Christus, the "Clareni" were ordered to unite to the main body of the Franciscans and placed under the obedience of the Minister General. But the number of Angelo's followers was small; and his so-called reform brought upon himself in particular, and the "Clareni" in general, the suspicious disfavour of the Friars Minor who were not prepared to accept the extreme interpretation of the rule of St Francis which Angelo had adopted. The Provincial Minister had Angelo and a few other "zealot" leaders arrested in Rome as heretics and schismatics. They were imprisoned for nine years when in 1289, a new Provincial, Raymond Gaufredi ordered them released.
Fearing that to leave them in the March of Ancona would likely expose them to continued persecution, Gaufredi sent them to Armenia Minor (Cilicia), where the king had made a request to the Pope for the services of some friars to instruct the people. Angelo was sent, along with Tommaso da Tolentino, Marco da Montelupone, and Pietro da Macerata. Despite their success, or perhaps because of it, the friars in the province of Syria became jealous and agitated against the "zealots" who were exiled from Armenia towards the end of 1293.
The Conventual guardian at Acre summoned Angelo and Peter of Macerata to Cyprus in order that Angelo might clear his name preaching before the king and court. However, the guardian of Nicosia detained them as excommunicates. With their work in Armenia hampered they decided to return to Italy. However, the vicar of the Provincial of the Marche region let them know they were not welcome, so Guafredi and others, among them, Conrad of Offida, advised them to appeal to the new pope, Celestine V.
Celestine absolved them of their vows of obedience to their Franciscan superiors, and constituted them as a separate group of Poor Hermits who could live at the monasteries of the Celestines. He appointed Peter of Macerata as superior under the name of Brother Liberato. Celestine also named Cardinal Napoleone Orsini protector. Celestine was 79 when he became pope, and having little experience, proved relatively ineffectual, and resigned within six months. His immediate successors were less favorably disposed towards the new order. Upon the death of Liberato in 1307, Angelo became superior.
In 1311, he came to Avignon to answer a charge of heresy that had been brought against him. He was finally acquitted after a tedious and searching examination. Angelo left Avignon, at the end of 1312, to go to Majorca, where he stayed almost two months, with the Prince Philip, son of James I of Majorca. He returned to Avignon in the spring of 1313, but faced with the hostility of the Franciscans of Tuscany, took refuge in Sicily, under the protection of Federico III of Aragon.
In 1317, Pope John XXII, in the bull Sancta Romana Ecclesia abolished all the dissident Franciscan groups. Angelo was then forced to join the congregation of Celestines, but the procurator of the Celestines refused to allow him to stay at the Celestine monasteries: he was instead welcomed by the Benedictine abbot Bartolomeo at the Sacro Speco di Subiaco. From there he sends circular letters to his friars who live in hermitages or scattered in convents.
In 1334, John XXII ordered the guardian of the convent of Ara Coeli in Rome to take possession of the person of Angelo. But Abbot Bartholomew refused to hand him over. Angelo was able to move from Subiaco, heading towards the Kingdom of Naples, where the presence of Philip of Majorca and Provencal and Catalan Spirituals at the court of Queen Sancia guaranteed continuous assistance.
Angelo was highly esteemed by the Augustinian Hermits, with whom he was on friendly terms, especially with Gentile da Foligno, socius of the prior general of the order, and Simone da Cassia, an ascetic writer of great repute. He corresponded with both, and, after the death of Angelo, Simone bitterly lamented the loss of a friend and spiritual adviser. It is likely that the Fraticelli whom Simone afterwards successfully defended against the Dominicans in the civil courts at Florence (c. 1355), where he was then preaching, were adherents of Clareno.
In 1337 he retired to the little hermitage of Santa Maria d'Aspro, near Marsicovetere in Basilicata, where he died.
Works
Angelo Clareno is the author, at least in great part, of the Chronica septem tribulationum Ordinis Minorum, which records the persecutions suffered by the "Spirituals", beginning with the innovations made during St. Francis' sojourn in the East, and continuing under Elias, Crescentius, and Bonaventure. This work is characterized by heroic endurance; but is tinged with bias and bitterness. Another work of Angelo's that deserves mention is the Declaratio regulae Minorum.
See also
Philip of Majorca
Notes
Bibliography
Angelo Clareno: A Chronicle or History of the Seven Tribulations of the Order of Brothers Minor, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2005.
External links
1247 births
1337 deaths
14th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
13th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwajalein%20Atoll
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Kwajalein Atoll
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Kwajalein Atoll (; Marshallese: ) is part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI). The southernmost and largest island in the atoll is named Kwajalein Island, which its majority English-speaking residents (about 1,000 mostly U.S. civilian personnel) often use the shortened name, Kwaj . The total land area of the atoll amounts to just over . It lies in the Ralik Chain, southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii.
The US Navy has hosted a naval base on Kwajalein Island since World War II. It was the final resting place of the German cruiser Prinz Eugen after it survived the Operation Crossroads nuclear test in 1946. In the late 1950s, the US Army took over the base as part of their Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile efforts, and since then the atoll has been widely used for missile tests of all sorts. Today it is part of the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, with various radars, tracking cameras, missile launchers and many support systems spread across many islands. One of the five ground stations used in controlling the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation system is located on Kwajalein.
Geography
Kwajalein is the 14th largest coral atoll as measured by area of enclosed water. Comprising 97 islands and islets, it has a land area of (6.33 mi²) and surrounds one of the largest lagoons in the world, with an area of (839 mi²). The average height above sea level for all the islands is about .
The atoll was made when volcanoes on the seabed from 165–76 mya built up enough lava that the land rose from beneath the sea. It cannot be determined how far above sea level the original land rose. Then coral started growing around the land/volcano, about 56 mya. Then the land subsided leaving the coral ring of the atoll. The water temperature averages degrees. Underwater visibility is typically on the ocean side of the atoll.
The atoll has an extended oval shape running roughly WNW - ESE on the western side and then bending to run almost due south on the eastern side. It is framed by its three largest islands, Ebadon, Roi-Namur and Kwajalein, which are located at the extreme western, northern, and southern points, respectively. Roi-Namur is about east of Ebadon and NWN of Kwajalein. The atoll is from Honolulu, from Australia, and from Japan. Kwajalein Island is about north of the equator.
Islands often have alternate names: The first is the Marshallese name, the second was assigned somewhat arbitrarily by the U.S. Navy prior to their attack on the atoll during World War II. The original name was considered too difficult for English speakers to properly differentiate among the islands. The latter has often been retained by English speakers. The exception to this is Kwajalein itself, which is close to the native name; the received spelling is from German, however.
Kwajalein Island
Kwajalein Island is the southernmost and largest of the islands in the atoll. The area is about . It is long and averages about wide. To enlarge the island, the Americans placed fill at both the northwestern part of the island above the pier (within the atoll, by 1953), the northern part extending towards Ebeye, and the southwestern parts of the island (by 1970). The northern extension was used for housing, the remainder for industrial purposes.
Kwajalein Island's population is about 1,000, mostly made of Americans with a small number of Marshall Islanders and other nationalities, all of whom require express permission from the U.S. Army to live there. Some 13,500 Marshallese citizens live on the atoll, most of them on Ebeye Island.
Passes near Kwajalein Island
SAR Pass (Search And Rescue Pass) is closest to Kwajalein on the West Reef. This pass is man-made and was created in the mid-1950s. It is very narrow and shallow compared to the natural passes in the lagoon and is only used by small boats.
South Pass is on the West Reef, north of SAR Pass. It is very wide.
Gea Pass is a deep water pass between Gea and Ninni islands.
Bigej Pass is the first pass on the East reef north of Kwajalein and Ebeye.
Other large islands
Other islands in the atoll:
Ebeye is about north of eastern end of Kwajalein Island. It is not part of the Reagan Test Site; it is a Marshallese island-city with shops, restaurants and an active commercial port. It is the administrative center of the Republic of the Marshall Islands at Kwajalein Atoll and the Kwajalein Atoll Local Government (KALGOV). It has the largest population in the atoll, with approximately 13,000 residents living on 80 acres (320,000 m²) of land. Inhabitants are mostly Marshall Islanders but include a small population of migrants and volunteers from other island groups and nations. Ebeye is one of the most densely populated places in the world. Many of its residents live in poverty. A coral reef (visible and able to be traveled at low tide) links them to Kwajalein and the rest of the outside world. A causeway at the northern end of the island provides a roadway that connects to several other islands, forming a chain of inhabited islands about long.
Ebadon (, ) is located at the westernmost tip of the atoll. It was the second-largest island in the atoll before the formation of Roi-Namur. Like Ebeye, it falls fully under the jurisdiction of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and is not part of the Reagan Test Site. The village of Ebadon was much more largely populated before the war and it was where some of the irooj (chiefs) of Kwajalein Atoll grew up. Like many other key islets in the atoll, it has significant cultural and spiritual significance in Marshallese cosmology.
Roi-Namur is the northernmost island in the atoll, located some distance north of Kwajalein. It has several radar installations and a small residential community of unaccompanied US personnel who deal with missions support and radar tracking. It also has a number of Japanese bunkers and buildings from World War II which are preserved in good condition. Roi-Namur used to be four islands: Roi, Namur, Enedrikdrik (Ane-dikdik), and Kottepina. Roi and Namur were joined by a causeway built by forced laborers working under the Japanese military; it was filled with sand that was dredged from the lagoon by both the Japanese and later American administration between 1940–1945. After the war, the resulting conjoined islands were renamed Roi-Namur. There is a significant indigenous Marshall Islander workforce that commutes to Roi-Namur from the nearby island of Ennubirr, much like workers commute from Ebeye to Kwajalein. These workers are badged and have limited access to the island, although access is granted for islanders who need to use the air terminal to fly to Kwajalein.
Smaller islands
Eastern side
Little Bustard (, ) and Big Bustard (, , 'little Ebeye') are the first and second islets respectively north of Kwajalein island on the East reef, and are the only islets between Kwajalein and Ebeye. During low tide and with protective boots, it is possible to wade across the reef between Kwajalein and Little Bustard.
Gugeegue or Gugegwe ( ; Marshallese: , ) is an islet north of Ebeye and is the northernmost point of the concrete causeway connecting the islets between them. Gugeegue is just south of the Bigej Pass which separates it from Bigej islet.
Bigej, just north of the Ebeye chain, is covered with tropical palm trees and jungle. People from Kwajalein have visited it for picnics and camping. It is a site of cultural significance to the indigenous people of Kwajalein atoll, as are most of the small islands throughout the atoll. Some Kwajalein atoll landowners have proposed developing Bigej to look similar to the landscaped beauty of Kwajalein islet, for the exclusive use of Kwajalein atoll landowners and their families.
Meck is about north of Kwajalein. It is a launch site for anti-ballistic missiles and is probably the most restricted island of all the U.S.-leased sites. It was originally built up as part of the Nike-X program, as the main island of Kwajalein was already filled with equipment from the earlier Nike Zeus program, some of which remained in use during Nike-X testing. A large berm was built on the northern end of the island to support the missile silos, while a Missile Site Radar was built to its south, on the western side. An airstrip, somewhat longer than running north–south at the southeastern end of the island provided STOL service to the base, although the strong prevailing winds from the west made for very tricky landings. Air service was later deemed too dangerous, and replaced by helicopter pads at either end of the runway. After the Army's main ABM programs shut down in the 1970s, Meck has served as the primary launch site for a variety of follow-on programs, including the Homing Overlay Experiment and THAAD, among many others.
Omelek, about north of Meck, is uninhabited and leased by the U.S. military. From 2006 to 2009, it was used by SpaceX to launch five Falcon 1 rockets.
Western side
Enubuj (, ), or "Carlson" Islet which was its 1944 World War II U.S. operation codename, is situated next to Kwajalein to the northwest, directly west of Little Bustard. It was from this island that U.S. forces launched their amphibious invasion of Kwajalein island. Today, it is the site of a small Marshallese village with a church and small cemetery. The sunken vessel Prinz Eugen, used during the Bikini Atoll atomic weapons tests, is along the islet's northern lagoon side.
Ennylabegan (, ), or "Carlos" Islet, is the site of a small Marshall Islander community that has decreased in size in recent decades; it was once a bigger village. Until 2012, it was actively used by the Reagan Test Site for telemetry tracking activities during missions and has been one of the only non-restricted Marshallese-populated islands used by the United States Army. As such, power and clean drinking water were provided to half of the island similar to the other military-leased islands. This has been phased out as the island ceases to be used for mission support. The power plant, which also performed water treatment, is no longer in use.
Legan (, ) is uninhabited but it has a few buildings on the southern part. Most of the island is thick and jungle-covered, like most in the Marshall Islands. Unlike most islands, Legan has a very small lake in the middle.
Illeginni was used as a remote launch site for Sprint and Spartan missiles during the 1970s, with Meck (see below) as the primary control center. Coral soil dredged from the northeastern tip of the island was piled up to build a berm supporting the missile launchers. Several remote controlled tracking cameras and other devices were also built on the island, and serviced by boats or helicopters landing on a pad on the western end of the island. Today a single tracking camera remains in use, along with telemetry equipment to support it. Illeginni was used successfully for the first Minuteman III land impact test in 1980. It also hosts one of the two remote receivers for the TRADEX radar, the other being on Gellinam and the main radar on Roi-Namur.
Nell has a unique convergence of protected channels and small islands. The Nell area is unique and a popular destination for locals and Americans sailing through the area with proper permissions from the Republic of the Marshall Islands. (All non-leased islands are strictly off-limits to American base residents and personnel without applying for official permission.)
(, ) is or taboo, birthplace of the irooj (chiefly families) and off-limits to anyone without the blessing of the Iroijlaplap (paramount chief). The remains of a small Marshallese village and burial sites are still intact. This island is in the Mid-Atoll Corridor, and no one can reside there or on surrounding islands due to missile tests.
Wrecks in the lagoon
Because of the Battle of Kwajalein of World War II, the lagoon contains the wrecks of many ships and aircraft. Most of the ships were merchant vessels.
Concrete barge – deliberately sunk as a breakwater near Ennylabegan (Carlos)
Prinz Eugen – sunk by accident near Enubuj (Carlson) after a post-war atomic bomb test
Akibasan Maru – Japanese 4,607-ton freighter below "P-buoy" with the actual buoy marker no longer there. Sunk 30 January 1944.
Ikuta Maru – 2,968-ton Japanese freighter at "P-North" just north of the now missing P-buoy. This is listed as being one of the transports for Allied prisoners of war during World War II.
Unidentified wreck at G-buoy, in length
Tateyama Maru, K-5 side
Asakaze Maru, K-5 upright
Tyoko Maru (or Choko Maru), a 3,535-ton freighter, at Barracuda Junction. Sunk 5 December 1943.
Barge, between South Carlson and Sar Pass
Wooden auxiliary sub chaser wreck near South Pass. The wooden hull has almost completely deteriorated.
Shonan Maru #6, grounded at Gebh Island to avoid sinking but blown up
Shell (or Ebwaj) Island wreck. trawler or whaler.
South Shell wreck, similar to the Shell Island wreck
Daisan Maru, a former whaler, near Bigej Pass
Palawan, an engine freighter captured by the Japanese during the Philippines. Sunk by the US Destroyer Harrison 31 January 1944 near Bigej.
Shoei Maru, a sunken freighter resting upside down at the O-buoy
A Japanese aircraft just west of Ebeye
A Martin PBM Mariner about 1 nautical mile west of Ebeye
Four North American B-25 Mitchells, a Grumman TBF Avenger, a Vought F4U Corsair, four Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, and a Curtiss C-46 Commando in the western reef inside Roi-Namur
Barracuda Junction is about northeast of the southern tip of Enubuj (Carlson) Island.
Climate
The atoll has a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification. The average temperature varies less than from month to month. The record low from 1950–1969 was . The highest temperature was .
While tropical rainforest climates have no true dry season, the atoll's noticeably drier season occurs from January through March. The average annual rainfall was . The average monthly relative humidity is between 78 and 83%.
History
Kwajalein () Atoll was an important cultural site to the Marshallese people of the Ralik chain. In Marshallese cosmology, Kwajalein island was the site of an abundant flowering zebra wood tree. This was thought to have spiritual powers. Marshallese from other islands came to gather the "fruits" of this tree.
This, explain many elders, is a Marshallese metaphor that describes the past century of colonialism and serves to explain why Kwajalein is still so precious to foreign interests. This story was the origin of the name , which apparently derives from , "the people who harvest the flowers".
First sighting by Europeans
The first recorded sighting of Kwajalein by Europeans was during the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos in January 1543. The atoll was charted as Los Jardines (The Gardens) because of its fresh appearance and trees. Los Jardines remained well located in most 16th and 17th century charts in the 8–10°N, as reported by the Villalobos expedition chroniclers. However, at some point in the late 18th century, due to some transcription error from the old Spanish maps, they start to appear in the nautical charts shifted northwards to 21°N, thus creating phantom islands of Los Jardines that, even if sought and never found, remained on charts of the Pacific until 1973.
The atoll came under the control of Spain but was largely ignored by European powers during the 17th and 18th centuries except for some short-lived missionary expeditions, minor trading posts and demarcation treaties between the Iberian kingdoms (Portugal and Spain).
In 1828–1829, Russian Navy captain Ludwig von Hagemeister made his final circumnavigation on the ship Krotky. During this journey, he surveyed the Menshikov Atoll (Kwajalein) in the Marshall Islands, plotting it on the map and specifying the location of some other islands. At the time, the atoll was known as Kuadelen and Kabajaia to Spain.
In early November, 1875, a typhoon resulted in an storm surge, drowning everyone on Kwajalein Island.
Following the Carolines incident in 1885, Imperial Germany gained tacit control over the Marshall Islands from Spain under the demarcation limits set by the Protocol of Rome of 17 December 1885, which excluded the Eastern Carolines (Gilbert and Marshall archipelagos). They would be joined 13 years later (1899), to be ruled under German administration, by the rest of the Carolines except Guam (approximately the present-day territories of Palau and Micronesia).
Japan in the “Nan’yō”: 1875–1945
Japan had developed an interest in what it called the in the 19th century, prior to its imperial expansion into Korea and China. By 1875, ships from the newly established Imperial Japanese Navy began to hold training missions in the area. Shigetaka Shiga, a writer who accompanied a Navy cruise to the region in 1886, published his in 1887, marking the first time a Japanese civilian published a firsthand account of Micronesia. Three years later, Shiga advocated for annexation of the area by claiming that doing so would "excite an expeditionary spirit in the demoralized Japanese race."
Despite the appeal imperialism had for the Japanese public at the time, neither the Meiji government nor the Navy seized any pretexts to fulfill this popular aspiration. It was through the commercial operations of fisherman and traders that the Japanese first began to make a wider presence in the region, which continued to grow despite challenges from competing German commercial interests.
At the outbreak of World War I in Europe, Japan joined the Triple Entente and seized the Marshall Islands against only token resistance. In 1922 the island were placed under Japanese administration as a League of Nations Mandate, whereupon it was referred to as Kwezerin-kanshō () in Japan, part of the Nan’yō gunto. The islands of the Kwajalein Atoll, especially the main island, served as a rural copra-trading outpost administered by Japanese civilians until the beginning of World War II in the Pacific in December 1941.
Before the Pacific War, Japanese settlement in Kwajalein Atoll consisted mostly of traders and their families who worked at local branches of shops headquartered at nearby Jaluit Atoll. There were also local administrative staff at Kwajalein. With the establishment of Kwajalein's public school in 1935, schoolteachers were sent to the island from Japan. Most Marshall Islanders who recall those times describe a peaceful time of cooperation and development between Japanese and Marshallese, although the latter were not considered on the same social tier as Japanese.
By the 1930s, immigration from the Japanese mainland had increased exponentially. In some regions of the Nan’yō, colonial settlers outnumbered Micronesian natives by as much as ten to one, amounting to the most significant violation of Japan's League of Nations mandate. In the furthest eastern areas, however, immigrants remained in the minority. Contemporary testimony and postwar investigations have attested that Japan honored their agreement under the mandate to administer the islands peacefully. Nevertheless, Kwajalein along with the rest of the territories in the Nan’yō began to be fortified militarily after Japan's departure from the League of Nations in 1933. With the assistance of the Imperial Japanese Navy, local infrastructure was improved between 1934–1939. The first combat units, from the Imperial Japanese Navy's 4th Fleet, arrived in February 1941. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, militarization of the Nan’yō, including Kwajalein, had been considered meagre enough that it alarmed Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue, who in January 1941 strongly urged the Ministry of the Navy to immediately expedite the process. A few months later, a naval officer stationed in Kwajalein sent a memorandum to the Naval Ministry denouncing the failure to ready the region for war. Both warnings were ignored by the Naval Ministry.
Korean forced laborers were ordered to work throughout the Pacific beginning in the early 1940s. Over 10,000 were sent to the Nan’yō area alone, mostly from the southernmost provinces of Chōsen. In some atolls, such as Wotje, those forced laborers were joined by Japanese prisoners from Hokkaido, most of them political dissidents. In order to build the aerial runway on Kwajalein Island, the Japanese public school was demolished and, along with the civil administration, moved to Namu Atoll. Islanders were forcibly moved to live on some of the smaller islets in the atoll. The trauma of this experience, together with the influx of these young and underprepared soldiers, surprised the local population. Islanders who survived this period make clear distinctions in their recollections of civilian and military Japanese for this reason. This is the first known instance of forced relocation in Kwajalein Atoll, although similar events took place throughout the Marshall Islands.
Archaeological evidence as well as testimony from Japanese and Marshallese sources indicate that this militarization would likely not have begun until the 1940s; it was left incomplete at the time of the American invasion in 1944.
On February 1, 1942, the USS Enterprise (CV-6) launched a series of raids on the Roi Namur airfield and merchant shipping in Carlos Pass, where they sank several ships. In Kwajalein, forced laborers from across the empire and Marshallese volunteers known as built military facilities throughout the atoll. These construction teams would repair the resulting damage from American bombing raids. A second wave of Japanese naval and ground forces was dispatched to Kwajalein in early 1943 from the Manchurian front. These soldiers were between the ages of 18 and 21, poorly trained, and had no experience in the tropics. The supply ships that were meant to provide them with food rations were sunk by American forces before reaching the atoll; many Japanese succumbed to illnesses like dengue fever and dysentery, as did many of the laborers. As the military situation worsened and the pressures of military ideology increased, soldiers at Kwajalein became harsher and more violent toward Marshall Islanders, whom they often suspected of spying for the Americans. Kwajalein was also the site of a prisoner of war camp, whose detainees were not registered with the Red Cross. The island acquired the nickname "Execution Island" because of the treatment and killing of prisoners at the hands of Japanese military staff. The Japanese military also tested biological warfare agents on prisoners there.
After the war, a US Naval War Crimes court located on the atoll tried several Japanese naval officers for war crimes committed elsewhere; at least one officer was condemned to death.
American occupation
On January 31, 1944, the 7th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 111th Infantry Regiment performed an amphibious assault on Kwajalein. On February 1, 1944, Kwajalein was the target of the most concentrated bombardment of the Pacific War. An estimated 36,000 shells from naval ships and ground artillery on a nearby islet struck Kwajalein. American B-24 Liberator bombers aerially bombarded the island, adding to the destruction.
Of the 8,782 Japanese personnel deployed to the atoll, including forced laborers, 7,870 were killed. U.S. military documents do not differentiate between the Japanese and Korean dead. However, the Korean government's Truth Commission for Forced Labor Under Japanese Imperialism reports an official figure from the Japanese government of 310 Koreans killed in the American invasion of Kwajalein. Whether this figure represents Kwajalein islet or the whole atoll is unclear. Since no distinction was made between dead Japanese soldiers and Korean forced laborers in mass graves on Kwajalein, both are enshrined as war hero guardian spirits for the Japanese nation in Yasukuni Shrine. This enshrinement is solely due to the mingling of Korean and Japanese corpses in this one case and has not occurred with the remains of other Korean forced laborers elsewhere.
Additionally, while many of the native Marshallese successfully fled the island in their canoes just before the battle, an estimated 200 were killed on the atoll during the fighting. Kwajalein was one of the few locations in the Pacific War where indigenous islanders were recorded to have been killed while fighting for the Japanese. Many Marshallese dead were found among those killed in bunkers. The flat island offered no other protection against the heavy bombardment. Taking refuge in bunkers resulted in many Marshallese deaths when their shelters were destroyed by hand grenades. Some Marshallese were reportedly induced to fight by Japanese propaganda which, as would occur later in the Battle of Okinawa, stated that the Americans would indiscriminately rape and massacre the civilian population if they successfully took the atoll.
On February 6, 1944, Kwajalein was claimed by the United States and was designated, with the rest of the Marshall Islands, as a United Nations Trust Territory under the United States.
Evolution into a U.S. military installation
In the years following, Kwajalein Atoll was converted into a staging area for campaigns in the advance on the Japanese homeland in the Pacific War. After the war ended, the United States used it as a main command center and preparation base in 1946 for Operation Crossroads, the first of several series of nuclear tests (comprising a total of 67 blasts) at the Marshall island atolls of Bikini and Enewetak. Significant portions of the native population were forced to relocate as a result of American weapons testing and military activity in the islands between 1945 and 1965. The German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein from Bikini Atoll after the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests. It developed a leak, was towed out, and sank in the lagoon.
The USS Pennsylvania was sunk in the ocean off Kwajalein Atoll after being exposed during atomic bomb testing on 10 February 1948.
By the 1950s, the Marshallese population working at the base at Kwajalein had grown. The conditions in the makeshift labor camp on Kwajalein islet were such that the U.S. Navy administering the atoll decided to relocate these Islanders to nearby Ebeye, an islet only three islands to the north of Kwajalein and accessible by a short boat ride or walk over the reef at low tide. Nuclear refugees from the atolls irradiated by the American tests were also moved to Ebeye.
With the end of the Cold War and a decreased threat of nuclear attack, many defense programs were canceled in the early 1990s. Continuing military operations and launch or re-entry tests perpetuate the dislocation of Marshall Islanders from their small islands throughout Kwajalein Atoll. The United States Army Kwajalein Atoll test site does not provide logistical support to Ebeye or Ennibur islets.
21st century
In 2008, a new coalition government was formed in part from the Aelon Kein Ad Party (formerly known as the Kabua Party), which represents Kwajalein landowners and is led by Paramount Chief Imata Kabua. This government is negotiating a new Kwajalein Atoll Land Use Agreement with the United States.
With the election of Barack Obama to the presidency of the United States, the new administration of the Marshall Islands, and the looming deadline for signing the Land Use Agreement (LUA), at the end of 2008, President Litokwa Tomeing wrote a letter to George W. Bush asking that the deadline for the LUA be lifted. Within a day of the expiration of this LUA deadline, the United States agreed to shift this deadline back another five years. But it reiterated its stance that the Compact renegotiation was already completed and that it expected the Republic of the Marshall Islands to abide by the Military Use and Operating Rights Agreement (MUORA) it agreed to in 2003. Government leaders and landowners were hopeful that this extension will allow for more money to be paid to the land owners.
The U.S. Army Garrison Kwajalein Atoll (USAG-KA) installation has been downsizing, in part because of budget constraints and technological improvements (such as a new trans-oceanic fiber-optic cable) that will allow the testing range to be operated extensively from sites in the United States, thus minimizing operation costs and the need for on-site workers or residents. Recently, the American population of the Kwajalein installation has dropped dramatically. The aluminum-sided trailers that housed the bulk of the contractor population are systematically being removed from the main island. Nevertheless, the enormous investment in these new technologies and recent statements by Army leadership indicate that the United States is committed to remaining in the Marshall Islands at Kwajalein Atoll for the foreseeable future.
In 2009, American ambassador Clyde Bishop commented that future funding to the Republic of the Marshall Islands was dependent on the use of Kwajalein.
Kwajalein Atoll has been leased by the United States for missile testing and other operations from well before independence for the Marshall Islands. Although this military history has influenced the lives of the Marshall Islanders who have lived in the atoll through the war to the present, the military history of Kwajalein has prevented tourism.
SpaceX updated facilities on Omelek Island to launch its commercial Falcon 1 rockets. The first successful Falcon 1 orbital space launch from Omelek was conducted in 2008. It could launch Falcon 9 rockets into polar and geosynchronous orbit. Due to a disagreement about building a new launch pad on Omelek, between either the US military or the RMI, SpaceX moved their main facilities to the US and no longer uses the facilities in the atoll.
Since 2000, Kwajalein has become one of five preferred locations from which Pegasus rockets can be launched into equatorial orbit.
Demographics
13,500 Marshall Islanders live on the atoll, mostly on Ebeye Island.
Current use by U.S. military
Kwajalein and Roi-Namur are the main islands used by the U.S. personnel. Provision is made for family housing. Personnel whose family members are not with them live in hotel room style housing.
Testing sites
Of the 97 islands, 11 are leased by the United States. They are part of the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site (RTS), formerly known as Kwajalein Missile Range. The lease is active from 2006–2066, with an option to renew for another 20 years. Leased islands include Kwajalein, Meck, Eniwetak, Omelek, Gellinam, Gagan, Ennugarret, and Roi-Namur on the eastern side of the atoll and Ennylabegan, Legan, and Illeginni on the western side.
RTS includes radar installations, optics, telemetry, and communications equipment, which are used for ballistic missile and missile-interceptor testing, and for space operations support. Kwajalein island hosts the $914 million Space Fence radar, which tracks satellites and orbital debris. Kwajalein has one of five ground stations used in controlling the RTS range, which also assist in the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation system.
Wartime memorials
Very few Japanese or Korean remains were ever repatriated from the atoll; thus both Kwajalein and Roi-Namur have ceremonial cenotaphs to honor this memory. The memorial on Kwajalein was constructed by the Japan Marshall Islands War-Bereaved Families Association in the 1960s, and the memorial on Roi-Namur was constructed by American personnel. The memorial sites are dedicated to Japanese souls and to the sacrifices of Koreans, Marshallese, and Americans. U.S. Marine Corps intelligence records and photographs at the U.S. National Archives, together with the testimony of U.S. veterans, indicate that there was a mass-burial site consolidated into one place on Kwajalein islet, at or near the current cemetery. However, remains are scattered throughout the islet, at Roi-Namur, and in places throughout the atoll. Bereaved Japanese and Korean families have mixed sentiments about whether or not to return these remains to their home countries, as none of them are identifiable, and "bone-collecting" missions are sometimes perceived by families as an insult to the dead or a political stunt by the Japanese government.
Japanese bereaved family members consider the sites of sunken Japanese shipwrecks in Kwajalein lagoon to be sacred gravesites. They object to the activities of American divers who attempt to explore these wrecks.
A ceremony is held at Japan's Yasukuni Shrine annually in April (originally held in February to coincide with the anniversary of the battle), where the memories of the Japanese soldiers are honored and surviving families offer prayers to their spirits. Small groups of bereaved Japanese families have made pilgrimages to Kwajalein on a semi-annual basis since the 1990s. The first of these groups was the Japan Marshall Islands War-Bereaved Families Association, which negotiated its visit with the U.S. Army as far back as 1964 and made its first visit in 1975 at the invitation of the Kwajalein Missile Range. The bereaved families of conscripted Korean laborers have also recently traveled in groups to the Marshall Islands and other parts of Micronesia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, with funding from the Japanese government, although they have not yet paid a group visit to Kwajalein.
The United States designated most of the island of Kwajalein and all of Roi-Namur as National Historic Landmarks in 1985, in recognition of the role those places played during World War II. The Kwajalein designation includes only the historical 1944 shape of the island, which has been enlarged since then by dredging and fill.
Kwajalein Island
History
There was a private flying club from 1963 through the mid 1980s. They owned two aircraft, tied down outdoors off the Bucholtz airstrip. Because they used avgas, they were forced to dissolve when the Army switched over to turbine-powered aircraft and no longer stocked avgas.
Recreation
Kwajalein Island has several recreational accommodations, including two saltwater pools, multiple tennis courts, racquetball courts and basketball courts as well as playing fields for baseball, soccer, and other sports. The Corlett Recreational Center (CRC) is on the northeast side of the island and features several rooms for use by inhabitants as well as a full-size, indoor court where community and youth basketball, volleyball and indoor soccer can be played. The island features a nine-hole golf course near the airport, a bowling alley, libraries, a fitness center and two movie theaters. Inhabitants can rent boats for water skiing and fishing at the Kwajalein marina. Residents spear fish, deep-sea fish and scuba dive. The island also has a food court with a Subway, Burger King, and American Diner, as well as a bar for evening drinking and relaxation.
Economy
On Kwajalein Island, housing is free for most personnel, depending on contract or tour of duty.
Land lease disputes
Under the constitution of the Republic of the Marshall Islands the government can own land only in limited circumstances. Practically, all land is private and inherited through one's matriline and clan. Since the United States began leasing land, the issue of proper land payments has been a major issue of contention for landowners which continues today. "Landowners" here refers to the consortium of irooj (chiefs), alaps (clan heads) and rijerbal (workers) who have land rights to the places used for military purposes by the United States. In the case of Kwajalein Atoll in particular, a "senior rijerbal" is assigned a role to represent families who have claims to land as "workers" of that location.
Unclear and insufficient in the opinion of these landowners, the original lease arrangements for Kwajalein Atoll with the U.S. were finally negotiated only after the landowners and their supporters demonstrated in the early 1980s with a peaceful protest called "Operation Homecoming," in which Islanders re-inhabited their land at Kwajalein, Roi-Namur, and other restricted sites. Although Operation Homecoming did not achieve the level of recognition for all people with land title at Kwajalein, the resulting agreements at least set a precedent for future dealings with the United States government.
One of these early agreements was the first official Military Use and Operating Rights Agreement (MUORA) between the United States Army and Government of the RMI, which was linked to the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) that was written into the larger Compact of Free Association with the United States. Article 3 of the MUORA obligated the RMI to lease specific sites from their owners through a Land Use Agreement (LUA) and then sub-lease them to the United States. Effectively, this rendered the land negotiations for use of Kwajalein Atoll a "domestic issue" between the national Marshallese government in Majuro and local "landowners," even though Kwajalein, where the local Marshallese population deals on a daily basis with American military activity, is a considerable distance from Majuro. Many Kwajalein Atoll residents have complained in the past that Majuro is out of touch with the realities of Kwajalein Marshallese, and downplays their suffering while profiting from the income provided by the testing site.
The first MUORA guaranteed total payments of roughly US$11 million to the landowners through the year 2016, the majority of which went, via the provisions of the LUA to the irooj (chiefs), who had the largest stake in the land. Some American and Marshallese observers claimed that these land payments were "misused." However, the recipients of these funds strongly maintain that these have always been "rental" payments (like a tenant pays to a landlord) that landowners could use at their own discretion, separate from whatever funds the U.S. earmarked to help develop or improve Kwajalein Atoll, which were funneled into the Kwajalein Atoll Development Authority (KADA).
In advance of its expiration in 2016, this LUA was renegotiated in 2003 as part of the Compact of Free Association, with the U.S. agreeing to pay the landowners (by the Republic of the Marshall Islands) $15 million a year, adjusted for inflation. In exchange for these payments, the Compact stipulated a new MUORA that gave the U.S. the option to use Kwajalein through 2066, renewable through 2086. The landowners, affiliated under the Kwajalein Negotiations Committee (KNC), were very unhappy with the proposed LUA, since they believed they should have been receiving at least double that amount in funds and that, more importantly, the LUA did nothing to provide for Marshall Islanders' welfare, health care, safety, and rapidly increasing population on Ebeye. By their independent land appraisals and calculations, the KNC had determined that the minimum acceptable compensation they should receive for Kwajalein lands was at least $19.1 million annually, adjusted for inflation. The landowners also claimed that there were many other terms by which they wished the U.S. would abide should the lease be extended, including providing better support and infrastructure to Ebeye, improving health care and education, guaranteeing that the missile testing was not creating environmental hazards, and providing a comprehensive life and property insurance policy. Despite a consensus among the landowners to refuse to allow the Compact to be signed with this inadequate LUA proposed by the U.S., the new Compact (and the MUORA, by extension) was finalized by officials of the RMI national government and went into effect in 2003.
Stating that they had not been consulted about this agreement, the landowners went on to protest it, and mounted an organized boycott of the new LUA. Although the new Compact and its component MUORA was ratified in 2003, they have since held out and refused to sign the LUA of 2003, insisting, through Kwajalein Atoll elected representatives, that either a new LUA should be drafted that considers their needs or the U.S. will have to leave Kwajalein when the active LUA (which began in the 1980s) expires in 2016.
The U.S., however, considers the Compact to be an "internationally binding" agreement that has been concluded. It thus pays an annual $15 million to the landowners, as agreed provisionally in the MUORA laid out in the 2003 Compact renegotiation; however, as this new LUA has not been signed, the difference of roughly $4 million has been going into an escrow account. The Compact stated that if the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the landowners did not reach an agreement about land payments by the end of 2008, these funds in escrow would be returned to the U.S. Treasury. Referring to this incentive to reach an agreement, then-Senator Tony deBrum stated that it would be "insane" for the Marshallese people to put up with another 70 years of lack of access.
In 2011, during the term in office of Jurelang Zedkaia, a statement was issue by the Office of the President in Majuro that a long-term LUA had been signed. Under the terms of the agreement, the United States was granted access until 2066, with an option to extend to 2086. A sum of over $32M held in the escrow account was then made available to the Kwajalein landholders. The landholders' spokesman, Christopher Loeak, referred to the agreement as "a compromise which we’ve agreed upon to safeguard our future."
Infrastructure
Roads
On Kwajalein Island the primary mode of personal transportation is the bicycle.
Airports
There are two airbases and three airstrips on Kwajalein Atoll:
Bucholz Army Airfield to the south at Kwajalein:
Dyess Army Airfield to the north at Roi-Namur:
Ebadon Airstrip to the west at Ebadon:
Elenak Airport on Mejato:
Meck Island Airstrip, an eastern island, between Roi-Namur and Kwajalein:
Water
Water is collected or generated on Kwajalein Island and distributed by barge to Meck, Illeginni, and Gugeegue. Kwaj collects rainfall from the runway into a catch basin where it is stored and treated. A secondary source is from "skim wells" on Kwaj and Roi-Namur. Rain percolates through the coral during the wet season. The third method is the evaporation of sea water. There are three steam evaporators on Kwaj. While the theoretical potential is daily, the practical limit is daily. This distillation is expensive and avoided, if possible.
Untreated water is filtered to remove 99% of the bacteria. It is then treated with 4–5 parts of chlorine per million and 0.7 parts per million of fluorine.
Sea water is used for sewage lines. The seawater sewage treatment used for flushing latrine system was abandoned and pumping systems rehabilitated in 1980 (Global Logistics 1980) and an activated sludge treatment plant was built on the Western area near Fuel Pier. The wastewater treatment plant is a tertiary treatment plant that provides reclaimed water for non potable usage such as toilets, industrial uses, and the island's irrigation system.
Education
Marshall Islands Public School System operates public schools for local Marshallese.
High schools:
Kwajalein Atoll High School (KAHS)
Primary schools:
Carlos Elementary School
Ebadon Elementary School
Ebeye Kindergarten
Ebeye Public Elementary School
Ebeye Public Middle School
Eniburr Elementary School
Mejatto Elementary School on Mejatto serves Ronglap people
In the 1994–1995 school year Kwajalein had three private high schools.
DynCorp International operates two schools for dependents of US military and civilian employees, George Seitz Elementary School (K-6) and Kwajalein Jr./Sr. High School (7–12).
National missile defense
United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command
Ground-Based Midcourse Defense
Missile Defense Agency
USS Kwajalein (CVE-98)
Communications in the Marshall Islands
History of the Marshall Islands
Geography of the Marshall Islands
List of United States National Historic Landmarks in United States commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states
Twin towns
Kwajalein is twinned with:
Taichung City, Taiwan, since 2002
Popular culture
The atoll is a setting in Neal Shusterman's young adult book series, "Arc of a Scythe".
Footnotes
References
External links
About the Marshall Islands and current events
Yokwe Online, the largest Marshallese web presence online (dead)
Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands
Transportation
KWA – Kwajalein's airport, Bucholz Army Airfield
Air Marshall Islands
United Airlines Island Hopper
History
World War II and Kwajalein
World War II Kwajalein photos
World War II Kwajalein photos
Work on Kwajalein
U.S. Army Space & Missile Defense Command, Reagan Test Site
work performed at Reagan Test Site
Bechtel summary of Kwajalein
Kwajalein Range Services overview and job opportunities
Kwajalein community
Kwajalein's newspaper, The Hourglass
Kwajalein Amateur Radio Club V73AX
Kwajalein Scuba Club
Kwajalein Yacht Club
Kwajalein housing
Kwajalein Junior/Senior High School & George Seitz Elementary School
Atolls of the Marshall Islands
Islands of the Marshall Islands
Ralik Chain
National Historic Landmarks in the Marshall Islands
World War II on the National Register of Historic Places
|
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204251
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call%20option
|
Call option
|
A call option, often simply labeled a "call", is a contract, between the buyer and the seller of the call option, to exchange a security at a set price. The buyer of the call option has the right, but not the obligation, to buy an agreed quantity of a particular commodity or financial instrument (the underlying) from the seller of the option at a certain time (the expiration date) for a certain price (the strike price). This effectively gives the owner a long position in the given asset. The seller (or "writer") is obliged to sell the commodity or financial instrument to the buyer if the buyer so decides. This effectively gives the seller a short position in the given asset. The buyer pays a fee (called a premium) for this right. The term "call" comes from the fact that the owner has the right to "call the stock away" from the seller.
Price of options
Option values vary with the value of the underlying instrument over time. The price of the call contract must act as a proxy response for the valuation of:
the expected intrinsic value of the option, defined as the expected value of the difference between the strike price and the market value, i.e., max[S−X, 0].
the risk premium to compensate for the unpredictability of the value
the time value of money reflecting the delay to the payout time
The call contract price generally will be higher when the contract has more time to expire (except in cases when a significant dividend is present) and when the underlying financial instrument shows more volatility. Determining this value is one of the central functions of financial mathematics. The most common method used is the Black–Scholes formula, which provides an estimate of the price of European-style options.
See also
Covered call
Moneyness
Naked call
Naked put
Option time value
Pre-emption right
Put option
Put–call parity
Right of first refusal
References
Options (finance)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiternum
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Amiternum
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Amiternum was an ancient Sabine city, then Roman city and later bishopric and Latin catholic titular see in the central Abruzzo region of modern Italy, located from L'Aquila. Amiternum was the birthplace of the historian Sallust (86 BC).
History
The site, in the upper Aterno valley, was one of the most important of Sabinum.
Amiternum was defeated by the Romans in 293 BC.
It lay at the point of junction of four roads: the Via Caecilia, the Via Claudia Nova and two branches of the Via Salaria.
There are considerable remains of an amphitheatre and a theatre, all of which belong to the imperial period, while on the hill of the surrounding village of San Vittorino there are some Christian catacombs.
A well known Roman funerary relief of the first century BC depicts the Roman funeral procession or pompa.
Ecclesiastical history
The modern name of the locality, San Vittorino, recalls the martyr of Victorinus, who is looked on as bishop of Amiternum, of the time of the persecution by Roman Emperor Nerva (30-98 AD), b-while other sources put the bishopric's foundation circa 300AD. Circa 400 AD it gained territory from the suppressed Diocese of Pitinum.
Other bishops of Amiternum include Quodvultdeus, who encouraged the religious veneration of Victorinus by constructing his tomb, Castorius, who is mentioned by Pope Gregory I, Saint Cetteus, martyred by the Lombards in 597, and Leontius, a brother of Pope Stephen II. The last known bishop is Ludovicus, who took part in a synod held in Rome in 1069.
Circa 1060 AD, the bishopric was suppressed and it the territory merged into the Rieti. In the mid-13th century the population was transferred to the newly founded town of L'Aquila, which was erected as a diocese by Pope Alexander IV on 20 February 1257, incorporating in it the territory that had once been that of the diocese of Amiternum.
Titular see
No longer a residential bishopric, Amiternum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a [Latin titular bishopric since the diocese was nominally restored in 1966.
It has had the following incumbents, of the fitting episcopal (lowest) or mostly of higher archiepiscopal (intermediary) rank:
Titular Bishop Stanislao Amilcare Battistelli, Passionists (C.P.) (1967.02.22 – 1976.01.06)
Titular Archbishop Agostino Cacciavillan (1976.01.17 – 2001.02.21), as papal diplomat (Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Kenya (1976.01.17 – 1981.05.09), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to India (1981.05.09 – 1990.06.13), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Nepal (1985.04.30 – 1990.06.13), Permanent Observer to Organization of American States (OAS) (1990 – 1998.11.05), Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to United States of America (1990.06.13 – 1998.11.05)), then President of Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See (1998.11.05 – 2002.10.01); later created Cardinal-Deacon of Ss. Angeli Custodi a Città Giardino (2001.02.21 [2001.04.21] – 2011.02.21), becoming Protodeacon of College of Cardinals (2008.03.01 – 2011.02.21), promoted Cardinal-Priest of the above Ss. Angeli Custodi a Città Giardino as pro hac vice Title (2011.02.21 – ...)
Titular Archbishop Timothy Paul Andrew Broglio (2001.02.27 – 2007.11.19)
Titular Archbishop Luciano Suriani (2008.02.22 – ...)
References
Sources and external links
Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopaedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Amiternum (San Vittorino), Latium, Italy"
GCatholic with titular incumbent bio links
Attribution:
Roman sites of Abruzzo
L'Aquila
Former populated places in Italy
Roman amphitheatres in Italy
Ancient Roman theatres in Italy
Populated places established in the 3rd century BC
Roman towns and cities in Abruzzo
National museums of Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez
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Hafez
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Khāwje Shams-od-Dīn Moḥammad Ḥāfeẓ-e Shīrāzī (), known by his pen name Hafez (, Ḥāfeẓ, 'the memorizer; the (safe) keeper'; 1325–1390) and as "Hafiz", was a Persian lyric poet, whose collected works are regarded by many Iranians as a pinnacle of Persian literature. His works are often found in the homes of people in the Persian-speaking world, who learn his poems by heart and use them as everyday proverbs and sayings. His life and poems have become the subjects of much analysis, commentary and interpretation, influencing post-14th century Persian writing more than any other Persian author.
Hafez is best known for his Divan of Hafez, a collection of his surviving poems probably compiled after his death. His works can be described as "antinomian" and with the medieval use of the term "theosophical"; the term "theosophy" in the 13th and 14th centuries was used to indicate mystical work by "authors only inspired by the holy books" (as distinguished from theology). Hafez primarily wrote in the literary genre of lyric poetry or ghazals, that is the ideal style for expressing the ecstasy of divine inspiration in the mystical form of love poems. He was a Sufi.
Themes of his ghazals include the beloved, faith and exposing hypocrisy. In his ghazals he deals with love, wine and taverns, all presenting ecstasy and freedom from restraint, whether in actual worldly release or in the voice of the lover speaking of divine love. His influence on Persian speakers appears in divination by his poems (, fāl-e hāfez, somewhat similar to the Roman tradition of sortes vergilianae) and in the frequent use of his poems in Persian traditional music, visual art and Persian calligraphy. His tomb is located in his birthplace of Shiraz. Adaptations, imitations and translations of his poems exist in all major languages.
Life
Hafez was born in Shiraz, Iran. Despite his profound effect on Persian life and culture and his enduring popularity and influence, few details of his life are known. Accounts of his early life rely upon traditional anecdotes. Early tazkiras (biographical sketches) mentioning Hafez are generally considered unreliable. At an early age, he memorized the Quran and was given the title of Hafez, which he later used as his pen name. The preface of his Divān, in which his early life is discussed, was written by an unknown contemporary whose name may have been Moḥammad Golandām. Two of the most highly regarded modern editions of Hafez's Divān are compiled by Moḥammad Ghazvini and Qāsem Ḡani (495 ghazals) and by Parviz Natel-Khanlari (486 ghazals). Hafez was a Sufi Muslim.
Modern scholars generally agree that he was born either in 1315 or 1317. According to an account by Jami, Hafez died in 1390. Hafez was supported by patronage from several successive local regimes: Shah Abu Ishaq, who came to power while Hafez was in his teens; Timur at the end of his life; and even the strict ruler Shah Mubariz ud-Din Muhammad (Mubariz Muzaffar). Though his work flourished most under the 27-year rule of Jalal ud-Din Shah Shuja (Shah Shuja), it is claimed Hāfez briefly fell out of favor with Shah Shuja for mocking inferior poets (Shah Shuja wrote poetry himself and may have taken the comments personally), forcing Hāfez to flee from Shiraz to Isfahan and Yazd, but no historical evidence is available. Hafez also exchanged letters and poetry with Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, the Sultan of Bengal, who invited him to Sonargaon though he could not make it.
Twenty years after his death, a tomb, the Hafezieh, was erected to honor Hafez in the Musalla Gardens in Shiraz. The current mausoleum was designed by André Godard, a French archeologist and architect, in the late 1930s, and the tomb is raised up on a dais amidst rose gardens, water channels, and orange trees. Inside, Hafez's alabaster sarcophagus bears the inscription of two of his poems.
Legends
Many semi-miraculous mythical tales were woven around Hafez after his death. It is said that by listening to his father's recitations, Hafez had accomplished the task of learning the Quran by heart at an early age (that is the meaning of the word Hafez). At the same time, he is said to have known by heart the works of Rumi (Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi), Saadi, Farid ud-Din, and Nizami.
According to one tradition, before meeting his self-chosen Sufi master Hajji Zayn al-Attar, Hafez had been working in a bakery, delivering bread to a wealthy quarter of the town. There, he first saw Shakh-e Nabat, a woman of great beauty, to whom some of his poems are addressed. Ravished by her beauty but knowing that his love for her would not be requited, he allegedly held his first mystic vigil in his desire to realize this union. Still, he encountered a being of surpassing beauty who identified himself as an angel, and his further attempts at union became mystic; a pursuit of spiritual union with the divine. A Western parallel is that of Dante and Beatrice.
At 60, he is said to have begun a Chilla-nashini, a 40-day-and-night vigil by sitting in a circle that he had drawn for himself. On the 40th day, he once again met with Zayn al-Attar on what is known to be their fortieth anniversary and was offered a cup of wine. It was there where he is said to have attained "Cosmic Consciousness". He hints at this episode in one of his verses in which he advises the reader to attain "clarity of wine" by letting it "sit for 40 days".
In one tale, Tamerlane (Timur) angrily summoned Hafez to account for one of his verses:
'agar 'ān Tork-e Šīrāzī * be dast ārad del-ē mā-rā
be khāl-ē Hendu-yaš baxšam * Samarqand ō Boxārā-rā
If that Shirazi Turk accepts my heart in their hand,
for their Indian mole I will give Samarkand and Bukhara.
Samarkand was Tamerlane's capital and Bokhara was the kingdom's finest city. "With the blows of my lustrous sword", Timur complained, "I have subjugated most of the habitable globe... to embellish Samarkand and Bokhara, the seats of my government; and you would sell them for the black mole of some girl in Shiraz!"
Hafez, the tale goes, bowed deeply and replied, "Alas, O Prince, it is this prodigality which is the cause of the misery in which you find me". So surprised and pleased was Timur with this response that he dismissed Hafez with handsome gifts.
Influence
Intellectual and artistic legacy
Hafez was acclaimed throughout the Islamic world during his lifetime, with other Persian poets imitating his work, and offers of patronage from Baghdad to India.
His work was first translated into English in 1771 by William Jones. It would leave a mark on such Western writers as Thoreau, Goethe, W. B. Yeats, in his prose anthology book of essays, Discoveries, as well as gaining a positive reception within West Bengal, in India, among some of the most prolific religious leaders and poets in this province, Debendranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore's father, who knew Persian and used to recite from Hafez's Divans and in this line, Gurudev himself, who, during his visit to Persia in 1932, also made a homage visit to Hafez's tomb in Shiraz and Ralph Waldo Emerson (the last referred to him as "a poet's poet"). Sir Arthur Conan Doyle has his character Sherlock Holmes state that "there is as much sense in Hafiz as in Horace, and as much knowledge of the world" (in A Case of Identity). Friedrich Engels mentioned him in an 1853 letter to Karl Marx.}}
There is no definitive version of his collected works (or Dīvān); editions vary from 573 to 994 poems. Only since the 1940s has a sustained scholarly attempt (by Mas'ud Farzad, Qasim Ghani and others in Iran) been made to authenticate his work and to remove errors introduced by later copyists and censors. However, the reliability of such work has been questioned, and in the words of Hāfez scholar Iraj Bashiri, "there remains little hope from there (i.e.: Iran) for an authenticated diwan".
In contemporary Iranian culture
Hafez is the most popular poet in Iran, and his works can be found in almost every Iranian home. In fact, October 12 is celebrated as Hafez Day in Iran.
His tomb is "crowded with devotees" who visit the site and the atmosphere is "festive" with visitors singing and reciting their favorite Hafez poems.
Many Iranians use Divan of Hafez for fortune telling. Iranian families usually have a Divan of Hafez in their house, and when they get together during the Nowruz or Yaldā holidays, they open the Divan to a random page and read the poem on it, which they believe to be an indication of things that will happen in the future.
In Iranian music
Many Iranian composers have composed pieces inspired by or based upon Hafez's poems. Among Iranian singers, Mohsen Namjoo composed music and vocals on several poems such as Zolf, Del Miravad, Nameh, and others. Hayedeh performed the song "Padeshah-e Khooban", with music by Farid Zoland. Mohammad-Reza Shajarian performed the song "Del Miravad Ze Dastam", with music by Parviz Meshkatian. The Ottoman composer Buhurizade Mustafa Itri composed his magnum opus Neva Kâr based upon one of Hafez's poems. The Polish composer Karol Szymanowski composed The Love Songs of Hafiz based upon a German translation of Hafez poems.
In Afghan music
Many Afghan singers, including Ahmad Zahir and Sarban, have composed songs such as "Ay Padeshah-e Khooban", "Gar-Zulfe Parayshanat".
Interpretation
The question of whether his work is to be interpreted literally, mystically, or both has been a source of contention among western scholars. On the one hand, some of his early readers such as William Jones saw in him a conventional lyricist similar to European love poets such as Petrarch. Others scholars such as Henry Wilberforce Clarke saw him as purely a poet of didactic, ecstatic mysticism in the manner of Rumi, a view that a minority of twentieth century critics and literary historians have come to challenge. Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected the Sufistic view of wine in Hafez's poems.
This confusion stems from the fact that, early in Persian literary history, the poetic vocabulary was usurped by mystics, who believed that the ineffable could be better approached in poetry than in prose. In composing poems of mystic content, they imbued every word and image with mystical undertones, causing mysticism and lyricism to converge into a single tradition. As a result, no fourteenth-century Persian poet could write a lyrical poem without having a flavor of mysticism forced on it by the poetic vocabulary itself. While some poets, such as Ubayd Zakani, attempted to distance themselves from this fused mystical-lyrical tradition by writing satires, Hafez embraced the fusion and thrived on it. Wheeler Thackston has said of this that Hafez "sang a rare blend of human and mystic love so balanced... that it is impossible to separate one from the other".
For reasons such as that, the history of the translation of Hāfez is fraught with complications, and few translations into western languages have been wholly successful.
One of the figurative gestures for which he is most famous (and which is among the most difficult to translate) is īhām or artful punning. Thus, a word such as gowhar, which could mean both "essence, truth" and "pearl", would take on both meanings at once as in a phrase such as "a pearl/essential truth outside the shell of superficial existence".
Hafez often took advantage of the aforementioned lack of distinction between lyrical, mystical, and panegyric writing by using highly intellectualized, elaborate metaphors and images to suggest multiple possible meanings. For example, a couplet from one of Hafez's poems reads:
The cypress tree is a symbol both of the beloved and of a regal presence; the nightingale and birdsong evoke the traditional setting for human love. The "lessons of spiritual stations" suggest, obviously, a mystical undertone as well (though the word for "spiritual" could also be translated as "intrinsically meaningful"). Therefore, the words could signify at once a prince addressing his devoted followers, a lover courting a beloved, and the reception of spiritual wisdom.
Satire, religion, and politics
Though Hafez is well known for his poetry, he is less commonly recognized for his intellectual and political contributions. A defining feature of Hafez' poetry is its ironic tone and the theme of hypocrisy, widely believed to be a critique of the religious and ruling establishments of the time. Persian satire developed during the 14th century, within the courts of the Mongol Empire. In this period, Hafez and other notable early satirists, such as Ubayd Zakani, produced a body of work that has since become a template for the use of satire as a political device. Many of his critiques are believed to be targeted at the rule of Mubariz al-Din Muhammad, specifically, towards the disintegration of important public and private institutions.
His work, particularly his imaginative references to monasteries, convents, Shahneh, and muhtasib, ignored the religious taboos of his period, and he found humor in some of his society's religious doctrines. Employing humor polemically has since become a common practice in Iranian public discourse and satire is now perhaps the de facto language of Iranian social commentary.
Modern English editions
A standard modern English edition of Hafez is Faces of Love (2012) translated by Dick Davis for Penguin Classics. Beloved: 81 poems from Hafez (Bloodaxe Books, 2018) is a recent English selection noted by Fatemeh Keshavarz (Roshan Institute for Persian studies, University of Maryland) for preserving "that audacious and multilayered richness one finds in the originals".
Peter Avery translated a complete edition of Hafez in English, The Collected Lyrics of Hafiz of Shiraz, published in 2007. It was awarded Iran's Farabi prize. Avery's translations are published with notes explaining allusions in the text and filling in what the poets would have expected their readers to know. An abridged version exists, titled Hafiz of Shiraz: Thirty Poems: An Introduction to the Sufi Master.
Divan-e-Hafez
Divan Hafez is a book containing all the remaining poems of Hafez. Most of these poems are in Persian and the most crucial part of this Divan is ghazals. There are poems in other poetic formats such as piece, ode, Masnavi and quatrain in this Divan.
There is no evidence that most of Hafez's poems were destroyed. In addition, Hafez was very famous during his lifetime; Therefore, the small number of poetry in the court indicates that he was not a prolific poet.
Hafez's Divan was probably compiled for the first time by Mohammad Glendam after his death. Of course, some unconfirmed reports indicate that Hafez published his court in 770 AH. that is, edited more than twenty years before his death.
Death and the tomb
The year of Hafez's death is 791 AH. Hafez was buried in the prayer hall of Shiraz called hafezieh. In 855 AH, after the conquest of Shiraz by Abolghasem Babar Teymouri, they built a tomb under the command of his minister, Maulana Mohammad Mamaei.
Poems by Hafez
The number in the edition by Muhammad Qazvini and Qasem Ghani (1941) is given:
Alā yā ayyoha-s-sāqī – QG 1
Shirazi Turk – QG 3
Zolf-'āšofte – QG 26
Dūš dīdam ke malā'ek – QG 184
Naqdhā rā bovad āyā – QG 185
Goftā borūn šodī – QG 406
Mazra'-ē sabz-e falak – QG 407
Sīne mālāmāl – QG 470
See also
Diwan (poetry)
List of Persian poets and authors
Persian mysticism
Ferdowsi, Persian poet
Rumi, Persian poet
Persian literature
The Love Songs of Hafiz
West-östlicher Diwan
References
Sources
Peter Avery, The Collected Lyrics of Hafiz of Shiraz, 603 p. (Cambridge: Archetype, 2007). Translated from Divān-e Hāfez, Vol. 1, The Lyrics (Ghazals), edited by Parviz Natel-Khanlari (Tehran, Iran, 1362 AH/1983-4).
Loloi, Parvin, Hafiz, Master of Persian Poetry: A Critical Bibliography - English Translations Since the Eighteenth Century (2004. I.B. Tauris)
Browne, E. G., Literary History of Persia. (Four volumes, 2,256 pages, and twenty-five years in the writing with a new introduction by J.T.P De Bruijn). 1997.
Will Durant, The Reformation. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1957
Erkinov, A., “Manuscripts of the works by classical Persian authors (Hāfiz, Jāmī, Bīdil): Quantitative Analysis of 17th-19th c. Central Asian Copies”. Iran: Questions et connaissances. Actes du IVe Congrès Européen des études iraniennes organisé par la Societas Iranologica Europaea, Paris, 6-10 Septembre 1999. vol. II: Périodes médiévale et moderne. [Cahiers de Studia Iranica. 26], M.Szuppe (ed.). Association pour l`avancement des études iraniennes-Peeters Press. Paris-Leiden, 2002, pp. 213–228.
Hafez, The Poems of Hafez. Trans. Reza Ordoubadian. Ibex Publishers, 2006
Hafez, The Green Sea of Heaven: Fifty ghazals from the Diwan of Hafiz. Trans. Elizabeth T. Gray, Jr. White Cloud Press, 1995
Hafez, The Angels Knocking on the Tavern Door: Thirty Poems of Hafez. Trans. Robert Bly and Leonard Lewisohn. HarperCollins, 2008, p. 69.
Hafez, Divan-i-Hafiz, translated by Henry Wilberforce-Clarke, Ibex Publishers, Inc., 2007.
Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. 1968 .
Chopra, R. M., "Great Poets of Classical Persian", June 2014, Sparrow Publication, Kolkata, .
External links
English translations of Poetry by Hafez
The Divan of Hafiz
Hafiz Selections of his poetry on Allspirit
Hafez in English from Poems Found in Translation website
Poems by Hafez from Blackcat Poems website
Hafez Divan in Persian and English
Life and Poetry of Hafez from "Hafiz on Love" website
Hafez Poems translated G. Bell
Selection of Love Poems by Hafez
Persian texts and resources
Hafez Divan with readings in Persian
Scan of 1560 Dīwān Hāfiz manuscript on archive.org
Fall-e Hafez An online Flash application of his poems in Persian.
Text-Based Fal e Hafez A light-weight website ranked 1 on search engines for Fal e Hafez.
Fale Hafez iPhone App an iPhone application for reading poems and taking 'faal'.
[https://web.archive.org/web/20160904030605/http://www.radiohafez.com/ Radio Programs on Hafez's life and poetry']
Faal-e-Hafez
Faal-e-Hafez and Persian miniature Picture
English language resources
"The Collected Lyrics of Hafiz of Shiraz", a translation of the Divan-i Hafiz by Peter Avery, published by Archetype 2007 hb; pb
"Hafez' Shirazi Turk": A Structuralist's Point of View by Iraj Bashiri, University of Minnesota.
Hafiz, Shams al-Din Muhammad, A Biography by Iraj Bashiri
Hafiz and the Sufic Ghazal, 1979, by Iraj Bashiri
Comprehensive set of scholarly entries about Hafez, on the Encyclopædia Iranica'' (Columbia University).
HAFEZ – Encyclopaedia Iranica
Other
Facebook Page for Hafez Selected poetry and images.
Hafez Tomb in 2012 Nowruz Celebration Photos.
Hafez Tomb Photos Photos.
Persian poets
14th-century Persian poets
Sufi poets
Mystic poets
Medieval writers
People from Shiraz
Medieval poets
1320s births
1390 deaths
14th-century Iranian people
Angelic visionaries
Injuid-period poets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attar%20of%20Nishapur
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Attar of Nishapur
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Abū Ḥamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (c. 1145 – c. 1221; ), better known by his pen-names Farīd ud-Dīn () and ʿAṭṭār of Nishapur (, Attar means apothecary), was a Persian poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer from Nishapur who had an immense and lasting influence on Persian poetry and Sufism. He wrote a collection of lyrical poems and number of long poems in the philosophical tradition of Islamic mysticism, as well as a prose work with biographies and sayings of famous Muslim mystics. Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr (The Conference of the Birds) and Ilāhī-Nāma (The Book of Divine) and Memorial of the Saints are among his best known works.
Biography
Information about Attar’s life is scarce and has been mythologized over the centuries. However, what we do know for certain is that Attar practiced the profession of pharmacist and personally attended to a very large number of customers. He is mentioned by only two of his contemporaries, `Awfi and Tusi. However, all sources confirm that he was from Nishapur, a major city of medieval Khorasan (now located in the northeast of Iran), and according to `Awfi, he was a poet of the Seljuq period.
According to Reinert: It seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except at his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th century. At the same time, the mystic Persian poet Rumi (Balkhi) has mentioned: "Attar was the spirit, Sanai his eyes twain, And in time thereafter, Came we in their train" and mentions in another poem:
Attar traveled through all the seven cities of love
While I am only at the bend of the first alley..
`Attar was probably the son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in various fields. While his works say little else about his life, they tell us that he practiced the profession of pharmacy and personally attended to a very large number of customers. The people he helped in the pharmacy used to confide their troubles in `Attar and this affected him deeply. Eventually, he abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely - to Baghdad, Basra, Kufa, Mecca, Medina, Damascus, Khwarizm, Turkistan, and India, meeting with Sufi Shaykhs - and returned promoting Sufi ideas. Attar was a Sunni Muslim.
From childhood onward Attar, encouraged by his father, was interested in the Sufis and their sayings and way of life, and regarded their saints as his spiritual guides. At the age of 78, Attar died a violent death in the massacre which the Mongols inflicted on Nishapur in April 1221. Today, his mausoleum is located in Nishapur. It was built by Ali-Shir Nava'i in the 16th century and later on underwent a total renovation during the rule of Reza Shah in 1940.
Teachings
The thoughts depicted in `Attar's works reflects the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. The starting point is the idea that the body-bound soul's awaited release and return to its source in the other world can be experienced during the present life in mystic union attainable through inward purification. In explaining his thoughts, 'Attar uses material not only from specifically Sufi sources but also from older ascetic legacies. Although his heroes are for the most part Sufis and ascetics, he also introduces stories from historical chronicles, collections of anecdotes, and all types of high-esteemed literature. His talent for perception of deeper meanings behind outward appearances enables him to turn details of everyday life into illustrations of his thoughts. The idiosyncrasy of `Attar's presentations invalidates his works as sources for study of the historical persons whom he introduces. As sources on the hagiology and phenomenology of Sufism, however, his works have immense value.
Judging from `Attar's writings, he approached the available Aristotelian heritage with skepticism and dislike. He did not seem to want to reveal the secrets of nature. This is particularly remarkable in the case of medicine, which fell well within the scope of his professional expertise as pharmacist. He obviously had no motive for sharing his expert knowledge in the manner customary among court panegyrists, whose type of poetry he despised and never practiced. Such knowledge is only brought into his works in contexts where the theme of a story touches on a branch of the natural sciences.
According to Edward G. Browne, Attar as well as Rumi and Sana'i, were Sunni as evident from the fact that their poetry abounds with praise for the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb - who are detested by Shia mysticism. According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501.
Poetry
Attar’s most famous poem by far is his Conference of the Birds (Mantiq al-tayr). Like many of his other poems, it is in the mathnawi genre of rhyming couplets. While the mathnawi genre of poetry may use a variety of different metres, Attar adopted a particular meter, that was later imitated by Rumi in his famous Mathnawi-yi Ma’nawi, which then became the mathnawi metre par excellence. The first recorded use of this metre for a mathnawi poem took place at the Nizari Ismaili fortress of Girdkuh between 1131-1139. It likely set the stage for later poetry in this style by mystics such as Attar and Rumi.
In the introductions of Mukhtār-Nāma () and Khusraw-Nāma (), Attar lists the titles of further products of his pen:
Dīwān ()
Asrār-Nāma ()
Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr (), also known as Maqāmāt-uṭ-Ṭuyūr ()
Muṣībat-Nāma ()
Ilāhī-Nāma ()
Jawāhir-Nāma ()
Šarḥ al-Qalb ()I
He also states, in the introduction of the Mukhtār-Nāma, that he destroyed the Jawāhir-Nāma' and the Šarḥ al-Qalb with his own hand.
Although the contemporary sources confirm only `Attar's authorship of the Dīwān and the Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr, there are no grounds for doubting the authenticity of the Mukhtār-Nāma and Khusraw-Nāma and their prefaces. One work is missing from these lists, namely the Tadhkirat-ul-Awliyā, which was probably omitted because it is a prose work; its attribution to `Attar is scarcely open to question. In its introduction `Attar mentions three other works of his, including one entitled Šarḥ al-Qalb, presumably the same that he destroyed. The nature of the other two, entitled Kašf al-Asrār () and Maʿrifat al-Nafs (), remains unknown.
Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr
In the poem, the birds of the world gather to decide who is to be their sovereign, as they have none. The hoopoe, the wisest of them all, suggests that they should find the legendary Simorgh. The hoopoe leads the birds, each of whom represents a human fault which prevents human kind from attaining enlightenment.
The hoopoe tells the birds that they have to cross seven valleys in order to reach the abode of Simorgh. These valleys are as follows:The Conference of the Birds by Attar, edited and translated by Sholeh Wolpé, W. W. Norton & Co 2017
1. Valley of the Quest, where the Wayfarer begins by casting aside all dogma, belief, and unbelief. 2. Valley of Love, where reason is abandoned for the sake of love. 3. Valley of Knowledge, where worldly knowledge becomes utterly useless. 4. Valley of Detachment, where all desires and attachments to the world are given up. Here, what is assumed to be “reality” vanishes. 5. Valley of Unity, where the Wayfarer realizes that everything is connected and that the Beloved is beyond everything, including harmony, multiplicity, and eternity. 6. Valley of Wonderment, where, entranced by the beauty of the Beloved, the Wayfarer becomes perplexed and, steeped in awe, finds that he or she has never known or understood anything. 7. Valley of Poverty and Annihilation, where the self disappears into the universe and the Wayfarer becomes timeless, existing in both the past and the future.Sholeh Wolpé writes, "When the birds hear the description of these valleys, they bow their heads in distress; some even die of fright right then and there. But despite their trepidations, they begin the great journey. On the way, many perish of thirst, heat or illness, while others fall prey to wild beasts, panic, and violence. Finally, only thirty birds make it to the abode of Simorgh. In the end, the birds learn that they themselves are the Simorgh; the name “Simorgh” in Persian means thirty (si) birds (morgh). They eventually come to understand that the majesty of that Beloved is like the sun that can be seen reflected in a mirror. Yet, whoever looks into that mirror will also behold his or her own image."": 17-18
If Simorgh unveils its face to you, you will find
that all the birds, be they thirty or forty or more, are but the shadows cast by that unveiling. What shadow is ever separated from its maker?
Do you see? The shadow and its maker are one and the same,
so get over surfaces and delve into mysteries.Attar's masterful use of symbolism is a key, driving component of the poem. This adroit handling of symbolisms and allusions can be seen reflected in these lines:
It was in China, late one moonless night, The Simorgh first appeared to mortal sight – Beside the symbolic use of the Simorgh, the allusion to China is also very significant. According to Idries Shah, China as used here, is not the geographical China, but the symbol of mystic experience, as inferred from the Hadith (declared weak by Ibn Adee, but still used symbolically by some Sufis): "Seek knowledge; even as far as China".[5] There are many more examples of such subtle symbols and allusions throughout the Mantiq. Within the larger context of the story of the journey of the birds, Attar masterfully tells the reader many didactic short, sweet stories in captivating poetic style.
Gallery of The Conference of the Birds
Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Folio from an illustrated manuscript dated c.1600. Paintings by Habiballah of Sava (active ca. 1590–1610), in ink, opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper, dimensions 25,4 x 11,4 cm.
Tadhkirat-ul-Awliyā
The Tadhkirat-ul-Awliyā, a hagiographic collection of Muslim saints and mystics, is Attar's only known prose work. Written and compiled throughout much of his life and published before his death, the compelling account of the execution of the mystic Mansur al-Hallaj, who had uttered the words "I am the Truth" in a state of ecstatic contemplation, is perhaps the most well known extract from the book.
Ilāhī-Nama
The Ilāhī-Nama () or Elāhī-Nāmeh is another famous poetic work of Attar, consisting of 6500 verses. In terms of form and content, it has some similarities with Bird Parliament. The story is about a king who is confronted with the materialistic and worldly demands of his six sons. The King tries to show the temporary and senseless desires of his six sons by retelling them a large number of spiritual stories. The first son asks for the daughter of the king of the fairies, the second for the mastery of magic, the third for the cup of Jamshid, which has the property of displaying the whole world, the fourth for the water of life, the fifth for the ring of Solomon, which has control over fairies and demons, and the sixth for mastering alchemy. Each of these desires is discussed first literally, and shown to be absurd, and then it is explained how there is an esoteric interpretation of each one.
Mukhtār-NāmaMukhtār-Nāma (), a wide-ranging collection of quatrains (2088 in number). In the Mokhtar-nama, a coherent group of mystical and religious subjects is outlined (search for union, sense of uniqueness, distancing from the world, annihilation, amazement, pain, awareness of death, etc.), and an equally rich group of themes typical of lyrical poetry of erotic inspiration adopted by mystical literature (the torment of love, impossible union, beauty of the loved one, stereotypes of the love story as weakness, crying, separation).
Divan
The Diwan of Attar () consists almost entirely of poems in the Ghazal ("lyric") form, as he collected his Ruba'i ("quatrains") in a separate work called the Mokhtar-nama. There are also some Qasida ("Odes"), but they amount to less than one-seventh of the Divan. His Qasidas expound upon mystical and ethical themes and moral precepts. They are sometimes modeled after Sanai. The Ghazals often seem from their outward vocabulary just to be love and wine songs with a predilection for libertine imagery, but generally imply spiritual experiences in the familiar symbolic language of classical Islamic Sufism. Attar's lyrics express the same ideas that are elaborated in his epics. His lyric poetry does not significantly differ from that of his narrative poetry, and the same may be said of the rhetoric and imagery.
Legacy
Influence on Rumi
`Attar is one of the most famous mystic poets of Iran. His works were the inspiration of Rumi and many other mystic poets. `Attar, along with Sanai were two of the greatest influences on Rumi in his Sufi views. Rumi has mentioned both of them with the highest esteem several times in his poetry. Rumi praises `Attar as follows:
As a pharmacist
`Attar was a pen-name which he took for his occupation. `Attar means herbalist, druggist, perfumist or alchemist, and during his lifetime in Persia, much of medicine and drugs were based on herbs. Therefore, by profession he was similar to a modern-day town doctor and pharmacist.
'''Attar also means rose oil.
In popular culture
The Ubuntu Theater Project in Berkeley California premiered an adaptation of Attar's The Conference of the Birds by Sholeh Wolpe, in Oakland, California.
Several musical artists have albums or songs which share the name of his most famous work, Conference of the Birds, as well as the themes of enlightenment contained therein. Notably, jazz bassist David Holland's album, which was written as a metaphor for his own enlightenment, and Om's Conference of the Birds, which deals with extremely esoteric themes often connected with metaphors of flight, inward vision, destruction of self, and oneness with the cosmos.
Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, used in one of his short stories, The Approach to Al-Mu'tasim, a summary of The Conference of the Birds as a reference.
In 1963 the Persian composer Hossein Dehlavi wrote a piece for voice and orchestra on Attar's 'Forugh-e Eshgh'. The piece received its first performance by Saba Orchestra and the vocalist Khatereh Parvaneh at the National Television in Tehran. In 1990 the opera singer Hossein Sarshar performed this piece as well which its recording is available.
See also
Sufism
The Seven Valleys
Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani
Sheikh San'Aan
References
Sources
Sholeh Wolpé. The Conference of the Birds. 2017
E.G. Browne. Literary History of Persia. 1998. .
Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. 1968 .
R. M. Chopra, 2014, " Great Poets of Classical Persian ", Sparrow Publication, Kolkata ()
External links
Attar, the Sufi, the poet, World Literature Today
The Conference of the Birds, translated by Sholeh Wolpe
Bird Parliament Fitzgerald translation Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr, at archive.org.
Can Literature Save the World? On translating Attar, Words Without Borders
A few wikiquotes
Attar in Encyclopedia Iranica by B. Reinert
Attar, Farid ad-Din. A biography by Professor Iraj Bashiri, University of Minnesota.
Attar's works in original Persian at Ganjoor Persian Library
Deewan-e-Attar in original Persian single pdf file uploaded by javed Hussen
Panoramic Images of Attar Tombs Neyshabur Day
1140s births
1220s deaths
Iranian poets
Medieval Persian writers
Iranian Muslims
Iranian Sufis
Iranian pharmacists
Sufi poets
Sufi fiction
Poets from Nishapur
Sufis from Nishapur
Pharmacologists of medieval Iran
12th-century Persian poets
13th-century Persian poets
12th-century Iranian people
13th-century Iranian people
Poets of the Seljuk Empire
Iranian biographers
Mystics from Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudlark
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Mudlark
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A mudlark is someone who scavenges in river mud for items of value, a term used especially to describe those who scavenged this way in London during the late 18th and 19th centuries. The practice of searching the banks of rivers for items continues in the modern era, with newer technology such as metal detectors sometimes being employed to search for metal valuables that may have washed ashore.
Mudlarks in the 18th and 19th centuries
Mudlarks would search the muddy shores of the River Thames at low tide for anything that could be sold – sometimes, when occasion arose, pilfering from river traffic as well. By at least the late 18th century, people dwelling near the river could scrape a subsistence living this way. Mudlarks were usually either youngsters aged between 8 and 15, or the robust elderly, and though most mudlarks were male, girls and women were also scavengers.
Becoming a mudlark was usually a choice dictated by poverty and lack of skills. Work conditions were filthy and uncomfortable, as excrement and waste would wash onto the shores from the raw sewage and sometimes also the corpses of humans, cats and dogs. Mudlarks would often get cuts from broken glass left on the shore. The income generated was seldom more than meagre; but mudlarks had a degree of independence, since (subject to tides) the hours they worked were entirely at their own discretion and they also kept everything they made as a result of their own labour.
Henry Mayhew, in his book London Labour and the London Poor; Extra Volume, 1851, provides a detailed description of this category, and in a later edition of the same work includes the "Narrative of a Mudlark", an interview with a thirteen-year-old boy, Martin Prior.
Although in 1904 a person could still claim "mudlark" as an occupation, by then it seems to have been no longer viewed as an acceptable or lawful pursuit. By 1936 the word is used merely to describe swimsuited London schoolchildren earning pocket money during the summer holidays by begging passers-by to throw coins into the Thames mud, which they then chased, to the amusement of the onlookers.
Modern times
More recently, metal-detectorists and other individuals searching the foreshore for historic artefacts have described themselves as "mudlarks". In London, a licence is required from the Port of London Authority for this activity and it is illegal to search for or remove artefacts of any kind from the foreshore without one. The regulations changed in 2016, making Ted Sandling's popular book London in Fragments unfortunately out of date in this respect. The PLA state that "All the foreshore in the UK has an owner. Metal detecting, searching or digging is not a public right and as such it needs the permission of the landowner. The PLA and the Crown Estate are the largest land owners of Thames foreshore and jointly administer a permit which allows metal detecting, searching or digging." The PLA site has much useful information for permit holders including maps, rules & regulations about where digging is and is not permitted, safety and tide tables.
Occasionally, objects of archaeological value have been recovered from the Thames foreshore; dependent on their value, these are either reported as treasure under the Treasure Act 1996, or voluntarily submitted for analysis and review via the Portable Antiquities Scheme.
A BBC article in July 2020 recommended the Thames Discovery Programme, "a group of historians and volunteers [running] guided tours" for novice mudlarks, and a 2019 book Mudlarking: Lost and Found on the River Thames by Lara Maiklem. The author had considerable experience in searching the banks of the river for historical artefacts. Rag and Bone: A Family History of What We've Thrown Away by Lisa Woollett (2020) is another treatment of the subject.
Cultural references
The word was used in the late 18th century as a slang expression for a pig.
Poor Jack, novel by Frederick Marryat, 1842. In his novel Marryat, who was himself a seaman before he turned to writing, vividly describes the unlikely rise of a fictional mudlark, Thomas Saunders, to the position of river pilot. The book contains many scenes descriptive of the typical mudlark's life, and also suggests that some adult mudlarks were involved in fencing items of cargo stolen and passed to them by crew.
A mudlark is also a term used in Sussex dialect for a fisherman from Rye.
The Copper Treasure – a 1998 book for teenagers by Melvin Burgess describing three 19th century mudlarks and their struggle to successfully transport a roll of stolen copper.
The Mudlark – a 1950 British film about a young street boy whose contact with Queen Victoria plays a part in bringing her back to public life after her lengthy mourning for Prince Albert.
In Neal Stephenson's The Baroque Cycle, one of the lead characters, Jack Shaftoe, begins life as a mudlark.
In Ch146 of the manga Black Butler, Commissioner Randall calls young Mr. Pitt “a pathetic Thames mudlark”, and Mr. Pitt replies he hasn’t done that in years.
Mudlark by John Sedden (Puffin 2005) is a thriller set in Portsmouth in the First World War in which two mudlarks find a human skull in the mud of Portsmouth Harbour, beginning a chain of tragi-comic events.
Society of Thames Mudlarks – A modern organisation founded in 1980 which has a special licence issued by the Port of London Authority for its members to search the Thames mud for treasure and historical artefacts and report their finds to the Museum of London. In 2009 one of the founder members, Tony Pilson, donated a collection of over two and a half thousand buttons dating from the 14th to the late 19th century, which he had collected along the Thames foreshore.
The television show Mud Men follows Johnny Vaughan as he teams up with Steve Brooker to go mudlarking along the Thames foreshore.
The Faerie Ring, a book by Kiki Hamilton also makes a few references to mudlarks.
Mudlarks, a 2014 PC mystery/paranormal adventure game by Cloak and Dagger Games, features mudlarks and mudlarking prominently in the storyline.
The term mudlark is used in the 2012 video game Dishonored by several NPCs, which reflects the games Victorian-inspired tableaux & setting.
In the 2008 Doctor Who audio drama The Haunting of Thomas Brewster, the title character was a mudlark on the Thames in 1867.
In Radio 4's 2020 three-part drama "London Particular" mudlarking is a key driver of the storyline.
In season 9, episode 1 of Call The Midwife, a Netflix series featuring a midwifery-focused narrative set in the 1960s in Poplar, England, an elderly character mentions that back in her youth mudlarks would occasionally recover the bodies of abandoned babies.
In the book series The Bone Season by Samantha Shannon, Mudlarks are social outcasts who live in the sewer systems of London
See also
Dumpster diving
Grubber — someone who scavenges in drains
Junk man
Rag-and-bone man
Magnet fishing — A modern method, in which a scavenger lowers a neodymium magnet into bodies of water to search for and retrieve metal items of value
Tosher — someone who scavenges in sewers
Waste picker
References
Bibliography
External links
H. Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor: "Narrative of a Mudlark"
Origin of the word
Home of Mudlarking on the River Thames Warning: Site contains flashing images.
Waste collection
Obsolete occupations
Social history of London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algis%20Budrys
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Algis Budrys
|
Algirdas Jonas "Algis" Budrys (January 9, 1931 – June 9, 2008) was a Lithuanian-American science fiction author, editor, and critic. He was also known under the pen names Frank Mason, Alger Rome (in collaboration with Jerome Bixby), John A. Sentry, William Scarff, and Paul Janvier. He is known for the influential 1960 novel Rogue Moon.
Biography
Budrys was born in Königsberg (today's Kaliningrad) in the then East Prussia, Germany. His father Jonas Budrys was the consul general of Lithuania; as a child he saw Adolf Hitler in a parade in the city. In 1936, when Budrys was five years old, Jonas was appointed as the consul general in New York, instead of Paris as he had hoped. After the Soviet Union's occupation of Lithuania, the Budrys family ran a chicken farm in New Jersey while Jonas remained part of the exile Lithuanian Diplomatic Service, since the United States continued to recognize the pre-World War II Lithuanian diplomats. During most of his adult life, Budrys held a captain's commission in the Free Lithuanian Army.
Incorporating his family's experience, Budrys's fiction depicts isolated and damaged people and themes of identity, survival, and legacy. He taught himself English at the age of six by reading Robinson Crusoe. From Flash Gordon comic strips, Budrys read H. G. Wells's The Time Machine; Astounding Science Fiction caused him at the age of 11 to want to become a science fiction writer. Budrys was educated at the University of Miami, and later at Columbia University in New York. His first published science fiction story was "The High Purpose", which appeared in Astounding in 1952. Beginning in 1952 Budrys worked as editor and manager for such science fiction publishers as Gnome Press and Galaxy Science Fiction. Some of Budrys's science fiction in the 1950s was published under the pen name "John A. Sentry", a reconfigured Anglification of his Lithuanian name. Among his other pseudonyms in the SF magazines of the 1950s and elsewhere, several revived as bylines for vignettes in his magazine Tomorrow Speculative Fiction, is "William Scarff". Budrys also wrote several stories under the names "Ivan Janvier" or "Paul Janvier", and used "Alger Rome" in his collaborations with Jerome Bixby.
Budrys's 1960 novella Rogue Moon was nominated for a Hugo Award, and was later anthologized in The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two (1973). His Cold War science fiction novel Who? was adapted for the screen in 1973. In addition to numerous Hugo Award and Nebula Award nominations, Budrys won the Science Fiction Research Association's 2007 Pilgrim Award for lifetime contributions to speculative fiction scholarship. In 2009, he was the recipient of one of the first three Solstice Awards presented by the SFWA in recognition of his contributions to the field of science fiction.
Having published about 100 stories and a half-dozen novels, with a wife and children to support, after 1960 Budrys wrote less fiction and worked in publishing, editing, and advertising. He became better known as among science fiction's best critics than as writer, reviewing for Galaxy Science Fiction and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, a book editor for Playboy, a longtime teacher at the Clarion Writers Workshop and an organizer and judge for the Writers of the Future awards. In addition, he worked as a publicist; in a famous publicity stunt, he erected a giant pickle on the proposed site of the Chicago Picasso during the time the newly arriving sculpture was embroiled in controversy.
Budrys was married to Edna Duna; they had four sons. He last resided in Evanston, Illinois. He died at home, from metastatic malignant melanoma on June 9, 2008.
Bibliography
Novels
False Night (1954)
Man of Earth (1956)
Who? (1958)
The Falling Torch (1959)
Rogue Moon (1960)
Some Will Not Die (1961) (an expanded and restored version of False Night)
The Iron Thorn (1967) (as serialized in If; revised and published in book form as The Amsirs and the Iron Thorn). On a bleak forbidding planet, humans hunt Amsirs – flightless humanoid birds – and vice versa. After one young hunter makes his first kill, he's initiated into the society's secrets. Still, he figures there are secrets the human race has forgotten altogether, and begins to hunt for answers.
Michaelmas (1977)
Hard Landing (1993)
The Death Machine (2001) (originally published as Rogue Moon against Budrys's wishes)
Collections (fiction, essays, and mixed)
The Unexpected Dimension (1960)
Budrys' Inferno (1963)
The Furious Future (1963)
Blood and Burning (1978)
Benchmarks: Galaxy Bookshelf (1985)
Writing to the Point (1994)
Outposts: Literatures of Milieux (1996)
Entertainment (1997)
The Electric Gene Machine (2000)
Benchmarks Continued: F&SF "Books" Columns 1975-1982 (2012)
Benchmarks Revisited: F&SF "Books" Columns 1983-1986 (2013)
Benchmarks Concluded: F&SF "Books" Columns 1987-1993 (2013)
Short stories
"The High Purpose" (1952) in Astounding Science Fiction
"Walk to the World" (1952) in Space Science Fiction, Nov 1952
"The Congruent People" (1953) in Star Science Fiction Stories No. 2 (edited by Frederik Pohl), 1953
"Protective Mimicry" in Galaxy Science Fiction, 1953.
"Riya's Foundling" (1953) in Science Fiction Stories, 1953.
"The End of Summer" (1954) in Astounding Science Fiction; also published in the short story anthology Penguin Science Fiction (edited by Brian Aldiss, 1961).
"Ironclad" in Galaxy Science Fiction", 1954.
"Citadel" (1955) in Astounding Science Fiction, February 1955.
"Nobody Bothers Gus" (1955) published in Astounding Science Fiction, November 1955.
"Calculated Decision" in Science Fiction Quarterly, November 1956.
"The War is Over" (1957) – first appeared in Astounding Science Fiction Feb. 1957. Also published in the short story anthology 13 Great Stories of Science Fiction (edited by Groff Conklin, 1960).
"The Barbarians" (1958) (as John Sentry) in If, February 1958.
"The Stoker and the Stars" (1959) (as John A. Sentry) in Astounding Science Fiction, February 1959.
"The Price" (1960) – first appeared in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, February 1960. Also published in the short story anthology The War Book (edited by James Sallis, 1969).
"Wall of Crystal, Eye of Night" in Galaxy, December 1961
"For Love" (originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction, June 1962) – appears in The Seventh Galaxy Reader edited by Frederik Pohl (Doubleday Science Fiction, 1964).
"Die, Shadow!" in If, May 1963.
"Be Merry" (1966) published in If, December 1966, Vol. 16, No. 12, Issue 109.
"The Master of the Hounds" (1966) first published in The Saturday Evening Post and an Edgar Award nominee.
Audio recording
84.2 Minutes of Algis Budrys (1995), Unifont (Budrys's own company). Released on cassette, this featured Budrys reading his short stories "The Price", "The Distant Sound of Engines", "Never Meet Again", and "Explosions!".
Interviews
Taking Your Chances (1990) in Leading Edge #20/21
Magazine
Tomorrow Speculative Fiction (1993–2000); initially edited by Budrys and published by Pulphouse Publishing, with its second issue it was published and edited by Budrys with assistance from Kandis Elliott under the Unifont rubric. It ceased publication as a paper and ink magazine and became a webzine late in the decade.
Anthologies
L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future, Vol. III (1987)
L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future, Vol. 6 (1990)
L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future, Vol 12 (1996)
L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future Vol. 16 (2000)
L. Ron Hubbard Presents Writers of the Future, Vol 19 (2003)
References
6. Williams, Mark. "The Alien Novelist." Technology Review 111, 6. (Nov/Dec 2008). pp. 80–84
External links
Bibliography in SciFan
Brief autobiography
Interview with Algis Budrys
Algis Budrys at American Science Fiction: Classic Novels of the 1950s—includes original story version of "Who?" and an essay on Who?'' by Tim Powers, as well as an interview, images, cover art, and audio files
Frederik Pohl on Budrys: Part One, Part Two
1931 births
2008 deaths
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American publicists
American science fiction writers
American speculative fiction critics
American speculative fiction editors
Lithuanian emigrants to the United States
Lithuanian writers
Writers from Königsberg
Writers from Evanston, Illinois
Science fiction critics
Science fiction editors
Deaths from melanoma
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
University of Miami alumni
Columbia University alumni
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Illinois
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
Lithuanian expatriates in Germany
|
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204272
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe%20tool
|
Pipe tool
|
A pipe tool is any of a variety of small gadgets designed to aid in packing, smoking, and emptying tobacco pipes.
A "Czech tool" or "three-in-one" pipe tool consists of a pick, a reamer, and a tamper:
The pick is a narrow rod or pin that can be used to clear the shank of debris, or to aerate tightly packed tobacco. Because it is sharp it may scratch the bowl of a pipe, and so should not be used for scraping.
The reamer is a flat instrument shaped like a dull pen-knife blade or a flattened spoon, used to scrape ash and unburned tobacco (dottle) off the sides and bottom of a pipe.
The tamper is a blunt instrument, either a simple dowel or shaped like the top of a nail, with a flat end for tamping down the tobacco when the bowl is being packed, and for crushing the ash together to aid relighting.
A pipe nail is a nail-shaped tool with a tamper at one end and a reamer at the other. Tampers and reamers may also be made as separate tools.
Pipe smoking
Tobacciana
Tools
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Shepherd%20of%20Hermas
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The Shepherd of Hermas
|
The Shepherd of Hermas (, Poimēn tou Herma; ), sometimes just called The Shepherd, is a Christian literary work of the late first half of the second century, considered a valuable book by many Christians, and considered canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus. The Shepherd was very popular amongst Christians in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th centuries. It is found in the Codex Sinaiticus, and it is listed between the Acts of the Apostles and the Acts of Paul in the stichometrical list of the Codex Claromontanus.
The work comprises five visions, twelve mandates, and ten parables. It relies on allegory and pays special attention to the Church, calling the faithful to repent of the sins that have harmed it.
Language and translation
The book was originally written in Rome in the Greek language. A first Latin translation, the Vulgata (Common language), was made very shortly afterwards. A second Latin translation, the Palatina, was made at the beginning of the fifth century. Of the Greek version, the last fifth or so is missing. The Vulgate Latin translation is the earliest translation and the most complete witness.
The Shepherd was also translated at least twice into the Coptic (Egyptian) language and fragments of both Sahidic and Akhmimic translations survive. Three translations into Ge'ez (Ethiopic) were also made, but none survives complete. The sole surviving Georgian translation may have been made from Arabic, but no Arabic translation has been preserved. There does not appear to have been a Syriac translation and no Syriac author shows any awareness of the Shepherd. It was always more popular in the Western Roman Empire and in Alexandria than in the east. There was a Middle Persian translation made for a Manichaean readership which survives in a single fragmentary manuscript found at Turfan.
Contents
The book consists of five visions granted to Hermas, a former slave. This is followed by twelve mandates or commandments, and ten similitudes, or parables. It commences abruptly in the first person: "He who brought me up sold me to a certain Rhoda, who was at Rome. After many years I met her again, and began to love her as a sister." As Hermas is on the road to Cumae, he has a vision of Rhoda. She tells him that she is now his accuser in heaven, on account of unchaste and impure thoughts the (now) married narrator once had regarding her. He is to repent and pray for forgiveness, for himself and all his house. He is consoled by a vision of the Church in the form of an aged woman, weak and helpless from the sins of her unfaithful children, who tells him to bear fruits of repentance and to correct the sins of his children. Subsequently, after his repentance he sees her made younger, yet still wrinkled and with white hair; then again, later she appears as quite young but still with white hair; and lastly, she shows herself as a glorious Bride.
This allegorical language continues through the other parts of the work. In the second vision she gives Hermas a book, which she later takes back in order to add to it. The fifth vision, which is represented as taking place 20 days after the fourth, introduces "the Angel (Messenger) of repentance" in the guise of a shepherd, from whom the whole work takes its name. He delivers to Hermas a series of precepts (mandata, entolai), which form an interesting development of early Christian ethics. One point which deserves special mention is the instruction of a Christian husband's obligation to forgive and take back an adulterous wife upon her repentance. The eleventh mandate, on humility, is concerned with false prophets who desire to occupy the primary, or best seats (that is to say, among the presbyters). Some have seen here a reference to Marcion, who came to Rome c. 140 and desired to be admitted among the priests (or possibly even to become bishop of Rome).
After the mandates come ten similitudes (parabolai) in the form of visions, which are explained by the angel. The longest of these (Similitude 9) is an elaboration of the parable of the building of a tower, which had formed the matter of the third vision. The tower is the Church, and the stones of which it is built are the faithful. In the third vision it looks as though only the holy are a part of the true Church; in Similitude 9 it is clearly pointed out that all the baptized are included, though they may be cast out for grave sins, and can be readmitted only after repentance.
In spite of the grave subjects, the book is written in a very optimistic and hopeful tone, like most early Christian works.
In parable 5, the author mentions a Son of God, as a virtuous man filled with a holy "pre-existent spirit" and adopted as the Son. In the 2nd century, adoptionism (the view that Jesus Christ was, at least initially, only a mortal man) was one of two competing doctrines about Jesus' true nature, the other being that he pre-existed as the Word (Logos) or only-begotten Son of God and is to be identified as such from his conception; Christ's identity as the Logos (Jn 1:1), in which the Logos is further understood to be uncreated and coessentially divine with God (that is, the Father), was affirmed in 325 at the First Council of Nicaea. Bogdan G. Bucur says the document was widely accepted among "orthodox" Christians, yet was not criticized for apparently exhibiting an adoptionistic Christology. He says that the passage in question should be understood as Jesus making his dwelling within those who submit to his spirit, so that the adoption that takes place is not of Jesus, but of his followers.
Authorship and date
Textual criticism, the nature of the theology, and the author's apparent familiarity with the Book of Revelation and other Johannine texts are thought to set the date of composition in the 2nd century.
However, several ancient witnesses support an early dating and there is internal evidence for the place and date of this work in the language and theology of the work. The reference to an unknown Clement is presumed by some to be Clement of Rome; if this is that Clement, it would suggest a date c. 90 for at least the historicised setting of the first two visions. Since Paul sent greetings to a Hermas, a Christian of Rome (Romans 16:14), a minority have followed Origen of Alexandria's opinion that he was the author of this religious allegory.
Three ancient witnesses, one of whom claims to be contemporary, declare that Hermas was the brother of Pope Pius I, whose pontificate was not earlier than 140–155 AD, which corresponds to the date range offered by J. B. Lightfoot (Lightfoot 1891). These authorities may be citing the same source, perhaps Hegesippus, whose lost history of the early Church provided material for Eusebius of Caesarea. The witnesses are the Muratorian fragment, the Liberian Catalogue of Popes (a record that was later used in the writing of the Liber Pontificalis) and a poem written by "Pseudo-Tertullian" against Marcion in the 3rd or 4th century AD.
The Muratorian fragment is a list written c. 170 AD (although some scholars now question this date and prefer to assign the fragment to the 4th century) that may be the earliest known canon of New Testament writings. It identifies Hermas, the author of The Shepherd, as the brother of Pius I, bishop of Rome:
The Liberian Catalogue of Popes states in a portion under the heading of 235: "Under his [Pius'] episcopate, his brother Ermes wrote a book in which are contained the precepts which the angel delivered to him, coming to him in the guise of a Shepherd."
A poem written against Marcion from the 3rd or 4th century, by a writer adopting the name and persona of Tertullian — and sometimes therefore referred to as "Pseudo-Tertullian" — states "Then, after him, Pius, whose brother according to the flesh was Hermas, the angelic shepherd, because he spoke the words given to him." Pseudo-Tertullian quotes some details from this list which are absent from the Liberian Catalogue, which may mean that he is independent of it.
Place in Christian literature
Remarks of Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria give a sense of resistance to the Shepherd among its hearers, and of a sense of controversy about it. Tertullian implies that Pope Callixtus I had quoted it as an authority (though evidently not as one of the books of the Bible), for he replies: "I would admit your argument, if the writing of The Shepherd had deserved to be included in the Divine Instrument, and if it were not judged by every council of the Churches, even of your own Churches, among the apocryphal." And again, he says that the Epistle of Barnabas, which is Tertullian's name for the New Testament Epistle to the Hebrews, is "more received among the Churches than the apocryphal epistle of the Shepherd". Though Clement of Alexandria constantly quotes with reverence a work that seems to him to be very useful, and inspired; yet he repeatedly apologizes, when he has occasion to quote it, on the ground that "some people despise it". Origen makes this same claim in his 'First Principles', 4.2-3. Origen was a student of Clement and cites 'the Shepherd' at least three separate times in 'First Principles'.
Editions
The Greek text is edited by Gebhardt and Harnack (Leipzig, 1877), by Funk (Tübingen, 1901), and, with its English translation, by Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, edited by Harmon (London, 1893); the Codex Sinaiticus of Hermas was edited by Lake (Oxford, 1911). The English translation by William Wake (Archbishop of Canterbury 1716–1737) is given in W. Hone and J. Jones's Apocryphal New Testament (London, 1820). An English translation is also in volume ii of the American edition of Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Roberts and Donaldson (Buffalo, 1886). In general, consult:
Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity, volume ii (London, 1893).
Krüger, History of Early Christian Literature (New York, 1897).
Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur, volume i (Leipzig, 1897).
Taylor, The Shepherd of Hermas (New York, 1901).
See also
Confession in the first two centuries
Hermas of Philippopolis
Papyrus 129
Shoulder angel
References
Further reading
Carolyn Osiek, "Wealth and Poverty in the Shepherd of Hermas," Studia Patristica, Vol 17, Pt 2, 1982, 725–730.
Carolyn Osiek, "The Genre and Function of the Shepherd of Hermas," Semeia, 36, 1986, 113–121.
U. Neymeyr, Die christliche Lehrer im zweiten Jahrhundert. Ihre Lehrtätigkeit, ihr Selbsverständnis und ihre Geschichte (Leiden, 1989) (Vigiliae Christianae. Supplements, 4), 9–15.
Carolyn Osiek, "The Second Century through the Eyes of Hermas: Continuity and Change," Biblical Theology Bulletin, 20, 1990, 116–122.
D. P. O'Brien, "The Cumaean Sibyl as the Revelation-bearer in the Shepherd of Hermas," Journal of Early Christian Studies, 5, 1997, No. 4.
Carolyn Osiek, "The Shepherd of Hermas in Context," Acta Patristica et Byzantina, 8, 1997, 115–134.
Carolyn Osiek, "The Oral World of Early Christianity in Rome: The Case of Hermas.," in Karl P. Donfried and Peter Richardson (eds), Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome (Grand Rapids, 1998), 151–172.
Carolyn Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas: A Commentary (Minneapolis, 1999).
Jörg Rüpke, "Apokalyptische Salzberge: Zum sozialen Ort und zur literarischen Strategie des 'Hirten des Hermas'," Archiv für Religionsgeschichte, 1, 1999, 148–160.
Jörg Rüpke, "Der Hirte des Hermas: Plausibilisierungs- und Legitimierungs strategien im Übergang von Antike und Christentum," Zeitschrift für antikes Christentum, 7, 2003, 362–384.
Marco Frenschkowski, "Vision als Imagination. Beobachtungen zum differenzierten Wirklichkeitsanspruch fruehchristlicher Visionsliteratur," in Nicola Hoemke, Manuel Baumbach (hrsg), Fremde Wirklichkeiten: Literarische Phantastik und antike Literatur (Heidelberg, 2006) (Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Poesie, 6), 339–366.
Joseph Verheyden, "The Shepherd of Hermas," in Paul Foster (ed), Writings of the Apostolic Fathers (London, 2007) (T & T Clark Biblical Studies).
Christian Tornau - Paolo Cecconi (Eds.), The Shepherd of Hermas in Latin. Critical Edition of the Oldest Translation Vulgata, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2014.
External links
A large collection of English translations of The Shepherd of Hermas, including some in modern English.
Greek text of The Shepherd of Hermas
Archbishop Wake's English Translation of The Shepherd of Hermas
The Shepherd of Hermas (English Translation) Early Christian Writings
Shepherd of Hermas Critical Translation + Audio Dramatization Biblicalaudio
Hermas' Shepherd on earlychurch.org.uk Bibliography and links to on-line articles.
Fragments of Hermas in Amherst Papyri
2nd-century Christian texts
Apostolic Fathers
Christian anti-Gnosticism
New Testament apocrypha
Antilegomena
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anawrahta
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Anawrahta
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Anawrahta Minsaw (, ; 11 May 1014 – 11 April 1077) was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that formed the basis of modern-day Burma (Myanmar). Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession to the Pagan throne in 1044.
Anawrahta unified the entire Irrawaddy valley for the first time in history, and placed peripheral regions such as the Shan States and Arakan (Rakhine) under Pagan's suzerainty. He successfully stopped the advance of Khmer Empire into Tenasserim coastline and into Upper Menam valley, making Pagan one of two main kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia.
A strict disciplinarian, Anawrahta implemented a series of key social, religious and economic reforms that would have a lasting impact in Burmese history. His social and religious reforms later developed into the modern-day Burmese culture. By building a series of weirs, he turned parched, arid regions around Pagan into the main rice granaries of Upper Burma, giving Upper Burma an enduring economic base from which to dominate the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery in the following centuries. He bequeathed a strong administrative system that all later Pagan kings followed until the dynasty's fall in 1287. The success and longevity of Pagan's dominance over the Irrawaddy valley laid the foundation for the ascent of Burmese language and culture, the spread of Burman ethnicity in Upper Burma.
Anawrahta's legacy went far beyond the borders of modern Burma. His embrace of Theravada Buddhism and his success in stopping the advance of Khmer Empire, a Hindu state, provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. He helped restart Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon, the Buddhist school's original home. The success of Pagan dynasty made Theravada Buddhism's later growth in Lan Na (northern Thailand), Siam (central Thailand), Lan Xang (Laos), and Khmer Empire (Cambodia) in the 13th and 14th centuries possible.
Anawrahta is one of the most famous kings in Burmese history. His life stories (legends) are a staple of Burmese folklore and retold in popular literature and theater.
Early life
Anawrahta was born Min Saw (, ) to King Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu and Queen Myauk Pyinthe on 11 May 1044. The Burmese chronicles do not agree on the dates regarding his life and reign. The table below lists the dates given by the four main chronicles. Among the chronicles, scholarship usually accepts Zata's dates, which are considered to be the most accurate for the Pagan period. Scholarship's dates for Anawrahta's birth, death and reign dates are closest to Zata's dates.
In 1021, when Min Saw was about six years old, his father was deposed by his step-brothers Kyiso and Sokkate. His father had been a usurper of the Pagan throne, who overthrew King Nyaung-u Sawrahan two decades earlier. Kunhsaw then married three of Nyaung-u's chief queens, two of whom were pregnant at the time, and subsequently gave birth to Kyiso and Sokkate. Kunhsaw had raised Sokkate and Kyiso as his own sons. After the putsch, Kyiso became king and Sokkate became heir-apparent. They forced their step-father to a local monastery, where Kunhsaw would live as a monk for the remainder of his life.
Min Saw grew up in the shadow of his two step-brothers, who viewed Min Saw as their youngest brother and allowed him to retain his princely status at the court. Min Saw and his mother attended Kunhsaw, and lived nearby the monastery. In 1038, Kyiso died, and was succeeded by Sokkate. Min Saw was loyal to the new king. He took wives, and had at least two sons (Saw Lu and Kyansittha) by the early 1040s.
Accession
In 1044 however, Min Saw raised a rebellion at nearby Mount Popa, and challenged Sokkate to single combat. According to the chronicles, the reason for his uprising was that Sokkate had just raised Min Saw's mother as queen. Sokkate is said to have addressed Min Saw as brother-son, which the latter took great offense. Sokkate accepted the challenge to single combat on horseback. On 11 August 1044, Min Saw slew Sokkate at Myinkaba, near Pagan. The king and his horse both fell into the river nearby.
Min Saw first offered the throne to his father. The former king, who had long been a monk, refused. On 16 December 1044, Min Saw ascended the throne with the title of Anawrahta, a Burmanized form of Sanskrit name Aniruddha (अनिरुद्ध). His full royal style was Maha Yaza Thiri Aniruddha Dewa (; ). Burmese history now begins to be less conjectural.
Early reign: Consolidation of Central Burma
In the beginning, Anawrahta's principality was a small area—barely 200 miles north to south and about 80 miles from east to west, comprising roughly the present districts of Mandalay, Meiktila, Myingyan, Kyaukse, Yamethin, Magwe, Sagaing and Katha east of the Irrawaddy, and the riverine portions of Minbu and Pakkoku. To the north lay Nanzhao Kingdom, and to the east still largely uninhibited Shan Hills, to the south and the west the Pyus, and farther south still, the Mons.
Economic reforms
Anawrahta's first acts as king were to organize his kingdom. He graded every town and village according to the levy it could raise. He made great efforts to turn the arid parched lands of central Burma into a rice granary. He constructed the irrigation system, which is still used in Upper Burma today. He repaired the Meiktila Lake, and successfully built four weirs and canals (Kinda, Nga Laingzin, Pyaungbya, Kume) on the Panlaung river, and three weirs (Nwadet, Kunhse, Nga Pyaung) on the Zawgyi. (He also tried to control the Myitnge river but failed despite all his efforts. The work lasted three years and there were many casualties from fever.) He peopled the newly developed areas with villages, which under royal officers served the canals. The region, known as Ledwin (lit. the rice country) became the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Burma.
Military organization
Anawrahta organized Pagan's military. His key men—known as the Four Great Paladins in Burmese history—were:
Kyansittha, his son and lead general
Nyaung-U Hpi, known as the great swimmer from Nyaung-U
Nga Htwe Yu, former toddy tree climber from Myinmu (near Sagaing)
Nga Lon Letpe, former farmer from near Mount Popa
Also at his service were Byatta (), a Muslim (likely an Arab seaman) shipwrecked at Thaton, and his sons Shwe Hpyin Gyi and Shwe Hpyin Nge, (who later entered the pantheon of Burmese spirits as Shwe Hpyin Brothers ).
Founding of Pagan Empire
By the mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core, surrounded by tributary kingdoms.
Shan Hills
His first efforts were in then lightly inhabited Shan Hills in the east and the north. He acquired allegiance of Shan Hills in two waves. In the early to mid-1050s, Anawrahta first visited the nearer Shan Hills in the east, and received tribute. He founded the Bawrithat Pagoda in Nyaungshwe. The second wave came in the late 1050s and early 1060s after his march to Nanzhao Kingdom. After his return from Nanzhao expedition, Shan chiefs along the route presented Anawrahta with tributes. Still, their allegiance was nominal and he had to establish 43 forts along the eastern foothills of which the following 33 still exist as villages.
The 43 forts were established per the royal order issued 7 February 1061 (12th waxing of Tabaung 422 ME).
Lower Burma
After his first Shan campaign, Anawrahta turned to the Mon-speaking kingdoms in the south, which like Pagan were merely large city-states in reality. He first received submission of the ruler of Pegu (Bago). But the Thaton Kingdom refused to submit. Anawrahta's armies, led by the "Four Paladins", invaded the southern kingdom in early 1057. After a 3-months' siege of the city of Thaton, on 17 May 1057, (11th waxing of Nayon, 419 ME), the Pagan forces conquered the city.
According to Burmese and Mon traditions, Anawrahta's main reason for the invasion was Thaton king Manuha's refusal to give him a copy of the Theravada Buddhist Canon. (Anawrahta had been converted to Theravada Buddhism from his native Ari Buddhism by Shin Arahan, a monk originally from Thaton.) In reality, it was merely a demand for submission couched in diplomatic language, and the real aim of his conquest of Thaton was to check the Khmer Empire's conquests in the Chao Phraya basin and encroachment into the Tenasserim coast.
The conquest of Thaton is seen as the turning point in Burmese history. Still according to traditional reconstruction, Anawrahta brought back over 30,000 people, many of them artisans and craftsmen to Pagan. These captives formed a community that later helped build thousands of monuments at Pagan, the remains of which today rival the splendors of Angkor Wat.
More recent research by historian Michael Aung-Thwin has argued forcefully that Thaton's contributions to the cultural transformation of Upper Burma are a post-Pagan legend without contemporary evidence, that Lower Burma in fact lacked a substantial independent polity prior to Pagan's expansion, and that Mon influence on the interior is greatly exaggerated. Possibly in this period, the delta sedimentation—which now extends the coastline by three miles a century—remained insufficient, and the sea still reached too far inland, to support a population even as large as the modest population of the late precolonial era.
At any rate, during the 11th century, Pagan established its Lower Burma and this conquest facilitated growing cultural exchange, if not with local Mons, then with India and with Theravada stronghold Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Arakan
Anawrahta's next conquest was north Arakan (Rakhine). He marched over the pass from Ngape near Minbu to An in Kyaukphyu, and then laid siege to Pyinsa, then the capital of Arakan. He reportedly tried to bring home the giant Mahamuni Buddha but could not. He did take away the gold and silver vessels of the shrine.
There is no single unified Arakanese account to corroborate the event. Surviving Arakanese chronicles (from the 18th and 19th centuries) mention at least two separate raids from the east, as well as "visits" by Anawrahta and Kyansittha. According to the Arakanese accounts, the attacks from the east ousted kings Pe Byu and Nga Ton in succession. However, the dates are off by centuries with the ousted kings having reigned in the late 8th to early 9th centuries, 10th to 11th, or 11th to 12th centuries.
At any rate, as was the case with the Shan Hills, Anawrahta's suzerainty over north Arakan (separated by the Arakan Yoma range) was nominal. The "conquest" may have been more of a raid to prevent Arakanese raids into Burma, and some historians (Lieberman, Charney) do not believe he (or any other Pagan kings) had any "effective authority" over Arakan. If Pagan never established an administrative system to govern Arakan, it continued to foster a vassal relationship for the remainder of Pagan dynasty, occasionally placing its nominees to the Arakanese throne. Moreover, the Burmese language and script came to dominate the Arakan littoral over the next centuries. With Burmese influence came ties to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the gradual prominence of Theravada Buddhism.
Pateikkaya
Anawrahta also received tribute from the Buddhist kingdom of Pateikkaya (, ). The location of the small kingdom remains in dispute. The Burmese chronicles report the location as northwest of Arakan and its kings Indian. But British historian GE Harvey reckoned that it was more likely nearer to the eastern Chin Hills.
External relations
As his kingdom expanded, Anawrahta came into contact with the Nanzhao Kingdom (the erstwhile home of the Burmans) in the northeast, and in the southeast, the Khmer Empire, the main power of mainland Southeast Asia at the time. He assisted fellow Theravada Buddhist Ceylon in its war against Hindu Chola invaders.
Khmer Empire
Pagan's conquest of Thaton shook the Mon world. Anawrahta also demanded tribute from other neighboring Mon Kingdoms, Haripunjaya and Dvaravati (in present-day northern and central Thailand). Haripunjaya reportedly sent in tribute but Dvaravati's overlord Khmer Empire instead invaded Tenasserim. Anawrahta sent his armies, again led by the four paladins, who repulsed the invaders. The Burmese chronicles referred to the Kingdom of Cambodia as the southeastern limit of the Pagan Empire.
Nanzhao Kingdom
After the Khmer advance was checked, Anawrahta turned his attention toward Nanzhao. Anawrahta led a campaign against the kingdom in the northeast. (According to a mid-17th century source, he began the march on 16 December 1757.) He advanced to Dali, the capital of Nanzhao Kingdom, ostensibly to seek a Buddha's tooth relic. As in the case of the request for the scriptures from Thaton, it was really a demand for tribute. The ruler of Nanzhao shut the gates, and would not give up the relic. After a long pause, two kings exchanged presents and conversed amicably. The Nanzhao ruler gave Anawrahta a jade image which had come into contact with the tooth.
Ceylon
In 1069, Vijayabahu I of Ceylon asked Anawrahta for aid against the Chola invaders from Tamil country. Anawrahta sent ships of supplies in aid of Buddhist Ceylon. In 1071, Vijayabahu who had defeated the Cholas asked Anawrahta for scriptures and monks. The Chola invasions had left the original home of Theravada Buddhism with so few monks that it was hard to convene a chapter and make valid ordinations. Anawrahta sent the monks and scriptures, and a white elephant as a present for Vijayabahu. The Burmese monks ordained or re-ordained the entire clergy of the island. In return, the Ceylonese king gave a replica of the Buddha Tooth of which Ceylon was the proud possessor. The replica was then enshrined in the Lawkananda Pagoda in Pagan.
Administration
Nation-building
The greatest achievement of Anawrahta was his consolidation of various ethnic groups into a single nation. He was careful that his own people, the Burmans, not flaunt themselves before other peoples. He continued to show regard for the Pyus, who had recently fallen from greatness. He retained the name Pyu for his kingdom although it was under the leadership of the Burmans. He showed regard for the Mons, and encouraged his people to learn from the Mons.
Anawrahta replaced the kings of Lower Burma (Pegu and Thaton) with governors. At Pegu, he allowed the king of Pegu to remain as a vassal king in appreciation of the latter's help in Anawrahta's conquest of Thaton. But after the vassal king's death, he appointed a governor. Due to geographical distances, other tributary areas such as Arakan and Shan Hills were allowed to retain hereditary chieftainships.
Religious reforms
In 1056, a Mon Theravada Buddhist monk named Shin Arahan made a fateful visit to Pagan, and converted its king Anawrahta to Theravada Buddhism from his native Ari Buddhism. The king had been dissatisfied with the enormous power of Ari monks over the people, and considered the monks, who ate evening meals, drank liquor, presided over animal sacrifices, and enjoyed a form of ius primae noctis, depraved. In Theravada Buddhism he found a substitute to break the power of the clergy.
From 1056 onwards, Anawrahta implemented a series of religious reforms throughout his kingdom. His reforms gained steam after his conquest of Thaton, which brought much needed scriptures and clergy from the vanquished kingdom. He broke the power of the Ari monks first by declaring that his court would no longer heed if people ceased to yield their children to the priests. Those who were in bondage of the priests gained freedom. Some of the monks simply disrobed or followed the new way. However, the majority of the monks who had wielded power for so long would not go away easily.
Anawrahta banished them in numbers; many of them fled to Popa Hill and the Shan Hills. He used traditional nat spirits to attract people to his new religion. Asked why he allowed the nats to be placed in Buddhist temples and pagodas, Anawrahta answered "Men will not come for the sake of new faith. Let them come for their old gods, and gradually they will be won over."
Urged on by Shin Arahan, Anawrahta tried to reform the very Theravada Buddhism he received from Thaton, which by most accounts, was in a state of decay, and increasingly influenced by Hinduism. (The Mon chronicles hint that Manuha was reprehensible for making a compromise with Hinduism. Shin Arahan left Thaton because he was unhappy with the decaying of Buddhism there.) He made Pagan a center of Theravada learning by inviting scholars from the Mon lands, Ceylon as well as from India where a dying Buddhism was being given a coup de grace by Muslim conquerors. The scholarship helped revitalize a more orthodox form of Theravada Buddhism.
To be sure, his reforms could not and did not achieve everything overnight. The spread of Theravada Buddhism in Upper Burma was gradual; it took over three centuries. Its monastic system did not achieve widespread village level penetration in more remote areas until as late as the 19th century. Nor did the Aris die out. Their descendants, known as forest dwelling monks, remained a powerful force patronized by the royalty down to the Ava period in the 16th century. Likewise, the nat worship continued (down to the present day). Even the Theravada Buddhism of Anawrahta, Kyansittha and Manuha was one still strongly influenced by Hinduism when compared to later more orthodox (18th and 19th century) standards. Tantric, Saivite, and Vaishnava elements enjoyed greater elite influence than they would later do, reflecting both the relative immaturity of early Burmese literacy culture and its indiscriminate receptivity to non-Burman traditions. Indeed, even today's Burmese Buddhism contains many animist, Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu elements.
He was the first of the "Temple Builders" of Pagan. His chief monument was the Shwezigon Pagoda. The work began in 1059 but was still unfinished at his death 18 years later. He also built the Shwesandaw Pagoda south of Pagan to house the hair relics presented by Pegu. Farther afield, he built other pagodas such as Shweyinhmyaw, Shwegu and Shwezigon near Meiktila.
Invention of Burmese script
Scholarship believed until recently that Anawrahta commissioned the invention of the Burmese script based on the Mon script, c. 1058, a year after the Thaton conquest. However, recent research finds that the Burmese script had been in use at least since 1035, and if an 18th-century recast inscription is permissible as evidence, since 984 CE.
Governing style
Anawrahta was an energetic king who implemented many profound enduring political, socioeconomic and cultural changes. He was admired and feared but not loved by his subjects.
Historian Htin Aung writes:
(The queen in love with Kyansittha was Manisanda Khin U. The two young heroes executed were Shwe Hpyin Gyi and Shwe Hpyin Nge, who later entered the pantheon of Burmese nat spirits).
But people admired and feared him, and he was able to implement many of his ambitious multifaceted reforms.
Death
Anawrahta died on 11 April 1077 in the outskirts of Pagan. The chronicles hint that his enemies ambushed and killed him and then disposed of the body in such a way that it was never found. The chronicles state that a nat (spirit) appeared in the guise of wild buffalo and gored him to death, and then demons took away his body.
Legacy
Anawrahta is considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, kings of Burmese history for he founded first "charter polity" of what would later become modern Burma. Not only did he greatly expand the Pagan Kingdom but he also implemented a series of political and administrative reforms that enabled his empire to dominate the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery for another 250 years.
Anawrahta's legacy went far beyond the borders of modern Burma. The success and longevity of Pagan's dominance over the Irrawaddy valley laid the foundation for the ascent of Burmese language and culture, the spread of Burman ethnicity in Upper Burma. His embrace of Theravada Buddhism and his success in stopping the advance of Khmer Empire, a Hindu kingdom, provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South and Southeast Asia, a much-needed reprieve and a safe shelter. He helped restart Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon, the Buddhist school's original home. The success of Pagan dynasty made Theravada Buddhism's later growth in Lan Na, Siam, Lan Xang, and Cambodia, also due in a large part to Ceylon's interactions with those lands, in the 13th and 14th centuries possible.
In popular culture
Anawrahta's life stories and legends remain a popular subject of Burmese folklore. The love triangle involving Anawrahta, Kyansittha and Manisanda as well as the sad story of Saw Mon Hla, one of his queens, are a staple of Burmese theater. Due to his reputation as a stern father figure, he is not the central character in these stories where the main protagonist invariably is the romantic soldier-king Kyansittha.
Commemorations
Anawrahta Road, a main avenue in Yangon
UMS Anawrahta, Myanmar Navy Corvette
Team Anawrahta, one of the five student teams in Burmese schools
Notes
References
Bibliography
Burmese monarchs
Pagan dynasty
Burmese Buddhist monarchs
1014 births
1077 deaths
11th-century Burmese monarchs
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th%20Armoured%20Division%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
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7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)
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The 7th Armoured Division was an armoured division of the British Army that saw distinguished active service during the Second World War, where its exploits in the Western Desert Campaign gained it the Desert Rats nickname.
After the Munich Agreement, the division was formed in Egypt during 1938 as the Mobile Division (Egypt) and its first divisional commander was the tank theorist Major-General Sir Percy Hobart. In February 1940, the name of the unit was changed to the 7th Armoured Division.
The division fought in most major battles during the North African Campaign; later it would land and fight in the Italian Campaign during the early stages of the invasion of Italy before being withdrawn to the United Kingdom where it prepared to fight in North-west Europe. It began landing in Normandy during the afternoon of D-Day, 6 June 1944, and fought its way across Europe ending the war in Kiel and Hamburg, Germany.
Although the division was disbanded during the 1950s, the history, name and the "Desert Rat" flash was carried on by the 7th Armoured Brigade.
Order of battle
History
Founding
After the Munich Crisis, elements of what would become the 7th Armoured Division arrived in the Middle East in 1938 to increase British strength in Egypt and form a 'Mobile Force'. The Mobile Force – initially the "Matruh Mobile Force" – was established on the coast some west of Alexandria. It was formed from the Cairo Cavalry Brigade and comprised four armoured regiments (the 7th Queen's Own Hussars, the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars, the 11th Hussars and the 1st Royal Tank Regiment) and supported by the 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery, a company of the Royal Army Service Corps and a Field Ambulance unit.
The Force was equipped with a mixture of vehicles: the Hussar regiments had light tanks, 15-cwt Ford vehicles, and Rolls Royce armoured cars; 1st Royal Tank Regiment had light tanks and 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery had 3.7-inch Mountain guns and tracked vehicles to tow them.
It was joined by the 1st battalion of the King's Royal Rifle Corps from Burma and then its first commander, Major-General Percy Hobart. Hobart was an armoured warfare expert and saw that his troops were properly prepared to fight in the desert despite their poor equipment. Stewart Henry Perowne, the Public Relations Attaché at the British Embassy in Baghdad, perhaps uncharitably referred to the unit as the "Mobile Farce" because it included some obsolete tanks like the Vickers Medium Mark II.
By September 1939 the artillery was equipped with 25-pounder gun-howitzers and 37 mm anti-tank guns and, in December 1939, Major-General Michael O'Moore Creagh took command.
North Africa
The division was meant to be equipped with 220 tanks. However, at the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, the 'Mobile Force' only had 65. Most of the unit's troops had already been deployed for two years by 1940 and it took as long as three months for mail to arrive. On 16 February 1940, the Mobile Division, which had changed names during the middle of 1939 to be called the Armoured Division, became the 7th Armoured Division.
After the Italian declaration of war, the Western Desert Force, under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor, was massively outnumbered. However, the Italian Army consisted largely of leg infantry; its artillery dated back to the First World War, it had no armoured cars and a few antitank weapons, which were effective only against light and cruiser tanks. As such, it proved to be no match for the British. The Western Desert Force captured 130,000 Italians as prisoners of war (POWs) between December 1940 and February 1941 in piecemeal battles.
During the Italian retreat in January 1941, Major-General O'Connor ordered the Desert Rats to travel south of the Jebel Akhdar and cut off the Italian forces at Beda Fomm, while Australian forces pushed the Italians west. On 7 February, as the tanks were unable to travel fast enough, the manoeuvre was led by an ad hoc brigade of armoured cars, towed artillery and infantry, which completed the trip in 30 hours, that cut off the Italian retreat and destroyed the Italian Tenth Army. Lieutenant Colonel John Combe led this ad hoc group, which was known as "Combe Force" after him. After this, the tanks of the 7th Armoured Division, after eight months of fighting, needed a complete overhaul and the division was withdrawn to Cairo and temporarily ceased to be available as a fighting formation being replaced in the line by the 2nd Armoured Division.
The Italians had proven so weak that Hitler was forced to send the Afrika Korps, under Erwin Rommel, as reinforcements. In April 1941, the Allied troops in Tobruk were cut off by the Germans and Italians.
On 7 June, the division was again prepared for battle as part of Operation Battleaxe, having received new tanks and additional personnel. In the attack plan for Operation Battleaxe, the 7th force was divided between the Coast Force and Escarpment Force. However, this Allied push failed, and the 7th Armoured Division was forced to withdraw on the third day of fighting. On 18 November, as part of Operation Crusader the whole of the 7th Armoured Division was concentrated on breaking through. They faced only the weakened 21st Panzer Division. However, the XXX Corps commander, Lieutenant-General Willoughby Norrie, aware that the 7th Armoured Division was down to 200 tanks, decided on caution. During the wait, in the early afternoon of 22 November, Rommel attacked Sidi Rezegh with the 21st Panzer and captured the airfield. Fighting was desperate and gallant: for his actions during these two days of fighting, Brigadier Jock Campbell, commanding the 7th Support Group, was awarded the Victoria Cross. However, the 21st Panzer, despite being considerably weaker in armour, proved superior in its combined arms tactics, pushing the 7th Armoured back with a further 50 tanks lost (mainly from the 22nd Armoured Brigade).
On 27 June 1942, elements of the 7th Armoured Division, along with units of the 3rd The King's Own Hussars, suffered one of the worst friendly fire incidents when they were attacked by a group of Royal Air Force (RAF) Vickers Wellington bombers during a two-hour raid near Mersa Matruh, Egypt. Over 359 troops were killed and 560 others were wounded.
The Western Desert Force later became HQ XIII Corps, one of the major parts of the British Eighth Army which, from August 1942 was commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The 7th Armoured Division took part in most of the major battles of the North African Campaign, including both battles of El Alamein (the First Battle of El Alamein in July 1942, which stopped the Axis advance, and the Second Battle of El Alamein in October/November 1942, which turned the tide of the war in North Africa).
The 7th Armoured Division, now consisting of the 22nd Armoured and 131st Infantry Brigades and commanded by Major General John Harding, fought in many major battles of the Tunisian Campaign, taking part in the Battle of El Agheila in December. By January 1943 the Eighth Army had reached Tripoli where a victory parade was held, with the 7th Armoured Division taking part. Among the witnesses was Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, and General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS).
The division, now commanded by Major General George Erskine after Harding was severely injured in January, next took part in the Battle of Medenine, followed by the Battle of the Mareth Line in March. In late April, towards the end of the campaign, the 7th Armoured Division was transferred to IX Corps of the British First Army for the assault on Medjez El Bab. The attack was successful, with the 7th Armoured Division competing with the 6th Armoured Division of the First Army in a race to the city of Tunis, with 'B' Squadron of the 11th Hussars being first into the city on the afternoon of 7 May, followed closely by the 22nd Armoured Brigade and the 131st Brigade. The fighting in North Africa came to an end just days later, with almost 250,000 Axis soldiers surrendering to the Allies and becoming POWs.
Italy
The division was not an assault force in the invasion of Sicily, instead remaining in Homs, Syria for training in amphibious warfare, but did participate in the early stages of the Italian Campaign.
The 7th Armoured Division came ashore at Salerno, on 15 September 1943, to help repel heavy German counterattacks during the Battle for the Salerno beachhead (Operation Avalanche). Shortly after landing on the 18th the 131st (Queen's) Infantry Brigade (which consisted of the 1/5th, 1/6th and 1/7th Territorial battalions of the Queen's Royal Regiment) relieved its 'sister' duplicate, the 169th (Queen's) Infantry Brigade, (consisting of 2/5th, 2/6th and 2/7th Queen's, all formed in 1939), which was part of the 56th (London) Infantry Division, and had been in continuous combat since 9 September. The assembly of six battalions of a single regiment has since been considered a unique moment in the regiment's history. The 169th Brigade was commanded at the time by Brigadier Lewis Lyne, who would later command the 7th Armoured Division from November 1944 onwards.
Then, as part of Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark's U.S. Fifth Army's British X Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery, and supported by the British 46th Infantry Division, it drove on and took Naples. The Desert Rats, used to fighting in the desert, had to adjust to the confined Italian roads. The division crossed the river Volturno in southern Italy, constructing a pontoon bridge.
On the wishes of the British Eighth Army commander, General Sir Bernard Montgomery, the 7th Armoured Division was recalled to the United Kingdom, along with the 4th and 8th Armoured Brigades, and the 50th (Northumbrian) and 51st (Highland) Infantry Divisions, all of which had seen extensive service alongside the 7th Armoured Division in the Mediterranean and Middle East, to participate in the invasion of North Western Europe with the British Second Army. The 7th Armoured, handing over its battered vehicles and equipment to the recently arrived 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division, left Italy in late December 1943, arriving in Glasgow, Scotland in early January 1944.
North West Europe
In November 1943, the division left Italy for the United Kingdom; with the last units arriving on 7 January 1944. The division was re-equipped with the new Cromwell cruiser tanks and in April and May received 36 Sherman Vc Fireflies; enough to organise each troop so that they had a complement of three 75 mm gun Cromwell tanks and a 17-pounder gun Firefly. The Desert Rats were the only British armoured division to use the Cromwell as their main battle tank.
The 7th Armoured Division was one of the three British follow-up divisions of the two British assault corps earmarked for the Normandy landings. The 22nd Armoured Brigade embarked on 4 June and most of the division landed on Gold Beach by the end of 7 June, a day after the initial landings. The division, part of Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall's XXX Corps, initially took part in Operation Perch and Operation Goodwood, two operations that formed part of the Battle for Caen, itself part of Operation Overlord, codename for the Allied invasion of Normandy. During Perch, the division was to spearhead one arm of a pincer attack to capture the city. Due to a change in plan, elements of the division engaged tanks of the Panzer-Lehr-Division and the Heavy SS-Panzer Battalion 101 in the Battle of Villers-Bocage. Following the capture of Caen, the division took part in Operation Spring, which was intended to keep the German forces pinned to the British front away from the Americans who were launching Operation Cobra and then Operation Bluecoat, an attack to support the American break-out and intercept German reinforcements moving to stop it. After the Battle of the Falaise Gap, which saw most of the German Army in Normandy destroyed, the 7th Armoured Division then took part in the Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine.
The division's performance in Normandy and the rest of France has been called into question and it has been claimed they did not match those of its earlier campaigns. In early August 1944, Major General George Erskine, the division's GOC, who had been in command of the division since January 1943, Brigadier William Hinde, commanding the 22nd Armoured Brigade, and up to 100 other officers of the division were removed from their positions and reassigned. Erskine was replaced by Major General Gerald Lloyd-Verney. Historians largely agree that this was a consequence of the "failure" at Villers-Bocage and had been planned since that battle. Historian Daniel Taylor is of the opinion that the battle's result provided an excuse and that the sackings took place to "demonstrate that the army command was doing something to counteract the poor public opinion of the conduct of the campaign". Historian and former British Army officer Mungo Melvin has commented approvingly of the 7th Armoured Division's institution of a flexible combined arms structure, which other British armoured divisions did not adopt until after Operation Goodwood.
The replacement of the division's GOC, following Normandy, did not change the performance of the division and in November 1944, Erskine's replacement, Major General Lloyd-Verney, was relieved, by Major General Lyne, after he "was unable to cure the division's bad habits well enough to satisfy Montgomery and Dempsey." There is almost no doubt that the division was suffering from collective and cumulative battle fatigue. As Lloyd-Verney put it, with some prescience: "There is no doubt that familiarity with war does not make one more courageous. One becomes cunning and from cunning to cowardice is but a short step." This was not an isolated incident; the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division and several of the other veteran formations Montgomery had brought back from the Mediterranean for Operation Overlord experienced similar difficulties, although, curiously, not with the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, which performed well throughout the Normandy Campaign.
Following the advance across France, the division took part in the Allied advance through Belgium and the Netherlands; liberating Ghent on 6 September. The division then took part in the advance to and securing of the River Maas, where the division, now commanded by Major General Lewis Lyne, a highly experienced commander, was slightly reorganized, with many experienced men who had been overseas with the division for five years returning home. In January 1945 the division, with the 8th Armoured and 155th Infantry Brigades (from the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division) under command, took part in Operation Blackcock to clear the Roer Triangle. The division had a short rest for training in late February. This was followed by Operation Plunder; the 7th Armoured Division crossed the River Rhine near Xanten and Wesel and advanced on the German city of Hamburg as its destination, as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany, where the division ended the war. On 16 April 1945, the 7th Armoured Division liberated Stalag 11B in Fallingbostel, which was the first prisoner-of-war camp to be liberated. The 7th Armoured Division's final battle of the war was the Battle of Hamburg.
In July 1945 the 7th Armoured Division moved to Berlin where it took part in the Berlin Victory Parade of 1945, alongside American, French and Russian troops. Among the many witnesses in the parade were Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, who was particularly fond of the division, Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) and Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, the 21st Army Group commander.
Post war
The division remained in Germany as part of the occupation forces and then into the 1950s as part of the British Army of the Rhine standing watch against the Warsaw Pact. As the British Army became smaller, its higher numbered divisions were removed from the order of battle. The division's long and illustrious career finally came to an end in this fashion, in April 1958, when it was converted into 5th Division. However, the traditions and iconic nickname ("Desert Rats") of the division are maintained by 7th Armoured Brigade, which forms part of 1st Armoured Division.
Nickname
The first divisional commander, Major-General Percy Hobart, found inspiration in the pet jerboa, or "desert rat" of Rea Leakey, then GSO 3 Intelligence. Hobart took to the animal and decided to adopt "The Desert Rats" as a nickname for the division. The shoulder flash was designed by the wife of his successor, Major-General Michael O'Moore Creagh, using a jerboa from Cairo Zoo as a model. The resulting shoulder patches were made of scarlet thread. These were unofficial; the War Office did not adopt the flashes until the summer of 1943 and then redesigned them to look, in the opinion of Leakey, more like a kangaroo than a jerboa. The colour was also changed to black.
General Officer Commanding
Commanders included:
Notable soldiers of the 7th Armoured Division
Field Marshal Michael Carver, Baron Carver – GS01
Major-General John Combe- initially 11th Hussars, later staff officer
Second Lieutenant Dan Ranfurly – chronicled by his wife Hermione Ranfurly's book To War With Whitaker: The Wartime Diaries of the Countess of Ranfurly, 1939–1945
Monument
There is a monument to the 7th Armoured at Brandon in Thetford Forest where the 7th trained prior to D-day.
See also
List of British divisions in World War II
British Armoured formations of World War II
British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Gootzen, Har. Connor, Kevin. "Battle for the Roer Triangle", Creative, 2006.
Delaforce, Patrick. Churchill's Desert Rats: From Normandy to Berlin with the 7th Armoured Division, Sutton Publishing, 2003
Forty, George. Battle Zone Normandy: Villers Bocage. Sutton Publishing, London, 2004.
Fortin, Ludovic. British Tanks in Normandy, Histoire & Collections (30 November 2004).
Foster, R.C.G. History of The Queens Royal Regiment: Volume VIII 1924–1948, Gale and Polden, 1953
Graham, Andrew Sharpshooters at War, The Sharpshooters Regimental Association, 1964
Joly, Cyril, Take These Men – The campaign of the Desert Rats from 1940 to 1943. Penguin Books, 1956.
Kelly, Saul. The Lost Oasis: The Desert War and the Hunt for Zerzura. Westview Press, 2002. (HC)
Lindsay, Martin and Johnston, M.E. History of the 7th Armoured Division June 1943 – July 1945 first published by BAOR in 1945, reprinted in 2001 by DP & G for the Tank Museum
Mollo, Boris. The Sharpshooters 1900–2000, Kent and Sharpshooters Yeomanry Trust, 2000
Neillands, Robin. The Desert Rats : 7th Armoured Division, 1940–45, Aurum Press Ltd (29 August 2005),
Verney, G.L. The Desert Rats: the History of the 7th Armoured Division 1938 to 1945, Hutchinson, 1954, Reprinted 2002 by Greenhill Books
External links
Battle of the Roer Triangle January 1945
British Unit Histories
"The Sharpshooters", the County of London Yeomanry Association website
The History of the British 7th Armoured Division, plus the 4th and 7th Armoured Brigades
Journeyman Autobiography of former Desert Rat Ted Rogers
7th Armoured Division Desert War.net
Armoured divisions of the British Army in World War II
British armoured divisions
Military units and formations established in 1938
Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II
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204277
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal%20number
|
Normal number
|
In mathematics, a real number is said to be simply normal in an integer base b if its infinite sequence of digits is distributed uniformly in the sense that each of the b digit values has the same natural density 1/b. A number is said to be normal in base b if, for every positive integer n, all possible strings n digits long have density b−n.
Intuitively, a number being simply normal means that no digit occurs more frequently than any other. If a number is normal, no finite combination of digits of a given length occurs more frequently than any other combination of the same length. A normal number can be thought of as an infinite sequence of coin flips (binary) or rolls of a die (base 6). Even though there will be sequences such as 10, 100, or more consecutive tails (binary) or fives (base 6) or even 10, 100, or more repetitions of a sequence such as tail-head (two consecutive coin flips) or 6-1 (two consecutive rolls of a die), there will also be equally many of any other sequence of equal length. No digit or sequence is "favored".
A number is said to be absolutely normal if it is normal in all integer bases greater than or equal to 2.
While a general proof can be given that almost all real numbers are normal (meaning that the set of non-normal numbers has Lebesgue measure zero), this proof is not constructive, and only a few specific numbers have been shown to be normal. For example, Chaitin's constant is normal (and uncomputable). It is widely believed that the (computable) numbers , , and e are normal, but a proof remains elusive.
Definitions
Let Σ be a finite alphabet of b-digits, and Σ∞ the set of all sequences that may be drawn from that alphabet. Let S ∈ Σ∞ be such a sequence. For each a in Σ let NS(a, n) denote the number of times the digit a appears in the first n digits of the sequence S. We say that S is simply normal if the limit
for each a. Now let w be any finite string in Σ∗ and let NS(w, n) be the number of times the string w appears as a substring in the first n digits of the sequence S. (For instance, if S = 01010101..., then NS(010, 8) = 3.) S is normal if, for all finite strings w ∈ Σ∗,
where | w | denotes the length of the string w.
In other words, S is normal if all strings of equal length occur with equal asymptotic frequency. For example, in a normal binary sequence (a sequence over the alphabet {0,1}), 0 and 1 each occur with frequency 1⁄2; 00, 01, 10, and 11 each occur with frequency 1⁄4; 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111 each occur with frequency 1⁄8, etc. Roughly speaking, the probability of finding the string w in any given position in S is precisely that expected if the sequence had been produced at random.
Suppose now that b is an integer greater than 1 and x is a real number. Consider the infinite digit sequence expansion Sx, b of x in the base b positional number system (we ignore the decimal point). We say that x is simply normal in base b if the sequence Sx, b is simply normal and that x is normal in base b if the sequence Sx, b is normal. The number x is called a normal number (or sometimes an absolutely normal number) if it is normal in base b for every integer b greater than 1.
A given infinite sequence is either normal or not normal, whereas a real number, having a different base-b expansion for each integer b ≥ 2, may be normal in one base but not in another (in which case it is not a normal number). For bases r and s with log r / log s rational (so that r = bm and s = bn) every number normal in base r is normal in base s. For bases r and s with log r / log s irrational, there are uncountably many numbers normal in each base but not the other.
A disjunctive sequence is a sequence in which every finite string appears. A normal sequence is disjunctive, but a disjunctive sequence need not be normal. A rich number in base b is one whose expansion in base b is disjunctive: one that is disjunctive to every base is called absolutely disjunctive or is said to be a lexicon. A number normal in base b is rich in base b, but not necessarily conversely. The real number x is rich in base b if and only if the set {xbn mod 1 : n ∈ N} is dense in the unit interval.
We defined a number to be simply normal in base b if each individual digit appears with frequency 1/b. For a given base b, a number can be simply normal (but not normal or b-dense), b-dense (but not simply normal or normal), normal (and thus simply normal and b-dense), or none of these. A number is absolutely non-normal or absolutely abnormal if it is not simply normal in any base.
Properties and examples
The concept of a normal number was introduced by . Using the Borel–Cantelli lemma, he proved that almost all real numbers are normal, establishing the existence of normal numbers. showed that it is possible to specify a particular such number. proved that there is a computable absolutely normal number.
Although this construction does not directly give the digits of the numbers constructed, it shows that it is possible in principle to enumerate all the digits of a particular normal number.
The set of non-normal numbers, despite being "large" in the sense of being uncountable, is also a null set (as its Lebesgue measure as a subset of the real numbers is zero, so it essentially takes up no space within the real numbers). Also, the non-normal numbers (as well as the normal numbers) are dense in the reals: the set of non-normal numbers between two distinct real numbers is non-empty since it contains every rational number (in fact, it is uncountably infinite and even comeagre). For instance, there are uncountably many numbers whose decimal expansions (in base 3 or higher) do not contain the digit 1, and none of these numbers is normal.
Champernowne's constant
0.1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829...,
obtained by concatenating the decimal representations of the natural numbers in order, is normal in base 10. Likewise, the different variants of Champernowne's constant (done by performing the same concatenation in other bases) are normal in their respective bases (for example, the base-2 Champernowne constant is normal in base 2), but they have not been proven to be normal in other bases.
The Copeland–Erdős constant
0.23571113171923293137414347535961677173798389...,
obtained by concatenating the prime numbers in base 10, is normal in base 10, as proved by . More generally, the latter authors proved that the real number represented in base b by the concatenation
0.f(1)f(2)f(3)...,
where f(n) is the nth prime expressed in base b, is normal in base b. proved that the number represented by the same expression, with f(n) = n2,
0.149162536496481100121144...,
obtained by concatenating the square numbers in base 10, is normal in base 10. proved that the number represented by the same expression, with f being any non-constant polynomial whose values on the positive integers are positive integers, expressed in base 10, is normal in base 10.
proved that if f(x) is any non-constant polynomial with real coefficients such that f(x) > 0 for all x > 0, then the real number represented by the concatenation
0.[f(1)][f(2)][f(3)]...,
where [f(n)] is the integer part of f(n) expressed in base b, is normal in base b. (This result includes as special cases all of the above-mentioned results of Champernowne, Besicovitch, and Davenport & Erdős.) The authors also show that the same result holds even more generally when f is any function of the form
f(x) = α·xβ + α1·xβ1 + ... + αd·xβd,
where the αs and βs are real numbers with β > β1 > β2 > ... > βd ≥ 0, and f(x) > 0 for all x > 0.
show an explicit uncountably infinite class of b-normal numbers by perturbing Stoneham numbers.
It has been an elusive goal to prove the normality of numbers that are not artificially constructed. While , π, ln(2), and e are strongly conjectured to be normal, it is still not known whether they are normal or not. It has not even been proven that all digits actually occur infinitely many times in the decimal expansions of those constants (for example, in the case of π, the popular claim "every string of numbers eventually occurs in π" is not known to be true). It has also been conjectured that every irrational algebraic number is absolutely normal (which would imply that is normal), and no counterexamples are known in any base. However, no irrational algebraic number has been proven to be normal in any base.
Non-normal numbers
No rational number is normal in any base, since the digit sequences of rational numbers are eventually periodic. However, a rational number can be simply normal in a particular base. For example, is simply normal in base 10.
gives an example of an irrational number that is absolutely abnormal. Let
Then α is a Liouville number and is absolutely abnormal.
Properties
Additional properties of normal numbers include:
Every non-zero real number is the product of two normal numbers. This follows from the general fact that every number is the product of two numbers from a set if the complement of X has measure 0.
If x is normal in base b and a ≠ 0 is a rational number, then is also normal in base b.
If is dense (for every and for all sufficiently large n, ) and are the base-b expansions of the elements of A, then the number , formed by concatenating the elements of A, is normal in base b (Copeland and Erdős 1946). From this it follows that Champernowne's number is normal in base 10 (since the set of all positive integers is obviously dense) and that the Copeland–Erdős constant is normal in base 10 (since the prime number theorem implies that the set of primes is dense).
A sequence is normal if and only if every block of equal length appears with equal frequency. (A block of length k is a substring of length k appearing at a position in the sequence that is a multiple of k: e.g. the first length-k block in S is S[1..k], the second length-k block is S[k+1..2k], etc.) This was implicit in the work of and made explicit in the work of .
A number is normal in base b if and only if it is simply normal in base bk for all . This follows from the previous block characterization of normality: Since the nth block of length k in its base b expansion corresponds to the nth digit in its base bk expansion, a number is simply normal in base bk if and only if blocks of length k appear in its base b expansion with equal frequency.
A number is normal if and only if it is simply normal in every base. This follows from the previous characterization of base b normality.
A number is b-normal if and only if there exists a set of positive integers where the number is simply normal in bases bm for all No finite set suffices to show that the number is b-normal.
All normal sequences are closed under finite variations: adding, removing, or changing a finite number of digits in any normal sequence leaves it normal. Similarly, if a finite number of digits are added to, removed from, or changed in any simply normal sequence, the new sequence is still simply normal.
Connection to finite-state machines
Agafonov showed an early connection between finite-state machines and normal sequences: every infinite subsequence selected from a normal sequence by a regular language is also normal. In other words, if one runs a finite-state machine on a normal sequence, where each of the finite-state machine's states are labeled either "output" or "no output", and the machine outputs the digit it reads next after entering an "output" state, but does not output the next digit after entering a "no output state", then the sequence it outputs will be normal.
A deeper connection exists with finite-state gamblers (FSGs) and information lossless finite-state compressors (ILFSCs).
A finite-state gambler (a.k.a. finite-state martingale) is a finite-state machine over a finite alphabet , each of whose states is labelled with percentages of money to bet on each digit in . For instance, for an FSG over the binary alphabet , the current state q bets some percentage of the gambler's money on the bit 0, and the remaining fraction of the gambler's money on the bit 1. The money bet on the digit that comes next in the input (total money times percent bet) is multiplied by , and the rest of the money is lost. After the bit is read, the FSG transitions to the next state according to the input it received. A FSG d succeeds on an infinite sequence S if, starting from $1, it makes unbounded money betting on the sequence; i.e., if
where is the amount of money the gambler d has after reading the first n digits of S (see limit superior).
A finite-state compressor is a finite-state machine with output strings labelling its state transitions, including possibly the empty string. (Since one digit is read from the input sequence for each state transition, it is necessary to be able to output the empty string in order to achieve any compression at all). An information lossless finite-state compressor is a finite-state compressor whose input can be uniquely recovered from its output and final state. In other words, for a finite-state compressor C with state set Q, C is information lossless if the function , mapping the input string of C to the output string and final state of C, is 1–1. Compression techniques such as Huffman coding or Shannon–Fano coding can be implemented with ILFSCs. An ILFSC C compresses an infinite sequence S if
where is the number of digits output by C after reading the first n digits of S. The compression ratio (the limit inferior above) can always be made to equal 1 by the 1-state ILFSC that simply copies its input to the output.
Schnorr and Stimm showed that no FSG can succeed on any normal sequence, and Bourke, Hitchcock and Vinodchandran showed the converse. Therefore:
A sequence is normal if and only if there is no finite-state gambler that succeeds on it.
Ziv and Lempel showed:
A sequence is normal if and only if it is incompressible by any information lossless finite-state compressor
(they actually showed that the sequence's optimal compression ratio over all ILFSCs is exactly its entropy rate, a quantitative measure of its deviation from normality, which is 1 exactly when the sequence is normal). Since the LZ compression algorithm compresses asymptotically as well as any ILFSC, this means that the LZ compression algorithm can compress any non-normal sequence.
These characterizations of normal sequences can be interpreted to mean that "normal" = "finite-state random"; i.e., the normal sequences are precisely those that appear random to any finite-state machine. Compare this with the algorithmically random sequences, which are those infinite sequences that appear random to any algorithm (and in fact have similar gambling and compression characterizations with Turing machines replacing finite-state machines).
Connection to equidistributed sequences
A number x is normal in base b if and only if the sequence is equidistributed modulo 1, or equivalently, using Weyl's criterion, if and only if
This connection leads to the terminology that x is normal in base β for any real number β if and only if the sequence is equidistributed modulo 1.
Notes
See also
Champernowne constant
De Bruijn sequence
Infinite monkey theorem
The Library of Babel
References
Further reading
External links
We are in Digits of Pi and Live Forever by Clifford A. Pickover
Number theory
Sets of real numbers
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204278
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apologia%20Pro%20Vita%20Sua
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Apologia Pro Vita Sua
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Apologia Pro Vita Sua (Latin: A defence of one's own life) is John Henry Newman's defence of his religious opinions, published in 1864 in response to Charles Kingsley of the Church of England after Newman quit his position as the Anglican vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford.
Description
Friction during the years from 1833 to 1841 had led Newman and his allies in the Oxford Movement to publish a statement, the Tracts for the Times, to which Newman was a contributor. The tensions culminated in Newman's 1845 resignation as Anglican vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford and his departure from the Anglican church and conversion to Roman Catholicism.[1]
Newman's essay was written in response to attacks from Charles Kingsley of the broad church party, and Newman's rival in the controversy surrounding the Tractarian movement, who responded to Newman's conversion with attacks impeaching his truthfulness and honour. Apologia Pro Vita Sua was a spiritual autobiographical defence to Kingsley's attacks.
The book became a bestseller, and remains in print today. A revised version of the Apologia Pro Vita Sua with many passages rewritten and some parts omitted, was published in 1865.
References
Further reading
Colby, Robert A. (1953). "The Poetical Structure of Newman's 'Apologia Pro Vita Sua'," The Journal of Religion, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 47–57.
Deen, Leonard W. (1962). "The Rhetoric of Newman's Apologia," ELH, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 224–238.
Peterson, Linda H. (1985). "Newman's Apologia Pro Vita Sua and the Traditions of the English Spiritual Autobiography," PMLA, Vol. 100, No. 3, pp. 300–314.
Ward, Wilfrid (1913). Introduction to Apologia Pro Vita Sua. London: Oxford University Press, pp. v–xxx.
External links
Apologia Pro Vita Sua, at Internet Archive
Literary Encyclopedia article
Full text at Newman Reader site
1864 non-fiction books
Books about Christianity
Christian apologetics
Works by John Henry Newman
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%2C%20King%20of%20Naples
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Robert, King of Naples
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Robert of Anjou (), known as Robert the Wise (; 1276 – 20 January 1343), was King of Naples, titular King of Jerusalem and Count of Provence and Forcalquier from 1309 to 1343, the central figure of Italian politics of his time. He was the third son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, and during his father's lifetime he was styled Duke of Calabria (1296–1309).
Biography
Robert was born around 1276, the third son of the future Charles II of Naples (then heir apparent) and his wife Mary of Hungary. His father was the son of the incumbent King of Naples, Charles of Anjou, who had established an Italian realm a decade earlier in 1266. During the Sicilian Vespers directed against his grandfather Charles, Robert was the hostage of Peter III of Aragon, his grandfather's enemy. In 1285, Robert’s grandfather died at Foggia in Italy, leading to his father (then a hostage) becoming King of Naples as Charles II, with Robert's elder brother, Charles Martel of Anjou as heir apparent.
After the death of his elder brother, Charles Martel of Anjou in 1295, Robert, became heir to the crown of Naples, passing over his child-nephew Charles; to obtain the crown of neighbouring Sicily, he married King James of Sicily's sister Yolanda, in exchange for James's renunciation of Sicily. However, the Sicilian barons refused him and elected James' brother, Frederick II. The war continued, and with the Peace of Caltabellotta (1302) Robert and the Angevin dynasty lost Sicily forever, their rule limited to the south of peninsular Italy.
Robert inherited the position of papal champion in Italy; his reign being blessed from the papal enclave within Robert's Provence, by the French Pope Clement V, who made him papal vicar in Romagna and Tuscany, where Robert intervened in the war of factions in Florence, accepted the offered signiory of that city, but had to abandon it due to Clement's opposition.
The leader of the Guelph party in Italy, Robert opposed the sojourn of Emperor Henry VII in Italy (1311–13) and his occupation of Rome in 1312. After Henry's death, the Guelph reaction against the Ghibelline leaders in northern Italy, Matteo Visconti and Cangrande della Scala, made it seem for a time that Robert would become the arbiter of Italy. Already ruler of wide possessions in Piedmont, Robert's prestige increased further when in 1313 the pope named him Senator of Rome, and when he became Lord of Genoa (1318–34) and Brescia (1319) and from 1314 onwards held the resounding papal title of imperial vicar of all Italy, during the absence in Italy of the Holy Roman Emperor, vacante imperio.
In 1328 he fought another emperor who had ventured into Italy, Louis IV of Bavaria, and in 1330 forced John of Bohemia to quit northern Italy. Robert's hegemony in Italy was diminished only by the constant menace of Aragonese Sicily.
When the succession to the margraviate of Saluzzo was disputed between Manfred V and his nephew Thomas II in 1336, Robert intervened on behalf of Manfred, for Thomas had married into the Ghibelline Visconti family. Robert advanced on Saluzzo and besieged it. He succeeded in taking it and sacking it, setting the city on fire and imprisoning Thomas, who had to pay a ransom. The whole dramatic incident is recorded by Silvio Pellico. However, when his viceroy Reforza d'Angoult was defeated in the Battle of Gamenario (22 April 1345), Angevin power in Piedmont began to crumble. With his second wife Sancha of Majorca, Robert established the kingdom of Naples as a center of early Renaissance culture and of religious dissent, supporting the Joachimite prophesies of the Spiritual Franciscans.
At Robert's death in 1343, he was succeeded by his 16-year-old granddaughter, Joanna I of Naples, his son Charles having predeceased him in 1328. Joanna was already betrothed to her cousin, the 15-year-old Andrew of Hungary, son of the Angevin king of Hungary, Charles Robert. In his last will and testament Robert explicitly excluded the claims of Andrew of Hungary, clearly mandated that he become prince of Salerno and specified that Joanna alone assume the crown in her own right, to be succeeded by her legitimate offspring. If she were to die without heir, her younger sister Maria, newly named the duchess of Calabria, and her legitimate offspring would inherit the throne. There is no mention in the will that Andrew be crowned king; and this historiographical tradition is largely the result of later historians' accepting without examination the assertions of Hungarian royal propaganda following Andrew's murder at Aversa in 1345. This propaganda, the Hungarian assault on Joanna following the murder of Andrew, and the invasion of the Regno by Louis I of Hungary eventually led to the end of Angevin rule in Naples.
Legacy
King Robert was nicknamed "the peace-maker of Italy" due to the years of significant changes he made to Naples. The city and nation's economy lay in the hands of Tuscan merchants, who erected superb buildings, monuments and statues that drastically changed King Robert's capital from a dirty seaport to a city of elegance and medieval splendor. Robert commissioned Tino di Camaino to produce a tomb for his son, who should have been his heir, and Giotto painted several works for him. The University of Naples flourished under the patronage of the king dismissed by Dante as a re di sermone, "king of words", attracting students from all parts of Italy. There was virtually no middle class in the South to balance the local interests and centripetal power of the entrenched aristocracy, who retained the feudal independence that had been their bargain with the Angevins' Norman predecessors.
He was remembered by Petrarch and Boccaccio as a cultured man and a generous patron of the arts, "unique among the kings of our day," Boccaccio claimed after Robert's death, "a friend of knowledge and virtue." Petrarch asked to be examined by Robert before being crowned as poet in the Campidoglio in Rome (1341); his Latin epic Africa is dedicated to Robert, though it was not made available to readers until 1397, long after both Petrarch and Robert were dead.
Family
By his first wife, Yolanda, daughter of King Peter III of Aragon, Robert had two sons:
Charles (1298–1328), Duke of Calabria (1309), Viceroy of Naples (1318), who was the father of Queen Joanna I
Louis (1301–10)
Robert's second marriage, to Sancia, daughter of King James II of Majorca, was childless. He had the following extramarital children:
Charles d'Artois, member of the regency council and grand chamberlain for Queen Joanna I, executed for murder of King Andrew
Maria d'Aquino (Boccaccio's Fiammetta)
Hélène, Countess of Matia, who fell in love with and married Andrea I Thopia, Count of Matia, without her father's consent. Hélène was possibly due to marry Philip, son of Baldwin II, when this happened. Thopia's emblem contains three lilies separated by a dotted line, indicating an illegitimate child. Andrea and Hélène had Charles (named after his famous grand grandparent), Georges and Helena together. The marriage was not accepted by Robert, therefore he invited the couple to Naples with the pretext of reconciliation where he had them secretly executed at night.
King Robert's last descendant through a legitimate line was Queen Joanna II of Naples.
Ancestry
Other sources
Coat of arms of the House of Anjou-Sicily
References
Sources
1276 births
1343 deaths
14th-century monarchs of Naples
Capetian House of Anjou
Monarchs of Naples
Claimant Kings of Jerusalem
Princes of Salerno
Counts of Provence
Sons of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhas%20Chandra%20Bose
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Subhas Chandra Bose
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Subhas Chandra Bose ( ; 23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945) was an Indian nationalist whose defiance of British authority in India made him a hero among Indians, but his wartime alliances with Nazi Germany and Fascist Japan left a legacy vexed by authoritarianism, anti-Semitism, and military failure. The honorific Netaji (Hindustani: "Respected Leader") was first applied to Bose in Germany in early 1942—by the Indian soldiers of the Indische Legion and by the German and Indian officials in the Special Bureau for India in Berlin. It is now used throughout India.
Subhas Bose was born into wealth and privilege in a large Bengali family in Orissa during the British Raj. The early recipient of an Anglocentric education, he was sent after college to England to take the Indian Civil Service examination. He succeeded with distinction in the vital first exam but demurred at taking the routine final exam, citing nationalism to be a higher calling. Returning to India in 1921 to join the nationalist movement led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, Bose followed Jawaharlal Nehru to leadership in a group within the Congress which was less keen on constitutional reform and more open to socialism. He became Congress president in 1938. After reelection in 1939, differences arose between him and the Congress leaders, including Gandhi, over the future federation of British India and princely states, but also because discomfort had grown among the Congress leadership over Bose's negotiable attitude to non-violence, and his plans for greater powers for himself. After a large majority of the Congress Working Committee members resigned in protest, Bose resigned as president and was eventually ousted from the party.
In April 1941 Bose arrived in Nazi Germany, where the leadership offered unexpected but equivocal sympathy for India's independence. German funds were employed to open a Free India Centre in Berlin. A 3,000-strong Free India Legion was recruited from among Indian POWs captured by Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps to serve under Bose. Although peripheral to their main goals, the Germans inconclusively considered a land invasion of India throughout 1941. By the spring of 1942, the German army was mired in Russia and Bose became keen to move to southeast Asia, where Japan had just won quick victories. Adolf Hitler during his only meeting with Bose in late May 1942 offered to arrange a submarine. During this time, Bose became a father; his wife, or companion, Emilie Schenkl, gave birth to a baby girl. Identifying strongly with the Axis powers, Bose boarded a German submarine in February 1943. Off Madagascar, he was transferred to a Japanese submarine from which he disembarked in Japanese-held Sumatra in May 1943.
With Japanese support, Bose revamped the Indian National Army (INA), which comprised Indian prisoners of war of the Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese in the Battle of Singapore. A Provisional Government of Free India was declared on the Japanese-occupied Andaman and Nicobar Islands and was nominally presided by Bose. Although Bose was unusually driven and charismatic, the Japanese considered him to be militarily unskilled, and his soldierly effort was short-lived. In late 1944 and early 1945, the Indian Army reversed the Japanese attack on India. Almost half the Japanese forces and the participating INA contingent were killed. The remaining INA was driven down the Malay Peninsula and surrendered with the recapture of Singapore. Bose chose to escape to Manchuria to seek a future in the Soviet Union which he believed to have turned anti-British. He died from third-degree burns received when his overloaded plane crashed in Japanese Taiwan on August 18, 1945. Some Indians did not believe that the crash had occurred, expecting Bose to return to secure India's independence. The Indian National Congress, the main instrument of Indian nationalism, praised Bose's patriotism but distanced itself from his tactics and ideology. The British Raj, never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason in the INA trials, but eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the Congress, and a new mood in Britain for rapid decolonisation in India. Bose's legacy is mixed. Among many in India, he is the muscular hero, his saga serving as a would-be counterpoise to the many actions of regeneration, negotiation, and reconciliation over a quarter-century through which the independence of India was achieved. His collaborations with Japanese Fascism and Nazisim pose serious ethical dilemmas, as does his reluctance to publicly criticize the worst excesses of German anti-Semitism from 1938 onwards or to offer refuge in India to its victims.
Biography
1897–1921: Early life
Subhas Chandra Bose was born to Prabhavati Bose () and Janakinath Bose on 23 January 1897 in Cuttack—in what is today the state of Odisha in India, but was then the Orissa Division of Bengal Province in British India. Prabhavati, or familiarly Mā jananī (), the anchor of family life, had her first child at age 14 and 13 children thereafter. Subhas was the ninth child and the sixth son. Jankinath, a successful lawyer and government pleader, was loyal to the government of British India and scrupulous about matters of language and the law. A self-made man from the rural outskirts of Calcutta, he had remained in touch with his roots, returning annually to his village during the pooja holidays.
Eager to join his five school-going older brothers, Subhas entered the Baptist Mission's Protestant European School in Cuttack in January 1902. English was the medium of all instruction in the school, the majority of the students being European or Anglo-Indians of mixed British and Indian ancestry. The curriculum included English—correctly written and spoken—Latin, the Bible, good manners, British geography, and British History; no Indian languages were taught. The choice of the school was Janakinath's, who wanted his sons to speak flawless English with flawless intonation, believing both to be important for access to the British in India. The school contrasted with Subhas's home, where only Bengali was spoken. At home, his mother worshipped the Hindu goddesses Durga and Kali, told stories from the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, and sang Bengali religious songs. From her, Subhas imbibed a nurturing spirit, looking for situations in which to help people in distress, preferring gardening around the house to joining in sports with other boys. His father, who was reserved in manner and busy with professional life, was a distant presence in a large family, causing Subhas to feel he had a nondescript childhood. Still, Janakinath read English literature avidly—John Milton, William Cowper, Matthew Arnold, and Shakespeare's Hamlet being among his favourites; several of his sons were to become English literature enthusiasts like him.
In 1909 the 12-year-old Subhas Bose followed his five brothers to the Ravenshaw Collegiate School in Cuttack. Here, Bengali and Sanskrit were also taught, as were ideas from Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads not usually picked up at home. Although his western education continued apace, he began to wear Indian clothes and engage in religious speculation. To his mother, he wrote long letters which displayed acquaintance with the ideas of the Bengali mystic Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda, and the novel Ananda Math by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, popular then among young Hindu men. Despite the preoccupation, Subhas was able to demonstrate an ability when needed to focus on his studies, to compete, and to succeed in exams. In 1912, he secured the second position in the matriculation examination conducted under the auspices of the University of Calcutta.
Subhas Bose followed his five brothers again 1913 to Presidency College, Calcutta, the historic and traditional college for Bengal's upper-caste Hindu men. He chose to study philosophy, his readings including Kant, Hegel, Bergson and other Western philosophers. A year earlier, he had befriended Hemanta Kumar Sarkar, a confidant and partner in religious yearnings. At Presidency, their emotional ties grew stronger. In the fanciful language of religious imagery, they declared their pure love for each other. In the long vacations of 1914, they traveled to northern India for several months to search for a spiritual guru to guide them. Subhas's family was not told clearly about the trip, leading them to think he had run away. During the trip, in which the guru proved elusive, Subhas came down with typhoid fever. His absence caused emotional distress to his parents, leading both parents to break down upon his return. Heated words were exchanged between Janakinath and Subhas. It took the return of Subhas's favorite brother, Sarat Chandra Bose, from law studies in England for the tempers to subside. Subhas returned to Presidency and busied himself with studies, debating and student journalism.
In February 1916 Bose was alleged to have masterminded, or participated in, an incident involving E. F. Oaten, Professor of History at Presidency. Before the incident, it was claimed by the students, Oaten had made rude remarks about Indian culture, and collared and pushed some students; according to Oaten, the students were making an unacceptably loud noise just outside his class. A few days later, on February 15, some students accosted Oaten on a stairway, surrounded him, beat him with sandals, and took to flight. An inquiry committee was constituted. Although Oaten, who was unhurt, could not identify his assailants, a college servant testified to seeing Subhas Bose among those fleeing, confirming for the authorities what they had determined to be the rumor among the students. Bose was expelled from the college and rusticated from University of Calcutta. The incident shocked Calcutta and caused anguish to Bose's family. He was ordered back to Cuttack. His family's connections were employed to pressure Asutosh Mukherjee, the Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University. Despite this, Subhas Bose's expulsion remained in place until July 20, 1917, when the Syndicate of Calcutta University granted him permission to return, but to another college. He joined Scottish Church College, receiving his B.A. in 1918 in the First Class with honours in philosophy, placing second among all philosophy students in Calcutta University.
At his father's urging, Subhas Bose agreed to travel to England to prepare and appear for the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examination. Arriving in London on 20 October 1919, Subhas readied his application for the ICS. For his references he put down Lord Sinha of Raipur, Under Secretary of State for India, and Bhupendranath Basu, a wealthy Calcutta lawyer who sat on the Council of India in London. Bose was eager also to gain admission to a college at the University of Cambridge. It was past the deadline for admission. He sought help from some Indian students and from the Non-Collegiate Students Board. The Board offered the university's education at an economical cost without formal admission to a college. Bose entered the register of the university on 19 November 1919 and simultaneously set about preparing for the Civil Service exams. He chose the Mental and Moral Sciences Tripos at Cambridge, its completion requirement reduced to two years on account of his Indian B. A.
There were six vacancies in the ICS. Subhas Bose took the open competitive exam for them in August 1920 and was placed fourth. This was a vital first step. Still remaining was a final examination in 1921 on more topics on India, including the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act, Indian history, and an Indian language. Successful candidates had also to clear a riding test. Having no fear of these subjects and being a rider, Subhas Bose felt the ICS was within easy reach. Yet between August 1920 and 1921 he began to have doubts about taking the final examination. Many letters were exchanged with his father and his brother Sarat Chandra Bose back in Calcutta. In one letter to Sarat, Subhas wrote, "But for a man of my temperament who has been feeding on ideas that might be called eccentric—the line of least resistance is not the best line to follow ... The uncertainties of life are not appalling to one who has not, at heart, worldly ambitions. Moreover, it is not possible to serve one's country in the best and fullest manner if one is chained on to the civil service." In April 1921, Subhas Bose made his decision firm not to take the final examination for the ICS and wrote to Sarat informing him of the same, apologizing for the pain he would cause to his father, his mother, and other members of his family. On April 22, 1921, he wrote to the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, stating, "I wish to have my name removed from the list of probationers in the Indian Civil Service." The following day he wrote again to Sarat:I received a letter from mother saying that in spite of what father and others think she prefers the ideals for which Mahatma Gandhi stands. I cannot tell you how happy I have been to receive such a letter. It will be worth a treasure for me as it has removed something like a burden from my mind."
For some time before Subhas Bose had been in touch with C. R. Das, a lawyer who had risen to the helm of politics in Bengal; Das encouraged Subhas to return to Calcutta. With the ICS decision now firmly behind him, Subhas Bose took his Cambridge B.A. Final examinations half-heartedly, passing, but being placed in the Third Class. He prepared to sail for India in June 1921, electing for a fellow Indian student to pick up his diploma.
1921–1932: Indian National Congress
Subhas Bose, aged 24, arrived ashore in India at Bombay on the morning of 16 July 1921 and immediately set about arranging an interview with Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi, aged 51, was the leader of the non-cooperation movement that had taken India by storm the previous year and in a quarter-century would evolve to secure its independence. Gandhi happened to be in Bombay and agreed to see Bose that afternoon. In Bose's account of the meeting, written many years later, he pilloried Gandhi with question after question. Bose thought Gandhi's answers were vague, his goals unclear, his plan for achieving them not thought through. Gandhi and Bose differed in this first meeting on the question of means- for Gandhi non-violent means to any end were non-negotiable; in Bose's thought, all means were acceptable in the service of anti-colonial ends. They differed on the question of ends- Bose was attracted to totalitarian models of governance, which were anathematized by Gandhi. According to historian Gordon, "Gandhi, however, set Bose on to the leader of the Congress and Indian nationalism in Bengal, C. R. Das, and in him Bose found the leader whom he sought." Das was more flexible than Gandhi, more sympathetic to the extremism that had attracted idealistic young men such as Bose in Bengal. Das launched Bose into nationalist politics. Bose would work within the ambit of the Indian National Congress politics for nearly 20 years even as he tried to change its course.
He started the newspaper Swaraj and took charge of publicity for the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee. His mentor was Chittaranjan Das who was a spokesman for aggressive nationalism in Bengal. In the year 1923, Bose was elected the President of All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of Bengal State Congress. He was also the editor of the newspaper "Forward", founded by Chittaranjan Das. Bose worked as the CEO of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation for Das when the latter was elected mayor of Calcutta in 1924. During the same year, when he was leading a protest march in Calcutta, he along with Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi and other leaders were arrested and put behind bars. In a roundup of nationalists in 1925, Bose was arrested and sent to prison in Mandalay, where he contracted tuberculosis.
In 1927, after being released from prison, Bose became general secretary of the Congress party and worked with Jawaharlal Nehru for independence. In late December 1928, Bose organised the Annual Meeting of the Indian National Congress in Calcutta. His most memorable role was as General officer commanding (GOC) Congress Volunteer Corps. Author Nirad Chaudhuri wrote about the meeting: Bose organized a volunteer corps in uniform, its officers were even provided with steel-cut epaulettes ... his uniform was made by a firm of British tailors in Calcutta, Harman's. A telegram addressed to him as GOC was delivered to the British General in Fort William and was the subject of a good deal of malicious gossip in the (British Indian) press. Mahatma Gandhi as a sincere pacifist vowed to non-violence, did not like the strutting, clicking of boots, and saluting, and he afterward described the Calcutta session of the Congress as a Bertram Mills circus, which caused a great deal of indignation among the Bengalis.
A little later, Bose was again arrested and jailed for civil disobedience; this time he emerged to become Mayor of Calcutta in 1930.
1933–1937: Illness, Austria, Emilie Schenkl
During the mid-1930s Bose travelled in Europe, visiting Indian students and European politicians, including Benito Mussolini. He observed party organisation and saw communism and fascism in action. In this period, he also researched and wrote the first part of his book The Indian Struggle, which covered the country's independence movement in the years 1920–1934. Although it was published in London in 1935, the British government banned the book in the colony out of fears that it would encourage unrest.
1937–1940: Indian National Congress
In 1938 Bose stated his opinion that the INC "should be organised on the broadest anti-imperialist front with the two-fold objective of winning political freedom and the establishment of a socialist regime." By 1938 Bose had become a leader of national stature and agreed to accept nomination as Congress President. He stood for unqualified Swaraj (self-governance), including the use of force against the British. This meant a confrontation with Mohandas Gandhi, who in fact opposed Bose's presidency, splitting the Indian National Congress party.
Bose attempted to maintain unity, but Gandhi advised Bose to form his own cabinet. The rift also divided Bose and Nehru; he appeared at the 1939 Congress meeting on a stretcher. He was elected president again over Gandhi's preferred candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya. U. Muthuramalingam Thevar strongly supported Bose in the intra-Congress dispute. Thevar mobilised all south India votes for Bose. However, due to the manoeuvrings of the Gandhi-led clique in the Congress Working Committee, Bose found himself forced to resign from the Congress presidency.
On 22 June 1939 Bose organised the All India Forward Bloc a faction within the Indian National Congress, aimed at consolidating the political left, but its main strength was in his home state, Bengal. U Muthuramalingam Thevar, who was a staunch supporter of Bose from the beginning, joined the Forward Bloc. When Bose visited Madurai on 6 September, Thevar organised a massive rally as his reception.
When Subhas Chandra Bose was heading to Madurai, on an invitation of Muthuramalinga Thevar to amass support for the Forward Bloc, he passed through Madras and spent three days at Gandhi Peak.
His correspondence reveals that despite his clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply impressed by their methodical and systematic approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian outlook towards life. In England, he exchanged ideas on the future of India with British Labour Party leaders and political thinkers like Lord Halifax, George Lansbury, Clement Attlee, Arthur Greenwood, Harold Laski, J.B.S. Haldane, Ivor Jennings, G.D.H. Cole, Gilbert Murray and Sir Stafford Cripps.
He came to believe that an independent India needed socialist authoritarianism, on the lines of Turkey's Kemal Atatürk, for at least two decades. For political reasons Bose was refused permission by the British authorities to meet Atatürk at Ankara. During his sojourn in England Bose tried to schedule appointments with several politicians, but only the Labour Party and Liberal politicians agreed to meet with him. Conservative Party officials refused to meet him or show him courtesy because he was a politician coming from a colony. In the 1930s leading figures in the Conservative Party had opposed even Dominion status for India. It was during the Labour Party government of 1945–1951, with Attlee as the Prime Minister, that India gained independence.
On the outbreak of war, Bose advocated a campaign of mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's decision to declare war on India's behalf without consulting the Congress leadership. Having failed to persuade Gandhi of the necessity of this, Bose organised mass protests in Calcutta calling for the removal of the "Holwell Monument", which then stood at the corner of Dalhousie Square in memoriam of those who died in the Black Hole of Calcutta. He was thrown in jail by the British, but was released following a seven-day hunger strike. Bose's house in Calcutta was kept under surveillance by the CID.
1941: Escape to Germany
Bose's arrest and subsequent release set the scene for his escape to Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. A few days before his escape, he sought solitude and, on this pretext, avoided meeting British guards and grew a beard. Late night 16 January 1941, the night of his escape, he dressed as a Pathan (brown long coat, a black fez-type coat and broad pyjamas) to avoid being identified. Bose escaped from under British surveillance from his Elgin Road house in Calcutta on the night of 17 January 1941, accompanied by his nephew Sisir Kumar Bose, later reaching Gomoh Railway Station (now Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Gomoh Station) in the then state of Bihar (now Jharkhand), India.
He journeyed to Peshawar with the help of the Abwehr, where he was met by Akbar Shah, Mohammed Shah and Bhagat Ram Talwar. Bose was taken to the home of Abad Khan, a trusted friend of Akbar Shah's. On 26 January 1941, Bose began his journey to reach Russia through British India's North West frontier with Afghanistan. For this reason, he enlisted the help of Mian Akbar Shah, then a Forward Bloc leader in the North-West Frontier Province. Shah had been out of India en route to the Soviet Union, and suggested a novel disguise for Bose to assume. Since Bose could not speak one word of Pashto, it would make him an easy target of Pashto speakers working for the British. For this reason, Shah suggested that Bose act deaf and dumb, and let his beard grow to mimic those of the tribesmen. Bose's guide Bhagat Ram Talwar, unknown to him, was a Soviet agent.
Supporters of the Aga Khan III helped him across the border into Afghanistan where he was met by an Abwehr unit posing as a party of road construction engineers from the Organization Todt who then aided his passage across Afghanistan via Kabul to the border with Soviet Russia. After assuming the guise of a Pashtun insurance agent ("Ziaudddin") to reach Afghanistan, Bose changed his guise and travelled to Moscow on the Italian passport of an Italian nobleman "Count Orlando Mazzotta". From Moscow, he reached Rome, and from there he travelled to Germany. Once in Russia the NKVD transported Bose to Moscow where he hoped that Russia's historical enmity to British rule in India would result in support for his plans for a popular rising in India. However, Bose found the Soviets' response disappointing and was rapidly passed over to the German Ambassador in Moscow, Count von der Schulenburg. He had Bose flown on to Berlin in a special courier aircraft at the beginning of April where he was to receive a more favourable hearing from Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Foreign Ministry officials at the Wilhelmstrasse.
1941–1943: Nazi Germany
In Germany, he was attached to the Special Bureau for India under Adam von Trott zu Solz which was responsible for broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. He founded the Free India Center in Berlin, and created the Indian Legion (consisting of some 4500 soldiers) out of Indian prisoners of war who had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces. The Indian Legion was attached to the Wehrmacht, and later transferred to the Waffen SS. Its members swore the following allegiance to Hitler and Bose: "I swear by God this holy oath that I will obey the leader of the German race and state, Adolf Hitler, as the commander of the German armed forces in the fight for India, whose leader is Subhas Chandra Bose". This oath clearly abrogates control of the Indian legion to the German armed forces whilst stating Bose's overall leadership of India. He was also, however, prepared to envisage an invasion of India via the USSR by Nazi troops, spearheaded by the Azad Hind Legion; many have questioned his judgment here, as it seems unlikely that the Germans could have been easily persuaded to leave after such an invasion, which might also have resulted in an Axis victory in the War.
Soon, according to historian Romain Hayes, "the (German) Foreign Office procured a luxurious residence for (Bose) along with a butler, cook, gardener, and an SS-chauffeured car. Emilie Schenkl moved in openly with him. The Germans, aware of the nature of the relationship, refrained from any involvement." However, most of the staff in the Special Bureau for India, which had been set up to aid Bose, did not get along with Emilie. In particular Adam von Trott, Alexander Werth and Freda Kretschemer, according to historian Leonard A. Gordon, "appear to have disliked her intensely. They believed that she and Bose were not married and that she was using her liaison with Bose to live an especially comfortable life during the hard times of war" and that differences were compounded by issues of class. In November 1942, Schenkl gave birth to their daughter. In February 1943, Bose left Schenkl and their baby daughter and boarded a German submarine to travel, via transfer to a Japanese submarine, to Japanese-occupied southeast Asia;
In all, 3,000 Indian prisoners of war signed up for the Free India Legion. But instead of being delighted, Bose was worried. A left-wing admirer of Russia, he was devastated when Hitler's tanks rolled across the Soviet border. Matters were worsened by the fact that the now-retreating German army would be in no position to offer him help in driving the British from India. When he met Hitler in May 1942, his suspicions were confirmed, and he came to believe that the Nazi leader was more interested in using his men to win propaganda victories than military ones. So, in February 1943, Bose boarded a German U-boat and left for Japan. This left the men he had recruited leaderless and demoralised in Germany.
1943–1945: Japanese-occupied Asia
In 1943, after being disillusioned that Germany could be of any help in gaining India's independence, Bose left for Japan. He travelled with the German submarine U-180 around the Cape of Good Hope to the southeast of Madagascar, where he was transferred to the for the rest of the journey to Imperial Japan. This was the only civilian transfer between two submarines of two different navies in World War II.
The Indian National Army (INA) was the brainchild of Japanese Major (and post-war Lieutenant-General) Iwaichi Fujiwara, head of the Japanese intelligence unit Fujiwara Kikan. Fujiwara's mission was "to raise an army which would fight alongside the Japanese army." He first met Pritam Singh Dhillon, the president of the Bangkok chapter of the Indian Independence League, and through Pritam Singh's network recruited a captured British Indian army captain, Mohan Singh, on the western Malayan peninsula in December 1941. The First Indian National Army was formed as a result of discussion between Fujiwara and Mohan Singh in the second half of December 1941, and the name chosen jointly by them in the first week of January 1942.
This was along the concept of, and with support of, what was then known as the Indian Independence League headed from Tokyo by expatriate nationalist leader Rash Behari Bose. The first INA was however disbanded in December 1942 after disagreements between the Hikari Kikan and Mohan Singh, who came to believe that the Japanese High Command was using the INA as a mere pawn and propaganda tool. Mohan Singh was taken into custody and the troops returned to the prisoner-of-war camp.
However, the idea of an independence army was revived with the arrival of Subhas Chandra Bose in the Far East in 1943. In July, at a meeting in Singapore, Rash Behari Bose handed over control of the organisation to Subhas Chandra Bose. Bose was able to reorganise the fledgling army and organise massive support among the expatriate Indian population in south-east Asia, who lent their support by both enlisting in the Indian National Army, as well as financially in response to Bose's calls for sacrifice for the independence cause. INA had a separate women's unit, the Rani of Jhansi Regiment (named after Rani Lakshmi Bai) headed by Capt. Lakshmi Swaminathan, which is seen as a first of its kind in Asia.
Even when faced with military reverses, Bose was able to maintain support for the Azad Hind movement. Spoken as a part of a motivational speech for the Indian National Army at a rally of Indians in Burma on 4 July 1944, Bose's most famous quote was "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!" In this, he urged the people of India to join him in his fight against the British Raj. Spoken in Hindi, Bose's words are highly evocative. The troops of the INA were under the aegis of a provisional government, the Azad Hind Government, which came to produce its own currency, postage stamps, court and civil code, and was recognised by nine Axis states – Germany, Japan, Italian Social Republic, the Independent State of Croatia, Wang Jingwei regime in Nanjing, China, a provisional government of Burma, Manchukuo and Japanese-controlled Philippines. Of those countries, five were authorities established under Axis occupation. This government participated in the so-called Greater East Asia Conference as an observer in November 1943.
The INA's first commitment was in the Japanese thrust towards Eastern Indian frontiers of Manipur. INA's special forces, the Bahadur Group, were involved in operations behind enemy lines both during the diversionary attacks in Arakan, as well as the Japanese thrust towards Imphal and Kohima.
The Japanese also took possession of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 1942 and a year later, the Provisional Government and the INA were established in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Lt Col. A.D. Loganathan appointed its Governor General. The islands were renamed Shaheed (Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence). However, the Japanese Navy remained in essential control of the island's administration. During Bose's only visit to the islands in early 1944, apparently in the interest of shielding Bose from attaining a full knowledge of ultimate Japanese intentions, Bose's Japanese hosts carefully isolated him from the local population. At that time the island's Japanese administration had been torturing the leader of the island's Indian Independence League, Dr. Diwan Singh, who later died of his injuries in the Cellular Jail. During Bose's visit to the islands several locals attempted to alert Bose to Dr. Singh's plight, but apparently without success. During this time Lt. Col Loganathan became aware of his lack of any genuine administrative control and resigned in protest as Governor General, later returning to the Government's headquarters in Rangoon.
On the Indian mainland, an Indian Tricolour, modelled after that of the Indian National Congress, was raised for the first time in the town of Moirang, in Manipur, in north-eastern India. The adjacent towns of Kohima and Imphal were then encircled and placed under siege by divisions of the Japanese Army, working in conjunction with the Burmese National Army, and with Brigades of the INA, known as the Gandhi and Nehru Brigades. This attempt at conquering the Indian mainland had the Axis codename of Operation U-Go.
During this operation, On 6 July 1944, in a speech broadcast by the Azad Hind Radio from Singapore, Bose addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the "Father of the Nation" and asked for his blessings and good wishes for the war he was fighting. This was the first time that Gandhi was referred to by this appellation. The protracted Japanese attempts to take these two towns depleted Japanese resources, with Operation U-Go ultimately proving unsuccessful. Through several months of Japanese onslaught on these two towns, Commonwealth forces remained entrenched in the towns. Commonwealth forces then counter-attacked, inflicting serious losses on the Axis led forces, who were then forced into a retreat back into Burmese territory. After the Japanese defeat at the battles of Kohima and Imphal, Bose's Provisional Government's aim of establishing a base in mainland India was lost forever.
Still the INA fought in key battles against the British Indian Army in Burmese territory, notable in Meiktilla, Mandalay, Pegu, Nyangyu and Mount Popa. However, with the fall of Rangoon, Bose's government ceased to be an effective political entity. A large proportion of the INA troops surrendered under Lt Col Loganathan. The remaining troops retreated with Bose towards Malaya or made for Thailand. Japan's surrender at the end of the war also led to the surrender of the remaining elements of the Indian National Army. The INA prisoners were then repatriated to India and some tried for treason.
18 August 1945: Death
In the consensus of scholarly opinion, Subhas Chandra Bose's death occurred from third-degree burns on 18 August 1945 after his overloaded Japanese plane crashed in Japanese-ruled Formosa (now Taiwan). However, many among his supporters, especially in Bengal, refused at the time, and have refused since, to believe either the fact or the circumstances of his death. Conspiracy theories appeared within hours of his death and have thereafter had a long shelf life, keeping alive various martial myths about Bose.
In Taihoku, at around 2:30pm as the bomber with Bose on board was leaving the standard path taken by aircraft during take-off, the passengers inside heard a loud sound, similar to an engine backfiring. The mechanics on the tarmac saw something fall out of the plane. It was the portside engine, or a part of it, and the propeller. The plane swung wildly to the right and plummeted, crashing, breaking into two, and exploding into flames. Inside, the chief pilot, copilot and Lieutenant-General Tsunamasa Shidei, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Japanese Kwantung Army, who was to have made the negotiations for Bose with the Soviet army in Manchuria, were instantly killed. Bose's assistant Habibur Rahman was stunned, passing out briefly, and Bose, although conscious and not fatally hurt, was soaked in gasoline. When Rahman came to, he and Bose attempted to leave by the rear door, but found it blocked by the luggage. They then decided to run through the flames and exit from the front. The ground staff, now approaching the plane, saw two people staggering towards them, one of whom had become a human torch. The human torch turned out to be Bose, whose gasoline-soaked clothes had instantly ignited. Rahman and a few others managed to smother the flames, but also noticed that Bose's face and head appeared badly burned. According to Joyce Chapman Lebra, "A truck which served as ambulance rushed Bose and the other passengers to the Nanmon Military Hospital south of Taihoku." The airport personnel called Dr. Taneyoshi Yoshimi, the surgeon-in-charge at the hospital at around 3pm. Bose was conscious and mostly coherent when they reached the hospital, and for some time thereafter. Bose was naked, except for a blanket wrapped around him, and Dr. Yoshimi immediately saw evidence of third-degree burns on many parts of the body, especially on his chest, doubting very much that he would live. Dr. Yoshimi promptly began to treat Bose and was assisted by Dr. Tsuruta. According to historian Leonard A. Gordon, who interviewed all the hospital personnel later,
A disinfectant, Rivamol, was put over most of his body and then a white ointment was applied and he was bandaged over most of his body. Dr. Yoshimi gave Bose four injections of Vita Camphor and two of Digitamine for his weakened heart. These were given about every 30 minutes. Since his body had lost fluids quickly upon being burnt, he was also given Ringer solution intravenously. A third doctor, Dr. Ishii gave him a blood transfusion. An orderly, Kazuo Mitsui, an army private, was in the room and several nurses were also assisting. Bose still had a clear head which Dr. Yoshimi found remarkable for someone with such severe injuries.
Soon, in spite of the treatment, Bose went into a coma. A few hours later, between 9 and 10 pm (local time) on Saturday 18 August 1945, Bose died aged 48.
Bose's body was cremated in the main Taihoku crematorium two days later, 20 August 1945. On 23 August 1945, the Japanese news agency Do Trzei announced the death of Bose and Shidea. On 7 September a Japanese officer, Lieutenant Tatsuo Hayashida, carried Bose's ashes to Tokyo, and the following morning they were handed to the president of the Tokyo Indian Independence League, Rama Murti. On 14 September a memorial service was held for Bose in Tokyo and a few days later the ashes were turned over to the priest of the Renkōji Temple of Nichiren Buddhism in Tokyo. There they have remained ever since.
Among the INA personnel, there was widespread disbelief, shock, and trauma. Most affected were the young Tamil Indians from Malaya and Singapore, both men and women, who comprised the bulk of the civilians who had enlisted in the INA. The professional soldiers in the INA, most of whom were Punjabis, faced an uncertain future, with many fatalistically expecting reprisals from the British. In India the Indian National Congress's official line was succinctly expressed in a letter Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi wrote to Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. Said Gandhi, "Subhas Bose has died well. He was undoubtedly a patriot, though misguided." Many congressmen had not forgiven Bose for quarrelling with Gandhi and for collaborating with what they considered was Japanese fascism. The Indian soldiers in the British Indian army, some two and a half million of whom had fought during the Second World War, were conflicted about the INA. Some saw the INA as traitors and wanted them punished; others felt more sympathetic. The British Raj, though never seriously threatened by the INA, tried 300 INA officers for treason in the INA trials, but eventually backtracked.
Ideology
Subhas Chandra Bose believed that the Bhagavad Gita was a great source of inspiration for the struggle against the British. Swami Vivekananda's teachings on universalism, his nationalist thoughts and his emphasis on social service and reform had all inspired Subhas Chandra Bose from his very young days. The fresh interpretation of India's ancient scriptures had appealed immensely to him. Some scholars think that Hindu spirituality formed an essential part of his political and social thought. As historian Leonard Gordon explains "Inner religious explorations continued to be a part of his adult life. This set him apart from the slowly growing number of atheistic socialists and communists who dotted the Indian landscape."
Bose first expressed his preference for "a synthesis of what modern Europe calls socialism and fascism" in a 1930 speech in Calcutta.
Bose later criticized Nehru's 1933 statement that there is "no middle road" between communism and fascism, describing it as "fundamentally wrong." Bose believed communism would not gain ground in India due to its rejection of nationalism and religion and suggested a "synthesis between communism and fascism" could take hold instead. In 1944, Bose similarly stated, "Our philosophy should be a synthesis between National Socialism and communism."
Bose's correspondence (prior to 1939) reflects his disapproval of the racist practices and annulment of democratic institutions in Nazi Germany: "Today I regret that I have to return to India with the conviction that the new nationalism of Germany is not only narrow and selfish but arrogant." However, he expressed admiration for the authoritarian methods which he saw in Italy and Germany during the 1930s; he thought they could be used to build an independent India.
Bose had clearly expressed his belief that democracy was the best option for India. However, during the war (and possibly as early as the 1930s), Bose seems to have decided that no democratic system could be adequate to overcome India's poverty and social inequalities, and he wrote that a socialist state similar to that of Soviet Russia (which he had also seen and admired) would be needed for the process of national re-building. Accordingly, some suggest that Bose's alliance with the Axis during the war was based on more than just pragmatism and that Bose was a militant nationalist, though not a Nazi nor a Fascist, for he supported the empowerment of women, secularism and other liberal ideas; alternatively, others consider he might have been using populist methods of mobilisation common to many post-colonial leaders.
Quotes
His most famous quote was "Give me blood and I will give you freedom". Another famous quote was Dilli Chalo ("On to Delhi)!" This was the call he used to give the INA armies to motivate them. Jai Hind, or, "Glory to India!" was another slogan used by him and later adopted by the Government of India and the Indian Armed Forces. Another slogan coined by him was "Ittehad, Etemad, Qurbani" (Urdu for "Unity, Agreement, Sacrifice").
Legacy
Memorials
Bose was featured on the stamps in India from 1964, 1993, 1997, 2001, 2016 and 2018. Bose was also featured in ₹2 coin in 1996 and 1997, ₹ 75 coin in 2018 and ₹125 coin in 2021. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport at Kolkata, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island, formerly Ross Island and many other institutions in India are named after him. On 23 August 2007, Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzō Abe visited the Subhas Chandra Bose memorial hall in Kolkata. Abe said to Bose's family "The Japanese are deeply moved by Bose's strong will to have led the Indian independence movement from British rule. Netaji is a much respected name in Japan."
In 2021, the Government of India declared 23 January as Parakram Divas to commemorate the birth anniversary of Subhas Chandra Bose. Political party, Trinamool Congress and the All India Forward Bloc demanded that the day should be observed as 'Deshprem Divas'. A holographic statue of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose at the India Gate to mark his 125th birth anniversary was installed at India Gate and a permanent granite statue will replace the holographic statue later.
In popular media
Netaji Subhash, a feature documentary film about Bose was released in 1947, it was directed by Chhotubhai Desai.
Subhas Chandra is a 1966 Indian Bengali-language biographical film, directed by Pijush Basu.
Neta Ji Subhash Chandra Bose is a 1966 Indian biographical drama film about Bose by Hemen Gupta.
In 2004, Shyam Benegal directed the biographical film, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose: The Forgotten Hero depicting his life in Nazi Germany (1941–1943), in Japanese-occupied Asia (1943–1945) and the events leading to the formation of Azad Hind Fauj. The film received critical acclaim at the BFI London Film Festival, and has garnered the National Film Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration, and the National Film Award for Best Production Design for that year.
Mahanayak, 2005 published Marathi historical novel on the life of Subhash Chandra Bose, written by Marathi author Vishvas Patil.
His Majesty's Opponent, a biography of Subhash Chandra Bose, written by Sugata Bose published in 2011.
Subhash Chandra Bose: The Mystery, a 2016 documentary film by Iqbal Malhotra, follows conspiracy theories regarding Bose's death.
Netaji Bose - The Lost Treasure is a 2017 television documentary film which aired on History TV18, it explores the INA treasure controversy.
In 2017, ALTBalaji and BIG Synergy Media, released a 9-episode web series, Bose: Dead/Alive, created by Ekta Kapoor, a dramatised version of the book India's Biggest Cover-up written by Anuj Dhar, which starred Bollywood actor Rajkummar Rao as Subhas Chandra Bose and Anna Ador as Emilie Schenkl. The series was praised by both audience and critics, for its plot, performance and production design.
In January 2019 Zee Bangla started broadcasting the daily television series Netaji.
Gumnaami is an 2019 Indian Bengali mystery film directed by Srijit Mukherji, which deals with Netaji's death mystery, based on the Mukherjee Commission Hearings.
See also
Revolutionary movement for Indian independence
Japanese occupation of Singapore
Bombing of Rangoon in World War II
Death of Subhas Chandra Bose
Political views of Subhas Chandra Bose
Bengal Volunteers
Bibliography of Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhasji
Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja
Gumnami Baba
Footnotes
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Netaji Research Bureau
Declassified papers at the National Archives of India
Subhas Chandra Bose family Tree
1897 births
1945 deaths
20th-century memoirists
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
All India Forward Bloc politicians
Azad Hind
Bengali Hindus
Bengali people
Bengali politicians
British Empire in World War II
British Malaya military personnel of World War II
Collaborators with Imperial Japan
Death conspiracy theories
Fascism in India
History of Bengal
History of Kolkata
History of West Bengal
Indian autobiographers
Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
Indian diaspora in Singapore
Indian exiles
Indian fascists
Indian Hindus
Indian independence armed struggle activists
India–Japan relations
Indian memoirists
Indian National Army
Indian nationalists
Indian revolutionaries
Indian socialists
Malayan collaborators with Imperial Japan
Mayors of Kolkata
People from Kolkata
People from Odisha
People from West Bengal
Presidency University, Kolkata alumni
Presidents of the Indian National Congress
Prisoners and detainees of British India
Scottish Church College alumni
Third Position
University of Calcutta alumni
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1945
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Taiwan
World War II political leaders
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar%20Kokoschka
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Oskar Kokoschka
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Oskar Kokoschka (1 March 1886 – 22 February 1980) was an Austrian artist, poet, playwright, and teacher best known for his intense expressionistic portraits and landscapes, as well as his theories on vision that influenced the Viennese Expressionist movement.
Early life
The second child of Gustav Josef Kokoschka, a Bohemian goldsmith, and Maria Romana Kokoschka (née Loidl), Oskar Kokoschka was born in Pöchlarn. He had a sister, Berta, born in 1889; a brother, Bohuslav, born in 1892; and an elder brother who died in infancy. Oskar had a strong belief in omens, spurred by a story of a fire breaking out in Pöchlarn shortly after his mother gave birth to him. The family's life was not easy, largely due to a lack of financial stability of his father. They constantly moved into smaller flats, farther and farther from the thriving centre of the town. Concluding that his father was inadequate, Kokoschka drew closer to his mother; and seeing himself as the head of the household, he continued to support his family when he gained financial independence. Kokoschka entered a Realschule in 1897, a type of secondary school, where emphasis was placed on the study of modern subjects such as the sciences and language. Despite his intent of continuing a formal education in chemistry, Kokoschka was not interested in such subjects, as he only excelled in art, and spent most of his time reading classic literature during his lessons. Like many of Kokoschka's French and German contemporaries, he was interested in the primitive and exotic art featured in the ethnographical exhibits around Europe.
Education
One of Kokoschka's teachers suggested he pursue a career in the fine arts after being impressed by some of his drawings. Against his father's will, Kokoschka applied to the Kunstgewerbeschule in Vienna, now the University of Applied Arts Vienna. He received a scholarship and was one of few applicants to be accepted. The Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule was a progressive school of applied arts that focused mainly on architecture, furniture, crafts, and modern design. Unlike the more prestigious and traditional Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, the Kunstgewerbeschule was dominated by instructors of the Vienna Secession. Kokoschka studied there from 1904 to 1909 and was influenced by his teacher Carl Otto Czeschka in developing an original style.
Among Kokoschka's early works were gesture drawings of children, which portrayed them as awkward and corpse-like. Kokoschka had no formal training in painting and so approached the medium without regard to the "traditional" or "correct" way to paint. The teachers at the Kunstgewerbeschule helped Kokoschka gain opportunities through the Wiener Werkstätte or Viennese Workshops. Kokoschka's first commissions were postcards and drawings for children. Later, Kokoschka said that this exercise provided "the basis of [his] artistic training". His early career was marked by portraits of Viennese celebrities, painted in a nervously animated style.
Following his own artistic training, Kokoschka dedicated years of his life thereafter teaching art and writing articles and speeches documenting his views and practices as an educator. 17th-century Czech humanist and education reformer, Jan Amos Comenius, was Kokoschka’s primary influence in terms of how to approach education. From Comenius’s theories, Kokoschka adopted the belief that students benefit most from using their five senses to facilitate reasoning. Kokoschka taught in Vienna from 1911 to 1913 and then again in Dresden from 1919 to 1923. While his efforts as a teacher were noted in various publications, they generally focused on his personality captured within his own art rather than his classroom practices. Kokoschka neglected the conventional structured methodologies and theories assumed by art educators, and instead taught through storytelling infused with mythological themes and dramatic emotion. In 1912, Kokoschka delivered his essay “Von der Natur der Gesichte” (“On the Nature of Visions”) at the Akademischen Verband für Literatur und Musik in Vienna. This essay outlined Kokoschka’s artistic conceptualization about the relationship between inner vision and optical sight. In considering his own art, Kokoschka expressed that inspiration stemmed from daily observations that he collected optically while engaging with his contemporary surroundings. Kokoschka’s ability to acknowledge how these stimulations manifested within his inner imagination resulted in works that draw upon the subconscious rather than optical vision. Further, Kokoschka granted the viewer with the task of interpreting the image based upon how they experience the vision within their own realm of consciousness. This concept, in congruency with Wassily Kandinsky’s theory pertaining to spirituality in art, has become the basis for which art historians understand Viennese Expressionism.
Career
Vienna Avant-Garde
In 1908 Kokoschka was offered the opportunity of submitting works to the first Vienna Kunstschau. This government funded exhibition was established to both bring in tourists and affirm Vienna's prominence within the art world. Kokoschka received a commission from the Director of the Wiener Werkstätte, Fritz Wärndorfer, for color images that would supplement a children’s book and be displayed at the exhibition. Kokoschka, however, took the liberty of producing images that would serve as illustrations to the poem he wrote a year earlier, Die träumenden Knaben (The Dreaming Youths), which took on the form of an autobiographical adolescent fantasy that was much too inappropriate for a young audience. In his autobiography, Kokoschka explained the origins of the poem which follow his personal experience as a young student who was in love with his Swedish classmate, Lilith. Die träumenden Knaben consists of introductory pages with two small black and white lithographs, in addition to eight larger color lithographs with a vertical column of text positioned beside each image. Influenced by the compositions found in medieval art, Kokoschka depicted various moments in time simultaneously within each individual image. Kokoschka also adopted the bold lines and expressive colors of traditional European folk art and juxtaposed them with the stylized ornamentation and two-dimensional bodies of Jugendstil. The final page, titled Das Mädchen Li und ich (the Girl Li and I), features the angular forms of the young boy (Kokoschka) and girl (Lilith), taking on the style of the Belgian sculptor George Minne. This work, which Kokoschka dedicated to his former teacher Gustav Klimt, demonstrates the transition from Jugendstil to Expressionism.
Die träumenden Knaben along with the tapestry titled The Dream Bearers, which is now lost, were the first works ever to be exhibited by Kokoschka. Like the book illustrations, Kokoschka’s tapestry was pronounced disturbing due to its depiction of youthful, exotic and sexualized fantasies. Upon showing these two works, Kokoschka received backlash from conservative officials and only a small portion of the five hundred copies of Die träumenden Knaben were actually bound and sold. As a result, he was expelled from the Kunstgewerbeschule and found his place within the Viennese avant-garde. Austrian architect Adolf Loos befriended Kokoschka and introduced him to other avant-garde members who then became his subjects in a series of portrait paintings.
Portraiture
Kokoschka painted a bulk of his portraiture between 1909 and 1914. Unlike many of his contemporaries who were also receiving portrait commissions, such as Edvard Munch, Kokoschka maintained complete artistic freedom because they were generally not ordered directly by the sitter. A majority of Kokoschka’s subjects were clients of the architect Loos, and it was Loos who ordered the portraits and agreed to purchase them if the sitter chose not to. Other portraits by Kokoschka feature friends and advocates within his circle who supported the modern art of this period. Prominent members of this group who had their portraits painted include the art dealer Herwarth Walden, art supporter Lotte Franzos, poet Peter Altenberg, and art historians Hans and Erica Tietze.
Kokoschka’s portraits demonstrate the conventions of traditional portraiture, primarily regarding the perspective in which he captures the sitters. However, Kokoschka also adopted elements of the modern style which involved incorporating hands within the composition to further capture the emotion expressed through an individual's gestures. These portraits also utilize the unconscious positioning of the sitter’s body, which Kokoschka believed would unveil the inner tensions of their subconscious.
Kokoschka’s portraits incorporate an expressive color palette similar to those featured in the works of German Die Brücke artists at the time. Kokoschka’s use of shrill, harsh colors that make the subjects appear as rotting corpses is not meant to be understood as a portrayal of their individual physical conditions, but rather an overarching indication of a decomposing age. The bold lines and patches of bright color juxtaposed against an otherwise solid, dull background were visual interpretations of the anxieties felt by Kokoschka and those in circle. Kokoschka’s portraits, however, differed from those of his contemporaries due to his belief in the symbolic importance of the act of painting itself, which is emphasized by visible brushstrokes and areas of exposed canvas. Kokoschka integrated painterly techniques with those used in drawing, as seen in his use of vibrant and contrasting colors, rapid brushstrokes, anxious scratch marks, and uneven handling.
In a letter from 1909, Kokoschka noted that he “would like to do a nervously disordered portrait.” With no additional elements to establish a narrative for the sitter, Kokoschka stressed that the essence of the individual comes out through the means of creating their image. Patrick Werkner, an art historian, describes Kokoschka’s portraits by suggesting that it is as if the skin becomes separated from the body, allowing the viewer to see through the physiognomy like a veil only to make visible the means of depiction. Kokoschka’s portraits as a whole comment on the overwhelming feelings of uncertainty felt by those who were aware of the shifting cultural milieu leading up the end of the old order of the Austrian Empire in 1918.
Kokoschka’s portrait, Hans Tietze and Erica Tietze-Conrat, was painted in 1909 in the library of the couple’s home. Aside from being close friends of the artist, the couple were also prominent art historians of the time. Erica Tietze-Conrat explained that while Kokoschka was creating their portrait, he encouraged them to move freely and continue their work at the two desks that were situated adjacent to one another by a window. After painting her husband in profile, Kokoschka asked Erica to position herself so that he could paint her frontally. Shortly after beginning the painting, Kokoschka set down his paintbrush and began using only his fingers. Kokoschka used his fingernails to scratch thin lines into the paint, which appear in outlines and areas of hatching and crosshatching, as well as throughout the background. Although painted in their library, the figures appear to be existing in a surreal, subliminal space. Kokoschka blends vibrant tones of blue and red upon an otherwise muted green background. In the portrait, the couple do not face each other, but their hands reach out as if they are about to touch. Their hands then become the means of communication, symbolizing the bridge for which their inner energies may flow back and forth. The couple was forced to flee Austria in 1938 as a result of their Jewish heritage, but were able to take with them this portrait that they refused to exhibit until it was purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in 1939.
Berlin
Kokoschka moved to Berlin in 1910, the same year the Neue Secession was established in Berlin. The group, composed of artists and philosophers such as Emil Nolde, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Erich Heckel and Max Pechstein, formed as a rebellion against the older Secession group. While Kokoschka refrained from adopting the group's techniques and ideologies, he did admire the sense of community established between its members. Berlin art dealer Paul Cassirer saw promise in Kokoschka's works and launched the artist into the international circle. Around the same time, Herwarth Walden, a publisher and art critic who was introduced to Kokoschka by Loos, employed Kokoschka as an illustrator for his magazine Der Sturm. Twenty-eight drawings by Kokoschka were published in the magazine during its first year; and although he was featured significantly less, Kokoschka remained a contributor to the periodical. Kokoschka's first piece for Der Strum, a drawing from the series Menschenköpfe (People's Heads), was dedicated to Karl Kraus. The twentieth Issue of the periodical featured both Kokoschka's first cover illustration, which supplemented Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen, as well as the artist's first literary contribution. Kokoschka continued to travel back and forth between Vienna and Berlin over the next four years.
Kokoschka had a passionate, often stormy affair with Alma Mahler. It began in 1912, five years after the death of her four-year-old daughter Maria Mahler and two years before her affair with Walter Gropius, later a celebrated architect in Berlin. But after two years together, Alma rejected him, explaining that she was afraid of being too overcome with passion. She married Walter Gropius in 1915 and lived with him until their divorce in 1920. Kokoschka continued to love Alma Mahler his entire life, and one of his most acclaimed works, The Bride of the Wind (The Tempest; 1913), is expressive of their relationship. The poet Georg Trakl visited the studio while Kokoschka was painting this masterpiece. Kokoschka's poem Allos Makar was inspired by this relationship.
World War I
He volunteered for service as a cavalryman in the Austrian army in World War I, and in 1915 was seriously wounded. At the hospital, the doctors decided that he was mentally unstable. Nevertheless, he continued to develop his career as an artist, traveling across Europe and painting the landscape.
He commissioned a life-sized female doll in 1918. Although intended to simulate Alma and receive his affection, the 'Alma doll' did not satisfy Kokoschka and he destroyed it during a party.
In 1919, Kokoschka began teaching at the Kunstakademie Dresden. In an open letter addressed to the inhabitants of Dresden from 1920, Kokoschka argued that the civil war battles between the revolutionary parties should be moved outside of the city’s borders in order to protect the art which could not escape the crossfire. This letter was penned after an incident on 15 March 1920 when a bullet damaged Bathsheba at the Fountain, a painting by Peter Paul Rubens. As a result of his letter, Kokoschka received backlash from the Communist artists George Grosz and John Heartfield in what was referred to as the Kunstlump debate, or Art Scoundrel Debate. Many other artists, however, continued to support the work of Kokoschka.
In May 1922 he attended the International Congress of Progressive Artists and signed the "Founding Proclamation of the Union of Progressive International Artists".
Kokoschka returned to Vienna in the Autumn of 1931, where he spent six months in the home he had purchased for his parents eleven years earlier. Located in Vienna’s 16th District known as Liebharstal, the house, now functioning as the artist’s studio, provided a view of Schloss Wilhelminenberg which had been converted into a Kinderheim, or orphanage, by the City Council. During this time, Kokoschka accepted a commission by the Social Democratic City Council, ‘Red Vienna,’ for a painting that would be hung inside the Rathaus, or City Hall. Kokoschka, along with other Austrian artists, was asked to create an artwork depicting Vienna in contribution to this project managed by the Historisches Museum der Stadt (Wien Museum). In honor of the humanitarian efforts of the City Counsel, Kokoschka decided to illustrate children playing outside of the palace in the foreground of the composition which otherwise consisted of a cityscape. Other identifiable Viennese architecture within the painting includes the City Hall and St. Stephen's Cathedral.
Degeneracy and World War II
Deemed a degenerate by the Nazis, Kokoschka fled Austria in 1934 for Prague. In Prague his name was adopted by a group of other expatriate artists, the Oskar-Kokoschka-Bund (OKB), though Kokoschka declined participation with their group. He obtained Czechoslovak citizenship in 1935. In 1938, when the Czechs began to mobilize for the expected invasion by the Wehrmacht, he fled to the United Kingdom and remained there during the war. With the help of the British Committee for Refugees from Czechoslovakia (later the Czech Refugee Trust Fund), all members of the OKB were able to escape through Poland and Sweden.
During World War II, Kokoschka painted anti-Fascist works such as the allegory What We Are Fighting For (1943). Kokoschka left the bustling city center of London and settled in Polperro, in Cornwall. While residing in this seaside village, Kokoschka made paintings depicting landscapes of the harbor, along with The Crab, which began a series of works embedded with political allegories resisting the Nazi regime. Kokoschka’s The Crab was painted between 1939 and 1940, and captures the view of the harbor from the artist’s house in Polperro. This work functions as a self-portrait of the artist, where Kokoschka is the swimmer representing Czechoslovakia. The large crab is symbolic of Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister at the time the painting was created. In explaining this painting, Kokoschka said the crab “would only have to put out one claw to save him from drowning, but remains aloof.” Further, this painting demonstrates the instability he felt as a result of German occupation forcing him to seek refuge in other countries across Europe. This landscape painting, amongst others by Kokoschka, were brought with him to London unfinished where they were transformed into political allegories. While in London, Kokoschka also painted The Red Egg, another political painting referencing the destruction of Czechoslovakia. In this satirical painting, Kokoschka comments on the Munich Agreement of 1938 with grotesque caricatures of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.
During several summer months, he and his young Czech wife, Oldřiška “Olda” Palkovská Kokoschka (1915–2009), lived in Ullapool, a village in Wester Ross, Scotland. There he drew with coloured pencil (a technique he developed in Scotland), and painted many local landscape views in watercolour. While in Ullapool, Kokoschka painted a portrait of his friend, the wealthy industrialist Ferdinand Bloch-Bauer, Uncle of Maria Altmann. The painting hangs at the Kunsthaus Museum in Zurich. Between 1941–1946 he and Olda spent several weeks each summer with the Czech Professor Emil Korner at his home The House of Elrig in Wigtownshire.
Later life
Kokoschka naturalised as a British subject on 21 February 1947 and would only regain Austrian citizenship in 1978. He travelled briefly to the United States in 1947 before settling in Villeneuve, Switzerland in 1953, where he lived the rest of his life. Kokoschka spent these years as an educator at the Internationale Sommer Akademie für Bildenden Künste, (the recently deceased Ricarda Jacobi being one of his pupils) while also working on stage designs and publishing a collection of his writings. A retrospective of Kokoschka's work was exhibited at the Tate Gallery in London in 1962.
Kokoschka died on 22 February 1980 in Montreux, at the age of 93, eight days before his 94th birthday, of complications after contracting influenza. He was interred in the Montreux Central Cemetery.
Kokoschka had much in common with his contemporary Max Beckmann. Both maintained their independence from German Expressionism, yet are now regarded as textbook examples of the style. Nonetheless, their individualism set both apart from the main movements of twentieth-century modernism. Both wrote eloquently of the need to develop the art of "seeing" (Kokoschka emphasized depth perception while Beckmann was concerned with mystical insight into the invisible realm), and both were masters of innovative oil-painting techniques anchored in earlier traditions.
Honours
Kokoschka was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1959 New Year Honours. He also received the Erasmus Prize in 1960 together with Marc Chagall.
Artworks
1909: Lotte Franzos
1909: Martha Hirsch I
1909: Hans and Erika Tietze
1909: St. Veronica with the Sudarium
1909: Les Dents du Midi
1909: Children Playing
1910: Still Life with Lamb and Hyacinth
1910: Rudolf Blümner
1911: Lady in Red
1911: Hermann Schwarzwald I
1911: Egon Wellesz
1911: Crucifixion
1912: Two Nudes
1913: Landscape in the Dolomites (with Cima Tre Croci)
1913: The Tempest
1913: Carl Moll
1913: Still Life with Putto and Rabbit
1914: The Bride of the Wind
1914: Portrait of Franz Hauser
1915: Knight Errant
1917: Portrait of the Artist's Mother
1917: Lovers with Cat
1917: Stockholm Harbour
1920: The Power of Music
1919: Dresden, Neustadt I
1921: Dresden, Neustadt II
1921: Two Girls
1922: Self-Portrait at the Easel
1923: Self-Portrait with Crossed Arms
1924: Venice, Boats on the Dogana
1925: Amsterdam, Kloveniersburgwal I
1925: Toledo
1926: Mandrill
1926: Deer
1926: London Large Thames View I
1929: Arab Women and Child
1929: Pyramids at Gizeh
1932: Girl with Flowers
1934: Prague, View from the Villa Kramář
1937: Olda Palkovská
1938: Prague – Nostalgia
1940: The Crab
1941: Anschluss – Alice in Wonderland
1941: The Red Egg
1948: Self-Portrait (Fiesole)
1950: The Myth of Prometheus
1962: Storm Tide in Hamburg
1966: The Rejected Lover
1971: Time, Gentlemen, Please
Writings
Kokoschka's literary works are as peculiar and interesting as his art. His memoir, A Sea Ringed with Visions, details his theories of both corporeal and visceral vision and how they shape consciousness, art, and realities. His short play Murderer, the Hope of Women (1909, set ten years later by Paul Hindemith as Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen) is often called the first Expressionist drama. His Orpheus und Eurydike (1918) became an opera by Ernst Krenek, who was first approached for incidental music.
Bibliography
1908: Die traumenden Knaben (The Dreaming Youths) Vienna: Wiener Werkstätte (Originally published in an edition of 500 by the Wiener Werkstätte. Unsold copies numbered 1–275, were reissued in 1917 by Kurt Wolff Verlag.)
1909: Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, the Hope of Women) (Play)
1913: Der gefesselte Columbus (Columbus Bound). [Berlin]: Fritz Gurlitt, [1913] (known as Der weisse Tiertoter (The White Animal Slayer).
1919: Orpheus and Eurydike, in: Vier Dramen: Orpheus und Eurydike; Der brennende Dornbusch; Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen; [and] Hiob. Berlin
1955: Designs of the Stage-Settings for W.A. Mozart's Magic Flute, Salzburg Festival 1955/56. Salzburg: Galerie Welz
1962: A Sea Ringed with Visions. London: Thames & Hudson (Autobiography)
1974: My Life; translated (from "Mein Leben") by David Britt. London: Thames & Hudson
First productions of plays
1907: Sphinx und Strohmann. Komödie für Automaten. 29 March 1909 at Cabaret Fledermaus, Vienna
1909: Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen
1911: Der brennende Dornbusch
1913: Sphinx und Strohmann, Ein Curiosum. 14 April 1917 in the Dada-Galerie, Zürich
1917: Hiob (an enlarged version of Sphinx und Strohmann, 1907)
1919: Orpheus und Eurydike
1923: new version as opera libretto; music by Ernst Krenek. 27 November 1926 at the Staatstheater Kassel
1936–38/1972: Comenius
Articles, essays and writings
1960: "Lettre de Voyage", Oskar Kokoschka, X magazine, Vol. I, No. II (March 1960)
See also
Facing the Modern: The Portrait in Vienna 1900
References
Further sources
Adamson, Donald "Oskar Kokoschka at Polperro", in: The Cornish Banner, November 2009, pp. 19–33
Adamson, Donald "Researching Kokoschka", in: The Cornish Banner, November 2010, pp. 22–24
K. Holz, Modern German Art for Thirties Paris, Prague, and London: Resistance and Acquiescence in a Democratic Public Sphere
Extensive article in the Encyclopædia Britannica
Holz, K. (2004) Modern German Art for Thirties Paris, Prague, and London: resistance and acquiescence in a democratic public sphere. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Kokoschka, Oskar (1962) A Sea Ringed with Visions. London: Thames & Hudson (Autobiography)
Weidinger, Alfred (1996) Kokoschka and Alma Mahler. Munich: Prestel-Verlag
Literature
Alfred Weidinger: Oskar Kokoschka. Dreaming Boy and Enfant Terrible. Early Graphic Works, 1902–1909. Ed. Albertina, Vienna 1996.
Alfred Weidinger: Kokoschka and Alma Mahler: Testimony to a Passionate Relationship. Prestel, New York 1996,
Tobias G. Natter, (Ed.), Oskar Kokoschka. The Early Portraits 1909–1914, exhibition catalog Neue Galerie New York and Hamburger Kunsthalle. DuMont, Cologne 2001, .
Paul Westheim, Oskar Kokoschka : das Werk Kokoschkas in 135 Abbildungen, exhibition catalogue, Paul Cassirer Verlag, Berlin, 1925
Filmography
Kokoschka Life's work, documentary directed by Michel Rodde, Switzerland, 2017, 91', distributed in Canada by K-Films Amérique (VOD).
Further reading
Oskar Kokoschka – La mia vita, Carmine Benincasa – Ed. Marsilio, Venezia 1981
Oskar Kokoschka, "Lettre de Voyage", X magazine, Vol. I, No. II (March 1960)
Berland, Rosa JH. "Expressionist Death Images and the Feminine Other: Oskar Kokoschka’s Mörder Hoffnung der Frauen (1907) and Hugo Von Hofmannsthal’s Elektra (1903). Death Representations in Literature. Cambridge Scholars, 2015.
Berland, Rosa JH. "The radical work of Oskar Kokoschka and the alternative venues of Die Kunstschauen of 1908–1909, Vienna, Austria." Exhibiting Outside the Academy, Salon and Biennial, 1775–1999. Ashgate Press, 2015.
Tobias G. Natter, Franz Smola (Eds.), Kokoschka. Das Ich im Brennpunkt, Brandstätter Publishing, Vienna 2013, .
{{cite journal|last1=Berland|first1=Rosa JH|title=The Exploration of Dreams: Kokoschka's Die träumenden Knaben" and Freud|journal=Source|date=Winter–Spring 2008|volume=27|issue=2/3 Special issue on art and psychoanalysis|pages=25–31}}
Hilde Berger: Ob es Hass ist solche Liebe? Oskar Kokoschka und Alma Mahler, Böhlau Verlag, Wien 1999 , 2nd edition 2008
Tobias G. Natter, Die Welt von Klimt, Schiele und Kokoschka. Sammler und Mäzene, DuMont, Cologne 2003, .
Oliver Hilmes: Witwe im Wahn. Das Leben der Alma Mahler-Werfel, Siedler Vlg., München 2004 .
Tobias G. Natter, Max Hollein (Eds.),The Naked Truth: Klimt, Schiele, Kokoschka, and other Scandals, Prestel, Munich, 2005, .
Wolfgang Maier-Preusker: Buch- und Mappenwerke mit Grafik des Deutschen Expressionismus, Ausst.Kat. für Hansestadt Wismar, Wien 2006
Tilo Richter (ed.): Horst Tappe: Kokoschka, m. Fotografien v. Horst Tappe, Zitaten (d/e/f) u. Grafiken v. Oskar Kokoschka, Vorwort v. Christoph Vitali, Christoph Merian Verlag, Basel 2005
Heinz Spielmann: Oskar Kokoschka – Leben und Werk, Dumont Verlag. Köln 2003 .
Alfred Weidinger: Kokoschkas King Lear. Albertina, Wien 1995
Alfred Weidinger: Kokoschka und Alma Mahler – Dokumente einer leidenschaftlichen Begegnung, Reihe 'Pegasus Bibliothek', Prestel Vlg., München/New York 1996 . * Widerstand statt Anpassung: Deutsche Kunst im Widerstand gegen den Faschismus 1933–1945, Elefanten Press Verlag GmbH, Berlin 1980
Alfred Weidinger, Alice Strobl: Oskar Kokoschka. Die Zeichnungen und Aquarelle 1897–1916. Werkkatalog, 1. Band. Hg. Albertina. Verlag Galerie Welz, Salzburg 2008
Alfred Weidinger: Oskar Kokoschka. Träumender Knabe – Enfant terrible, 1906–1922. Ed. Agnes Husslein-Arco, Alfred Weidinger. Belvedere, Wien 2008
Norbert Werner (ed.): Kokoschka – Leben und Werk in Daten und Bildern, Insel Vlg., Frankfurt. 1991
Hans M. Wingler, Friedrich Welz: Oskar Kokoschka – Das druckgraphische Werk , Verlag Galerie Welz, Salzburg 1975
Johann Winkler, Katharina Erling: Oskar Kokoschka. Die Gemälde 1906–1929'', Verlag Galerie Welz, Salzburg 1995
External links
Fondation Oskar Kokoschka at the Musée Jenisch in Vevey, with illustrations of Kokoschka works, text in French
Kokoschka: Knight Errant of 20th Century Painting, a memorial lecture by Carol Hoorn Fraser
Gallery of Kokoschka's early works
Kokoschka's "Double Portrait of Hans Mardersteig and Carl Georg Heise", "The Mandril" and "Walter Hasenclever" at the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen in Rotterdam, with images of the works, and descriptions in English.
1886 births
1980 deaths
20th-century Austrian painters
20th-century male artists
20th-century British painters
20th-century dramatists and playwrights
Austrian Expressionist painters
Austrian emigrants to Scotland
Austrian landscape painters
Austrian male painters
Austrian people of Czech descent
Austrian printmakers
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
British emigrants to Switzerland
British Expressionist painters
British landscape painters
British male painters
Expressionist dramatists and playwrights
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy
Modernist theatre
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Orientalist painters
Emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss
People from Melk District
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Applied Arts Vienna alumni
Wiener Werkstätte
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts faculty
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] |
204286
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinokaryota
|
Dinokaryota
|
Dinokaryota is a main grouping of dinoflagellates. They include all species where the nucleus remains a dinokaryon throughout the entire cell cycle, which is typically dominated by the haploid stage. All the "typical" dinoflagellates, such as Peridinium and Gymnodinium, belong here. Others are more unusual, including some that are colonial, amoeboid, or parasitic. Symbiodinium contains the symbiotic zooxanthellae.
The non-photosynthetic members are believed to derive from photosynthetic ancestors.
Classification
Dinoflagellates are classified by morphology.
With a theca
Species with a theca are divided into four orders, based on the arrangement of the armor plates:
Dinophysiales - e.g. Dinophysis
Gonyaulacales - e.g. Ceratium, Gonyaulax
Peridiniales - e.g. Peridinium
Prorocentrales - e.g. Prorocentrum
The Peridiniales are probably paraphyletic to the others, and on rRNA trees they are mixed with the species that lack thecae. The other three orders are probably monophyletic, with the Dinophysiales and Prorocentrales as close relatives, united by the presence of a sagittal suture dividing the theca in two.
However, on rRNA trees the Prorocentrales are split up.
Without theca
The groups of dinoflagellates without theca are understood to be artificial, and are mostly polyphyletic. Many of the genera, such as Gymnodinium and Amphidinium, are also polyphyletic. However some may approximate monophyletic groups, such as the Suessiales, and some have not been studied phylogenetically.
Gymnodiniales - e.g. Gymnodinium, Amphidinium
Ptychodiscales
Suessiales - e.g. Symbiodinium
Desmocapsales
Phytodiniales (includes Dinococcales, Dinotrichales) - e.g. Dinamoeba, Pfiesteria
Thoracosphaerales
Blastodiniales
There is also a group of parasitic dinoflagellates, the Blastodiniales, that do not have dinokarya during their trophic stage. Because of this, they have been treated as a separate class Blastodiniphyceae, but some or all may actually have developed within the Dinophyceae.
References
Dinoflagellate taxonomy
Superclasses (biology)
Taxa described in 1993
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20Poor%20Laws
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English Poor Laws
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The English Poor Laws were a system of poor relief in England and Wales that developed out of the codification of late-medieval and Tudor-era laws in 1587–1598. The system continued until the modern welfare state emerged after the Second World War.
English Poor Law legislation can be traced back as far as 1536, when legislation was passed to deal with the impotent poor, although there were much earlier Tudor laws dealing with the problems caused by vagrants and beggars. The history of the Poor Law in England and Wales is usually divided between two statutes: the Old Poor Law passed during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and the New Poor Law, passed in 1834, which significantly modified the system of poor relief. The New Poor Law altered the system from one which was administered haphazardly at a local parish level to a highly centralised system which encouraged the large-scale development of workhouses by poor law unions.
The Poor Law system fell into decline at the beginning of the 20th century owing to factors such as the introduction of the Liberal welfare reforms and the availability of other sources of assistance from friendly societies and trade unions, as well as piecemeal reforms which bypassed the Poor Law system. The Poor Law system was not formally abolished until the National Assistance Act 1948, with parts of the law remaining on the books until 1967.
History
Medieval Poor Laws
The earliest medieval Poor Law was the Ordinance of Labourers which was issued by King Edward III of England on 18 June 1349, and revised in 1350. The ordinance was issued in response to the 1348–1350 outbreak of the Black Death in England, when an estimated 30–40% of the population had died. The decline in population left surviving workers in great demand in the agricultural economy of Britain. Landowners had to face the choice of raising wages to compete for workers or letting their lands go unused. Wages for labourers rose, and this forced up prices across the economy as goods became more expensive to produce. An attempt to rein in prices, the ordinance (and subsequent acts, such the Statute of Labourers of 1351) required that everyone who could work did; that wages were kept at pre-plague levels and that food was not overpriced. Workers saw these shortage conditions as an opportunity to flee employers and become freemen, so Edward III passed additional laws to punish escaped workers. In addition, the Statute of Cambridge was passed in 1388 and placed restrictions on the movement of labourers and beggars.
Tudor Poor Law
The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced back to late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy, but it was only during the Tudor period that the Poor Law system was codified. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries during the Tudor Reformation, monasteries had been the primary source of poor relief, but their dissolution resulted in poor relief moving from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level. Early legislation was concerned with vagrants and making the able-bodied work, especially while labour was in short supply following the Black Death.
Tudor attempts to tackle the problem originated during the reign of Henry VII. In 1495, Parliament passed the Vagabonds and Beggars Act ordering that "vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town. Every beggar suitable to work shall resort to the Hundred where he last dwelled, is best known, or was born and there remain upon the pain aforesaid." Although this returned the burden of caring for the jobless to the communities producing more children than they could employ, it offered no immediate remedy to the problem of poverty; it was merely swept from sight, or moved from town to town. Moreover, no distinction was made between vagrants and the jobless; both were simply categorised as "sturdy beggars", to be punished and moved on.
In 1530, during the reign of Henry VIII, a proclamation was issued, describing idleness as the "mother and root of all vices" and ordering that whipping should replace the stocks as the punishment for vagabonds. This change was confirmed in the 1531 Vagabonds Act the following year, with one important change: it directed the justices of the peace to assign to the impotent poor an area within which they were to beg. Generally, the licences to beg for the impotent poor were limited to the disabled, sick, and elderly. An impotent person begging out of his area was to be imprisoned for two days and nights in the stocks, on bread and water, and then sworn to return to the place in which he was authorised to beg. An able-bodied beggar was to be whipped, and sworn to return to the place where he was born, or last dwelt for the space of three years, and there put himself to labour. Still no provision was made, though, for the healthy man simply unable to find work. All able-bodied unemployed were put into the same category. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of public works to deal with the problem of unemployment, to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped.
In London, there was a great massing of the poor, and the Reformation threatened to eliminate some of the infrastructure used to provide for the poor. As a result, King Henry VIII consented to re-endow St. Bartholomew's Hospital in 1544 and St. Thomas' Hospital in 1552 on the condition that the citizens of London pay for their maintenance. However, the city was unable to raise enough revenue from voluntary contributions, so it instituted the first definite compulsory Poor Rate in 1547, which replaced Sunday collections in church with a mandatory collection for the poor. In 1555, London became increasingly concerned with the number of poor who could work, but yet could not find work, so it established the first House of Correction (predecessor to the workhouse) in the King's Palace at Bridewell where poor could receive shelter and work at cap-making, feather-bed making, and wire drawing.
For the able-bodied poor, life became even tougher during the reign of Edward VI. In 1547, the Vagabonds Act was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offence, and death for the second. Justices of the Peace were reluctant to apply the full penalty. In 1552, Edward VI passed a Poor Act which designated a position of "Collector of Alms" in each parish and created a register of licensed poor. Under the assumption that parish collections would now relieve all poor, begging was completely prohibited.
The government of Elizabeth I, Edward VI's successor after Mary I, was also inclined to severity. An Act passed in 1572 called for offenders to be burned through the ear for a first offence and that persistent beggars should be hanged. However, the Act also made the first clear distinction between the "professional beggar" and those unemployed through no fault of their own. Early in her reign, Elizabeth I also passed laws directly aimed at providing relief for the poor. For example, in 1563, her Act for the Relief of the Poor required all parish residents with ability to contribute to poor collections. Those who "of his or their forward willful mind shall obstinately refuse to give weekly to the relief of the poor according to his or their abilities" could be bound over to justices of the peace and fined £10. Additionally, the 1572 Vagabonds Act further enabled Justices of the Peace to survey and register the impotent poor, determine how much money was required for their relief, and then assess parish residents weekly for the appropriate amount. Her 1575 Poor Act required towns to create "a competent stock of wool, hemp, flax, iron and other stuff" for the poor to work on and houses of correction for those who refused to work where recalcitrant or careless workers could be forced to work and punished accordingly.
The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and some provision for the "deserving poor" was eventually made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601. The more immediate origins of the Elizabethan Poor Law system were deteriorating economic circumstances in sixteenth-century England. Historian George Boyer has stated that England suffered rapid inflation at this time caused by population growth, the debasement of coinage and the inflow of American silver. Poor harvests in the period between 1595 and 1598 caused the numbers in poverty to increase, while charitable giving had decreased after the dissolution of the monasteries and religious guilds.
A new colonial solution
In the early 1580s, with the development of English colonization schemes, initially in Ireland and later in North America, a new method to alleviate the condition of the poor would be suggested and utilized considerably over time. Merchant and colonization proponent George Peckham noted the then-current domestic conditions; "there are at this day great numbers which live in such penurie & want, as they could be content to hazard their lives, and to ser[v]e one yeere for meat, drinke and apparell only, without wages, in hope thereby to amend their estates." With this, he may have been the first to suggest what became the institution of indentured service. At the same time Richard Hakluyt, in his preface to Divers Voyages, likens English planters to "Bees...led out by their Captaines to swarme abroad"; he recommends "deducting" the poor out of the realm. Hakluyt also broadens the scope and additionally recommends to empty the prisons and send them off to the New World. By 1619 Virginia's system of indentured service would be fully developed, and subsequent colonies would adopt the method with modifications suitable to their different conditions and times. English penal transportation would be implemented soon afterwards, and evolve into a subsidized government endeavor with the Transportation Act 1717.
Old Poor Law
The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 formalized earlier practices of poor relief contained in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 yet is often cited as the beginning of the Old Poor Law system. It created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the so-called 'impotent poor', was in the form of a payment or items of food ('the parish loaf') or clothing also known as outdoor relief. Some aged people might be accommodated in parish alms houses, though these were usually private charitable institutions. Meanwhile, able-bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in Houses of Correction or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes. Provision for the many able-bodied poor in the workhouse was relatively unusual, and most workhouses developed later. The 1601 Law said that parents and children were responsible for each other, elderly parents would live with their children.
The Old Poor Law was a parish-based system; there were around 15,000 such parishes based upon the area around a parish church. The system allowed for despotic behaviour from the overseers of the poor, but as overseers of the poor would know their paupers they were considered able to differentiate between the deserving and undeserving poor making the system both more humane and initially more efficient. The Elizabethan Poor Law operated at a time when the population was small enough for everyone to know everyone else, therefore people's circumstances would be known and the idle poor would be unable to claim on the parishes' poor rate. The system provided social stability yet by 1750 needed to be adapted to cope with population increases, greater mobility and regional price variations.
The 1601 Act sought to deal with 'settled' poor who had found themselves temporarily out of work—it was assumed they would accept indoor relief or outdoor relief. Neither method of relief was at this time in history seen as harsh. The act was supposed to deal with beggars who were considered a threat to civil order. The Act was passed at a time when poverty was considered necessary as fear of poverty made people work. In 1607 a House of Correction was set up in each county. However, this system was separate from the 1601 system which distinguished between the settled poor and 'vagrants'. There was much variation in the application of the law and there was a tendency for the destitute to migrate towards the more generous parishes, usually situated in the towns. This led to the Settlement Act 1662 also known as the Poor Relief Act 1662, this allowed relief only to established residents of a parish; mainly through birth, marriage and apprenticeship. Unfortunately, the laws reduced the mobility of labour and discouraged paupers from leaving their parish to find work. They also encouraged industry to create short contracts (e.g. 364 days) so that an employee could not become eligible for poor relief.
A pauper applicant had to prove a settlement. If they could not they were removed to the parish that was nearest to their place of birth, or where they might prove some connection; some paupers were moved hundreds of miles. Although the parishes they passed through en route had no responsibility for them, they were supposed to supply food and drink and shelter for at least one night. In 1697 an act was passed requiring those who begged to wear a "badge" of red or blue cloth on the right shoulder with an embroidered letter "P" and the initial of their parish. However, this practice soon fell into disuse.
The workhouse movement began at the end of the 17th century with the establishment of the Bristol Corporation of the Poor, founded by Act of Parliament in 1696. The corporation established a workhouse which combined housing and care of the poor with a house of correction for petty offenders. Following the example of Bristol, some twelve further towns and cities established similar corporations in the next two decades. As these corporations required a private Act, they were not suitable for smaller towns and individual parishes.
Starting with the parish of Olney, Buckinghamshire in 1714 several dozen small towns and individual parishes established their own institutions without any specific legal authorization. These were concentrated in the South Midlands and in the county of Essex. From the late 1710s the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge began to promote the idea of parochial workhouses. The Society published several pamphlets on the subject, and supported Sir Edward Knatchbull in his successful efforts to steer the Workhouse Test Act through parliament in 1723. The act gave legislative authority for the establishment of parochial workhouses, by both single parishes and as joint ventures between two or more parishes. More importantly, the Act helped to publicise the idea of establishing workhouses to a national audience. By 1776 some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales, housing almost 100,000 paupers. Perhaps one million people were receiving some kind of parish poor relief by the end of the century. Although many parishes and pamphlet writers expected to earn money from the labour of the poor in workhouses, the vast majority of people obliged to take up residence in workhouses were ill, elderly, or children whose labour proved largely unprofitable. The demands, needs and expectations of the poor also ensured that workhouses came to take on the character of general social policy institutions, combining the functions of creche, and night shelter, geriatric ward and orphanage. In 1782, Thomas Gilbert finally succeeded in passing an Act that established poor houses solely for the aged and infirm and introduced a system of outdoor relief for the able-bodied. This was the basis for the development of the Speenhamland system, which made financial provision for low-paid workers. Settlement Laws were altered by the Removal Act 1795 which prevented non-settled persons from being moved on unless they had applied for relief. An investigation of the history and current state of the Poor Laws was made by Michael Nolan in his 1805 Treatise of the Laws for the Relief and Settlement of the Poor. The work would go on to three subsequent editions in Nolan's lifetime (Nolan was elected an MP for Barnstaple in 1820), and stoked the discussion both within and outside of Parliament.
During the Napoleonic Wars it became difficult to import cheap grain into Britain which resulted in the price of bread increasing.
As wages did not also increase, many agricultural labourers were plunged into poverty. Following peace in 1814, the Tory government of Lord Liverpool passed the Corn Laws to keep the price of grain artificially high. 1815 saw great social unrest as the end of the French Wars saw industrial and agricultural depression and high unemployment. Social attitudes to poverty began to change after 1815 and overhauls of the system were considered. The Poor Law system was criticized as distorting the free market and in 1816 a Parliamentary Select Committee looked into altering the system which resulted in the Sturges-Bourne Acts being passed. 1817 also saw the passing of the Poor Employment Act, "to authorise the issue of Exchequer Bills and the Advance of Money out of the Consolidated Fund, to a limited Amount, for the carrying on of Public Works and Fisheries in the United Kingdom and Employment of the Poor in Great Britain". By 1820, before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act workhouses were already being built to reduce the spiraling cost of poor relief. Boyer suggests several possible reasons for the gradual increase in relief given to able-bodied males, including the enclosure movement and a decline in industries such as wool spinning and lace making. Boyer also contends that farmers were able to take advantage of the poor law system to shift some of their labour costs onto the tax payer.
The Royal Commission on the Poor Law
The 1832 Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws was set up following the widespread destruction and machine breaking of the Swing Riots. The report was prepared by a commission of nine, including Nassau William Senior, and served by Edwin Chadwick as Secretary. The Royal Commission's primary concerns were with illegitimacy (or "bastardy"), reflecting the influence of Malthusians, and the fear that the practices of the Old Poor Law were undermining the position of the independent labourer. Two practices were of particular concern: the "roundsman" system, where overseers hired out paupers as cheap labour, and the Speenhamland system, which subsidised low wages without relief. The report concluded that the existing Poor Laws undermined the prosperity of the country by interfering with the natural laws of supply and demand, that the existing means of poor relief allowed employers to force down wages, and, that poverty itself was inevitable.
The Commission proposed the New Law be governed by two overarching principles:
When the Act was introduced however it had been partly watered down. The workhouse test and the idea of "less eligibility" were never mentioned themselves and the recommendation of the Royal Commission that outdoor relief (relief given outside of a workhouse) should be abolished – was never implemented. The report recommended separate workhouses for the aged, infirm, children, able-bodied females and able-bodied males. The report also stated that parishes should be grouped into unions in order to spread the cost of workhouses and a central authority should be established in order to enforce these measures. The Poor Law Commission set up by Earl Grey took a year to write its report, the recommendations passed easily through Parliament support by both main parties the Whigs and the Tories. The bill gained Royal Assent in 1834. The few who opposed the Bill were more concerned about the centralisation which it would bring rather than the underpinning philosophy of utilitarianism.
New Poor Law
The Poor Law Amendment Act was passed in 1834 by the government of Lord Melbourne and largely implemented the findings of the Royal Commission which had presented its findings two years earlier. The New Poor Law is considered to be one of the most "far-reaching pieces of legislation of the entire Nineteenth Century" and "classic example of the fundamental Whig–Benthamite reforming legislation of the period". The Act aimed to reduce the burden on rate payers and can be seen as an attempt by the Whig government to win the votes of the classes enfranchised by the Great Reform Act. Despite being labelled an "amendment act" it completely overhauled the existing system and established a Poor Law Commission to oversee the national operation of the system. This included the forming together of small parishes into poor law unions and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief. Although the aim of the legislation was to reduce costs to rate payers, one area not reformed was the method of financing of the Poor Law system which continued to be paid for by levying a "poor rate" on the property owning middle classes.
Although the Poor Law Amendment Act did not ban all forms of outdoor relief, it stated that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other help from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse. Conditions in workhouses were to be made harsh to discourage people from claiming. Workhouses were to be built in every parish and, if parishes were too small, parishes could group together to form poor law unions. The Poor Law Commissioners were to be responsible for overseeing the implementation of the Act.
For various reasons it was impossible to apply some of the terms of the Act. Less eligibility was in some cases impossible without starving paupers and the high cost of building workhouses incurred by rate payers meant that outdoor relief continued to be a popular alternative. Despite efforts to ban outdoor relief, parishes continued to offer it as a more cost-effective method of dealing with pauperism. The Outdoor Labour Test Order and Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order were both issued to try to prevent people receiving relief outside of the workhouse.
When the new Amendment was applied to the industrial North of England (an area the law had never considered during reviews), the system failed catastrophically as many found themselves temporarily unemployed, due to recessions or a fall in stock demands, so-called 'cyclical unemployment' and were reluctant to enter a workhouse, despite its being the only method of gaining aid. Nottingham also was allowed an exemption from the law and continued to provide outdoor relief.
The abuses and shortcomings of the system are documented in the novels of Charles Dickens and Frances Trollope and later in The People of the Abyss by Jack London. Despite the aspirations of the reformers, the New Poor Law was unable to make the Workhouse as bad as life outside. The primary problem was that in order to make the diet of the workhouse inmates "less eligible" than what they could expect outside, it would be necessary to starve the inmates beyond an acceptable level. It was for this reason that other ways were found to deter entrance to the workhouses. These measures ranged from the introduction of prison-style uniforms to the segregation of 'inmates' into yards – there were normally male, female, boys' and girls' yards.
In 1846, the Andover workhouse scandal, where conditions in the Andover Union workhouse were found to be inhumane and dangerous, prompted a government review and the abolition of the Poor Law Commission which was replaced with a Poor Law Board which meant that a Committee of Parliament was to administer the Poor Law, with a cabinet minister as head. Despite this another scandal occurred over inhumane treatment of paupers in the Huddersfield workhouse.
After the New Poor Law
After 1847 the Poor Law Commission was replaced with a Poor Law Board. This was because of the Andover workhouse scandal and the criticism of Henry Parker who was responsible for the Andover union as well as the tensions in Somerset House caused by Chadwick's failure to become a Poor Law Commissioner. The Poor Law had been altered in 1834 because of increasing costs. The Workhouse Visiting Society which formed in 1858 highlighted conditions in workhouses and led to workhouses being inspected more often. The Union Chargeability Act 1865 was passed in order to make the financial burden of pauperism be placed upon the whole unions rather than individual parishes. Most boards of guardians were middle class and committed to keeping poor rates as low as possible. After the Reform Act 1867 there was increasing welfare legislation. As this legislation required local authorities' support the Poor Law Board was replaced with a Local Government Board in 1871. The Local Government Board led a crusade against outdoor relief supported by the Charity Organisation Society, an organization which viewed outdoor relief as destroying the self-reliance of the poor. The effect of this renewed effort to deter outdoor relief was to reduce claimants by a third and to increase numbers in the work house by 12–15%. County Councils were formed in 1888, District Councils in 1894. This meant that public housing, unlike health and income maintenance, developed outside the scope of the Poor Law. Poor Law policy after the New Poor Law concerning the elderly, the sick and mentally ill and children became more humane. This was in part due to the expense of providing "mixed workhouses" as well as changing attitudes regarding the causes and nature of poverty.
Decline and abolition
The Poor Law system began to decline with the availability of other forms of assistance. The growth of friendly societies provided help for its members without recourse to the Poor Law system. Some trade unions also provided help for their members. The Medical Relief Disqualification Removal Act 1885 meant that people who had accessed medical care funded by the poor rate were no longer disqualified from voting in elections. In 1886 the Chamberlain Circular encouraged the Local Government Board to set up work projects when unemployment rates were high rather than use workhouses. In 1905 the Conservatives passed the Unemployed Workman Act which provided for temporary employment for workers in times of unemployment.
In 1905 a Royal Commission was set up to investigate what changes could be made to the Poor Law. The Commission produced two conflicting reports but both investigations were largely ignored by the Liberal government when implementing their own scheme of welfare legislation. The welfare reforms of the Liberal Government made several provisions to provide social services without the stigma of the Poor Law, including Old age pensions and National Insurance, and from that period fewer people were covered by the system. From 1911, the term "Workhouse" was replaced by "Poor Law Institution". Means tests were developed during the inter-war period, not as part of the Poor Law, but as part of the attempt to offer relief that was not affected by the stigma of pauperism. According to Lees by slowly dismantling the system the Poor Law was "to die by attrition and surgical removals of essential organs".
During the First World War there is evidence that some workhouses were used as makeshift hospitals for wounded servicemen. Numbers using the Poor Law system increased during the interwar years and between 1921 and 1938 despite the extension of unemployment insurance to virtually all workers except the self-employed. Many of these workers were provided with outdoor relief. One aspect of the Poor Law that continued to cause resentment was that the burden of poor relief was not shared equally by rich and poor areas but, rather, fell most heavily on those areas in which poverty was at its worst. This was a central issue in the Poplar Rates Rebellion led by George Lansbury and others in 1921. Lansbury had in 1911 written a provocative attack on the workhouse system in a pamphlet entitled "Smash Up the Workhouse!".
Poverty in the interwar years (1918–1939) was responsible for several measures which largely killed off the Poor Law system. The Board of Guardians (Default) Act 1926 was passed in response to some Boards of Guardians supporting the Miners during the General Strike. Workhouses were officially abolished by the Local Government Act 1929, and between 1929 and 1930 Poor Law Guardians, the "workhouse test" and the term "pauper" disappeared. The Unemployment Assistance Board was set up in 1934 to deal with those not covered by the earlier 1911 National Insurance Act passed by the Liberals, and by 1937 the able-bodied poor had been absorbed into this scheme. By 1936 only 13% of people were still receiving poor relief in some form of institution.
In 1948 the Poor Law system was finally abolished with the introduction of the modern welfare state and the passing of the National Assistance Act. The National Health Service Act 1946 came into force in 1948 and created the modern day National Health Service.
Opposition
Opposition to the Poor Law grew at the beginning of the 19th century. The 1601 system was felt to be too costly and was considered in academic circles as encouraging the underlying problems. Jeremy Bentham argued for a disciplinary, punitive approach to social problems, whilst the writings of Thomas Malthus focused attention on overpopulation, and the growth of illegitimacy. David Ricardo argued that there was an "iron law of wages". The effect of poor relief, in the view of the reformers, was to undermine the position of the "independent labourer".
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, several reformers altered the function of the "poorhouse" into the model for a deterrent workhouse. The first of the deterrent workhouses in this period was at Bingham, Nottinghamshire. The second was Becher's workhouse in Southwell, now maintained by the National Trust. George Nicholls, the overseer at Southwell, was to become a Poor Law Commissioner in the reformed system. The 1817 Report of the Select Committee on the Poor Laws condemned the Poor Law as causing poverty itself.
The introduction of the New Poor Law also resulted in opposition. Some who gave evidence to the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws suggested that the existing system had proved adequate and was more adaptable to local needs. This argument was strongest in the industrial North of England and in the textile industries where outdoor relief was a more effective method of dealing with cyclical unemployment as well as being a more cost-effective method. Poor Law commissioners faced greatest opposition in Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire where in 1837 there was high unemployment during an economic depression. The New Poor Law was seen as interference from Londoners with little understanding of local affairs. Opposition was unusually strong because committees had already been formed in opposition to the Ten Hours Movement, leaders of the Ten Hours campaign such as Richard Oastler, Joseph Rayner Stephens and John Fielden became the leaders of the Anti-Poor Law campaign. The Book of Murder was published and was aimed at creating opposition to the workhouse system. and pamphlets were published spreading rumour and propaganda about Poor Law Commissioners and alleged infanticide inside of workhouses. Opposition to the Poor Law yielded some successes in delaying the development of workhouses, and one workhouse in Stockport was attacked by a crowd of rioters. As many Boards of Guardians were determined to continue under the old system, the Poor Law Commission granted some boards the right to continue providing relief under the Old Poor Law. However, the movement against the New Poor Law was short-lived, leading many to instead turn towards Chartism.
Scotland and Ireland
The Poor Law systems of Scotland and Ireland were distinct from the English Poor Law system covering England and Wales although Irish legislation was heavily influenced by the English Poor Law Amendment Act. In Scotland the Poor Law system was reformed by the 1845 Scottish Poor Law Act. In Ireland the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838 was the first attempt to put control of the destitute and responsibility for their welfare on a statutory basis. Due to exceptional overcrowding, workhouses in Ireland stopped admissions during the Irish famine and increasingly resorted to outdoor relief. Emigration was sometimes used by landlords as a method of keeping the cost of poor relief down and removing surplus labour. Reforms after the Irish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of Boards of Guardians in the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State and their replacement by County Boards of Health.
Historiography
The historiography of the Poor Laws has passed through several distinct phases. The "traditionalist" or "orthodox" account of the Poor Laws focuses upon the deficiencies of the Old Poor Law. This early historiography was influential in successfully overhauling the system. Mark Blaug presents the first revisionist analysis of the Poor Law in "The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the making of the New", commenting that the Old Poor Law did not reduce the efficiency of agricultural workers, lower wages, depress rents or compound the burden on rate payers. Blaug argues that Old Poor Law was a device "for dealing with the problems of structural unemployment and substandard wages in the lagging rural sector of a rapidly growing but still underdeveloped economy". Other areas of Poor Law which have concerned historians include the extent to which the Second Great Reform Act contributed to the Poor Law Amendment Act and the extent to which outdoor relief was abolished following the New Poor Law.
See also
Social welfare, government programs that seek to provide a minimum level of income, service or other support for certain people
Timeline of the Poor Law system
Welfare (financial aid)
Social care in the United Kingdom
Wife selling (English custom)
References
Further reading
Blaug, Mark. The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the Making of the New Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 151–84. JSTOR
Blaug, Mark. The Poor Law Report Re-examined Journal of Economic History (1964) 24: 229–45. JSTOR
Boot, H.M. Unemployment and Poor Law Relief in Manchester, 1845–5 Social History 15 (1990): 217–28. JSTOR
Booth, Charles. The Aged Poor in England and Wales. London: MacMillan, 1894. Internet Archive
Boyer, George R. Poor Relief, Informal Assistance, and Short Time during the Lancashire Cotton Famine Explorations in Economic History 34 (1997): 56–76.
Boyer, George R. An Economic History of the English Poor Law, 1750–1850. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Google Books
Brundage, Anthony. The Making of the New Poor Law. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978.
Clark, Gregory. Farm Wages and Living Standards in the Industrial Revolution: England, 1670–1869 Economic History Review, 2nd series 54 (2001): 477–505. UCDavis
Clark, Gregory and Anthony Clark. Common Rights to Land in England, 1475–1839 Journal of Economic History 61 (2001): 1009–36. UCDavis
Digby, Anne. The Labour Market and the Continuity of Social Policy after 1834: The Case of the Eastern Counties Economic History Review, 2nd series 28 (1975): 69–83.
Eastwood, David. Governing Rural England: Tradition and Transformation in Local Government, 1780–1840. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.
Fraser, Derek, editor. The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century. London: Macmillan, 1976.
Hammond, J. L. and Barbara Hammond. The Village Labourer, 1760–1832. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911.
Hampson, E.M. The Treatment of Poverty in Cambridgeshire, 1597–1834. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1934 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Humphries, Jane. Enclosures, Common Rights, and Women: The Proletarianization of Families in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (1990): 17–42.
King, Steven. Poverty and Welfare in England, 1700–1850: A Regional Perspective. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000.
Lees, Lynn Hollen. The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1770–1948. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Lindert, Peter H. Poor Relief before the Welfare State: Britain versus the Continent, 1780–1880 European Review of Economic History 2 (1998): 101–40.
MacKinnon, Mary. English Poor Law Policy and the Crusade Against Outrelief Journal of Economic History 47 (1987): 603–25.
Marshall, J.D. The Old Poor Law, 1795–1834. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan, 1985.
Nagl, Dominik. No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions – Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630–1769, Berlin: LIT, 2013: 149–59.
Pinchbeck, Ivy. Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850. London: Routledge, 1930.
Pound, John. Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, 2nd edition. London: Longmans, 1986.
Rose, Michael E. “The New Poor Law in an Industrial Area”. in The Industrial Revolution, edited by R.M. Hartwell. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Rose, Michael E. The English Poor Law, 1780–1930. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971.
Royden, Mike, 'The Poor Law and Workhouse in Liverpool' in Tales from the 'Pool, (2017) Creative Dreams,
Royden, Mike, ‘The Nineteenth century Poor Law in Liverpool and its Hinterland: Towards the Origins of the Workhouse Infirmary’, Journal of the Liverpool Medical History Society, Volume 11 (2000)
Shaw-Taylor, Leigh. "Parliamentary Enclosure and the Emergence of an English Agricultural Proletariat." Journal of Economic History 61 (2001): 640–62.
Slack, Paul. Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England. London: Longmans, 1988.
Slack, Paul. The English Poor Law, 1531–1782. London: Macmillan, 1990.
Smith, Richard (1996). “Charity, Self-interest and Welfare: Reflections from Demographic and Family History” in Charity, Self-Interest and Welfare in the English Past.
Sokoll, Thomas. Household and Family among the Poor: The Case of Two Essex Communities in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. 1993.
Solar, Peter M. "'Poor Relief and English Economic Development before the Industrial Revolution'." Economic History Review, 2nd series 48 (1995): 1–22.
Tawney, R.H. Religion and the Rise of Capitalism: A Historical Study. London: J. Murray, 1926.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice Webb. English Poor Law History. Part I: The Old Poor Law. London: Longmans, 1927.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice Webb. English poor law policy (1910)
External links
Annotated text of an Act of 1598 of which the 1601 Act was a revision (scroll down to (H))
Workhouse records on The National Archives' website.
A famous depiction of women in the Victorian workhouse – 'A scene in the Westminster Union, 1878'
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speenhamland%20system
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Speenhamland system
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The Speenhamland system was a form of outdoor relief intended to mitigate rural poverty in England and Wales at the end of the 18th century and during the early 19th century. The law was an amendment to the Elizabethan Poor Law. It was created as an indirect result of Britain's involvements in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815).
Operation
The system was named after a 1795 meeting in Speenhamland, Berkshire, where local magistrates devised the system as a means to alleviate the distress caused by high grain prices. The increase in the price of grain may have occurred as a result of a poor harvest in the years 1795–96, though at the time this was subject to great debate. Many blamed middlemen and hoarders as the ultimate architects of the shortage.
The Speehamland scale read, "When a gallon loaf of bread cost one shilling:... every Poor and Industrious Man should have for his own Support 3s weekly, either produced by his Family's Labour, or an Allowance from the Poor rates, and for the support of wife and every other of his Family 1s 6d.... When the Gallon loaf shall cost 1s 4d then every Poor and Industrious Man shall have 4s Weekly for his own, and 1s and 10d for the Support of every other of his Family. And so on in proportion as the price of bread rises and falls."
The authorities at Speenhamland approved a means-tested sliding-scale of wage supplements in order to mitigate the worst effects of rural poverty. Families were paid extra to top up wages to a set level according to a table. This level varied according to the number of children and the price of bread. For example, if bread was 1s 2d (14 pence) a loaf, the wages of a family with two children were topped up to 8s 6d (102 pence).
The first formula was set at a time of high prices and possible over-charging, minimum wage inflation was deliberately muted compared to price rises. If bread rose to 1s 8d (20 pence) the wages were topped up to 11s 0d (132 pence). In this quoted example in percentage terms, a 43% price rise led to a 30% wage rise (wages fell from 7.3 to 6.6 loaves).
The immediate impact of paying the poor rate fell on the landowners of the parish concerned. They then sought other means of dealing with the poor, such as the workhouse funded through parish unions. Eventually pressure due to structural poverty caused the introduction of the new Poor Law (1834).
The Speenhamland system appears to have reached its height during the Napoleonic Wars, when it was a means of allaying dangerous discontent among growing numbers of rural poor faced by soaring food prices, and to have died out in the post-war period, except in a few parishes. The system was popular in the south of England. William Pitt the Younger attempted to get the idea passed into legislation but failed. The system was not adopted nationally but was popular in the counties which experienced the Swing Riots during the 1830s.
Criticisms
In 1834, the Report of the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws 1832 called the Speenhamland System a "universal system of pauperism". The system allowed employers, including farmers and the nascent industrialists of the town, to pay below subsistence wages, because the parish would make up the difference and keep their workers alive. So the workers' low income was unchanged and the poor rate contributors subsidised the farmers.
Thomas Malthus believed a system of supporting the poor would lead to increased population growth rates because the Poor Laws encouraged early marriage and prolific procreation, which would be a problem due to the Malthusian catastrophe (where population growth would exceed food production). Recent scholarly analysis of census data by E. A. Wrigley, and Richard Smith shows that Malthus was mistaken.
Historian Rutger Bregman argues that food production actually grew steadily by a third between 1790 and 1830, though with a smaller section of the populace able to access it due to mechanization, and the population growth that actually happened was due to growing demand for child labour and not Speenhamland.
David Ricardo believed that Speenhamland would create a poverty trap, where the poor would work less, which would make food production fall, in its turn creating the space for a revolution;. However, Bregman argues the poverty that existed back then was not caused by a supposed Speenhamland "poverty trap", as "wage earners were permitted to keep at least part of their allowances when their earnings increased", but instead was the result of price hikes resulting from England returning to the gold standard, a policy Ricardo himself had recommended.
While some scholars believe that social unrest resulted from the system, others believe it was due to the adoption of the gold standard and industrialization, which equally affected all the populace in areas with or without Speenhamland.
This system of poor relief, and others like it, lasted until the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, which prohibited boards of guardians supplementing the wages of full-time workers. This was not always implemented locally as guardians did not want to separate families in workhouses, and it was often cheaper to supplement wages than operate larger workhouses.
Evidence in the last 30 years shows that the bread scale devised during the Speenhamland meeting in 1795 was by no means universal, and that even the system of outdoor relief which found one of its earliest, though not its first, expressions in Speenhamland was not completely widespread. Allowances or supplements to wages were used generally as a temporary measure and the way they operated differed between regions. Mark Blaug's 1960 essay The Myth of the Old Poor Law charged the commissioners of 1834 with largely using the Speenhamland system to vilify the old poor law and create a will for the passage of a new one. However, historians such as Eric Hobsbawm have argued that the old poor law was still damaging by subsidising employers, and heightening dependency of workers' incomes on local aristocrats.
Daniel A. Baugh argues that relief costs did not greatly increase. After the Napoleonic Wars the conditions of employment and subsistence in south-east England underwent a fundamental change. The Speenhamland System did not differ much in consequences from the older system; what mattered was the shape of the poverty problem.
See also
Roundsman
Labour Rate
Poor Law
Notes
Further reading
Block, Fred, and Margaret Somers. "In the shadow of Speenhamland: Social policy and the old poor law." Politics & Society 31.2 (2003): 283–323. online
Elder, Walter. "Speenhamland Revisited." Social Service Review 38.3 (1964): 294–302. online
Grover, Chris. "Hard Work", History Today (June 2020) 70#6 pp. 64–69. Covers 1795 to 2020; online.
Himmelfarb, Gertrude, The Idea of Poverty (1985) online
Hobsbawm, Eric, and G. Rudé, Captain Swing (1969), pp. 50–51
Hobsbawm, E. J. "The British Standard of Living, 1798-1850" Economic History Review (1957) 10#1 pp 46–68. online Compares the "pessimistic" school (Ricardo-Malthus-Marx-Toynbee-Hammond) and the "optimistic" school (Clapham-Ashton-Hayek), and argues the pessimists were more correct.
Huzel, James P. "Malthus, the poor law, and population in early nineteenth-century England."Economic History Review 22.3 (1969): 430-452 online.
Jones, Peter. "Swing, Speenhamland and rural social relations: the ‘moral economy’ of the English crowd in the nineteenth century." Social History 32.3 (2007): 271-290.
McGaughey, E. "Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy" (2018) SSRN, part 3 (1)
Polanyi, Karl. The Great Transformation (1957) online pp 77–110.
Thompson, E.P., The Making of the English Working Class (1964) online
Wrigley, E. A. and Richard Smith, "Malthus and the Poor Law," Historical Journal 63.1 (2020): 33-62
English Poor Laws
Georgian era
History of Berkshire
Newbury, Berkshire
1795 establishments in England
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speen%2C%20Berkshire
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Speen, Berkshire
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Speen is a village and civil parish in West Berkshire, England. Centred north west of the largest town in the district, Newbury, Speen has clustered settlements, the largest of which is Speen village (which is contiguous with Newbury) and the others are buffered from the town by the A34 road and named Bagnor, Stockcross, Woodspeen and Marsh Benham. Its other land is an approximately even mixture of woodland and agricultural fields (including cultivated crops, hay meadow for livestock feed and pasture) and varies greatly in elevation, having the Reading to Taunton Line alongside the north bank of the River Kennet as its southern boundary and both banks of the River Lambourn in its north with elevated ground in between. Benham Park in the south-west of the area is a listed landscape garden and house.
History
Speen has the frequently broken-up footpath marking the Ermin Way, the main Roman road from Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester) to Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester). The English Civil War Second Battle of Newbury was fought at Speen on 27 October 1644. Speenhamland in the parish, now part of Newbury, was the home of the Speenhamland system of outdoor relief.
Landmarks
Parish church
The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin is late Saxon and is the oldest church in Berkshire. It is the burial place of Giovanni Battista Castiglione (1515–98), Queen Elizabeth I's Italian tutor and servant, who was given nearby (in the parish) Benham Valence house and park in 1572.
The Ladywell or lady well
The church, as stated to Our Lady (an alternative name for the Virgin Mary, generally deprecated from the reign of Elizabeth I among Anglicans) was built near one of the holy wells of Christendom, which is as with many wells, an enlarged spring. Tenuous local tradition says its water is able to cure eye diseases and other ills, and there have been reports it is haunted. Some of the village people have seen an old woman with white hair and wearing a blue rain mac wandering around the grave yard and up the path the well is situated on. The Ladywell was fenced off in the Victorian era.
Speen House
Next to the above sites are ramparts around elevated Speen House, the latest incarnation of Speen manor house, which is mostly late 18th century, but incorporates a minority of building materials from its 17th century precursor. Early historians have dated a few stones among the foundations to the Roman village of Spinae, but it is more likely that these oldest stones were sourced and hewn for the late medieval manor house, nothing else of which survives.
Benham Park
Benham Park or Benham Valence Manor is a landscape garden centred on its house built by Henry Holland and Capability Brown for William, 6th Baron Craven in 1775. It was later the home of his widow, Elizabeth, and her second husband, the Margrave of Anspach. The building is Grade II* listed and park is Grade II listed. One of its pairs of grand and ornate gate piers (pilasters) is separately Grade I listed.
Transport
Speen railway station, on the Lambourn Valley Railway, served the parish until it was closed in 1960. The nearest railway station now is . The A34 road cuts through the middle of the parish in a roughly straight line north–south. It has the nucleus of the village to its east closest to one of the three Newbury junctions & the roads proceeds to a full junction with the M4 Motorway at Chieveley, Berkshire before passing Didcot & Oxford. Buses:
Buses 4, 4A and 4C to/from Newbury and Lambourn
Bus 3X to/from Newbury and Hungerford
Bus 4B to/from Newbury
Demography
References
Villages in Berkshire
Civil parishes in Berkshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jataka%20tales
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Jataka tales
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The Jataka tales are a voluminous body of literature native to India concerning the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Often, Jātaka tales include an extensive cast of characters who interact and get into various kinds of trouble - whereupon the Buddha character intervenes to resolve all the problems and bring about a happy ending.
In Theravada Buddhism, the Jātakas are a textual division of the Pāli Canon, included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. The term Jātaka may also refer to a traditional commentary on this book. The tales are dated between 300 BC and 400 AD.
Mahāsāṃghika Caitika sects from the Āndhra region took the Jātakas as canonical literature and are known to have rejected some of the Theravāda Jātakas which dated past the time of King Ashoka. The Caitikas claimed that their own Jātakas represented the original collection before the Buddhist tradition split into various lineages.
According to A. K. Warder, the Jātakas are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates. Although many Jātakas were written from an early period, which describe previous lives of the Buddha, very little biographical material about Gautama's own life has been recorded.
The Jātaka-Mālā of Arya Śura in Sanskrit gives 34 Jātaka stories. At the Ajanta Caves, Jātaka scenes are inscribed with quotes from Arya Shura, with script datable to the sixth century. It had already been translated into Chinese in 434 CE. Borobudur contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from Jataka Mala.
Contents
The Theravāda Jātakas comprise 547 poems, arranged roughly by an increasing number of verses. According to Professor von Hinüber, only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible by themselves, without commentary. The commentary gives stories in prose that it claims provide the context for the verses, and it is these stories that are of interest to folklorists. Alternative versions of some of the stories can be found in another book of the Pali Canon, the Cariyapitaka, and a number of individual stories can be found scattered around other books of the Canon. Many of the stories and motifs found in the Jātaka such as the Rabbit in the Moon of the Śaśajātaka (Jataka Tales: no.316), are found in numerous other languages and media. For example, The Monkey and the Crocodile, The Turtle Who Couldn't Stop Talking and The Crab and the Crane that are listed below also famously featured in the Hindu Panchatantra, the Sanskrit niti-shastra that ubiquitously influenced world literature. Many of the stories and motifs are translations from the Pali but others are instead derived from vernacular oral traditions prior to the Pali compositions.
Sanskrit (see for example the Jātakamālā) and Tibetan Jātaka stories tend to maintain the Buddhist morality of their Pali equivalents, but re-tellings of the stories in other languages sometimes contain significant amendments to suit their respective cultures. At the Mahathupa in Sri Lanka all 550 Jataka tales were represented inside of the reliquary chamber. Reliquaries often depict the Jataka tales.
Jātaka stupas
Many stupas in northern India are said to mark locations from the Jātaka tales; the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang reported several of these. A stupa in Pushkalavati, is said to mark it where Syama fulfilled his filial duty to his blind parents. Nearby the ascetic Ekasrnga was seduced by a beautiful woman. In Mangalura, Ksantivadin submitted to mutilation by a king. At Hadda Mountain a young Brahmin sacrificed himself to learn a half verse of the dharma. At Sarvadattaan an incarnation sold himself for ransom to make offerings to a Brahmin.
Faxian describes the four great stupas as being adorned with precious substances. At one site king Sibi sacrifices his flesh to ransom a dove from a hawk. Another incarnation gave up his eyes when asked; a third incarnation sacrificed his body to feed a hungry tigress. As King Candraprabha he cut off his head as a gift to a Brahmin. Some would sever their body parts in front of stupas that contained relics; or even end their own lives.
Apocrypha
Within the Pali tradition, there are also many apocryphal Jātakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) but these are treated as a separate category of literature from the "official" Jātaka stories that have been more or less formally canonized from at least the 5th century — as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls.
Apocryphal Jātakas of the Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsa Jātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain South East Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals.
Celebrations and ceremonies
In Theravada countries several of the longer tales such as "The Twelve Sisters" and the Vessantara Jataka are still performed in dance, theatre, and formal (quasi-ritual) recitation. Such celebrations are associated with particular holidays on the lunar calendar used by Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Laos.
Translations
The standard Pali collection of jātakas, with canonical text embedded, has been translated by E. B. Cowell and others, originally published in six volumes by Cambridge University Press, 1895-1907; reprinted in three volumes, Pali Text Society, Bristol. There are also numerous translations of selections and individual stories from various languages.
The Jātaka-Mālā of Arya Śura was critically edited in the original Sanskrit [Nâgarî letters] by Hendrik Kern of the University of Leiden in Netherlands, which was published as volume 1 of the Harvard Oriental Series in 1891. A second issue came in 1914.
List of Jātakas
This list includes stories based on or related to the Jātakas:
The Ass in the Lion's Skin (Sīhacamma Jātaka)
The Banyan Deer
The Cock and the Cat (Kukkuṭa Jātaka)
The Crab and the Crane
The Elephant Girly-Face
The Monkey King (Mahakapi Jataka)
The Foolish, Timid Rabbit (Daddabha Jātaka)
Four Harmonious Animals
The Great Ape
How the Turtle Saved His Own Life
The Jackal and the Crow (Jambu-Khādaka Jātaka)
The Jackal and the Otters (Dabbhapuppha Jātaka)
The King's White Elephant
The Lion and the Woodpecker (Javasakuṇa Jātaka)
The Measure of Rice
The Merchant of Seri
The Monkey and the Crocodile
The Ox Who Envied the Pig (Muṇika-Jātaka)
The Ox Who Won the Forfeit
The story of Romaka pigeon (Romaka Jātaka, previous life of the Buddha as a pigeon).
Prince Sattva
The Princes and the Water-Sprite
The Quarrel of the Quails
The Swan with Golden Feathers (Suvaṇṇahaṃsa Jātaka)
King Sibi
King Dasharatha
The Tiger, the Brahmin and the Jackal
The Turtle Who Couldn't Stop Talking (Kacchapa Jātaka)
The Twelve Sisters
The Wise and the Foolish Merchant
Vessantara Jataka
Why the Owl Is Not King of the Birds
See also
Aesop's Fables
Robert Chalmers, 1st Baron Chalmers
Edward Byles Cowell
Kalila and Demna
Mahanipata Jataka
Panchatantra
Paññāsa Jātaka
Puranas
Citations
General sources
Further reading
Cowell, E. B.; ed. (1895). "The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Vol.1-6, Cambridge at the University Press. Vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 6
Francis, Henry Thomas (1916). Jātaka tales, Cambridge: University Press
Gaffney, Sean (2018) sKyes pa rabs kyi gleṅ gźi (Jātakanidāna): a critical edition based on six editions of the Tibetan bKa' 'gyur. Indica et Buddhica Jātakanidāna, vol. I. Oxford: Indica et Buddhica. (Open Access PDF).
Gaffney, Sean (2019) sKyes pa rabs kyi gleṅ gźi (Jātakanidāna): Prologue to the Birth Stories: an English translation of a critical edition based on six editions of the Tibetan bKa' 'gyur. Indica et Buddhica Jātakanidāna, vol. II. Oxford: Indica et Buddhica. (Open Access PDF).
Grey, Leslie (1990). Concordance of Buddhist Birth Stories, Oxford : Pali Text Society. (Tabulates correspondences between various jataka collections)
Horner, Isaline Blew; Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1985). Apocryphal Birth-stories (Paññāsa-Jātaka), London; Boston: Pali Text Society, distributed by Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Google Books (edited and induced from The Morall Philosophie of Doni by Sir Thomas North, 1570)
Khan, Noor Inayat (1985). Twenty Jataka Tales, Inner Traditions
Martin, Rafe (1998) "The Hungry Tigress: Buddhist Myths, Legends and Jataka Tales".
Rhys Davids, T.W. (1878). Buddhist birth-stories: Jataka tales. The commentarial introd. entitled "Nidanakatha; the story of the lineage". Translated from V. Fausböll's ed. of the Pali text, London: G. Routledge
Shaw, Sarah (2006). The Jatakas: Birth Stories of the Bodhisatta, New Delhi: Penguin Books
Skilling, Peter (2006). Jataka and Pannasa-jataka in South-East Asia, Journal of the Pali Text Society 28, 113-174
External links
Jataka - volume I, vol. II, vol. III, vol. IV, vol. V, vol. VI of E. B. Cowell 1895
Jataka Tales - by Ellen C. Babbitt 1912
Jataka Tales - English Animation
"The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha" by Dr C. B. Varma - Illustrated, English
Jataka: from Pali Proper Names
Buddhist tales
jathakakatha.lk
Learning From Borobudur documentary about the stories of Jatakas, Lalitavistara and Gandavyuha from bas-reliefs of Borobudur, YouTube
Jātaka Stories, a database of Jataka tales maintained by the University of Edinburgh
Early Buddhism
Buddhist literature
Indian literature
Indian folklore
Lists of stories
Pali Buddhist texts
Theravada Buddhist texts
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism
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Bicameralism
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Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single group. , about 40% of world's national legislatures are bicameral, and about 60% are unicameral.
Often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected by different methods, which vary from country to country. This can often lead to the two chambers having very different compositions of members.
Enactment of primary legislation often requires a concurrent majority—the approval of a majority of members in each of the chambers of the legislature. When this is the case, the legislature may be called an example of perfect bicameralism. However, in many parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, the house to which the executive is responsible can overrule the other house and may be regarded as an example of imperfect bicameralism. Some legislatures lie in between these two positions, with one house able to overrule the other only under certain circumstances.
History of bicameral legislatures
The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (in fact a misquotation of John Bright, who remarked in 1865 that "England is the Mother of Parliaments") because the British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. The origins of British bicameralism can be traced to 1341, when the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy for the first time, creating what was effectively an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber, with the knights and burgesses sitting in the latter. This Upper Chamber became known as the House of Lords from 1544 onward, and the Lower Chamber became known as the House of Commons, collectively known as the Houses of Parliament.
Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three-tier" model. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house, and (unlike Britain) a smaller upper house.
The Founding Fathers of the United States also favoured a bicameral legislature. The idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that "this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence". The Senate was created to be a stabilising force, not elected by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more deliberate—a sort of republican nobility—and a counter to what James Madison saw as the "fickleness and passion" that could absorb the House.
He noted further that "The use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with more system and with more wisdom, than the popular branch." Madison's argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, and caution were deemed especially important. State legislators chose the Senate, and senators had to possess significant property to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In 1913, the 17th Amendment passed, which mandated choosing Senators by popular vote rather than State legislatures.
As part of the Great Compromise, the Founding Fathers invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate had an equal number of delegates per state, and the House had representatives by relative populations.
Rationale for bicameralism and criticism
There have been a number of rationales put forward in favour of bicameralism. Federal states have often adopted it, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. For states considering a different constitutional arrangement that may shift power to new groupings, bicameralism could be demanded by currently hegemonic groups who would otherwise prevent any structural shift (e.g. military dictatorships, aristocracies).
The growing awareness of the complexity of the notion of representation and the multi-functional nature of modern legislatures may be affording incipient new rationales for second chambers, though these do generally remain contested institutions in ways that first chambers are not. An example of political controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Senate of Canada or the election of the Senate of France.
The relationship between the two chambers varies: in some cases, they have equal power, while in others, one chamber is clearly superior in its powers. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments. The second tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems. There are two streams of thought: critics believe bicameralism makes meaningful political reforms more difficult to achieve and increases the risk of gridlock—particularly in cases where both chambers have similar powers—while proponents argue the merits of the "checks and balances" provided by the bicameral model, which they believe help prevent ill-considered legislation.
Communication between houses
Formal communication between houses is by various methods, including:
Sending messages Formal notices, such as of resolutions or the passing of bills, usually done in writing, via the clerk and speaker of each house.
Transmission of bills or amendment to bills requiring agreement from the other house.
Joint session a plenary session of both houses at the same time and place.
Joint committeeswhich may be formed by committees of each house agreeing to join, or by joint resolution of each house. The United States Congress has conference committees to resolve discrepancies between House and Senate versions of a bill, similar to "Conferences" in Westminster parliaments.
ConferencesConferences of the Houses of the English (later British) Parliament met in the Painted Chamber of the Palace of Westminster. Historically there were two distinct types: "ordinary" and "free". The British Parliament last held an ordinary conference in 1860—its elaborate procedure yielding to the simpler sending of messages. A free conference resolves a dispute through "managers" meeting less formally in private. The last free conference at Westminster was in 1836 on an amendment to the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the previous one had been in 1740—with not much more success than ordinary conferences, the free type yielded to the greater transparency of messages. In the Parliament of Australia there have been two formal conferences, in 1930 and 1931, but many informal conferences. the "Conference of Managers" remains the usual procedure for dispute resolution in the Parliament of South Australia. In the Parliament of New South Wales in 2011, the Legislative Assembly requested a free conference with the Legislative Council over a bill on graffiti; after a year the Council refused, describing the mechanism as archaic and inappropriate. The two houses of the Parliament of Canada have also used conferences, but not since 1947 (although they retain the option).
Examples of bicameralism at the national level
Federal
Some countries, such as Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States, link their bicameral systems to their federal political structure.
In the United States, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Nepal for example, each state or province is given the same number of seats in one of the houses of the legislature, despite variance between the populations of the states or provinces. This is intended to ensure that smaller states are not overshadowed by larger states, which may have more representation in the other house of the legislature.
Canada
Canada's elected lower house, the House of Commons, comprises Members of Parliament (MPs) from single-member "ridings" based mainly on population (updated every 10 years using Census data). The Commons is democratically elected every four years (constitutionally up to five years). In contrast, in Canada's upper house, Senators are appointed to serve until age 75 by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Government (i.e. executive) is responsible to and must maintain the confidence of the elected House of Commons. Although the two chambers formally have many of the same powers, this accountability clearly makes the Commons dominant—determining which party is in power, approving its proposed budget and (largely) the laws enacted. The Senate primarily acts as a chamber of revision: it almost never rejects bills passed by the Commons but does regularly amend them; such amendments respect each bill's purpose, so they are usually acceptable to the Commons. Occasionally, the two houses cannot come to an agreement on an amendment, which results in rare instances of a key Government bill failing. The Senate's power to investigate issues of concern to Canada can raise their profile (sometimes sharply) on voters' political agendas.
Australia
The bicameral Parliament of Australia consists of two Houses: the lower house is called the House of Representatives and the upper house is named the Senate. The lower house currently has 151 members, each elected from single-member constituencies, known as electoral divisions (commonly referred to as "electorates" or "seats") using full-preference instant-runoff voting. This tends to lead to the chamber being dominated by two major groups, the Liberal/National Coalition and the Labor Party. The government of the day must achieve the confidence of this House to gain and hold power.
The upper house, the Senate, is also popularly elected, under the single transferable vote system of proportional representation. There are a total of 76 senators: 12 senators are elected from each of the 6 Australian states (regardless of population) and 2 from each of the 2 autonomous internal territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). This makes the total number 76, i.e. 6×12 + 2×2.
Unlike upper houses in most Westminster parliamentary systems, the Australian Senate is vested with significant power, including the capacity to block legislation initiated by the government in the House of Representatives, making it a distinctive hybrid of British Westminster bicameralism and US-style bicameralism. As a result of proportional representation, the chamber features a multitude of parties vying for power. The governing party or coalition, which must maintain the confidence of the lower house, rarely has a majority in the Senate and usually needs to negotiate with other parties and Independents to get legislation passed.
Others
In German, Indian, and Pakistani systems, the upper houses (the Bundesrat, the Rajya Sabha, and the Senate respectively) are even more closely linked with the federal system, being appointed or elected directly by the governments or legislatures of each German or Indian state, or Pakistani province. This was also the case in the United States before the Seventeenth Amendment was adopted. Because of this coupling to the executive branch, German legal doctrine does not treat the Bundesrat as the second chamber of a bicameral system formally. Rather, it sees the Bundesrat and the Bundestag as independent constitutional bodies. Only the directly elected Bundestag is considered the parliament. In the German Bundesrat, the various Länder have between three and six votes; thus, while the less populated states have a lower weight, they still have a stronger voting power than would be the case in a system based proportionately on population, as the most populous Land currently has about 27 times the population of the least populous. The Indian upper house does not have the states represented equally, but on the basis of their population.
There is also bicameralism in countries that are not federations, but have upper houses with representation on a territorial basis. For example, in South Africa, the National Council of Provinces (and before 1997, the Senate) has its members chosen by each province's legislature.
In Spain, the Senate functions as a de facto territorially based upper house, and there has been some pressure from the Autonomous Communities to reform it into a strictly territorial chamber.
The European Union maintains a somewhat close to bicameral legislative system consisting of the European Parliament, which is elected in elections on the basis of universal suffrage, and the Council of the European Union, which consists of one representative for each government of member countries, who are competent for a relevant field of legislation. Though the European Union has a highly unusual character in terms of legislature, one could say that the closest point of equivalency lies within bicameral legislatures. The European Union is considered neither a country nor a state, but it enjoys the power to address national Governments in many areas.
Aristocratic and post-aristocratic
In a few countries, bicameralism involves the juxtaposition of democratic and aristocratic elements.
House of Lords of the United Kingdom
The best known example is the British House of Lords, which includes a number of hereditary peers. The House of Lords is a vestige of the aristocratic system that once predominated in British politics, while the other house, the House of Commons, is entirely elected. Over the years, some have proposed reforms to the House of Lords, some of which have been at least partly successful. The House of Lords Act 1999 limited the number of hereditary peers (as opposed to life peers, appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister) to 92, down from around 700. Of these 92, one is the Earl Marshal, a hereditary office always held by the Duke of Norfolk, one is the Lord Great Chamberlain, a hereditary office held by turns, currently by the Marquess of Cholmondeley, and the other 90 are elected by all sitting peers. Hereditary peers elected by the House to sit as representative peers sit for life; when a representative peer dies, there is a by-election to fill the vacancy. The power of the House of Lords to block legislation is curtailed by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. Peers can introduce bills except Money Bills, and all legislation must be passed by both Houses of Parliament. If not passed within two sessions, the House of Commons can override the Lords′ delay by invoking the Parliament Act. Certain legislation, however, must be approved by both Houses without being forced by the Commons under the Parliament Act. These include any bill that would extend the time length of a Parliament, private bills, bills sent to the House of Lords less than one month before the end of a session, and bills that originated in the House of Lords.
Life Peers are appointed either by recommendation of the Appointment Commission (the independent body that vets non-partisan peers, typically from academia, business or culture) or by Dissolution Honours, which take place at the end of every Parliamentary term when leaving MPs may be offered a seat to keep their institutional memory. It is traditional to offer a peerage to every outgoing Speaker of the House of Commons.
Further reform of the Lords has been proposed; however, no proposed reforms have been able to achieve public consensus or government support. Members of the House of Lords all have an aristocratic title, or are from the Clergy. 26 Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England sit as Lords Spiritual (the Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, the Bishop of Winchester and the next 21 longest-serving Bishops). It is usual that retiring Archbishops, and certain other Bishops, are appointed to the Crossbenches and given a life peerage.
Until 2009, 12 Lords of Appeal in Ordinary sat in the House as the highest court in the land; they subsequently became justices of the newly created Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. As of 16 February 2021, 803 people sit in the House of Lords, with 92 Hereditary Peers, 26 Lords Spiritual and 685 Life Peers. Membership is not fixed and decreases only on the death, retirement or resignation of a peer.
Japan's former House of Peers
Another example of aristocratic bicameralism was the Japanese House of Peers, abolished after World War II and replaced with the present House of Councillors.
Unitary states
Many unitary states like Italy, France, the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Republic of Ireland and Romania have bicameral systems. In countries such as these, the upper house generally focuses on scrutinizing and possibly vetoing the decisions of the lower house.
Italian Parliament
On the other hand, in Italy the Parliament consists of two chambers that have the same role and power: the Senate (Senate of the Republic, commonly considered the upper house) and the Chamber of Deputies (considered the lower house). The main difference among the two chambers is the way the two chambers are composed: the deputies, in fact, are elected on a nationwide basis, whilst the members of the Senate are elected on a regional basis: this may lead to different majorities among the two chambers because, for example, a party may be the first nationally but second or third in some regions. Considering that in the Italian Republic the Government needs to win confidence votes in both the chambers, it may happen that a Government has a strong majority (usually) in the Chamber of Deputies and a weak one (or no majority at all) in the Senate. This has led sometimes to legislative deadlocks, and has caused instability in the Italian Government.
Indirectly elected Upper Houses (France, Ireland, Netherlands)
In some of these countries, the upper house is indirectly elected. Members of France's Senate and Ireland's Seanad Éireann are chosen by electoral colleges. In Ireland, it consists of members of the lower house, local councillors, the Taoiseach, and graduates of selected universities, while the Netherlands' Senate is chosen by members of provincial assemblies (who, in turn, are directly elected).
Semi-bicameral (Hong Kong, Northern Ireland; earlier in Norway, the Netherlands)
In Hong Kong, members of the unicameral Legislative Council returned from the democratically-elected geographical constituencies and partially democratic functional constituencies are required to vote separately since 1998 on motions, bills or amendments to government bills not introduced by the government. The passage of these motions, bills or amendments to government motions or bills requires double majority in both groups simultaneously. (Before 2004, when elections to the Legislative Council from the Election Committee was abolished, members returned through the Election Committee vote with members returned from geographical constituencies.) The double majority requirement does not apply to motions, bills and amendments introduced by the government.
Another similar situation are cross-community votes in Northern Ireland when the petition of concern procedure is invoked.
Norway had a kind of semi-bicameral legislature with two chambers, or departments, within the same elected body, the Storting. These were called the Odelsting and were abolished after the general election of 2009. According to Morten Søberg, there was a related system in the 1798 constitution of the Batavian Republic.
Examples of bicameralism in subnational entities
In some countries with federal systems, individual states (like those of the United States, Argentina, Australia and India) may also have bicameral legislatures. A few such states as Nebraska in the U.S., Queensland in Australia, Bavaria in Germany, and Tucumán and Córdoba in Argentina have later adopted unicameral systems. (Brazilian states and Canadian provinces all abolished upper houses).
Argentina
In the Argentine Republic, eight provinces have bicameral legislatures, with a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies: Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Mendoza, Salta, San Luis (since 1987) and Santa Fe. Tucumán and Córdoba changed to unicameral systems in 1990 and 2001 respectively. Santiago del Estero changed to a bicameral legislature in 1884, but changed back to a unicameral system in 1903.
Australia
When the Australian states were founded as British colonies in the 19th century, they each had a bicameral Parliament. The lower house was traditionally elected based on the one-vote-one-value principle, with universal male suffrage, later expanded to women, whereas the upper house was either appointed on the advice of the government or elected, with a strong bias towards country voters and landowners. After Federation, these became the state Parliaments. In Queensland, the appointed upper house was abolished in 1922, while in New South Wales there were similar attempts at abolition, before the upper house was reformed in the 1970s to provide for direct election.
Beginning in the 1970s, Australian states began to reform their upper houses to introduce proportional representation in line with the Federal Senate. The first was the South Australian Legislative Council in 1973, which initially used a party list system (replaced with STV in 1982), followed by the Single Transferable Vote being introduced for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1978, the Western Australian Legislative Council in 1987 and the Victorian Legislative Council in 2003.
Nowadays, the upper house both federally and in most states is elected using proportional representation while the lower house uses Instant-runoff voting in single member electorates. This is reversed in the state of Tasmania, where proportional representation is used for the lower house and single member electorates for the upper house.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Legislature of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a bicameral legislative body. It consists of two chambers. The House of Representatives has 98 delegates, elected for four-year terms by proportional representation. The House of Peoples has 58 members, 17 delegates from among each of the constituent peoples of the Federation, and 7 delegates from among the other peoples. Republika Srpska, the other entity, has a unicameral parliament, known as the National Assembly, but there is also a Council of Peoples who is de facto other house of legislative.
Germany
The German federal state of Bavaria had a bicameral legislature from 1946 to 1999, when the Senate was abolished by a referendum amending the state's constitution. The other 15 states have used a unicameral system since their founding.
India
Of the 28 states and 8 Union Territories of India, only 6 states that is Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh – have bicameral legislatures, while the rest all have unicameral legislatures. The lower houses are called Legislative Assemblies, and their members are elected by universal adult suffrage from single-member constituencies in state elections, which are normally held every five years called Vidhana Sabha. In the six states with bicameral legislatures, the upper house is called the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) or Vidhana Parishat, one-third of whose members are elected every two years. Members of Legislative Council are elected in various ways:
One-third are elected by the members of local bodies in the state such as municipalities, gram panchayats, block development councils and district councils.
One-third are elected by the members of the state's Legislative Assembly from amongst persons who are not members of the State Legislative Assembly.
One-sixth are nominated by the governor of the state from amongst persons having knowledge or practical experience in fields such as literature, science, arts, the co-operative movement and social service.
One-twelfth are elected from special constituencies by persons who are college graduates of three years' standing residing in those constituencies.
One-twelfth are elected by persons engaged for at least three years in teaching in educational institutions within the state not lower than secondary schools, including colleges and universities.
From 1956 to 1958 the Andhra Pradesh Legislature was unicameral. In 1958, when the State Legislative Council was formed, it became bicameral until 1 June 1985 when it was abolished. This continued until March 2007 when the State Legislative Council was reestablished and elections were held for its seats. In Tamil Nadu, a resolution was passed on 14 May 1986 and the state's Legislative Council was dissolved on 1 November 1986. Again on 12 April 2010, a resolution was passed to reestablish the council, but was ultimately unsuccessful. Similarly, the states of Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and West Bengal have also dissolved the upper houses of their state legislatures.
Russia
Under Soviet regime regional and local Soviets were unicameral. After the adoption of 1993 Russian Constitution bicameralism was introduced in some regions. Bicameral regional legislatures are still technically allowed by federal law but this clause is dormant now. The last region to switch from bicameralism to unicameralism was Sverdlovsk Oblast in 2012.
United States
During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from bicameral to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the "conference committee" process would be eliminated.
A conference committee is appointed when the two chambers cannot agree on the same wording of a proposal, and consists of a small number of legislators from each chamber. This tends to place much power in the hands of only a small number of legislators. Whatever legislation, if any, the conference committee finalizes is presented in an unamendable "take-it-or-leave-it" manner by both chambers.
During his term as governor of the State of Minnesota, Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesotan legislature to a single chamber with proportional representation, as a reform that he felt would solve many legislative difficulties and impinge upon legislative corruption. In his book on political issues, Do I Stand Alone?, Ventura argued that bicameral legislatures for provincial and local areas were excessive and unnecessary, and discussed unicameralism as a reform that could address many legislative and budgetary problems for states.
Reform
Arab political reform
A 2005 report on democratic reform in the Arab world by the U.S. Council on Foreign Relations co-sponsored by former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright urged Arab states to adopt bicameralism, with upper chambers appointed on a 'specialized basis'. The Council claimed that this would protect against the 'Tyranny of the majority', expressing concerns that without a system of checks and balances extremists would use the single chamber parliaments to restrict the rights of minority groups.
In 2002, Bahrain adopted a bicameral system with an elected lower chamber and an appointed upper house. This led to a boycott of parliamentary elections that year by the Al Wefaq party, who said that the government would use the upper house to veto their plans. Many secular critics of bicameralism were won around to its benefits in 2005, after many MPs in the lower house voted for the introduction of so-called morality police.
Romania
A referendum on introducing a unicameral Parliament instead of the current bicameral Parliament was held in Romania on 22 November 2009. The turnout rate was 50.95%, with 77.78% of "Yes" votes for a unicameral Parliament. This referendum had a consultative role, thus requiring a parliamentary initiative and another referendum to ratify the new proposed changes.
Ivory Coast
A referendum on a new constitution was held on 30 October 2016. The constitution draft would create a bicameral Parliament instead of the current unicameral. The Senate is expected to represent the interests of territorial collectivities and Ivoirians living abroad. Two thirds of the Senate is to be elected at the same time as the general election. The remaining one third is appointed by the president elect.
Examples
Current
Federal
Unitary
Historical
See also
List of abolished upper houses
Tricameralism
References
Further reading
External links
Noncontemporaneous Lawmaking: Can the 110th Senate Enact a Bill Passed by the 109th House?, 16 Cornell J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 331 (2007).
[https://ssrn.com/abstract=932574 Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl, Against Mix-and-Match Lawmaking], 16 Cornell J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 349 (2007).
Defending the (Not So) Indefensible: A Reply to Professor Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl, 16 Cornell J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 363 (2007).
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204301
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsenethai
|
Samsenethai
|
Samsenethai() also called Oun Huan() was the second king of Lan Xang in Laos. He succeeded his father, Fa Ngum.
He ruled from 1372 until 1417. The origin of the name Samsenethai is thought to be a reflection of the political and social upheaval occurring within the area at the time of his rule. Samsenethai literally means "300,000 Thai," thus reflected the result of a census conducted in his reign. It is unclear whether the census included the entire population or just men capable of bearing arms.
There is also discussion as to whether during this period, the terms "Thai" and "Lao" were interchangeable, whether the term "Lao" yet existed, or whether "Thai" was used in his name to refer to the fact that the census included all Tai groups. Local Thai history records that Samsenethai's Mother was a high born lady of Ayuttaya (Siam - Thailand) and that she had brought Thai Ministers for the government of Lan Xiang (Lan Chiang). Also noteworthy, the flag adopted for Lan Xiang is a near copy of the flag of Ayuttaya. Red background with a White elephant in the center. For the duration of his 43-year reign, Lan Xang did not fight a single battle.
Wat Manorom, Wat Oubôsôt, and Wat Xiang Kham were built in Samsenethai's reign. He was succeeded by his son Lan Kham Deng.
Family
Father: Fa Ngum
Mother: Queen Keo Kang Ya - (from Khmer Empire) (d. 1368)
Consorts and their respective issues:
Queen Buvana Dhanipaya (Bua Then Fa), Princess Keava Nawi Anungahaya - a daughter of his uncle (m.1377)
Prince Lamakamadinga Lan Kham Deng, King of Lan Xang (r.1416-1428)
Nang Nawiangsari (Noi On Sor) - daughter of the King of Lan Na
Prince Gunikama (Konekham) (Khon Kham) - King of Lan Xang (r.1430–1432)
Queen Keava Rudhi Fa (Nang Keo Lot Fa) - his cousin, widow of his father, and daughter of King Ramadipati of Ayudhaya (m.1393)
Princess Nang Keava Sridha (Chao Nang Keo Sida) - daughter of Chao Sidhakama (Sida Kham), "Hsenwifa" of Muang Lü (Chieng Hung)
Prince Kama Dharmasara (Kham Tam Sa) - King of Lan Xang (r.1432)
Princess Nang Keava Yudhi Fa (Nang Keo Yot Fa) - his cousin, and a daughter of King Intharacha of Ayutthaya
Prince Wangsapuri (Vong Buri), (Sai Tia Kaphut), King of Lan Xang (r.1442-1480)
Princess Mahakani (Maha Kay) - died before 1408, aged five.
a slave
Kham Keul or Kham-Kert - King of Lan Xang (1436-1438)
by unknown women
Prince Luvanajaya (Thao Lue-Sai), King of Lan Xang, r.1432-1433
Thao Somphon
Princess Anusha (Anocha).
Princess Manura (Manora).
Princess Supadhatri (Supatthat).
References
Kings of Lan Xang
14th-century births
1416 deaths
14th-century Laotian people
15th-century Laotian people
14th-century monarchs in Asia
15th-century monarchs in Asia
Laotian Theravada Buddhists
Year of birth unknown
|
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204302
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20road%20from%20Silchester%20to%20Bath
|
Roman road from Silchester to Bath
|
The Roman road from Silchester to Bath connected Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester) with Aquae Sulis (Bath) via Spinae (Speen), Cunetio (near Marlborough) and Verlucio (near Sandy Lane). The road was a significant route for east–west travel and military logistics in south-east England during the 1st to 5th centuries.
Parts of its route were subsequently followed by earthworks that are presumed to form part of Wansdyke. During the Middle Ages, the road was used by drovers, as well as by merchants and travellers.
Margary numbered the road as 53. Portions of the Roman road are extant, while in other places all apparent vestiges are absent from view. In the early 19th century, Colt-Hoare surveyed and mapped its course from Overton Down (west of Marlborough) to Bath; the rest was only known in isolated sections until a study by Hugh Toller was published in 2013.
See also
Roman roads in Britain
References
External links
The road superimposed on a Google Map – saxonhistory.co.uk
Silchester to Bath
Archaeological sites in London
Archaeological sites in Hampshire
Archaeological sites in Berkshire
Archaeological sites in Somerset
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicameralism
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Unicameralism
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Unicameralism (from uni- "one" + Latin camera "chamber") is a type of legislature, which consists of one house or assembly, that legislates and votes as one.
Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism. Many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple houses allowed, for example, for a guaranteed representation of different social classes (as in the Parliament of the United Kingdom or the French States-General). Sometimes, as in New Zealand and Denmark, unicameralism comes about through the abolition of one of two bicameral chambers, or, as in Sweden, through the merger of the two chambers into a single one, while in others a second chamber has never existed from the beginning.
Rationale for unicameralism and criticism
The principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock between two chambers. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it reduces costs, even if the number of legislators stays the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain and support financially and that it is more democratic. Proponents of bicameral legislatures say that having two legislative chambers offers the opportunity to re-debate and correct errors in either chamber in parallel, and in some cases to introduce legislation in either chamber.
The main weakness of a unicameral system can be seen as potential lack of restraint on the majority, particularly noticeable in parliamentary systems where the leaders of the parliamentary majority also dominate the executive. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented by the elected singular body.
List of unicameral legislatures
Approximately half of the world's sovereign states are currently unicameral. The People's Republic of China is somewhat in between, with a legislature and a formal advisory body. China has a Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference which meets alongside the National People's Congress, in many respects an advisory "upper house".
Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures. These include the state of Nebraska and territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands in the United States, the Chinese special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao, the Australian state of Queensland as well as the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory, a majority of the provinces of Argentina, all of the provinces and territories in Canada, all of the German states, all of the regions of Italy, all of the Spanish autonomous communities, both the autonomous regions of Portugal, most of the states and union territories of India and all of the states of Brazil. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, the Senedd Cymru, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the London Assembly are also unicameral.
National (UN member states and observers)
Federal
Assembly of the Union of the Comoros
Council of Representatives of Iraq (provision exists for the founding of a "Council of Union", but no move to this effect has been initiated by the existing Council)
Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia
National Assembly of Saint Kitts and Nevis
Federal National Council of the United Arab Emirates
National Assembly of Venezuela
Unitary
Africa
National Assembly of Angola
National Assembly of Benin
National Assembly of Botswana
National Assembly of Burkina Faso
National Assembly of Cape Verde
National Assembly of the Central African Republic
National Assembly of Chad
National Assembly of Djibouti
National Assembly of Eritrea
National Assembly of The Gambia
Parliament of Ghana
National Assembly of Guinea
National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau
House of Representatives of Libya
National Assembly of Malawi
Majlis of Maldives
National Assembly of Mali
Parliament of Mauritania
National Assembly of Mauritius
Assembly of the Republic of Mozambique
National Assembly of Niger
National Assembly of São Tomé and Príncipe
National Assembly of Senegal
National Assembly of Seychelles
Parliament of Sierra Leone
National Assembly of Tanzania
National Assembly of Togo
National Assembly of Tunisia
Parliament of Uganda
National Assembly of Zambia
Asia
Jatiya Sangsad of Bangladesh
Legislative Council of Brunei
National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China – though they also have a Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference which is effectively an advisory "upper house".
National Parliament of East Timor
Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran
Knesset of Israel
Supreme People's Assembly of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea)
National Assembly of the Republic of Korea (South Korea)
National Assembly of Kuwait
Supreme Council of Kyrgyzstan
National Assembly of Laos
Parliament of Lebanon
State Great Khural of Mongolia
Legislative Council of Palestine
Consultative Assembly of Qatar
Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia (most powers are reserved for the King)
Parliament of Singapore
Parliament of Sri Lanka
Parliament of Syria
National Assembly of Vietnam
Europe
National Assembly of Albania
National Assembly of Armenia
National Assembly of Azerbaijan
National Assembly of Bulgaria
Sabor of Croatia
Folketing of Denmark
Riigikogu of Estonia
Parliament of Finland
Parliament of Georgia
Parliament of Greece
National Assembly of Hungary
Althing of Iceland
Saeima of Latvia
Landtag of Liechtenstein
Seimas of Lithuania
Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg
Parliament of Malta
Parliament of Moldova
National Council of Monaco
Parliament of Montenegro
Assembly of North Macedonia
Storting of Norway
Assembly of the Republic of Portugal
Grand and General Council of San Marino
National Assembly of Serbia
National Council of Slovakia
Riksdag of Sweden
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine
Pontifical Commission for Vatican City
North America
Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
National Assembly of People's Power of Cuba
House of Assembly of Dominica
Legislative Assembly of El Salvador
Congress of Guatemala
National Congress of Honduras
National Assembly of Nicaragua
National Assembly of Panama
House of Assembly of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Oceania
Parliament of the Cook Islands
Parliament of Fiji
House of Assembly of Kiribati
Legislature of the Marshall Islands
Parliament of Nauru
Parliament of New Zealand
Assembly of Niue
National Parliament of Papua New Guinea
Legislative Assembly of Samoa
Legislative Assembly of Tonga
Parliament of Tuvalu
Parliament of Vanuatu
South America
National Assembly of Ecuador
National Assembly of Guyana
Congress of the Republic of Peru
National Assembly of Suriname
Territorial
House of Assembly of the British Virgin Islands
Legislative Assembly of the Cayman Islands
Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands
The Løgting of the Faroe Islands
Parliament of Gibraltar
Parliament of Greenland
Legislature of Guam
Legislative Council of Hong Kong
Legislative Assembly of Macao
House of Assembly of Tobago
Legislature of the U.S. Virgin Islands
State parliaments with limited recognition
People's Assembly of Abkhazia
National Assembly of the Republic of Artsakh
Assembly of Kosovo
Assembly of the Republic of Northern Cyprus
National Council of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Parliament of South Ossetia
Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China (Taiwan) – though the parliament is nominally tricameral (constitutional amendment)
Supreme Council of Transnistria
Subnational
Federations
All legislatures and legislative councils of the regions and communities of Belgium
All legislative assemblies in all states of Brazil
All legislative assemblies of the provinces and territories of Canada
All Landtage of the states of Germany
All legislative assemblies of the states of Malaysia
All legislatures in all states of Mexico
All legislatures of the provinces in Nepal
All legislatures of the provinces and territories in Pakistan
The legislature of the state of Nebraska, and council of the District of Columbia in the United States
Parliament of Queensland and the legislative assemblies of the territories of Australia (but not the other states)
Provincial legislatures of the provinces of South Africa
Narodna skupština of Republika Srpska
15 of the provinces of Argentina – Chaco, Chubut, Córdoba, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, La Rioja, Misiones, Neuquén, Río Negro, San Juan, Santa Cruz, Santiago del Estero, Tierra del Fuego, Tucumán and the autonomous city of Buenos Aires.
22 of the states of India – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand and West Bengal; and 3 of the union territories – Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry.
Devolved governments
Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament
Northern Ireland Assembly
Scottish Parliament
Senedd (Welsh Parliament)
Parliaments of the autonomous communities of Spain
All regional councils of France
Bangsamoro Parliament
Others
Local People's Congresses of all levels of provinces, regions, and municipalities of the People's Republic of China
National Council of the Palestine Liberation Organization
List of historical unicameral legislatures
National
The First Protectorate Parliament and Second Protectorate Parliament of the Kingdom of England, regulated by the Instrument of Government (dissolved)
Parliament of the Kingdom of Scotland until 1707 (dissolved)
Congress of the Confederation was unicameral before being replaced in 1789 by the current, bicameral United States Congress.
Provisional Congress of the Confederate States was unicameral before being replaced by the bicameral Confederate States Congress in 1862.
Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War
The Parliament of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Oliy Majlis.
National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Cameroon.
Chamber of People's Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea.
National Assembly of Kenya was the country's unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013.
National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the country's unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016.
Central National Committee and the Provisional People's Representative Council of Indonesia was the unicameral legislature of the Republic of Indonesia during the War of Independence and the Liberal democracy era.
Subnational
General Assembly of Georgia until 1789
General Assembly of Pennsylvania until 1790
General Assembly of Vermont until 1836
Other
Assembly of Representatives of Yishuv community in Mandatory Palestine from 1920 to 1949
Unicameralism in the Philippines
Though the current Congress of the Philippines is bicameral, the country experienced unicameralism in 1898 and 1899 (during the First Philippine Republic), from 1935 to 1941 (the Commonwealth era) and from 1943 to 1944 (during the Japanese occupation). Under the 1973 Constitution, the legislative body was called Batasang Pambansa, which functioned also a unicameral legislature within a parliamentary system (1973-1981) and a semi-presidential system (1981-1986) form of government.
The ongoing process of amending or revising the current Constitution and form of government is popularly known as Charter Change. A shift to a unicameral parliament was included in the proposals of the constitutional commission created by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Unlike in the United States, senators in the Senate of the Philippines are elected not per district and state but nationally; the Philippines is a unitary state. The Philippine government's decision-making process, relative to the United States, is more rigid, highly centralised, much slower and susceptible to political gridlock. As a result, the trend for unicameralism as well as other political system reforms are more contentious in the Philippines.
While Congress is bicameral, all local legislatures are unicameral: the Bangsamoro Parliament, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (Provincial Boards), Sangguniang Panlungsod (City Councils), Sangguniang Bayan (Municipal Councils), Sangguniang Barangay (Barangay Councils) and the Sangguniang Kabataan (Youth Councils).
Unicameralism in the United States
The Nebraska Legislature (also called the Unicameral) is the supreme legislative body of the state of Nebraska and the only unicameral state legislature in the United States. Its members are called "senators", as it was originally the upper house of a bicameral legislature before the Nebraska House of Representatives dissolved in 1937. The legislature is also notable for being nonpartisan and officially recognizes no party affiliation, making Nebraska unique among U.S. states. With 49 members, it is also the smallest legislature of any U.S. state.
A 2018 study found that efforts to adopt unicameralism in Ohio and Missouri failed due to rural opposition. There was a fear in rural communities that unicameralism would diminish their influence in state government.
Local government legislatures of counties, cities, or other political subdivisions within states are usually unicameral and have limited lawmaking powers compared to their state and federal counterparts.
Some of the 13 colonies which became independent, such as Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New Hampshire had initially introduced strong unicameral legislature and (relatively) less powerful governors with no veto power. Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.
In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a single chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted.
Seven U.S. states, Arizona, Idaho, Maryland, New Jersey, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Washington, effectively have two-house unicamerals. In these states, districts in the upper house and the lower house are combined into a single constituency, a practice known as nesting.
The U.S. territory of Puerto Rico held a non-binding referendum in 2005. Voters approved changing its Legislative Assembly to a unicameral body by 456,267 votes in favor (83.7%) versus 88,720 against (16.3%). If both the territory's House of Representatives and Senate had approved by a vote the specific amendments to the Puerto Rico Constitution that are required for the change to a unicameral legislature, another referendum would have been held in the territory to approve such amendments. If those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015.
On June 9, 2009, the Maine House of Representatives voted to form a unicameral legislature, but the measure did not pass the Senate.
Because of legislative gridlock in 2009, former Congressman Rick Lazio, a prospective candidate for governor, has proposed that New York adopt unicameralism.
The United States as a whole was subject to a unicameral Congress during the years 1781–1788, when the Articles of Confederation were in effect. The Confederate States of America, pursuant to its Provisional Constitution, in effect from February 8, 1861, to February 22, 1862, was governed by a unicameral Congress.
Notes
References
Legislatures
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquae%20Sulis
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Aquae Sulis
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Aquae Sulis (Latin for Waters of Sulis) was a small town in the Roman province of Britannia. Today it is the English city of Bath, Somerset. The Antonine Itinerary register of Roman roads lists the town as Aquis Sulis. Ptolemy records the town as Aquae calidae (warm waters) in his 2nd-century work Geographia.
Development
Baths and temple complex
The Romans probably began building a formal temple complex at Aquae Sulis in the AD 60s. The Romans had probably arrived in the area shortly after their arrival in Britain in AD 43 and there is evidence that their military road, the Fosse Way, crossed the river Avon at Bath. An early Roman military presence has been found just to the North-East of the bath complex in the Walcot area of modern Bath. Not far from the crossing point of their road, they would have been attracted by the large natural hot spring which had been a shrine of the Celtic Brythons, dedicated to their goddess Sulis. This spring is a natural mineral spring found in the valley of the Avon River in Southwest England, it is the only spring in Britain officially designated as hot. The name is Latin for "the waters of Sulis." The Romans identified the goddess with their goddess Minerva and encouraged her worship. The similarities between Minerva and Sulis helped the Celts adapt to Roman culture. The spring was built up into a major Roman Baths complex associated with an adjoining temple. About 130 messages to Sulis scratched onto lead curse tablets (defixiones) have been recovered from the Sacred Spring by archaeologists. Most of them were written in Latin, although one discovered was in Brythonic; they usually laid curses upon those whom the writer felt had done them wrong. This collection is the most important found in Britain.
The Brythonic curse recovered on a metal pendant is the only sentence in the language that has been discovered. It reads:
Adixoui Deuina Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamenai or maybe Adixoui Deiana Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamiun ai
The affixed – Deuina, Deieda, Andagin, (and) Uindiorix – I have bound
An alternative translation based on a translation of certain words as non-proper nouns is the following:
May I, Windiorix for/at Cuamena defeat (alt. summon to justice) the worthless woman, oh divine Deieda. (Alt. Divine Deiada, may I, Windiorix, bring to justice/defeat (in court) the woman at Cuamena.)
This is still an uncertain translation in that it takes into account the nominal cases of the nouns:
Windiorix (alt. Windorix) - nominative masculine (subject), lit. "fair-headed" (windo) "king" (rix); Dewina Deieda - nominative/vocative feminine "divine Deieda" (deiada "goddess"); Andagin - accusative feminine "woman"; "Cuamenai - locative/dative feminine of CuamenaGaius Julius Solinus remarks "The circumference of Britain is 4875 miles. In this space are many great rivers, and hot springs refined with opulent splendour for the use of mortal men. Minerva is the patroness of these springs. In her shrine, the perpetual fires never whiten into ashes. When they dwindle away, they change into stony globules."
Walled town
It was the religious settlement, rather than the road junction further north and the residential area now known as Walcot, which was given defensive stone walls, probably in the 3rd century. The area within - of approximately - was largely open ground, but soon began to be filled in. There is some dispute as to whether these new buildings were private dwellings or were associated with servicing the pilgrims to the temple. There was also a ribbon development along the northern road outside the walls and cemeteries beyond.
Decline
From the later 3rd century on, the Western Roman Empire and its urban life declined. However, while the great suite of baths fell into disrepair, some use of the hot springs continued. After the end of Roman rule in Britain around AD 410, some residents seem to have remained, but violence seems to have taken root. Archaeological evidence of chaos and piratical raids on the few citizens who remained resident in the 440s include the finding of a young girl's severed head in an oven in Abbeygate Street during excavations in 1984/85.
As far back as Geoffrey of Monmouth, the Arthurian Battle of Mons Badonicus (c. 500) has been suggested to have taken place near Aquae Sulis. Tim and Annette Burkitt have proposed Caer Badden (), some 20 miles northeast of the Roman mines at Charterhouse, on the basis of the Welsh Annals, as well as archaeological and toponymic evidence.Burkitt, Tim and Bennett, Annette, "Badon as Bath", Popular Archaeology, April 1985, Vol.6, No.6.
Medieval legend
In medieval times, the Roman temple at Bath was incorporated into British legend. The thermal springs at Bath were said to have been dedicated to Minerva by the legendary King Bladud and the temple there endowed with an eternal flame.
An 8th century poem in Old English, The Ruin'', describing the ruinous changes that had overtaken a Roman hot-water spring, is assumed to be a reference to Aquae Sulis. The poem was copied in the Exeter Book for transmission to future generations.
Remains
Rediscovered from the 18th century onward, the city's Roman remains have become one of Bath's main attractions. They may be viewed almost exclusively at the Roman Baths Museum, which houses:
Artefacts recovered from the Baths and the Roman town. There is a fine collection of stone sculptures.
Excavated remains of the main temple courtyard.
The Roman Baths themselves, though some lie below 18th century stonework. Of particular note is the original Roman Great Bath still lead-lined and fed by the sacred spring through Roman lead pipes.
A hoard of 30,000 silver coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig in 2012. The coins, believed to date from the 3rd century, were found not far away from the Roman baths.
See also
History of Bath, Somerset
Timeline of Bath, Somerset
Roman sites in Great Britain
References
History of Somerset
Archaeological sites in Somerset
Roman town of Bath
Roman religious sites in England
Roman towns and cities in England
Hot springs of the United Kingdom
1st-century establishments in Roman Britain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang
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Xuanzang
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Xuanzang (; fl. 602 – 664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of his journey to India in 629–645 CE, his efforts to bring over 657 Indian texts to China, and his translations of some of these texts.
Xuanzang was born on 6 April 602 in Chenliu, what is now Kaifeng municipality in Henan province. As a boy, he took to reading religious books, and studying the ideas therein with his father. Like his elder brother, he became a student of Buddhist studies at Jingtu monastery. Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk) at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan, where he was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang, where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China. He was also concerned about the competing Buddhist theories in variant Chinese translations. He sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues.
At age 27, he began his seventeen-year overland journey to India. He defied his kingdom's ban on travel abroad, making his way through central Asian cities such as Khotan to India. He visited, among other places, the famed Nalanda monastery in modern day Bihar, India where he studied with the monk, Śīlabhadra. He departed from India with numerous Sanskrit texts on a caravan of twenty packhorses. His return was welcomed by Emperor Taizong in China, who encouraged him to write a travelogue. This Chinese travelogue Dà Táng Xīyù Jì (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) is a notable source about Xuanzang, and also for scholarship on 7th-century India and Central Asia. His travelogue is a mix of the implausible, the hearsay and a firsthand account. Selections from it are used, and disputed, as a terminus ante quem of 645 CE for events, names and texts he mentions. His text in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang's death.
Nomenclature, orthography and etymology
Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang" include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiuan Tsang, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien-tsang, Hsyan-tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade–Giles, which represents the s- or sh-like [ɕ] in today's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h-like [x] in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h.
Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang," written 元奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang.
Tang Monk (Tang Seng) is also transliterated /Thang Seng/.
Another of Xuanzang's standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma" or Pali/Prakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being "Buddhism".
"Sanzang" is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka ("Three Baskets"), and in some English-language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West, Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka."
Early life
Xuanzang was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) on 6 April 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (), Luozhou (near present-day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664 in Yuhua Palace (玉華宮, in present-day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi (陳寔, 104-186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great-grandfather Chen Qin (陳欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上黨; present-day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳惠) served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, studied with his father, and amazed him by his careful observance of filial piety after one such study about that topic.
His elder brother was already a monk in a Buddhist monastery. Inspired, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like his brother. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù (), later known as Zhǎng jié (), for five years at Jingtu Monastery () in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools.
In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra. The abbot Zheng Shanguo allowed Xuanzang to study these advanced subjects though he was young.
Taking the monastic name Xuanzang, he was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese translations at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues.
Pilgrimage
Dates
Xuanzang started his pilgrimage to India in either 627 or 629 CE, according to two East Asian versions. The 627 CE version is found in Guang hongming ji from Daoxun and is also in Japanese and Korean texts. The 629 CE is found in Chinese and western versions. This confusion, though merely of two years, is of significance to western history.
The date when Xuanzang's pilgrimage started is not resolved in any of the texts that Xuanzang himself wrote. Further, he did not write his own biography or travelogue, rather he recited it to his fellow monks after his return from India. Three of his immediate collaborators wrote his biography, and thus leaving three versions and with variant details. All three of these versions begin his pilgrimage in 629 CE. Yet, one version by Huili, states that Xuanzang met Yabghu Qaghan, someone who died in 628 CE according to Persian and Turkish records. If this detail in Xuanzang's biography and Persian-Turkish records are true, then Xuanzang must have left before Qaghan's death, or in 627 CE. In other words, some of the details in the surviving versions of Xuanzang biography were invented or a paleographic confusion introduced an error, or the Persian-Turkish records are unreliable. The Japanese version is based on 8th to 10th-century translations of texts that ultimately came from Xuanzang's monastery, which unfortunately has added to the confusion. Most sources state that Xuanzang started his pilgrimage in 629 CE.
Travel through Central Asia
Kingdom of Agni
In 630 CE, he arrived in the kingdom of Agni (Yanqi, in a place called Turpan). Here he met the king, a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta, who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge. He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, with two thousand monks who ate "three kinds of pure meat" with other foods, rather than non-vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Therefore, the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings.
Kingdom of Kuchi
Moving further westward, Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkish robbers on horses who had looted others. The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot. After the loot had thus been lost, they dispersed. Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi. This country of 1000 li by 600 li, had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, and studying its texts in "original Indian language". The biographies of Xuanzang then describe implausible tales of a dragon race. This region was created by dragons from the waters metamorphosing into horses to mate and create dragon-horses, also into men and mating with women near this region to create dragon-men who ran as fast as the dragon-horses. These were men who would massacre an entire city and leave a deserted place.
Baluka and other kingdoms
Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan and then Tokmak on its northwest. He met the great Khagan of the Göktürks. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. Xuanzang describes more monasteries, such as the Eastern Cakuri monastery and Ascarya monastery, with Buddha's footprints and Buddha idols. According to Xuanzang's accounts, mystical light emanated from Buddha's footprints on "fast days". In the country of Baluka, the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism was in vogue. He crossed the countries of Samarkand, Mimohe, Kaputana, Kusanika, Bukhara, Betik, Horismika and Tukhara. These had cities near rivers or lakes, then vast regions with no inhabitants, little water or grass. He describes warring factions of Turk chieftains in control, with "illness and pestilence" rampant.
From here, he crossed a desert, icy valleys and the Pamir range (which link Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges). Here, observed Xuanzang, the wind is cold and "blows with a piercing vehemence" (Li Rongxi translation). Ferocious dragons live here and trouble the travellers particularly those who wear "reddish brown" color clothes. Thereafter, he crossed past a salty sea, one narrow from north to south and long from east to west, he calls the Great Pure Lake. He describes supernatural monsters, fishes and dragons living in this lake. The Xuanzang travelogues then rush through the names of many countries, stating that more details are provided in the return part of his journey, as he crosses into country of Baktra. He adds that the Hinayana Buddhist schools were followed in all these regions.
In the capital of the country of Baktra, states Xuanzang, is a monastery with a Buddha's idol decorated with jewels and its halls studded with rare precious substances. The Buddhist monastery also has an image of Vaishravana deity as its guardian. The monastery and the capital attracts repeated raids from the Turk chieftains who seek to loot these precious jewels. This monastery has a large bathing pot that looks dazzlingly brilliant and has a Buddha's tooth relic and Buddha's broom made of "kasa grass". Outside is a vihara built ages ago, and many stupas to honor the arhats (Buddhist saints).
Kingdom of Bamiyana
South of Baktra is the country of Kacik, then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys "infested with gangs of brigands" (Li Rongxi translation). Crossing this pass, thereafter is the country of Bamiyana (a part of modern Afghanistan). There, state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha, carved from a rock in the mountains, some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems. This valley has Buddhist monasteries, and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha, that is over a hundred foot tall. He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together. To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long. The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks, records Xuanzang.
Heading east and crossing the Black range, Xuanzang describes the country of Kapishi, where the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism had come in vogue. It had over 100 monasteries with stupas. More than 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana, studied here. Along with these Buddhist monasteries, states his travelogue, there were over ten Deva temples (Hindu) with "heretical believers who go about naked and smear dust over their bodies", translates Li Rongxi. Furthermore, in the same capital region, there is a Hinayana monastery with 300 monks at the northern foothills. The citizens of this country, adds Xuanzang, fondly recall "King Kanishka of Gandhara" (2nd-century CE, Kushan empire). To its east are the "City of Svetavat temple" and the Aruna Mountain known for its frequent avalanches. His travelogue then describes several popular legends about a Naga king. He also describes miraculous events from a Buddhist stupa, such as raging flames bursting out of them leaving behind stream of pearls. The citizens here, states Xuanzang, worship pieces of Buddha's remains that were brought here in more ancient times. He mentions four stupas built in this area by king Ashoka.
Travel through India
To Xuanzang, he entered India as he crossed the Black range and entered the country of Lampa. His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia. He, however, does not call it India, but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as "Tianzhu" or "Shengdu" or "Xiandou". More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th-century term in his travelogues would be "Indu".
Xuanzang states that India is a vast country over ninety thousand li in circuit, with seventy kingdoms, sea on three sides and snow mountains to its north. It is a land that is rich and moist, cultivation productive, vegetation luxuriant. He adds that it has its own ancient customs, such as measuring its distance as "yojana", equal to forty li, but varying between thirty to sixteen depending on the source. They divide day and night into kala, and substances into various divisions, all the way to a fineness that they call indivisible and emptiness. The country has three seasons: hot, cold, rainy according to some Buddhists; while others say it is four: three months each of spring, summer, monsoon, and autumn.
The kingdoms of India have numerous villages and cities. Their towns and cities have square walls, streets are winding and narrow, with shops lined along these roads. Wine is sold in shops on the side streets. Those whose profession is butchering, fishing, executioners, scavengers (castes that kill living beings and deal with products derived from them) are not allowed to live inside the cities. The cities are built from bricks, while homes are either made mostly from bricks or from "wattled bamboo or wood". Cottages are thatched with straw and grass. The residents of India clean their floor and then smear it with a preparation of cow dung, followed by decorating it with flowers, unlike Chinese homes. Their children go to school at age seven, where they begin learning a number of treatises of the five knowledges – first grammar, second technical skills which he states includes arts, mechanics, yin-yang and the calendar, third medicine, fourth being logic, and fifth field of knowledge taught is inner knowledge along with theory of cause and effect. After further similar introduction covering the diverse aspects of the Indian culture he observed, including fashion, hair styles, preference for being barefoot, ritual washing their hands after releasing bodily waste, cleaning teeth by chewing special tree twigs, taking baths before going to their temples, worshipping in their temples, their alphabet that contains forty seven letters, the diversity of languages spoken, how harmonious and elegant they sound when they speak their languages, Xuanzang presents the various kingdoms of India.
Xuanzang includes a section on the differences between the Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist communities. There are eighteen sects in Buddhism, according to Xuanzang. They stand against each other, debate "various viewpoints, as vehemently as crashing waves". Though they share the same goal, they study different subjects and use sharp words to argue. Each Buddhist sect has different set of rules and regulations for their monks. The monks who cannot expound a single text must do the routine monastic duties (cleaning monastery and such). Those who can expound one Buddhist text flawlessly is exempt from such duties. Those who can recite two texts, get better quality rooms. Monks who can expound three Buddhist texts get attendants to serve them, while the few monks who can expound all four are provided with lay servants. Expounders of five texts have elephants for travel, while six texts entitles them to security retinue.
Kingdom of Lampa, Nagarahara and Gandhara
Xuanzang describes Lampaka (modern Laghman, near the source of Kabul river) as the territory of north India, one whose circuit is more than 1000 li and where all monasteries studied Mahayana Buddhism. They have tens of Deva temples (Hindu) which heretics (non-Buddhists) frequent. To its southeast is the country of Nagarahara, with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples. The number of monks here, however, are few. The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air, because were he to walk here, it caused many earthquakes. Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka, with marvellous sculptures. Xuanzang paid homage by circling it. Both Lampaka and Nagarahara countries were independent with their own kings, but they have become a vassal of the Buddhist Kapishi kingdom found near Bamiyana.
The monasteries in these kingdoms are splendid, with four corner towers and halls with three tiers. They have strange looking figures at the joints, rafters, eaves and roof beams. The Indians paint the walls, doors and windows with colors and pictures. People prefer to have home that look simple from outside, but is much decorated inside. They construct their homes such a way that they open towards the east. Xuanzang also describes implausible events such as glowing rock footprints of Buddha, dragons, tales of Naga, a stupa in which is preserved the Buddha's eyeball as "large as a crabapple" and that is "brilliant and transparent" throughout, a white stone Buddha idol that worked miracles and "frequently emitted light". The travelogue states that Xuanzang went into a dark cave here where dangerous beings lived, recited Srimaladevi Simhanadasutra, and they became Buddhists. Thereafter they all burnt incense and worshipped the Buddha with flowers.
Some five hundred li (~200 kilometer in 7th-century) to the southeast is the country of Gandhara – which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as Qiantuowei. On its east, it is bordered by the Indus river, and its capital is Purusapura (now Peshawar, Pakistan). This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indian sastras, and they include Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Monaratha and Parshva. To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400 feet high stupa built by king Kanishka, one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top. There is a large monastery near it. Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites, and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them. He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as "magnificent" and made with "perfect craftmanship".
Kingdom of Udayana, Kashmira
Heading north towards Kashmir, he arrived in the city of Pushkalavati, with many holy Buddhist sites. Xuanzang worshipped at these "great stupas and big monasteries". Thereafter he reached the country of Udayana, through which flowed the Subhavastu river (now called Swat river). It had 1400 monasteries of five early Buddhist schools (of 18 sub-traditions) – Sarvastivada, Mahāsāṃghika, Kasyapiya, Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta. These schools became unpopular, as the later form of Mahayana prospered. According to Xuanzang, these monasteries of early Buddhist schools are desolate and attract few monks. he then reaches the city of Hi-lo and Manglaur. In all these places, he mentions how Buddha lived here in one his previous lives (Jataka legends) and illustrated compassion-strength through his actions. There is a Buddhist temple northeast of Manglaur with the Avalokitesvara Bodhusattva image, one is noted for "its miraculous manifestations". Crossing another 1000 li, he reached Darada valley – the old capital of Udayana, with a 100 feet golden wood statue of Maitreya Boddhisattva. This statue, states his travelogue, was built by an artist who went three times into heaven to see how he looks and then carve the realistic image of him on earth.
Xuanzang arrived in Taxila, after crossing a river with "poisonous dragons and evil animals". There, he visited a major Buddhist monastery of the Sautrantika school. From there, after covering some 2200 li, he passed through the country of Simhapura (Kalabagh), of Urasa (now Hazara), and then into Kashmira. He was received by the king, and numerous monks from the Jayendra monastery. Kashmira is land with a very cold climate and is often calm without any wind. The region has lakes, grows plenty of flowers and fruit, saffron and medicinal herbs. Kashmira has over 100 monasteries and more than 5000 monks. The residents revere four large stupas that were built in ancient times by Ashoka. King Kanishika too built many Buddhist monasteries here. He also had treatises with 960,000 words written on copper plates and had them stored in a newly built great stupa. The Kashmira region has numerous monks well versed with the Tripitaka, states Xuanzang. He stays in Kashmira for two years and studies the treatises with them.
Xuanzang describes many events where he is helped by both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. For example, he describes leaving the city of Sakala and Narasimha, then passing with his companions through the Great Palasha forest. They get robbed and are walked towards some dry pond to be killed. A monk and he slip away. They hurry towards a village. Near it, they meet a Brahmin who is tilling his land. They tell him that robbers attacked them and their companions. The Brahmin goes to the village and beats a drum and blows a conch. About 80 men gather, and together they proceed to rescue the companions of Xuanzang. While other rescued companions of his wail about the loss of all their property, Xuanzang reminds them that they should all be happy to be alive and not worry about the loss of property. The villagers help his companions and him by hosting them before the resume their journey. Yet, elsewhere, Xuanzang also recites the implausible tale of meeting a Brahmin who was 700 years old and had two associates, each over a 100 year old, who had mastered all of the Hindu Vedas and the Buddhist Madhyamika sastra. He calls them heretics (non-Buddhists). These heretics help him and his companions get new garments and food. He stayed with this implausibly old Brahmin for a month, and studied the Madhyamika sastra with him.
The memorial of Pāṇini
To the northeast of Varsha country, states Xuanzang, there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi. She is the wife of Mahesvara (Shiva). It is a great site of pilgrimage, where Indians from very far come with prayers. At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body. About 30 li (about 12 kilometers in 7th-century) southeast from these temples is Salatura, which says Xuanzang was the birthplace of rishi Pāṇini and the author of "Sabda-vidya-sastra". Inspired by Mahesvara, this rishi set out to "make inquiries into the way of learning" (Li Rongxi translation). He thoroughly studied all written and spoken language, words in ancient and his times, then created a treatise of one thousand stanzas. The heretics (Hindus) transmit this text orally from teacher to pupil, and it is this that makes the Brahmins of this city "great scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope". They have an image of Pāṇini installed in reverence of him in this city of Salatura.
Kingdoms of Takka, Jalamdhara, Sthanesvara, Mathura, Matipura, Kapitha
The country of Takka is south of Kashmira, extending from the Indus river to its west and Vipasha river to its east. They produce abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and wheat, also gold, brass, iron and other metals. They do not believe in Buddhism, and pray in several hundred deva temples. This country has ten Buddhist monasteries left. There were many more before, states Xuanzang. These were destroyed few hundred years ago, during the rule of a king named Mahirakula (Mihirakula). The king did this in anger because when he asked the monasteries in his domain for a Buddhist teacher to teach him Buddhism, the Buddhists did not send to him any learned scholar. Mahirakula cruel deed against the Buddhists triggered the king of Magadha to go to war with him. Mahirakula is defeated, forgiven but returns to power by assassinating the king of Kashmira and Gandhara. Xuanzang recites the hearsay stories he heard about Mahirakula's continued cruelty and destruction of 1600 stupas and monasteries. Xuanzang then describes the surviving monasteries in Sagala with hundreds of Buddhist monks, along with its three colossal stupas, each over 200 feet tall, two built by Ashoka.
Xuanzang visited the country of Chinabhukti next, which he states got its name because a region west of the Yellow river was a vassal state of king Kanishka. From there, during Kanisha's reign, peaches and pears plantations were imported into Chinabhukti, north India. Further northeast, he visited a Buddhist monastery of the Sarvastivada school with 300 monks. He describes another colossal stupa that is over 200 feet tall built by Ashoka. Near this, states Xuanzang, are numerous small stupas and large Buddhist caves. Around this monastery in the Himalayan hills are "hundreds and thousands of stupas, built so closely together than their shadows touch one another" (Li Rongxi translation). From there, he visited Jalamdhara. It grows non-sticky rice and cereals, its forest are luxuriant, the region is lush with flowers and fruits. They have 50 monasteries with over 2000 monks studying Mahayana and Hinayana traditions of Buddhism. They also have deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes (Shiva-Hinduism).
From Jalambhara, Xuanzang travelled northeast through jagged peaks, deep valleys and dangerous trails into the Himalayan country of Kuluta. It is surrounded by mountains, and has abundant fruits, flowers and trees. It has twenty monasteries and over a thousand Buddhist monks studying mostly Mahayana Buddhism. It has fifteen deva temples frequented by heretics (Hindus). This region has many caves where Buddhist arhats and Hindu rishis live. He then headed south, into the country of Shatadru. Here, writes Xuanzang, people wear "gorgeous, extravagant" clothes, the climate is hot and citizens are honest and friendly by custom. It has ten monasteries, but ruined and with few monks. He visits the country of Pariyatra, where they have plenty of cattle and sheep, as well as a type of rice that they harvest in sixty days after planting. This region has eight ruined monasteries and ten deva temples. The monks study Hinayana Buddhism here.
Xuangzang next arrived in the country of Mathura, calling it a part of central India. This region is fertile, people love mangoes, they produce cloth and gold. The climate is hot, the people are genial and good by custom, they advocate learning and virtue, states Xuanzang. This country has over twenty monasteries with over two thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Many deva temples are also found in this country. He describes the ritual carrying and worship of the Buddha and Buddhist deities in this country with incense and flowers scattered in streets. He visits and praises the Govinda monastery in the Mathura country. Next he visits the country of Sthanesvara, which has wealthy but unkind citizens who show off their wealth. It has three Buddhist monasteries with over seven hundred monks, a lustrous and clean colossal stupa which witnesses "many divine manifestations". It also has well over hundred deva temples and numerous heretics.
The country of Shrughna has Ganges river to its east and Yamuna river in the middle of it. These people are like those in Sthanesvara country. They believe in heretical ideas (Hindu) and are honest by nature, states Xuanzang. They cherish learning, arts and crafts, and cultivate wisdom, blessedness. In this country are five Buddhist monasteries, over thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana, and over one hundred deva temples with numerous heretics. East of this region is the Ganges river with dark blue waters and strange creatures living in it, but these creatures do not harm people. The water of Ganges is sweet in taste, and the heretics believe it to contain the "water of blessedness", and that bathing in it causes sins to be expiated.
After crossing Ganges, he entered into the country of Matipura. Here, according to Xuanzang, half of the population is Buddhist and the other believe in heterodox religions. The climate is cooler and more temperate, its people are honest and esteem learning. The king is Shudra by caste and worships at the deva temples. The Matipura country has ten monasteries and over eight hundred monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Over fifty deva temples are frequented by the heretics here. Xuanzang describes the sastras composed and under study at the major Buddhist monasteries of Matipura. This region has the city of Mayura, densely populated and with a great deva temple near the Ganges river. The heretics call it the "Gate of the Ganges". People from all five parts of India – east, north, west, south, central – come here crossing long distances on pilgrimage and to bathe at these gates. This place has numerous rest and almshouses, where the "isolated, solitary and needy people get free food and medical service". North of this place is the country of Brahmapura, densely populated with prosperous and rich people. Colder in climate, here people are rude and violent by custom. This region has five Buddhist monasteries and ten deva temples. Southeast of here, states Xuanzang, is the country of Ahicchattra with ten monasteries and a thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya sect of Hinayana Buddhism. It has five deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes. The country of Vilashana and Kapitha are south and southeast of Ahicchattra. Most people in Vilashana are non-Buddhists, and there are two monasteries here with three hundred Buddhist monks. In Kapitha, there are four monasteries teaching Hinayana Buddhism, and they have over a thousand monks. Along with these Buddhist institution, Kapitha has ten deva temples. Kapitha, states Xuanzang, has a "beautifully constructed monastery with many lofty and spacious buildings adoerned with exquisite carvings" (Li Rongxi translation). It has Buddha statue at the top, Indra statue at left of the entrance and Brahma statue to the right.
Kingdoms of Kanyakubja, Ayodhya, Prayaga, Kausambi, Visaka
The country of Kanyākubja, also called Kusumapura, has the Ganges River to its west, with flowery forests of brilliant colors, transparent waters and prosperous people. They are simple and honest by custom, states Xuanzang, with handsome and graceful features. They cherish arts and literature, speak lucidly. Half of the population is Buddhist, half heretics. The Buddhists study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. The heretics have over two hundred deva temples.
The current king is Harshavardhana, a Hindu of Bais kshatriya caste descent. Three of his ancestors were also kings, and they were all known to the Chinese kings as virtuous. Xuanzang then recites, at length, the story of prince Shiladitya and how he constructed both major monasteries and temples, feeding hundreds of Buddhist monks and hundreds of Hindu Brahmins on festive days. He describes numerous monasteries in the southeast of its capital, along with large Buddhist temple made of stone and brocks, with a thirty feet tall Buddha statue. To the south of this is temple, states Xuanzang, is a Surya temple built from bluestone. Next to the Surya temple is a Mahesvara (Shiva) temple also made from bluestone. Both are profusely carved with sculptures. About 100 li to the southeast of Shiladitya's capital, states Xuanzang, is the Navadevakula city on the eastern bank of Ganges eiver. It is surrounded by flowery wood, has three monasteries with five hundred monks, and a multitiered terraced deva temple that is "exquisitely constructed" (Li Rongxi translation).
About 600 li to the southeast is the country of Ayodhya. It grows abundant amounts of cereals, is blessed with fruits and flowers. People are benign and dedicate themselves to arts and crafts. Ayodhya has over a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Its capital has ten deva temples. This is the country where some of the key sastras of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism were composed. A few hundred li east of Ayodhya is the country of Ayamukha. Here too, states Xuanzang, people are honest and simple. They have five monasteries with over one thousand monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Near them are ten deva temples.
About 700 li southeast is the country of Prayaga, on the banks of Yamuna river. It has luxuriant fruit trees and cereal crops, its people are kind and helpful. Most of them believe in heretical religions, and Prayaga has several hundreds of deva temples. At the south of this great city here is a forest full of champaka flowers with a 100 foot ancient stupa with collapsed foundation, originally built by Ashoka. The city has a great temple with decorated buildings. At the east of this great city two rivers meet forming a dune that is over ten li wide, and it is this place that wealthy people and kings such as Shaliditya come on pilgrimage from ancient times and give alms. It is called the Grand Place of Almsgiving. Numerous people gather here and bathe at the confluence of two rivers, some drown themselves, believing that this washes away their sins and that it will give them a better rebirth.
Five hundred li from Prayaga is the country of Kausambi. It produces abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and sugarcane. The citizens are bold, furious and dedicated to good deeds by custom. It has ten deserted and dilapidated Buddhist monasteries, attended by about three hundred monks. The country has fifty deva temples and numerous non-Buddhists. In the capital, within the palace is a Buddhist temple with a Buddha statue made from sandalwood. This Buddha image "emits divine light" sometimes, states Xuanzang. He adds that Kausambi is the place that Buddhists text predict is where the Buddha Dharma will come to an end in a distant future, therefore anyone who comes to this place feels sad and "sheds tears" (Li Rongxi translation).
He headed northeast, crossed Ganges river again, and this came to the country of Vishaka. He calls its people sincere and honest by custom, fond of learning. It has twenty monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana Buddhism. Vishaka has numerous non-Buddhists and over fifty deva temples.
Kingdoms of Sravasti Kushinagara, Baranasi, Nepala
In Fascicle 6 of the travelogue manuscript, Xuanzang focuses on some of the holiest sites in Buddhism. He begins with Shravasti (now northeast Uttar Pradesh), describing it to be a country of over six thousand li in circuit. The capital city is desolate, states Xuanzang, though some residents still live here. There are over hundred monasteries in its capital city, many dilapidated, where monks study Hinayana Buddhism. The country has hundred deva temples. He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit's palace, then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa, another stupa and a temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha. Next to these, states Xuanzang, is the great stupa of Angulimala. About five li (~2 kilometers in 7th century) south of the city is the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing, but the monastery there is in ruins. One pillar has a wheel carved at its top, the other a bull. Xuanzang saw all the monuments associated with the Sravasti legends with the Buddha, though many of these were in dilapidated condition. He also a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image, and a deva temple about the same size as the Buddha temple, both in good condition. Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital, he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha, one who lived for "twenty thousand" years, states Xuanzang.
From Sravasti, Xuanzang travelled southeast to the country of Kapilavastu. This country has no ruler, he states, and every city has its own lord. Well over a thousand monasteries were in this region, but most are dilapidated. Some three thousand monks continue to study Hinayana Buddhism in many of these monasteries. This country has two deva temples. He also describes a Buddhist temple with painting of a prince riding on a white horse, as well many Buddhist monuments and legends about the Buddha's early life in this region, as well as those of the Sakya clan.
After Kapilavastu, he went eastward to the country of Ramagrama (Rama). The region is sparsely populated, the towns and villages in a dilapidated condition. He mentions a stupa where a snake-dragon comes out of the pond to circumambulate it, as well as elephants pick flowers and come to scatter on this stupa, according to Xuanzang. There is a monastery near this special stupa, where monks study Hinayana. Some hundred li to the east is another colossal stupa in good condition, one built by Ashoka. Past this forest is the country of Kushinagara, where towns and villages are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. He describes a large brick temple with reclining Buddha. He describes many monuments and sites he was able to see where numerous legends of the Buddha played out, including the site where he was creamted.
In Fascicle 7, Xuanzang describes five countries. He starts with Baranasi (now Varanasi), stating the country has Ganges river to its west. The city is densely populated, with tightly packed homes in its lanes. The people are "enormously wealthy", mild and courteous by nature. Few here believe in Buddhism, most are heretics (Hindus). The country has over thirty Buddhist monasteries with three thousand monks studying Hinayana. There are over one hundred deva temples, most dedicated to Mahesvara (Shiva). Some of these heretic followers go naked and smear their bodies with ash. On the west bank of Varana river near Baranasi, is a great stupa that is 100 feet tall and was built by Ashoka. Before it is a standing green-stone pillar polished as smooth as a mirror, states Xuanzang. He describes many more stupas, pillars and monasteries in Baranasi country.
After Baranasi, he visits the country of Garjanapati, where he finds the Aviddhakarna monastery that is "very exquisitely" carved with decorative sculptures. It is lush with flowers, with reflections in the pond nearby. From there he heads north of Ganges and visits a large Narayana temple (Vishnu). It has storied pavilions and terraces, the numerous deva statues are "carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship". About thirty li to the east of this Narayana temple is a Ashoka built stupa, with a twenty feet high pillar and lion image on its top. From there he walked to Vaishali, where says Xuanzang, people are honest and simple by custom. They study both orthodox Buddhist and heterodox non-Buddhist doctrines. The country of Vaishali has hundreds of monasteries, but only a few have monks and are in good condition. He describes the Svetapura monastery with lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions.
After Vaishali, he headed north and reached the country of Vriji. This country mostly venerates the non-Buddhist deva temples and doctrines, states Xuanzang. It has over ten monasteries with less than a thousand Buddhist monks. He then travelled to the country of Nepala, near the Snow Mountains. It has many flowers and fruits, yaks and two-headed birds. The people here, says Xuanzang, are rude and disparaging by nature, but skilled in craftsmanship. Their Buddhist monasteries and deva temples touch each other, and people simultaneously believe in Buddhist and non-Buddhist doctrines. The country has two thousand monks who study Hinayana and Mahayana teachings.
Kingdoms of Magadha, Iranaparvata, Champa, Kajangala, Kamarupa
In Fascicle 8 of the travelogue, Xuanzang begins with the country of Magadha. The country and its capital is sparsely populated. A fertile land, it produces a fragrant form of rice with extraordinary lustre. It regularly floods during the monsoon season, and during these months one can use a boat to travel. People are honest and simple here, and they revere Buddhism. Magadha has fifty monasteries and over ten thousand monks. It also has tens of deva' temples.
According to Xuanzang, there is city south of river Ganges in Magadha. It is very ancient. When human life was "innumerable years" long, it was called Kusumapura. One can see the very ancient foundations of Kusumapura. Later, when human life span reduced to "several thousand years", its name was changed to Pataliputra. Towards the north of his royal city is a huge standing pillar of Ashoka. There once were many monasteries, deva temples and stupas here, but several hundred such Buddhist and non-Buddhist monuments are in dilapidated and ruined condition, states Xuanzang. He then describes several legends associated with Ashoka, along with several stupas and monasteries he found in good condition. For example, he describes the Tiladhaka monastery about 300 li southeast of the Magadha capital. It has four courts, lofty terraces, multi-storied pavilions where thousands of monks continue to study Mahayana Buddhism. Within this monastery complex, states Xuanzang, there are three temples, the center one with a thirty foot tall Buddha idol, another has a statue of Tara Bodhisattva, the third has Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva statue. He visits Gaya and the Bodhi tree. Near the tree, he states there is the Mahabodhi monastery with many buildings and courtyards. Inside these buildings are "most wonderful, and exquisitely done decorative paintings", states Xuanzang. It is painted in gold, silver, pinkish blue, lustrous white and semitransparent pigments, with the Buddha's ornaments in the panel embedded with gems and jewels.
After crossing the Maha river, visiting many stupas, monasteries, rishi Vyasa hill, Vipula hill, Pippala Cave, Bamboo temple and other monuments, Xuanzang arrived in Rajagriha city (Rajgir) and Nalanda monastery. He stayed and studied at Nalanda.
At Nalanda, he was in the company of several thousand monks. Xuanzang studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda with Silabhadra. He describes Nalanda as a place with "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade" (translation of Rene Grousset).
According to Grousset, the founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu trained Dignaga, who trained Dharmapala and whose student was Silabhadra. Thus Xuanzang had reached his teacher Silabhadra, who made available to Xuanzang and through him to the Sino-Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist Mahayana thought, and the Cheng Weishi Lun, Xuanzang's great philosophical treatise, is none other than the Summa of this doctrine, "the fruit of seven centuries of Indian Buddhist thought."
From Nalanda, Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms, including Iranaparvata, Champa, from there to Pundravardhana and Sylhet (in present-day Bangladesh. There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3,000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. One of them was the Vāśibhã Monastery, where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India.Li (1996), pp. 298-299 He visited Kamarupa (Assam and northeastern India), Samatata, Tamralipti, Kalinga and other regions, which Xuanzang calls as "domain of east India".
Kingdoms of Kalinga, Andhra, Chola, Dravida and Malakuta
Xuanzang turned southward and travelled towards Andhradesa to visit the Viharas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. He stayed at Amaravati and studied the 'Abhidhammapitakam' texts. He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted. He later proceeded to Kanchi, the imperial capital of Pallavas, and a strong center of Buddhism. He continued traveling to Nasik, Ajanta, Malwa; from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again.
Kingdoms of Konkanapura, Maharashtra, Malawa, Valabhi, Gurjara, Ujjayani, Sindhu, Langala, Avanda, Varnu
Xuanzang was welcomed to Kannauj at the request of the king Harshavardhana, who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman, to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighboring kingdoms, Buddhist monks, Brahmans, and Jains. King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha's generous distribution of gifts to the poor.
After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha. Travelling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush, Xuanzang passed through Kashgar, Khotan, and Dunhuang on his way back to China. He arrived in the capital, Chang'an, on the seventh day of the first month of 645, 16 years after he left Chinese territory, and a great procession celebrated his return.
Return journey Kingdoms of Jaguda, Andarab, Alini, Rahu, Krisma, Himatala, Badakshan, Sikni, Cukuka, Gostana
Other sites
Return to China
On his return to China in 645 CE, Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still-reigning emperor, Emperor Taizong of Tang. Instead, he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy to translating Buddhist texts until his death in 664 CE. According to his biography, he returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics." In celebration of Xuanzang's extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts, Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang (褚遂良) and inscriber Wan Wenshao (萬文韶) to install two stele stones, collectively known as The Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (雁塔聖教序), at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.
Chinese Buddhism (influence)
During Xuanzang's travels, he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra (瑜伽行派), or Consciousness-only (唯識). His 7th-century scholarship on Yogacara has a major influence on Chinese Buddhism, and then on East Asian Buddhism.
The force of his own study, translation, and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school (法相宗) in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, Karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (窺基) who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lacked the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.
Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese, which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies. He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains an important milestone in all East Asian Buddhist sects.
The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra
Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE, using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 chapters.
Autobiography and biography
In 646, under the Emperor's request, Xuanzang completed his book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (大唐西域記), which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India. This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857.
There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili (慧立). Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal, in 1884 and 1911 respectively.Beal 1911 An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and S.W. Bushell, and published posthumously in London in 1905.
Legacy
Xuanzang's work, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India, he ended up doing much more. He has preserved the records of the political and social aspects of the lands he visited.
His record of the places visited by him in Bengal — mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna, Pundranagara and its environs, Samatata, Tamralipti and Harikela— have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal. His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal, especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka, although at times he can be quite partisan.
Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works. He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India. Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji, the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili, entitled the Life of Xuanzang.
His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra, and recitations throughout China, Korea, and Japan. His style was, by Chinese standards, cumbersome and overly literal, and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology; usually, where another version by the earlier translator Kumārajīva exists, Kumārajīva's is more popular.
In fiction
Xuanzang's journey along the Silk Road, and the legends that grew up around it, inspired the Ming novel Journey to the West, one of the great classics of Chinese literature. The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, and is protected on his journey by three powerful disciples. One of them, the monkey, was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime (including the popular Dragon Ball and Saiyuki series), and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley's translation and later the cult TV series Monkey.
In the Yuan Dynasty, there was also a play by Wu Changling (吳昌齡) about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures.
The movie Da Tang Xuan Zang was released in 2016 as an official Chinese and Indian production. It was offered as candidate for Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards due to its amazing camera work, but ultimately was not nominated.
Relics
A skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion, Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda - allegedly by the Dalai Lama - and presented to India. The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007. The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang's skull.
Part of Xuanzang's remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942, and are now enshrined at Yakushi-ji in Nara, Japan.
Works
Volume 2. Reprint. Hesperides Press, 1996. .
Beal, Samuel (1884). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. Vol. 1, Vol. 2
Julien, Stanislas, (1857/1858). Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales, L'Imprimerie impériale, Paris. Vol.1 Vol.2
Li, Rongxi (translator) (1995). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California.
Gallery
See also
Cheng Weishi Lun Great Tang Records on the Western Regions Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
Chinese Translation Theory
Chinese exploration
Faxian
Song Yun
Yijing
Hyecho
Xuanzang Temple, Taiwan
A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea Notes
References
Works cited
Beal, Samuel, trans. (1911). The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang. Translated from the Chinese of Shaman (monk) Hwui Li. London. 1911. Reprint Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973. (a dated, abridged translation)
Bernstein, Richard (2001). Ultimate Journey: Retracing the Path of an Ancient Buddhist Monk (Xuanzang) who crossed Asia in Search of Enlightenment. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. .
Christie, Anthony (1968). Chinese Mythology. Feltham, Middlesex: Hamlyn Publishing. .
Gordon, Stewart. When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who created the "Riches of the East" Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, 2008. .
Julien, Stanislas (1853). Histoire de la vie de Hiouen-Thsang, par Hui Li et Yen-Tsung, Paris.
(a more recent, abridged translation)
Li, Rongxi, trans. (1995). A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. (a recent, full translation)
Nattier, Jan. "The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Vol. 15 (2), p. 153-223. (1992) PDF
Saran, Mishi (2005). Chasing the Monk's Shadow: A Journey in the Footsteps of Xuanzang. Penguin Books.
Sun Shuyun (2003). Ten Thousand Miles Without a Cloud (retracing Xuanzang's journeys). Harper Perennial.
Waley, Arthur (1952). The Real Tripitaka, and Other Pieces. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
Watters, Thomas (1904–05). On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India. London, Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973.
Wriggins, Sally Hovey. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Westview Press, 1996. Revised and updated as The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang. Westview Press, 2003. .
Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. .
Yu, Anthony C. (ed. and trans.) (1980 [1977]). The Journey to the West. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. (fiction)
Further reading
Brose, Benjamin (2021). Xuanzang: China's Legendary Pilgrim and Translator. Boulder: Shambhala Publications
Bhat, R. B. & Wu, C. (2014). Xuan Zhang's mission to the West with Monkey King. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2014.
Sen, T. (2006). The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing, Education About Asia 11 (3), 24-33
Weerawardane, Prasani (2009). Journey to the West: Dusty Roads, Stormy Seas, and Transcendence, biblioasia 5 (2), 14-18
Jain, Sandhya & Jain, Meenakshi (2011). The India they saw: Foreign accounts. New Delhi: Ocean Books.
External links
Hiuen Tsang A Poem on Xuanzang in Asia Literary Review by Indian poet-diplomat Abhay K.
A Tour of Hiuen Tsang Museum Nalanda A Video Tour of Xuanzang Museum Nalanda
Xuanzang Memorial, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara on Google Cultural Institute
Details of Xuanzang's life and works Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
History of San Zang A narration of Xuan Zang's journey to India.
Chinese text of The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang'', by Shaman (monk) Hwui Li (Hui Li) (沙门慧立)
Verses Delineating the Eight Consciousnesses by Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty, translation, and explanation by Ronald Epstein (1986)
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7th-century Buddhist monks
Tang dynasty translators
Chinese scholars of Buddhism
Buddhist translators
Chinese explorers
Historiography of India
Journey to the West
History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Sui dynasty Buddhists
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Explorers of Central Asia
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Pilgrimage accounts
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] |
204315
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somsavat%20Lengsavad
|
Somsavat Lengsavad
|
Somsavat Lengsavad (; born 15 June 1945) was a Deputy Prime Minister of Laos. An ethnic Chinese, Chinese name: 凌绪光 (Lin Xuguang), who hails from Luang Prabang with ancestry from Hainan, he was a protégé of Kaysone Phomvihane.
He became foreign minister in 1993 and served until 8 June 2006, when he was replaced by Thongloun Sisoulith.
He is fluent in Mandarin Chinese.
References
Laotian people of Chinese descent
1945 births
Members of the 5th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 6th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 7th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 8th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 9th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 8th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 9th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Living people
Lao People's Revolutionary Party politicians
Foreign ministers of Laos
|
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204322
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Thailand
|
Central Thailand
|
Central Thailand (Central plain) or more specifically Siam (also known as Suvarnabhumi and Dvaravati) is one of the regions of Thailand, covering the broad alluvial plain of the Chao Phraya River. It is separated from northeast Thailand (Isan) by the Phetchabun mountain range. The Tenasserim Hills separate it from Myanmar to the west. In the north it is bounded by the Phi Pan Nam Range, one of the hilly systems of northern Thailand. The area was the heartland of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (at times referred to as Siam), and is still the dominant area of Thailand, containing as it does, the world's most primate city, Bangkok.
Definition
The grouping of Thai provinces into regions follow two major systems, in which Thailand is divided into either four or six regions. In the six-region system, commonly used in geographical studies, central Thailand extends from Sukhothai and Phitsanulok Provinces in the north to the provinces bordering the Gulf of Thailand in the south, excluding the mountainous provinces bordering Myanmar to the west and the coastal provinces of the east. The four-region system includes provinces only as far north as Chai Nat, Sing Buri, and Lopburi, and extends west and east to the borders of Myanmar and Cambodia.
The central region, as defined by Royal Forest Department in 2019, consists of 18 provinces (7 provinces of Greater Bangkok, 8 provinces of South Central Thailand and 3 provinces of Western Thailand). The total area of this central region is , while the total forest area is or 33.2 percent of this regional area.
Administrative divisions
There are several different systems of dividing modern Thailand into different regions, which gives slightly different boundaries for Central Thailand. In the geographic six-region system, the central region includes the following 22 provices, divided into three groups:
Greater Bangkok: Bangkok, Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram
North Central Thailand region: Kamphaeng Phet, Nakhon Sawan, Phetchabun, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Sukhothai, Uthai Thani
South Central Thailand region: Ang Thong, Ayutthaya, Chainat, Lopburi, Nakhon Nayok, Saraburi, Sing Buri; Suphanburi
The four-region system includes 26 provinces in its definition of Central Thailand. Especially for statistical purposes, these are divided into four groups:
Greater Bangkok: Bangkok, Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon
Sub-Central Thailand region: Ang Thong, Ayutthaya, Chainat, Lopburi, Nakhon Nayok, Saraburi, Sing Buri
Western Thailand region: Kanchanaburi, Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ratchaburi, Samut Songkhram, Suphanburi
Eastern Thailand region: Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi, Chonburi, Prachinburi, Rayong, Sa Kaeo, Trat
The eastern region is sometimes listed as a separate region distinct from central Thailand – sometimes only the four coastal provinces, sometimes the above list excluding Nakhon Nayok. None of these regions are political subdivisions, they are only geographical or statistical groupings.
Economy
For economic statistics of central Thailand by National Statistical Office (NSO) the following six provinces are listed: 1.Ang Thong 2.Ayutthaya 3.Chai Nat 4.Lopburi 5.Saraburi 6.Sing Buri
However Nakhon Nayok province is listed by eastern Thailand.
For FY 2018, Central Region had a combined economic output of 863.328 billion baht (US$27.85 billion), or 5.3 percent of Thailand's GDP. Ayutthaya province had an economic output of 412.701 billion baht (US$13.3 billion). This amounts to GPP per capita of 454,953 baht (US$14,676), 40 percent more than Saraburi province, next in the ranking and three times more than for all subsequent provinces in the ranking.
References
External links
Regions of Thailand
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20Halen%20%28album%29
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Van Halen (album)
|
Van Halen is the self-titled debut studio album by American rock band Van Halen. Released on February 10, 1978, the album peaked at number 19 on the Billboard 200 and sold more than 10 million copies in the United States, receiving Diamond certification.
The album contains some of Van Halen's most well-known songs, including "Runnin' with the Devil", "Ain't Talkin' 'bout Love", "Jamie's Cryin'", and their cover of The Kinks "You Really Got Me". The 1 minute and 42 second instrumental "Eruption", played and written by guitarist Eddie Van Halen, is considered one of the greatest guitar solos of all time, having popularized two-handed tapping.
Background
Van Halen began recording demos in 1976. However, a three-track tape financed by Gene Simmons attracted no interest from record labels. Guitarist Eddie Van Halen was not convinced of the quality of the material because they could not make the recordings with their own equipment. Simmons left to tour with Kiss after recording the demos, but said he would try to secure Van Halen a record deal afterwards.
After recording the demos, the band was offered several concerts. At a sold-out show in their hometown, Pasadena, the group's future manager, Marshall Berle, discovered the band. He and musical entrepreneur Kim Fowley paired them with punk rock band Venus and the Razorblades for a gig at the Whisky a Go Go. After being well received by Berle at the Whisky a Go Go, the band gained the attention of Mo Ostin and Ted Templeman of Warner Bros. Ostin and Templeman were impressed with the band's subsequent performance at the Starwood, and Van Halen proceeded to sign a contract with Warner. The recording of their debut album began August 29, 1977 and lasted three weeks. With producer Ted Templeman, it was mostly recorded live. "Runnin' with the Devil", "Jamie's Cryin'", "Feel Your Love Tonight" and "Ice Cream Man" contain guitar overdubs. Overall, the album cost approximately $40,000 to produce.
"We didn't have a ton of material," recalled bassist Michael Anthony, "so we basically just took our live show and all the songs we knew and went for it. The whole album only took a couple of weeks. Ted Templeman wanted to make a big, powerful guitar record, and he had all he needed in what Eddie was doing."
The subsequent tour began with the band opening for Journey, along with Montrose, in the United States. They later opened for Black Sabbath in Europe and the United States.
Packaging and artwork
The cover photos for Van Halen were taken at the Whisky a Go Go, a Los Angeles club at which Van Halen often performed during the mid-1970s. The guitar pictured on the cover of the album is Eddie Van Halen's Frankenstrat Guitar (before he added the red paint), a highly customized Stratocaster style guitar built out of replacement parts.
The liner notes thank DJ Rodney Bingenheimer and Kiss bassist Gene Simmons, the latter usually credited with discovering Van Halen. "A lot of people stick me on their [thanks list], even though I don't deserve it," Simmons remarked. "One that I did deserve to be on was that first Van Halen record – the guys still owe me a couple thousand bucks! But I love 'em."
Release and reception
In the United States, Van Halen reached number 19 on the Billboard Top 200; their debut single, a cover of The Kinks' "You Really Got Me", spent three weeks on the chart, peaking at number 36.
Soon after its February 1978 release, Van Halen became regarded by fans and critics as one of rock and roll's greatest debut albums; however, its initial critical reception was mostly negative. In 1978, Rolling Stone critic Charles M. Young predicted, "In three years, Van Halen is going to be fat and self-indulgent and disgusting ... follow[ing] Deep Purple and Led Zeppelin right into the toilet. In the meantime, they are likely to be a big deal." But he also wrote that: "Van Halen's secret is not doing anything that's original while having the hormones to do it better than all those bands who have become fat and self-indulgent and disgusting. Edward Van Halen has mastered the art of lead/rhythm guitar in the tradition of Jimmy Page and Joe Walsh; several riffs on this record beat anything Aerosmith has come up with in years. Vocalist Dave Lee Roth manages the rare hard-rock feat of infusing the largely forgettable lyrics with energy and not sounding like a castrato at the same time. Drummer Alex Van Halen and bassist Michael Anthony are competent and properly unobtrusive." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau said, "For some reason Warners wants us to know that this is the biggest bar band in the San Fernando Valley ... The term becomes honorific when the music belongs in a bar. This music belongs on an aircraft carrier."
According to Rolling Stones Holly George-Warren, with the album's release the mainstream media focused on Roth's "swaggering good looks and extroverted persona", while fans and musicians "were riveted by Eddie Van Halen's guitar mastery", which included "an array of unorthodox techniques." She notes that, even before the band's debut, "Eddie became a legend among local guitarists."
Kerrang! magazine gave the album a very positive review, and considers the album to be an "essential purchase." They wrote, "IT'S DIFFICULT to overstate the effect VH's debut had upon its release. With the music world split between punk, disco and prog rock, Van Halen combined a dazzling live show with a party-hearty motto and, in Eddie Van Halen, a guitarist who redefined what was possible on six strings. His sound on this album—christened 'The Brown Sound'—remains the holy grail of guitar tones."
Commercial performance
On August 7, 1996, Van Halen was re-certified by the RIAA for selling ten million copies in the United States alone. One of only six rock bands to release two RIAA Diamond status albums, Van Halen remains one of Van Halen's two best-selling albums, along with 1984.
Van Halen went to Gold status on May 24, 1978, and then went to Platinum status just a few months later, on October 10, 1978. In less than a year the album sold more than one million copies in the US alone, meaning that the album was already a great success. However, on October 22, 1984, the album went to 5× Multi-Platinum status. The album went to 6x Multi-Platinum on February 1, 1989, and then went to 7× Multi-Platinum on September 29, 1993. In less than a year later, on July 11, 1994, the album went to 8x Multi-Platinum, and finally, on August 7, 1996, just two years later, the album went to Diamond status by RIAA.
The Van Halen album, like Van Halen's other David Lee Roth-era albums—excepting Van Halen II, which was re-certified in 2004, to coincide with the promotion of a Warner Bros. Records greatest hits collection—was last brought by Warner Bros. Records to the RIAA for re-certification in 1996, while 1984 was re-certified on February 8, 1999. The band's split with Warner Brothers in 2002, and subsequent agreement with Interscope has eliminated Warner Brothers' incentive for paying the [relatively substantial] fee to promote Van Halen's back-catalog by having its albums re-certified. Despite lack of re-certification, Van Halen's 1978 debut has continued to sell prolifically, re-appearing numerous times on the Billboard 200 and Billboard Top Pop Catalog Albums charts, as recently as 2020.
Legacy
AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described Van Halen as "monumental" and "seismic", while noting that it is typically not viewed as an "epochal generation shift" in the same way as the debut albums of Led Zeppelin, the Ramones, The Rolling Stones, and the Sex Pistols. He explains, "The reason it's never given the same due is that there's no pretension, nothing self-conscious about it." He commented: "The still-amazing thing about Van Halen is how it sounds like it has no fathers ... Like all great originals Van Halen doesn't seem to belong to the past and it still sounds like little else, despite generations of copycats." In Erlewine's opinion, the album "set the template for how rock and roll sounded for the next decade or more." A retrospective review by Q noted, "Hit singles came later, but this dazzling debut remains their trump card."
In 1994, Van Halen was ranked number eight in Colin Larkin's Top 50 Heavy Metal Albums. Larkin described it as "one of the truly great" debut albums of heavy metal. According to authors Gary Graff and Daniel Durchholz, writing in MusicHound Rock: The Essential Album Guide (1999), Van Halen is a "headbanger's paradise"; before its release, "no one had heard or seen anything like it." In 2003, Rolling Stone, listed it among The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, at number 410; the list's 2012 edition had it ranked 415th. The 2020 list placed it at 292. According to Rolling Stones Joe Levy, the album "gave the world a new guitar hero and charismatic frontman" in Eddie Van Halen and David Lee Roth, respectively. Levy credits the tracks "Runnin' with the Devil" and "Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love" with "put[ting] the swagger back in hard rock", praising Eddie Van Halen's "jaw-dropping technique", which "raised the bar for rock guitar." In 2006, Guitar World readers ranked it number 7 on a list of the Greatest Guitar Albums of All Time. In 2013, Rolling Stone listed the album at number 27 of the 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time.
On April 15, 2013, David Lee Roth was interviewed by Jay Mohr for his podcast, where he selected the album as his favorite Van Halen recording.
Track listing
Personnel
Van Halen
David Lee Roth – lead vocals, acoustic guitar on "Ice Cream Man"
Eddie Van Halen – guitar, backing vocals
Michael Anthony – bass guitar, backing vocals
Alex Van Halen – drums
Production
Dave Bhang – art direction and design
Jodi Cohen – typesetting
Elliot Gilbert – photography
Logan Jervis – engineer
Donn Landee – engineer
Peggy McCreary – engineer
Jo Motta – project coordinator
Kent Nebergall – engineer
Ted Templeman – producer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
(United States)
Certifications
See also
List of best-selling albums in the United States
References
Works cited
Further reading
Album chart usages for Billboard200
1978 debut albums
Albums produced by Ted Templeman
Albums recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders
Van Halen albums
Warner Records albums
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbini
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Lumbini
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Lumbinī ( , "the lovely") is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the Rupandehi District of Lumbini Province in Nepal. It is the place where, according to Buddhist tradition, Queen Mahamayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama at around 563 BCE. Gautama, who, according to Buddhist tradition, achieved Enlightenment some time around 528 BCE, became the Buddha and founded Buddhism. Lumbini is one of many magnets for pilgrimage that sprang up in places pivotal to the life of the Buddha.
Lumbini has a number of older temples, including the Mayadevi Temple, and various new temples, funded by Buddhist organisations from various countries, have been completed or are still under construction. Many monuments, monasteries and a museum, and the Lumbini International Research Institute are also within the holy site. Also, there is the Puskarini, or Holy Pond, where the Buddha's mother took the ritual dip prior to his birth and where he had his first bath. At other sites near Lumbini, earlier Buddhas were, according to tradition, born, then achieved ultimate Enlightenment and finally relinquished their earthly forms.
Lumbini was made a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997.
In Buddha's time
In the Buddha's time, Lumbini was situated in east of Kapilavastu and southwest Devadaha of Shakya, an oligarchic republic. According to Buddhist tradition, it was there, that the Buddha was born. A pillar discovered at Rupandehi in 1896 is believed to mark the spot of Ashoka's visit to Lumbini. The site was not known as Lumbini before the pillar was discovered. The translation of Inscription reads: "When King Devanampriya Priyadarsin had been anointed twenty years, he came himself and worshipped (this spot) because the Buddha Shakyamuni was born here. (He) both caused to be made a stone bearing a horse (?) and caused a stone pillar to be set up, (in order to show) that the Blessed One was born here. (He) made the village of Lummini free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share (of the produce)." The park was previously known as Rupandehi, 2 mi () north of Bhagavanpura.
The Sutta Nipáta (vs. 683) states that the Buddha was born in a village of the Sákyans in the Lumbineyya Janapada. The Buddha stayed in Lumbinívana during his visit to Devadaha and there preached the Devadaha Sutta.
Pillar of Ashoka
In 1896, General Khadga Samsher Rana and Alois Anton Führer discovered a great stone pillar at Rupandehi, according to the crucial historical records made by the ancient Chinese monk-pilgrim Xuanzang in the 7th century CE and by another ancient Chinese monk-pilgrim Faxian in the early 5th century CE.
The Brahmi inscription on the pillar gives evidence that Ashoka, emperor of the Maurya Empire, visited the place in 3rd-century BCE and identified it as the birth-place of the Buddha. The inscription was translated by Paranavitana:
At the top of the pillar, there is a second inscription by king Ripumalla (13-14th century CE), who is also known from an inscription at the Nigali Sagar pillar:
A second pillar of Ashoka is located about 22 kilometers to the northwest of Lumbini, the Nigali Sagar pillar (with inscription), and a third one 24 kilometers to the west, the Gotihawa pillar (without inscription).
Excavation at the Mayadevi Temple in 2013
According to Robin Coningham, excavations beneath existing brick structures at the Mayadevi Temple at Lumbini provide evidence for an older timber structure beneath the walls of a brick Buddhist shrine built during the Ashokan era (3rd-century BCE). The layout of the Ashokan shrine closely follows that of the earlier timber structure, which suggests a continuity of worship at the site. The pre-Mauryan timber structure appears to be an ancient tree shrine. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from the wooden postholes and optically stimulated luminescence dating of elements in the soil suggests human activity began at Lumbini around 1000 BCE. The site, states Coningham, may be a Buddhist monument from 6th-century BCE. Other scholars state that the excavations revealed nothing that is Buddhist, and they only confirm that the site predates the Buddha.
Lumbini complex
Lumbini is in length and in width. The holy site of Lumbini is bordered by a large monastic zone in which only monasteries can be built, no shops, hotels or restaurants. It is separated into an eastern and western monastic zone, the eastern having the Theravadin monasteries, the western having Mahayana and Vajrayana monasteries. There is a long water filled canal separating the western and eastern zones, with a series of brick arch bridges joining the two sides along the length. The canal is serviced by simple outboard motor boats at the north end which provides tours.The holy site of Lumbini has ruins of ancient monasteries, a sacred Bodhi tree, an ancient bathing pond, the Ashokan pillar and the Mayadevi Temple, a site traditionally considered to be the birthplace of the Buddha. From early morning to early evening, pilgrims from various countries perform chanting and meditation at the site.
Lumbini complex is divided into three areas: the Sacred Garden, the Monastic Zone and the Cultural Center and New Lumbini Village. The Sacred Garden remains the epicenter of theLumbini area and consists of the birthplace of Buddha and other monuments of archaeological and spiritual importance such as the Mayadevi Temple, the Ashoka Pillar, the Marker Stone, the Nativity Sculpture, Puskarini Sacred Pond and other structural ruins of Buddhist stupas and viharas. The Monastic Zone, spanning an area of 1 square mile is divided into two zones: the East Monastic Zone which represents Theravada school of Buddhism and the West Monastic Zone which represents Mahayana and Vajrayana school of Buddhism, with their respective monasteries on the either side of a long pedestrian walkway and canal. Marking the monastic spot as a sacred pilgrimage site, many countries have established Buddhist stupas and monasteries in the monastic zone with their unique historical, cultural and spiritual designs.The Cultural Center and New Lumbini Village comprises Lumbini Museum, Lumbini International Research Institute, World Peace Pagoda of Japan, Lumbini Crane Sanctuary and other administrative offices.
Other Developments
Nepal's central bank has introduced a 100-rupee Nepali note featuring Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha. The Nepal Rastra Bank said the new note would be accessible only during the Dashain, Nepal's major festival in the time of September/October. It displays the portrait of Mayadevi, Gautam Buddha's mother in silver metallic on the front. The note also has a black dot which would help the blind recognise the note. The name of the central bank in Latin script would be printed on the note along with the date of printing in both the Christian Era and the Bikram Era. The new note is being issued following a cabinet decision 27 August.
Nipponzan Myohoji decided to build a Peace Pagoda in the park in 2001, which is visited by many different cultures and religions every day. Because some Hindus regard the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, thousands of Hindus have begun to come here on pilgrimage during the full moon of the Nepali month of Baisakh (April–May) to worship Queen Mayadevi as Rupa Devi, the mother goddess of Lumbini.Lumbini was granted World Heritage status by UNESCO in 1997.
A non-governmental organization named Samriddhi Foundation started in 2013 working extensively in the field of education and health specially in government schools of the area where underprivileged children study. A non-governmental organisation called "Asia Pacific Exchange and Co-operation Foundation" (APECF) backed by chairman of the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and then Prime Minister Prachanda, the Chinese government and a UN group called "United Nations Industrial Development Organization" (UNIDO) signed a deal to develop Lumbini into a "special development zone" with funds worth $3 billion. The venture was a China-UN joint project. A broader 'Lumbini Development National Director Committee' under the leadership of Pushpa Kamal Dahal was formed on 17 October 2011. The six-member committee included Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) leader Mangal Siddhi Manandhar, Nepali Congress leader Minendra Rijal, Forest Minister Mohammad Wakil Musalman, among other leaders. The committee was given the authority to "draft a master plan to develop Lumbini as a peaceful and tourism area and table the proposal" and the responsibility to gather international support for the same.
Tourism
In 2019, Lumbini received 1.5 million visitors across the world.
Transport
Lumbini is a 10-hour drive from Kathmandu and a 30-minute drive from Bhairahawa. The closest airport is Gautam Buddha Airport at Bhairahawa, with flights to and from Kathmandu. The India border town of Sonauli in Maharajganj district is 1 hour drive from Lumbini and Nautanwa railway station in India is just a few kilometres away. The nearest big city is Gorakhpur, which is about 100 km and is 4 hours drive from Lumbini.
Places to visit in Lumbini
Maya Devi Temple
World Peace Pagoda
Myanmar Golden Temple
Ashoka Pillar
Lumbini Crane Sanctuary
New Hotel Construction in Lumbini
The nearest airport to Lumbini, that is, the Gautam Buddha Airport in Bhairahawa, is currently undergoing upgradation work. This small domestic airport is soon expected to become an international airport, with latest deadline set for 2019. The upgradation work of the airport has also caught the eye of investors and hoteliers, and a series of new hotels are being constructed now in and around Lumbini, hoping to catch in on the expected international tourist boom once the airport upgradation work is complete.
Sister Cities
Bodh Gaya, India
Cáceres, Spain
See also
Bodh Gaya
Sarnath
Kushinagar
Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini
Lumbini pillar inscription
Pillars of Ashoka
Ramagrama stupa
Kindo Baha
Pranidhipurna Mahavihar
Rajgir
World Peace Pagoda
Notes
References
Further reading
Bibliography
External links
Lumbini On Trial: The Untold Story
Lumbini at the Open Directory Project
Lumbini at WorldHeritageSite.org Listing
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Nepal
Populated places in Rupandehi District
World Heritage Sites in Nepal
Rupandehi District
Buddhist archaeological sites
Archaeological sites in Nepal
Cultural heritage of Nepal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20Halen%20II
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Van Halen II
|
Van Halen II is the second studio album by American rock band Van Halen. Released on March 23, 1979, it peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and spawned the singles "Dance the Night Away" and "Beautiful Girls". As of 2004, it has sold almost six million copies in the United States. Critical reaction to the album has been positive as well, with The Rolling Stone Album Guide praising the feel-good, party atmosphere of the songs.
Background and recording
Recording of the album took place at Sunset Studio less than a year after the release of the band's 1978 debut album, Van Halen. Recording of the album began on December 10, 1978, just one week after completing their first world tour, and was complete within a week. The band used a Putnam 610 console to record the album, similar to the console Eddie would later install in his home studio in 1983. Many of the songs on Van Halen II are known to have existed prior to the release of the first album, and are present on the demos recorded in 1976 by Gene Simmons, and in 1977 by Ted Templeman, including an early version of "Beautiful Girls" (then known as "Bring On the Girls") and "Somebody Get Me a Doctor."
Artwork and packaging
The black-and-yellow guitar on the back of the album known as "Bumblebee" is buried with Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell, who was killed December 8, 2004. Eddie Van Halen placed it in his Kiss Kasket at his funeral because Darrell had said it was his favorite. Eddie himself stated in an interview conducted in December, 1979 by Jas Obrecht and published in the April, 1980 edition of Guitar Player Magazine, that the guitar itself was not actually used on the tracking of Van Halen II, as it had only been completed just in time for the photo shoots for the album.
However, the guitar was completed by Charvel, delivered to Eddie by Karl Sandoval in early October, 1978 and was photographed in use on the 2nd European leg of Van Halen's 1978 tour. Despite this, there is no conclusive evidence that the guitar itself was or was not used for the tracking of the album. It is likely that Eddie had, in fact, taken the guitar apart and reassembled it just in time for the photoshoot, as there is evidence of swapped parts and a new guitar strap made from a lap-style seatbelt seen in the photos from the shoot.
David Lee Roth is shown in a cast in the inner liner notes, as he allegedly broke his heel on the third try of the spread-eagle jump used on the back cover photo.
In the liner notes, The Sheraton Inn of Madison, Wisconsin is thanked. On Van Halen's first tour, they stayed at the hotel and destroyed the seventh floor, having fire extinguisher fights in the hallways and throwing televisions out windows. They blamed the incidents on their tour-mates at the time, Journey.
Critical reception
In a 1979 Rolling Stone review, Timothy White writes, "Scattered throughout Van Halen's second album are various Vanilla Fudge bumps and grinds, an Aerosmith-derived pseudobravado, a bit of Bad Company basement funk and even a few Humble Pie miniraveups," adding that the "LP retains a numbing live feel." In a retrospective review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic rates Van Halen II 4 stars out of 5. He notes the album is "virtually a carbon copy of their 1978 debut," though goes on to say it is "lighter and funnier" and "some of the grandest hard rock ever made." Erlewine praises Eddie's "phenomenal gift" and Roth's "knowing shuck and jive."
Commercial performance
It reached No. 6 on the Billboard 200 charts and #23 on the UK charts. Van Halen II was certified 5× Platinum in 2004. About 5.7 million records have been sold in the United States as of 2004. In 2000, Van Halen II was remastered and re-released.
Track listing
Personnel
Van Halen
David Lee Roth – lead vocals
Eddie Van Halen – guitar, backing vocals
Michael Anthony – bass guitar, backing vocals
Alex Van Halen – drums
Production
Corey Bailey – engineering
Dave Bhang – artwork and design, art direction
Jim Fitzpatrick – engineer
Gregg Geller – remastering
Elliot Gilbert – photography
Donn Landee – engineer
Jo Motta – project coordinator
Ted Templeman – production
Neil Zlozower – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Billboard (United States)
Certifications
References
Further reading
Album chart usages for Billboard200
1979 albums
Van Halen albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Ted Templeman
Albums recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance%2C%20Queen%20of%20Sicily
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Constance, Queen of Sicily
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Constance I (; 2 November 1154 – 27 November 1198) was Queen regnant of Sicily in 1194–98, jointly with her spouse from 1194 to 1197, and with her infant son Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1198, as the heiress of the Norman kings of Sicily. She was also Holy Roman Empress and later Dowager by marriage to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.
When she was young, as the sole heir to the throne of Sicily, she didn't marry until she was 30 because of an ominous prophecy; shortly after becoming empress she was involved in the succession war against her illegitimate nephew King Tancred of Sicily for the Sicilian throne, during which, rarely for an empress, she was captured during such an offensive campaign, though finally without danger she escaped. In the history of Holy Roman Empire only two empresses had ever been captured, the other being her mother-in-law Empress Beatrice.
Shortly before ascending the Sicilian throne, at the advanced age of 40, she gave birth to her only child – Frederick, thus continuing the bloodlines of both Holy Roman Empire and Kingdom of Sicily.
After the death of her husband, she gave up the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in the name of her son, despite him being King of the Romans, in favor of her younger brother-in-law Philip of Swabia, making her son merely King of Sicily; meanwhile she still claimed herself Holy Roman Empress Dowager. Passing away merely one year later, she entrusted her young son to Pope Innocent III.
Background and Marriage
Constance was the posthumous daughter of Roger II by his third wife Beatrice of Rethel.
Constance, unusually for a princess, was not betrothed until she was thirty, which later gave rise to stories that she had become a nun and required papal dispensation to marry. Boccaccio related in his De mulieribus claris that a prediction that "her marriage would destroy Sicily" led to her confinement to a convent as a nun from childhood to remain celibate, and by 15th century Santissimo Salvatore, Palermo, managed to claim Constance as a former member, which was assured by Giovanni Antonio Summonte. Meanwhile, Mary Taylor Simeti suggested that Constance, viewed as a potential heir to the throne and a valuable pawn to international diplomacy, would not be lightly ceded.
In the spring of 1168 when her elder nephew King William II was reigning, in Messina, the opposition against Chancellor Stephen du Perche was growing more and more, and a rumor spread that William was murdered and the chancellor planned to put his brother on the throne, who would marry Constance to legitimate his claim, despite the existence of Henry of Capua brother of William. Stephen was finally forced to flee.
Henry died in 1172, as King William II did not marry until 1177 and his marriage remained childless (or ever had a son named Bohemond in 1181), Constance became the sole heir to the Sicilian crown; nonetheless, while said to have been designated the heir and sworn fealty to in 1174, she remained confined to her convent with her marriage seemingly beyond consideration until she was 30-year-old.
Her betrothal to Henry, King of the Romans, was announced 29 Oct 1184 at the Augsburg episcopal palace, an event that Pope Lucius III initiated rather than objected. In 1185 Constance traveled to Milan to celebrate the wedding accompanied by a grand procession of princes and barons. Henry accompanied her to Salerno in August but had to return to Germany for the funeral of his mother. On August 28 Constance was greeted in the Province of Rieti by ambassadors from the Emperor. Henry and Constance were married on 27 January 1186 at Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. In exchange for the marriage Frederick agreed to relinquish his claim to Southern Italy. Before leaving Sicily William II had three main nobles — his cousin Tancred, Count of Lecce, Roger of Andria and vice chancellor Matthew of Ajello swear fealty to her as the probable successor to the throne at the curia of Troia. Matthew strongly opposed this marriage. Abulafia (1988) points out that William did not foresee the union of German and Sicilian crowns as a serious eventuality; his purpose was to consolidate an alliance, with an erstwhile enemy of Norman power in Italy. Another aim of William to marry Constance off was to prevent Tancred from claiming the throne.
Constance interceded the succession conflict of her maternal-granduncle Count Henry of Namur with her husband and father-in-law: Henry had designated his maternal-nephew Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut as his heir while childless, but he had a daughter Ermesinde in 1186 and thus sought to replace Baldwin with her. Under the instruction of Frederick I Baldwin succeeded Namur in 1189 while Henry was still living.
The papacy, also an enemy of the emperors, did not want to see the kingdom of southern Italy (then one of the richest in Europe) in German hands, but Henry pressed Pope Celestine III to baptize and crown his son; the Pope put him off.
Claim to Sicily
Knowing that Sicily's Norman aristocracy would not welcome a Hohenstaufen king, William made the nobles, and the important men of his court, promise to recognize Constance's succession if he died without direct heirs. Nevertheless, after his unexpected death in 1189, Tancred seized the throne. Tancred was illegitimate but he had the support of most of the great men of the kingdom such as Vice-Chancellor Matthew of Ajello. On the other hand, Archbishop Walter of the Mill and most of the aristocracy supported Constance. Matthew was able to induce Walter and other barons to support Tancred.
Joan of England, widow of William, believed Constance to be the rightful successor and vocally supported the Germans; in response Tancred put Queen Joan under house arrest and confiscated her vast estates, which enraged her brother King Richard I of England.
First expedition
While Constance's father-in-law, Frederick Barbarossa, was on a crusade, Henry and Constance were forced to stay in Germany and could not press her claim to Sicily. Emperor Frederick died in 1190 and the following year Henry and Constance were crowned emperor and empress. Constance then accompanied her husband at the head of a substantial imperial army to forcefully take the Sicilian throne from Tancred with the support of the loyal Pisa fleet. The northern towns of Sicily opened their gates to Henry, including the earliest Norman strongholds Capua and Aversa. Salerno, Roger II's mainland capital, sent word ahead that Henry was welcome and invited Constance to stay in her father's old palace to escape the summer heat, and take treatment from doctors for her infirm health. Welcomed as though, Constance felt many citizens were still loyal to Tancred as they whispered in groups quietly.
At Naples Henry met the first resistance of the whole campaign, and were held up well into the southern summer from May to August, by which time much of the army had succumbed to malaria and disease. Even Henry himself fell ill; Henry of Welf, who was also participating in the siege of Naples, deserted to Germany and falsely claimed that the emperor had died and tried to underline his own abilities as a possible successor. Although Henry VI recovered, as a result, the imperial army was forced to withdraw from Sicily altogether. Constance remained in Salerno with a small garrison as a sign that Henry would soon return.
Brief captivity
Once Henry had withdrawn with the bulk of the imperial army the towns that had supposedly fallen to the Empire immediately declared their allegiance to Tancred, for the most part now fearing his retribution. Nicholas of Ajello, son of Matthew and former Archbishop of Salerno, who was helping defend Naples, wrote letters about the events to his friends in Salerno. Thus the populace of Salerno saw an opportunity to win some favour with Tancred, so they taunted and besieged the defenseless Constance at Castel Terracena. Constance presented herself on a balcony and spoke to them in the tone of mild remonstrance and admonition, trying to tell them that the situation might improve and the defeat of Henry might be exaggerated by Nicholas, but the Salernitans were determined to capture her for Tancred, so they continued the siege. Constance locked herself in her room, locked the windows, and prayed to God for help and revenge. After a rapid negotiation with Elia di Gesualdo, a distant relative of Tancred, Constance voluntarily went out under the condition that her German garrison were to be allowed to leave unharmed. She was then arrested by Elia (and some barons of Apulia who were related to her) and delivered to Tancred in Messina by Admiral Margaritus of Brindisi (her brother-in-law who had helped in the defence of Naples), on a bireme galley or dromon with 200 rowers. She was in her attire as empress, wearing a dress quilted with gold and decorated with roses, a cloak covered with precious jewels, and her hair was strewn with gems, making her look like a goddess. Thus she became an important and valuable prize given that Henry had every intention of returning. When meeting Constance Tancred blamed her for the invasion, but she proudly responded that she was just taking back her dominion robbed by Tancred. By September 20 Henry learned the abduction of his wife at Genoa.
Constance was taken to Palermo, supervised by Queen Sibylla; Tancred had her eat with Sibylla and sleep in Sibylla's bedroom. Sibylla, who had once quarrelled with Constance, after seeing that the populace of Palermo was showing sympathy to Constance, suggested that Tancred put Constance to death. Tancred disagreed, worrying that this would harm his popularity. So under the suggestion of Tancred, Sibylla went on a discussion with Matthew of Ajello, who had been promoted to chancellor, where to imprison Constance. Matthew wrote a letter to Tancred in her presence, suggesting him to lock Constance in the Castel dell'Ovo in Naples in the custody of nobleman Aligerno Cottone so as to be better-guarded since the castle was surrounded by water, meanwhile had her secluded from Sicilian people. Tancred accepted their suggestion. In addition Matthew wrote to Aligerno ordering him to "ut imperatricem in Castro Salvatoris ad mare benè custodiat" (guard the empress in Castle of the Savior (i. e. Castel dell'Ovo) in the sea properly).
Although Tancred always treated her with courtesy during her captivity, Constance was under extremely careful guard. Sibylla strongly opposed the deference Tancred showed to Constance, believing this would implicitly acknowledge the claims of the latter.
During the election of a new bishop of Liege in September 1191 Henry favored Albert de Rethel, a maternal uncle of the Empress Constance, whom both he and Constance had planned to make the next bishop of Liege, however, as mentioned above, at the time of the election, Constance had been imprisoned by the Sicilians, and the other candidate, Albert of Louvain, gained more support. In January 1192 Henry claimed the election was under dispute and appointed his newly made imperial chancellor Lothar of Hochstaden, provost of the church of St Cassius in Bonn and brother of Count Dietrich of Hochstaden instead, and in September 1192 he proceeded to Lüttich (Liège) to enforce the succession. The majority of the electors of Liège accepted the imperial decision because of the emperor's threat, and Albert de Rethel also relinquished and indignantly refused a financial settlement offered by the emperor.
Margaritus was created Count of Malta in 1192 perhaps for his unexpected success of capturing the empress, granting him considerable resources.
Henry VI consistently refused to make peace with Tancred despite the capture of his wife; on his letter to Pope Celestine III to request the kingship of Tancred declared illegitimate, he even did not mention her captivity. While he did not have the power to rescue her, Tancred would not permit Constance to be ransomed unless Henry recognized him. Henry complained to Celestine about the capture of his wife, so the Pope threatened to excommunicate Tancred if he did not release the Empress. (The Pope hoped that by securing Constance's safe passage back to Rome Henry would be better disposed towards the papacy and Celestine would be able to keep the Empire and Sicily from uniting.) Finally, Tancred was willing to give up his negotiating advantage (i.e. possession of the Empress) if the Pope would legitimize him as King of Sicily.
Constance was released in 1192 with all her suites and some gifts, and delivered to Egidio Cardinal of Anagni from the Papal States. They traveled through the Strait of Messina, but before they made it to Rome they met imperial soldiers and the pro-Hohenstaufen abbot Roffredo of Montecassino, and Constance asked them for help; they were able to intercept the convoy at Ceprano despite the opposition of the cardinals and escorted her safely across the Alps, ensuring that in the end neither the papacy nor Sicily scored any real advantage in having had the Empress in their custody at all, only less than a month after her release; Within two weeks Henry and Constance reunited in the imperial castle of Trifels.
Second Expedition
Henry was already preparing to invade Sicily a second time when Tancred died in February 1194. Later that year he moved south, leveled Salerno to the ground in revenge for arresting Constance, entered Palermo unopposed, deposed Tancred's young son William III (died 1198), and had himself crowned instead. Prior to that he agreed the request of Constance to enfeoff William County of Lecce and Principality of Taranto on November 20.
Queen of Sicily
While Henry moved quickly south with his army, a pregnant Constance followed at a slower pace. On 26 December, the day after Henry was crowned at Palermo, she gave birth to a son, Frederick-Roger (the future Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily) in the small town of Iesi, near Ancona.
A story that Constance, aged 40 and after a marriage of 9 years, gave birth publicly in the town square to dispel doubt of her maternity, arose subsequently in rebuttal to later claims Frederick was not her son and is unfounded.
When Henry returned to Germany in 1195, Constance ruled Sicily and issued diplomas in her own name. She was crowned as queen regnant on 2 April at Bari.
In 1196 Henry VI had Richard, Count of Acerra brother of Sibylla hanged in revenge for the capture of Constance.
On Good Friday in 1196, Constance summoned Joachim of Fiore to Palermo to hear her confession in Palatine chapel. Initially she sat on a raised chair, but when Joachim told her that as they were at the places of Christ and Mary Magdalene, she needed to lower herself, she sat on the ground.
However, the tyranny of Henry for Sicily initiated revolts, especially around Catania and southern Sicily. Henry wanted to placate Sicilians by naming Constance regent, but failed as Constance was merely viewed as his tool and could not stop him from making up Sicilian government dominated by German seneschal Markward von Anweiler and ensured by German troops. Henry crushed the rebellion of Jordan Lupin who claimed to be king of Sicily and received a gift of jewels from Constance. Henry had Jordan tortured to death in front of Constance in June 1197. Provoked by the neglect of Henry while pitying her countrymen, Constance also joined the revolts against her husband and besieged him in a castle, forcing him into a treaty.
Crowning of Frederick II and Her Death
In 1197 Henry revisited Sicily, when there was a plot to murder him, which Constance and the Pope might be involved. Henry spent Easter with Constance in Palermo, and they still lived together and issued diplomas jointly. On July Henry managed to crush a rebellion; but on September Henry died unexpectedly - some said he was poisoned by Constance.
The following year Constance had the three-year-old Frederick crowned King of Sicily with herself as regent, and in his name dissolved the ties her late husband had created between the government of Sicily and the Empire. She adopted very different policies from those of her late consort. She surrounded herself with local advisors and excluded the ambitious Markward von Anweiler from a position of power, attempting to restrict him to his fief in Molise, as well as Walter of Palearia and Conrad I, Duke of Spoleto. She made no mention of any claims to the German kingship and empire when her son was anointed and crowned at Palermo, May 1198. While her own health becoming poor, Constance made warm overtures to the new pope Innocent III, abandoning the long-contended principle that the king was the apostolic legate, a central principle of Norman autonomy in the regno. Faced with the dangers that surrounded any child-king, Constance placed Frederick under the protection of Pope Innocent III, who forced her to cede traditional royal rights over church councils, legates, appeals and elections, leaving her only the right to approve a bishop-elect before he could occupy his see. She issued diplomas jointly with Frederick after his coronation. While always maintaining her title of Holy Roman Empress Dowager, she expected her son to be raised as a Sicilian, and to be nothing more than King of Sicily, without distracting claims to Germany or even to the title "King of the Romans" to which her brother-in-law Philip of Swabia was acclaimed by the Roman nobles. That he became much more than that could not be predicted when she unexpectedly died in late November 1198, before the cardinal sent by the Pope to receive her homage arrived. In her will she set up a Council of Regency for Sicily and made Innocent, who was the child's feudal suzerain, his guardian, a reminder to all of the inviolability of his inheritance. She also instructed her subjects to swear fidelity to the Pope.
Biographer Jacqueline Alio infers that Constance and her sister-in-law Queen Dowager Margaret of Navarre knew each other and in her youth she might have intimated the style of leadership of Margaret, so they might have shared a sisterhood if tenuous. (Whether out of the will of Margaret or not, Constance was not released from her monastery during the lifetime of Margaret, who died in 1183.)
Constance was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo near the tomb of her father. Her death led to a period of violence and chaos till 1208 when Frederick had grown to his majority.
In the Divine Comedy, Dante places Constance in Paradise (though he subscribed to the story that Constance had been a nun):
Constance had arranged the marriage between her son and a princess of Aragon, which would occur in 1209.
Controversial Accounts
De Mulieribus Claris said that Constance was a daughter of King William I, and upon her birth a Calabrian abbot named Joachim told William that his daughter would cause the destruction of Sicily. William believed the prediction and shut young Constance up in a monastery and forced her to become a nun to prevent her having husband or children. When permitted to be betrothed to Henry she continuously objected for that she thought her advancing age would become an obstacle, but in vain, "Thus did a wrinkled crone abandon the sacred cloister, discard her monastic veil, and, royally adorned, marry and emerge in public as empress". This apparently contradicted the facts that Constance was indeed the posthumous daughter of Roger II and half-sister of William and she became empress in 1192. Giovanni Villani said William I sought to put her to death due to the prediction until Tancred a bastard son of Roger I, Count of Sicily persuaded him to send her to a convent.
Some said that it was Roger II who put Constance in a convent, which contradicted the fact that Constance was born after the death of Roger II.
Joachim Camerarius argued that Constance was simply sent to the convent during the coup against William I for her safety and stayed there until her betrothal without ever being a nun. Hugo Falcandus and Richard of San Germano argued Constance was brought up and educated in royal palace rather than a monastery. François Eudes de Mézeray said Constance had never become a nun.
Malespini and Boccaccio said she married at 50 and 55 respectively, and Brantôme argued that she married at 50 and gave birth at 52, while none was true. Florentine chroniclers said that Tancred annoyed the Pope so he and Archbishop of Palermo arranged the marriage of Constance to dethrone Tancred, and Tommaso Fazello said that according to decrees Celestine III absolved her from her vows, which contradicted the fact that Constance was betrothed during the reign of William II who would reign the next five years and Celestine was elected 7 years later; the chroniclers also said that it was wicked for the Pope to force Constance to give in her vows to marry, so Papal States was punished by the Heaven as the son born of the marriage of Constance would become its thorn.
An anonymous Vatican said in his Historia Sicula that the reason Constance did not marry before 30 was that she was too ugly, which could not be taken seriously, as political marriages seldom considered the looks of the parties.
Ancestry
See also
Hauteville family
History of Swabian Sicily
Notes
External links
Queens of Italy-Women in Power in Medieval Italy: CONSTANCE of HAUTEVILLE
Primary sources
Giovanni Villani, Cronica, V.20, VI.16, VII.1
Secondary sources
David Abulafia, Frederick II, a Medieval Emperor, 1988 (Oxford University press)
Jacqueline Alio, Queens of Sicily 1061-1266, 2018.
Walter Fröhlich, "The Marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily: Prelude and Consequences", Anglo-Norman Studies XV, 1992
Donald Matthew, The Norman Kingdom of Sicily,
John Julius Norwich, The Kingdom in the Sun, reprinted as part of his The Normans in Sicily,
Costanza, sacred opera performance at Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Church, Bronx, NY on 26 October 2008. John Marino, distinguished composer conductor, arranger, pianist, coordinated the performance. The libretto was written by Florence Bocarius.
Mary Taylor Simeti, Travels with a Medieval Queen, 2001. .
1154 births
1198 deaths
12th-century Kings of Sicily
12th-century Italian women
12th-century German women
Hauteville family
Queens regnant
Holy Roman Empresses
Italo-Normans
Burials at Palermo Cathedral
12th-century women rulers
Regents of Sicily
Sicilian princesses
Women in medieval European warfare
Women in 12th-century warfare
Nobility from Palermo
Women in war in Italy
Daughters of kings
German prisoners of war
Italian prisoners of war
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
Children of Roger II of Sicily
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20literacy
|
Cultural literacy
|
Cultural literacy is a term coined by American educator and literary critic E. D. Hirsch, referring to the ability to understand and participate fluently in a given culture. Cultural literacy is an analogy to literacy proper (the ability to read and write letters). A literate reader knows the object-language's alphabet, grammar, and a sufficient set of vocabulary; a culturally literate person knows a given culture's signs and symbols, including its language, particular dialectic, stories, entertainment, idioms, idiosyncrasies, and so on. The culturally literate person is able to talk to and understand others of that culture with fluency.
Causes
Children of a given culture typically become culturally literate there via the process of enculturation. Enculturation seems to occur naturally, being intertwined with education, play, family relationships, friendships, etc. The cause of cultural literacy is a more difficult question when considering acculturation of immigrants, outsiders, cultural minorities, strangers, guests, etc.
Literacy of a given culture seems to arise over time with consistent exposure to and participation in that culture, especially certain key cultural strongholds, like business, story, arts, education, history, religion, and family. One could become literate for an oral culture (with no written language or recorded media) only by extended conversation. Alternatively, one could become literate for a written culture through conversation as well as reading culturally relevant books or exposure to culturally relevant films, plays, monuments, television shows, etc.
Western culture in general and Anglo-American culture in particular is a bibliocentric culture. It often trades in allusions to the Christian Bible, the influential works of Early Modern English such as works of William Shakespeare, the Thomas Cranmer Book of Common Prayer, Geoffrey Chaucer's poetry, and many others. Knowledge of these books (among others) contributes largely to cultural literacy in the west. However, also essential are exposure to the art, history, and the lived experience of members of that culture.
Examples
For example, in 1908 British author G. K. Chesterton wrote, "Complete self-confidence is a weakness... the man who has [self-confidence] has 'Hanwell' written on his face as plain as it is written on that omnibus". This statement, especially the latter half, might be opaque to a reader from outside the United Kingdom, who does not know that "omnibus" is a less common British word for "bus" and "Hanwell" was the name of a (now defunct) insane asylum.
Consequences
The benefits and detriments of cultural literacy are debated. For example, social mobility increases when one is able to comfortably participate in conversation with gatekeepers like employers and teachers. Non-native members of a culture, such as missionaries to a foreign land or refugees from a native land, may experience negative consequences due to cultural illiteracy. However, the achievement of cultural literacy may seem to come at a cost to one's own native culture.
Research and questions
Discussions of cultural literacy have given rise to several controversial questions:
The Literature Question: How important are books to cultural literacy in the west? And which books?
The Content Question: What kinds of knowledge are important for cultural literacy? Knowing such and such facts, names, dates or more ethereal experiences like having heard such and such a song?
The Minority Question: Is cultural literacy part of the hegemony of the dominant culture?
The Multicultural Question: Which culture are we talking about when we say "cultural" literacy? Should we be talking about one or several—and which one(s)?
The Education Question: Should advancing cultural literacy be one of the goals of education? If so, what is the best means of doing so?
The Assessment Question: How do we evaluate cultural literacy? Is there a best way to test someone's cultural literacy?
See also
Bildung
Cultural competence
Cultural sensitivity
Educational essentialism
Great books
Intercultural communication
References
Further reading
Christenbury, Leila "Cultural Literacy: A Terrible Idea Whose Time Has Come" The English Journal 78.1 (January 1989), pp. 14–17.
Anson, Chris M. "Book Lists, Cultural Literacy, and the Stagnation of Discourse" The English Journal 77.2 (February 1988), pp. 14–18.
Zurmuehlen, Marilyn "Serious Pursuit of Cultural Trivialization" Art Education 42.6 (November 1989), pp. 46–49.
Simpson, Alan "The Uses of "Cultural Literacy": A British View" Journal of Aesthetic Education 25.4, 25th Anniversary Issue Winter, 1991), pp. 65–73.
Reedy, Jeremiah "Cultural Literacy and the Classics" The Classical Journal 84.1 (October 1988), pp. 41–46.
Murray, Denise E. Diversity as Resource. Redefining Cultural Literacy (Alexandria, Virginia) 1994.
Bernard Schweizer. "Cultural Literacy: Is It Time to Revisit the Debate?" Thought & Action 25 (Fall 2009).
Cultural concepts
Literacy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Pataki
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George Pataki
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George Elmer Pataki (; born June 24, 1945) is an American lawyer and politician who served as the 53rd governor of New York from 1995 to 2006. An attorney by profession, Pataki was elected mayor of his hometown of Peekskill, New York, and went on to be elected to the State Assembly and the State Senate. In 1994, Pataki ran for Governor of New York against three-term incumbent Mario Cuomo, defeating him by a margin of more than three points as part of the Republican Revolution of 1994. Pataki would himself be elected to three consecutive terms, and was the third Republican Governor of New York elected since 1923 (the other two being Thomas E. Dewey and Nelson Rockefeller). As of 2021, Pataki and his second Lieutenant Governor, Mary Donohue, are the last Republicans to be elected to statewide office in New York (state senate majority leaders Joseph Bruno and Dean Skelos each briefly served as acting Lieutenant Governor after the resignation of Eliot Spitzer elevated David Paterson to the governorship).
Pataki ran for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 2016 but withdrew from the race before the primaries began.
Early life and education
Pataki was born on June 24, 1945 in Peekskill, New York. Pataki's paternal grandfather was Pataki János (known in the U.S. as John Pataki, 1883–1971) of Aranyosapáti, Kingdom of Hungary. The family name's Hungarian pronunciation is ['pɒtɒki] and means creek (little river). János came to the United States in 1908, worked in a hat factory and had married Erzsébet (later Elizabeth; 1887–1975), also Hungarian-born, around 1904. Their son, Pataki's father, was Louis P. Pataki (1912–1996), a mailman and volunteer fire chief, who ran the Pataki Farm. Pataki's maternal grandfather was Matteo Laganà (born in Calabria, Italy in 1889), who married Agnes Lynch of County Louth, Ireland around 1914. Their daughter, Margaret Lagana (1915-2017), is Pataki's mother. Pataki has an older brother, Louis. Pataki speaks some Hungarian as well as Spanish, French, and German.
After graduating from Peekskill High School, Pataki entered Yale University with George W. Bush in 1964 on an academic scholarship, and graduated in three years, in 1967. While there Pataki served as Chairman of the Conservative Party of the Yale Political Union, where he participated in debates. He received his J.D. from Columbia Law School in 1970.
Early political career
While practicing law at Plunkett and Jaffe, P.C. in Peekskill, Pataki became friends with Michael C. Finnegan, who would go on to be the architect of Pataki's ascendancy to power. Finnegan would go on to manage Pataki's campaigns for Mayor, State Assembly, State Senate, and the governorship. Finnegan was then appointed chief counsel to the governor in 1995, and played the key role in developing and negotiating nearly all of Pataki's early legislative success.
Mayor of Peekskill
Pataki first won elected office in November 1981. He was elected Mayor of the City of Peekskill, which is located in the Northwestern part of Westchester County. Pataki defeated the Democratic incumbent Fred Bianco Jr., winning 70% of the vote. In November 1983, he was re-elected Mayor, winning 74% of the vote.
New York State Assembly
In November 1984, Pataki was elected to the New York State Assembly (91st District), by defeating one-term Democratic incumbent William J. Ryan, winning 53% of the vote. In November 1986, Pataki defeated Ryan in a rematch, capturing 63% of the vote. Pataki won a third term in November 1988, winning 74% of the vote against Democratic candidate Mark Zinna. Pataki won a fourth and final term in November 1990, winning over 90% of the vote, as he only faced a minor party candidate. He was an assemblyman in the 186th, 187th, 188th and 189th New York State Legislatures.
New York State Senate
From 1983 to 1992, the 91st Assembly district included parts of Westchester, Orange, Rockland, and Putnam Counties. However, in 1992, Assembly Democrats substantially redrew the district boundaries, placing the newly renamed 90th Assembly district entirely within Westchester County. Instead of running in the newly redrawn district, Pataki decided to challenge seven-term incumbent Republican State Senator Mary B. Goodhue in a Republican primary in Senate District 37 by criticizing her for taking her grandchildren to Disney World and missing a vote in Albany. Pataki won the primary by a 52% to 48% margin. However, Goodhue still planned to appear on the November ballot on a minor party line. In November 1992, Pataki won the general election. He served in the Senate during the 190th New York State Legislature and ran for governor at the next election.
Gubernatorial campaigns
1994 campaign
Pataki was a first-term state senator from Westchester County when he launched his bid for the Republican nomination for governor in 1994. He said he launched the campaign because of his frustration in the Senate regarding how Albany worked and on tax issues. Pataki's campaign received a boost when he was endorsed by U.S. Sen. Al D'Amato. He received the party's endorsement at the spring state convention and easily defeated former State Republican Chairman Richard Rosenbaum in the September primary. Pataki was considered an underdog from the start since he was running against three-term Gov. Mario Cuomo and because Pataki had little name recognition statewide. D'Amato reportedly backed Pataki because of a poll that showed a pro-choice, fiscal conservative from the New York City suburbs could win statewide for governor. The poll also showed a female running mate for lieutenant governor would help the ticket. Academic Betsy McCaughey was chosen as Pataki's running mate.
The polls had Governor Cuomo ahead by as many as ten points going into the final two weeks, but they then narrowed at the end. Pataki made an issue of Cuomo seeking a fourth term as governor and pledged to serve only two terms in office. Cuomo was helped late in the race by the endorsement of New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani. In the end, Pataki narrowly defeated Cuomo in the general election. Many, including Pataki himself, believed Howard Stern's endorsement of Pataki was a major reason for his win. He finished with 48.8% of the vote to Cuomo's 45.5%, with independence candidate Tom Golisano finishing with 4.2%.
Pataki made up for a soft performance in New York City by running up a decisive margin outside of it, especially among upstaters disenchanted with Cuomo. Pataki won all but one county outside the Five Boroughs. Pataki became New York's first Republican governor since Nelson Rockefeller.
1998 campaign
Pataki was considered the frontrunner from the start of the 1998 campaign for governor. He was unopposed for the Republican nomination and paired with a new running mate, Judge Mary Donohue. The Democrats faced a primary battle between New York City Council Speaker Peter Vallone, Lt. Gov. Betsy McCaughey Ross, who had switched parties, and former Transportation Commissioner James LaRocca. Vallone captured the Democratic nomination, with Thomas Golisano running as the Independence nominee and McCaughey Ross as the Liberal Party nominee. Pataki was easily reelected to a second term in office. He finished with 54.3% of the vote, his highest percentage finish in a gubernatorial race, to Vallone's 33.2% and Golisano's 7.7%. This is the last time a Republican has won a majority in a statewide election in New York, and only the first time since 1970, when Nelson Rockefeller was re-elected.
2002 campaign
Pataki was considered a strong contender for a third term, despite having pledged in 1994 to serve only two terms. He ran again on a ticket with Lt. Gov. Mary Donohue and the Democrats faced a primary battle between State Comptroller Carl McCall and former HUD Secretary Andrew Cuomo, Mario Cuomo's son. Pataki emphasized his previous work and the need to have continuity following Sept. 11.
McCall essentially secured the Democratic nomination when Andrew Cuomo stumbled (and ultimately withdrew before the primary at the urging of his mentor Bill Clinton); Cuomo was quoted in the media as saying, regarding Pataki's performance post-9/11:
Pataki stood behind the leader. He held the leader's coat. He was a great assistant to the leader. But he was not a leader. Cream rises to the top, and Rudy Giuliani rose to the top.
Pataki sought the nomination of the Independence Party of New York in his bid for a third term as well. He faced the party's founder and 1994 and 1998 nominee, Thomas Golisano, in his bid for the nomination. Pataki ran an active primary campaign and lost to Golisano. Donohue did win the primary for lieutenant governor and was the running mate of both Pataki and Golisano in the general election.
In the general election, Pataki defeated McCall and Golisano easily. As in 1998 due to Golisano's presence on the ballot, Pataki did not win a majority, instead winning a plurality. Pataki won 49.4% of the vote, and McCall only mustered 33.5% with wins in four of the five New York City boroughs. Golisano finished with the highest vote total of his political career, and the highest vote total for any candidate of the Independence Party of New York in any statewide election.
This was the last time a Republican was elected Governor of New York, and the last time a Republican has cracked over 41% in a gubernatorial election.
Retirement from the governorship
By the summer of 2005, opinion polls indicated that Pataki would face an uphill battle if he sought a fourth term in 2006. Accordingly, he announced on July 27, 2005, that he would not do so, saying that New York was "a better state than it was 10 years ago" and that he was retiring so he could "follow a new path, find new challenges." He was succeeded by Eliot Spitzer.
Governorship and political positions
As Governor of New York, Pataki was known as a moderate Republican who cut taxes and was tough on crime, but who also supported gun control, environmental protection, gay rights, and abortion rights.
Fiscal policy
Taxes, spending, budget power, and economic growth
Under the Pataki Administration, New York's credit rating was increased three times by Moody's Investors Service, a fact that he highlighted often before his critics. During his three terms in office, he introduced and approved more tax cuts than any of his predecessors. Following through on a campaign promise, Pataki led a push to cut both the individual and the corporate tax rates in New York. The state's infamously high income tax rates dropped by 20% on average, but an economic downturn following the attacks of September 11 and increasing state spending caused Sheldon Silver and Joseph Bruno to coordinate an effort to roll back a number of these cuts in 2003 over Pataki's veto power.
The STAR and STAR-Plus programs were also introduced during Pataki's governorship. The STAR program introduced tax relief for New York's homeowners and landowners on their school taxes. The STAR-Plus program was later introduced when relief was diminished by increasing school taxes, increasing spending and State Aid. In his third term Pataki challenged the Speaker of the Assembly, resulting in two Court of Appeals decisions sustaining the powers of the governor to formulate a statewide budget.
Casinos
Pataki advocated for Native American casinos in upstate New York. As a part of the creation of the Seneca Niagara Casino in Niagara Falls, an agreement was reached to give a percentage of the slot machine revenue to the City of Niagara Falls each year to spend on local tourism projects and projects relating to hosting the casino.
Social policy
Abortion
Pataki describes himself as pro-choice. In 1999, he called upon the Republican Party to soften its platform language regarding opposition to abortion rights.
Gay rights
Pataki lobbied heavily in favor of the Sexual Orientation Non-Discrimination Act, a gay rights bill that had languished in the state Senate for many years due to the opposition of Senate Leader Joseph Bruno. In late 2002, Bruno finally gave in; the bill passed the Senate and was signed into law by Pataki. He opposed same-sex marriage as governor.
Crime
Polls showed that the majority of New Yorkers wanted the state's death penalty laws restored. Prior to Pataki's tenure, a bill to restore the death penalty had passed the Legislature for several years in a row only to be vetoed by Mario Cuomo. Pataki made the issue a top priority of his, and when the bill reached his desk in 1995, he signed it into law. The New York Court of Appeals later ruled the death penalty law unconstitutional in a 4-3 decision in People v. LaValle (2004).
Being tough on crime was a major plank of Pataki's campaign for governor. In 2011, the administration touted statistics that illustrated that crime had steadily reduced during the 12 years Pataki had served as governor, bringing New York from the 6th most dangerous state in the nation to the 7th safest. During his time in office, he signed into law over 100 new bills to change New York's criminal statutes. In 2000, Pataki helped lead the legislature in passing some of the then-strictest gun control laws in the country. Numerous aspects of the bill had been put forward by members of the Democratic-controlled Assembly but had never made it through the Republican held Senate. With numerous mass shootings in recent public memory, he urged a number of Republican Senators to support the bill, eventually passing it in a bipartisan effort. His administration also launched programs such as SAF-T (Statewide Anti-Fugitive Teams) and the 100 Most Wanted. The initiatives were aimed at disseminating descriptions of criminals who were evading law enforcement officials to promote the ability of average citizens to help aid in their capture. Versions of Megan's Law and Kendra's Law were integrated into New York's laws under the governor as well as a number of reforms to the Rockefeller Drug Laws. The changes to the Rockefeller laws were largely focused on inmates' ability to appeal for an early release from sentences that were passed on them under mandatory minimum sentencing statutes.
Health care
Under the Pataki Administration a number of new health care programs were created focusing on expanding care to the state's poorest citizens.
In 1999, Governor Pataki signed into law comprehensive health care legislation that provided health insurance coverage, under Family Health Plus, to lower income adults who do not have health insurance through their employers.
Child Health plus greatly expanded coverage for poorer families with children under 19 who did not qualify for Medicaid. By 2001, 530,000 children had been enrolled in the program. Family Health Plus would expand insurance coverage even further, offering free insurance to families and single adults who had too much income to be covered by Medicaid but could not afford insurance. Pataki also increased the affordability and availability of medication for seniors under New York's EPIC program by lowering fees and expanding eligibility. New York's 2003 ban on smoking in public places was passed and signed into law under the Pataki administration in the hopes that it would promote better health in New York and reduce health care cost overtime. Accessing his twelve years in office, The New York Times ran an editorial praising his work on health care.
Environment
In 2005, Bloomberg Businessweek placed George Pataki among the 20 individuals it commended for their personal efforts to combat global warming, citing his Greenhouse Gas Task Force and efforts to increase New York's usage of renewable energies. In 1996, Pataki oversaw the creation and passage of the Clean Water/Clean Air Environmental Bond Act. The act put forth $1.75 billion for over 2,200 environmentally minded projects throughout the state. Projects were focused on improving drinking water quality, closing landfills, investing in recycling programs, cleaning up New York's polluted waterways, funding cleanup of Brownfields and clean-air projects. During his tenure, Pataki added over one million acres to the entirety of the protected open spaces of New York. He also worked to protect the drinking water of millions of New Yorkers through the Catskill Watershed Agreement. Through the agreement, the numerous small communities that surround the 19 reservoirs that provide drinking water for New York City received $1 billion in aid to assuage environmental issues and promote local development in return for accepting higher standards of environmental regulations to better protect the reservoirs. On Pataki's final day in office, The New York Times ran an editorial evaluating his twelve years as governor and praised his work on the environment.
Education
Pataki heeded mounting desire to allow New York to join numerous other states in the growing movement for charter schools. In 1998, Pataki prevailed upon the Legislature to pass a charter school law by threatening to veto a legislative pay raise if the bill was not passed. Over the course of his terms in office, Pataki would expand the availability of charter schools in New York City and raise the state's cap on charter schools to 250.
In coordination with Mayor Giuliani, Pataki pushed to begin disassembling the reputation of City University of New York system as a group of remedial schools. Starting in 1999, CUNY colleges would be required to drop their remedial courses over a 3-year period and restrict students who could not pass entry exams in an effort to deliver a higher quality college education through the city colleges. Pataki also put forth legislation that would lend mayors in New York's five largest cities greater control over their education systems. Through negotiations this authority was only awarded to the mayor of New York City as an attempt to overcome a system of school boards that many considered to be hampering efforts at reform.
Political reform
Looking over his tenure, The New York Times ran an editorial that criticized Pataki for the lack of tangible political reform and the consolidation of power under his watch. Prior to Pataki's departure, New York Post political writer Fred Dicker wrote a scathing critique of Pataki's tenure, accusing the Governor of broken promises, inattentiveness to his duties, and a focus on maintaining power. The article was entitled "Good Riddance".
September 11 terrorist attacks and aftermath
Pataki's New York City office had moved out of the World Trade Center in the months before the September 11, 2001, attacks, as the governor had pushed for privatization of the building.
Following 9/11, Pataki and New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani appointed the LMDC to distribute nearly $10 billion in federal grants and to oversee the construction of a memorial. A symbolic cornerstone for the Freedom Tower with Pataki's name was laid on July 4, 2004, and after numerous design changes, construction commenced in May 2006. The memorial was completed in 2011.
Lieutenant governors
Betsy McCaughey Ross
Pataki's 1994 running mate for lieutenant governor was Betsy McCaughey, an academic best known for her critique of the Clinton health care plan. McCaughey was selected because of her work on the Clinton health care plan. Pataki choose McCaughey over sofa bed heiress Bernadette Castro; Castro was nominated for the U.S. Senate in 1994.
In April 1997, Pataki announced that he was dropping McCaughey from his 1998 reelection ticket. McCaughey became a Democrat and unsuccessfully sought the governorship in that party's 1998 primary. She was on the 1998 general election ballot as the nominee of the Liberal Party for governor.
Mary Donohue
After dropping McCaughey Ross from his 1998 ticket, Pataki considered several replacement running mates. In the spring of 1998 he announced his choice of State Supreme Court Justice Mary Donohue for lieutenant governor. Donohue did not run to succeed Pataki in 2006. In December 2006, Pataki appointed Donohue to be a Judge of the New York Court of Claims.
Political involvement during gubernatorial tenure
2000 presidential election
In July 2000, Pataki's name surfaced on the short list to be the running mate for Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush, along with the names of Governor John Engler of Michigan, Governor Tom Ridge of Pennsylvania, former Senator John Danforth of Missouri, and former U.S. Labor Secretary Elizabeth Dole of North Carolina. Bush eventually selected the man who was in charge of scouting vice presidential candidates, former Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney. Pataki had strongly campaigned for Bush, making an unsuccessful effort to keep John McCain off the New York primary ballot (which Bush ultimately won).
2004 Republican U.S. Senate primary
Pataki and New York GOP Chairman Sandy Treadwell faced controversy after naming moderate Assemblyman Howard Mills the party's nominee for the U.S. Senate against Senator Chuck Schumer over conservative Michael Benjamin, who held significant advantages in both fundraising and organization. Benjamin publicly accused Treadwell and Pataki of trying to muscle him out of the Senate race and undermine the democratic process. Mills went on to lose the election in the largest landslide for a Senate seat in the history of New York.
2004 presidential election
Pataki was instrumental in bringing the 2004 Republican National Convention to Madison Square Garden in Manhattan. New York City, which normally votes overwhelmingly Democratic (the Democratic presidential nominees carried 78 percent of the city vote in both 2000 and 2004), had never hosted a Republican Convention. He introduced President George W. Bush. A year prior, Pataki had boasted Bush would carry the state in the 2004 elections; Bush lost New York 58–40 to John Kerry. Pataki notably orated, referencing the recently deceased Ronald Reagan, "This fall, we're going to win one for the Gipper. But our opponents, they're going to lose one with the Flipper."
Post-governorship
After leaving the governorship, Pataki joined the law firm Chadbourne & Parke in New York joining their renewable energy practice. He continued to flirt with a possible bid for president. After ruling out a presidential campaign, Pataki retained his political action committee, which he could legally use to further his own views and other political interests. In addition, Pataki has formed an environmental consulting firm with his former chief of staff John Cahill, the Pataki-Cahill Group.
Pataki holds an amateur radio license.
Governor George E. Pataki Leadership and Learning Center
The Governor George E. Pataki Leadership and Learning Center, located in Peekskill, New York, is designed to educate schoolchildren on government using Governor Pataki's public service as an example. Charles A. Gargano, Pataki's former economic development chief, led the effort to create the center. On August 14, 2008, the New York Times announced that the center's sponsors had "filed paperwork with the State Department of Education and are trying to raise $500,000 for a start-up fund so they can open the center in the fall." The center held Governor Pataki's official portrait, which was moved to Albany at the end of 2009. As of 2008, the center had three directors: David Catalfamo, the governor's former communications chief; Kimberly Cappelleri, Libby Pataki's former chief of staff; and, Amy Holden, former executive assistant to the governor.
Declined 2010 U.S. Senate bid
On February 19, 2009, the Associated Press reported that Pataki had been approached by Sen. John Cornyn, head of the Republican Senatorial Campaign Committee, about a possible 2010 run for the U.S. Senate seat to which Kirsten Gillibrand had been appointed. On April 13, 2010, Pataki confirmed that he would not run against Gillibrand.
2012 presidential speculation
In November 2009, Pataki traveled to Iowa, sparking speculation. Ending months of speculation, Pataki announced on August 26, 2011, that he would not run for the Republican presidential nomination. He endorsed Mitt Romney.
Revere America
Pataki announced in April 2010 that he was creating a nonprofit organization, Revere America, that would advocate repeal of the recently enacted United States Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which he said was a "horrific" and costly bungle. As of 2015, the organization is defunct.
2016 presidential campaign
In early 2015, Pataki started exploring a candidacy for the 2016 Republican presidential nomination; On May 28, 2015, Pataki formally announced his campaign for the 2016 Republican nomination. He had previously considered running in 2008 and in 2012, but had decided against it.
Pataki's candidacy was considered a long-shot because of his age, because he had not run for office since 2002, and because of his liberal stances on abortion, gun control and environmental protection. Pataki received the endorsements of two New Hampshire State Senators: John Reagan and Nancy Stiles.
Pataki's run failed to gain traction. He failed to make the main stage in the candidate debates, being relegated to the undercard debates or being excluded altogether. His national poll numbers stayed in the one percent range. Pataki did not file to be on the primary ballot in multiple states and missed the filing deadlines for Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, and Virginia. On December 29, 2015, Pataki ended his campaign before the Republican presidential primaries had begun. He endorsed Florida Senator Marco Rubio on January 26, 2016 and went on to endorse Ohio Governor John Kasich after Rubio suspended his campaign.
After video footage of eventual nominee Donald Trump making lewd comments about women emerged on October 7, 2016, Pataki described the Republican nominee's candidacy as "a poisonous mix of bigotry & ignorance." Pataki also called upon Trump to step down as the Republican nominee.
2020 presidential campaign
In 2020, he declined to endorse Trump for re-election. He stopped short of endorsing Joe Biden, citing disagreements with foreign policy relating to U.S.-China relations. Pataki opposed efforts to decertify the election results, denouncing senator Tom Cotton.
Personal life
Pataki married his wife, Libby, in 1973. The Patakis have four children.
Pataki is Catholic.
Pataki suffered a burst appendix and had an emergency appendectomy on February 16, 2006, at Hudson Valley Hospital Center. Six days later, he developed a post-surgical complication (bowel obstruction caused by adhesions) and was transferred to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Medical Center for a second operation. From there, he was discharged on March 6.
Pataki has been an intense critic of the Cuomo and Hochul Administrations. He was also considered to be a contender for Governor of New York for a fourth, non-consecutive term in 2022.
Foreign honors
– Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (2008)
See also
Republican Party presidential candidates, 2016
Further reading
Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York City, 2020
References
External links
George Pataki for President
Video of speech at cornerstone laying ceremony for the Freedom Tower on July 4, 2004
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1945 births
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American lawyers
21st-century American politicians
Amateur radio people
American gun control activists
American politicians of Italian descent
American people of Hungarian descent
American people of Irish descent
American Security Council Foundation
Candidates in the 2016 United States presidential election
Centrism in the United States
Columbia Law School alumni
Governors of New York (state)
Living people
Members of the New York State Assembly
New York (state) lawyers
New York (state) Republicans
New York (state) state senators
People from Garrison, New York
Republican Party state governors of the United States
Politicians from Westchester County, New York
Yale University alumni
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] |
204336
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Waters%20%28disambiguation%29
|
John Waters (disambiguation)
|
John Waters (born 1946) is an American film director, writer, visual artist, actor and cult figure.
John Waters may also refer to:
Entertainment
John Waters (director born 1893) (1893–1965), American film director, active 1926–1929 and 1947
John Waters (actor) (born 1948), English-born Australian actor, musician and singer
Military
Sir John Waters (British Army officer, born 1774) (1774–1842), officer in the British Army during the Napoleonic Wars
John K. Waters (1906–1989), American general
Sir John Waters (British Army officer, born 1935), British Army general
Others
John Waters (columnist) (born 1955), Irish journalist
John Waters (politician) (1829–1910), Canadian Liberal legislator
See also
Sir John Kirwan (politician) (John Waters Kirwan, 1869–1949), English-born Australian legislator
Waters (name)
John Watters (disambiguation)
John Walters (disambiguation)
John Walter (disambiguation)
Jon Waters (born 1976), American marching band director
|
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204337
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uthong
|
Uthong
|
King U-thong () or King Ramathibodi I ( ; 1314–1369) was the first king of the kingdom Ayutthaya (now part of Thailand), reigning from 1351 to 1369. He was known as Prince U Thong (meaning "Golden Cradle") before he ascended to the throne in 1350. There are many theories about Uthong's background, including possibly being a descendant of Mangrai.
Ramathibodi I established four Great Officers of State. These were the Ministry of the Interior (Wieng), the Ministry of the Treasury (Klang), the Ministry for the King's Household (Wang), and the Ministry of Agriculture (Na). He also codified the T'ai laws. Finally, he formed an alliance with the Ming Dynasty.
He established his own capital in the new city of Ayutthaya. King Ramathabodi's reign included Korat, Chantaburi, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and large parts of Malaya.
According to a better-known source, a seventeenth-century account by Dutchman Jeremias Van Vliet, a Renowned Legend stated that Ramatibodi was an ethnic Chinese, having sailed down from China. After succeeding in trade, he became influential enough to rule the city of Phetchaburi, a coastal town of the Gulf of Thailand, before travelling up to Ayutthaya.
In 1352 he laid siege to Yasodharapura. He was successful the following year and placed one of his sons on the throne. However, they were only able to keep the throne until 1357, when the Khmers were able to regain it.
King Ramathibodi's death sparked a conflict over succession. Initially, his son King Ramesuan became ruler of Ayutthaya, but King Ramesuan later abdicated in favor of King Ramathibodi's brother-in-law, King Borommaracha I. This rivalry for the throne may have been peaceful or it may have been bloody.
References
Bibliography
Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History, New Haven (Yale University), 2003.
Srisak Vallipodom, Sheikh Ahmad Qomi and the History of Siam, Cultural Center of the Islamic City, Republic of Iran, Bangkok 1995, page 209
Plubplung Kongchana, The Persians in Ayutthaya, Institute of Asia Pacific Studies, Srinakharinwirot University.
See also
Lavo Kingdom
Ayutthaya Kingdom
History of Lopburi
Phetburi
Nakhon Thai
.
.
14th-century monarchs in Asia
Thai people of Chinese descent
1314 births
1369 deaths
14th-century Thai people
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204338
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20Radcliff
|
Jacob Radcliff
|
Jacob Radcliff or Radclift (April 20, 1764 – May 6, 1844) was Mayor of New York City from 1810 to 1811, and from 1815 to 1818.
Life
He was born on April 20, 1764, in Rhinebeck, Dutchess County, New York. He graduated from Princeton University in 1783 and practiced law under Egbert Benson, the first New York Attorney General. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and about the same time, he married Juliana Smith, the daughter of Cotton Mather Smith and granddaughter of Cotton Mather. While practicing law in Poughkeepsie, he was a member of the New York State Assembly (Dutchess Co.) in 1795 and was one of the twelve members of the Joint Committee on Elections of the Senate and Assembly of New York. He was appointed Assistant Attorney General on February 23, 1796.
On December 27, 1798, he became a justice of the New York Supreme Court. In this position he helped revise the state's laws. He resigned from the bench in 1804, and practiced chancery law in Brooklyn. When the Federalist Party gained the majority in 1810, Radcliff was appointed mayor of New York City. When the War of 1812 divided the Federalist party, Radcliff aligned with the Tammany Society, which was poised to gain a majority in state politics. Grand Sachem of Tammany Hall John Ferguson became mayor in 1815 but resigned to take the appointment of Surveyor of the Port of New York. Radcliff was chosen as his replacement.
He died in Troy, New York on May 6, 1844.
References
Mayors of New York City
1764 births
1844 deaths
People from Rhinebeck, New York
New York (state) Federalists
New York (state) Democratic-Republicans
Princeton University alumni
New York (state) state court judges
Members of the New York State Assembly
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muang%20Sua
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Muang Sua
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Muang Sua ( ) was the name of Luang Phrabang following its conquest in 698 by a Tai/Lao prince, Khun Lo, who seized his opportunity when the king of Nanzhao was engaged elsewhere. Khun Lo had been awarded the town by his father, Khun Borom, who is associated with the Lao legend of the creation of the world, which the Lao share with the Shan and other peoples of the region. Khun Lo established a dynasty whose fifteen rulers reigned over an independent Muang Sua for the better part of a century.
History
Muang Sua, nowadays known as Luang Prabang, was named in 698 following its conquest, by the Tai prince Khun Lo, who awarded the town to his father Khun Boron, the legendary progenitor of the Lao race.
In the second half of the eighth century, Nanzhao intervened frequently in the affairs of the principalities of the middle Mekong Valley, resulting in the occupation of Muang Sua in 709. Nanzhao princes or administrators replaced the aristocracy of Tai overlords. Dates of the occupation are not known, but it probably ended well before the northward expansion of the Khmer Empire under Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) and extended as far as the territories of Sipsong Panna on the upper Mekong.
In the meantime, the Khmers founded an outpost at Xayfong near Vientiane, and Champa expanded again in southern Laos, maintaining its presence on the banks of the Mekong until 1070. Chanthaphanit, the local ruler of Xayfong, moved north to Muang Sua and was accepted peacefully as ruler after the departure of the Nanzhao administrators. Chanthaphanit and his son had long reigns, during which the town became known by the Tai name Xieng Dong Xieng Thong. The dynasty eventually became involved in the squabbles of a number of principalities. Khun Chuang, a warlike ruler who may have been a Kammu (alternate spellings include Khamu and Khmu) tribesman, extended his territory as a result of the warring of these principalities and probably ruled from 1128 to 1169. The family of Khun Chuang reinstituted the Siamese administrative system of the 7th century. Muang Sua next became the Kingdom of Sri Sattanak, a name connected with the legend of the naga (mythical snake or water dragon) who was said to have dug the Mekong riverbed. At this time, Theravada Buddhism was subsumed by Mahayana Buddhism.
Muang Sua experienced a brief period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers, however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords.
Recent historical research has shown that the Mongols, who destroyed Dali in 1253 and made the area a province of their empire—naming it Yunnan—exercised a decisive political influence in the middle Mekong Valley for the better part of a century. In 1271 Panya Lang, founder of a new dynasty headed by rulers bearing the title panya (lord), began his rule over a fully sovereign Muang Sua. In 1286 Panya Lang's son, Panya Khamphong, was involved in a coup d'état that was probably instigated by the Mongols and that exiled his father. Upon his father's death in 1316, Panya Khamphong assumed his throne.
Ram Khamhaeng, an early ruler of the new Thai dynasty in Sukhothai, made himself the agent of Mongol interests, and in 1282-84 eliminated the vestiges of Khmer and Cham power in central Laos. Ramkhamhaeng obtained the allegiance of Muang Sua and the mountainous country to the northeast. Between 1286 and 1297, Panya Khamphong's lieutenants, acting for Ramkhamhaeng and the Mongols, pacified vast territories. From 1297 to 1301, Lao troops under Mongol command invaded Dai Viet but were repulsed by the Vietnamese. Troops from Muang Sua conquered Muang Phuan in 1292–97. In 1308 Panya Khamphong seized the ruler of Muang Phuan, and by 1312 this principality was a vassal state of Muang Sua.
Mongol overlordship was unpopular in Muang Sua. Internal conflicts among members of the new dynasty over Mongol intervention in their affairs resulted in continuing family upheavals. Panya Khamphong exiled his son Fa Phi Fa and most likely intended to leave the throne to his younger grandson, Fa Ngieo. Fa Ngieo, involved in various coups and coup attempts, in 1330 sent his two sons to a Buddhist monastery outside the Mongol realm for safety. The brothers were kidnapped in 1335 and taken to Angkor, where they were entrusted to King Jayavarman IX, whose kingdom had acknowledged Mongol suzerainty since 1285.
The younger brother, Fa Ngum, married one of the king's daughters and in 1349 set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000 man army. His conquest of the territories to the north of Angkor over the next six years reopened Mongol communications with that place, which had been cut off. Fa Ngum organized the conquered principalities into provinces, and reclaimed Muang Sua from his father and elder brother. Fa Ngum was crowned king of Lan Xang at Vientiane, the site of one of his victories, in June 1354. Lan Xang extended from the border of China to Sambor below the Mekong rapids at Khong Island and from the Vietnamese border to the western escarpment of the Khorat Plateau.
References
History of Laos
Tai history
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e%20Zellweger
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Renée Zellweger
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Renée Kathleen Zellweger (; born April 25, 1969) is an American actress. She is the recipient of numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, four Screen Actors Guild Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards. She was one of the world's highest-paid actresses by 2007.
Born and raised in Texas, Zellweger studied English literature at University of Texas at Austin. Initially aspiring to a career in journalism, she was drawn to acting following her brief work on stage during college. Following her minor roles in the 1993 coming-of-age comedy film Dazed and Confused, and the 1994 romantic comedy-drama film Reality Bites, her first starring role came with the 1994 slasher film Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation. Receiving praise for her performances in the independent films Love and a .45 (1994) and The Whole Wide World (1996), she rose to prominence with starring roles in the 1996 romantic comedy-drama sports film Jerry Maguire, the 1998 drama film One True Thing, and the 2000 black comedy films Me, Myself and Irene and Nurse Betty, winning the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Comedy or Musical for her portrayal of Betty Sizemore in the last of these.
For her portrayals of Bridget Jones in the 2001 romantic comedy film Bridget Jones's Diary, and Roxie Hart in the 2002 musical black comedy crime film Chicago, she gained consecutive nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing a loquacious farmer in the 2003 epic period war film Cold Mountain. Her other notable films include the 2002 drama White Oleander, the 2004 romantic comedy Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, the 2005 biopic sports drama Cinderella Man, the 2006 biopic drama Miss Potter, and the 2016 romantic comedy Bridget Jones's Baby. In 2019, she starred in her first major television role in the Netflix series What/If; and portrayed Judy Garland in the biographical drama film Judy, winning numerous awards, including the Academy Award for Best Actress. She also received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album for the film's accompanying soundtrack album.
Early life and education
Zellweger was born on April 25, 1969, in Katy, Texas. Her father, Emil Erich Zellweger, is from the Swiss town of Au, St. Gallen. He was a mechanical and electrical engineer who worked in the oil-refining business. Her mother, Kjellfrid Irene (née Andreassen), is Norwegian of Kven and Sámi descent. Kjellfrid grew up in Ekkerøy near the town Vadsø in the northern part of Norway. She was a nurse and midwife who moved to the United States to work as a governess for a Norwegian family in Texas. Referring to her religious background, Zellweger has described herself as being raised in a family of "lazy Catholics and Episcopalians".
Zellweger attended Katy High School, where she was a cheerleader, gymnast, and debate team member,. She also participated in soccer, basketball, baseball, and football. In 1986, her academic paper, "The Karankawas and Their Roots", won third place in the first-ever Houston Post High School Natural Science Essay Contest. After high school, she enrolled at the University of Texas at Austin, where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1992. While at the university, she took a drama course as an elective, which sparked her interest in acting.
In her junior year, her father lost his job and was unable to support her at college, so she took a job as a cocktail waitress in Austin, Texas. She said of the job, "I learned a lot. As much as I did in my classes that that club paid for... I learned not to judge people, [and] that things are not black and white." she began getting small parts acting, and earned her Screen Actors Guild card for doing a Coors Light commercial. Also while in college, she did "a bit part ... as a local hire" in the Austin-filmed horror-comedy film My Boyfriend's Back, playing "the girl in the beauty shop, maybe two lines. But the beauty shop [scene] got cut." Her first job after graduation was working in a beef commercial, while simultaneously auditioning for roles around Houston, Texas.
Career
Early roles (1992–1995)
While still in Texas, Zellweger appeared in several independent and low-budget films. One was A Taste for Killing (1992), followed by a role in the ABC miniseries Murder in the Heartland (1993). In 1994, she appeared in Reality Bites, the directorial debut of Ben Stiller, and in the biographical film 8 Seconds, directed by John G. Avildsen. Her first main role in a movie came with the 1994 horror film Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, alongside Matthew McConaughey, playing a teenager who leaves a prom early with three friends who get into a car accident, which leads to their meeting a murderous family, led by the iconic Leatherface. While the film went unnoticed, Joe Leydon for Variety magazine lauded Zellweger, calling her "the most formidable scream queen since Jamie Lee Curtis went legit."
In her next film, the crime comedy Love and a .45 (1994), Zellweger played a woman who plans a robbery with her boyfriend. Although the film received a limited release in theaters, Marc Savlov of Austin Chronicle applauded the main cast saying they were "all excellent in their roles" and noted that "Zellweger's character – all squeals and caged sexuality – seems a bit too close to Juliette Lewis' Mallory Knox (of Natural Born Killers) to be as fresh as it should be". The part earned her an Independent Spirit Award for Best Debut Performance. She subsequently relocated to Los Angeles, a move she had postponed several times because she believed she lacked the talent and experience to be a competitive actor in that city. She would next appear in the coming-of-age drama Empire Records (1995). Rotten Tomatoes' consensus was: "Despite a terrific soundtrack and a strong early performance from Renee Zellweger, Empire Records is mostly a silly and predictable teen dramedy."
Breakthrough (1996–2000)
Zellweger came to wider recognition through her role in Jerry Maguire (1996), playing a single mother and the romantic interest of a glossy sports agent (Tom Cruise). The film grossed over US$273 million worldwide. It was Cruise who chose her to play his love interest and later credited her with "revealing the core humanity of the movie". Roger Ebert, acknowledging Zellweger's and Cruise's chemistry, wrote: "The film is often a delight, especially when Cruise and Zellweger are together on the screen. He plays Maguire with the earnestness of a man who wants to find greatness and happiness in an occupation where only success really counts. She plays a woman who believes in this guy she loves, and reminds us that true love is about idealism." For her performance, Zellweger was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role.
In the religious drama A Price Above Rubies (1998), Zellweger starred as a young woman who finds it difficult to conform to the restrictions imposed on her by the community. The film flopped at the box office, but Zellweger was applauded by some critics such as Ebert, who wrote that she gave a "ferociously strong performance." That same year, she also starred in the drama One True Thing, opposite William Hurt and Meryl Streep. She played a woman, based on author Anna Quindlen, forced to put her life on hold in order to care for her mother, who is dying of cancer. One True Thing took in a modest US$23 million in the US, but had a favorable critical response; Variety magazine's Todd McCarthy stated about Zellweger, "Projecting gravity and impatience that she hasn't shown before, Zellweger is outstanding as the smart young woman who resents the interruption to her life's momentum but ends up growing in ways she never would have expected."
After playing the female lead opposite Chris O'Donnell in the little-seen romantic comedy The Bachelor (1999), Zellweger starred in the Farrelly brothers comedy Me, Myself & Irene (2000), with Jim Carrey, as a woman on the run for what she believes is a false accusation set up by her mob-connected ex-boyfriend. It was a commercial success, grossing US$149 million worldwide.
In the black comedy Nurse Betty (2000), directed by Neil LaBute and starring Morgan Freeman, Zellweger played a Kansas waitress who suffers a nervous breakdown after witnessing her husband's murder. San Francisco Chronicle found the actress to be "a performer who emanates kindness and a pure heart", and Variety remarked: "Few actresses can convey the kind of honesty and humanity that Zellweger does here — it's hard to imagine the film without her dominant, thoroughly credible performance". She won her first Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, but she was in the bathroom when future co-star Hugh Grant announced her name. She later protested: "I had lipstick on my teeth!"
Worldwide recognition and critical success (2001–2007)
In 2001, Zellweger gained the prized lead role of Bridget Jones, opposite Hugh Grant and Colin Firth, in the British romantic comedy Bridget Jones's Diary, based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Helen Fielding. The casting of Zellweger came amid much controversy since she was neither British nor overweight and did not smoke. During casting, Zellweger was told she was too thin to play the chubby, chain-smoking Bridget, so she quickly embarked on gaining the required weight (20 pounds) and learning to speak in an English accent while she smoked herbal cigarettes. In addition to receiving dialect coaching to fine-tune her accent, part of Zellweger's preparations involved spending three weeks working undercover in a "work experience placement" for British publishing firm Picador in Victoria, London. Her portrayal of Jones led Stephen Holden of The New York Times to comment, "Ms. Zellweger accomplishes the small miracle of making Bridget both entirely endearing and utterly real." The role earned her a second Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, and her first Academy Award and BAFTA Award nominations for Best Leading Actress. Bridget Jones's Diary was a major commercial success, earning US$281 million worldwide.
Zellweger took on the role of a former actress serving as a foster mother, alongside Michelle Pfeiffer, in the drama White Oleander (2002), for which she received a Satellite Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress – Drama. She also portrayed Roxie Hart in the 2002 musical film Chicago, directed by Rob Marshall and co-starring Catherine Zeta-Jones, Richard Gere, Queen Latifah, and John C. Reilly. The won Best Picture at the 75th Academy Awards. Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Tim Robey labeled Chicago the "best screen musical [since 1972's Cabaret]", and the San Francisco Chronicle commented, "Zellweger is a joy to watch, with marvelous comic timing and, in her stage numbers, a commanding presence". She earned her second Academy Award and BAFTA Award nominations for Best Leading Actress, winning her second Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role.
In 2003, following the success of Chicago, Zellweger starred with Ewan McGregor in the little-seen romantic comedy Down with Love, as a woman advocating female independence in the 1950s and early 1960s, and appeared in Anthony Minghella's war drama Cold Mountain, opposite Nicole Kidman and Jude Law, playing a woman who helps a farmer following her father's death. The film garnered several award nominations and wins for its actors; Zellweger won the award for Best Supporting Actress at the 76th Academy Awards, the 61st Golden Globe Awards, the 10th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and the 57th British Academy Film Awards.
In 2004, Zellweger provided her voice for the DreamWorks Animation film Shark Tale, and reprised her title role in Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, which made US$262 million around the globe and earned her a fourth Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy nomination. In 2005, she played the wife of world heavyweight boxing champion James J. Braddock in Ron Howard's drama Cinderella Man, opposite Russell Crowe and Paul Giamatti. In his review for the film, David Ansen of Newsweek, wrote that the actress "has an uncanny ability to make us swallow even the most movie-ish moments". On May 24, 2005, Zellweger received a landmark star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to the motion picture industry.
Zellweger portrayed author Beatrix Potter in the biographical comedy Miss Potter, with Emily Watson and Ewan McGregor. She also served as an executive producer as she wanted to get more involved in the production. William Arnold of Seattle Post-Intelligencer concluded that Zellweger "strikes just the right chord of inspiration, eccentricity and uncompromising artistic drive." For her portrayal, she earned her sixth nomination for the Golden Globe Award (and her fifth one in the category of Best Actress – Musical or Comedy). In 2007, Zellweger lent her voice to the animated family comedy Bee Movie and was awarded the Women in Film Crystal award.
Career fluctuations and hiatus (2008–2015)
With George Clooney in his directorial venture, the period comedy Leatherheads (2008), about the early years of professional American football, Zellweger portrayed a Chicago Tribune newspaper reporter. The film received largely mixed reviews and made US$13.5 million in its opening weekend, described as "disappointing" by website Box Office Mojo. MTV.com praised the actress for "displaying an unexpected gift for drawling sarcasm", but Kevin Williamson for website Jam! criticized her role, remarking that she, "as the kind of lippy heroine epitomized by Rosalind Russell, is miscast in a role that demands snark, not sleepy-eyed sweetness". In the western Appaloosa (2008), Zellweger played a beguiling widow opposite Ed Harris and Viggo Mortensen. The grossed US$20 million at the North American box office. Zellweger produced the made-for-television feature Living Proof, starring Harry Connick Jr., about the true story of Denny Slamon. It was co-produced by Craig Zadan and Neil Meron, and premiered in October 2008 on Lifetime Television.
Her next film was the 2009 comedy New in Town, in which she played a Miami high-powered consultant adjusting to her new life in a small Minnesota town. The movie rated poorly with reviewers and made a lackluster US$16 million in its domestic theatrical run. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian stated that her "rabbity, dimply pout – surely the strangest facial expression in Hollywood – simpers and twitches out of the screen in this moderate girly flick that adheres with almost religious fanaticism to the feelgood romcom handbook". In 2009, she also provided her voice for a supporting character in DreamWorks' computer-animated 3D feature film Monsters vs. Aliens, and starred as the mother of actor George Hamilton in the comedy My One and Only, which despite being distributed for a limited release to certain parts of the United States only. Bill Gray, of Entertainment Weekly felt that she played her part "to her strengths", and reviewer Mick LaSalle found her performance to be a "standout".
Zellweger took on the role of a social worker assigned to a mysterious girl in Case 39, a supernatural thriller she had filmed in 2006. The title had a lengthy post-production and was not released in theaters in the United States until 2010. It was universally panned by critics and only earned US$5.3 million in its opening weekend, leading Indiewire to write that Zellweger "faces an [u]ncertain [f]uture" as she was in "an unforgiving industry that doles out few juicy roles for women over 40." The road drama My Own Love Song, in which she played a former singer suffering from paralysis, was screened at the 2010 Tribeca Film Festival, and released for DVD.
After My Own Love Song was released, Zellweger took a six-year hiatus from screen acting, as she found the time to "go away and grow up a bit". Reflecting on this period of time in a July 2016 interview with British Vogue, she explained: "I was fatigued and wasn't taking the time I needed to recover between projects, and it caught up with me [...] I got sick of the sound of my own voice". In 2013, Zellweger co-created and executive produced Cinnamon Girl, an original drama series set in the Hollywood movie and music scenes of the late 1960s and early 1970s, but the Lifetime network passed on the pilot. That same year, she was considered for a supporting role in the film August: Osage County alongside Andrea Riseborough but the role ultimately went to Juliette Lewis.
Resurgence and Judy (2016–present)
Following a six-year hiatus from acting, Zellweger made her career comeback opposite Colin Firth and Patrick Dempsey in the romantic comedy Bridget Jones's Baby (2016), the third part in the Bridget Jones franchise, portraying Jones in her forties and single as she discovers that she is pregnant and must work out who the father is. It was met with a positive response by critics and grossed US$211.9 million worldwide. Village Voice found the movie to be "the warmest and most satisfying of the series" and concluded that Zellweger's "wise, light-hearted performance anchors this happy reunion, a surprising and refreshing gift from a creative well that seemed to have run dry". In the crime drama The Whole Truth, directed by Courtney Hunt and opposite Keanu Reeves, Zellweger took the role of Loretta Lassiter, the mother of a teenager suspected of murdering his wealthy father. Filmed in New Orleans in July 2014, The Whole Truth was released on October 21, 2016, for selected theaters and video-on-demand, receiving average reviews. Variety remarked: "Truth be told, [Reeves and Zellweger] deserve better than this predictable courtroom drama".
In Same Kind of Different as Me (2017), a film adaptation of the autobiographical book by the same name, Zellweger starred with Djimon Hounsou, Olivia Holt and Jon Voight, as the wife of an art dealer whose struggling relationship is changed for the better by a homeless man. The film received mixed reviews from critics and was a moderate commercial success. The Wrap, nevertheless, remarked: "Zellweger, in fact, delivers a gentle, thoughtful, yet headstrong performance as the wife who digs in her heels to get human decency out of the people she cares for the most". She played the friend of a New York City singer who gets a life-changing medical diagnosis in the independent drama Here and Now (2018), opposite Sarah Jessica Parker.
Zellweger obtained her first major television role when she was cast as Anne Montgomery, a mysterious venture capitalist, in the Netflix thriller miniseries What/If (2019). Although the show received mixed reviews from critics, Zellweger's performance was praised, with Haider Rifaat of The Express Tribune writing, "Not to forgo the incredible acting prowess of Zellweger, who impeccably embraces the character of Anne. Subtle gestures, symbolic interaction and character development are some commendable aspects that intensify the actors' performances."
Her next role was that of Judy Garland in 2019's biographical drama Judy. Based on the West End and Broadway play End of the Rainbow, the film chronicles the last years of Garland's life, shortly before her death in 1969. Zellweger performed her own vocals in the film and her songs had to be performed in front of a live audience. Judy premiered to positive reviews at the Telluride Film Festival, and certain critics considered it to be the finest performance of her career. Zoe Gahan of Vanity Fair found her "witty, sharp and devastating in the title role" and added that "it is hard to tell where Garland stops and Zellweger starts". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone opined, "Zellweger performs miracles playing Judy Garland: singing her heart out, baring her bruised soul and acting with a ferocity that ultimately rises to a state of grace." For her portrayal of Garland, Zellweger won numerous awards and accolades, including the Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, BAFTA Award and Academy Award. Zellweger's win made her just the seventh actress to win an Oscar in both acting categories and the fourth to win Best Actress after Best Supporting Actress. The film's soundtrack additionally earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album.
Public image
Zellweger has appeared on the covers and photo shoots of several magazines throughout her career; she appeared on the September 1997 cover of Vanity Fair, and in subsequent years, the list has grown to include Vogue, Detour, Allure and Harper's Bazaar. Zellweger often draws attention for her style at award ceremonies and red carpet events, specifically for her frequent use of dresses designed by Carolina Herrera, a close friend who has worked with the actress for over fifteen years after they met at a Costume Institute gala. She is also a frequent attendee at New York Fashion Week, among other fashion events.
In April 1997, Vanity Fair named her part of "Hollywood's Next Wave of Stars". She was placed on E!'s "Top 20 Entertainers of 2001" list and was chosen by People magazine as one of the 50 most beautiful people in the world in 2003. She also ranked number 72 in the "Top 100 Celebrities" list made by Forbes in 2006, and the following year, she was placed at 20 among "the 20 richest women in entertainment", by the magazine.
After Zellweger attended the 21st annual Elle Women in Hollywood Awards in October 2014, there was media and social commentary that she was hardly recognizable, which prompted speculation that she had undergone cosmetic surgery. Zellweger responded, "Perhaps I look different. Who doesn't as they get older?! Ha. But I am different. I'm happy."
Israeli singer songwriter Ariel Horowitz wrote, composed and performed a song called "Renee" in 2001, after watching the film Jerry Maguire. Horowitz said he was stunned by her performance. The song tells the fantasy in which he meets Renee, they fall in love and return to live in Israel, and she becomes a local movie star.
Personal life
Relationships
From 1999 to 2000, Zellweger was engaged to Jim Carrey. In 2003, she had a brief relationship with musician Jack White. In May 2005, Zellweger married singer Kenny Chesney. Four months later, Zellweger obtained an annulment.
In 2009, she started dating Bradley Cooper, after having met on the set of Case 39 which was filmed in 2006. They separated in 2011.
From 2012 to 2019, she was in a relationship with musician Doyle Bramhall II. In June 2021, she was reported to be dating English television presenter Ant Anstead.
Activism
Zellweger took part in the 2005 HIV prevention campaign of the Swiss federal health department.
Zellweger is one of the patrons for gender equality foundation The GREAT Initiative; in 2011 she visited Liberia with the charity. In April 2011, she collaborated with Tommy Hilfiger to design a handbag to raise money and awareness for the Breast Health Institute. "Because of the experiences of close friends and family members who have had to endure and battle the challenges of breast cancer, I am a passionate supporter of breast health education and charitable causes", Zellweger stated about joining the campaign.
Houses
Zellweger has owned properties in Los Angeles, the Hamptons, Connecticut, and Texas.
Awards and nominations
Among her numerous accolades for her acting work, Zellweger has received two Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, four Critics' Choice Movie Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, a Independent Spirit Awards, four Screen Actors Guild Awards, a British Independent Film Awards, and awards from the London Film Critics Circle, National Board of Review, National Society of Film Critics, New York Film Critics Circle, and Santa Barbara International Film Festival. Zellweger is only the fourth actress, after Meryl Streep, Jessica Lange, and Cate Blanchett, to win Best Actress after winning Best Supporting Actress and the seventh actress to win in both categories after Ingrid Bergman, Maggie Smith, Helen Hayes, Streep, Lange, and Blanchett.
Filmography
Film
Television
Discography
Chicago: Music from the Miramax Motion Picture (2002)
Judy (2019)
See also
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories
List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
References
External links
Renee Zellweger at Box Office Mojo
1969 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Austin, Texas
Actresses from Houston
Actresses from Texas
American cheerleaders
American film actresses
American people of Kven descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American people of Swiss descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Katy, Texas
University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni
Renee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20Hardouin-Mansart
|
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
|
Jules Hardouin-Mansart (; 16 April 1646 – 11 May 1708) was a French Baroque architect and builder whose major work included the Place des Victoires (1684–1690); Place Vendôme (1690); the domed chapel of Les Invalides (1690), and the Grand Trianon of the Palace of Versailles. His monumental work was designed to glorify the reign of Louis XIV of France.
Biography
Born Jules Hardouin in Paris in 1646, he studied under his renowned great-uncle François Mansart, one of the originators of the classical tradition in French architecture; Hardouin inherited Mansart's collection of plans and drawings and added Mansart's name to his own in 1668. He began his career as an entrepreneur in building construction, in partnership with his brother Michel, but then decided in 1672 to devote himself entirely to architecture. In 1674 he became one of the group of royal architects working for Louis XIV. His first important project was the Château de Clagny, built for the King's consort, Madame de Montespan. He quickly showed he was a master of bureaucratic diplomacy as well as design and construction; he gained the protection and support of Madame de Montespan, then François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of War. He studied under and then collaborated with landscape designer André Le Nôtre, before finally working directly with the King himself.
In 1677 he began working on the expansion of the royal Palace of Versailles, a project which occupied him for the rest of his life. Soon afterward became a member of the Royal Academy of Architecture. In 1678 he became director of the work at Versailles. and the most prominent architect in the royal entourage. He was named First Architect of the King in 1681 and was raised to the nobility in 1682. He became intendant of the King in 1685, and royal inspector-general of buildings 1691, under the elderly superintendent of buildings, Villacerf, whom he finally replaced in 1699.
He owed his rise not just for his ability to please his patron with his designs, but especially because of his ability to manage enormous and complex projects with many elements and designers. He would sketch out an idea; stand back and intervene and adjust when needed, from time to time to visit the site, and to see that the budget was kept under control.
In the latter part of his career he left more of the details to the architects who worked under him, notably Robert de Cotte, who was his chosen successor. He was given the title of Count of Sagonne in 1702, but died six months later at the royal residence of Marly.
Style
Hardouin-Mansart was the leading master of the architectural style that became known as the Louis XIV style or French classicism. A particular skill of Hardouin was his ability to create a wide variety of structures; chateaux, churches, pavilions, private residences, parks, and urban squares. He demonstrated an ability to adapt, modify, enlarge and rehabilitate, without losing the character of the original building, but adding his own original variations on the theme, as he demonstrated in particular at the Palace of Versailles.
Much of his success was due to his ability to select and guide very talented collaborators. his collaborators included the interior designer Charles Le Brun, who designed many of the interiors of Versailles, in perfect harmony with his architecture, and Robert de Cotte, a designer who also became his brother-in-law and in 1708 became his successor, completing the major projects he had begun in the Palace of Versailles.
His architecture is especially characterized by simplification; by large smooth spaces, the repetition of forms (especially arcades with semicircular arches and detached columns; long horizontals, and detached open spaces. He often used long rows of columns in front of a facade to give an air of grandeur and to hide the irregularities of the structure. He used the architectural orders to give a special majesty to interior surfaces, particularly in the chapel of Versailles, and the interiors of the Palace of Versailles and the Grand Trianon.
He was adept at creating a sense of awe, as he demonstrated especially in the dome of Les Invalides and in the garden facade of the Palace of Versailles, and in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
Major works
Les Invalides
On March 1, 1676, François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of War, summoned Hardouin-Mansart to take over construction of Les Invalides, the enormous hospital and chapel the King was building in the center of Paris for his pensioned and wounded soldiers. The project had been begun in 1671 by Libéral Bruant, and some of the residential buildings were completed and already occupied, but the centerpiece, the chapel for the soldiers, had not been begun. The King was not satisfied with the plans that were offered to him by Bruant, and complained about the slowness of the work. On March 1, 1676, Louvois dismissed Bruant and summoned Hardouin-Mansart, who was little known outside the royal household, and asked him to take over the church.
The chapel originally planned by Bruant for the veterans was relatively modest in size and decoration. Hardouin-Mansart proposed a much more grandiose project with two adjoining parts; a choir for the pensioners, and a majestic domed royal church for the King. This was beyond what the Minister had proposed, but it apparently pleased the King, and, after long discussion, Hardouin-Mansart was given the project not only for the church, but for the Hôtel as well. Hardouin-Mansart briskly organized and completed the construction of residences and infirmaries for the pensioners. In 1676 he began work on the choir, the portion of the church intended for the pensioners. By the summer of 1677 the roof was in place, and in April 1678 he was able to order the woodwork of the stalls, and in 1679, the cabinetry for the organ.
The work on the royal chapel proceeded more slowly. Its distinctive feature was the dome, one of the earliest constructed in Paris, following the church of the Val-de-Grâce, designed by his great-uncle, and (1645–1667), and the Collège des Quatre-Nations (1662–1670). His original plan called for a single great space under the dome, and painted decoration on the interior of the dome. However, while the work was in progress, the French army suffered reverses in the Netherlands, and the superintendent of finances, Colbert, was slow in providing funding. Hardouin-Mansart had to modify the original plan, eliminating the painted ceiling, and redesigning the dome with an interior dome, not visible from the outside. He mounted the dome on two successive drums, giving it greater height than the earlier Paris domes. He commissioned the sculptor François Girardon to make statues illustrating the themes of the building, the virtues of the Saints and the French Kings. By 1690 a large group of sculptors was at work at statues for the niches of the facade. The war was followed by a financial crisis; work was halted entirely in 1695, and did not resume until the war ended in 1699. Once the war ended, constructed resumed, and the royal chapel was finally consecrated, in the presence of the King, on 22 August 1706, not long before the death of Hardouin-Mansart. It remains his most famous work.
The Palace of Versailles
From 1677 until his death, Hardouin-Mansart was responsible for the design and construction of much of the Palace of Versailles of Louis XIV. He succeeded the royal architect Louis Le Vau and became the surintendant des Bâtiments du Roi (Superintendent of royal buildings). Beginning in 1678, he completed the "envelope" of new buildings surrounding the original Chateau by Louis XIII, which had been begun by his predecessor, Louis Le Vau. He transformed the first-floor terrace of the Palace overlooking the garden, into the celebrated Hall of Mirrors, richly decorated by his collaborator, the artist Charles Le Brun. He also reconstructed the facade of the first floor facing the marble courtyard, giving it large arched windows and bringing in more light, and added new central residential wing, also with larger windows, for the royal family. To house the growing number of staff and servants in the Chateau, he built the Grand Commun (1682–85), and for the horses and carriages of the royal household constructed two palatial stables on the city-side of the Palace (finished in 1682).
His later additions to the Palace included the Orangerie (1684–86), halfway underground at the end of south wing, accessed by two monumental stairways and opening onto its own sunken garden. Toward the end of his life he built a separate smaller one-story palace, the Grand Trianon (1687) as a refuge for the King from the noise and ceremony of the court. His final project at Versilles was the chapel (1699–1710), which was carefully integrated into the architecture of the south wing.
Royal Squares
Hardouin-Mansard was also an important urban designer, the creator of two notable Paris residential squares. Both squares, the Place des Victoires (1685) and Place Vendôme (1699), were designed, like his other architecture, to express the majesty and glory of Louis XIV. The Place des Victoires was built as a setting for a monument to Louis XIV, surrounded by a circle of harmonious matching residential buildings. The original statue was melted down after the Revolution, and replaced later by a copy; while the square was much altered in later years, with the addition of traverse streets and buildings in a different style.
The later Place Vendôme was a larger square, but Hardouin-Mansard broke the rigid box shape with corner buildings facing inward, decorated with ornamental pediments.
Chateaux
His most prominent position in France put him in place to create many of the significant monuments of the period, and to set the tone for the restrained French Late Baroque architectural style, somewhat chastened by academic detailing, that was influential as far as Saint Petersburg and even echoed in Constantinople. At the same time, the size of support staff in his official bureaucratic position has often raised criticisms that he was less than directly responsible for the work that was constructed under his name, criticisms that underestimate the discipline control within a large, classically trained studio.
Hardouin-Mansart used the mansard roof (mansarde), named for his great-uncle François Mansart, at the château of Dampierre-en-Yvelines, built for the duc de Chevreuse, Colbert's son-in-law, a patron at the center of Louis XIV's court. This French Baroque château of manageable size lies entre cour et jardin as even Versailles did, the paved and gravel forecourt (cour d'honneur) protected behind fine wrought iron double gates, and enclosed by the main block and its outbuildings (corps de logis), linked by balustrades, symmetrically disposed. A traditional French touch is the modest pedimented entrance flanked by boldly projecting pavilions. Behind, the central axis is extended between the former parterres, now grass. The park with formally shaped water was laid out by André Le Nôtre. There are sumptuous interiors. The small scale makes it easier to compare to the approximately contemporary Het Loo (Netherlands), for William III of Orange.
He died at Marly-le-Roi in 1708.
Gallery
List and dates of notable works
Hôtel de Conti, a town house within La Monnaie in Paris (1669)
Château de Clagny (1675–1683)
Palace of Versailles
1677 : The Bosquet des Dômes (1677)
1678 à 1684 : The Gallery of Mirrors (1678–1689)
The facade facing the park, and north and center wings (1679–89)
The small and the Grand Stables, and the new Orangerie (1684–1686)
The Grand Trianon (1687)
The Royal Chapel (1698–1710)
The Church of Notre-Dame de Versailles (1698–1710)
Place Vendôme (1677–99)
Château de Marly (1679–1684) – demolished after Revolution).
City Hall of Nemours ((1669) (formerly the Convent of the Congregation of Notre-Dame)
City Hall of Arles (1676)
Château de Vall (1674–1677)
City hall of Arles (1676)
Château de la Chaize in Odenas (1676)
Pavillon de Manse, at Chantilly 1676–1680
Church of Saint-Louis-des-Invalides and a portion of the Hôtel des Invalides (1676–1706)
Episcopal Palace of Castres (1677–1679)
Rebuilding of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1680)
Hôtel de Beauvillier at Versailles (1681)
Hôtel Colbert de Croissy at Versailles (1682)
Château de Dampierre, in Dampierre-en-Yvelines (1682–1684)
Hôtel de Chevreuse in Versailles (1683)
Completion of the Chapel of the Château de Chambord (1684)
Château de Boury in Boury-en-Vexin (1685)
Rebuilding of the Palace of the Dukes of Burgundy, Dijon (1685)
Place des Victoires, Paris (1686)
The orangerie of the château de Sceaux (1686)
The Maison royale de Saint-Louis, at Saint-Cyr-l'École (1686)
Plans for the , in Chantilly (1687–1692)
Church of Saint-Vigor in Marly-le-Roi (1688–1689)
Plans for the Château de L'Isle in the Swiss Canton of Vaud
Reconstruction of the Church of Saint-Louis, Poissy (1695–1708)
Rebuilding of the Château de Meudon for the Grand Dauphin (1698–1704)
Château de Vanves, now the administrative building of Lycée Michelet (Vanves) (1698)
Reconstruction of City Hall of Lyon (1701–1703)
Eglise Saint-Roch, Paris (1701–1722)
Notes and citations
Bibliography
See also
17th-century French art
External links
1646 births
1708 deaths
Architects from Paris
17th-century French architects
Heads of the Bâtiments du Roi
Members of the Académie royale d'architecture
French Baroque architects
Architects from Versailles
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakse
|
Pakse
|
Pakse (or Pakxe; French: Paksé; Laotian: ປາກເຊ 'mouth of the river'; ), is the capital and most populous city of the southern Laotian province of Champasak, making it the second most populous city in Laos. At the confluence of the Xe Don and Mekong Rivers, it has a population of about 95,000. It served as the capital of the Kingdom of Champasak until it was unified with the rest of Laos in 1946.
History
This city was founded by the French as an administrative outpost in 1905, and was formerly the capital of the Lao Kingdom of Champasak until 1946 when the Kingdom of Laos was formed. During the Franco-Thai war the French ceded Preah Vihear Province from Cambodia and the cis-Mekong part of Champasak Province opposite Pakse from Laos to Thailand.
The city served as the primary seat and residence to Prince Boun Oum Na Champassak, an important figure in the Laotian Civil War. He built Champasak Palace, but fled in 1974 before it was completed. In May 1975, the town fell to Pathet Lao forces. Since 1975, Pakse has become an economic power and of regional importance. The construction of a bridge over the Mekong, built with Japanese aid, allowing road traffic with Ubon Ratchathani in Thailand, has further integrated the city with neighbouring countries.
Demographics
Pakse is home to many ethnic Chinese. In 1943, 62 % of the population of Pakse were Vietnamese.
Religion
The population is predominantly Buddhist and the city has several temples. These include: Wat Luang, which was built in 1935 and is the largest temple in Pakse, and the Chinese temple Wat Sopsé. Pakse is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Paksé led by Cardinal Louis-Marie Ling Mangkhanekhoun.
Culture
The city has the Champasak Provincial Museum, which holds historical documents and artifacts of the province.
Infrastructure
Health
There are two hospitals in the city. One is the second largest in Laos, but many citizens travel across the border to Thailand as Thai hospitals are better equipped. There is a high risk of malaria and dengue fever during the monsoon season.
Transportation
Road
Pakse is on National Road 13, the main transportation highway of Laos. It has bridges over the Xe Don, the French and the Russian Bridges, and one bridge over the Mekong River, the Lao Nippon Bridge, one of only five bridges over the Mekong in Laos.
Pakse is the gateway to the Bolaven Plateau, as well as to the southern provinces of Salavan, Sekong, and Attapeu.
Air
It is served by Pakse International Airport. Pakse Airport construction was completed on 2 November 2009, resuming flights to Vientiane, Siem Reap, Ho Chi Minh City, and Bangkok.
Climate
Pakse has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw) with very warm temperatures throughout the year. Temperatures are especially high in the months before the monsoon season (March–April). There is a distinct wet season (April–October) and dry season (November–March).
Tourism
Pakse is growing as a tourist destination. Visitors to Pakse's Champasak Province have grown from 113,684 in 2006 to 493,180 in 2013. Sites of interest include:
Vat Phu
Si Phan Don
References
External links
Sabaidee Laos: Pakse (official tourism website)
Pakse, by official tourism website for Southern Laos
Populated places in Champasak Province
Laos–Thailand border crossings
Populated places on the Mekong River
Provincial capitals in Laos
|
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204365
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory%20Blaxland
|
Gregory Blaxland
|
Gregory Blaxland (17 June 1778 – 1 January 1853) was an English pioneer farmer and explorer in Australia, noted especially for initiating and co-leading the first successful crossing of the Blue Mountains by European settlers.
Early life
Gregory Blaxland was born 17 June 1778 at Fordwich, Kent, England, the fourth son of John Blaxland, mayor from 1767 to 1774, whose family had owned estates nearby for generations, and Mary, daughter of Captain Parker, R.N. Gregory attended The King's School, Canterbury. In July 1799 in the church of St George the Martyr there, he married 20-year-old Elizabeth, daughter of John Spurdon; they had five sons and two daughters.
The Blaxlands were friends of Sir Joseph Banks who appears to have strongly influenced the decision of Gregory and his eldest brother, John, to emigrate to Australia. The government promised them land, convict servants and free passages, in accord with its policy of encouraging 'settlers of responsibility and capital'. Leaving John to sell their Kent estates, Gregory sailed in the William Pitt on 1 September 1805 with his wife, the three children they then had, two servants, an overseer, a few sheep, seed, bees, tools, groceries and clothing.
Blaxland and his family reached Sydney on 1 April 1806, where he sold many of the goods he brought with him very profitably, bought eighty head of cattle so as to enter the meat trade, located of land at St Marys and was promised forty convict servants. Soon afterwards he also bought at the Brush Farm (near Eastwood) from D'Arcy Wentworth for £1500, while also displaying some of his future characteristics by commencing litigation against the master of the William Pitt. A further parcel of was granted for a farm at the South Creek.
Blue Mountains expedition
Early in 1813 Blaxland, who needed more grazing land, obtained the approval of Governor Lachlan Macquarie for an attempt to cross the Great Dividing Range, known as the Blue Mountains, following the mountain ridges, instead of following the rivers and valleys. He secured the participation of William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth in the expedition, which was successful (though the expedition stopped short of actually crossing over the mountains) and enabled the settlers to access and use the land west of the mountains for farming. The crossing took 21 days, and only 6 days to return.
In February 1823 Blaxland published his Journal of a Tour of Discovery Across the Blue Mountains (London, 1823) in which he wrote:
"On Tuesday, May 11, 1813, Mr. Gregory Blaxland, Mr. William Wentworth, and Lieutenant Lawson, attended by four servants, with five dogs, and four horses laden with provisions, ammunition, and other necessaries, left Mr. Blaxland's farm at the South Creek, for the purpose of endeavouring to effect a passage over the Blue Mountains ..."
In recognition of the successful crossing, all three explorers were granted by Macquarie of land west of the mountains.
Other activities
Blaxland is also noted as one of the first settlers to plant grapes for wine-making purposes. He was engaged during the next few years in wine-making. He had brought vines from the Cape of Good Hope and found a species resistant to blight.
Blaxland's diaries show that he had a clear grasp of the scale upon which agricultural and pastoral activities would be profitable in Australia. In 1814, like many others almost insolvent because of drought and depression, he tried to persuade Governor Macquarie to sanction a scheme for the exploitation of the interior by a large agricultural company similar to the later Australian Agricultural Company of the 1820s. Macquarie would not agree nor would he allow Blaxland land in the interior for his own flocks. Blaxland then had to dispose of his livestock, and joined the colonial opposition to Macquarie, and in 1819 sharply criticized his administration to Commissioner John Thomas Bigge.
Blaxland visited England in 1822 taking with him a sample of his wine. While in England he published in February 1823 his Journal of a Tour of Discovery Across the Blue Mountains. Later the same year, Blaxland was awarded the silver medal of the Royal Society of Arts for the wine he had brought to London.
Later years
His wife died in December 1826. In January 1827 Blaxland was elected by a public meeting with two others to present a petition to Governor Darling asking that "Trial by jury" and "Taxation by Representation" should be extended to the colony. Still opposed to the governor's authority, he made another visit to England, taking a petition in support of trial by jury and some form of representative government, and again carried samples of his wine, for which he won a gold medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1828.
He successfully petitioned the Colonial Office for a drawback on the import duty on brandy imported into the colony and 'actually used in the manufacture of wine'. Always a man of moody and mercurial character, Blaxland devoted his colonial activities almost entirely to the pursuit of his agricultural and viticultural interests.
He suffered great personal loss with the early and untimely deaths of his second son, youngest son and wife along with others quite close to him in rapid succession, which bore very heavily on his heart. He committed suicide on 1 January 1853 in New South Wales and was buried in All Saints Cemetery in Parramatta.
His son John was a prominent businessman. He was appointed to the New South Wales Legislative Council and served there from 1863 until his death in 1884.
Publications
A Journal of a Tour of Discovery Across the Blue Mountains, 1823
Wine from New South Wales, 1828
Recognition
The township of Blaxland in the Blue Mountains is named after him, as is the Australian Electoral Division of Blaxland.
Blaxland Creek runs near his land grant in western Sydney.
Gregory, Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth Avenues are found in the Melbourne suburb of Frankston where the Blaxland Avenue Reserve runs through.
Blaxland Road
Eastwood
Wentworth Falls
In 1963 he was honoured, together with Lawson and Wentworth, on a postage stamp issued by Australia Post depicting the Blue Mountains crossing.
See also
Land exploration of Australia
List of Blue Mountains articles
References
External links
Jill Conway, 'Blaxland, Gregory (1778 - 1853)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, MUP, 1966, pp 115–117.
English explorers
Explorers of Australia
English emigrants to colonial Australia
Suicides in New South Wales
People from the Blue Mountains (New South Wales)
Burials in New South Wales
1778 births
1853 deaths
History of the Blue Mountains (New South Wales)
Eastwood, New South Wales
1850s suicides
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Drudge
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Matt Drudge
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Matthew Nathan Drudge (born October 27, 1966) is an American journalist and the creator/editor of the Drudge Report, an American news aggregator. Drudge is also an author and a former radio and television show host.
Early life and education
Drudge was raised in Takoma Park, Maryland, near Washington, D.C. His father, Robert Drudge, a former social worker, and his mother divorced when he was six. Drudge went to live with his mother. He had few friends and was an avid news reader and radio talk show fan. Drudge graduated 325th out of a high school class of 350. In his book Drudge Manifesto, Drudge says that he "failed his Bar Mitzvah".
Career
Drudge Report
Drudge was unknown before he began the news aggregation site, the Drudge Report. For many years, he took odd jobs such as night counterman at a 7-Eleven convenience store, telemarketer for Time-Life books, McDonald's manager, and sales assistant at a New York City grocery store. In 1989, he moved to Los Angeles, where he took up residence in a small Hollywood apartment. He took a job in the gift shop of CBS studios, eventually working his way up to manager. Here, he was apparently privy to some inside gossip, part of the inspiration for founding the Drudge Report. Worried about his son's aimlessness, Drudge's father insisted on buying him a Packard Bell computer in 1994. The Drudge Report began as email notes sent out to a few friends.
The original issues were part gossip and part opinion. They were distributed as an email newsletter and posted to alt.showbiz.gossip Usenet forum. In 1996, the newsletter transitioned slowly from entertainment gossip to political gossip and moved from email to the Web as its primary distribution mechanism.
In March 1995, the Drudge Report had 1,000 email subscribers; by 1997, Drudge had 85,000 subscribers to his email service. Drudge's website gained in popularity in the late 1990s after a number of stories which he reported before the mainstream media. Drudge first received national attention in 1996 when he broke the news that Jack Kemp would be Republican Bob Dole's running mate in the 1996 presidential election. In 1998, he gained popularity when he published the reporting of then-Newsweek reporter Michael Isikoff, becoming the first media outlet to publish the news that later became the Monica Lewinsky scandal.
Drudge met Andrew Breitbart in Los Angeles during the 1990s and became his mentor, with Breitbart later helping to run the Drudge Report. Breitbart announced in 2005 that he was "amicably leaving the Drudge Report after a long and close working relationship with Matt Drudge", but still helped run Drudge's website from Los Angeles by working the afternoon shift, in addition to running Breitbart.
A story by Business 2.0 magazine from April 2003 estimated that Drudge's website received $3,500 a day (almost $1.3 million a year) in advertising revenues. Subtracting his relatively minor server costs, the magazine estimated that the Drudge Report website netted $800,000 a year. An article in The Miami Herald from September 2003 said that Drudge estimated he earns $1.2 million a year from his website and radio show. During an April 30, 2004 appearance on C-SPAN, he confirmed that he earns over $1 million.
For many years, Drudge was based out of his one-bedroom apartment in Hollywood. Today, he maintains the website from his two properties in Miami, Florida. In updating the site, he reportedly monitors multiple television news channels and a number of websites on several computers in his home office.
Fox News television show
From June 1998 to November 1999, Drudge hosted a Saturday night television show called Drudge on the Fox News Channel. The show ended by joint consent. Drudge had refused to go on air, charging Fox News with censorship when the network prevented him from showing photos of surgery on Samuel Armas. Drudge, who is pro-life, wanted to use a picture of a tiny hand reaching out from the womb to dramatize his argument against late-term abortion, but Fox's John Moody decided that that would be misleading because the photo was not of an abortion but an emergency operation on the fetus for spina bifida. Fox News alleged breach of contract but, after Drudge issued an apology, Fox issued a statement calling the parting "amicable".
Radio talk show
Drudge hosted a Sunday night talk radio show – "the only time anyone will let me on the air", he claimed. The show, which was also named the Drudge Report, was syndicated by Premiere Radio Networks. He guest hosted for the conservative radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh. Drudge gained notice in the early 2000s by becoming a frequent reference for news material on Limbaugh's, Sean Hannity's, and Mark Levin's radio shows. He was often acknowledged by Michael Savage as a source of topics for The Savage Nation. Lynn Samuels, for a time, served as Drudge's call screener.
Drudge left his position as radio host with Premiere effective September 30, 2007. He was replaced by Cincinnati radio station WLW's Bill Cunningham on the network and in most markets, though in a few larger markets, John Batchelor replaced him instead.
Books
The Drudge Revolution: The Inside Story of How Talk Radio, Fox News, and a Gift Shop Clerk with an Internet Connection Took Down the Mainstream Media was published on July 28, 2020. In the book, author and investigative journalist Matthew Lysiak interviews more than 200 former friends and associates, including former Drudge Report editor Joseph Curl, to reveal the first inside look at Drudge and his website.
Drudge wrote a book with Julia Phillips in 2000 titled Drudge Manifesto, which reached the New York Times Best Seller list. The book features a transcript of a Q&A session conducted at the National Press Club on June 2, 1998, which lays out Drudge's raison d'être. It also contains copies of emails sent to Drudge by his readers, dialogues between Drudge and his cat, and extensive descriptions of parties Drudge has attended and how the celebrities there reacted to him. A review in the Washington Post said: "Indeed, while Drudge Manifesto runs 247 pages ... Which leaves, in the end, 112 pages of new material, including nine pages of poetry." A review from the Columbia Journalism Review stated: "By any standard, Drudge's book is padded", and: "It is a weird, stream-of-conscious mixture of telling readers how he got his stories and mocking his critics."
Influence
In the 2020 book Drudge Revolution, author Matthew Lysiak describes how every major presidential campaign dating back to the late 90s had a staffer whose responsibility was to make a connection and potentially influence Drudge. Ahead of the 2008 Democratic primaries, Hillary Clinton communication director Tracy Sefl befriended Drudge, a relationship which she describes in the book as "scary" due to the power of the Drudge Report.
In their 2006 book The Way to Win, Mark Halperin and John Harris report that Republican National Convention chairman Ken Mehlman "kind of brags" (as then-CNN host Howard Kurtz put it) about utilizing the Drudge channel. They also wrote that "Drudge, with his droll Dickensian name, was not the only media or political agent whose actions led to John Kerry's defeat. But his role placed him at the center of the game."
In 2006, Time named Drudge one of the 100 most influential people in the world, describing the Drudge Report as "a ludicrous combination of gossip, political intrigue and extreme weather reports ... still put together mostly by the guy who started out as a convenience-store clerk."
ABC News concluded that the Drudge Report sets the tone for national political coverage. The article says "Republican operatives keep an open line to Drudge, often using him to attack their opponents."
In October 2006, Washington Post editor Len Downie, speaking at the Online News Association's annual convention in Washington, D.C., said, "Our largest driver of traffic is Matt Drudge."
On October 22, 2007, New York Times reporter Jim Rutenberg wrote that Republican and Democratic presidential candidates, including Hillary Clinton, were cooperating with Drudge and "working harder than ever to get favorable coverage for their candidates – or unfavorable coverage of competitors – onto the Drudge Report's home page, knowing that television producers, radio talk show hosts and newspaper reporters view it as a bulletin board for the latest news and gossip." Rutenberg stated that Nielsen/NetRatings show that the Drudge Report gets three million unique visitors over the course of a month, or approximately one percent of the population of the United States.
During the 2012 Republican presidential primaries, Drudge was described by some, including former presidential candidate Fred Thompson, as having a pro-Mitt Romney slant.
Personal life
Drudge was a regular at gay clubs in Washington, D.C. when he was a teenager.
Drudge previously lived in Hollywood, California. As of 2007, he owned two properties in Miami, Florida – a $1.4 million Mediterranean-style stucco house on Rivo Alto Island and a $1 million-plus condominium in Miami's Four Seasons hotel. By early 2009, Drudge earned millions of dollars a year, traveled extensively, and moved to another property in Miami and had become reclusive. In 2003, he said his one indulgence, apart from travel, was his Corvette.
Political views
The Daily Telegraph has described Drudge as a conservative populist. In 1998, Drudge claimed that his politics are "libertarian except for drugs and abortion". In 2001, he told the Miami New Times: "I am a conservative. I'm very much pro-life. If you go down the list of what makes up a conservative, I'm there almost all the way." In 2002, he described himself as "Free from any Corporate Concerns". In a 2005 interview with The Sunday Times, Drudge described his politics: "I'm not a right-wing Republican. I'm a conservative and want to pay less taxes. And I did vote Republican at the last election. But I'm more of a populist."
Comments by journalists
Drudge has been called "the Walter Cronkite of his era" by Mark Halperin and John F. Harris, and "the country's reigning mischief-maker" by Todd Purdum of The New York Times. Michael Isikoff of Newsweek said "Drudge is a menace to honest, responsible journalism. And to the extent that he's read and people believe what they read, he's dangerous." According to Camille Paglia, he is "the kind of bold, entrepreneurial, free-wheeling, information-oriented outsider we need far more of in this country." David McClintick described him as "a modern Tom Paine, a possible precursor to millions of town criers using the Internet to invade the turf of bigfoot journalists."
References
External links
Transcript, audio, video of Matt Drudge's National Press Club speech
Matt Drudge on Facebook
American alternative journalists
American Internet celebrities
American libertarians
American political commentators
1966 births
Living people
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
American gay writers
LGBT journalists from the United States
People from Takoma Park, Maryland
American anti-abortion activists
Jewish American journalists
21st-century American Jews
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Newark%20%28C-1%29
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USS Newark (C-1)
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The first USS Newark (C-1) was a United States Navy protected cruiser, the eighth protected cruiser launched by the United States. In design, she succeeded the "ABC" cruisers , , and with better protection, higher speed, and a uniform 6-inch gun armament. Four additional protected cruisers (C-2 through C-5) were launched for the USN prior to Newark.
She was laid down by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia on 12 June 1888, launched on 19 March 1890, sponsored by Miss Annie Boutelle, the daughter of Representative Charles A. Boutelle of Maine, and commissioned on 2 February 1891, Captain Silas Casey III in command.
Design and construction
Newark was designed in 1885 by the Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair and Bureau of Steam Engineering, based on specifications developed by a special advisory board convened by Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney. The new board was convened when Whitney felt the Naval Advisory Board's design was inadequate. Newarks uniform main armament of twelve 6-inch guns resulted from the need to mount guns in sponsons to increase their arc of fire. Rear Admiral Edward Simpson, president of the Naval Advisory Board, commented that it was impossible to mount 8-inch guns on sponsons in a 4,000-ton ship. She also had a complete armored deck in accordance with European practice.
Newark was armed with 12 /30 caliber Mark 3 guns in sponsons along the sides. This allowed ahead and astern fire by up to four guns. Secondary armament was four 6-pounder () guns, four 3-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, two 1-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, and four .45 caliber (11.4 mm) Gatling guns. Six 14-inch (356 mm) torpedo tubes were included in the design but never mounted.
Newark had gun shields and a conning tower. The complete armored deck was up to on its sloped sides and aft, amidships and forward. This was a significant improvement from the partial deck of .
The engineering plant included four coal-fired locomotive boilers producing steam, with two horizontal triple expansion engines totaling driving two shafts for a speed of . Like other US Navy ships of the 1880s, she was built with a sail rig to increase cruising range, later removed. The ship carried up to 400 tons of coal, with a cruising range as built of at ; this could be increased to 850 tons for a range of .
Refits
In 1898 Newarks 6-inch guns were converted to rapid firing. She was rebuilt in 1901–02 with /40 caliber Mark 3 guns, with the secondary armament augmented or replaced by six /50 caliber guns. The 3-inch guns were removed in 1908, and all armament was removed prior to her service as a hospital ship beginning in 1913.
Service history
North & South Atlantic, 1891–1897
Newark operated off the Atlantic coast for ten months, taking part in maneuvers and exercises until detached on 8 December at Norfolk Navy Yard. There she remained, undergoing post-shakedown overhaul until being assigned on 11 March 1892 to the North Atlantic Squadron and sailing on 14 March for the West Indies. The cruiser operated in Caribbean waters and off the lower east coast, showing the flag in West Indies ports until returning to Norfolk on 5 June where she was made flagship of Rear Admiral Andrew E. K. Benham, Commander of the newly formed South Atlantic Squadron, on 25 June.
She departed on 17 July for Cádiz, Spain to participate in the ceremonies commemorating the 400th Anniversary of Columbus' sailing. Arriving on 30 July, she remained until 2 August then sailed for Genoa, Columbus' birthplace, arriving one month later to continue the celebration. Putting out from Genoa on 25 August, Newark cruised the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, visiting many ports until arriving on 11 February 1893 at Cádiz to take in tow a full size reproduction of caravel Niña and sailing on 18 February for home. Transferred to the Naval Review Fleet for temporary duty on 1 March, the cruiser arrived at Havana on 21 March, parting with Niña there, thence sailing to Hampton Roads and New York where she picked up the caravel once more and proceeded down the St. Lawrence River to Quebec, leaving the little ship there on 11 June and returning to Norfolk on 22 June.
Newark next sailed on 20 September, this time for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to protect American interests, arriving on 20 October and remaining until 1 April 1894. The warship then operated off the South American coast with the South Atlantic Squadron, making one cruise to South Africa from August to October 1894 and another the same time the following year, before returning to Norfolk on 27 April 1896. Assigned to the North Atlantic Station on 4 May, she joined her squadron at New York 25 June and engaged in patrol duty and exercises off the southeastern coast until decommissioning at Norfolk 6 March 1897.
Spanish–American War, 1898
Following extensive overhaul, Newark recommissioned on 23 May 1898, shortly after the declaration of war on Spain, she sailed on 13 June for Key West and then Cuba, joining the blockade on 30 June. Cruising in Cuban waters throughout the summer, the warship bombarded the port of Manzanillo on 12 August and on the following day accepted its surrender. After the battle of Santiago de Cuba, she participated in the final destruction of Admiral Cervera's fleet through bombardment of the burned hulks. Newark returned to New York on 26 November 1898.
Philippine–American War, 1899
Departing New York on 23 March 1899, the cruiser steamed down the coast of South America on patrol, stopping at numerous ports along the way. In the middle of her cruise, on 7 April, she was ordered to proceed through the Straits of Magellan to San Francisco. The ship, low on coal, was forced to put into Port Low, Chile, from 31 May to 22 June to cut wood(!) for fuel. Finally arriving Mare Island Navy Yard on 4 September, Newark underwent repairs and then sailed on 17 October via Honolulu for the Philippines arriving Cavite on 25 November to support the U.S. Army in the Philippine–American War. The warship took station off Vigan, Luzon, landed troops for garrison duty, then moved on to Aparri on 10 December, receiving the surrender of insurrectionists in the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, and Bataan.
Boxer Rebellion, 1900–1901
On 19 March 1900, she sailed for Hong Kong to rendezvous with the monitor
on 22 March and convoy that ship to Cavite, arriving on 3 April and staying there until sailing for Yokohama on 24 April, arriving three days later. The ship then hoisted the flag of Rear Admiral Louis Kempff, Assistant-Commander of the Asiatic Station and sailed on 20 May for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers at Peking. Arriving Tientsin on 22 May, Newark operated in that port and out of Taku and Chefoo, protecting American interests and aiding the relief expedition under Vice Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour, R.N., until sailing at the end of July for Kure, Japan, and then Cavite where she hoisted the pennant of the Senior Squadron Commander in the Philippines. She sailed for home in mid-April 1901, via Hong Kong, Ceylon and Suez, arriving Boston late July 1901. She decommissioned there on 29 July.
North Atlantic Fleet, 1902–1906
Newark recommissioned on 3 November 1902, Commander Richard Wainwright in command and sailed on 14 December for duty in southern waters. For the next two years she operated in the West Indies and off the coast of South America as part of the North Atlantic Fleet. Returning to Norfolk briefly on 27 October 1904 to 9 January 1905, she resumed her duties in the West Indies for the first six months of the year and then in June, following exercises off Virginia, was assigned as a training ship to the United States Naval Academy. Placed in reserve at Annapolis on 15 September, she was restored to full duty on 3 May 1906 for her second east coast training cruise. On 4 August 1906 one of her launches was sunk in a collision with the tug T. A. Scott, Jr. at New London, Connecticut. Following this duty, she put into Norfolk on 13 September where she embarked a Marine detachment and sailed for Cuba on the 17th. The veteran cruiser returned home on 19 October and decommissioned at New York Navy Yard on 9 November.
Cuba, 1908–1912
Loaned to the New York Naval Militia on 23 March 1907, she recommissioned exactly one year later for duty as a station ship at the Naval Station, Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Arriving on 2 April 1908, she served on this duty until returning to Norfolk on 5 December 1912 to be placed in reserve on the 31st. Newark decommissioned on 16 June 1912 and was stricken from the Navy List on 26 June.
Hospital ship, 1912–1926
The old cruiser continued to serve her country following her Navy service. Turned over to the Public Health Service, she served as quarantine hulk for the hospital in Providence, Rhode Island, until 1918 when she returned to the Navy to serve throughout World War I as an annex to the Naval Hospital, Newport, Rhode Island. Later transferred to New York, she returned to the Public Health Service at Providence, in May 1919. On 7 July 1926 she was again returned to the Navy Department for disposal and was sold on 7 September.
References
Bibliography
Burr, Lawrence. US Cruisers 1883–1904: The Birth of the Steel Navy. Oxford: Osprey, 2008.
External links
Naval History and Heritage Command: USS Newark (C-1) photos
Protected cruisers of the United States Navy
Spanish–American War cruisers of the United States
Philippine–American War ships of the United States
Boxer Rebellion naval ships of the United States
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1890 ships
United States Navy New Jersey-related ships
Hospital ships of the United States Navy
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