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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bicycle%20brands%20and%20manufacturing%20companies
|
List of bicycle brands and manufacturing companies
|
This page lists notable bicycle brands and manufacturing companies past and present. For bicycle parts, see List of bicycle part manufacturing companies.
Many bicycle brands do not manufacture their own product, but rather import and re-brand bikes manufactured by others (e.g., Nishiki), sometimes designing the bike, specifying the equipment, and providing quality control. There are also brands that have, at different times, been manufacturers as well as re-branders: a company with manufacturing capability may market models made by other (overseas) factories, while simultaneously manufacturing bicycles in-house, for example, high-end models.
Only brands or manufacturers that are notable as a bicycle brand should be included. If no page exists for the company or brand, then the page to be linked to should be created first or a reference provided as to its notability or the entry will probably be removed.
International manufacturers
Bicycle manufacturers are in many cases members of "Groups", i.e. they have several product names - so-called "brands". Examples include the following:
Cycleurope AB based in Stockholm (Sweden),
Derby Cycle Corporation in Cloppenburg (Germany), and
Dorel Industries in Montreal, Quebec (Canada).
0—9
3T Cycling - Italy
A
A-bike - UK
Abici - Italy
Adler - Germany (defunct)
AIST - Belarus
ALAN - Italy
Alcyon - France (defunct)
Alldays & Onions - UK (defunct)
American Bicycle Company - USA (defunct)
American Bicycle Group - USA, owns Litespeed, Quintana Roo, and Obed Bikes
American Eagle - USA (defunct, original name of Nishiki)
American Machine and Foundry - USA (widely known as AMF) (defunct), formerly owned Roadmaster.
American Star Bicycle - USA (defunct) manufactured by the H. B. Smith Machine Company
Aprilia - Italy (Started as a bicycle manufacturing unit at Noale, Italy but now manufactures Scooters and Motorcycles)
Argon 18 - Canada
Ariel - England (defunct)
Atala - Italy
Author - Czech Republic
Avanti - New Zealand
B
Baltik vairas - Lithuania
Bacchetta - USA
Barnes Cycle Company - USA (defunct)
Batavus - Netherlands
Battaglin - Italy
Berlin & Racycle Manufacturing Company - Canada (defunct)
BH - Spain
Bianchi - Italy
Bickerton - UK (folding bikes)
Bike Friday - USA (Green Gear Cycling Co.) (folding bikes)
Bilenky - USA
Biomega - Denmark
Birdy - Germany (folding bikes)
BMC - Switzerland
Boardman Bikes - UK
Bohemian Bicycles - USA
Bontrager - USA (bought by Trek and converted into a component brand)
Bootie - UK
Bottecchia - Italy
Bradbury - UK (defunct)
Brasil & Movimento - Brazil (Branded as Sundown)
Brennabor - Germany (defunct)
Bridgestone - Japan
British Eagle - UK
Brodie Bicycles - Canada
Brompton Bicycle - UK (folding bikes)
Brunswick - USA, formerly owned Roadmaster
BSA - UK, no longer builds bicycles, TI of India builds BSA branded bikes.
B’Twin
Burley Design - USA (no longer make bicycles)
C
Calcott Brothers - UK (defunct)
Calfee Design - USA
Caloi - Brazil
Campion Cycle Company - UK
Cannondale - an American division of Canadian conglomerate Dorel Industries
Canyon bicycles - Germany
Catrike - USA (Recumbent trikes)
CCM - Canada
Centurion - Japan
Cervélo - Canada
Chater-Lea - UK
Chicago Bicycle Company - USA (defunct)
Cilo - Switzerland
Cinelli - Italy
Citizen Bike - USA (folding bikes)
Clark-Kent - USA (defunct)
Claud Butler - UK
Clément - France (defunct)
Co-Motion Cycles - USA
Coker - USA
Colnago - Italy
Columbia Bicycles - USA
Corima - France
Cortina Cycles - USA
Coventry-Eagle- UK (defunct - see Falcon Cycles)
Cruzbike - USA, recumbent
Cube - Germany
Currys - UK, no longer makes bicycles
Cycle Force Group - USA
Cycles Devinci - Canada
Cycleuropa Group - Sweden, manufactures such brands as: Bianchi, Crescent, DBS, Everton, Gitane, Kildemoes, Legnano, Micmo, Monark, Puch, Spectra, and Cyclepro.
Cyfac - France
D
Dahon - USA / China
Dawes Cycles - UK
Defiance Cycle Company
Demorest - USA (restructured as Lycoming Foundry and Machine Company and discontinued bicycle manufacturing)
Den Beste Sykkel Better known as DBS - Norway
Derby Cycle - Germany, owns Kalkhoff, Focus, Nishiki, Rixe, Raleigh and Univega
De Rosa - Italy
Cycles Devinci - Canada (not to be confused with daVinci Designs of USA, who make tandems.)
Di Blasi Industriale - Italy
Diamant - Norway. Unrelated brand of same name from Germany, owned by Trek
Diamondback Bicycles - USA
Dolan Bikes - UK
Dorel Industries - Canada, owns Pacific Cycle and markets under brand names including Cannondale, Iron Horse, Schwinn, Mongoose, Roadmaster, and GT.
Dunelt - UK (defunct)
Dynacraft - USA, owns Magna and Next
E
Eagle Bicycle Manufacturing Company - USA (defunct)
Eddy Merckx Cycles - Belgium
Electra Bicycle Company - USA (Owned by Trek Bicycle Company)
Ellis Briggs - UK
Ellsworth Handcrafted Bicycles - USA
Emilio Bozzi - Italy (acquired by Bianchi)
Ērenpreiss Bicycles - Latvia
Excelsior - UK (defunct)
F
Falcon Cycles - UK
Fat City Cycles - USA (defunct)
Felt - USA
Fleetwing -USA (defunct)
Flying Pigeon - China
Flying Scot - Scotland
Focus Bikes - Germany. Part of Derby Cycle
Cycles Follis - France (defunct)
Folmer & Schwing - USA (defunct)
Fondriest - Italy
Fram - Sweden (defunct)
Freddie Grubb - UK
Fuji Bikes - USA (owned by Advanced Sports International)
Fyxation - USA
G
Gary Fisher - USA (owned by TREK)
Gazelle - Netherlands
Gendron Bicycles - USA
Genesis - UK
Gepida - Hungary
Ghost Bikes - Germany Made in Taiwan
Giant Manufacturing - Taiwan Manufacturers its own bikes and many other brands
Gimson - Spain (defunct)
Gitane - France
Gladiator Cycle Company - France (defunct)
Gnome et Rhône - France (defunct)
Gocycle - UK
Gormully & Jeffery - USA (defunct)
Gräf & Stift - Austria (defunct)
GT Bicycles - American brand now owned by Dorel Industries of Canada
Guerciotti - Italy
Gustavs Ērenpreis Bicycle Factory - Latvia (defunct)
Gunnar - USA
H
Harley-Davidson - USA, 1917–1923.
Haro Bikes - USA, owns the Masi brand.
Harry Quinn - UK (defunct)
Hase bikes - Germany
Heinkel - Germany (defunct)
Helkama - Finland
Henley Bicycle Works - USA (defunct)
Hercules - UK (defunct)
Hercules - Germany
Hero Cycles Ltd - India - owning brands such as Hero, Hawk, Firefox and Roma
René Herse - France
Hetchins - UK
Hillman - UK (defunct)
Hoffman BMX Bikes
Hoffmann - Germany (defunct)
Holdsworth - UK
Huffy - USA
Humber - UK part of Raleigh
Hurtu - France (defunct)
Husqvarna - Sweden (no longer a bicycle manufacturer)
Hutch BMX BMX Bicycle manufacturer USA
I
Ibis - USA
Ideal Bikes - Greece
Indian - USA (bought by Polaris)
IFA - East Germany (defunct)
Independent Fabrication - USA
Inspired Cycle Engineering (ICE) - UK (recumbent trikes)
Iride - Italy
Iron Horse Bicycles - American brand now owned by Dorel Industries of Canada
Islabikes – UK
Italvega - USA (defunct) Precursor to Univega
Itera - Sweden (defunct)
Ivel Cycle Works - UK (defunct)
Iver Johnson - USA (defunct)
Iverson - USA (defunct)
J
Jan Janssen - The Netherlands
JMC Bicycles - USA (defunct)
Jamis Bicycles- USA
K
Kalkhoff - Germany
Kangaroo - UK
Karbon Kinetics Limited - UK
K2 Sports - USA
Kent - USA
Kestrel USA - USA (owned by Advanced Sports International)
Kettler - Germany
KHS - Taiwan A Manufacturer of its own bikes plus many other brands
Kia - ROK, no longer produces bicycles
Kinesis Industry - Taiwan and USA, Kenesis produces its own bikes as well as brands manufactured by Kinesis include Diamondback Bicycles, Felt Bicycles, GT Bicycles, Schwinn, Jamis, K2, Raleigh, Trek, and Kona
Klein - USA (Discontinued brand owned by Trek)
Koga Miyata - The Netherlands
Kogswell Cycles - USA
Kona - USA
Kronan - Sweden
Kross - Poland
KTM - Austria
Kuota - Italy
Kuwahara - Japan (Okinawa), is/was a private label bike manufacturer
L
Laurin & Klement - Austria-Hungary/Czech republic
Lapierre - France
LeMond - USA (Discontinued brand owned by Trek)
Alexander Leutner & Co. — Russia (defunct)
Lightning Cycle Dynamics - USA (recumbent bicycles)
Litespeed - USA
Look - France
Louison Bobet - France (defunct)
Lotus, USA (defunct)
M
Magna - USA
Malvern Star - Australia
Marin Bikes - USA
Masi Bicycles - USA
Matchless - UK (defunct)
Matra - France
Melon Bicycles - USA
Mercian Cycles - UK
Merida Bikes - Taiwan
Merlin - USA
Merckx - Belgium
Milwaukee Bicycle Co. - USA
Minerva - Belgium (defunct)
Miyata - Japan
Mochet - France (defunct)
Monark - Sweden/Brazil/Peru
Mondia - Switzerland
Mongoose - American brand now owned by Dorel Industries of Canada
Montague - USA
Moots Cycles - CO, USA
Moser Cicli - Italy
Motobécane - France
Moulton - UK
Mountain Equipment Co-op - Canada
Murray - USA (defunct)
Muddy Fox - UK (other brand: Silver Fox)
N
Nagasawa - Japan
National - Japan, precursor to Panasonic
Neil Pryde - Hong Kong
Neobike - Taiwan
NEXT - USA
Nishiki - USA and Europe
Norco - Canada
Norman Cycles - UK (defunct)
Novara - USA
NSU - Germany
Nymanbolagen - Sweden
O
Olive Wheel Company - USA (defunct)
Olmo - Italy
Opel - Germany (no longer makes bicycles)
Orbea - Spain
Órbita - Portugal
Orient Bikes - Greece
Overman Wheel Company - USA (defunct)
P
Pacific Cycle - USA, was acquired by Dorel Industries in 2004. Owns GT, Mongoose, Murray, Roadmaster, and Schwinn brands
Pacific Cycles - Pacific Cycles is a Taiwan bicycle manufacturing company based in Hsin Wu, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
Panasonic - Japan, successor to National
Pashley Cycles - UK
Pedersen bicycle - UK
Pegas - RO
Peugeot - France
Phillips Cycles - UK
Phoenix - China
Pierce Cycle Company - USA (defunct)
Pinarello - Italy
Planet X Bikes - UK, On-One, Titus, Planet X
Pocket Bicycles - USA
Pogliaghi - Italy
Polygon Bikes - Indonesia
Pope Manufacturing Company - USA (defunct)
Premier - UK (defunct)
Prophete - Germany
Puch - Austria
Q
Quadrant Cycle Company - UK (defunct)
Quality Bicycle Products - USA and Taiwan, owns Salsa Cycles and Surly Bikes.
Quintana Roo - USA
R
R+E Cycles - USA also known as Rodriguez Bicycles
Radio Flyer - USA
Rabasa Cycles - Spain
Raleigh - UK. Part of Derby Cycle
Rambler - USA (defunct), made by Gormully & Jeffery
Rans Designs - USA
Razor - USA
Redline bicycles - USA
Reid - Australia
Rhoades Car - USA (quadracycles)
Ridgeback - UK
Ridley - Belgium
Riese und Müller - Germany
RIH - Netherlands
Riley Cycle Company - UK (defunct)
Rivendell Bicycle Works - USA
Roadmaster - American brand now owned by Dorel Industries of Canada
Roberts Cycles - UK
Robin Hood - UK
Rocky Mountain Bicycles - Canada
ROSE Bikes - Germany
Ross - USA
Rover Company - UK
Rowbike - USA
Rudge-Whitworth - UK
S
Salcano (bicycle)- Turkey
Samchuly - Korea
Santa Cruz Bikes - (owed by Pon Industries Europe)
Santana Cycles - USA (only makes tandem bicycles)
Saracen Cycles - UK
Sava Bike - China (carbon fiber bikes)
Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania - Sweden
Schindelhauer Bikes - Germany
Schwinn Bicycle Company - American brand now owned by Dorel Industries of Canada
SCOTT Sports - Switzerland
SE Racing now SE Bikes PK Ripper and Floval Flyer maker, USA
Serotta - USA
Seven Cycles - USA
Shelby Cycle Company - USA (defunct)
Shimano - Japan
Simpel - Switzerland
Simson - Germany (acquired by Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau, now defunct)
Sinclair Research - UK
Singer - UK (defunct)
Softride- USA
Sohrab - Pakistan
Solé Bicycle Co. - USA
Solex - France (defunct)
Solifer - Finland
SOMA Fabrications - USA
Somec - Italy
Spalding - USA (sold/distributed bicycles during the latter part of the 19th Century)
Sparta B.V. - Netherlands
Specialized - USA Designer only
Speedwell bicycles - Australia (defunct)
Star Cycle Company - UK
Stearns - USA (defunct)
Stelber Cycle Corp - USA
Stella - France
Sterling Bicycle Co. - USA
Steyr - Austria (defunct)
Strida - UK
Sun Cycle & Fittings Co. - UK (defunct)
Sun Seeker Bicycles - USA (recumbents)
Sunbeam - UK (defunct)
Surly Bikes - USA
Suzuki - Japan
Swift Folder - USA
Swing Bike - USA (defunct)
Syracuse Cycle Company - USA (defunct)
T
Tern - Taiwan
TerraTrike - USA (recumbent tadpole trikes)
Terrot - France (defunct)
Thomas - USA (defunct)
Time - France
Titus - USA (defunct, since absorbed into Planet X Bikes)
Tommaso bikes - USA
Torker - USA
Trek Bicycle Corporation - USA, also Klein Bikes, LeMond Racing Cycles (both discontinued) and Gary Fisher Bikes
Trident Trikes - USA (recumbent trikes)
Trinx - China, Taiwan, Russia, Iran, Philippines
Triumph Cycle - UK (Owned by Raleigh Bicycle Company)
Triumph (TWN) - Germany
Tube Investments - UK (owned British Cycle Corporation) No longer manufacturers bicycles
Tunturi - Finland
Turner Suspension Bicycles - USA
U
Univega - US. Part of Derby Cycle
Urago - France (defunct)
V
Van Dessel Sports - USA
Velocite Bikes - Taiwan
Velomotors - Russia
VéloSoleX - France (Velosolex America markets the VELOSOLEX worldwide.)
Velo Vie - USA
Victoria - Germany
Villiger - Switzerland, part of Trek
Villy Customs - USA
Vindec - UK
Vitus - France
Volae - USA, recumbent bicycles
Volagi - USA
W
Wanderer - Germany (defunct)
Waverley Cycles Manufactured by Indiana Bicycle Company USA
Waterford Precision Cycles - USA,
Western Wheel Works Indiana USA built the Crescent brand
Westfield Maufacturing - USA (defunct)
Whippet - UK
Wilderness Trail Bikes - USA
Wilier Triestina - Italy
Witcomb Cycles - UK
Wittson Custom Ti Cycles - Lithuania
Worden Bicycles - USA (defunct)
Worksman Cycles - USA, also imports Atlantic Coast Cruiser brand.
Wright Cycle Company - USA (defunct)
Whyte - UK
X
Xootr - USA
Y
Yamaguchi Bicycles - USA
Yamaha - Japan
Yeti Cycles - USA
Z
Zigo - USA
Zündapp - Germany
See also
Head badges
List of bicycle part manufacturers
Outline of cycling
List of Japanese bicycle brands and manufacturers
References
Cycling-related lists
Lists of manufacturers
Transport lists
Lists of brands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%20Piquet
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Nelson Piquet
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Nelson Piquet Souto Maior (, born 17 August 1952), known as Nelson Piquet, is a Brazilian former racing driver and businessman. Since his retirement, Piquet, a three-time World Champion, has been ranked among the greatest Formula One drivers in various motorsport polls.
Piquet had a brief career in tennis before losing interest in the sport and subsequently took up karting and hid his identity to prevent his father discovering his hobby. He became the Brazilian national karting champion in 1971–72 and won the Formula Vee championship in 1976. With advice from Emerson Fittipaldi, Piquet went to Europe to further success by taking the record number of wins in Formula Three in 1978, beating Jackie Stewart's all-time record.
In the same year, he made his Formula One debut with the Ensign team and drove for McLaren and Brabham. In 1979, Piquet moved to the Brabham team and finished the runner-up in 1980 before winning the championship in 1981. Piquet's poor performances in 1982 saw a resurgence for 1983 and his second world championship. For 1984–85, Piquet had once again lost chances to win the championship but managed to score three wins during that period. He moved to the Williams team in 1986 and was a title contender until the final round in Australia. Piquet took his third and final championship in 1987 during a heated battle with teammate Nigel Mansell which left the pair's relationship sour. Piquet subsequently moved to Lotus for 1988–89 where he experienced his third drop in form. He eventually went to the Benetton team for 1990–91 where he managed to win three races before retiring.
After retiring from Formula One, Piquet tried his hand at the Indianapolis 500 for two years. He also had a go at sports car racing at various points during and after his Formula One career. Piquet is currently retired and runs several businesses in Brazil. He also manages his sons Nelson Piquet Jr. and Pedro Piquet, who are also professional racing drivers.
Early life and career
Piquet was born 17 August 1952, in Rio de Janeiro, then the capital of Brazil, the son of Estácio Gonçalves Souto Maior (1913–1974), a Brazilian physician. His father moved his family to the new capital, Brasília, in 1960 and became Minister for Health in João Goulart's government (1961–64). Piquet had two brothers, Alexis, and Geraldo, and a sister Genusa. Piquet was the youngest of the children.
Piquet started kart racing at the age of 14, but because his father did not approve of his racing career, he used his mother's maiden name Piquet (of French origin and pronounced as "Pee-Ké") misspelt as Piket to hide his identity.
His father wanted Piquet to be a professional tennis player and was given a scholarship at a school in Atlanta. Piquet started playing tennis at the age of 11. He won tournaments in Brazil and eventually took a trip to California to test his skill against tougher American players. During his time, he had learned to speak English and greatly matured. His short tennis career saw Piquet to be prized as a good player but not thought sufficiently exciting for the sport, which led him to devote his career to motor racing.
Piquet dropped out of a University two years into an engineering course in 1974. He was subsequently employed in a garage to finance his career, since he had no financial support from his family
Upon returning to Brazil, Piquet and three friends brought a 20 hp cart and participated in Brazilian go-karting (1971 and 1972 national champion) and in the local Formula Super Vee 1976 championship, on the advice of Emerson Fittipaldi, the first Brazilian Formula One world champion who sold the chassis for the Brazilian Formula Vee champion car with his brother, he arrived in European motor sports hailed as a prodigy. In the 1978 British Formula 3 season he broke Jackie Stewart's record of the most wins in a season.
Formula One
Piquet made his Formula One debut for Ensign in Germany, starting 21st only to retire on lap 31 with a broken engine. After the race, Piquet drove a McLaren of BS Fabrications in the next three races, where he left good impressions. The deal was negotiated when BS Fabrications employees met Piquet when he was driving at Brands Hatch. His best finish was ninth in Italy.
Brabham (1978–85)
For the last race in 1978, Piquet moved to the Brabham team; he qualified in 14th and finished 11th. Piquet stayed with Brabham until 1985.
1979
In 1979, Piquet competed in his first full season in Formula One. He once again drove for the Brabham team, alongside double world champion, Niki Lauda. The season was difficult for the team, which was accustomed to success. Piquet retired from eleven of the fifteen races in the season. He started off his season being involved in a first-lap pile up and getting injured at the Argentine Grand Prix in Buenos Aires and crashing into Clay Regazzoni's Williams car at the Brazilian Grand Prix at Interlagos. The first points of his career came at the Dutch Grand Prix, where he finished fourth. He had a huge accident at the Italian Grand Prix; the rear section of his BT48 was completely ripped off at Monza's Curva Grande corner after another incident with Regazzoni; Piquet walked away uninjured. But even though he crashed a few times driving a semi-competitive car that had an unreliable engine, Piquet qualified in the top 5 several times- often out-qualifying Lauda. 2 weeks after the Italian round, Lauda abruptly quit driving before the start of the Canadian Grand Prix, leaving Piquet as the number one driver for Brabham, and leaving him and new recruit Ricardo Zunino to debut the new BT49, which had a Ford-Cosworth DFV engine; Brabham ditched the Alfa Romeo V12's in protest to Alfa Romeo entering as a full works team. In the final race, the United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, Piquet started from the front row and took the fastest lap in the race, clearly showing the new BT49's considerable potential.
1980
In 1980, Piquet finished a hard-fought 2nd in Argentina behind Alan Jones; the race was held in very hot conditions on a disintegrating track. There were doubts about the legality of the car as it was believed to be underweight. Jones went to see the car which gave the suspicion that ballast had been added to bring the car within the regulations to make it legal.
Piquet took his first win at the United States Grand Prix West in Long Beach, California by over 50 seconds from Riccardo Patrese. 5 months later, Piquet scored back to back wins in the Netherlands and Italy. He finished second in the drivers' standings, 13 points behind title winner Alan Jones. In Canada, Piquet and Jones had contact off the start and Piquet's car was damaged and caused a major crash resulting in the race being red flagged. Jones, his Championship rival, continued in the race and joined the restart in the same car. Piquet switched to his qualifying car which had a special engine that was not set up to go the distance, so Piquet retired and Jones won the race and the World Championship from Piquet.
1981
The season began with the revokation of the South African Grand Prix's status as an FIA-sanctioned event due to the ongoing FISA–FOCA war. With the FISA teams boycotting the race, the FOCA teams staged a non-championship race there in South Africa held in wet conditions which was won by Carlos Reutemann with Piquet second. FISA and FOCA reached an agreement banning movable skirts and requiring a minimum ground clearance, excluding the tires, of 6 cm.
After a third place in the United States Grand Prix West, Piquet qualified on pole position in his home race, the Brazilian Grand Prix in his birth city of Rio de Janeiro, but quickly faded from contention after starting the race on slick tires on a soaking wet track. At the next race, the Argentine Grand Prix in Buenos Aires, Brabham got around the ground-clearance rule by devising a suspension system that kept the car at the required height during technical inspection but lowered it onto the ground at speed, allowing it to race once again as a wing car. The superiority of the car was such that Piquet easily swept to victory and even his less experienced Mexican teammate Héctor Rebaque, who could usually be found well down the order, managed to retain second place until he was forced to retire. At the San Marino Grand Prix, almost all the teams adopted the innovation brought to Argentina by Brabham. Piquet won the race despite being caught out by rain.
In the Belgian Grand Prix at Zolder, after an initial start which was aborted due to an accident involving Siegfried Stohr, his teammate Riccardo Patrese and mechanic Dave Luckett who inexplicably remained on the track at the start to restart Patrese's stalled car, Piquet went off again in the lead only to have Jones make contact on lap 10 forcing him to retire, with the race being won by Reutemann. After crashing in Monaco and Spain, Piquet was able to recover at the French Grand Prix at Dijon where he dominated until lap 58, when a sudden storm led to a red flag and the organizers decided to wait until the rain stopped to continue the race. At the restart 45 minutes later, Alain Prost appeared much more competitive after putting on slicks on a drying track mechanical work performed during the break and won his first Grand Prix with Piquet relegated to third place, behind Prost and McLaren's John Watson. In the next race, the British Grand Prix, Reutemann finished second to open up a seventeen-point lead in the standings while Piquet suffered tyre failure and crashed on the straight between Stowe and Club corners.
Piquet won the championship with a great comeback that began when he won the German Grand Prix at Hockenheim while Reutemann was enduring internal conflict with his teammate Alan Jones. After stringing together a series of decent results (even after losing 2nd in Italy due to engine failure on the last lap) whilst Reutemann only scored a few times, Piquet went into the last race of the season only a point behind Reutemann. At the Caesars Palace Grand Prix in Las Vegas, Piquet finished fifth to clinch the championship as Reutemann finished out of the points. Piquet was so dehydrated from the desert heat and exhausted from the anti-clockwise nature of the track that he vomited on himself during the race and he had to be lifted out his car when he returned to the pits.
1982
The following year, Piquet was fast but his car proved to be unreliable despite Brabham entering into an alliance with BMW to supply the team with turbocharged engines. Aside from the first Grand Prix in South Africa Brabham started the season using the Ford-Cosworth engined BT49D. Piquet won the Brazilian Grand Prix in Rio de Janeiro; the extreme heat and immense adhesion of the cars meant that Piquet and other drivers suffered from exhaustion; Piquet fainted while collecting his trophy on the podium. Piquet was later disqualified for his car being underweight from a protest from Renault and Ferrari. Piquet did not drive the BMW-engined BT50 until Belgium, and the lowpoint of the season was Detroit where he failed to qualify due to an engine failure in qualifying. The ruling of Piquet's disqualification led to a political attack on the lowering of the minimum weight against Ferrari and Renault who used turbo engines. Ferrari's changes to the rear wing at the United States Grand Prix West and the disqualification of Gilles Villeneuve after the race caused the FOCA teams to boycott the San Marino Grand Prix.
His only win was in the Canadian Grand Prix which was also BMW's first win in Formula One. In Germany, Piquet arrived to help Didier Pironi after he suffered a career-ending high-speed crash during practice. In the race, Piquet was leading until he collided with Eliseo Salazar whom he physically attacked at the side of the track on live television.
1983
Piquet won the opening race in Brazil in the arrow-shaped BT52 and followed this up with a retirement in the United States West Grand Prix. He scored a second place in France and took another second at Monaco also taking the fastest lap. He was 14 points behind Alain Prost with three races left in the season but took back-to-back victories at Monza and Brands Hatch to close to within two points. At the season-ending South African Grand Prix, Prost retired on lap 35 and Piquet cruised to a third-place finish, winning his second world title. It also was the first time a turbocharged car won the championship, and was BMW's first and only championship in Formula 1.
1984
With the new rule that limited the capacity of the tanks of the cars to 220 liters and forbade race refueling, Piquet started as the title favorite because it was thought that the 4-cylinder BMW would suffer less from the new fuel economy requirement than the 6-cylinder competition. The winter tests seemed to confirm the expectations, and in fact the car showed promise, but the expected results never materialised. The only good thing that came from the tests was the creation of special qualifying engines, which produced more than 900 hp and allowed Piquet to match what was then the record for pole positions in a year: nine, already held by Lauda and Ronnie Peterson.
The season was dominated by the McLaren team who were using TAG-Porsche engines. In Canada, the Brabham team introduced a curious additional radiator on the nose that was mounted on the car that improved reliability. Piquet won the race (after having retired from the previous 6 races, mostly through engine or turbo failure), but the additional radiator heated to the point that Piquet suffered burns on his right foot when pushing the accelerator pedal down; The heat had actually burnt a hole through his boots and he went to the podium barefoot after receiving first aid. He managed take a back-to-back win at Detroit after driving his backup car due to an accident that occurred at the start of the race. These were his only two victories of the year. In Spielberg he could have won as the car of leading Niki Lauda suffered a loss of gears, but Piquet was unaware and did not attack. Piquet finished in 5th place in the championship.
1985
Prior to the season, Piquet and Brabham conducted their winter testing at the Kyalami circuit in South Africa, along with the team's new tyre supplier Pirelli. It was through this testing that Pirelli came up with the tyre compounds they would use during the season. Unfortunately, unlike the hot conditions in South Africa, most of the European part of the season took place in unseasonably cold weather. This, and the Brabham BT54's weight distribution towards the back of the car saw the Pirelli tyres (especially the fronts) largely ineffective and left Piquet often fast, but ultimately uncompetitive.
In 1985, Piquet won a single race, the French Grand Prix at the Paul Ricard Circuit with summer conditions similar to those experienced in testing suiting the tyres, and the powerful BMW turbo engine propelling the Brabham BT54 (of teammate Marc Surer) to the then F1 speed record of on the 1.8 km long Mistral Straight during qualifying. It was Pirelli's first victory since returning to Formula One.
However, Piquet was becoming frustrated. He felt as if his loyalty to Brabham was being taken advantage of - his salary was lower than other drivers despite his success with the team - and he was not being informed of some team decisions. The switch to Pirelli tyres had been particularly upsetting: he felt it had been done purely for financial reasons and placed inordinate commitments on him for tyre testing. He was also concerned about financial security when he retired, citing the difficulties faced by Brazilian footballers Pelé and Garrincha after their professional careers ended. However, he was well integrated with the team and enjoyed close relationships with Gordon Murray and his mechanics, making him reluctant to leave.
He had been in contact with McLaren, but was discouraged by the PR duties that came with it: "(Ron Dennis) mentioned so many days a year working for Marlboro... I lost interest. I won't waste my life talking to people who don't understand racing." Williams offered him a contract worth three times his Brabham contract, and with the turbocharged Honda engine quickly becoming one of the best on the grid, it was an offer too good to refuse. After some thought, he reluctantly left Brabham after seven seasons and two world championships.
Williams (1986–87)
1986
A move in to Williams saw Piquet becoming the teammate of one of his fiercest rivals, Nigel Mansell. It was reported that Honda were paying the bulk of his US$3.3 million contract. When Piquet had signed for Williams at 1985 Austrian Grand Prix, Piquet did not regard Mansell as a serious threat, as the Briton had not won a race yet in his fifth year in Formula One (and would win his first race a month later). Piquet had underestimated Mansell, and the Englishman came out of 1985 on a confidence high after winning 2 of the last 3 races in 1985. Both were regarded as high-strung characters with delicate temperaments, and two top drivers in the same team was a recipe for fireworks – and sure enough Mansell and Piquet went head to head for the title. Piquet had wanted to play the role as the number one driver. According to Piquet, the verbal agreement with Frank Williams on this point was clear, and Williams's comment that in signing Piquet he had "signed the best driver in the world" seemed to back that up. However, shortly before the beginning of the season, Frank Williams suffered a serious car accident that kept him away from the team for a long time and caused a permanent physical disability. The team was then led by technical director Patrick Head, who was also Mansell's race engineer.
Though the two drove what were clearly the best cars on the grid, their rivalry caused each to deprive the other of points, allowing Alain Prost to win one of the closest and most fiercely disputed championships ever in Formula One. The season began well with Piquet dominating the Brazilian Grand Prix and at the next the race, the San Marino Grand Prix, Piquet finished second behind Prost. During the season, fellow Brazilian and former dual-World Champion Emerson Fittipaldi estimated that Piquet could not commit more driving errors early in the season when he was judged as the best driver in the field.
Piquet (and reportedly Honda) left Adelaide following the Australian Grand Prix fuming that Williams had not honoured their contract and had allowed Mansell to win races instead of ordering him to let the Brazilian by. Had Mansell let Piquet pass to take some extra wins, Piquet could have easily won the championship, instead of the two of them being beaten by Prost in what was an inferior car (though Prost did manage 11 podium finishes, including 4 wins). Ironically, in this season Piquet won more races (a total of four) than he would in any of his championship-winning campaigns.
1987
Piquet made amends in , using political maneuvering and technical skill to gain the upper hand. He was also a very good testing and development driver, and was able to develop the Williams car further to make it even more competitive. At times during the season, the rift between himself and Mansell was evident, as Mansell was showing superior speed in qualifying and races. Piquet had also admitted to "not ever being quite right" after his qualifying crash for Round 2 at Imola. He was ordered by FISA's medical chief, Prof. Sid Watkins, not to race due to the concussion he suffered when his Williams hit the wall at high speed at the Tamburello curve. He was offered by RAI to join Mario Poltronieri and Clay Regazzoni to comment on the race. Piquet, who had maintained friendly relations within the commentary box, sent Ezio Zermiani. Piquet accepted improvising as a commentator, but beyond the short journalistic experience, Piquet complained at year-end about the fact that the incident had left strong psychological effects in its aftermath which had caused insomnia.
It became obvious that the continued development of the FW11 meant that it was clearly the best car that year, and the 1987 championship was going to be disputed between Piquet and Mansell. Despite winning fewer races than Mansell in 1987, Piquet emerged as world champion. From Detroit to Portugal, he never finished off the podium, racking up points in what he called his "percentage driving policy" in his successful bid to win his 3rd championship. Piquet announced during practice for the 1987 Hungarian Grand Prix that he had signed with Lotus as the undisputed number 1 driver, a position he claimed was promised at Williams from 1986, but was never honored following Frank Williams' car crash. It was also believed this was a big factor in Honda dropping Williams and moving to McLaren for 1988, despite another year left in the contract. The Japanese company, who paid most of Piquet's salary, considered him to be the number 1 and were privately fuming that Williams management didn't rein in Mansell and allow Piquet an easier time.
Lotus (1988–89)
1988
Nelson Piquet and the number 1 went to a stagnating Lotus team in , and his career took a nose dive despite the Camel sponsored Lotus 100T having the same specification Honda V6 turbo that powered the McLarens of Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost. Nelson, who had 20 wins and 3 World Championships following the 1987 season, began to lose his reputation when he had no wins in 1988, losing his number one status to fellow Brazilian Senna, who won 8 races and the championship for McLaren (Prost won 7 races, while Piquet could only manage three 3rd-place finishes for the season).
In early 1988 he resorted to using the media to attack his rivals and gained a reputation as an outspoken "loose cannon", such as attacking Mansell and his wife, calling Mansell "an uneducated blockhead" (and insulting his wife's looks), and calling fellow Senna "the São Paulo taxi driver" and stating that he "doesn't like women". Piquet retracted his comments when both threatened legal action. He also earned the ire of the Tifosi at the San Marino Grand Prix when he said in an interview with Playboy that Scuderia Ferrari might do better as a team if the boss (Enzo Ferrari) was a younger man instead of the 90-year-old one who rarely attended races due to his age and failing health. Piquet claims he was badly misquoted in the interview, which also had him questioning Alain Prost's standing as the best driver in the world. On the official FIA video review of the 1988 season, Piquet left no doubts that the article got it wrong in his comments about Ferrari (saying that at 90, Enzo Ferrari had to be a strong man to run a Formula One team), and that he considered Prost to be the world's best driver.
1989
Piquet had a disappointing 1989 season, driving a Judd V8-powered Lotus which had 125 less hp than the Honda V10s used by McLaren. He did, however, have an excellent (considering the Lotus car’s limitations) 4th place in the British Grand Prix at Silverstone where he overtook theoretically faster cars and was running third until Nannini overtook him in the last few laps. He (and teammate Satoru Nakajima) once again had no wins and they both even failed to qualify for the 1989 Belgian Grand Prix, Piquet's first non-qualification since the 1982 Detroit Grand Prix. On what was his last attempt to qualify at Spa, Piquet lost his chance when he was slowed by rookie Frenchman Olivier Grouillard, who had gained a reputation throughout the season as a blocker.
Benetton (1990–91)
1990
When Lotus informed Piquet during 1989 that they would be using the Lamborghini V12 engine for , he decided to leave the team claiming that there had not been enough development of the V12 during its debut year with Larrousse in 1989 and that the team would be uncompetitive using the Italian engine.
The late season announcement by Lotus meant that there were almost no seats left with one of the top teams (McLaren, Ferrari and Williams), leaving Piquet with the unenviable possibility of not having a drive for 1990. However, the Benetton team had a seat become available when they decided not to retain fill-in driver Emanuele Pirro. After two lacklustre seasons at Lotus, Piquet was forced to sign an incentive based payment-by-results deal with Benetton, who had exclusive use of the factory Ford HB4 V8 engine. This saw Piquet return to something like his former top form in . Despite a handful of lacklustre performances and sometimes being outperformed by fast Italian teammate Alessandro Nannini who would tragically lose his right forearm in a helicopter crash following the Spanish Grand Prix forcing his F1 retirement (his arm was surgically re-attached), Piquet scored two wins in the last two races of the season. The first in Japan was somewhat inherited after Senna had taken out Prost's Ferrari at the first turn, and both Gerhard Berger (McLaren) and Mansell (Ferrari) retired. It was his first win since the 1987 Italian Grand Prix. The second was just two weeks later at the last race of the season in Australia when after a great drive, Piquet survived a spirited, but fair, challenge from the V12 Ferrari of Mansell to win what was the 500th World Championship Formula One Grand Prix. His 18 points from the last two races saw him move from 7th in the standings (26 points) to finishing 3rd in the championship with 43. Piquet and Gerhard Berger both scored 43 points (Piquet had scored 44 but was forced to drop 1 point under the "Best 11" rule of the time), but Piquet's two wins, where Berger won none, saw him finish third.
1991
This was followed by the final win of his F1 career at Montreal in – again at the expense of longtime rival Mansell, whose Williams-Renault stalled past the old pits on the last lap while leading. In late 1991, Piquet's teammate Roberto Moreno was replaced by Michael Schumacher, who remained for the rest of the season. He had talked to the Ligier and Ferrari teams about securing a drive, but Piquet then announced his retirement from Formula One in January 1992 to concentrate on his business activities.
Other racing ventures
Indianapolis 500
Piquet attempted to race in the Indy car series and was hired by Team Menard to drive in the 1992 Indianapolis 500. He had taken to the track well, and appeared comfortable driving at high speeds despite never before racing on an oval. During practice, Piquet's car ran over a metallic piece of debris and drove through turn 3 at full speed. When driving through turn 4, Piquet abruptly took his foot off the pedal to enter the pit lane, which resulted in the car spinning and hitting the wall. Piquet suffered serious foot and ankle injuries and was forced to sit out the race. He returned after rehabilitation in 1993 and managed to qualify. He started in 13th position, but finished in 32nd, dropping out with engine problems after only 38 laps.
Sports cars
Alongside Formula One, Piquet took part in the 1000km Nürburgring in 1980 and 1981 driving a BMW M1. He won the 1981 race alongside the German Hans-Joachim Stuck. However, the race had to be stopped roughly two hours in because of the fatal crash of Herbert Müller after 17 laps of the 14-mile (23 km) course.
In 1996, Piquet competed in the Le Mans 24 Hours driving a McLaren F1 GTR alongside Johnny Cecotto and Danny Sullivan, finishing eighth overall. In the following year, Piquet took part alongside JJ Lehto and Steve Soper, but the car was retired due to an accident that occurred while Lehto was driving. That same year, in December, he won the Mil Milhas Brasileiras driving the McLaren F1 GTR with Johnny Cecotto and Steve Soper.
On January 20, 2006, Nelson Piquet won the 50th edition of the Mil Milhas Brasileiras (Brazilian 1,000 miles) at the Interlagos circuit. He drove an Aston Martin DBR9 alongside his son, Nelsinho, and drivers Christophe Bouchut and Hélio Castroneves. At the end of the race, an exhausted Piquet was quoted saying to a friend he would "never sit in a cockpit again".
Driver management
Since 2000, he has supported the career of his son, Nelson Piquet, Jr., who drove in the F1-feeder category GP2 for 2 seasons, achieving a best championship result of second with four race wins, and was a test driver for Renault F1 in 2007.
During the Crashgate scandal, Piquet pledged to use his wealth to find out why his son had been ordered by the Renault team to crash deliberately during the 2008 Singapore Grand Prix. He and his son were eventually paid a six-figure sum for costs and libel damages.
Business ventures
Upon leaving motor sport, he founded Autotrac in 1994, a company that provides mobile data messaging and tracking of customers' trucks by satellite (GPS tracking). This business concluded quite successfully as the pioneer because the freight transportation of Brazil depended on trucks.
Piquet founded a racing team, Piquet Sports, in 2000. The purpose was to help the participation of Nelson Piquet, Jr. in Formula Three Sudamericana. It was founded eight months before Nelson Junior turned 16.
Piquet runs some other businesses, based in Brasília.
Personal life
Known as a practical joker, Piquet lived a stereotypically playboy racing driver lifestyle, earning and losing and earning again a series of small fortunes in his business dealings. He remains a competitive driver in sports car racing, albeit more for fun than with serious intent. Never a fan of street circuits (save for Adelaide in Australia), he was critical of the Monaco Grand Prix by famously stating Monaco was like "riding a bicycle around your living room", but that "a win there was worth two anywhere else".
Piquet's first marriage was with Brazilian Maria Clara in 1976 and lasted one year. They have one son, Geraldo Piquet (born 1977). His second marriage to the Dutchwoman Sylvia Tamsma (who had previously dated Elio de Angelis) produced three children, Nelson Angelo Piquet (born 1985), Kelly Piquet (born 1988) and Julia Piquet (born 1992). Laszlo Piquet was born in 1987, but his mother is Katherine Valentin (Piquet's girlfriend while he was temporarily separated from Sylvia). He is currently married to Brazilian Vivianne de Souza Leão and they have two children, Pedro Estacio Piquet (born 1998) and Marco Piquet (born 2000).
On July 31, 2007, Piquet, after repeated speeding and parking offenses, was stripped of his civilian driving licence and ordered by the Brazilian courts to attend a week of lessons in order to "learn good and safe driving conduct", and to then pass an exam. His wife Viviane received the same sentence. "I think we have to pay for our mistakes," Piquet told Brazilian media. "It's not just a speeding problem, I got tickets for all kinds of reasons, like parking where I shouldn't."
He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2000 and two racing circuits in Rio de Janeiro (formerly the Jacarepaguá Circuit) and in Brasília have been named "Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet", though the Rio circuit has since been demolished to make way for venues to be used in the 2016 Summer Olympics, with Rio de Janeiro the host city. Since his retirement, Piquet has been ranked among the greatest Formula One drivers. He was ranked 13th by Autosport in 2009, and 16th by BBC Sport in 2012.
In a 2012 interview on Brazilian TV with himself and former Williams teammate Nigel Mansell, Piquet revealed that he had never been right after his accident at Imola in 1987. The crash caused him to lose some 80% of his depth perception and saw him secretly visit a hospital in Milan every two weeks through the season fearing that if he told his team they would not let him drive. He went on to say that he should have won the championship in 1986 and Mansell should have won in 1987, and that after 1987 he drove for the money as due to his condition he was no longer able to lead races from the front (each of his six wins following his Imola accident were inherited from others dropping out late).
On 11 November 2013, Piquet underwent heart surgery from which he made a complete recovery.
Helmet
Piquet's helmet is white and red with a thick line resembling the seam on a tennis ball (possibly due to his father wanting him to be a tennis player), and teardrop shapes filling in the round areas on the sides and top. The seam and teardrops were usually red or orange with black trim, but some parts were yellow during his Lotus years due to the Camel sponsorship, and reverted to a deep red when he left Lotus for Benetton. His sons Nelson Jr. and Pedro followed his helmet design.
Criticism
Piquet was also not above ungentlemanly behaviour, in 1988 he made extremely unkind comments about rival Nigel Mansell calling him an "uneducated blockhead" and calling his wife Roseanne "ugly". He also called Ayrton Senna "gay" and Enzo Ferrari "senile". Mansell was in particular incensed about the personal attacks on his family which he believed were "out of order".
Racing record
Career summary
Complete European Formula 3 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Vandervell British F3 Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Super Visco British F3 Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
Formula One non-championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete BMW M1 Procar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete PPG IndyCar World Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
Indianapolis 500
24 Hours of Le Mans results
References
External links
Entry on Nelson Piquet from grandprix.com
Nelson Piquet Statistics
Nelson Piquet from Revs Digital Library
1952 births
Living people
Brazilian people of French descent
Brazilian racing drivers
Brazilian Formula One drivers
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula One race winners
Benetton Formula One drivers
BS Fabrications Formula One drivers
Brabham Formula One drivers
Ensign Formula One drivers
Team Lotus Formula One drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
Brazilian IndyCar Series drivers
Indianapolis 500 drivers
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
British Formula Three Championship drivers
FIA European Formula 3 Championship drivers
Businesspeople from Rio de Janeiro (city)
Sportspeople from Rio de Janeiro (city)
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
World Sportscar Championship drivers
Nelson Piquet
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] |
204646
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorat%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Khorat (disambiguation)
|
Khorat or Korat may refer to:
the informal name of Nakhon Ratchasima town or Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand
Khorat Sub-district in Sung Noen District of Nakhon Ratchasima Province
Khorat Plateau, a plateau in the northeastern Isan region of Thailand
Khorat Thai, an ethnic group in Thailand
Korat (RTGS: Khorat), a cat breed originating in Thailand
Korat F.C., a minor football club in Thailand
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barthold%20Georg%20Niebuhr
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Barthold Georg Niebuhr
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Barthold Georg Niebuhr (27 August 1776 – 2 January 1831) was a Danish–German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germany's leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography. By 1810 Niebuhr was inspiring German patriotism in students at the University of Berlin by his analysis of Roman economy and government. Niebuhr was a leader of the Romantic era and symbol of German national spirit that emerged after the defeat at Jena. But he was also deeply rooted in the classical spirit of the Age of Enlightenment in his intellectual presuppositions, his use of philologic analysis, and his emphasis on both general and particular phenomena in history.
Education
Niebuhr was born in Copenhagen, the son of Carsten Niebuhr, a prominent German geographer resident in that city. His father provided his early education. By 1794 the precocious young Niebuhr had already become an accomplished classical scholar who read several languages. That year he entered the University of Kiel, where he studied law and philosophy. There he formed an important friendship with Madame Hensler, the widowed daughter-in-law of one of the professors, six years older than himself. He also made the acquaintance of her sister, Amelie Behrens, whom he subsequently married.
In 1796 he left Kiel to become private secretary to the Danish finance minister, Count Schimmelmann, but in 1798 he gave up this appointment and travelled in Great Britain, spending a year at Edinburgh studying agriculture and physics. Of his stay in Great Britain, he said "my early residence in England gave me one important key to Roman history. It is necessary to know civil life by personal observation in order to understand such states as those of antiquity. I never could have understood a number of things in the history of Rome without having observed England."
In 1799 he returned to Denmark, where he entered the state service; in 1800 he married Amalie Behrens (1773–1815) and settled at Copenhagen. In 1804 he became chief director of the national bank. After the death of his first wife, Niebuhr married (1816) Margarete Henslen (1787–1831), with whom he had one son, Marcus, and three daughters, Amalie, Lucia and Cornelia.
To Prussia
In September 1806, he quit the Denmark post for a similar appointment in Prussia. He showed much business ability in his banking work, which he attributed to his life in England and Scotland. He arrived in Prussia on the eve of the catastrophe of Jena. He accompanied the fugitive government to Königsberg, where he rendered considerable service in the commissariat, and was afterwards still more useful as commissioner of the national debt and by his opposition to ill-considered schemes of taxation. He was also for a short time Prussian minister in the Netherlands, where he endeavoured without success to fund a loan. The extreme sensitiveness of his temperament, however, disqualified him for politics; he proved impracticable in his relations with Hardenberg and other ministers, and in 1810 retired for a time from public life, accepting the more congenial appointment of royal historiographer and professor at the university of Berlin.
In 1809 he became a third class corresponding member, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.
Academic and diplomatic career
He commenced his lectures with a course on the history of Rome, which formed the basis of his great work Römische Geschichte. The first edition in two volumes, based upon his lectures, was published in 1811–1812, but attracted little attention at the time owing to the absorbing interest of political events. In 1813 Niebuhr's own attention was diverted from history by the uprising of the German people against Napoleon; he entered the Landwehr and ineffectually sought admission into the regular army. He edited for a short time a patriotic journal, the Prussian Correspondent, joined the headquarters of the allied sovereigns, and witnessed the battle of Bautzen, and was subsequently employed in some minor negotiations. In 1815 he lost both his father and his wife.
He next accepted (1816) the post of ambassador at Rome. Before his departure for Rome, he married his wife's niece. On his way to Rome, he discovered in the cathedral library of Verona the long-lost Institutes of Gaius, afterwards edited by Savigny, to whom he communicated the discovery under the impression that he had found a portion of Ulpian. The reason that Niebuhr visited Verona is a matter of controversy among scholars, with some alleging that he was on a "secret mission" to obtain the Gaius manuscript which others had previously found. The evidence points towards a fortunate coincidence.
During his residence in Rome Niebuhr discovered and published fragments of Cicero and Livy, aided Cardinal Mai in his edition of Cicero's De re publica, and shared in framing the plan of the great work Beschreibung Roms (“The Description of the City of Rome”) on the topography of ancient Rome by Christian Charles Josias Bunsen and Ernst Zacharias Platner (1773–1855), to which he contributed several chapters. He also, on a journey home from Italy, deciphered in a palimpsest at the Abbey of St. Gall the fragments of Flavius Merobaudes, a Roman poet of the 5th century. As minister, he brought about the understanding between Prussia and the Pope signalized by the bull De salute animarum in 1821. Niebuhr was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
In 1823 he resigned the position in Rome and established himself at Bonn, where the remainder of his life was spent, with the exception of some visits to Berlin as councillor of state. He here rewrote and republished (1827–1828) the first two volumes of his Roman History, and composed a third volume, bringing the narrative down to the end of the First Punic War, which, with the help of a fragment written in 1831, was edited after his death (1832) by Johannes Classen. He also assisted in August Bekker's edition of the Byzantine historians (the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae), and delivered courses of lectures on ancient history, ethnography, geography, and on the French Revolution.
In February 1830, his house was burned down, but the greater part of his books and manuscripts were saved. France's revolution of July in the same year was a terrible blow to him, and filled him with the most dismal anticipations of the future of Europe. Niebuhr died, aged 54, in Bonn.
After his death, in 1842, a medal was commissioned to honour his work.
Evaluation and opinion
Niebuhr's Roman History counts among epoch-making histories both as marking an era in the study of its special subject and for its momentous influence on the general conception of history. Leonhard Schmitz said:
The main results arrived at by the inquiries of Niebuhr, such as his views of the ancient population of Rome, the origin of the plebs, the relation between the patricians and plebeians, the real nature of the ager publicus, and many other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all his successors.
Other alleged discoveries, such as the construction of early Roman history out of still earlier ballads, have not been equally fortunate; but if every positive conclusion of Niebuhr's had been refuted, his claim to be considered the first who dealt with the ancient history of Rome in a scientific spirit would remain unimpaired, and the new principles introduced by him into historical research would lose nothing of their importance. He suggested, though he did not elaborate, the theory of the myth, so potent an instrument for good and ill in modern historical criticism. He brought in inference to supply the place of discredited tradition, and showed the possibility of writing history in the absence of original records. By his theory of the disputes between the patricians and plebeians arising from original differences of race he drew attention to the immense importance of ethnological distinctions, and contributed to the revival of these divergences as factors in modern history. More than all, perhaps, since his conception of ancient Roman story made laws and manners of more account than shadowy lawgivers, he undesignedly influenced history by popularizing that conception of it which lays stress on institutions, tendencies and social traits to the neglect of individuals.
According to Richard Garnett in the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica:
Niebuhr's personal character was in most respects exceedingly attractive. His heart was kind and his affections were strong; he was magnanimous and disinterested, simple and honest. He had a kindling sympathy with everything lofty and generous, and framed his own conduct upon the highest principles. His chief defect was an over-sensitiveness, leading to peevish and unreasonable behaviour in his private and official relations, to hasty and unbalanced judgments of persons and things that had given him annoyance, and to a despondency and discouragement which frustrated the great good he might have effected as a critic of public affairs from the point of view of a lofty morality. His imagination sometimes usurps the functions of his judgment, and his sagacity is traversed by a vein of paradox. In this, as in many other features of his intellectual character, he strikingly resembles Bentley, but his moral constitution is totally dissimilar.
Works
The first edition of Niebuhr's Roman History was translated into English by F. A. Walter (1827), but was immediately superseded by the translation of the second edition by Julius Hare and Connop Thirlwall, completed by William Smith and Leonhard Schmitz (last edition, 1847–1851). He wrote Griechische Heroengeschichte (“History of Greek Heroes,” 1842; 11th ed. 1896), for his son Marcus; Geschichte des Zeitalters der Revolution (“History of the Age of Revolutions”, 1845); Kleine historische und philologische Schriften (Minor Historical and Philological Writings, 1828–43). His Lectures on Ancient History is familiar in English translation.
Notes
References
Bowersock, Glen W. "The vanishing paradigm of the fall of Rome." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49.8 (1996): 29–43. online
Bridenthal, Renate. "Was There a Roman Homer? Niebuhr's Thesis and Its Critics." History and Theory 11.2 (1972): 193–213. online
Bunsen, Christian Charles Josias. The life and letters of Barthold George Niebuhr (1852) online edition
Gooch, G. P. History and historians in the nineteenth century (1913) pp 14–23 online
Iggers, Georg G. "The Intellectual Foundations of Nineteenth-Century 'Scientific' History: The German Model." in The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945 (2011) 4:41+.
Reill, Peter Hanns. "Barthold Georg Niebuhr and the Enlightenment Tradition," German Studies Review, (1980) 3#1, pp 9–26 in JSTOR
Primary sources
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, et al. The Life and Letters of Barthold George Niebuhr. Harper & brothers, 1854. online
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, and Meyer Isler. Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History. Vol. 3. Chatto and Windus, 1875.
Twiss, Travers, and Barthold Georg Niebuhr. An epitome of Niebuhr's History of Rome. vol 3 1837. online
Further reading
Renate Bridenthal, "Was There a Roman Homer? Niebuhr's Thesis and Its Critics", History and Theory, 11 (1972), pp. 193–213
External links
Barthold Georg Niebuhr's Works Hathi Trust
Works of Barthold Georg Niebuhr Internet Archive
Edgar Allan Poe, Review of Lieber's Reminiscences of Niebuhr, from Southern Literary Messenger, January 1836.
Lectures on the History of Rome from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire (2nd English edition, 1848) Volume One Volume Two Volume Three
1776 births
1831 deaths
People from Copenhagen
German diplomats
German historians
German classical scholars
Ambassadors of Prussia
Prussian politicians
University of Bonn faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
19th-century diplomats
German male non-fiction writers
Historians of ancient Rome
University of Kiel alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
|
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] |
204654
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brompton
|
Brompton
|
Brompton or The Brompton may refer to:
Brompton, London
Brompton, Hambleton, north of Northallerton, North Yorkshire, England
Brompton, Kent
Brompton, Quebec, a borough of Sherbrooke, in Canada
Brompton, Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England (also known as Brompton-by-Sawdon)
Brompton, Shropshire
Brompton, South Australia, a suburb in Adelaide, South Australia
Brompton-on-Swale, North Yorkshire, England
Brompton Oratory, a Catholic church
Brompton Bicycle
Holy Trinity Brompton Church, an Anglican church
Royal Brompton Hospital
Brompton cocktail, sometimes called Brompton mixture, an elixir for pain prophylaxis
West Brompton, London
Brompton Cemetery, London
Brompton (surname)
Brompton (Fredericksburg, Virginia), an historic house
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhon%20Ratchasima%20province
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Nakhon Ratchasima province
|
Nakhon Ratchasima (, , often called Khorat (, )) (alternate spelling Korat) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in lower northeastern Thailand also called Isan. It is the country's largest province by area, has a population of approximately 2.7 million, and generates about 250 billion baht in GDP, the highest in Isan. Neighbouring provinces are (clockwise, from north) Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen, Buriram, Sa Kaeo, Prachinburi, Nakhon Nayok, Saraburi, and Lopburi.
The capital of the province is the city of Nakhon Ratchasima in Mueang Nakhon Ratchasima District, also called Khorat.
Geography
The province is at the west end of the Khorat Plateau, separated from the Chao Phraya river valley by the Phetchabun and Dong Phaya Yen mountain ranges. Two national parks are in the province: Khao Yai in the west and Thap Lan in the south. Both parks are in the forested mountains of the Sankamphaeng Range, the southern prolongation of the Dong Phaya Yen mountains. The total forest area is or 15.4 percent of provincial area.
Nakhon Ratchasima is a large province on the northeastern plateau and acts as a gateway to other provinces in the northeast. It is from Bangkok and has an area of around . The province is rich in Khmer culture and has a long history.
History
The area around Khorat was already an important centre in the times of the Khmer empire in the 11th century, as can be seen by the temple ruins in Phimai historical park. Nakhon Ratchasima province is one of the provinces where there is still a sizable northern Khmer population.
A new walled city with a surrounding moat, designated as Nakhon Ratchasima, was built in the 17th century by order of the King Narai, as the easternmost "command post", guarding the kingdom's border. Nakhon Ratchasima continued this duty during the Bangkok Period, although it was briefly seized during Lao rebellion (1826–1828) in 1826, in the reign of King Rama III of Siam.
Nakhon Ratchasima has long been the most important political and economic centre in the northeastern region. In the late-19th century, the railroad reached Khorat and it became the junction of two main rail lines in the northeastern, Isan, region. In 1933, Nakhon Ratchasima was the stronghold of the royalist troops in the Boworadet Rebellion, as they fought against the new democratic government in Bangkok. In the 1950s, the Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base was built in Nakhon Ratchasima; from 1961 until 26 February 1976, this facility was also used as a base by the United States Air Force.
A mass shooting occurred in the province on 8 and 9 February 2020. The gunman killed 30 and wounded another 57 before being shot dead by police. It was the deadliest mass shooting in Thailand's history.
Nakhon Ratchasima was the birthplace of Thao Suranari who was born in 1771 and was the savior of Nakhon Ratchasima from King Chao Anouvong's army in 1826.
Symbols
The provincial seal depicts the revered heroine of Khorat, Thao Suranari (Thai: ท้าวสุรนารี).
A monument to Thao Suranari (real name: Khunying Mo; 1771–1852) stands in front of the old Pratu Chumphon gate. Also called "The Great Heroine of Khorat", Kunying Mo was the wife of the Siamese-appointed deputy governor of Nakhon Ratchasima during the reign of King Rama III. In 1826, Khunying Mo managed to repel the Laotian army led by Prince Anouvong of Vientiane who tried to reinstate control over the Khorat plateau. King Rama III conferred the title of Thao Suranari on Khunying Mo, as well as additional ones honouring her bravery.
The provincial tree and flower is the sathon (Millettia leucantha).
The provincial motto is "Land of brave women, fine silk material, Khorat rice noodles, Phimai Historical Park, and Dan Kwian ceramics".
The provincial color is orange
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 32 districts (amphoes). The districts are further subdivided into 263 sub-districts (tambons) and 3,743 villages (mubans).
Mueang Nakhon Ratchasima
Khon Buri
Soeng Sang
Khong
Ban Lueam
Chakkarat
Chok Chai
Dan Khun Thot
Non Thai
Non Sung
Kham Sakaesaeng
Bua Yai
Prathai
Pak Thong Chai
Phimai
Huai Thalaeng
Chum Phuang
Sung Noen
Kham Thale So
Sikhio
Pak Chong
Nong Bun Mak
Kaeng Sanam Nang
Non Daeng
Wang Nam Khiao
Thepharak
Mueang Yang
Phra Thong Kham
Lam Thamenchai
Bua Lai
Sida
Chaloem Phra Kiat
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organisation () and 90 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Nakhon Ratchasima municipality has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Bua Yai, Mueang Pak, Pak Chong and Sikhio municipalities have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 85 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon).The non-municipal areas are administered by 243 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Economy
Khorat's economy has traditionally been heavily dependent on agriculture. It is known as a processing centre for Isan's production of rice, tapioca, and sugar. The Isan region accounts for half of Thailand's exports of those commodities. Khorat is also one of two sites in Thailand manufacturing disk drives by Seagate Technology, employing 12,100 workers in Khorat.
Transport
Air
Nakhon Ratchasima has Nakhon Ratchasima Airport, but it has no scheduled flights. The nearest working airport is in Buriram and has flights to and from Bangkok.
Rail
The railway system in Nakhon Ratchasima is on both northeastern routes from Bangkok Railway Station. Nakhon Ratchasima province has eight main railway stations. In 2017, a 60-kilometre dual-track line will connect Korat to Khon Kaen province. It is the first segment of a dual track network that will connect Isan with the Laem Chabang seaport. Mueang District is served by two stations: Nakhon Ratchasima railway station and Thanon Chira Junction railway station.
Road
Highway 2 (Mittraphap Road) is the main route that connects nine districts in Nakhon Ratchasima including Muang district. This route also connects Nakhon Ratchasima to Saraburi and Khon Kaen provinces. Hwy 24 links Si Khio District from Hwy 2 to Pak Thongcha, Chok Chai, and Nong Bunnak Districts and to Buriram province. A new motorway connecting Khorat to Bangkok is under construction in 2016 and will reduce travel time on the 250 kilometre journey to just over two hours.
Health
Nakhon Ratchasima has hospitals in mostly the public sector, but some in the private sector. Its main hospital is Maharat Nakhon Ratchasima Hospital, which is one of the main hospitals for the Praboromarajchanok Medicine Program of Mahidol University. The province also has a university hospital, which is Suranaree University of Technology Hospital of the Institute of Medicine, Suranaree University of Technology.
Sports
Football
Nakhon Ratchasima F.C. play in Thai League 1 top tier of Thailand football league. Despite the city of Korat having a population in excess of 400,000 and Nakhon Ratchasima province having a population in excess of 2.5 million, Nakhon Ratchasima F.C. struggled to attract more than 400 for most home games throughout their history, the club play in the 80th Birthday Stadium.
Volleyball
Nakhon Ratchasima is the home of the four-times Men's Volleyball Thailand League winner, Nakhon Ratchasima the Mall and the three-times Women's Volleyball Thailand League winner, Nakhon Ratchasima the Mall.
Education
Universities
There are four universities in the area.
Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University
Rajamangala University of Technology Isan
Suranaree University of Technology
Vongchavalitkul University
Schools
Ratchasima Wittayalai School
Saint Mary's College Nakhon Ratchasima
Suranaree Wittaya School
MBAC
Boonwatthana
Phimai Witthaya
Assumption School Nakhon Ratchasima
Fort Surathamphithak School
Phoowittaya School (lab school project)
Plookpanya School
Koratpittayakom school
Wangrongnoi school
Phatongkhamwittaya school
Surawiwat school in Suranaree University of Technology
International schools
St Stephen's International School (SIS) (Khao Yai Campus)
Adventists International Mission School (AIMS) (Nakhon Ratchasima Campus)
Anglo Singapore International School (Korat Campus)
Wesley International School
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Notable people
Born in Nakhon Ratchasima
Prachya Pinkaew (Thai:ปรัชญา ปิ่นแก้ว) (born 1962), film director of Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior and Tom-Yum-Goong, both martial arts films starring Tony Jaa.
Kiattipong Radchatagriengkai (Thai:เกียรติพงษ์ รัชตเกรียงไกร) (born 1966), former head coach of the Thailand women's national volleyball team
Luang Por Khun Parissuddho (Thai:พระเทพวิทยาคม) (born 1923), buddhist monk
Ratanapol Sor Vorapin (Thai:รัตนพล ส.วรพิน) (born 1974), professional boxer
Prayut Chan-o-cha (Thai:ประยุทธ์ จันทร์โอชา) (born 1954), politician
Sunaree Ratchasima (Thai:สุนารี ราชสีมา) (born 1968), luk thung female singer
Jakrapun Kornburiteerachote (Thai:จักรพันธ์ ครบุรีธีรโชติ) (born 1968), luk thung singer, actor
Seksan Sukpimai (Thai:เสกสรรค์ ศุขพิมาย) (born 1974), singer, songwriter, guitarist
Phongthep Kradonchamnan (Thai:พงษ์เทพ กระโดนชำนาญ) (born 1953), singer, songwriter, musician, poet
Communications
Landlines provided by TOT and TT&T
IDD phones provided by CAT
Mobiles provided by AIS GSM, DTAC, TRUE, and HUTCH
Internet / High-speed internet (ADSL) provided by TOT, CAT, and TT&T.
Attractions
Phimai Historical Park is one of the most important Khmer temples of Thailand. It is in the town of Phimai. The temple marks one end of the ancient Khmer Highway from Angkor. As the enclosed area of 1020 x 580 metres is comparable to that of Angkor Wat, Phimai must have been an important city in the Khmer Empire. Most buildings date from the late-11th to the late-12th century, built in the Baphuon, Bayon, and Angkor Wat styles. However, even though the Khmer at that time were Hindu, the temple was built as a Buddhist temple, since the inhabitants of the Khorat area had been Buddhists as far back the 7th century. Inscriptions name the site Vimayapura, which developed into the Thai name Phimai.
Khao Yai National Park is in the western part of the Sankamphaeng Mountain Range, at the southwestern boundary of the Khorat Plateau. The highest mountain in the area of the park is 1,351 m high Khao Rom. This park lies largely in Nakhon Ratchasima province (Khorat), but also includes parts of Saraburi, Prachinburi, and Nakhon Nayok provinces. The park is the third largest in Thailand. It covers an area of 300 square kilometers, including tropical seasonal forests and grasslands. Elevations mostly range from 400 to 1,000 m. It is home to 3,000 species of plants and 320 species of birds. Waterfalls include the 80 metre Heo Narok, and Heo Suwat .
Nakhon Ratchasima railway station is a 1st class station and the main railway station in the province. There are 18 daily trains serving this station. There are four to six special trains during the celebration of the New Year and Songkran.
Lam Takhong Dam is an embankment dam on the Lam Takhong River between Pak Chong District and Sikhio District. The dam was constructed in 1974 for the purposes of irrigation and water supply, but after 2002 its water storage also serves as the lower reservoir for the Lam Takhong pumped storage power plant, Thailand's first power plant of this type.
Korat's zoo was established under the patronage of the king. The zoo is managed by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Thailand). The Korat Zoo has rare animals such as tigers, giraffes, lions, elephants, zebras, rhinoceroses, hedgehogs, birds such as guinea fowls, ostriches, and flamingos.
Khao Yai Tiang is the mountain located in khlong phai, Pak chong district. There are 12 wind turbines on top of the mountain. Tourist can go cycling and enjoying the view of reservoir.
Korat cat
(, )
The Korat cat is a natural breed, and one of the oldest stable cat breeds. Originating in Nakhon Ratchasima province at Phimai, it is named after its province of origin. In Thailand the breed is known as si sawat, meaning "colour of the sawat seed" (bluish-gray). Korat cats are distinguished not only by the colour of their fur. Genuine Korat cats have a heart-shaped face when viewed from any angle and shorter grey hair with silver tips. The true breed's eyes are yellow with an inner green circle. They must be slender and agile. The cat's tail must be slender. Cats with crooked tails are considered inauspicious.
In 1965, Korat cats were first registered in the US by the Korat Cat Fanciers Association. The cats that formed the breed were first imported from Thailand by Jean L. Johnson in 1959. In 1966 the breed was accepted by the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA). The Korat breed is now accepted by cat associations around the world.
The International Maew Boran Association (TIMBA) ("maew boran" means "ancient cat") was formed in Thailand to provide a registry of and pedigrees for Thai cats, including Korats, and to provide a voice in English for Thai breeders as "...Thai breeders...do not speak English, and farang breeders do not speak Thai.".
Sister cities
Harare, Zimbabwe
References
External links
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Nakhon Ratchasima Travel Guide
Official website
Nakhon Ratchasima provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
Khao Yai National Park
Isan
Provinces of Thailand
km:នគររាជសីមា
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupe
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Coupe
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A coupe or coupé is a passenger car with a sloping or truncated rear roofline and two doors.
The term coupé was first applied to horse-drawn carriages for two passengers without rear-facing seats. It comes from the French translation of "cut".
Etymology and pronunciation
() is based on the past participle of the French verb ("to cut") and thus indicates a car which has been "cut" or made shorter than standard. It was first applied to horse-drawn carriages for two passengers without rear-facing seats. These or ("clipped carriages") were eventually clipped to .
There are two common pronunciations in English:
() – the anglicized version of the French pronunciation of coupé.
() – as a spelling pronunciation when the word is written without an accent. Commonly used in the United States, this change occurred gradually before World War II and features in the Beach Boys' hit 1963 song "Little Deuce Coupe".
Definition
A coupe is a fixed-roof car with a sloping rear roofline and one or two rows of seats. However, there is some debate surrounding whether a coupe must have two doors for passenger egress or whether cars with four doors can also be considered coupes. This debate has arisen since the early 2000s, when four-door cars such as the Mazda RX-8 and Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class have been marketed as "four-door coupes" or "quad coupes", although the Rover P5 was a much earlier example, with a variant introduced in 1962 having a lower, sleeker roofline marketed as the Rover P5 Coupé.
In the 1940s and 1950s, coupes were distinguished from sedans by their shorter roof area and sportier profile. Similarly, in more recent times, when a model is sold in both coupe and sedan body styles, generally the coupe is sportier and more compact.
The 1977 version of International Standard ISO3833—Road vehicles - Types - Terms and definitions—defines a coupe as having two doors (along with a fixed roof, usually with limited rear volume, at least two seats in at least one row and at least two side windows). On the other hand, the United States Society of Automotive Engineers publication J1100 does not specify the number of doors, instead defining a coupe as having a rear interior volume of less than .
The definition of coupe started to blur when manufacturers began to produce cars with a 2+2 body style (which have a sleek, sloping roofline, two doors, and two functional seats up front, plus two small seats in the back).
Some manufacturers also blur the definition of a coupe by applying this description to models featuring a hatchback or a rear cargo area access door that opens upwards. Most often also featuring a fold-down back seat, the hatchback or liftback layout of these cars improves their practicality and cargo room.
Horse-drawn carriages
The coupe body style originated from the berline horse-drawn carriage. The coupe version of the berline was introduced in the 18th century as a shortened ("cut") version with no rear-facing seat. Normally, a coupe had a fixed glass window in the front of the passenger compartment. The coupe was considered an ideal vehicle for women to use to go shopping or to make social visits.
History
The early coupe automobile's passenger compartment followed in general conception the design of horse-drawn coupes, with the driver in the open at the front and an enclosure behind him for two passengers on one bench seat. The French variant for this word thus denoted a car with a small passenger compartment.
By the 1910s, the term had evolved to denote a two-door car with the driver and up to two passengers in an enclosure with a single bench seat. The coupé de ville, or coupe chauffeur, was an exception, retaining the open driver's section at front.
In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers suggested nomenclature for car bodies that included the following:
During the 20th century, the term coupe was applied to various close-coupled cars (where the rear seat that is located further forward than usual and the front seat further back than usual).
Since the 1960s the term coupe has generally referred to a two-door car with a fixed roof.
Since 2005, several models with four doors have been marketed as "four-door coupes", however reactions are mixed about whether these models are actually sedans instead of coupes. According to Edmunds, an American automotive guide, "the four-door coupe category doesn't really exist."
Variations
Berlinetta
A berlinetta is a lightweight sporty two-door car, typically with two-seats but also including 2+2 cars.
Club coupe
A club coupe is a two-door car with a larger rear-seat passenger area, compared with the smaller rear-seat area in a 2+2 body style.
Hardtop coupe
A hardtop coupe is a two-door car that lacks a structural pillar ("B" pillar) between the front and rear side windows. When these windows are lowered, the effect is like that of a convertible coupe with the windows down. The hardtop body style was popular in the United States from the early 1950s until the 1970s. It was also available in European and Japanese markets. Safety regulations for roof structures to protect passengers in a rollover were proposed, limiting development of new models. The hardtop body style went out of style with consumers while the automakers focused on cost reduction and increasing efficiencies.
Combi coupé
Saab used the term "combi coupé" for a car body similar to the liftback.
Business coupe
A two-door car with no rear seat or with a removable rear seat intended for traveling salespeople and other vendors carrying their wares with them. American manufacturers developed this style of a coupe in the late 1930s.
Four-door coupe / quad coupe
A four-door fastback car with a coupe-like roofline at the rear. The low-roof design reduces back-seat passenger access and headroom. The designation was first used for the low-roof model of the 1962–1973 Rover P5, followed by the 1992–1996 Nissan Leopard / Infiniti J30. Recent examples include the 2005 Mercedes-Benz CLS, 2010 Audi A7 and 2012 BMW 6 Series Gran Coupe.
Similarly, several cars with one or two small rear doors for rear seat passenger egress and no B-pillar have been marketed as "quad coupes". For example, the 2003 Saturn Ion and 2003 Mazda RX-8.
Three-door coupe
Particularly popular in Europe, many cars are designed with coupe styling, but a three-door hatchback/liftback layout to improve practicality, including cars such as the Jaguar E-Type, Datsun 240Z, Mazda RX-7, Alfa Romeo Brera, Ford/Mercury Cougar and Volkswagen Scirocco.
Opera coupe
A two-door designed for driving to the opera with easy access to the rear seats. Features sometimes included a folding front seat next to the driver or a compartment to store top hats.
Often they would have solid rear-quarter panels, with small, circular windows, to enable the occupants to see out without being seen. These opera windows were revived on many U.S. automobiles during the 1970s and early 1980s.
Three-window coupe
The three-window coupe (commonly just "three-window") is a style of automobile characterized by two side windows and a backlight (rear window). The front windscreens are not counted. The three-window coupe has a distinct difference from the five-window coupe, which has an additional window on each side behind the front doors. These two-door cars typically have small-sized bodies with only a front seat and an occasional small rear seat.
The style was popular from the 1920s until the beginning of World War II. While many manufacturers produced three-window coupes, the 1932 Ford coupe is often considered the classic hot rod.
Coupe SUV
Some SUVs or crossovers with sloping rear rooflines are marketed as "coupe crossover SUVs" or "coupe SUVs", even though they have four side doors for passenger egress to the seats and rear hatches for cargo area access.
Positioning in model range
In the United States, some coupes are "simply line-extenders two-door variants of family sedans", while others have significant differences to their four-door counterparts.
The AMC Matador coupe (1974–1978) has a shorter wheelbase with a distinct aerodynamic design and fastback styling, sharing almost nothing with the conventional three-box design and more "conservative" four-door versions.
Similarly, the Chrysler Sebring and Dodge Stratus coupes and sedans (late-1990 through 2000s), have little in common except their names. The coupes were engineered by Mitsubishi and built in Illinois, while the sedans were developed by Chrysler and built in Michigan. Some coupes may share platforms with contemporary sedans.
Coupes may also exist as model lines in their own right, either closely related to other models, but named differently – such as the Alfa Romeo GT or Infiniti Q60 – or have little engineering in common with other vehicles from the manufacturer – such as the Toyota GT86.
Gallery
See also
Convertible
Grand tourer
References
Car body styles
Carriages
|
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204659
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulpian
|
Ulpian
|
Ulpian (; ; c. 170223? 228?) was a Roman jurist born in Tyre. He was considered one of the great legal authorities of his time and was one of the five jurists upon whom decisions were to be based according to the Law of Citations of Valentinian III.
Biography
The exact time and place of his birth are unknown, but the period of his literary activity was between AD 211 and 222. He made his first appearance in public life as assessor in the auditorium of Papinian and member of the council of Septimius Severus; under Caracalla he was master of the requests (magister libellorum). Elagabalus (also known as Heliogabalus) banished him from Rome, but on the accession of Severus Alexander (222) he was reinstated, and finally became the emperor's chief adviser and Praefectus Praetorio.
During the Severan dynasty, the position of Praetorian prefect in Italy came increasingly to resemble a general administrative post, and there was a tendency to appoint jurists such as Papinian, who occupied the post from 203 until his elimination and execution at the ascent of Caracalla. Under Severus Alexander the Praetorian prefecture was held by Ulpian until his assassination by the Guard in the presence of the Emperor himself.
His curtailment of the privileges granted to the Praetorian Guard by Elagabalus provoked their enmity, and he narrowly escaped their vengeance; ultimately he was murdered in the palace by the Guard, possibly in the course of a riot between the soldiers and the mob.
Works
His works include Ad Sabinum, a commentary on the ius civile, in over 50 books; Ad edictum, a commentary on the Edict, in 83 books; collections of opinions, responses and disputations; books of rules and institutions; treatises on the functions of the different magistrates — one of them, the De officio proconsulis libri x., being a comprehensive exposition of the criminal law; monographs on various statutes, on testamentary trusts, and a variety of other works. His writings altogether have supplied to Justinian's Digest about a third of its contents, and his commentary on the Edict alone about a fifth. As an author, he is characterized by doctrinal exposition of a high order, judiciousness of criticism, and lucidity of arrangement, style, and language. He is also credited with the first life table ever.
Domitii Ulpiani fragmenta, consisting of 29 titles, were first edited by Tilius (Paris, 1549). Other editions are by Hugo (Berlin, 1834), Booking (Bonn, 1836), containing fragments of the first book of the Institutiones discovered by Endlicher at Vienna in 1835, and in Girard's Textes de droit romain (Paris, 1890).
Legacy
It had been assumed for a long time that Ulpian of Tyre was a model for Athenaeus' Ulpian in The Deipnosophists — or The Banquet of the Learned. Athenaeus makes 'Ulpian' out to be a grammarian and philologist, characterised by his customary interjections: "Where does this word occur in writing?". He is represented as a symposiarch and he occupies a couch alone; his death is passed over in silence in Book XV 686c. Scholars today agree that Athenaeus's Ulpian is not the historical Ulpian, but possibly his father.
A potential date of the real Ulpian's death, 228 AD, has been wrongly used to estimate the date of completion of The Deipnosophists. However the year of his death cannot be determined with certainty. Robert Lee Cleve makes a compelling case that Ulpian died in 223, citing a papyrus discovered in 1966.
In the study of law, he is mostly remembered for the phrase "Juris praecepta sunt haec: honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cuique tribuere (The basic principles of law are: to live honorably, not to harm any other person, to render each his own)".
See also
Praetorian prefect
Pandects
Papinian
Julius Paulus Prudentissimus
Notes
References
Tony Honoré, Ulpian: Pioneer of Human Rights, Oxford University Press, 2002.
External links
170s births
223 deaths
Ancient Roman jurists
Severan dynasty
2nd-century Romans
3rd-century Romans
2nd-century writers
3rd-century writers
Praetorian prefects
Year of birth uncertain
Annii
Domitii
Ancient Roman murder victims
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Thompson%20%28writer%29
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Jim Thompson (writer)
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James Myers Thompson (September 27, 1906 – April 7, 1977) was an American author and screenwriter, known for his hardboiled crime fiction.
Thompson wrote more than thirty novels, the majority of which were original paperback publications, published from the late-1940s through mid-1950s. Despite some positive critical notice—notably by Anthony Boucher in The New York Times—he was little-recognized in his lifetime. Only after death did Thompson's literary stature grow. In the late 1980s, several of his novels were re-published in the Black Lizard series of re-discovered crime fiction.
His best-regarded works include The Killer Inside Me, Savage Night, A Hell of a Woman and Pop. 1280. In these works, Thompson turned the derided crime genre into literature and art, featuring unreliable narrators, odd structure, and the quasi-surrealistic inner narratives of the last thoughts of his dying or dead characters. A number of Thompson's books were adapted as popular films, including The Getaway and The Grifters.
The writer R.V. Cassill has suggested that of all crime fiction, Thompson's was the rawest and most harrowing; that neither Dashiell Hammett nor Raymond Chandler nor Horace McCoy ever "wrote a book within miles of Thompson". Similarly, in the introduction to Now and on Earth, Stephen King says he most admires Thompson's work because "The guy was over the top. The guy was absolutely over the top. Big Jim didn't know the meaning of the word stop. There are three brave lets inherent in the foregoing: He let himself see everything, he let himself write it down, then he let himself publish it."
Thompson was called a "Dimestore Dostoevsky" by writer Geoffrey O'Brien. Film director Stephen Frears, who directed an adaptation of Thompson's The Grifters in 1990, also identified elements of Greek tragedy in his themes.
Life and career
Thompson's life was nearly as colorful as his fiction. His novels were considered semi-autobiographical, or, at least, inspired by his experiences. Thompson's father was sheriff of Caddo County, Oklahoma. He ran for the state legislature in 1906, but was defeated. Soon after he left the sheriff's office under a cloud due to rumors of embezzlement. The Thompson family moved to Texas. (The theme of a once-prominent family overtaken by ill-fortune was featured in some of Thompson's works.)
Early work
Thompson was born in Anadarko, Oklahoma Territory, and began writing early, and he published a few short pieces while still in his mid-teens. He was intelligent and well-read, but had little interest in or inclination towards formal education. For about two years during prohibition in Fort Worth, Texas, Thompson worked long and often wild nights as a bellboy while attending school in the day. He worked at the Hotel Texas. One biographical profile reports that "Thompson quickly adapted to the needs of the hotel's guests, busily catering to tastes ranging from questionable morality to directly and undeniably illegal." Bootleg liquor was ubiquitous, and Thompson's brief trips to procure heroin and marijuana for hotel patrons were not uncommon. He was soon earning up to $300 per week more than his official $15 monthly wage.
He smoked and drank heavily, and at 19, he suffered a nervous breakdown. In 1926, Thompson began working as an oilfield laborer. In the oil fields, he met Harry McClintock, a musician, as well as a member and organizer for Industrial Workers of the World, who recruited him into the union. With his father he began an independent oil drilling operation that was ultimately unsuccessful. Thompson returned to Fort Worth, intending to attend school and to write professionally.
Thompson's autobiographical "Oil Field Vignettes" was published in 1929 (found in March 2010 by history recovery specialist Lee Roy Chapman). He began attending the University of Nebraska the same year as part of a program for gifted students with "untraditional educational backgrounds." By 1931, however, he dropped out of school.
For several years, Thompson occasionally wrote short stories for various true crime magazines. Generally, he wrote about murder cases about which he had read in newspapers, but using a first person voice. In this era, he wrote other pieces for various newspapers and magazines, usually as a freelancer, but occasionally as a full-time staff writer. His 1936 "Ditch of Doom," published in Master Detective magazine, was selected by the Library of America in the early 21st century for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American writing for true crime.
In the early 1930s, Thompson worked as the head of the Oklahoma Federal Writers Project, one of several New Deal programs intended to provide work for Americans during the Great Depression. Louis L'Amour, among others, worked under Thompson's direction in this project. Thompson joined the Communist Party in 1935 but left the group by 1938.
First novels
In the early stages of World War II, Thompson worked at an aircraft factory. He was investigated by the FBI because of his early Communist Party affiliation. These events were fodder for his semi-autobiographical debut novel Now and on Earth (1942). It established his bleak, pessimistic tone, and it was positively reviewed but sold poorly. It featured little of the violence and crime that later permeated his writing. In his second novel Heed the Thunder (1946), Thompson centered it on crime. It explores a warped and violent Nebraska family, partly modeled on his own extended clan.
Gaining little attention, Thompson gravitated to the less-prestigious but more lucrative crime fiction genre with Nothing More Than Murder. He afterwards moved to Lion Books, a small paperback publisher. Lion's Arnold Hano was his ideal editor, offering the writer essentially free rein about content, yet expecting him to be productive and reliable. Lion published most of Thompson's best-regarded works.
To support his family while writing novels, Thompson took a job as a reporter with the Los Angeles Mirror, a tabloid newspaper owned by the Los Angeles Times, shortly after the Mirror was founded in 1948. He wrote for the Mirror until 1949.
Fifties maturity and The Killer Inside Me
In 1952, Thompson published The Killer Inside Me. The narrator, Lou Ford, is a small-town deputy sheriff who appears amiable, pleasant and slightly dull-minded. Ford is actually very intelligent and fighting a nearly-constant urge to act violently; Ford describes his urge as the sickness (always italicised). Lion Books tried to have The Killer Inside Me nominated for a National Book Award. It was eponymously adapted for the cinema in 1976 (by director Burt Kennedy, with Stacy Keach as Lou Ford) and again in 2010 (by director Michael Winterbottom, with Casey Affleck as Ford and co-starring Kate Hudson and Jessica Alba). After The Killer Inside Me was published, Thompson began producing novels at a furious pace. He published another novel in 1952, then five novels a year in 1953 and 1954.
Savage Night, published in 1953, is generally ranked as one of his best novels. It is also one of his oddest literary offerings. Its narrator, Charlie "Little" Bigger (also known as Carl Bigelow), is a small, tubercular hitman whose mind is deteriorating with his body. In reviewing Savage Night, Boucher said it was "written with vigor and bite, but sheering off from realism into a peculiar surrealist ending of sheer Guignol horror. Odd that a mass-consumption paperback should contain the most experimental writing I've seen in a suspense novel of late". Savage Night contains an interlude—whether or not it is fantasy or dream, hallucination or flashback is unclear—when Bigger meets a poor, verbose writer who, much like Thompson, has a penchant for booze and makes a living writing pulp fiction to be sold alongside pornography. The writer also claims to operate a "farm" where he grows vaginas as a metaphor for the material he writes.
Later novels, television work and novelizations
After his film work, Thompson remained a resident of California for the rest of his life. From the mid-1950s through the late 1960s, Thompson continued to write fiction, although not at the same torrid pace of 1952 to 1954. During this era, Thompson usually completed one novel a year, but he gradually drifted away from writing his increasingly unpopular novels, abandoning the medium completely by the end of the 1960s. In 1967, he published South of Heaven, about a young migrant laborer working on an oil pipeline in Texas.
With his novels providing scant income, Thompson turned to other forms of writing to pay the bills. Beginning in 1959, and continuing through the mid-1960s, Thompson also began writing television programs, including episodes of the action/adventure shows Mackenzie's Raiders (1959), Cain's Hundred (1961) and Convoy (1965). TV work seemingly dried up for Thompson after this point, so he turned to writing tie-in novels based on produced TV shows and screenplays: this work paid a flat fee, and could be completed quickly. Thompson's tie-ins include an original novel based on the television series Ironside (1967), as well as screenplay novelizations of the films The Undefeated (1969) and Nothing But a Man (1970).
In the late 1960s, Thompson wrote his two final original books, King Blood and Child of Rage (its provisional title was White Mother, Black Son), neither of which were published until the early 1970s, the latter in the UK.
Later life and death
In 1970, Thompson was flown to Robert Redford's Utah residence. Redford hired him to write a motion picture script about the life of a hobo during the Great Depression. Thompson was paid $10,000 for his script Bo, though it never was produced.
Motion picture writer/director Sam Fuller expressed an interest in adapting The Getaway for the screen, and Thompson's biographer Robert Polito, in the biography Savage Art, notes that Fuller so admired the novel that he quipped, half-seriously, that he could use the novel as a shooting script. Eventually, Sam Peckinpah was slated to direct The Getaway.
In many regards, The Getaway was a frustrating repeat of his earlier experience collaborating with director Stanley Kubrick on the screenplay of the 1956 film The Killing. Thompson wrote a script, but Steve McQueen (who was cast in the movie's lead role of Doc McCoy) rejected it as too reliant on dialogue, with not enough action. Though Walter Hill was given the sole script credit, Thompson insisted that much of his script ended up in the film. Thompson sought Writers Guild arbitration but the Guild ultimately ruled against him. In the end, the film was heavily bowdlerized from Thompson's original vision and as King writes, "if you have seen only the film version of The Getaway, you have no idea of the existential horrors awaiting Doc and Carol McCoy at the point where Sam Peckinpah ended the story."
Thompson actually appeared in the 1975 movie Farewell, My Lovely, starring Robert Mitchum. He played the character Judge Baxter Wilson Grayle. When Thompson's fortunes were fading, he made the acquaintance of writer Harlan Ellison who had long admired Thompson's books. Though Thompson still drank heavily (preferring to meet at the famed writer's haunt, the Musso & Frank Grill) and Ellison was a teetotaler (preferring fast food restaurants), they often met for meals and conversation.
Though Thompson's books were falling out of print in the United States, the French had discovered his works. Though they were not runaway bestsellers in France, his books did sell well enough in that country to keep a trickle of royalties flowing towards Thompson. Incidentally, Polito also debunks the myth that Thompson was not paid well for his works: Thompson's pay, he notes, was roughly in line with what writers of similar works received during that era.
Thompson died in Los Angeles, aged 70, after a series of strokes aggravated by his long-term alcoholism. He refused to eat for some time before his death, and this self-inflicted starvation contributed greatly to his demise. At the time of his death, none of his novels was in print in his home country.
Style
Thompson's stories are about grifters, losers, sociopaths and psychopaths—some at the fringe of society, some at its heart—their nihilistic world-view being best-served by first-person narratives revealing a frighteningly deep understanding of the warped mind. There are few good guys in Thompson's literature: most of his characters are abusive or simply biding time until an opportunity presents itself, though many also have decent impulses.
Despite some positive critical notice, only after his best years as a writer did Thompson achieve a measure of fame. Yet that neglect might stem from his style: the crime novels are fast-moving and compelling but sometimes sloppy and uneven. Thompson wrote quickly (many novels were written in a month); using his newspaper experience to write concise, evocative prose with little editing.
Yet at his best his novels were among the most effectively and memorably written genre pieces. He also managed unusual and highly successful literary tricks: halfway through A Hell of a Woman, the first-person narrator Frank "Dolly" Dillon has a mental breakdown; the sides of his personality then take turns narrating the chapters, alternately violently psychotic (telling the sordid tale that happened) or sweet-natured and patient (telling the idealized fantasy that did not happen). In the final page of the original manuscript the two sides of Dillon's broken personality appear together as two columns of text. The publisher disliked that and instead alternated the two narrations in a long paragraph, alternating standard Roman type and italicized type. Thompson disliked the change, thinking it confusing and difficult for the reader.
For most of his life Thompson drank heavily; the effects of alcoholism often featured in his works, most prominently in The Alcoholics (1953) which is set in a detoxification clinic. Donald E. Westlake, who adapted The Grifters for the screen, observed that alcoholism had a great role in Thompson's literature, but it tended to be tacit and subtle. Westlake described typical personal relationships in Thompson novels as pleasant in the morning, argumentative in the afternoon and abusive at night—behavior common to the alcoholic Thompson's style of life but which he elided from the stories.
Films and adaptations
Book adaptations
Two of Thompson's books (The Getaway and The Killer Inside Me) were adapted as Hollywood motion pictures during his lifetime receiving relatively poor reviews. However, Polito argues that neither adaptation was ultimately true to Thompson's spirit. A second, more faithful adaptation of The Killer Inside Me was released in 2010, starring Casey Affleck and directed by Michael Winterbottom.
French director Bertrand Tavernier adapted Pop. 1280 for his 1981 film Coup de Torchon, changing the setting from the American South to a French colony in West Africa of the 1930s. Aside from shift in setting, Polito argues that Coup de Torchon was remarkably faithful to the plot and the spirit of the novel, and remains arguably the most authentic adaptation of any of Thompson's work.
A Hell of a Woman was adapted in French as Série noire (1979) by Alain Corneau, with dialogue by French Oulipo writer Georges Pérec. This noir masterpiece set in the grim Paris outskirts features a 16-year-old Marie Trintignant's debut performance as well as what is generally agreed to be Patrick Dewaere's finest performance. Dewaere conveys a tragic dimension to his manic portrayal of a mediocre door-to-door salesman, at one point repeatedly bashing his head against a car in an effort to exorcise his angst and guilt.
In the early 1990s, Hollywood resumed its interest in Thompson's writing and several of his novels were re-published. Three novels were adapted for new film treatments during that period: The Kill-Off; After Dark, My Sweet; and The Grifters, which garnered four Academy Award nominations.
The Getaway was remade in 1994 with Alec Baldwin and Kim Basinger in the lead roles; the film retained the happy ending of the earlier film and received comparably poor reviews.
In 1996, A Swell-Looking Babe was released as Hit Me, and 1997 saw the release of This World, Then the Fireworks from Thompson's short story of that name. The latter film starred Billy Zane and Gina Gershon as a pair of twisted siblings.
Cultural references
Thompson was a major influence on the songwriting style of Mark Sandman, the singer for Morphine and Treat Her Right; see Sandman songs like "Murder for the Money" and "A Good Woman Is Hard to Find".
There is a reference to Thompson's book The Killer Inside Me in the song "Sri Lanka Sex Hotel" on the Dead Milkmen's Beelzebubba album, and in the song "Killer Inside Me" on MC 900 Ft. Jesus' album Welcome to My Dream.
David Thomas, lead singer of Pere Ubu, says of the band's album Why I Hate Women: "the back story for this album was the Jim Thompson novel he never wrote."
Songwriter, guitarist, and singer John Wesley Harding, in an introduction to his song "The Truth" during the WXRT-FM Twilight Concert at the World Music Theatre in Tinley Park, Ill., on Sep 12, 1992, said the song was for anyone who had seen the 1950 American film Sunset Boulevard or "read a Jim Thompson novel."
Donald Westlake, who adapted The Grifters for film in 1990, satirized Thompson later that year in his own novel Drowned Hopes. This book features a character named Tom Jimson who is hard-boiled to the point of absurdity.
In the 1997 film Cop Land, which takes place partly in (fictitious) Garrison, New Jersey, the "Welcome to Garrison" sign pictured 16 minutes into the film indicates that the population of the town is 1,280, as a possible reference to Thompson's novel Pop. 1280.
Jim Thompson has been cited by Norwegian crime novelist Jo Nesbø as being a major influence on his style of writing, particularly because of the way in which he described the human mind and nature.
Musician Mark E. Smith suggested Pop. 1280 as "one book every teenager should read".
Major works
Now and on Earth (1942)
Heed the Thunder (aka Sins of the Fathers) (1946)
Nothing More Than Murder (1949)
The Killer Inside Me (1952)
Cropper's Cabin (1952)
Recoil (1953)
The Alcoholics (1953)
Savage Night (1953)
Bad Boy (1953)
The Criminal (1953)
The Nothing Man (1954)
The Golden Gizmo (1954)
Roughneck (1954)
A Swell-Looking Babe (1954)
A Hell of a Woman (1954)
After Dark, My Sweet (1955)
The Kill-Off (1957)
Wild Town (1957)
The Getaway (1958)
The Transgressors (1961)
The Grifters (1963)
Pop. 1280 (1964)
Texas by the Tail (1965)
South of Heaven (1967)
Ironside (1967), original novel based on the TV series
The Undefeated (1969), novelization of the screenplay by James Lee Barrett
Nothing But a Man (1970), novelization of the screenplay by Michael Roemer and Robert M. Young
Child of Rage (1972)
King Blood (1973)
Fireworks: The Lost Writings of Jim Thompson (1988)
The Rip-Off (1989)
Omnibus
Jim Thompson Omnibus (1983) (republished in 1995)
Jim Thompson Omnibus 2 (1985) (republished in 1997)
References
External links
The Killer Beside Me
Jim Thompson on Film: Survey of his works adapted into films.
Cigarettes and Alcohol: The Extraordinary Life of Jim Thompson
Jim Thompson's Oklahoma: The Darkest Guidebook Ever?
encyc:Heed the Thunder
1906 births
1977 deaths
American crime fiction writers
Industrial Workers of the World members
Members of the Communist Party USA
People from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Anadarko, Oklahoma
Pulp fiction writers
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from Oklahoma
Novelists from Texas
American Noir writers
|
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204666
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Hugo
|
Gustav Hugo
|
Gustav Hugo (23 November 1764 – 15 September 1844) was a German jurist.
Biography
Hugo was born at Lörrach in Baden. From the gymnasium at Karlsruhe he passed in 1782 to the University of Göttingen, where he studied law for three years. Having received the appointment of tutor to the prince of Anhalt-Dessau, he took his doctor's degree at the University of Halle in 1788. Recalled in the same year to Göttingen as extraordinary professor of law, he became a full professor in 1792. In the preface to his Beiträge zur civilistischen Bucherkenntniss der letzten vierzig Jahre (1828–1829) he gives a sketch of the condition of the civil law teaching at Göttingen at that time.
The Roman and German elements of the existing law were, without criticism or differentiation, welded into an ostensible whole for practical needs, with the result that it was difficult to say whether historical truth or practical ends were most prejudiced. As it was passed from person to person, new errors crept in, and even the best of teachers could not escape from the false method which had become traditional. These were the evils which Hugo set himself to combat, and he became the founder of the German Historical School of jurisprudence which was continued and further developed by Savigny. His magna opera are the Lehrbuch eines civilistischen Cursus (7 vols., 1792–1821), in which his method is thoroughly worked out, and Civilistisches Magazin (6 vols., 1790–1837).
Hugo was criticized, and ridiculed, by Karl Marx in the Rheinische Zeitung for justifying the "law of arbitrary power", that is, for endorsing societal injustice and exploitation simply because the institutions which generate them exist.
Publications
Major publications of Gustav Hugo include:
References
Gabor Hamza, "Entstehung und Entwicklung der modernen Privatrechtsordnungen und die römischrechtliche Tradition" (Budapest, 2009) pp. 189–192.
1764 births
1844 deaths
People from Lörrach
Jurists from Baden-Württemberg
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Halle alumni
University of Göttingen faculty
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Way
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Middle Way
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The Middle Way (; ) as well as "teaching the Dharma by the middle" (majjhena dhammaṃ deseti) are common Buddhist terms used to refer to two major aspects of the Dhamma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha. The first phrasing (with "paṭipadā"), refers to a spiritual practice that steers clear of both extreme asceticism and sensual indulgence. This spiritual path is defined as the noble eightfold path that leads to awakening. The second formulation refers to how the Buddha's Dharma (Teaching) approaches ontological issues of existence and personal identity by avoiding eternalism (or absolutism) and annihilationism (and nihilism).
Early Buddhist Texts
In the early Buddhist texts, there are two aspects of the middle way taught by the Buddha. David Kalupahana describes these as the "philosophical" middle way and the "practical" middle way. He associates these with the teachings found in the Kaccānagotta-sutta and the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta respectively.
The Middle Way (majjhimāpaṭipadā)
In the Early Buddhist Texts, the term "Middle Path" () was used in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11, and its numerous parallel texts), which the Buddhist tradition regards to be the first teaching that the Buddha delivered after his awakening. In this sutta, the Buddha describes the Noble Eightfold Path as the middle way which steers clear of the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification:
A similar passage occurs in other suttas such as Araṇavibhaṅgasutta (MN 139) with a Chinese parallel at MA 169 as well as in MN 3 (Chinese parallels at MA 88 and EA 18.3).
Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst concludes that the first extreme mentioned here "indulgence in desirable sense objects" does not refer to a specific religious movement or practice, but to the actions of common people. However, the other extreme does presuppose ascetics who used “devotion to self-mortification” to reach a religious goal.
The Buddhist texts depict (and criticize) Jain ascetics as those who practice extreme self-mortification (Bronkhorst cites MN 14). Early Buddhist sources (such as MN 36) also depict the Buddha practicing those ascetic practices before his awakening and how the Buddha abandoned them because they are not efficacious. Some of these extreme practices include a "meditation without breathing", and extreme fasting which leads to emaciation as well as the total suppression of bodily movement while standing and refusing to lie down. According to the scriptural account, when the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, he was addressing five ascetics with whom he had previously practiced severe ascetic practices.
As noted by Y. Karunadasa, this middle path "does not mean moderation or a compromise between the two extremes" rather, it means as the sutta states "without entering either of the two extremes" (ubho ante anupagamma).
A sutta from the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 3.156–162) also discusses the middle path as well as two other "paths", the addicted practice and the scorching path, referring to the two extremes. The addicted path is described as when someone thinks that there is nothing wrong with sensual pleasures "so they throw themselves into sensual pleasures." Meanwhile, the scorching path includes numerous "ways of mortifying and tormenting the body" including going naked, restricting their food intake in various ways, wearing various kinds of rough clothing, "they tear out their hair and beard," "they constantly stand, refusing seats," they maintain the squatting posture, and "they lie on a mat of thorns". The middle path meanwhile is described by listing the thirty seven aids to awakening.
Teaching by the Middle (majjhena desanā)
Other early sources like the Kaccānagotta-sutta also state that "the Tathagatha teaches by the middle way" (majjhena tathāgato dhammaṃ deseti) which often refers to the doctrine of dependent origination as a view between the extremes of eternalism and annihilationism as well as the extremes of existence and non-existence. Gethin 78
According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, there are two extreme metaphysical views that are avoided through the Buddha's “teaching by the middle” (majjhena dhammaṃ):
Eternalism (sassatavāda), this refers to the view that there is "an indestructible and eternal self, whether individual or universal". It can also refer to the idea that the world is maintained by a permanent being or entity, like God or some other eternal metaphysical Absolute. The main problem with this view is that it leads to grasping at the five aggregates, which are impermanent and empty of a self.
Annihilationism (ucchedavāda), is the idea that a person is utterly annihilated at death and there is nothing which survives. The main problem with this view is that it leads to nihilism, particularly ethical nihilism.
According to Bodhi, by steering clear of both of these extremes, dependent origination teaches that "existence is constituted by a current of conditioned phenomena devoid of a metaphysical self yet continuing on from birth to birth as long as the causes that sustain it remain effective."
One of the most famous and clear expositions of dependent origination is found in the Kaccānagotta-sutta." The Kaccānagotta-sutta (SN 12.15 with Chinese Agama parallels at SA 262 and SA 301 and also a Sanskrit parallel Kātyāyanaḥsūtra) explains the middle way view as follows:Kaccāna, this world mostly relies on the dual notions of existence and non-existence. But when you truly see the origin of the world with right understanding, you won’t have the notion of non-existence regarding the world. And when you truly see the cessation of the world with right understanding, you won’t have the notion of existence regarding the world. The world is for the most part shackled by attraction, grasping, and insisting. But if—when it comes to this attraction, grasping, mental fixation, insistence, and underlying tendency—you don’t get attracted, grasp, and commit to the notion ‘my self’, you’ll have no doubt or uncertainty that what arises is just suffering arising, and what ceases is just suffering ceasing. Your knowledge about this is independent of others. This is how right view is defined. ‘All exists’: this is one extreme. ‘All doesn’t exist’: this is the second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, the Realized One teaches by the middle way: ‘Ignorance is a condition for choices. Choices are a condition for consciousness. … [the rest of the 12 elements of dependent origination follow]
A similar passage is also found in SN 12.47. According to David Kalupahana, the terms "existence" (atthitā) and "non-existence" (natthitā) are referring to two absolutist theories (which were common in Indian philosophy at the time): the doctrine of permanent existence found in the Upanishads and the doctrine of non-existence (at death) of the materialist Carvaka school.
Dependent Origination and personal identity
"Dependent origination" (pratītyasamutpāda) describes the existence of phenomena as coming about due to various causes and conditions. When one of these causes changes or disappears, the resulting object or phenomena will also change or disappear, as will the objects or phenomena depending on the changing object or phenomena. Thus, there is nothing with an eternal self, essence or atman, there are only mutually dependent origination and existence (hence, the middle doctrine avoids an eternal substance or being). However, the absence of an atman does not mean there is nothing at all (hence, the middle doctrine avoids nihilism). Therefore, according to Rupert Gethin, the "middle" doctrine of early Buddhism, when applied to the question of personal identity is closely connected with the Buddhist understanding of causality and with the doctrine of not-self (anatta). 143
The connection between dependent origination and personal identity is explored in SN 12.35. In this sutta, a monk asks the Buddha the following question regarding the 12 links of dependent origination: "what now is aging-and-death, and for whom is there this aging-and-death?" The Buddha responds:“Not a valid question,” the Blessed One replied. “Bhikkhu, whether one says, ‘What now is aging-and-death, and for whom is there this aging-and-death?’ or whether one says, ‘Aging-and-death is one thing, the one for whom there is this aging-and-death is another’—both these assertions are identical in meaning; they differ only in the phrasing. If there is the view, ‘The soul and the body are the same,’ there is no living of the holy life; and if there is the view, ‘The soul is one thing, the body is another,’ there is no living of the holy life. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the middle: ‘With birth as condition, aging-and-death.’”Another passage which discusses personal identity with regard to the middle teaching is found in the Aññatarabrāhmaṇasutta (SN 12.46, with a Chinese parallel at SA 300). This sutta outlines two further extreme views with regards to personal identity and karma:
“‘The person who does the deed experiences the result’: this is one extreme.”
“‘One person does the deed and another experiences the result’: this is the second extreme.
The Timbarukasutta outlines a similar set of two extremes regarding personality:“Suppose that the feeling and the one who feels it are the same thing. Then for one who has existed since the beginning, pleasure and pain is made by oneself. I don’t say this. Suppose that the feeling is one thing and the one who feels it is another. Then for one stricken by feeling, pleasure and pain is made by another. I don’t say this. Avoiding these two extremes, the Realized One teaches by the middle way: ‘Ignorance is a condition for choices. The discourse then states that the Buddha teaches by the middle and outlines the twelve elements of dependent origination.
Gethin states that for early Buddhism, personal continuity is explained through the particular way that the various phenomena which make up a sentient being are causally connected.143 According to Gethin, this middle teaching "sees a 'person' as subsisting in the causal connectedness of dependent arising". Therefore, thinking that there is something unchanging and constant in a person is eternalistic, while thinking that there is no real connection between the same person at different points in time is annihilationist. As Gethin writes: In other words, if we deny that there is a real connectedness between events this is annihilationism, but if we understand that connectedness in terms of an unchanging self this is etemalism; the middle way is that there is only the connectedness, there is only dependent arising."Dependent origination" also gives a rationale for rebirth:
Theravāda Buddhism
In the Theravāda Buddhist tradition, the usage of the term "Middle Way" is discussed in 5th-century CE Pali commentaries. The Pali commentary to the Samyutta Nikaya (SN) states:
Regarding the Kaccānagotta-sutta, the SN commentary glosses the key statements as follows: The origin of the world: the production of the world of formations. There is no notion of nonexistence in regard to the world: there does not occur in him the annihilationist view that might arise in regard to phenomena produced and made manifest in the world of formations, holding "They do not exist." The cessation of the world: the dissolution (bhanga) of formations. There is no notion of existence in regard to the world: There does not occur in him the eternalist view which might arise in regard to phenomena produced and made manifest in the world of formations, holding "They exist." Further, "the origin of the world" is direct-order conditionality (anuloma-paccayākāra); "the cessation of the world," reverse-order conditionality (patiloma-paccayākāra).
The Pali sub-commentary to the SN states:The notion of existence is eternalism because it maintains that the entire world (of personal existence) exists forever. The notion of nonexistence is annihilationism because it maintains that the entire world does not exist (forever) but is cut off.The influential Theravāda doctrinal compendium called the Visuddhimagga states:
The metaphysical import of the "middle teaching" is interpreted in different ways by modern Theravada Buddhists.
Bhikkhu Bodhi comments on the Kaccānagotta-sutta as follows: In view of these explanations it would be misleading to translate the two terms, atthita and natthita, simply as "existence" and "nonexistence" and then to maintain (as is sometimes done) that the Buddha rejects all ontological notions as inherently invalid. The Buddha's utterances at [SN] 22:94, for example, show that he did not hesitate to make pronouncements with a clear ontological import when they were called for. In the present passage atthita and natthita are abstract nouns formed from the verbs atthi and natthi. It is thus the metaphysical assumptions implicit in such abstractions that are at fault, not the ascriptions of existence and nonexistence themselves...While atthita is the notion of existence in the abstract, bhava is concrete individual existence in one or another of the three realms. Bodhi also argues that what the noble disciple does see when reflecting on his personality with wisdom is "a mere assemblage of conditioned phenomena arising and passing away through the conditioning process governed by dependent origination."
Regarding the Kaccānagotta-sutta, Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes:this sutta is describing the state of mind of a person focusing on the origination or cessation of the data of the senses. A person in that state of mind would see nothing in that mode of perception that would give rise to thoughts of existence or non-existence with regard to those sense data. However, when people are engaging in discussions about things that do or do not appear in the world—as the Buddha is describing in SN 22:94—then the terms “exist” and “do not exist” would naturally occur to them. In other words, this sutta and SN 22:94 are not making different claims about the ontological status of the world. They are simply describing the types of concepts that do or don’t occur to the mind when regarding the world in different ways.Similarly, according to Ajahns Amaro and Pasanno, the Kaccānagotta-sutta "more describes a method of meditation practice than merely another philosophical position". The Ajahns further state that:The advice given in the last passage closely matches the practice of vipassana (insight) meditation: this consists of, firstly, the calm and attentive observation of the arising of all patterns of experience. Secondly, it involves the seeing of all such patterns through the reflective lens of anicca-dukkha-anatta (impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and not-self). Lastly, in the culmination of the process, there is the remainderless relinquishment of all experience. There is a complete acceptance of all that arises and no confusion about the fact that all patterns of experience are of the same dependent, insubstantial nature.
Mahāyāna
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Middle Way refers to the insight into śūnyatā ("emptiness") that transcends the extremes of existence and non-existence. This has been interpreted in different ways by the various schools of Mahāyāna philosophy.
Madhyamaka
The Madhyamaka ("Middle Way") school defends a "middle way" position between the metaphysical view that things exist in some ultimate sense and the view that things do not exist at all. Nagarjuna's influential Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (MMK) famously contains a reference to the Kaccyanagotta Sutta in its 15th chapter. This chapter focuses on deconstructing the ideas of existence, non-existence and intrinsic nature, essence, or inherent existence (svabhāva) and show how such ideas are incoherent and incompatible with causality and dependent origination.
The MMK states:4. Further, without intrinsic nature and extrinsic nature how can there be an existent (bhāva)? For an existent is established given the existence of either intrinsic nature or extrinsic nature.
5. If the existent is unestablished, then the nonexistent (abhāva) too is not established. For people proclaim the nonexistent to be the alteration of the existent.
6. Intrinsic nature and extrinsic nature, existent and nonexistent—who see these do not see the truth of the Buddha’s teachings.
7. In “The Instructing of Katyāyana” both “it exists” and “it does not exist” are denied by the Blessed One, who clearly perceives the existent and the nonexistent.
MMK further discusses the two extremes as follows:10. “It exists” is an eternalist view; “It does not exist” is an annihilationist idea. Therefore the wise one should not have recourse to either existence or nonexistence.
11. For whatever exists by its intrinsic nature does not become nonexistent; eternalism then follows. “It does not exist now [but] it existed previously”—from this, annihilation follows.According to Mark Siderits and Shoryu Katsura, for Nagarjuna, the two extremes refer to:the view that things exist having intrinsic nature and the view that the lack of intrinsic nature means that things are utterly unreal. The argument is that the first leads to the conclusion that ultimately real things are eternal, while the second leads to the conclusion that ultimately nothing whatsoever exists.
Yogācāra
The Yogācāra school examines emptiness through its central teaching of the three basic modes of existence or "three natures" (svabhāva). In Yogācāra, the ultimate basis for the erroneous conceptualizations we make about existence (like ideas of a self etc.) is the Paratantra-svabhāva, which is the dependently originated nature of dharmas, or the causal process of the fabrication of things. According to the Mahāyānasaṃgraha (2:25) this basis is considered to be an ultimately existing (paramārtha) basis. However, this basis is empty since the events in this causal flow do not exist on their own and are dependent phenomena.
In Yogācāra, emptiness is understood mainly as an absence of duality which holds that ultimate reality is beyond all dualities like self and other (or any other concepts like 'physical' and 'non-physical', internal and external). All dualities are an unreal superimposition, since ultimately there is only an interconnected causal stream of mental events.
Unlike Madhyamaka, Yogācāra philosophy argues that there is a sense in which consciousness can be said to exist, that is, it exists in a dependent and empty way. Indeed, Madhyamaka philosophers were criticized by Yogācārins like Asanga for being nihilistic (and thus, of having fallen from the middle way). According to Asanga "if nothing is real, there cannot be any ideas (prajñapti). Someone who holds this view is a nihilist." The Yogācāra position is that there is something that exists, the empty and purely mental (prajñapti-matra) stream of dependent arising. The Bodhisattvabhūmi argues that it is only logical to speak of emptiness if there is something that is empty.
Tibetan Buddhism
In Tibetan Buddhism, there are numerous interpretations of Madhyamaka philosophy, all of which claim to represent the intent of the Buddha's middle way and the right view outlined by Nagarjuna. Among some of the most influential views are the following:
Dölpopa's (1292–1361) interpretation of madhyamaka, which is called "emptiness of other" (), held that ultimate reality is only empty of what is impermanent and conditioned, but it is not empty of its own true nature. Buddhahood is therefore not held to be totally empty in this system, instead it is an ultimately real self that is filled with infinite Buddha qualities. This philosophy is very influential among non-Gelug Tibetan schools.
The Madhyamaka of Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) argues that emptiness is "an absolute negation" (med dgag), which means that everything, including Buddhahood and emptiness itself, is said to be empty. The target of this negation is said to be inherent existence or intrinsic nature. Therefore, in this system, the conventional existence of the world is not negated, only the essentialist superimposition of an intrinsic nature. This is the philosophy that is upheld in the Gelug school.
The Madhyamaka interpretation of Gorampa (1429-1489) has also been very influential among non-Gelug Tibetan orders. Gorampa's interpretation is an anti-realist philosophy which sees emptiness as meaning that all phenomena lack the four extremes: existence, nonexistence, both and neither. Therefore, in this interpretation of Madhyamaka, conventional everyday reality is also negated and is seen as unreal, illusory and ultimately non-existent since they are just conceptual fabrications.
East Asian conceptions
Tendai
In the Tendai school, the Middle Way refers to the synthesis of the thesis that all things are śūnyatā and the antithesis that all things have phenomenal existence.
Chan Buddhism
In Chan Buddhism, the Middle Way describes the realization of being free of the one-sidedness of perspective that takes the extremes of any polarity as objective reality. In chapter ten of the Platform Sutra, Huineng gives instructions for the teaching of the Dharma. Huineng enumerates 36 basic oppositions of consciousness and explains how the Way is free from both extremes:
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Sayutta Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. .
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed., trans.) (2005). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. .
Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya & Bhikkhu Ñāamoli (trans.) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. .
Cowherds (2010). Moonshadows: Conventional Truth in Buddhist Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199826506.
Dhamma, Rewata (1997). The First Discourse of the Buddha: Turning the wheel of Dhamma. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. .
Gethin, Rupert (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Harvey, Peter (2007). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambhala. .
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Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary (PED). Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. Retrieved 2008-01-03, the entry for "pabbajita" is available at .
Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series [SLTP] (n.d.-a). Ahara vaggo (SN 12.2) [in Pali]. Retrieved 2008-01-03 from "MettaNet - Lanka" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/3Samyutta-Nikaya/Samyutta2/12-Abhisamaya-Samyutta/02-Aharavaggo-p.html.
Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series [SLTP] (n.d.-b). Dhammacakkappavattana vaggo (SN 55.2) [in Pali]. Retrieved 2008-01-03 from "MettaNet - Lanka" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/3Samyutta-Nikaya/Samyutta5/55-Sacca-Samyutta/02-Dhammacakkappavattanavaggo-p.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Kaccayanagotta Sutta: To Kaccayana Gotta (on Right View) (SN 12.15). Retrieved 2008-01-03 from "Access to Insight" at https://web.archive.org/web/20130329025311/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.015.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998). Maha-Saccaka Sutta: The Longer Discourse to Saccaka (excerpt) (MN 36). Retrieved 2008-01-03 from "Access to Insight" at https://web.archive.org/web/20080801091439/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.036x.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2005). Acela Sutta: To the Clothless Ascetic (SN 12.17). Retrieved 2008-01-03 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.017.than.html.
Buddhist philosophical concepts
Madhyamaka
zh:中道 (大乘佛教)
|
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204669
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulton%20Bicycle
|
Moulton Bicycle
|
Moulton is an English bicycle manufacturer based in Bradford on Avon in Wiltshire. The company was founded in 1962 by Dr Alex Moulton, who designed the "Hydrolastic" and rubber cone suspension systems for the BMC Mini motorcar. Later he also designed the "Hydragas" system used by its successor companies.
Moulton bicycles are noted for unconventional frame design, small wheels, and front and rear suspension.
A misconception about Moultons is that they fold in the manner of more recent designs by manufacturers such as Brompton or Dahon. This is not true, though the Moulton design paved the way for such designs and various Moultons over the years have been made in separable versions allowing relatively easy dismantling for transportation or storage. Mass-appeal versions such as the Standard and Deluxe were complemented by Speed versions used in competition.
Thus although Moultons are often included in the folding bicycle category along with small wheel folders, small wheel bicycles would be a more technically correct term covering all such bicycles.
In August 2008, Alex Moulton announced the creation of a new company called Moulton Bicycle, in collaboration with British bicycle manufacturer Pashley Cycles which had manufactured certain Moulton designs under licence since 1992.
History
In the late 1950s, disillusioned with the design of the classic bicycle, Alex Moulton set about creating a new design. He thought the classic diamond frame was inconvenient to mount, difficult to adjust for size and not suitable for both sexes, and that 'Ladies' open frame bicycles without the top tube of the diamond frame were structurally compromised for ease of use. He believed that classic bicycles (especially with small frames and smaller wheels known as 'shopper' bicycles) were uncomfortable to ride without the use of wide, low-pressure tyres which increased rolling resistance. He also thought large wheels made a bicycle slow and cumbersome to store, and did not easily fit emerging societal commuting patterns in the developed world, which often combined more than one form of transport.
Moulton considered that small wheels with high-pressure tyres would result in less rolling resistance, less inertia and hence greater acceleration. He then went on to develop a range of high-pressure tyres in co-operation with Dunlop. Suspension for the front and rear was developed to give a comfortable ride with the smaller wheels. In this respect, the Moulton bicycle was ahead of its time, as bicycle suspension would not become common for another 30 years.
The Moulton bicycle also featured a different frame instead of the traditional diamond design. It is often known as an F-frame or Lazy F due to its unusual structure. The F-frame had no top tube, as such, and could therefore be easily mounted by those with mobility limitations, whether imposed by physical infirmity or by type of clothing.
Impact
When the design was released in 1962, it was one of the first major innovations in bicycle design since the "safety bicycle" in the 1880s and made an immediate impact. The 1962 version (aka "bicycle of the future") was the first production Moulton bicycle with suspension and the racing version was televised the same year in action by road race champion and Moulton employee John Ronald Tovey. As Moulton bicycles became an icon of the Swinging Sixties and were sold around the world by the thousands. Briefly, Moulton was one of the largest bicycle manufacturers in Britain. The architecture and design critic Peter Reyner Banham, known for often controversial views on technology and industrialisation, was a keen advocate and user of the original Moulton. Eleanor Bron's 1978 book Life and Other Punctures celebrates travels around France on an original Moulton. In bicycle culture, the rider of a Moulton bicycle is often referred to as being a "Moultoneer" (a play on the word "Mountaineer").
Models produced
The following list of home-market models were produced between 1962 and 1967 in the Moulton factory at Bradford-on-Avon and in the BMC car factory at Kirkby, Liverpool:
Continental and Automatic M0, Standard M1, Deluxe M2, Safari M3, Speed M4, Stowaway M5 and the Speedsix M6. A further low volume, high specification 'S' range of Moulton bicycles was produced separately at another small workshop in Bradford-on-Avon and consisted of the Deluxe MS2, Safari MS3, Stowaway MS5 and the top-of-the-range 'S' Speed.
After the Raleigh take-over in 1967 (see below), the models changed to just the Major and Major Deluxe only. These in turn were both dropped with the introduction of the Mark III in 1970.
Sellout
The success of the Moulton spurred competitors to produce their own small wheelers, such as the Raleigh RSW 16. The drop in sales from the increased competition brought the company into financial difficulties and in August 1967, it was taken over by Raleigh. Raleigh then produced both the RSW and the Moulton side by side.
Raleigh produced the Major, Major Deluxe and the Mark III (previous Moultons were known as Series 1 and Series 2). The main differences were a re-designed rear suspension using a rubber ball instead of a block and a rear triangle replacing the swingarm of the earlier designs. In 1974, production of the innovative cycles stopped. Some of the early Moulton bicycles are today considered to be collectors' items.
Re-birth
In the early 1980s, Alex Moulton bought back the rights to the Moulton design from Raleigh, and brought out a design along broadly similar lines to the original. Aimed at the high end of the market, this AM series (which remains in production) has a space frame allowing high rigidity and low weight when compared to traditional steel frames. In 1998, the New Series Moulton was introduced. This, similar to the AM, incorporates a Flexitor front suspension, and a rear suspension based on the unified rear triangle principle. The New Series includes the Pylon and Double Pylon high-performance models: in the latter all large diameter tubes have been eliminated, resulting in a pure space frame design and low weight.
Pashley-Moulton
To bring the new design to a larger market, a cheaper variant of the AM bicycle design, the APB (All-Purpose Bicycle), was produced under licence by Pashley Cycles from 1992 to 2005. To reduce costs, Pashley use off-the-shelf components as far as possible instead of the custom components of the original Moultons: for example, specially manufactured 17 by 1 inch (ISO 369) wheels, tyres, and inner tubes were replaced by the more common 20-inch ETRTO 406 size.
In 2005, the Pashley-Moulton design was updated to create the TSR series: high-performance, lighter versions of the Pashley-Moulton replacing the APB. Production of Moulton designs by Pashley ended after the creation of Moulton Cycle in 2008.
Bridgestone Moulton
A newer model, stylistically and structurally similar to the original Moulton design, was manufactured by Bridgestone. Known as the Bridgestone Moulton, it was built in Japan and those sold in the UK were assembled in England at the Moulton factory. Like the original Moulton, the AM, and the APB before it, it was available in separable and rigid performance versions. Though similar in appearance to the original design, it was a contemporary performance bicycle with advanced design and components.
The Bridgestone Moulton page on Moulton's website is linked from the "Heritage" page, but the model is not included in the "Products" page.
Moulton Bicycle Company
the Moulton Bicycle Company Web site listed several models at prices ranging from £950 to £15,500.
See also
Small wheel bicycle
Folding bicycle
List of bicycle manufacturing companies
Raleigh Cycles
Me and My Moulton
References
Cycle magazine, December/January 2005
External links
Alex Moulton's Memoir
The Moulton Bicycle Company
The Moulton Bicycle Restoration Site
The Moulton Bicycle Club
Moulton Bicycle yahoo group - as of 2020 email only
Moulton Bicycle flickr group
The Folding Society
The Green Bicycle
Moulton Buzz
Dr Alex Moulton on the engineering of the NS bicycle
Moulton Bicycle groups.io group - started 2020 after Yahoo Groups site taken down
Moulton Bicycle repair wikibook
Cycle types
British brands
Cycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Wiltshire
|
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204671
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hon%27inb%C5%8D%20Sh%C5%ABsaku
|
Hon'inbō Shūsaku
|
Shusaku (本因坊秀策, Yasuda Eisai, Kuwahara Shusaku, Invincible Shusaku, born Kuwabara Torajiro (桑原虎次郎); June 6, 1829 – September 3, 1862) was a Japanese professional Go player during the 19th century. He is known for his undefeated streak of 19 games during the annual castle games; his thirty-game match with Ota Yuzo; the eponymous Shusaku opening; and his posthumous veneration as a "Go sage". Next to his teacher, Hon'inbō Shūwa, he is considered to have been the strongest player from 1847/8 to his death in 1862. He was nicknamed Invincible Shusaku because of his castle games performance.
Biography
He was nicknamed "Invincible" after he earned a perfect score for 19 straight wins in the annual castle games. Some say that he was not stronger than his teacher, Honinbō Shuwa. Out of respect for his teacher, Shusaku refused to play with white against his teacher thus there is no clear gauge of the difference in strength between them. Shusaku, for example, had a plus score against Ōta Yūzo but still found him a tough opponent, while Shuwa beat him easily.
Only two other people have been given the title "Go Sage" (Kisei) in addition to Shusaku, the others being Honinbō Dosaku (1645–1702) and Honinbo Jowa (1787–1847). However, Jowa's title was posthumously revoked due to a biased account of his machinations (in the Zain Danso) towards obtaining the post of Meijin Godokoro. Today, Shusaku's reputation is more balanced in Japan, where a wide number of texts on Shusaku and Jowa have since been published, but remains somewhat inflated in the West where the sources are more sparse.
Early years
He was born on the island of Innoshima near the town of Onomichi, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan to a merchant, Kuwabara Wazo. Asano Tadahiro, lord of Mihara Castle, became his patron after playing a game with him, and allowed him to study under Lord Asano's personal trainer, the priest Hoshin, a player of professional level.
In 1837, at age 8, Shusaku was already almost a player of professional caliber. He left home to join the Honinbō school (the most important institute in the game of Go in Japan at the time having produced the Go Saint Dosaku and many Meijins) officially as a student of Honinbo Jowa but his study would mainly be with senior students. On January 3, 1840, he received his shodan (first dan) professional diploma.
Meteoric rise
In 1840 Shusaku left Edo and returned to his home for a period of over a year. In the following years, he made steady progress up the ranks, reaching 4 dan in 1844, after which he again returned home for a prolonged period. In April–May 1846, returning to Edo, he played against Gennan Inseki, arguably the strongest player of that time. Shusaku played with a handicap of two stones, but Gennan found that Shusaku was too strong, so he called off the game. A new game was started with Shusaku just playing black, the ear-reddening game. Gennan played a new joseki (opening variation in a corner), and Shusaku erred in responding. He fought back hard, but still by the time of the middlegame, all the people watching the game thought Gennan was winning, except for one, a doctor. He admitted that he was not skilled in Go, but noticed that Gennan's ears became red after a certain move by Shusaku, a sign that Gennan was surprised. In the end, Shusaku won the game by two points.
Returning to Edo, Shusaku was not only promoted to 5-dan, but he was also made the official heir of Honinbo Shuwa, who was to become the head of the Honinbo house. Shusaku declined at first, citing his obligations to Lord Asano as the reason. After that issue was settled, Shusaku accepted. As the official heir to the head of the Honinbo house, Shusaku had an eminent position. His grade also increased, he finally reached 7-dan, although it is not known exactly when—some think in 1849 while others say in 1853. After forcing his main rival and friend Ōta Yūzo to take a handicap, he was generally accepted to be the strongest player with the exception of Shuwa.
Sanjubango
In 1853, a group of players gathered in a mansion in Edo. The players were Yasui Sanchi, Ito Showa, Sakaguchi Sentoku, Hattori Seitetsu, and Ōta Yūzo. They were discussing Shusaku, to the point where they had come to the idea that Shusaku was the strongest player of the time, but Ota did not agree. He said he was in the middle of a series of games with Shusaku, tied at 3 apiece. Akai Gorosaku, who was a famous sponsor of Go during the time, had heard this and decided to sponsor an unheard of 30-game go competition (a Sanjubango) between Ota and Shusaku. The series had begun in 1853, when Ota was 46 and a 7 dan, while Shusaku was 24 years old and a 6 dan. The games were played once a week, faster than a typical 10-game match. Ota was doing well until the 11th game, when Shusaku started to fight back. Ota was behind by 4 games after the 17th game. The 21st game was played in July, but the 22nd game was not played until October of that year, a reason of which is not known. The 22nd game was played in Ota's house, which was different from the others, considering they were played in more neutral venues. Ota had lost once more, and the venue was changed to a more neutral one. It is believed, however, the 23rd game, was fixed. It had lasted almost 24 straight hours, and had resulted in a tie. It saved Ota from embarrassment. It was thought as a great achievement, having a tie after taking white, so much that it was used, along with Shusaku's calling up for the castle games, as an excuse to adjourn the match.
Death and legacy
In 1862, a cholera epidemic swept through Japan. Shusaku tended the patients within the Honinbō house, and fell ill himself, dying of it on September 3 at the age of 33.
Shusaku's name is connected to the Shusaku fuseki, a certain method of opening the game on black, which was developed to perfection (but not invented) by him, and was the basis of the popular opening style up to the 1930s.
Shusaku is also remembered by the Shusaku number, an equivalent of the Erdős number for Go players.
On 6 June 2014, a Google doodle commemorated Shusaku's 185th birthday. This caused controversy in the United Kingdom, as it was felt that preempting the 70th anniversary of the Normandy landings to honour a Japanese person was impolitic. Google.uk was hurriedly amended.
Fiction
In the manga and anime series Hikaru no Go, Shusaku discovered the spirit of fictional Go player Fujiwara-no-Sai. Shusaku became the medium through which Sai played the great games ascribed to Shusaku.
References
Further reading
John Power, Invincible: The Games of Shusaku,
Honinbo Shusaku – Complete Game Collection,
External links
Sensei's Library
Daily Yomiuri article
Game collection (SGFs)
Gobase player stats and games listing
1829 births
1862 deaths
Japanese Go players
Deaths from cholera
|
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204672
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20ministers%20of%20Denmark
|
List of prime ministers of Denmark
|
The Prime Minister of Denmark is the head of government of the Kingdom of Denmark and leader of the Cabinet; since 1918 they have held the title of "Minister of State" (). The Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Monarch, who is head of state.
The highest ranking non-monarchial offices prior to 1848 are regarded as predecessors of the modern office of Prime Minister. There have been several titles used; "King's Chancellor", "Chancellor of the Realm", "Grand Chancellor", "Privy Councillor", "Prime Minister", "Council President", and Minister of State, once again. Each Prime Minister since 1848 has been the leader of one or more cabinets (for a complete list see Cabinet of Denmark).
Denmark's current Prime Minister is Mette Frederiksen representing the social democratic party Socialdemokratiet. Mette Frederiksen took office on 27 June 2019, taking over the position from Lars Løkke Rasmussen, representing the liberal party Venstre. Frederiksen is also the second female Prime Minister in the history of the country, after fellow socialist party colleague Helle Thorning-Schmidt who served from 2011 to 2015.
List of Grand Chancellors (1676–1730)
Key:
† Died in office
List of Privy Councillors (1730–1848)
Key:
† Died in office
List of prime ministers (1848–1855)
Prime ministers under Frederik VII (1848–1855)
Key:
† Died in office
List of Council Presidents (1855–1918)
Council Presidents under Frederik VII (1855–1863)
Key:
† Died in office
Council Presidents under Christian IX (1863–1906)
Key:
† Died in office
Council Presidents under Frederik VIII (1906–1912)
Council Presidents under Christian X (1912–1947)
List of ministers of State (1918–present)
Prime ministers under Christian X (1912–1947)
Key:
† Died in office
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=2|
! rowspan=2| Portrait
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Prime Minister(Born-Died)
! colspan=3| Term
! rowspan=2 width=15%| Political Party
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Election
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Coalition
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Cabinet
|-
! width=11%|Took office
! width=11%|Left office
! width=10%|Duration
|-style="text-align:center;"
| colspan=10|No Danish government (29 August 1943 – 5 May 1945). Office is assumed by the permanent secretary.
Prime ministers under Frederik IX (1947–1972)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=2|
! rowspan=2| Portrait
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Prime Minister(Born-Died)
! colspan=3| Term
! rowspan=2 width=15%| Political Party
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Election
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Coalition
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Cabinet
|-
! width=11%|Took office
! width=11%|Left office
! width=10%|Duration
Prime ministers under Margrethe II (1972–present)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=2|
! rowspan=2| Portrait
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Prime Minister(Born-Died)
! colspan=3| Term
! rowspan=2 width=15%| Political Party
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Election
! rowspan=2 width=10%| Coalition
! rowspan=2 width=20%| Cabinet
|-
! width=11%|Took office
! width=11%|Left office
! width=10%|Duration
Timeline (1848–present)
This is a graphical lifespan timeline of prime ministers of Denmark. The prime ministers are listed in order of office.
<div style="overflow:auto">
See also
Politics of Denmark
History of Denmark
List of Danish monarchs
Lists of office-holders
Prime Minister of Norway
Prime Minister of Sweden
Prime Minister of Finland
Notes
References
List of Danish heads of government from the Prime Ministers Office
A similar list from the Danish Foreign Ministry, including the PM's party tag
Lists of Danish governments since 1848
World Statesmen: Denmark (lists all Danish ruling monarchs from 899 on, and non-monarchial heads of government from 1699 on).
Prime ministers
Denmark, List of prime ministers of
Prime ministers
id:Daftar Perdana Menteri Denmark
jv:Perdhana Mentri Denmark
pl:Premierzy Danii
zh:丹麦首相列表
|
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] |
204673
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFA
|
IFA
|
IFA or Ifa may refer to:
Organisations
Economics
Independent financial adviser, a type of financial services professional in the UK
Index Fund Advisors
Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, representing actuaries in the UK
Institute of Actuaries, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
Faculty of Actuaries, in Scotland
Institute of Financial Accountants, representing accountants in the UK
International Fiscal Association
International Forfaiting Association
Sports
Indian Football Association, West Bengal, India
Indoor Football Alliance
Intercollegiate Fencing Association
Intercollegiate Football Association, college football organization, 1873–1893
International Fistball Association
Iraq Football Association
Irish Football Association, in Northern Ireland
Islamabad Football Association
Israel Football Association
Other organizations
India Foundation for the Arts, a philanthropic organization
India–Albania Friendship Association, in India
Indo-GDR Friendship Association, in India
Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau, East German vehicle manufacturer
Institute for Archaeologists, in the UK
Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii group that maintains the Mauna Kea Observatory
Institute for Astronomy (Edinburgh)
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance, a German research institute near Bonn
International Federation on Ageing
International Fertilizer Industry Association, represents the global fertilizer industry
International of Anarchist Federations, L'international des Federations Anarchistes
Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin, a consumer electronics trade fair
Irish Farmers' Association
New York University Institute of Fine Arts, a graduate school of New York University
Other uses
Ifá, a system of divination that originated in West Africa
Inter-Island Ferry Authority, a ferry service in Alaska
Interconnexion France-Angleterre, a system for the transfer of electricity between France and England
Interest Flooding Attack, a denial-of-service attack
Interferometer, a device to measure the interference pattern caused by differing waves
Indirect Fluorescent Antibody, test
Incomplete Freund's adjuvant, an antigen solution to boost the immune system
In-Flight Abort, test in spaceflight industry
See also
Aífe, a character in Irish mythology
Aoife, an Irish given name
Ivar F. Andresen (1896–1940), Norwegian opera singer
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunhuang
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Dunhuang
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Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major stop on the ancient Silk Road and is best known for the nearby Mogao Caves. It has also been known at times as Shazhou and, in Uyghur, Dukhan.
Dunhuang is situated in an oasis containing Crescent Lake and Mingsha Shan (, meaning "Singing-Sand Mountain"), named after the sound of the wind whipping off the dunes, the singing sand phenomenon. Dunhuang commands a strategic position at the crossroads of the ancient Southern Silk Route and the main road leading from India via Lhasa to Mongolia and Southern Siberia, and also controls the entrance to the narrow Hexi Corridor, which leads straight to the heart of the north Chinese plains and the ancient capitals of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an) and Luoyang.
Administratively, the county-level city of Dunhuang is part of the prefecture-level city of Jiuquan. The city's seat of government is located in the town of .
Etymology
A number of derivations of the name Dunhuang have been suggested by scholars:
Giles 1892: ‘artificial mound, tumulus, beacon mound, square block of stone or wood’ + ‘blazing, bright, luminous’.
Mathews (1931) 1944: , now usually ‘regard as important, to esteem; honest, sincere, generous’ + ‘a great blaze; luminous, glittering’.
McGraw-Hill 1963: (‘honest + shining’).
Jáo and Demieville 1971 (French, Airs de Touen-houang): () ‘noise of burning’ + ‘great blaze’ [per Mathews].
Lín Yǚtáng 1972: () ‘small mound (+ shining)’ or () ‘to shimmer (+ shining)’.
Kāngxī 1716: , also [t = t’].
Mair 1977, Ptolemy's c. 150 Geography refers to Dunhuang as Greek Θροανα (Throana), possibly from Iranian druvana meaning something like "fortress for tax collecting."
History
There is evidence of habitation in the area as early as 2,000 BC, possibly by people recorded as the Qiang in Chinese history. Its name was also mentioned in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi in the Records of the Grand Historian. Some have argued that this may refer to the unrelated toponym Dunhong – the archaeologist Lin Meicun has also suggested that Dunhuan may be a Chinese name for the Tukhara, a people widely believed to be a Central Asian offshoot of the Yuezhi.
By the third century BC, the area became dominated by the Xiongnu, but came under Chinese rule during the Han dynasty after Emperor Wu defeated the Xiongnu in 121 BC.
Dunhuang was one of the four frontier garrison towns (along with Jiuquan, Zhangye and Wuwei) established by the Emperor Wu after the defeat of the Xiongnu, and the Chinese built fortifications at Dunhuang and sent settlers there. The name Dunhuang, meaning "Blazing Beacon", refers to the beacons lit to warn of attacks by marauding nomadic tribes. Dunhuang Commandery was probably established shortly after 104 BC. Located in the western end of the Hexi Corridor near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads, Dunhuang was a town of military importance."The Great Wall was extended to Dunhuang, and a line of fortified beacon towers stretched westwards into the desert. By the second century AD Dunhuang had a population of more than 76,000 and was a key supply base for caravans that passed through the city: those setting out for the arduous trek across the desert loaded up with water and food supplies, and others arriving from the west gratefully looked upon the mirage-like sight of Dunhuang's walls, which signified safety and comfort. Dunhuang prospered on the heavy flow of traffic. The first Buddhist caves in the Dunhuang area were hewn in 353."
During the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, it was the main stop of communication between ancient China and the rest of the world and a major hub of commerce of the Silk Road. Dunhuang was the intersection city of all three main silk routes (north, central, south) during this time.
From the West also came early Buddhist monks, who had arrived in China by the first century AD, and a sizable Buddhist community eventually developed in Dunhuang. The caves carved out by the monks, originally used for meditation, developed into a place of worship and pilgrimage called the Mogao Caves or "Caves of a Thousand Buddhas." A number of Christian, Jewish, and Manichaean artifacts have also been found in the caves (see for example Jingjiao Documents), testimony to the wide variety of people who made their way along the Silk Road.
During the time of the Sixteen Kingdoms, Li Gao established the Western Liang here in 400 AD. In 405 the capital of the Western Liang was moved from Dunhuang to Jiuquan. In 421 the Western Liang was conquered by the Northern Liang.
As a frontier town, Dunhuang was fought over and occupied at various times by non-Han people. After the fall of Han Dynasty it came under the rule of various nomadic tribes, such as the Xiongnu during Northern Liang and the Turkic Tuoba during Northern Wei. The Tibetans occupied Dunhuang when the Tang Empire became weakened considerably after the An Lushan Rebellion; and even though it was later returned to Tang rule, it was under quasi-autonomous rule by the local general Zhang Yichao, who expelled the Tibetans in 848. After the fall of Tang, Zhang's family formed the Kingdom of Golden Mountain in 910, but in 911 it came under the influence of the Uighurs. The Zhangs were succeeded by the Cao family, who formed alliances with the Uighurs and the Kingdom of Khotan. During the Song dynasty, Dunhuang fell outside the Chinese borders. In 1036 the Tanguts who founded the Western Xia dynasty captured Dunhuang. From the reconquest of 848 to about 1036 (i.e. era of the Guiyi Circuit), Dunhuang was a multicultural entrepot that contained one of the largest ethnic Sogdian communities in China following the An Lushan Rebellion. The Sogdians were Sinified to some extent and were bilingual in Chinese and Sogdian, and wrote their documents in Chinese characters, but horizontally from left to right instead of right to left in vertical lines, as Chinese was normally written at the time.
Dunhuang was conquered in 1227 by the Mongols, who sacked and destroyed the town, and the rebuilt town became part of the Mongol Empire in the wake of Kublai Khan's conquest of China under the Yuan dynasty. Dunhuang went into a steep decline after the Chinese trade with the outside world became dominated by Southern sea-routes, and the Silk Road was officially abandoned during the Ming dynasty. It was occupied again by the Tibetans c. 1516, and also came under the influence of the Chagatai Khanate in the early sixteenth century. It was retaken by China two centuries later c. 1715 during the Qing dynasty, and the present-day city of Dunhuang was established east of the ruined old city in 1725. In 1988, Dunhuang was elevated from county to county-level city status. On March 31, 1995, Turpan and Dunhuang became sister cities.
Today, the site is an important tourist attraction and the subject of an ongoing archaeological project. A large number of manuscripts and artifacts retrieved at Dunhuang have been digitized and made publicly available via the International Dunhuang Project. The spreading Kumtag Desert, the result of long-standing overgrazing of the surrounding land, has reached the edges of the city.
In 2011 satellite images showing huge structures in the desert near Dunhuang surfaced online and caused a brief media stir.
Culture
Buddhist caves
A number of Buddhist cave sites are located in the Dunhuang area, the most important of these is the Mogao Caves which is located southeast of Dunhuang. There are 735 caves in Mogao, and the caves in Mogao are particularly noted for their Buddhist art, as well as the hoard of manuscripts, the Dunhuang manuscripts, found hidden in a sealed-up cave. Many of these caves were covered with murals and contain many Buddhist statues. Discoveries continue to be found in the caves, including excerpts from a Christian Bible dating to the Yuan Dynasty.
Numerous smaller Buddhist cave sites are located in the region, including the Western Thousand Buddha Caves, the Eastern Thousands Buddha Caves, and the Five Temple site. The Yulin Caves are located further east in Guazhou County.
Other historical sites
Crescent Lake and Singing Sand Dunes
The Yumen Pass, built in 111 BC, located northwest of Dunhuang in the Gobi desert.
The Yang Pass
White Horse Pagoda
Dunhuang Limes
Museums
Dunhuang County Museum
Night market
Dunhuang Night Market is a night market held on the main thoroughfare, Dong Dajie, in the city centre of Dunhuang, popular with tourists during the summer months. Many souvenir items are sold, including such typical items as jade, jewelry, scrolls, hangings, small sculptures, leather shows puppets, coins, Tibetan horns and Buddha statues. A sizable number of members of China's ethnic minorities engage in business at these markets. A Central Asian dessert or sweet is also sold, consisting of a large, sweet confection made with nuts and dried fruit, sliced into the portion desired by the customer.
Geography
Climate
Dunhuang has a cool arid climate (Köppen BWk), with an annual total precipitation of , the majority of which occurs in summer; precipitation occurs only in trace amounts and quickly evaporates. Winters are long and freezing, with a 24-hour average temperature of in January, while summers are hot, with a July average of ; the annual mean is . The diurnal temperature variation averages annually. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 69% in March to 82% in October, the city receives 3,258 hours of bright sunshine annually, making it one of the sunniest nationwide.
The Gansu Dunhuang Solar Park was built in the southwest suburbs of the city to harvest the abundant solar energy.
Administrative divisions
As of 2020, Dunhuang administers nine towns and one other township-level division. These township-level divisions then administer 56 village-level divisions.
Towns
The city's nine towns are , , , , , , , , and .
Other township-level divisions
The city's sole other township-level division is .
Historical divisions
Prior to 2015, and were administered as townships. Prior to 2019, the city administered as a township-level division. In 2011, was formed from Yangjiaqiao Township ().
Demographics
2019 city estimates put Dunhuang's population at about 191,800. According to the 2010 Chinese census, Dunhuang has a population of 186,027, down slightly from the 187,578 recorded in the 2000 Chinese Census. In 1996, the city had an estimated population of 125,000 people.
Dunhuang has an urbanization rate of 69.45% as of 2019.
In 2019, the city had a birth rate of 9.87‰, and a death rate of 5.69‰, giving it a rate of natural increase of 3.15‰.
97.8% of the city's population is ethnically Han Chinese, with the remaining 2.2% being 27 ethnic minorities, including ethnic Hui, Mongol, Tibetan, Uyghur, Miao, Manchu, Monguor, Kazakh, Dongxiang, and Yugur populations.
As of 2019, the annual per capita disposable income of urban residents was ¥36,215, and the annual per capita disposable income of rural residents was ¥18,852.
Economy
As of 2019, Dunhuang has a gross domestic product of ¥8.178 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥0.994 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.872 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥5.312 billion.
As of 2020, Dunhuang has a gross domestic product of ¥7.778 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥1.082 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.752 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥4.943 billion.
Transportation
Dunhuang is served by China National Highway 215 and Dunhuang Mogao International Airport,
A railway branch known as the Dunhuang railway or the Liudun Railway (), constructed in 2004–2006, connects Dunhuang with the Liugou Station on the Lanzhou-Xinjiang railway (in Guazhou County). There is regular passenger service on the line, with overnight trains from Dunhuang to Lanzhou and Xi'an. Dunhuang Station is located northeast of town, near the airport.
The railway from Dunhuang was extended south into Qinghai, connecting Dunhuang to Subei, Mahai and Yinmaxia (near Golmud) on the Qingzang railway. The central section of this railway opened on 18 December 2019 completing the through route.
See also
Three hares (as a decorative motif)
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites (Gansu)
Bhadrakalpikasutra
Dunhuang Star Chart
Aurel Stein
Mogao caves
Paul Pelliot
Yangguan
Yueyaquan
Gallery
Footnotes
References
Baumer, Christoph. 2000. Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin. White Orchid Books. Bangkok.
Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
Bonavia, Judy (2004): The Silk Road From Xi'an to Kashgar. Judy Bonavia – revised by Christoph Baumer. 2004. Odyssey Publications.
Cable, Mildred and Francesca French (1943): The Gobi Desert. London. Landsborough Publications.
Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 853–77.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. Weilue: The Peoples of the West
Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden.
Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (AD 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965.
Lok, Wai-ying. (2012). The significance of Dunhuang iconography from the perspective of Buddhist philosophy: a study mainly based on Cave 45 (PDF) (PhD Dissertation). The University of Hong Kong.
Lovell, Julia (2006). The Great Wall : China against the World. 1000 BC — AD 2000. Atlantic Books, London. .
Mair, Victor. 2019. Greeks in ancient Central Asia: the Ionians. Language Log, 20 October 2019.
Skrine, C. P. (1926). Chinese Central Asia. Methuen, London. Reprint: Barnes & Noble, New York. 1971. .
Stein, Aurel M. 1907. Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford. National Institute of Informatics / Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books - Digital Silk Road Project
Stein, Aurel M. 1921. Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980. National Institute of Informatics / Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books - Digital Silk Road Project
Watson, Burton (1993). Records of the Grand Historian of China. Han Dynasty II. (Revised Edition). New York, Columbia University Press.
Watters, Thomas (1904–1905). On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India. London. Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint: 1973.
External links
The International Dunhuang Project - includes tens of thousands of digitised manuscripts and paintings from Dunhuang, along with historical photographs and archival material
Dunhuang at the British Museum (accessed 30 Jan 2018)
Qianfodong at the British Museum (accessed 30 Jan 2018)
Dunhuang Collection at the National Museum of India
Central Asian Buddhist sites
Populated places along the Silk Road
Cities in Gansu
Oases of China
Populated places established in the 2nd century BC
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Iowa%20%28BB-61%29
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USS Iowa (BB-61)
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USS Iowa (BB-61) is a retired battleship, the lead ship of her class, and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named after the state of Iowa. Owing to the cancellation of the s, Iowa is the last lead ship of any class of United States battleships and was the only ship of her class to serve in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II.
During World War II, she carried President Franklin D. Roosevelt across the Atlantic to Mers El Kébir, Algeria, en route to a conference of vital importance in 1943 in Tehran with Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom and Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union. When transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944, Iowa shelled beachheads at Kwajalein and Eniwetok in advance of Allied amphibious landings and screened aircraft carriers operating in the Marshall Islands. She also served as the Third Fleet flagship, flying Admiral William F. Halsey's flag at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay.
During the Korean War, Iowa was involved in raids on the North Korean coast, after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets, better known as the "mothball fleet." She was reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan and operated in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets to counter the recently expanded Soviet Navy. In April 1989, an explosion of undetermined origin wrecked her No. 2 gun turret, killing 47 sailors.
Iowa was decommissioned for the last time in October 1990 after 19 total years of active service, and was initially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) in 1995, before being reinstated from 1999 to 2006 to comply with federal laws that required retention and maintenance of two Iowa-class battleships. In 2011 Iowa was donated to the Los Angeles–based non-profit Pacific Battleship Center and was permanently moved to Berth 87 at the Port of Los Angeles in 2012, where she was opened to the public as the USS Iowa Museum.
Construction
Ordered in July 1939, USS Iowa was laid down at New York Naval Shipyard in June 1940. She was launched on 27 August 1942, sponsored by Ilo Wallace (wife of Vice President Henry Wallace), and commissioned on 22 February 1943 with Captain John L. McCrea in command.
USS Iowas main battery consisted of nine /50 caliber Mark 7 guns, which could fire armor-piercing shells . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty /38 cal guns in twin mounts, which could fire at targets up to away. With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of Allied aircraft carriers; to this end, Iowa was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns to defend Allied carriers from enemy airstrikes.
World War II (1943–1945)
Shakedown and service with the Atlantic Fleet
On 24 February 1943, Iowa put to sea for a shakedown cruise in the Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic coast. She got underway on 27 August for Argentia, Newfoundland, to counter the threat of the German battleship which was reportedly operating in Norwegian waters, before returning to the United States on 25 October for two weeks of maintenance at the Norfolk Navy Yard.
In November 1943, Iowa carried President Roosevelt, Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Chief of Staff Admiral William D. Leahy, Chief of Staff of the Army General George C. Marshall, Chief of Naval Operations Ernest King, Commanding General of the US Army Air Forces Henry "Hap" Arnold, Harry Hopkins, and other military leaders to Mers El Kébir, Algeria, on the first leg of the journey to the Tehran Conference. Among the vessels escorting Iowa on this trip was the destroyer which was involved in several mishaps, the most serious of which involved a torpedo drill which went awry when a torpedo from William D. Porter discharged from its tube and headed toward Iowa. On being warned, Iowa turned hard to avoid being hit by the torpedo and the torpedo detonated in the ship's wake. Iowa was undamaged and trained her main guns on William D. Porter, concerned that the smaller ship may have been involved in some sort of assassination plot.
Iowa completed her presidential escort mission on 16 December by returning the President to the United States. Roosevelt addressed the crew of Iowa prior to leaving by stating, "... from all I have seen and all I have heard, the Iowa is a 'happy ship,' and having served with the Navy for many years, I know—and you know—what that means." He also touched on the progress made at the conference before concluding his address with "... good luck, and remember that I am with you in spirit, each and every one of you."
Service with Battleship Division 7, Admiral Lee
As flagship of Battleship Division 7 (BatDiv 7), Iowa departed the United States on 2 January 1944 for the Pacific Ocean, transiting the Panama Canal on 7 January in advance of her combat debut in the campaign for the Marshall Islands. From 29 January to 3 February, she supported carrier air strikes made by Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman's Task Group 58.3 (TG 58.3) against Kwajalein and Eniwetok atolls. Her next assignment was to support air strikes against the major Japanese naval and logistics base at Truk, Caroline Islands. Iowa, in company with other ships, was detached from the support group on 16 February 1944 to conduct an anti-shipping sweep around Truk, with the objective of destroying enemy naval vessels escaping to the north. During this action, Iowa, along with her sister New Jersey, sank the Japanese light cruiser , the cruiser having escaped Truk the day before following Operation Hailstone, the US air attack on Truk.
On 21 February, she was underway with the Fast Carrier Task Force (alternatively designated TF 38 while with 3rd Fleet and TF 58 while with 5th Fleet) while it conducted the first strikes against Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Guam in the Mariana Islands.
On 18 March 1944, Iowa, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee (Commander, Battleships, Pacific), joined in the bombardment of Mili Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Although struck by two Japanese projectiles, Iowa suffered negligible damage. She then rejoined TF 58 on 30 March, and supported air strikes against the Palau Islands and Woleai of the Carolines for several days.
From 22 to 28 April, Iowa supported air raids on Hollandia (now known as Jayapura), Aitape, and Wake Islands to support Army forces on Aitape and at Tanahmerah and Humboldt Bays in New Guinea. She then joined the Task Force's second strike on Truk, on 29 and 30 April, and bombarded Japanese facilities on Ponape in the Carolines on 1 May.
In the opening phases of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, Iowa protected the American carriers during air strikes on the islands of Saipan, Tinian, Guam, Rota, and Pagan Island on 12 June. Iowa was then detached to bombard enemy installations on Saipan and Tinian on 13–14 June, which resulted in the destruction of a Japanese ammunition dump. On 19 June, in an engagement known as the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Iowa, as part of the battle line of TF 58, helped repel four massive air raids launched by the Japanese Middle Fleet. This resulted in the almost complete destruction of Japanese carrier-based air-forces, with Iowa claiming the destruction of three enemy aircraft. Iowa then joined in the pursuit of the fleeing enemy fleet, shooting down one torpedo plane and assisting in splashing another.
Throughout July, Iowa remained off the Marianas supporting air strikes on the Palaus and landings on Guam. After a month's rest, Iowa sailed from Eniwetok as part of the Third Fleet, and helped support the landings on Peleliu on 17 September. She then protected the carriers during air strikes against the Central Philippines to neutralize enemy air power for the long-awaited invasion of the Philippines. On 10 October, Iowa arrived off Okinawa for a series of air strikes on the Ryukyu Islands and Formosa. She then supported air strikes against Luzon on 18 October and continued this duty during General Douglas MacArthur's landing on Leyte on 20 October.
In a last-ditch attempt to halt the United States campaign to recapture the Philippines, the Imperial Japanese Navy struck back with Shō-Gō 1, a three-pronged attack aimed at the destruction of American amphibious forces in Leyte Gulf. The plan called for Vice-Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa to use the surviving Japanese carriers as bait to draw US carriers of TF 38 away from the Philippine beachheads, allowing Imperial Japanese Admirals Takeo Kurita, Kiyohide Shima, and Shōji Nishimura to take surface task forces through the San Bernardino Strait and Surigao Strait, where they would rendezvous and attack the US beachheads. Iowa accompanied TF 38 during attacks against the Japanese Central Force under the command of Admiral Kurita as it steamed through the Sibuyan Sea toward San Bernardino Strait. The reported results of these attacks and the apparent retreat of the Japanese Central Force led Admiral William "Bull" Halsey to believe that this force had been ruined as an effective fighting group; as a result, Iowa, with TF 38, steamed after the Japanese Northern Force off Cape Engaño, Luzon. On 25 October 1944, when the ships of the Northern Force were almost within range of Iowas guns, word arrived that the Japanese Central Force was attacking a group of American escort carriers off Samar. This threat to the American beachheads forced TF 38 to reverse course and steam to support the vulnerable escort carrier fleet, but fierce resistance by the 7th Fleet in the Battle off Samar had already caused the Japanese to retire and Iowa was denied a surface action. Following the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Iowa remained in the waters off the Philippines screening carriers during strikes against Luzon and Formosa. She sailed for the West Coast late in December 1944.
On 18 December, the ships of TF 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force—7 fleet carriers, 6 light carriers, 8 battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers—during their attempt to refuel at sea. At the time, the ships were operating about east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea. The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields, suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines. The task force rendezvoused with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group on 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft.
Although the sea had been growing rougher all day, the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach. On 18 December, the small but violent typhoon overtook the task force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel. Many of the vessels were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane-force winds. Three destroyers—, , and —capsized and sank with nearly all hands, while a cruiser, five aircraft carriers, and three destroyers suffered serious damage. Approximately 790 officers and men were lost or killed, with another 80 injured. Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars, and some 146 planes on various ships were swept overboard or damaged beyond economical repair by fires or impacts. Iowa reported zero injured sailors as a result of the typhoon, but suffered a loss of one of her float planes, and damage to one of her shafts. The damaged shaft required Iowa to return to the US, and she arrived at San Francisco on 15 January 1945, for repairs. During the course of the overhaul Iowa had her bridge area enclosed, and was outfitted with new search radars and fire-control systems.
Bombardment of Japan
Iowa sailed on 19 March 1945 for Okinawa, arriving on 15 April to relieve her sister ship . From 24 April, Iowa supported carrier operations which aimed to establish and maintain air superiority for ground forces during their struggle for the island. She then supported air strikes off southern Kyūshū from 25 May to 13 June. Afterward, she sailed toward northern Honshū and Hokkaidō, and participated in strikes on the Japanese home islands on 14–15 July by bombarding Muroran, Hokkaidō, destroying steel mills and other targets. The city of Hitachi on Honshū was shelled beginning the night of 17 July and lasting to 18 July. On 29 and 30 July, Iowa trained her guns on Kahoolawe for a bombardment and continued to support fast carrier strikes until the cessation of hostilities on 15 August.
On 27 August, Iowa and her sister ship entered Sagami Bay to oversee the surrender of the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Two days later, she entered Tokyo Bay with the occupation forces. Here, a number of sailors from Missouri were temporarily stationed on Iowa for the duration of the surrender ceremony which took place aboard Missouri. After serving as Admiral Halsey's flagship for the surrender ceremony on 2 September, Iowa remained in the bay as part of the occupying force. As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet, she received homeward bound GIs and liberated US prisoners of war before departing Tokyo Bay on 20 September, bound for the United States.
Post–World War II (1945–1949)
Iowa arrived in Seattle, Washington, on 15 October 1945, then sailed for Long Beach, California, where she engaged in training operations until returning to Japan in 1946 to serve as flagship for the 5th Fleet. She returned to the United States on 25 March 1946 and resumed her role as a training ship. During her usual routine of drills and maneuvers she also embarked Naval Reserve elements and midshipmen for training. In October, Iowa underwent a period of overhaul and modernization, which resulted in the addition of the SK-2 Radar and the loss of a number of 20 mm and 40 mm gun mounts. In July, following the Bikini atomic experiments, the old battleship was selected as a target for a live fire exercise to be carried out by Iowa and other sea and air assets of the navy. The exercise began with separate shellings from a destroyer, heavy cruiser, and Iowa, but this did not sink the ship, and so Nevada was finished off with one aerial torpedo hit amidships, sinking her from Pearl Harbor on 31 July 1948. In September 1948, as part of the post World War II drawdown of the armed forces, Iowa was deactivated at San Francisco, and then formally decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets on 24 March 1949.
Korean War (1951–52)
In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, prompting the United Nations to authorize military intervention. President Harry S. Truman ordered US forces stationed in Japan to transfer to South Korea. Truman also sent US based troops, tanks, fighter and bomber aircraft, and a strong naval force to the area to support South Korea. As part of the naval mobilization, Iowa was reactivated on 14 July 1951, and formally recommissioned on 25 August, with Captain William R. Smedberg III, in command. Iowa sailed for Korean waters in March 1952. On 1 April she relieved her sister ship and became the flagship of Vice Admiral Robert P. Briscoe, Commander of the Seventh Fleet. In her first combat operation of the Korean War, Iowa fired her main guns near Wonsan–Sŏngjin on 8 April 1952, with the goal of striking North Korean supply lines. In the company of other naval vessels Iowa again engaged North Korean forces the following day, this time against enemy troop concentrations, supply areas, and suspected gun positions in and around Suwon Dan and Kojo. In support of South Korea's I Corps, Iowa shelled enemy positions on 13 April, killing 100 enemy soldiers, destroying six gun emplacements, and wrecking a division headquarters. The next day she entered Wonsan Harbor and shelled warehouses, observation posts and railroad marshaling yards before moving out to rejoin the UN flotilla aiding ground forces around Kosong. On 20 April, in her first combat action above the 38th parallel, Iowa shelled railroad lines at Tanchon, where four railroad tunnels were destroyed, before sailing to Chindong and Kosong for a two-day bombardment of North Korean positions.
On 25 May Iowa, following her sister ship Missouris example, arrived in the waters off Chongjin, a North Korean industrial center approximately from the Russian border. Upon arrival, Iowa proceeded to shell the industrial and rail transportation centers in Chongjin, after which she moved south to aid the US X Corps. En route to US positions, Iowa again bombarded Sŏngjin, destroying several railroad tunnels and bridges in the area. On 28 May, Iowa rejoined the main body of the US fleet supporting the X Corps, heavily shelling several islands in Wonsan Harbor.
Throughout June, Iowa trained her guns on targets at Mayang-do, Tanchon, Chongjin, Chodo–Sokcho and the ports of Hŭngnam and Wonsan in support of the UN and South Korean forces. On 9 June, a helicopter from Iowa rescued a downed pilot from the carrier . At the time, Princeton was operating with TF 77, and with other carriers in the task force who were involved in a bombing campaign against North Korean supply lines, troop concentrations, and infrastructure; additionally, the carriers were flying close air support missions for ground forces fighting against the North Korean forces. In July, Iowa received a new skipper, Captain Joshua W. Cooper, who assumed command of the battleship for the remainder of her Korean War tour.
On 20 August, Iowa took aboard nine wounded men from the destroyer after Thompson was hit by a Chinese artillery battery while shelling enemy positions at Sŏngjin. At the time, Iowa was operating south of Sŏngjin, and after receiving the wounded destroyer crewmen, Iowa covered Thompson as she retreated into safer waters.
On 23 September, General Mark W. Clark, the Commander-In-Chief of United Nations Forces in Korea, came aboard Iowa. Clark observed Iowa in action as her guns shelled the Wonsan area for a third time, accounting for the destruction of a major enemy ammunition dump. On 25 September, Iowa fired her guns at an enemy railroad and 30-car train. The following month, Iowa was part of the force involved in Operation Decoy, a feint to draw enemy troops into Kojo and bring them within striking distance of the battleships' big guns. During the operation, Iowa provided anti-aircraft support to , an amphibious force command ship.
In October 1952 Iowa was serving as flagship for the Commander, Seventh Fleet, and she engaged in 43 gun strikes on targets in the areas of Wonsan, Songjin, Kojo, Chaho, Toejo, Simpo, Hungnam and northern Inchon North Korea, and in 27 bombline operations. During these operations, 16,689 rounds were fired from her main and secondary batteries on enemy installations. This action established eligibility for the United Nations Service Medal and the Korean Service Medal with one bronze star.
Post–Korean War (1953–1958)
Iowa embarked midshipmen for at-sea training to Northern Europe in July 1953, and shortly afterwards took part in Operation Mariner, a major NATO exercise, serving as flagship of Vice Admiral Edmund T. Wooldridge, commander of the 2nd Fleet. Upon completion of this exercise, Iowa operated in the Virginia Capes area. Later, in September 1954, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral R. E. Libby, Commander, Battleship Cruiser Force, United States Atlantic Fleet.
From January–April 1955, Iowa made an extended cruise to the Mediterranean Sea as the flagship of the Commander, 6th Fleet. She departed on a midshipman training cruise on 1 June, and upon her return entered Norfolk for a four-month overhaul. Afterward, Iowa continued intermittent training cruises and operational exercises, until 4 January 1957 when she departed Norfolk for duty with the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean. Upon completion, Iowa embarked midshipmen for a South American training cruise and joined in the International Naval Review off Hampton Roads, Virginia on 13 June.
On 3 September, Iowa sailed for Scotland for NATO's Exercise Strikeback. She returned to Norfolk on 28 September, and departed Hampton Roads for the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 22 October. She was decommissioned on 24 February 1958 and entered the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Philadelphia.
Reactivation (1982–1990)
As part of President Ronald Reagan's and Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman's effort to create an expanded 600-ship Navy, Iowa was reactivated in 1982 and moved under tow to Avondale Shipyard near New Orleans, Louisiana, for refitting and equipment modernization in advance of her planned recommissioning. During the refit, Iowa had all of her remaining Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns removed, due to their ineffectiveness against modern fighter jets and anti-ship missiles. Additionally, the two gun mounts located at mid-ship and in the aft on the port and starboard sides of the battleship were removed.
Iowa was then towed to Ingalls Shipbuilding, Pascagoula, Mississippi, where over the next several months the battleship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available. Among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles, eight Armored Box Launcher mounts for 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles, and a quartet of Phalanx Close-in weapon system Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti-ship missiles and enemy aircraft. Sometime after June 1986, Iowa was the first battleship to receive the RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). She could carry up to eight of the remotely controlled drones, which replaced the helicopters (although helicopters were not carried by battleships) previously used to spot for her nine 16 inch (410 mm)/50 cal Mark 7 guns. Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire-control systems for her guns and missiles, and improved electronic warfare capabilities. Armed as such, Iowa was formally recommissioned on 28 April 1984, ahead of schedule, within her budget at a cost of $500 million, and under the command of Captain Gerald E. Gneckow. In order to expedite the schedule, many necessary repairs to Iowa engines and guns were not completed and the mandatory Navy Board of Inspection and Survey (InSurv) inspection was skipped.
Shakedown and NATO exercises (1984–1989)
From April to August 1984, Iowa underwent refresher training and naval gunfire support qualifications at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba and the Puerto Rican Operating area. After a short period in her new home port of Norfolk, Virginia, she spent the two periods of time during the rest of 1984 and early 1985 conduction "presence" operations shakedown in the area around Central America. During this time she transited the Panama Canal to operate off the west coast of Central America while also conducting people-to-people humanitarian operations, including in El Salvador, Costa Rica and Honduras, before returning to the United States in April 1985 for a period of routine maintenance.
In August 1985, Iowa joined 160 other ships for Exercise Ocean Safari, a NATO naval exercise aimed at testing NATO's ability to control sea lanes and maintain free passage of shipping. Owing to bad weather, Iowa and the other ships were forced to ride out rough seas, but Iowa made use of the time to practice hiding herself from enemy forces. While serving with the exercise force, Iowa crossed the Arctic Circle. In October, she took part in Baltic operations, and fired her phalanx guns, guns, and guns in the Baltic Sea on 17 October while operating with US and other allied ships. After these operations during which she visited Le Havre in France, Kiel in Germany, Copenhagen (where the current Crown Prince of Denmark visited the ship as a schoolboy) and Aarhus in Denmark, and Oslo in Norway where the King of Norway was entertained at lunch, she returned to the United States.
Beginning on 17 March 1986, Iowa underwent her overdue InSurv inspection. The inspection, which Iowa ultimately failed, was conducted under the supervision of Rear Admiral John D. Bulkeley. Bulkeley found that the ship was unable to achieve her top speed of during a full-power engine run, and recommended to the Chief of Naval Operations and Lehman that Iowa be taken out of service immediately. Rejecting this advice, Lehman instead instructed the leaders of the Atlantic Fleet to ensure that Iowas deficiencies were corrected.
Afterward, Iowa returned to the waters around Central America and conducted drills and exercises while providing a military presence to friendly nations. On 4 July, President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan boarded Iowa for the International Naval Review, which was held in the Hudson River. On 25 April, Captain Larry Ray Seaquist assumed command of the battleship and her crew during Naval Gunfire Support requalification off Vieques Island near Puerto Rico.
On 17 August, Iowa set sail for the North Atlantic, and in September she participated in Exercise Northern Wedding by ferrying Marines ashore and assisting helicopter gunships. During the exercise Iowa fired her main guns at Cape Wrath range in Scotland in support of a simulated amphibious assault on 5–6 September, firing a total of 19 shells and 32 shells during a 10-hour period and operating in rough seas. During the live fire exercise, a small number of Iowa marines were put ashore to monitor the fall of shot and advise the battleship of gunnery corrections. Afterward, Iowa visited ports, including Portsmouth, in England and Germany before returning to the United States in October.
In December, the ship became the test bed for the Navy's RQ-2 Pioneer (UAV). The drone was designed to serve as an aerial spotter for the battleship's guns, thereby allowing the guns to be used against an enemy without the need for an airplane or helicopter spotter. Pioneer passed its tests and made its first deployment that same month aboard Iowa.
From January–September 1987 Iowa operated in the waters in and around Central America and participated in several exercises until sailing for the Mediterranean Sea on 10 September to join the 6th Fleet based there. She remained in the Mediterranean until 22 October, when she was detached from the 6th Fleet and departed for operations in the North Sea. On 25 November, as part of Operation Earnest Will, Iowa transited the Suez Canal and set sail for the Persian Gulf, which at the time was one of the battlefields of the first Gulf War (also referred to as the Iran–Iraq War). The presence of US naval vessels in the gulf was in response to a formal petition from Kuwait, whose ships were being raided by Iranian forces who were attempting to cut off weapons shipments from the United States and Europe to Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq, via Kuwaiti territory. This phase of the war would later be called the "Tanker War" phase of the Iran–Iraq War. Iowa and other vessels operating in the gulf were assigned to escort Kuwaiti tankers from Kuwaiti ports to the open sea, but because US law forbade military escorts for civilian ships flying a foreign flag, the tankers escorted by the United States were reflagged as US merchant vessels and assigned American names. For the remainder of the year Iowa escorted Kuwaiti gas and oil tankers reflagged as US merchant ships from the Persian Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz.
On 20 February 1988, Iowa departed from the Persian Gulf, transited the Suez Canal, and set sail for the United States, arriving at Norfolk on 10 March for routine maintenance. In April, she participated in the annual Fleet Week celebrations before returning to Norfolk for an overhaul. On 26 May, Fred Moosally replaced Larry Seaquist as Captain of Iowa. After the overhaul, Moosally took Iowa on a shakedown cruise around Chesapeake Bay on 25 August. Encountering difficulty in conning the ship through shallow water, Moosally narrowly missed colliding with the frigate , destroyer , and the cruiser before running aground in soft mud outside the bay's main ship channel near the Thimble Shoals. After one hour, Iowa was able to extricate herself without damage and return to port. Iowa continued with sea trials throughout August and September, then began refresher training in the waters around Florida and Puerto Rico in October, during which the ship passed an Operation Propulsion Program Evaluation.
On 20 January 1989, during an improperly authorized gunnery experiment off Vieques Island, Iowa fired a shell , setting a record for the longest-ranged shell ever fired. In February, the battleship sailed for New Orleans for a port visit before departing for Norfolk. On 10 April, the battleship was visited by the commander of the 2nd Fleet, and on 13 April she sailed to participate in a fleet exercise.
1989 turret explosion
During a gunnery exercise, at 0955 on 19 April 1989, an explosion ripped through the Number Two gun turret, killing 47 crewmen. A gunner's mate in the powder magazine room quickly flooded the No. 2 powder magazine, likely preventing catastrophic damage to the ship. At first, Naval Investigative Service (NIS, later renamed Naval Criminal Investigative Service or NCIS) investigators theorized that one of the dead crewmen, Clayton Hartwig, had detonated an explosive device in a suicide attempt after the end of an alleged affair with another sailor. To support this claim, naval officials pointed to several different factors, including Hartwig's life insurance policy, which named Kendall Truitt as the sole beneficiary in the event of his death, the presence of unexplained materials inside Turret II, and his mental state, which was alleged to be unstable.
Although the Navy was satisfied with the investigation and its results, others were unconvinced, and in October 1991, amid increasing criticism, Congress forced the Navy to reopen the investigation. This second investigation, handled by independent investigators, was hampered as most of the original debris from Iowa had been cleaned up or otherwise disposed of by the Navy before and after the first investigation, but it did uncover evidence pointing to an accidental powder explosion rather than an intentional act of sabotage.
While Iowa was undergoing modernization in the early 1980s, her sister ship New Jersey had been dispatched to Lebanon to provide offshore fire support. At the time, New Jersey was the only commissioned battleship anywhere in the world, and it was found that, in an effort to get another battleship commissioned to relieve New Jersey, the modernization of Iowa was stepped up, leaving her in poor condition when she recommissioned in 1984. It was also determined that Captain Fred Moosally was more concerned with the maintenance of the missiles than the training and manning of guns.
Powder from the same lot as the one under investigation was tested at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. Spontaneous combustion was achieved with the powder, which had been originally milled in the 1930s and improperly stored in a barge at the Navy's Yorktown, Virginia, Naval Weapons Station during a 1988 dry-docking of Iowa. As it degrades, gunpowder gives off ether gas, which is highly flammable and could be ignited by a spark. This revelation resulted in a shift in the Navy's position on the incident, and Admiral Frank Kelso, the Chief of Naval Operations at the time, publicly apologized to the Hartwig family, concluding that there was no real evidence to support the claim that he had intentionally killed the other sailors. Iowa captain Fred Moosally was severely criticized for his handling of the matter, and as a result of the incident the Navy changed the powder-handling procedures for its battleships. The incident remains one of the surface Navy's worst losses of life during peacetime operations.
Reserve Fleet and museum ship (1990–present)
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States came drastic cuts to the defense budget and the battleships were deemed uneconomical. As a result, Iowa was decommissioned for the last time on 26 October 1990, after a total of 19 years of commissioned service. She was the first of the reactivated battleships to be decommissioned, and this was done earlier than originally planned as a result of the damaged turret. Iowa was originally berthed at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard and later at Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island from 24 September 1998 to 8 March 2001, when she began her journey under tow to California. The ship arrived in Suisun Bay near San Francisco on 21 April 2001 and joined the Reserve Fleet, where she remained in reserve until struck again from the Naval Vessel Register in March 2006. (She and her sister ships had been struck previously in 1995.) She remained at the Suisun Bay anchorage until November 2011.
Section 1011 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 required the US Navy to reinstate to the Naval Vessel Register two of the Iowa-class battleships that had been struck by the Navy in 1995; these ships were to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets (or "mothball fleet"). The Navy was to ensure that both of the reinstated battleships were in good condition and could be reactivated for use in the Marine Corps' amphibious operations. Due to Iowas damaged turret, the Navy selected New Jersey for placement into the mothball fleet, even though the training mechanisms on New Jerseys guns had been welded down. The cost to fix New Jersey was considered less than the cost to fix Iowa; as a result, New Jersey and Wisconsin were reinstated to the Naval Vessel Register and placed back in the reserve fleet.
New Jersey remained there until the Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act of 1999 required the Secretary of the Navy to list and maintain Iowa and Wisconsin on the Naval Vessel Register. The Act also required the Secretary of the Navy to strike New Jersey from the Naval Vessel Register and transfer the battleship to a not-for-profit entity in accordance with section 7306 of Title 10 of the United States Code. It also required the transferee to locate the battleship in the state of New Jersey. The Navy made the switch in January 1999, allowing New Jersey to open as a museum ship in her namesake state.
On 17 March 2006, the Secretary of the Navy struck Iowa and Wisconsin from the NVR, which cleared the way for both ships to be donated for use as museum ships; but the United States Congress remained "deeply concerned" over the loss of the naval surface gunfire support that the battleships provided, and noted that "navy efforts to improve upon, much less replace, this capability have been highly problematic." As a partial consequence, Congress passed , the National Defense Authorization Act 2006, requiring that the battleships be kept and maintained in a state of readiness should they ever be needed again. Congress ordered that measures be implemented to ensure that, if need be, Iowa could be returned to active duty. These measures closely mirrored the original three conditions that the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 which laid out for the maintenance of Iowa while she was in the "mothball fleet".
In March 2007, the Historic Ships Memorial at Pacific Square (HSMPS) of Vallejo, site of the former Mare Island Naval Shipyard, and a Stockton group submitted proposals to use the ship as a museum. The HSMPS, which had attempted to place the ship in San Francisco, supported the Mare Island–Vallejo site. In October 2007 the Navy informed HSMPS that they were the only viable candidate to acquire Iowa, and their application would be further reviewed after evidence was presented that financing was in place, and when the Stockton and San Francisco groups withdrew or failed to submit a final application respectively. On 25 April 2009, Iowa Senate Resolution No. 19 was approved, endorsing HSMPS as USS Iowas custodian and supporting the battleship's placement at Mare Island.
In February 2010, the Pacific Battleship Center (PBC) supported the efforts to have the ship berthed in San Pedro, Los Angeles, California. In late February the Port of Los Angeles (which includes the San Pedro area) rejected a proposal by the PBC to berth USS Iowa at its facilities because the battleship was not yet available. On 12 April 2010, the Governor of Iowa signed into law Bill SJR2007, which officially formed a 10-member committee to raise about $5 million for the group awarded USS Iowa. The statement supporting the Vallejo group in the original Iowa State Senate's version SR19 was struck in favor of supporting any group actually awarded the battleship.
On 13 May 2010, the Navy announced it would reopen the bidding process, citing HSMPS's lack of progress as the reason. On 24 May 2010 the Federal Register officially reopened the bidding process for the USS Iowa to a California-based city or non-profit organization.
On 18 November 2010, the Port of Los Angeles Harbor Commissioners voted unanimously on a resolution to support Berth 87 as the future home of USS Iowa, clearing the way for The Pacific Battleship Center to send its completed application to the Navy. On 6 September 2011, USS Iowa was awarded to Pacific Battleship Center for placement at the Port of Los Angeles. After rehabilitation at the Port of Richmond, California (beginning in October 2011), she was towed to and eventually berthed in the Port of Los Angeles.
Starting in December 2011, USS Iowa was open for weekend tours. The Battleship Expo at the Port of Richmond included shipboard access and other exhibits such as 16-inch shells, a short film about the battleship, and other exhibits. On 30 April 2012, USS Iowa was officially donated to the Pacific Battleship Center in Los Angeles by the United States Navy.
Iowa began her journey to the Port of Los Angeles on 26 May 2012 under tow by four Crowley Maritime tugboats. After being anchored off the Southern California coast to have her hull scrubbed to remove any invasive species or contaminants, on 9 June 2012 she was permanently docked in San Pedro at Berth 87, along the Main Channel, directly south of the World Cruise Center. The museum opened to the public on 7 July, under the direction and control of Pacific Battleship Center.
Awards
Iowa earned nine battle stars for World War II service and two for Korean War service. She has also earned the following awards:
See also
List of museum ships
Notes
References
External links
USS Iowa – Pacific Battleship Center, official museum site
Map and satellite image from Google Maps
Maritimequest USS Iowa BB-61 Photo Gallery
NavSource Online: Battleship Photo Archive BB-61 USS Iowa
1942 ships
Cold War battleships of the United States
Existing battleships
Iowa-class battleships
Korean War battleships of the United States
Military and war museums in California
Museum ships in California
Museums in Los Angeles
San Pedro, Los Angeles
Ships built in Brooklyn
United States Navy Iowa-related ships
World War II battleships of the United States
Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments
Tourist attractions in Los Angeles
Battleship museums in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-momentum
|
Four-momentum
|
In special relativity, four-momentum is the generalization of the classical three-dimensional momentum to four-dimensional spacetime. Momentum is a vector in three dimensions; similarly four-momentum is a four-vector in spacetime. The contravariant four-momentum of a particle with relativistic energy and three-momentum , where is the particle's three-velocity and the Lorentz factor, is
The quantity of above is ordinary non-relativistic momentum of the particle and its rest mass. The four-momentum is useful in relativistic calculations because it is a Lorentz covariant vector. This means that it is easy to keep track of how it transforms under Lorentz transformations.
The above definition applies under the coordinate convention that . Some authors use the convention , which yields a modified definition with . It is also possible to define covariant four-momentum where the sign of the energy (or the sign of the three-momentum, depending on the chosen metric signature) is reversed.
Minkowski norm
Calculating the Minkowski norm squared of the four-momentum gives a Lorentz invariant quantity equal (up to factors of the speed of light ) to the square of the particle's proper mass:
where
is the metric tensor of special relativity with metric signature for definiteness chosen to be . The negativity of the norm reflects that the momentum is a timelike four-vector for massive particles. The other choice of signature would flip signs in certain formulas (like for the norm here). This choice is not important, but once made it must for consistency be kept throughout.
The Minkowski norm is Lorentz invariant, meaning its value is not changed by Lorentz transformations/boosting into different frames of reference. More generally, for any two four-momenta and , the quantity is invariant.
Relation to four-velocity
For a massive particle, the four-momentum is given by the particle's invariant mass m multiplied by the particle's four-velocity,
where the four-velocity is
and
is the Lorentz factor (associated with the speed ), is the speed of light.
Derivation
There are several ways to arrive at the correct expression for four-momentum. One way is to first define the four-velocity and simply define , being content that it is a four-vector with the correct units and correct behavior. Another, more satisfactory, approach is to begin with the principle of least action and use the Lagrangian framework to derive the four-momentum, including the expression for the energy. One may at once, using the observations detailed below, define four-momentum from the action . Given that in general for a closed system with generalized coordinates and canonical momenta ,
it is immediate (recalling , , and , , , in the present metric convention) that
is a covariant four-vector with the three-vector part being the (negative of) canonical momentum.
Consider initially a system of one degree of freedom . In the derivation of the equations of motion from the action using Hamilton's principle, one finds (generally) in an intermediate stage for the variation of the action,
The assumption is then that the varied paths satisfy , from which Lagrange's equations follow at once. When the equations of motion are known (or simply assumed to be satisfied), one may let go of the requirement . In this case the path is assumed to satisfy the equations of motion, and the action is a function of the upper integration limit , but is still fixed. The above equation becomes with , and defining , and letting in more degrees of freedom,
Observing that
one concludes
In a similar fashion, keep endpoints fixed, but let vary. This time, the system is allowed to move through configuration space at "arbitrary speed" or with "more or less energy", the field equations still assumed to hold and variation can be carried out on the integral, but instead observe
by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Compute using the above expression for canonical momenta,
Now using
where is the Hamiltonian, leads to, since in the present case,
Incidentally, using with in the above equation yields the Hamilton–Jacobi equations. In this context, is called Hamilton's principal function.
The action is given by
where is the relativistic Lagrangian for a free particle. From this,
The variation of the action is
To calculate , observe first that and that
So
or
and thus
which is just
where the second step employs the field equations , , and as in the observations above. Now compare the last three expressions to find
with norm , and the famed result for the relativistic energy,
where is the now unfashionable relativistic mass, follows. By comparing the expressions for momentum and energy directly, one has
that holds for massless particles as well. Squaring the expressions for energy and three-momentum and relating them gives the energy–momentum relation,
Substituting
in the equation for the norm gives the relativistic Hamilton–Jacobi equation,
It is also possible to derive the results from the Lagrangian directly. By definition,
which constitute the standard formulae for canonical momentum and energy of a closed (time-independent Lagrangian) system. With this approach it is less clear that the energy and momentum are parts of a four-vector.
The energy and the three-momentum are separately conserved quantities for isolated systems in the Lagrangian framework. Hence four-momentum is conserved as well. More on this below.
More pedestrian approaches include expected behavior in electrodynamics. In this approach, the starting point is application of Lorentz force law and Newton's second law in the rest frame of the particle. The transformation properties of the electromagnetic field tensor, including invariance of electric charge, are then used to transform to the lab frame, and the resulting expression (again Lorentz force law) is interpreted in the spirit of Newton's second law, leading to the correct expression for the relativistic three- momentum. The disadvantage, of course, is that it isn't immediately clear that the result applies to all particles, whether charged or not, and that it doesn't yield the complete four-vector.
It is also possible to avoid electromagnetism and use well tuned experiments of thought involving well-trained physicists throwing billiard balls, utilizing knowledge of the velocity addition formula and assuming conservation of momentum. This too gives only the three-vector part.
Conservation of four-momentum
As shown above, there are three conservation laws (not independent, the last two imply the first and vice versa):
The four-momentum (either covariant or contravariant) is conserved.
The total energy is conserved.
The 3-space momentum is conserved (not to be confused with the classic non-relativistic momentum ).
Note that the invariant mass of a system of particles may be more than the sum of the particles' rest masses, since kinetic energy in the system center-of-mass frame and potential energy from forces between the particles contribute to the invariant mass. As an example, two particles with four-momenta and each have (rest) mass 3GeV/c2 separately, but their total mass (the system mass) is 10GeV/c2. If these particles were to collide and stick, the mass of the composite object would be 10GeV/c2.
One practical application from particle physics of the conservation of the invariant mass involves combining the four-momenta and of two daughter particles produced in the decay of a heavier particle with four-momentum to find the mass of the heavier particle. Conservation of four-momentum gives , while the mass of the heavier particle is given by . By measuring the energies and three-momenta of the daughter particles, one can reconstruct the invariant mass of the two-particle system, which must be equal to . This technique is used, e.g., in experimental searches for Z′ bosons at high-energy particle colliders, where the Z′ boson would show up as a bump in the invariant mass spectrum of electron–positron or muon–antimuon pairs.
If the mass of an object does not change, the Minkowski inner product of its four-momentum and corresponding four-acceleration is simply zero. The four-acceleration is proportional to the proper time derivative of the four-momentum divided by the particle's mass, so
Canonical momentum in the presence of an electromagnetic potential
For a charged particle of charge , moving in an electromagnetic field given by the electromagnetic four-potential:
where is the scalar potential and the vector potential, the components of the (not gauge-invariant) canonical momentum four-vector is
This, in turn, allows the potential energy from the charged particle in an electrostatic potential and the Lorentz force on the charged particle moving in a magnetic field to be incorporated in a compact way, in relativistic quantum mechanics.
See also
Four-force
Four-gradient
Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector
References
Wikisource version
Four-vectors
|
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204681
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambarvalia
|
Ambarvalia
|
Ambarvalia was a Roman agricultural fertility rite
held on 29 May in honor of Ceres and Dea Dia.
At these festivals they sacrificed a bull, a sow, and a sheep, which, before the sacrifice, were led in procession thrice around the fields; whence the feast is supposed to have taken its name, ambiō, "I go around," and arvum, field. This sacrifice was called a suovetaurilia in Latin. These feasts were of two kinds, public and private. The private were solemnized by the masters of families, accompanied by their children and servants, in the villages and farms out of Rome. The public were celebrated in the boundaries of the city, and in which twelve fratres arvales walked at the head of a procession of the citizens, who had lands and vineyards at Rome. During the procession, prayers would be made to the goddess. The ambervale carmen was a prayer preferred on this occasion.
The name "Ambarvalia" appears to be predominantly an urban designation. Roman farmers' almanacs (menologia rustica) describe this only as segetes lustrantur ("crops are purified"). Scaliger, in his notes on Festus, maintains the ambarvalia to be the same as amburbium. Numerous other communities of the Italian peninsula enacted similar rites with different names.
Notes
References
External links
Ancient Roman festivals
May observances
Processions in ancient Rome
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204682
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation%20%28geometry%29
|
Translation (geometry)
|
In Euclidean geometry, a translation is a geometric transformation that moves every point of a figure, shape or space by the same distance in a given direction. A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or as shifting the origin of the coordinate system. In a Euclidean space, any translation is an isometry.
As a function
If is a fixed vector, known as the translation vector, and is the initial position of some object, then the translation function will work as .
If is a translation, then the image of a subset under the function is the translate of by . The translate of by is often written .
Horizontal and vertical translations
In geometry, a vertical translation (also known as vertical shift) is a translation of a geometric object in a direction parallel to the vertical axis of the Cartesian coordinate system.
Often, vertical translations are considered for the graph of a function. If f is any function of x, then the graph of the function f(x) + c (whose values are given by adding a constant c to the values of f) may be obtained by a vertical translation of the graph of f(x) by distance c. For this reason the function f(x) + c is sometimes called a vertical translate of f(x). For instance, the antiderivatives of a function all differ from each other by a constant of integration and are therefore vertical translates of each other.
In function graphing, a horizontal translation is a transformation which results in a graph that is equivalent to shifting the base graph left or right in the direction of the x-axis. A graph is translated k units horizontally by moving each point on the graph k units horizontally.
For the base function f(x) and a constant k, the function given by g(x) = f(x − k), can be sketched f(x) shifted k units horizontally.
If function transformation was talked about in terms of geometric transformations it may be clearer why functions translate horizontally the way they do. When addressing translations on the Cartesian plane it is natural to introduce translations in this type of notation:
or
where and are horizontal and vertical changes respectively.
Example
Taking the parabola y = x2 , a horizontal translation 5 units to the right would be represented by T((x, y)) = (x + 5, y). Now we must connect this transformation notation to an algebraic notation. Consider the point (a, b) on the original parabola that moves to point (c, d) on the translated parabola. According to our translation, c = a + 5 and d = b. The point on the original parabola was b = a2. Our new point can be described by relating d and c in the same equation. b = d and a = c − 5.
So d = b = a2 = (c − 5)2. Since this is true for all the points on our new parabola the new equation is y = (x − 5)2.
Application in classical physics
In classical physics, translational motion is movement that changes the position of an object, as opposed to rotation. For example, according to Whittaker:
A translation is the operation changing the positions of all points of an object according to the formula
where is the same vector for each point of the object. The translation vector common to all points of the object describes a particular type of displacement of the object, usually called a linear displacement to distinguish it from displacements involving rotation, called angular displacements.
When considering spacetime, a change of time coordinate is considered to be a translation.
As an operator
The translation operator turns a function of the original position, , into a function of the final position, . In other words, is defined such that This operator is more abstract than a function, since defines a relationship between two functions, rather than the underlying vectors themselves. The translation operator can act on many kinds of functions, such as when the translation operator acts on a wavefunction, which is studied in the field of quantum mechanics.
As a group
The set of all translations forms the translation group , which is isomorphic to the space itself, and a normal subgroup of Euclidean group . The quotient group of by is isomorphic to the orthogonal group :
Because translation is commutative, the translation group is abelian. There are an infinite number of possible translations, so the translation group is an infinite group.
In the theory of relativity, due to the treatment of space and time as a single spacetime, translations can also refer to changes in the time coordinate. For example, the Galilean group and the Poincaré group include translations with respect to time.
Lattice groups
One kind of subgroup of the three-dimensional translation group are the lattice groups, which are infinite groups, but unlike the translation groups, are finitely generated. That is, a finite generating set generates the entire group.
Matrix representation
A translation is an affine transformation with no fixed points. Matrix multiplications always have the origin as a fixed point. Nevertheless, there is a common workaround using homogeneous coordinates to represent a translation of a vector space with matrix multiplication: Write the 3-dimensional vector using 4 homogeneous coordinates as .
To translate an object by a vector , each homogeneous vector (written in homogeneous coordinates) can be multiplied by this translation matrix:
As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result:
The inverse of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of the vector:
Similarly, the product of translation matrices is given by adding the vectors:
Because addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of translation matrices is therefore also commutative (unlike multiplication of arbitrary matrices).
Translation of axes
While geometric translation is often viewed as an active process that changes the position of a geometric object, a similar result can be achieved by a passive transformation that moves the coordinate system itself but leaves the object fixed. The passive version of an active geometric translation is known as a translation of axes.
Translational symmetry
An object that looks the same before and after translation is said to have translational symmetry. A common example is periodic functions, which are eigenfunctions of the translation operator.
See also
Advection
Parallel transport
Rotation matrix
Scaling (geometry)
Transformation matrix
Translational symmetry
External links
Translation Transform at cut-the-knot
Geometric Translation (Interactive Animation) at Math Is Fun
Understanding 2D Translation and Understanding 3D Translation by Roger Germundsson, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
References
Zazkis, R., Liljedahl, P., & Gadowsky, K. Conceptions of function translation: obstacles, intuitions, and rerouting. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 22, 437-450. Retrieved April 29, 2014, from www.elsevier.com/locate/jmathb
Transformations of Graphs: Horizontal Translations. (2006, January 1). BioMath: Transformation of Graphs. Retrieved April 29, 2014
Euclidean symmetries
Elementary geometry
Transformation (function)
Functions and mappings
|
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204683
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdy
|
Birdy
|
Birdy or Birdie may refer to:
Places in the United States
Birdie, Georgia, an unincorporated community
Birdie, Mississippi, an unincorporated community
People with the name
Birdie Blye (1871–1935), American pianist
Birdy (singer) (born 1996), the stage name of British singer-songwriter Jasmine van den Bogaerde
Birdy, pseudonym of a former guitarist of the glam punk band Trashcan Darlings
Henry Robertson Bowers (1883–1912), nicknamed "Birdie", participant in Robert Falcon Scott's doomed race to the South Pole
Byrd Spilman Dewey (1856–1942), nicknamed "Birdie", American author and land investor
Birdy Sweeney (1931–1999), Irish actor and comedian
Birdie Tebbetts (1912–1999), American baseball player and manager
Jack Ward ( 1553–1622), nicknamed "Birdy", notorious English pirate and Barbary Corsair
Arts and entertainment
Fictional characters
Birdie (Street Fighter), in Capcom's video games
Betty Draper, on Mad Men, whom Don Draper affectionately refers to as "Birdie"
Birdie the Early Bird, the first identifiably female McDonaldland character
Birdy (comics), a Marvel Comics villain
Birdy, in the Conker platform video game series
Birdy, also known as Torii, a robotic pet in Gundam SEED and Gundam SEED Destiny
Birdy, the title character of Birdy the Mighty, a Japanese manga series
Wang Po-Te in Your Name Engraved Herein goes by the name Birdy, named after the character in the movie of the same name
Music
Birdy (Birdy album) (2011)
Birdy (Peter Gabriel album), 1985 soundtrack of the film Birdy
Birdy, an album by Bloodthirsty Butchers
"Birdie", a song by Avril Lavigne from the album Head Above Water
"Birdy", a song by British Sea Power from the single "Remember Me"
Other
Birdie (novel), by Tracey Lindberg
Birdy (novel), by William Wharton
Birdie (film), starring Maeve Dermody and Sam Parsonson, and directed by Shelly Lauman
Birdy (film), starring Matthew Modine and Nicolas Cage, and directed by Alan Parker, based on Wharton's novel
Brands and enterprises
Birdy (bicycle), a folding bicycle
Birdy Airlines (2002–2004), an airline based in Belgium
Sports
Birdie (golf), a score of one under par on a hole in golf
A gun dog that gets excited by birds
Shuttlecock, in badminton
Other uses
Birdie, the common nickname for a small parabolic aluminized reflector light
Birdy, unwanted artifacts that occur in noise reduction or in "frequency mixing".
BIRDIE, Martin AN/GSG-5 Battery Integration and Radar Display Equipment
See also
Byrdie Green (1936–2008), American jazz and R&B singer
Nicknames
Lists of people by nickname
fr:Vocabulaire du golf#B
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Smuts
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Jan Smuts
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Field Marshal Jan Christian Smuts, (24 May 1870 11 September 1950) was a South African statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various military and cabinet posts, he served as prime minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 to 1924 and 1939 to 1948.
Smuts was born to Afrikaner parents in the British Cape Colony. He was educated at Victoria College, Stellenbosch before reading law at Christ's College, Cambridge on a scholarship. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1894 but returned home the following year. In the leadup to the Second Boer War, Smuts practiced law in Pretoria, the capital of the South African Republic. He led the republic's delegation to the Bloemfontein Conference and served as an officer in a commando unit following the outbreak of war in 1899. In 1902 he played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Vereeniging, which ended the war and resulted in the annexation of the South African Republic and Orange Free State into the British Empire. He subsequently helped negotiate self-government for the Transvaal Colony, becoming a cabinet minister under Louis Botha.
Smuts played a leading role in the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, helping shape its constitution. He and Botha established the South African Party, with Botha becoming the union's first prime minister and Smuts holding multiple cabinet portfolios. As defence minister he was responsible for the Union Defence Force during World War I. Smuts personally led troops in the East African campaign in 1916 and the following year joined the Imperial War Cabinet in London. He played a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, advocating for the creation of the League of Nations and securing South African control over the former German South-West Africa.
In 1919, Smuts replaced Botha as prime minister, holding the office until the South African Party's defeat at the 1924 general election by J. B. M. Hertzog's National Party. He spent several years in academia, during which he coined the term "holism", before eventually re-entering politics as deputy prime minister in a coalition with Hertzog; in 1934 their parties subsequently merged to form the United Party. Smuts returned as prime minister in 1939, leading South Africa into World War II at the head of a pro-interventionist faction. He was appointed field marshal in 1941 and in 1945 signed the UN Charter, the only signer of the Treaty of Versailles to do so. His second term in office ended with the victory of the reconstituted National Party at the 1948 general election, with the new government beginning the implementation of apartheid.
Smuts was an internationalist who played a key role in establishing and defining the League of Nations, United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations.
Early life and education
Smuts was born on 24 May 1870, at the family farm, Bovenplaats, near Malmesbury, in the Cape Colony. His parents, Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina, were prosperous, traditional Afrikaner farmers, long established and highly respected.
As the second son of the family, rural custom dictated that Jan would remain working on the farm. In this system, typically only the first son was supported for a full, formal education. In 1882, when Jan was twelve, his elder brother died, and Jan was sent to school in his place. Jan attended the school in nearby Riebeek West. He made excellent progress despite his late start, and caught up with his contemporaries within four years. He was admitted to Victoria College, Stellenbosch, in 1886, at the age of sixteen.
At Stellenbosch, he learned High Dutch, German, and Ancient Greek, and immersed himself in literature, the classics, and Bible studies. His deeply traditional upbringing and serious outlook led to social isolation from his peers. He made outstanding academic progress, graduating in 1891 with double first-class honours in Literature and Science. During his last years at Stellenbosch, Smuts began to cast off some of his shyness and reserve. At this time he met Isie Krige, whom he later married.
On graduation from Victoria College, Smuts won the Ebden scholarship for overseas study. He decided to attend the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom to read law at Christ's College. Smuts found it difficult to settle at Cambridge. He felt homesick and isolated by his age and different upbringing from the English undergraduates. Worries over money also contributed to his unhappiness, as his scholarship was insufficient to cover his university expenses. He confided these worries to Professor J. I. Marais, a friend from Victoria College. In reply, Professor Marais enclosed a cheque for a substantial sum, by way of loan, encouraging Smuts to let him know if he ever found himself in need again. Thanks to Marais, Smuts's financial standing was secure. He gradually began to enter more into the social aspects of the university, although he retained a single-minded dedication to his studies.
During this time in Cambridge, Smuts studied a diverse number of subjects in addition to law. He wrote a book, Walt Whitman: A Study in the Evolution of Personality. It was not published until 1973, after his death, but it can be seen that Smuts in this book had already conceptualized his thinking for his later wide-ranging philosophy of holism.
Smuts graduated in 1894 with a double first. Over the previous two years, he had received numerous academic prizes and accolades, including the coveted George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence. One of his tutors, Professor Maitland, a leading figure among English legal historians, described Smuts as the most brilliant student he had ever met. Lord Todd, the Master of Christ's College, said in 1970 that "in 500 years of the College's history, of all its members, past and present, three had been truly outstanding: John Milton, Charles Darwin and Jan Smuts."
In December 1894, Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. His old Cambridge college, Christ's College, offered him a fellowship in Law. Smuts turned his back on a potentially distinguished legal future. By June 1895, he had returned to the Cape Colony, determined to make his future there.
Career
Law and politics
Smuts began to practise law in Cape Town, but his abrasive nature made him few friends. Finding little financial success in the law, he began to devote more and more of his time to politics and journalism, writing for the Cape Times. Smuts was intrigued by the prospect of a united South Africa, and joined the Afrikaner Bond. By good fortune, Smuts' father knew the leader of the group, Jan Hofmeyr. Hofmeyr in turn recommended Jan to Cecil Rhodes, who owned the De Beers mining company. In 1895, Smuts became an advocate and supporter of Rhodes.
When Rhodes launched the Jameson Raid, in the summer of 1895–96, Smuts was outraged. Feeling betrayed by his employer, friend and political ally, he resigned from De Beers, and left political life. Instead he became state attorney in the capital of the South African Republic, Pretoria.
After the Jameson Raid, relations between the British and the Afrikaners had deteriorated steadily. By 1898, war seemed imminent. Orange Free State President Martinus Steyn called for a peace conference at Bloemfontein to settle each side's grievances. With an intimate knowledge of the British, Smuts took control of the Transvaal delegation. Sir Alfred Milner, head of the British delegation, took exception to his dominance, and conflict between the two led to the collapse of the conference, consigning South Africa to war.
The Boer War
On 11 October 1899 the Boer republics declared war and launched an offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas, beginning the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. In the early stages of the conflict, Smuts served as Paul Kruger's eyes and ears in Pretoria, handling propaganda, logistics, communication with generals and diplomats, and anything else that was required. In the second phase of the war, from mid-1900, Smuts served under Koos de la Rey, who commanded 500 commandos in the Western Transvaal. Smuts excelled at hit-and-run warfare, and the unit evaded and harassed a British army forty times its size. President Paul Kruger and the deputation in Europe thought that there was good hope for their cause in the Cape Colony. They decided to send General de la Rey there to assume supreme command, but then decided to act more cautiously when they realised that General de la Rey could hardly be spared in the Western Transvaal. Consequently, Smuts was left with a small force of 300 men, while another 100 men followed him. By January 1902 the British scorched-earth policy left little grazing land. One hundred of the cavalry that had joined Smuts were therefore too weak to continue and so Smuts had to leave these men with General Kritzinger. Intelligence indicated that at this time Smuts had about 3,000 men.
To end the conflict, Smuts sought to take a major target, the copper-mining town of Okiep in the present-day Northern Cape Province (April–May 1902). With a full assault impossible, Smuts packed a train full of explosives, and tried to push it downhill, into the town, in order to bring the enemy garrison to its knees. Although this failed, Smuts had proved his point: that he would stop at nothing to defeat his enemies. Norman Kemp Smith wrote that General Smuts read from Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason on the evening before the raid. Smith contended that this showed how Kant's critique can be a solace and a refuge, as well as a means to sharpen the wit. Combined with the British failure to pacify the Transvaal, Smuts' success left the United Kingdom with no choice but to offer a ceasefire and a peace conference, to be held at Vereeniging.
Before the conference, Smuts met Lord Kitchener at Kroonstad station, where they discussed the proposed terms of surrender. Smuts then took a leading role in the negotiations between the representatives from all of the commandos from the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (15–31 May 1902). Although he admitted that, from a purely military perspective, the war could continue, he stressed the importance of not sacrificing the Afrikaner people for that independence. He was very conscious that "more than 20,000 women and children have already died in the concentration camps of the enemy". He felt it would have been a crime to continue the war without the assurance of help from elsewhere and declared, "Comrades, we decided to stand to the bitter end. Let us now, like men, admit that that end has come for us, come in a more bitter shape than we ever thought." His opinions were representative of the conference, which then voted by 54 to 6 in favour of peace. Representatives of the Governments met Lord Kitchener and at five minutes past eleven on 31 May 1902, the Acting State President of the South African Republic, Schalk Willem Burger signed the Treaty of Vereeniging, followed by the members of his government, Acting State President of the Orange Free State, Christiaan De Wet, and the members of his government.
A British Transvaal
For all Smuts' exploits as a general and a negotiator, nothing could mask the fact that the Boers had been defeated. Lord Milner had full control of all South African affairs, and established an Anglophone elite, known as Milner's Kindergarten. As an Afrikaner, Smuts was excluded. Defeated but not deterred, in January 1905, he decided to join with the other former Transvaal generals to form a political party, Het Volk ('The People'), to fight for the Afrikaner cause. Louis Botha was elected leader, and Smuts his deputy.
When his term of office expired, Milner was replaced as High Commissioner by the more conciliatory Lord Selborne. Smuts saw an opportunity and pounced, urging Botha to persuade the Liberals to support Het Volk's cause. When the Conservative government under Arthur Balfour collapsed, in December 1905, the decision paid off. Smuts joined Botha in London, and sought to negotiate full self-government for the Transvaal within British South Africa. Using the thorny political issue of South Asian labourers ('coolies'), the South Africans convinced Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and, with him, the cabinet and Parliament.
Through 1906, Smuts worked on the new constitution for the Transvaal, and, in December 1906, elections were held for the Transvaal parliament. Despite being shy and reserved, unlike the showman Botha, Smuts won a comfortable victory in the Wonderboom constituency, near Pretoria. His victory was one of many, with Het Volk winning in a landslide and Botha forming the government. To reward his loyalty and efforts, Smuts was given two key cabinet positions: Colonial Secretary and Education Secretary.
Smuts proved to be an effective leader, if unpopular. As Education Secretary, he had fights with the Dutch Reformed Church, of which he had once been a dedicated member, which demanded Calvinist teachings in schools. As Colonial Secretary, he opposed a movement for equal rights for South Asian workers, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
During the years of Transvaal self-government, nobody could avoid the predominant political debate of the day: South African unification. Ever since the British victory in the war, it was an inevitability, but it remained up to the South Africans to decide what sort of country would be formed, and how it would be formed. Smuts favoured a unitary state, with power centralised in Pretoria, with English as the only official language, and with a more inclusive electorate. To impress upon his compatriots his vision, he called a constitutional convention in Durban, in October 1908.
There, Smuts was up against a hard-talking Orange River Colony delegation, who refused every one of Smuts' demands. Smuts had successfully predicted this opposition, and their objections, and tailored his own ambitions appropriately. He allowed compromise on the location of the capital, on the official language, and on suffrage, but he refused to budge on the fundamental structure of government. As the convention drew into autumn, the Orange leaders began to see a final compromise as necessary to secure the concessions that Smuts had already made. They agreed to Smuts' draft South African constitution, which was duly ratified by the South African colonies. Smuts and Botha took the constitution to London, where it was passed by Parliament and given Royal Assent by King Edward VII in December 1909.
The Old Boers
The Union of South Africa was born, and the Afrikaners held the key to political power, as the majority of the increasingly whites-only electorate. Although Botha was appointed prime minister of the new country, Smuts was given three key ministries: Interior, Mines, and Defence. Undeniably, Smuts was the second most powerful man in South Africa. To solidify their dominance of South African politics, the Afrikaners united to form the South African Party, a new pan-South African Afrikaner party.
The harmony and co-operation soon ended. Smuts was criticised for his overarching powers, and the cabinet was reshuffled. Smuts lost Interior and Mines, but gained control of Finance. That was still too much for Smuts' opponents, who decried his possession of both Defence and Finance, two departments that were usually at loggerheads. At the 1913 South African Party conference, the Old Boers (Hertzog, Steyn, De Wet), called for Botha and Smuts to step down. The two narrowly survived a confidence vote, and the troublesome triumvirate stormed out, leaving the party for good.
With the schism in internal party politics came a new threat to the mines that brought South Africa its wealth. A small-scale miners' dispute flared into a full-blown strike, and rioting broke out in Johannesburg after Smuts intervened heavy-handedly. After police shot dead twenty-one strikers, Smuts and Botha headed unaccompanied to Johannesburg to resolve the situation personally. Facing down threats to their own lives, they negotiated a cease-fire. But the cease-fire did not hold, and in 1914, a railway strike turned into a general strike. Threats of a revolution caused Smuts to declare martial law. He acted ruthlessly, deporting union leaders without trial and using Parliament to absolve him and the government of any blame retroactively. That was too much for the Old Boers, who set up their own National Party to fight the all-powerful Botha-Smuts partnership.
First World War
During World War I, Smuts formed the Union Defence Force. His first task was to suppress the Maritz Rebellion, which was accomplished by November 1914. Next he and Louis Botha led the South African army into German South-West Africa and conquered it (see the South-West Africa Campaign for details). In 1916 General Smuts was put in charge of the conquest of German East Africa. Col (later BGen) J.H.V. Crowe commanded the artillery in East Africa under General Smuts and published an account of the campaign, General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa in 1918. Smuts was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 18 February 1916, and to honorary lieutenant general for distinguished service in the field on 1 January 1917.
Smuts' chief Intelligence officer, Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, wrote very critically of his conduct of the campaign. He believed Horace Smith-Dorrien (who had saved the British Army during the retreat from Mons and was the original choice as commander in 1916) would have quickly defeated the Germans. In particular, Meinertzhagen thought that frontal attacks would have been decisive, and less costly than the flanking movements preferred by Smuts, which took longer, so that thousands of Imperial troops died of disease in the field. He wrote: "Smuts has cost Britain many hundreds of lives and many millions of pounds by his caution... Smuts was not an astute soldier; a brilliant statesman and politician but no soldier." Meinertzhagen wrote these comments in October/November 1916, in the weeks after being relieved by Smuts due to symptoms of depression, and he was invalided back to England shortly thereafter.
Early in 1917, Smuts left Africa and went to London, as he had been invited to join the Imperial War Cabinet and the War Policy Committee by David Lloyd George. Smuts initially recommended renewed Western Front attacks and a policy of attrition, lest with Russian commitment to the war wavering, France or Italy would be tempted to make a separate peace. Lloyd George wanted a commander "of the dashing type" for the Middle East in succession to Murray, but Smuts refused the command (late May) unless promised resources for a decisive victory, and he agreed with Robertson that Western Front commitments did not justify a serious attempt to capture Jerusalem. Allenby was appointed instead. Like other members of the War Cabinet, Smuts' commitment to Western Front efforts was shaken by Third Ypres.
In 1917, following the German Gotha Raids, and lobbying by Viscount French, Smuts wrote a review of the British Air Services, which came to be called the Smuts Report. He was helped in large part in this by General Sir David Henderson who was seconded to him. This report led to the treatment of air as a separate force, which eventually became the Royal Air Force.
By mid-January 1918, Lloyd George was toying with the idea of appointing Smuts Commander-in-Chief of all land and sea forces facing the Ottoman Empire, reporting directly to the War Cabinet rather than to Robertson. Early in 1918, Smuts was sent to Egypt to confer with Allenby and Marshall, and prepare for major efforts in that theatre. Before his departure, alienated by Robertson's exaggerated estimates of the required reinforcements, he urged Robertson's removal. Allenby told Smuts of Robertson's private instructions (sent by hand of Walter Kirke, appointed by Robertson as Smuts' adviser) that there was no merit in any further advance. He worked with Smuts to draw up plans, using three reinforcement divisions from Mesopotamia, to reach Haifa by June and Damascus by the autumn, the speed of the advance limited by the need to lay fresh rail track. This was the foundation of Allenby's successful offensive later in the year.
Like most British Empire political and military leaders in World War I, Smuts thought the American Expeditionary Forces lacked the proper leadership and experience to be effective quickly. He supported the Anglo-French amalgamation policy towards the Americans. In particular, he had a low opinion of General John J. Pershing's leadership skills, so much so that proposed to Lloyd George that Pershing be relieved of command and US forces be placed "under someone more confident, like [himself]". This did not endear him to the Americans once it was leaked.
Statesman
Smuts and Botha were key negotiators at the Paris Peace Conference. Both were in favour of reconciliation with Germany and limited reparations. Smuts advocated a powerful League of Nations, which failed to materialise. He was sent to Budapest to negotiate with Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic to withdraw from unrecognized territory, and the Hungarian Communist Party's refusal to meet him led to the conference's approval of a Czechoslovak-Romanian invasion and harsher terms in the Treaty of Trianon. The Treaty of Versailles gave South Africa a Class C mandate over German South-West Africa (which later became Namibia), which was occupied from 1919 until withdrawal in 1990. At the same time, Australia was given a similar mandate over German New Guinea, which it held until 1975. Both Smuts and the Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes feared the rising power of Japan in the post First World War world. When former German East Africa was divided into three mandated territories (Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanganyika) Smutsland was one of the proposed names for what became Tanganyika. Smuts, who had called for South African territorial expansion all the way to the River Zambesi since the late 19th century, was ultimately disappointed with the League awarding South-West Africa only a mandate status, as he had looked forward to formally incorporating the territory to South Africa.
Smuts returned to South African politics after the conference. When Botha died in 1919, Smuts was elected prime minister, serving until a shocking defeat in 1924 at the hands of the National Party. After the death of the former American President Woodrow Wilson, Smuts was quoted as saying that: "Not Wilson, but humanity failed at Paris."
While in Britain for an Imperial Conference in June 1921, Smuts went to Ireland and met Éamon de Valera to help broker an armistice and peace deal between the warring British and Irish nationalists. Smuts attempted to sell the concept of Ireland receiving Dominion status similar to that of Australia and South Africa.
During his first premiership Smuts was involved in a number of controversies. The first was the Rand Revolt of March 1921, where aeroplanes were used to bomb white miners who were striking in opposition to proposals to allow non-whites to do more skilled and semi-skilled work previously reserved to whites only. Smuts was accused of siding with the Rand Lords who wanted the removal of the colour bar in the hope that it would lower wage costs. The white miners perpetrated acts of violence across the Rand, including murderous attacks on non-Europeans, conspicuously on African miners in their compounds, and this culminated in a general assault on the police. Smuts declared martial law and suppressed the insurrection in three days – at a cost of 291 police and army deaths, and 396 civilians killed. A Martial Law Commission was established which found that Smuts used larger forces than were strictly required, but had saved lived by doing so.
The second was the Bulhoek Massacre of 24 May 1921, when at Bulhoek in the eastern Cape eight hundred South African policemen and soldiers armed with maxim machine guns and two field artillery guns killed 163 and wounded 129 members of an indigenous religious sect known as "Israelites" who had been armed with knobkerries, assegais and swords and who had refused to vacate land they regarded as holy to them. Casualties on the government side at Bulhoek amounted to one trooper wounded and one horse killed. Once again, there were charges of the unnecessary use of overwhelming force. However, no commission of enquiry was appointed.
The third was the Bondelswarts Rebellion, in which Smuts supported the actions of the South African Administration in attacking the Bondelswarts in South West Africa. The mandatory administration moved to crush what they called a rebellion of 500 to 600 people, of which 200 were said to be armed (although only about 40 weapons were captured after the Bondelswarts were crushed). Gysbert Hofmeyr, the Mandatory Administrator, organised 400 armed men, and sent in aircraft to bomb the Bondelswarts. Casualties included 100 Bondelswart deaths, including a few women and children. A further 468 men were either wounded or taken prisoner. South Africa's international reputation was tarnished. Ruth First, a South African anti-apartheid activist and scholar, describes the Bondelswarts shooting as "the Sharpeville of the 1920s".
As a botanist, Smuts collected plants extensively over southern Africa. He went on several botanical expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s with John Hutchinson, former botanist-in-charge of the African section of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens and taxonomist of note. Smuts was a keen mountaineer and supporter of mountaineering. One of his favourite rambles was up Table Mountain along a route now known as Smuts' Track. In February 1923 he unveiled a memorial to members of the Mountain Club who had been killed in World War I.
In 1925, assessing Smuts's role in international affairs, African-American historian and Pan-Africanist W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in an article which would be incorporated into the pivotal Harlem Renaissance text The New Negro,Jan Smuts is today, in his world aspects, the greatest protagonist of the white race. He is fighting to take control of Laurenço Marques from a nation that recognizes, even though it does not realize, the equality of black folk; he is fighting to keep India from political and social equality in the empire; he is fighting to insure the continued and eternal subordination of black to white in Africa; and he is fighting for peace and good will in a white Europe which can by union present a united front to the yellow, brown and black worlds. In all this he expresses bluntly, and yet not without finesse, what a powerful host of white folk believe but do not plainly say in Melbourne, New Orleans, San Francisco, Hongkong, Berlin, and London.
In December 1934, Smuts told an audience at the Royal Institute of International Affairs that:How can the inferiority complex which is obsessing and, I fear, poisoning the mind, and indeed the very soul of Germany, be removed? There is only one way and that is to recognise her complete equality of status with her fellows and to do so frankly, freely and unreservedly ... While one understands and sympathises with French fears, one cannot, but feel for Germany in the prison of inferiority in which she still remains sixteen years after the conclusion of the war. The continuance of the Versailles status is becoming an offence to the conscience of Europe and a danger to future peace ... Fair play, sportsmanship—indeed every standard of private and public life—calls for frank revision of the situation. Indeed ordinary prudence makes it imperative. Let us break these bonds and set the complexed-obsessed soul free in a decent human way and Europe will reap a rich reward in tranquility, security and returning prosperity.
Though in his Rectorial Address delivered on 17 October 1934 at St Andrews University he states that:The new Tyranny, disguised in attractive patriotic colours, is enticing youth everywhere into its service. Freedom must make a great counterstroke to save itself and our fair western civilisation. Once more the heroic call is coming to our youth. The fight for human freedom is indeed the supreme issue of the future, as it has always been.
Second World War
After nine years in opposition and academia, Smuts returned as deputy prime minister in a 'grand coalition' government under J. B. M. Hertzog. When Hertzog advocated neutrality towards Nazi Germany in 1939, the coalition split and Hertzog's motion to remain out of the war was defeated in Parliament by a vote of 80 to 67. Governor-General Sir Patrick Duncan refused Hertzog's request to dissolve parliament for a general election on the issue. Hertzog resigned and Duncan invited Smuts, Hertzog's coalition partner, to form a government and become prime minister for the second time in order to lead the country into World War II on the side of the Allies.
On 24 May 1941 Smuts was appointed a field marshal of the British Army.
Smuts' importance to the Imperial war effort was emphasised by a quite audacious plan, proposed as early as 1940, to appoint Smuts as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, should Churchill die or otherwise become incapacitated during the war. This idea was put forward by Sir John Colville, Churchill's private secretary, to Queen Mary and then to George VI, both of whom warmed to the idea.
In May 1945, he represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter. Also in 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.
Later life
In domestic policy, a number of social security reforms were carried out during Smuts' second period in office as Prime Minister. Old-age pensions and disability grants were extended to 'Indians' and 'Africans' in 1944 and 1947 respectively, although there were differences in the level of grants paid out based on race. The Workmen's Compensation Act of 1941 "insured all employees irrespective of payment of the levy by employers and increased the number of diseases covered by the law," and the Unemployment Insurance Act of 1946 introduced unemployment insurance on a national scale, albeit with exclusions.
Smuts continued to represent his country abroad. He was a leading guest at the 1947 wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
At home, his preoccupation with the war had severe political repercussions in South Africa. Smuts' support of the war and his support for the Fagan Commission made him unpopular amongst the Afrikaner community and Daniel François Malan's pro-apartheid stance won the Reunited National Party the 1948 general election.
In 1948, he was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, becoming the first person from outside the United Kingdom to hold that position. He held the position until his death two years later.
He accepted the appointment as Colonel-in-Chief of Regiment Westelike Provinsie as from 17 September 1948.
In 1949, Smuts was bitterly opposed to the London Declaration which transformed British Commonwealth into the Commonwealth of Nations and made it possible for Republics (such as the newly independent India) to remain its members. In the South African context, republicanism was mainly identified with Afrikaner Conservatism and with tighter racial segregation.
Death
On 29 May 1950, a week after the public celebration of his eightieth birthday in Johannesburg and Pretoria, Jan Smuts suffered a coronary thrombosis. He died of a subsequent heart attack on his family farm of Doornkloof, Irene, near Pretoria, on 11 September 1950.
Relations with Churchill
In 1899, Smuts interrogated the young Winston Churchill, who had been captured by Afrikaners during the Boer War, which was the first time they met. The next time was in 1906, while Smuts was leading a mission about South Africa's future to London before Churchill, then Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies. The British Cabinet shared Churchill's sympathetic view, which led to self-government within the year, followed by dominion status for the Union of South Africa in 1910. Their association continued in World War I, when Lloyd George appointed Smuts, in 1917, to the war cabinet in which Churchill served as Munitions Minister. By then, both had formed a fast friendship that continued through Churchill's "wilderness years" and World War II, to Smuts's death. Lord Moran, Churchill's personal physician, wrote in his diary: Smuts is the only man who has any influence with the PM; indeed, he is the only ally I have in pressing counsels of common sense on the PM. Smuts sees so clearly that Winston is irreplaceable, that he may make an effort to persuade him to be sensible.
Churchill:Smuts and I are like two old love-birds moulting together on a perch, but still able to peck.
When Eden said at a meeting of the Chiefs of Staff (29 October 1942) that Montgomery's Middle East offensive was "petering out", after having some late night drinks with Churchill the previous night, Alanbrooke had told Churchill "fairly plainly" what he thought of Eden's ability to judge the tactical situation from a distance (Churchill was always impatient for his generals to attack at once). He was supported at the Chiefs of Staff meeting by Smuts. Alanbrooke said he was fortunate to be supported by: <blockquote>
a flow of words from the mouth of that wonderful statesman. It was as if oil had been poured on the troubled waters. The temperamental film-stars returned to their tasks - peace reigned in the dove cot! </blockquote>
Views
Non-white suffrage
At the Imperial Conference of 1925 Smuts stated:
Holism and related academic work
While in academia, Smuts pioneered the concept of holism, which he defined as "[the] fundamental factor operative towards the creation of wholes in the universe" in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts' formulation of holism has been linked with his political-military activity, especially his aspiration to create a league of nations. As one biographer said:
It had very much in common with his philosophy of life as subsequently developed and embodied in his Holism and Evolution. Small units must develop into bigger wholes, and they in their turn again must grow into larger and ever-larger structures without cessation. Advancement lay along that path. Thus the unification of the four provinces in the Union of South Africa, the idea of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and, finally, the great whole resulting from the combination of the peoples of the earth in a great league of nations were but a logical progression consistent with his philosophical tenets.
Segregation
Smuts was, for most of his political life, a vocal supporter of segregation of the races, and in 1929 he justified the erection of separate institutions for blacks and whites in tones prescient of the later practice of apartheid:
In general, Smuts' view of black Africans was patronising: he saw them as immature human beings who needed the guidance of whites, an attitude that reflected the common perceptions of most non-blacks in his lifetime. Of black Africans he stated that:
Although Gandhi and Smuts were adversaries in many ways, they had a mutual respect and even admiration for each other. Before Gandhi returned to India in 1914, he presented General Smuts with a pair of sandals (now held by Ditsong National Museum of Cultural History) made by Gandhi himself. In 1939, Smuts, then prime minister, wrote an essay for a commemorative work compiled for Gandhi's 70th birthday and returned the sandals with the following message: "I have worn these sandals for many a summer, even though I may feel that I am not worthy to stand in the shoes of so great a man."
Smuts is often accused of being a politician who extolled the virtues of humanitarianism and liberalism abroad while failing to practise what he preached at home in South Africa. This was most clearly illustrated when India, in 1946, made a formal complaint in the UN concerning the legalised racial discrimination against Indians in South Africa. Appearing personally before the United Nations General Assembly, Smuts defended the policies of his government by fervently pleading that India's complaint was a matter of domestic jurisdiction. However, the General Assembly censured South Africa for its racial policies and called upon the Smuts government to bring its treatment of the South African Indians in conformity with the basic principles of the United Nations Charter.
At the same conference, the African National Congress President General Alfred Bitini Xuma along with delegates of the South African Indian Congress brought up the issue of the brutality of Smuts' police regime against the African Mine Workers' Strike earlier that year as well as the wider struggle for equality in South Africa.
In 1948, he went further away from his previous views on segregation when supporting the recommendations of the Fagan Commission that Africans should be recognised as permanent residents of White South Africa, and not merely as temporary workers who belonged in the reserves. This was in direct opposition to the policies of the National Party that wished to extend segregation and formalise it into apartheid. There is, however, no evidence that Smuts ever supported the idea of equal political rights for blacks and whites. Despite this, he did say: The Fagan Commission did not advocate the establishment of a non-racial democracy in South Africa, but rather wanted to liberalise influx controls of blacks into urban areas in order to facilitate the supply of black African labour to the South African industry. It also envisaged a relaxation of the pass laws that had restricted the movement of blacks in general.
In the assessment of South African Cambridge professor Saul Dubow, "Smuts's views of freedom were always geared to securing the values of western Christian civilization. He was consistent, albeit more flexible than his political contemporaries, in his espousal of white supremacy."
Zionism
In 1943 Chaim Weizmann wrote to Smuts, detailing a plan to develop Britain's African colonies to compete with the United States. During his service as Premier, Smuts personally fundraised for multiple Zionist organisations. His government granted de facto recognition to Israel on 24 May 1948 and de jure'' recognition on 14 May 1949 (following the defeat of Smuts' United Party by the Reunited National Party in the 26 May 1948 General Election, 12 days after David Ben Gurion declared Jewish Statehood, the newly formed nation being given the name Israel). However, Smuts was deputy prime minister when the Hertzog government in 1937 passed the Aliens Act that was aimed at preventing Jewish immigration to South Africa. The act was seen as a response to growing anti-Semitic sentiments among Afrikaners.
Smuts lobbied against the White Paper of 1939, and several streets and a kibbutz, Ramat Yohanan, in Israel are named after him. He also wrote an epitaph for Weizmann, describing him as "the greatest Jew since Moses." Smuts once said:
Legacy
One of his greatest international accomplishments was the establishment of the League of Nations, the exact design and implementation of which relied upon Smuts. He later urged the formation of a new international organisation for peace: the UN. Smuts wrote the first draft of the preamble to the United Nations Charter, and was the only person to sign the charters of both the League of Nations and the UN. He sought to redefine the relationship between the United Kingdom and her colonies, helping to establish the British Commonwealth, as it was known at the time. This proved to be a two-way street; in 1946 the General Assembly requested the Smuts government to take measures to bring the treatment of Indians in South Africa into line with the provisions of the United Nations Charter.
In 1932, the kibbutz Ramat Yohanan in Israel was named after him. Smuts was a vocal proponent of the creation of a Jewish state, and spoke out against the rising antisemitism of the 1930s. A street in the Jerusalem suburb of German Colony and a boulevard in Tel Aviv are named in his honour.
The international airport serving Johannesburg was known as Jan Smuts Airport from its construction in 1952 until 1994. In 1994, it was renamed to Johannesburg International Airport to remove any political connotations. In 2006, it was renamed again to its current name, OR Tambo International Airport, for the ANC politician Oliver Tambo.
In 2004, Smuts was named by voters in a poll held by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) as one of the top ten Greatest South Africans of all time. The final positions of the top ten were to be decided by a second round of voting but the programme was taken off the air owing to political controversy and Nelson Mandela was given the number one spot based on the first round of voting. In the first round, Field Marshal Smuts came ninth.
Mount Smuts, a peak in the Canadian Rockies, is named after him.
In August 2019, the South African Army Regiment Westelike Provinsie was renamed after Smuts as the General Jan Smuts Regiment.
The Smuts House Museum at Smuts' home in Irene is dedicated to promoting his legacy.
Orders, decorations and medals
Field Marshal Smuts was honoured with orders, decorations and medals from several countries.
South Africa
Africa Service Medal
Dekoratie voor Trouwe Dienst
Efficiency Decoration
Medalje voor de Anglo-Boere Oorlog
Union of South Africa Commemoration Medal
Victory Medal
United Kingdom
1914–15 Star
1939–1945 Star
Africa Star
British War Medal
Defence Medal
France and Germany Star
Italy Star
King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
King George VI Coronation Medal
Order of Merit
Order of the Companions of Honour
War Medal 1939–1945
Belgium
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold II (1946)
Grand Cross of the Order of the African Star (1948)
Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold (1917)
Croix de Guerre (1917)
Denmark
King Christian X's Liberty Medal (1947)
Egypt
Grand Cross of the Order of Muhammad Ali (1947)
France
Commander of the Legion of Honour (1917)
Greece
Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (1949)
Gold Cross of Valour (1943)
Netherlands
Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (1946)
Portugal
Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (1945)
United States
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
References
Sources
Primary
Secondary
Further reading
External links
"Revisiting Urban African Policy and the Reforms of the Smuts Government, 1939–48", by Gary Baines
Africa And Some World Problems by Jan Smuts at archive.org
Holism And Evolution by Jan Smuts
The White man's task by Jan Smuts
1870 births
1950 deaths
Afrikaner anti-apartheid activists
South African mountain climbers
People from the West Coast District Municipality
Afrikaner people
South African people of Dutch descent
South African Party (Union of South Africa) politicians
United Party (South Africa) politicians
Prime Ministers of South Africa
Defence ministers of South Africa
Finance ministers of South Africa
Members of the House of Assembly of South Africa
20th-century South African philosophers
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Alumni of Paul Roos Gymnasium
Apartheid in South Africa
South African Republic generals
British field marshals
Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society (Statute 12)
Legion of Frontiersmen members
Members of the Order of Merit
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
South African members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Rectors of the University of St Andrews
South African military personnel
South African people of World War I
South African people of World War II
Systems scientists
World War II political leaders
South African Zionists
South African Republic military personnel of the Second Boer War
Ministers of Home Affairs of South Africa
Justice ministers of South Africa
Members of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa
South African Queen's Counsel
Boer generals
Foreign ministers of South Africa
Chancellors of the University of Cape Town
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] |
204689
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Savage%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Michael Savage (disambiguation)
|
Michael Savage is an American radio host, author and conservative political commentator.
Michael Savage may also refer to:
Michael Joseph Savage (1872–1940), Prime Minister of New Zealand, 1935–1940
Michael Savage (sociologist) (born 1959), British sociologist and academic
Michael Savage (politician) (born 1960), Canadian politician
Michael Savage (Gaelic footballer) (born 1986), Gaelic football goalkeeper with Dublin
|
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204701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Swordfish
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Fairey Swordfish
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The Fairey Swordfish is a biplane torpedo bomber, designed by the Fairey Aviation Company. Originating in the early 1930s, the Swordfish, nicknamed "Stringbag", was principally operated by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy. It was also used by the Royal Air Force (RAF), as well as several overseas operators, including the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and the Royal Netherlands Navy. It was initially operated primarily as a fleet attack aircraft. During its later years, the Swordfish was increasingly used as an anti-submarine and training platform. The type was in frontline service throughout the Second World War.
Despite being obsolete by 1939, the Swordfish achieved some spectacular successes during the war. Notable events included sinking one battleship and damaging two others of the Regia Marina (the Italian navy) during the Battle of Taranto, and the famous attack on the German battleship Bismarck, which contributed to her eventual demise. Swordfish sank a greater tonnage of Axis shipping than any other Allied aircraft during the war. The Swordfish remained in front-line service until V-E Day, having outlived some of the aircraft intended to replace it.
Development
Origins
In 1933 Fairey, having established a proven track record in the design and construction of naval aircraft, commenced development of an entirely new three-seat naval aircraft, intended for the twin roles of aerial reconnaissance and torpedo bomber. Receiving the internal designation of T.S.R. I, standing for Torpedo-Spotter-Reconnaissance I, the proposed design adopted a biplane configuration and a single 645 hp Bristol Pegasus IIM radial engine as its powerplant. The company chose initially to pursue development of the project as a self-financed private venture while both customers and applicable requirements for the type were sought. Development of the T.S.R. I was in parallel to Fairey's activities upon Air Ministry Specification S.9/30, for which the company was at one point developing a separate but broadly similar aircraft, powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine instead as well as employing a differing fin and rudder configuration.
Significant contributions to the T.S.R.I's development came from Fairey's independent design work on a proposed aircraft for the Greek Naval Air Service, which had requested a replacement for their Fairey IIIF Mk.IIIB aircraft, and from specifications M.1/30 and S.9/30, which had been issued by the British Air Ministry. Fairey promptly informed the Air Ministry of its work for the Greeks, whose interest had eventually waned, and proposed its solution to the requirements for a spotter-reconnaissance plane ("spotter" referring to the activity of observing and directing the fall of a warship's gunfire). In 1934, the Air Ministry issued the more advanced Specification S.15/33, which formally added the torpedo bomber role.
On 21 March 1933, the prototype T.S.R. I, F1875, conducted its maiden flight from Great West Aerodrome, Heathrow, piloted by Fairey test pilot Chris Staniland. F1875 performed various flights, including several while re-engined with an Armstrong Siddeley Tiger radial engine before it was refitted with the Pegasus engine again, was used to explore the flight envelope, and to investigate the aircraft's flight characteristics. On 11 September 1933, F1875 was lost during a series of spinning tests in which it became unable to recover; the pilot survived the incident. Prior to this, the prototype had exhibited favourable performance, which contributed to the subsequent decision to proceed with the more advanced T.S.R II prototype, which had been specifically developed to conform with the newly issued Specification S.15/33.
On 17 April 1934, the prototype T.S.R II, K4190, performed its maiden flight, flown by Staniland. In comparison with the previous prototype, K4190 was equipped with a more powerful model of the Pegasus engine, an additional bay within the rear fuselage to counteract spin tendencies, and the upper wing was slightly swept back to account for the increased length of the fuselage; along with other aerodynamic-related tweaks to the rear of the aircraft. During the ensuing flight test programme, K4190 was transferred to Fairey's factory in Hamble-le-Rice, Hampshire, where it received a twin-float undercarriage in place of its original land-only counterpart; on 10 November 1934, the first flight of K4190 in this new configuration was performed. Following successful water-handling trials, K4190 conducted a series of aircraft catapult and recovery tests aboard the battlecruiser HMS Repulse. K4190 was later restored to its wheeled undercarriage prior to an extensive evaluation process by the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at RAF Martlesham Heath.
In 1935, following the successful completion of testing at Martlesham, an initial pre-production order for three aircraft was placed by the Air Ministry; it was at this point that the T.S.R II received the name Swordfish. All three pre-production aircraft were powered by the Pegasus IIIM3 engine, but adopted a three-bladed Fairey-Reed propeller in place of the two-bladed counterpart used on the earlier prototype. On 31 December 1935, the first pre-production Swordfish, K5660, made its maiden flight. On 19 February 1936, the second pre-production aircraft, K5661, became the first to be delivered; the final pre-production aircraft, K5662, was completed in the floatplane configuration and underwent water-based service trials at the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment at Felixstowe, Suffolk.
Production and further development
In early 1936, an initial production contract for 68 Swordfish aircraft was received, as the Swordfish I. Manufactured at Fairey's factory in Hayes, West London, the first production aircraft was completed in early 1936 and the type entered service with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in July 1936. By early 1940, Fairey was busy with the Swordfish and other types such as the new Fairey Albacore torpedo bomber. The Admiralty approached Blackburn Aircraft with a proposal that manufacturing activity for the Swordfish be transferred to the company, who immediately set about establishing a brand new fabrication and assembly facility in Sherburn-in-Elmet, North Yorkshire. Less than a year later, the first Blackburn-built Swordfish conducted its first flight. During 1941, the Sherburn factory assumed primary responsibility for the fuselage, along with final assembly and testing of finished aircraft.
Efforts were made to disperse production and to employ the use of shadow factories to minimise the damage caused by Luftwaffe bombing raids. Major sub-assemblies for the Swordfish were produced by four subcontractors based in neighbouring Leeds, these were transported by land to Sherburn for final assembly. Initial deliveries from Sherburn were completed to the Swordfish I standard; from 1943 onwards, the improved Swordfish II and Swordfish III marks came into production and superseded the original model. The Swordfish II carried ASV Mk. II radar and featured metal undersurfaces to the lower wings to allow the carriage of 3-inch rockets, later-built models also adopted the more powerful Pegasus XXX engine. The Swordfish III was fitted with centimetric ASV Mk.XI radar between the undercarriage legs, deleting the ability to carry torpedoes and retained the Pegasus XXX powerplant.
On 18 August 1944, production of the Swordfish was terminated; the last aircraft to be delivered, a Swordfish III, was delivered that day. Almost 2,400 aircraft had been built, 692 having been constructed by Fairey and a further 1,699 by Blackburn at their Sherburn facility. The most numerous version of the Swordfish was the Mark II, of which 1,080 were completed.
Design
The Fairey Swordfish was a medium-sized biplane torpedo bomber and reconnaissance aircraft. The Swordfish employed a metal airframe covered in fabric. It utilized folding wings as a space-saving measure, which was useful onboard aircraft carriers and battleships. In service, it received the nickname Stringbag; this was not due to its biplane struts, spars, and braces, but a reference to the seemingly endless variety of stores and equipment that the type was cleared to carry. Crews likened the aircraft to a housewife's string shopping bag, common at the time and which could accommodate contents of any shape, and that a Swordfish, like the shopping bag, could carry anything.
The primary weapon of the Swordfish was the aerial torpedo, but the low speed of the biplane and the need for a long straight approach made it difficult to deliver against well-defended targets. Swordfish torpedo doctrine called for an approach at followed by a dive to torpedo release altitude of . Maximum range of the early Mark XII torpedo was at and at . The torpedo travelled forward from release to water impact, and required another to stabilise at preset depth and arm itself. Ideal release distance was from target if the Swordfish survived to that distance.
The Swordfish was also capable of operating as a dive-bomber. During 1939, Swordfish on board HMS Glorious participated in a series of dive-bombing trials, during which 439 practice bombs were dropped at dive angles of 60, 67 and 70 degrees, against the target ship HMS Centurion. Tests against a stationary target showed an average error of from a release height of and a dive angle of 70 degrees; tests against a manoeuvring target showed an average error of from a drop height of and a dive angle of 60 degrees.
After more modern torpedo attack aircraft were developed, the Swordfish was soon redeployed successfully in an anti-submarine role, armed with depth charges or eight "60 lb" (27 kg) RP-3 rockets and flying from the smaller escort carriers, or even merchant aircraft carriers (MACs) when equipped for rocket-assisted takeoff (RATO). Its low stall speed and inherently tough design made it ideal for operation from the MACs in the often severe mid-Atlantic weather. Indeed, its takeoff and landing speeds were so low that, unlike most carrier-based aircraft, it did not require the carrier to be steaming into the wind. On occasion, when the wind was right, Swordfish were flown from a carrier at anchor.
Operational history
Introduction
In July 1936, the Swordfish formally entered service with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA), which was then part of the RAF; 825 Naval Air Squadron became the first squadrons to receive the type that month. The Swordfish began replacing both the Fairey Seal in the spotter-reconnaissance role and the Blackburn Baffin in the torpedo bomber role in competition with the Blackburn Shark in the combined role. Initially, the Shark replaced the Seal in the spotter-reconnaissance squadrons and the Swordfish replaced the Baffin in torpedo squadron, after which the Shark was quickly replaced by the Swordfish. For nearly two years during the late 1930s, the Swordfish was the sole torpedo bomber aircraft equipping the FAA.
By the eve of war in September 1939, the FAA, which had been transferred to Royal Navy control, had 13 operational squadrons equipped with the Swordfish I. There were also three flights of Swordfish equipped with floats, for use with catapult-equipped warships. After the outbreak of the Second World War, 26 FAA Squadrons were equipped with the Swordfish. More than 20 second-line squadrons also operated the Swordfish for training. During the early months of the conflict, the Swordfish operated in mostly uneventful fleet protection and convoy escort missions.
Norwegian Campaign
The Swordfish first saw combat on 11 April 1940, during the Norwegian Campaign. Several Swordfish aircraft were launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Furious to torpedo several German vessels reported to be anchoring at Trondheim. The Swordfish found only two enemy destroyers at Trondheim, scoring one hit in the first attack of the war by torpedo-carrying aircraft.
On 13 April 1940, a Swordfish launched from spotted fall of shot and radioed gunnery corrections back to the ship during the Second Battle of Narvik. Eight German destroyers were sunk or scuttled without any British losses. The was also spotted by the Swordfish, which dive-bombed and sank the submarine. This was the first U-boat to be destroyed by an FAA aircraft in the war.
After the Second Battle of Narvik, Swordfish continually bombed ships, land facilities, and parked enemy aircraft around Narvik. Anti-submarine patrols and aerial reconnaissance missions were also flown despite difficult terrain and inhospitable weather, which proved especially challenging for aircrew in the Swordfish's open cockpit. For many Swordfish crews, this campaign marked their first combat missions and nighttime landings upon aircraft carriers.
Mediterranean operations
On 14 June 1940, soon after the Italian declaration of war, nine Swordfish of 767 Naval Air Squadron stationed in Hyeres, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France took off for the first Allied bombing raid upon Italian soil. Four days later, 767 Squadron relocated to Bone, Algeria before being split, the training elements returning to Britain while the operational portion proceeded to RAF Hal Far on Malta, where it was re-numbered as 830 Naval Air Squadron. On 30 June, operations re-commenced with an opening night raid upon oil tanks at Augusta, Sicily.
On 3 July 1940, the Swordfish was one of the main weapons during the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, an attack by the Royal Navy upon the French Navy fleet stationed at Oran, French Algeria to prevent the vessels falling into German hands. Twelve Swordfish from 810 and 820 Naval Air Squadrons launched from the aircraft carrier and conducted three sorties of attacks upon the anchored fleet. The torpedo attack, which crippled the French battleship Dunkerque and damaged other vessels present, demonstrated that capital ships could be effectively attacked while in harbour; it was also the first time in history that the Royal Navy had won a battle without the use of gunfire.
Shortly after the Mers-el-Kébir attack, a detachment of three Swordfish were sent to support British Army operations in the Western Desert, in response to a request for torpedo aircraft to destroy hostile naval units operating off the coast of Libya. On 22 August, the three aircraft destroyed two U-boats, one destroyer and a replenishment ship in the Gulf of Bomba, Libya, using only three torpedoes.
On 11 November 1940, Swordfish flying from achieved great success in the Battle of Taranto. The main fleet of the Italian Navy was based at Taranto in southern Italy; in light of the success of the earlier attack upon the French Navy at Mers-el-Kébir, members of the Admiralty sought another victory under similar conditions. The Royal Navy had conducted extensive preparations, with some planning having taken place as early as 1938, when war between the European powers had already seemed inevitable. Regular aerial reconnaissance missions were flown to gather intelligence on the positions of specific capital ships and Swordfish crews were intensively trained for night flying operations, as an undetected aerial attack during the night raid had been judged to be the only effective method of reasonably overcoming the defences of the well-protected harbour and to strike at the fleet anchored there.
Originally scheduled for 21 October 1940, the Taranto raid was delayed until 11 November to allow for key reinforcements to arrive and other commitments to be met. The aerial attack started with a volley of flares being dropped by Swordfish aircraft to illuminate the harbour, after which, the Swordfish formation commenced bombing and torpedo runs. Due to the presence of barrage balloons and torpedo nets restricting the number of suitable torpedo-dropping positions, many of the Swordfish had been armed with bombs and made a synchronised attack upon the cruisers and destroyers instead. The six torpedo-armed Swordfish inflicted serious damage on three of the battleships. Two cruisers, two destroyers and other vessels were damaged or sunk. The high manoeuvrability of the Swordfish was attributed with enabling the aircraft to evade intense anti-aircraft fire and hit the Italian ships. The Battle of Taranto firmly established that naval aircraft were independently capable of immobilising an entire fleet and were an effective means of altering the balance of power. The Japanese assistant naval attaché to Berlin, Takeshi Naito, visited Taranto to view the consequences of the attack; he later briefed the staff who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor.
On 28 March 1941, a pair of Swordfish based at Crete contributed to the disabling of the Italian cruiser Pola during the Battle of Cape Matapan. In May 1941, six Swordfish based at Shaibah, near Basra, Iraq, participated in the suppression of a revolt in the region, widely known now as the Anglo-Iraqi War. The aircraft conducted dive bombing attacks upon Iraqi barracks, fuel storage tanks and bridges.
The Swordfish also flew a high level of anti-shipping sorties in the Mediterranean, many aircraft being based at Malta. Guided by aerial reconnaissance from other RAF units, Swordfish would time their attacks to arrive at enemy convoys in the dark to elude German fighters, which were restricted to daytime operations. While there were never more than a total of 27 Swordfish aircraft stationed on the island at a time, the type succeeded in sinking an average of 50,000 tons of enemy shipping per month across a nine-month period. During one record month, 98,000 tons of shipping were reportedly lost to the island's Swordfish-equipped strike force. The recorded Swordfish losses were low, especially in relation to the high sortie rate of the aircraft and in light of the fact that many aircraft lacked any blind-flying equipment, making night flying even more hazardous.
Atlantic operations
In May 1941, Swordfish helped pursue and sink the German battleship . On 24 May, nine Swordfish from flew a late night sortie against the Bismarck under deteriorating weather conditions. Using ASV radar, the flight were able to spot and attack the ship, resulting in a single torpedo hit that only caused minor damage. Bismarcks evasive manoeuvres, however, made it easier for her enemies to catch up.
On 26 May, Ark Royal launched two Swordfish strikes against Bismarck. The first failed to locate the ship. The second attack scored two torpedo hits, one of which jammed the ship's rudders at a 12° port helm. This made Bismarck unmanoeuvrable and unable to escape to port in France. She sank after intense Royal Navy attack within 13 hours. The low speed of the attacking aircraft may have acted in their favour, as they were too slow for the fire-control predictors of the German gunners, whose shells exploded so far in front of the aircraft that the threat of shrapnel damage was greatly diminished. Some of the Swordfish flew so low that most of Bismarcks flak weapons could not depress enough to hit them.
Throughout 1942, the Swordfish was progressively transferred away from the Royal Navy's fleet carriers as newer strike aircraft, such as the Fairey Albacore and Fairey Barracuda, were introduced. In the submarine-hunter role, the Swordfish contributed to the Battle of the Atlantic, detecting and attacking the roaming U-boat packs that preyed upon merchant shipping between Britain and North America and in support of the Arctic convoys which delivered supplies from Britain to Russia. Swordfish attacked submarines directly and guided destroyers to their locations. During one convoy battle, Swordfish from the escort carrier and flew over 1,000 hours on anti-submarine patrols in 10 days.
One of the more innovative uses of the Swordfish was its role with merchant aircraft carriers ("MAC ships"). These were 20 civilian cargo or tanker ships modified to carry three or four aircraft each on anti-submarine duties with convoys. Three of these vessels were Dutch-manned, and several Swordfish of 860 (Dutch) Naval Air Squadron were typically deployed on board. The others were manned by aircrew from 836 Naval Air Squadron. At one time this was the largest squadron operating the type, with 91 aircraft.
Home front
During early 1940, Swordfish aircraft of 812 Squadron under RAF Coastal Command started a campaign against enemy ports along the English Channel. The aircraft routinely sortied to drop naval mines near such harbours. To increase range, additional fuel tanks were installed in the crew area and the third crew member was left behind. RAF fighters often provided aerial cover where possible and occasionally counterattacked enemy air bases.
The intensity of Coastal Command's Swordfish operations was drastically increased after the German invasion of the Low Countries, expanding to involve four Swordfish-equipped squadrons. Typically flying from Detling, Thorney Island, North Coates and St Eval, Swordfish crews were dispatched to strike strategic targets off the coasts of Netherlands and Belgium in daylight raids, during which they were braved anti-aircraft fire and interception by Luftwaffe fighter aircraft. Night time bombing raids were conducted against oil installations, power stations, and aerodromes. After the Allied defeat in the Battle of France and the signing of the French Armistice of 22 June 1940, Swordfish focused their activities against ports that might be used for a German invasion of the United Kingdom This included security patrols and spotting for naval bombardments.
In February 1942, the shortcomings of the Swordfish were starkly demonstrated during a German naval fleet movement known as the Channel Dash. Six Swordfish led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene Esmonde sortied from Manston to intercept the battleships and as they traversed the English Channel towards Germany. When the Swordfish formation arrived and commenced an initial attack run coming astern of the ships, the Swordfish were intercepted by roughly 15 Messerschmitt Bf 109 monoplane fighter aircraft; the aerial battle was extremely one-sided, quickly resulting in the loss of all Swordfish while no damage was achieved upon the ships themselves. The lack of fighter cover was a contributing factor for the heavy losses experienced; only 10 of 84 promised fighters were available. Thirteen of the 18 Swordfish crew involved were killed. Esmonde, who had previously led an attack on Bismarck, was awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously.
The courage of the Swordfish crews was noted by commanders on both sides. British Vice-Admiral Bertram Ramsay wrote "In my opinion the gallant sortie of these six Swordfish aircraft constitutes one of the finest exhibitions of self-sacrifice and devotion to duty the war had ever witnessed". German Vice-Admiral Otto Ciliax remarked on "the mothball attack of a handful of ancient planes, piloted by men whose bravery surpasses any other action by either side that day."
However, as a result of this incident, Swordfish were quickly withdrawn from the torpedo-bomber role in favour of more anti-submarine duties. Armed with depth charges and rockets, the aircraft were good submarine killers.
In the anti-submarine role, the Swordfish pioneered the naval use of air to surface vessel (ASV) radar, allowing the aircraft to effectively locate surface ships at night and through clouds. Swordfish were flying missions with the radar by October 1941. In December 1941, a Swordfish based in Gibraltar located and sank a U-boat, the first such kill to be achieved by an aircraft during nighttime. On 23 May 1943, a rocket-equipped Swordfish destroyed German submarine U-752 off the coast of Ireland, the first kill achieved with this weapon.
Later use
Towards the end of the war, No. 119 Squadron RAF operated Swordfish Mark IIIs with centimetric radar from airfields in Belgium. Their main task was to hunt at night for German midget submarines in the North Sea and off the Dutch coast. The radar was able to detect ships at a range of around . One of the aircraft operated by 119 Squadron in this role survives and is part of the collection of the Imperial War Museum (see Surviving aircraft).
By 1945, nine front-line squadrons were still equipped with Swordfish. Overall, Swordfish sank 14 U-boats. The Swordfish was intended to be replaced by the Fairey Albacore, also a biplane, but it outlived its intended successor until succeeded by the Fairey Barracuda monoplane torpedo bomber. Operational sorties of the Swordfish continued into January 1945. The last active missions are believed to have been anti-shipping operations off the coast of Norway by FAA Squadrons 835 and 813, where the Swordfish's manoeuvrability was essential. The last operational squadron, 836 Naval Air Squadron, which had last been engaged in providing resources for the MAC ships, was disbanded on 21 May 1945, soon after the end of World War II in Europe. In the northern summer of 1946, the last training squadron equipped with the type was disbanded, after which only a few examples remained in service to perform sundry duties at a few naval air stations.
Variants
Swordfish I
First production series.
Swordfish I
Version equipped with floats, for use from catapult-equipped warships.
Swordfish II
Version with metal lower wings to enable the mounting of rockets, introduced in 1943.
Swordfish III
Version with added large centrimetric radar unit, introduced in 1943.
Swordfish IV
Last version (production ended in 1944), with an enclosed cabin for use by the RCAF
Operators
Royal Australian Air Force
Six aircraft were used by No. 25 Squadron RAAF in 1942.
Royal Canadian Air Force
Royal Canadian Navy
Regia Aeronautica
Swordfish 4A was first to fall into Italian hands in the aftermath of the Battle of Taranto, in poor condition.
Swordfish K8422 of HMS Eagle was shot down and captured during a raid on Maritza airfield, Rhodes on 4 September 1940. Evaluated at Guidonia Test Centre and kept serviceable until mid-1941.
Swordfish P4127 (coded 4F) of 820 squadron on HMS Ark Royal, involved in bombing raid on Cagliari, Sardinia. Hit by ground fire, it force-landed on the enemy airfield at Elmas on 2 August 1940. The crew were taken prisoner and the aircraft captured intact. Caproni repaired it locally and fitted it with an Alfa Romeo 125 engine. It was taken to the Stabilimento Costruzioni Aeronautiche in Guidonia on 27 February 1941. It was still listed as being there on 6 April 1942.
Royal Netherlands Navy
Dutch Naval Aviation Service in exile in the United Kingdom
No. 860 (Dutch) Squadron, Fleet Air Arm
Ejercito del Aire
Swordfish W5843 of 813 squadron at North Front, Gibraltar lost its bearings during an anti-submarine sweep and force landed between Ras el Farea and Pota Pescadores, in Spanish Morocco, on 30 April 1942. The crew were all interned. The final fate of the aircraft is not known.
Swordfish P4073 of 700 squadron of HMS Malaya ran out of fuel whilst shadowing the German battleship Scharnhorst on 8 March 1941. Aircraft and crew were recovered by the Spanish liner Cabo de Buena Esperanza off Canary Islands and interned in Spain. The Swordfish was put on the strength of the Spanish air force as HR6-1 on 6 December 1943 with 54 Escuadrilla, Puerto de le Cruz, Tenerife, Canary Islands. Retired March 1945 at Las Palmas, Gran Canaria.
Royal Air Force
No. 8 Squadron RAF
No. 119 Squadron RAF
No. 202 Squadron RAF
No. 209 Squadron RAF
No. 273 Squadron RAF
No. 613 Squadron RAF
No. 3 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit (No. 3 AACU), Malta and Gibraltar
No. 4 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit (No. 4 AACU), Singapore
9 (Pilot) Advanced Flying Unit
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (prior to May 1939 part of RAF)
700 Squadron
705 Squadron (float-equipped aircraft from the battlecruisers Repulse and Renown)
771 Squadron
810 Squadron
811 Squadron
812 Squadron
814 Squadron
815 Squadron
816 Squadron
817 Squadron, transferred to South Africa in 1945
818 Squadron
819 Squadron
820 Squadron
821 Squadron
822 Squadron
823 Squadron
824 Squadron
825 Squadron
835 Squadron
836 Squadron
838 Squadron
Surviving aircraft
A large proportion of the currently surviving aircraft were recovered from the farm of Canadian Ernie Simmons.
Canada
Unknown – Swordfish II on static display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum.
HS469 – Swordfish IV on display at the Shearwater Aviation Museum in Nova Scotia. It was restored to airworthy condition and flew once, in 1994.
HS498 – Swordfish IV in storage at the Reynolds-Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta.
Malta
HS491 – Swordfish IV under restoration at the Malta Aviation Museum in Ta' Qali, Attard.
United Kingdom
HS503 – Swordfish IV in storage at the Royal Air Force Museum in Stafford, Staffordshire.
HS554 – Swordfish III under restoration to airworthy with private owners in White Waltham, Berkshire. Restored to flight in 2006, it was previously owned by Vintage Wings of Canada. After being grounded for several years, it was sold to the current owners in 2019.
HS618 – Swordfish II on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum in Yeovil, Somerset.
LS326 – Swordfish II airworthy with Navy Wings in Ilchester, Somerset.
NF370 – Swordfish III on static display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in Duxford, Cambridgeshire. It was built in 1944. It was operated by No. 119 Squadron RAF, which was given the task of patrolling the North Sea in search of German torpedo boats and midget submarines. It has been at the Imperial War Museum Duxford since 1986. In 1998, a restoration project began that returned the airframe to an airworthy condition, although it was fitted with a non-functional Pegasus engine.
W5856 – Swordfish I airworthy with Navy Wings in Ilchester, Somerset.
United States
HS164 – Swordfish IV on display at the American Airpower Heritage Museum of the Commemorative Air Force in Dallas, Texas.
Specifications (Swordfish I)
See also
Blackburn Shark
Gloster TSR.38
References
Citations
Bibliography
Brown, Eric, CBE, DCS, AFC, RN.; William Green and Gordon Swanborough. "Fairey Swordfish". Wings of the Navy, Flying Allied Carrier Aircraft of World War Two. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1980, pp. 7–20. .
Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. .
Harrison, W.A. Fairey Swordfish and Albacore. Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2002. .
Harrison, W.A. Fairey Swordfish in Action (Aircraft Number 175). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2001. .
Harrison, W.A. Swordfish at War. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 1987. .
Harrison, W.A. Swordfish Special. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 1977. .
Kilbracken, Lord. Bring Back My Stringbag: A Swordfish Pilot at War. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1980. . First published by Peter Davies Ltd, 1979.
Lamb, Charles. To War in a Stringbag. London: Cassell & Co., 2001. .
Lowe, Malcolm V. Fairey Swordfish: Plane Essentials No.3. Wimborne, UK: Publishing Solutions (www) Ltd., 2009. .
Lowry, Thomas P. and John Wellham.The Attack on Taranto: Blueprint for Pearl Harbor. London: Stackpole Books, 2000. .
Kemp, P.K. Key to Victory: The Triumph of British Sea Power in World War II. New York: Little, Brown, 1957.
Kennedy, Ludovic. Pursuit: The Sinking of the Bismarck. Bath, UK: Chivers Press, 2002. .
Smith, Peter C. Dive Bomber!. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1982. .
Stott, Ian G. The Fairey Swordfish Mks. I-IV (Aircraft in Profile 212). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications, 1971.
Sturtivant, Ray. The Swordfish Story. London: Cassell & Co., 1993 (2nd Revised edition 2000). .
Taylor, H.A, Fairey Aircraft since 1915. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1974. .
Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft Since 1912. London: Putnam, Fourth edition, 1978. .
Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft Since 1912. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. .
Thomas, Andrew. "Light Blue 'Stringbags': The Fairey Swordfish in RAF Service". Air Enthusiast, No. 78, November/December 1998, pp. 73–77. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0143-5450.
Wragg, David. The Escort Carrier in World War II. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2005. .
Wragg, David. Stringbag: The Fairey Swordfish at War. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword Books, 2005. .
Wragg, David. Swordfish: The Story of the Taranto Raid. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2003. .
External links
Swordfish Story of the Torpedoing of the Bismarck
"Stringbag Plus" a 1946 Flight article on flying the Swordfish
Biplanes
1940s British anti-submarine aircraft
1930s British bomber aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Swordfish
Single-engined tractor aircraft
World War II British bombers
Aircraft first flown in 1934
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine%20%28performer%29
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Divine (performer)
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Harris Glenn Milstead (October 19, 1945 – March 7, 1988), better known by his stage name Divine, was an American actor, singer, and drag queen. Closely associated with independent filmmaker John Waters, Divine was a character actor, usually performing female roles in cinematic and theatrical productions, and adopted a female drag persona for his music career.
Born in Baltimore, Maryland to a conservative middle-class family, Milstead developed an early interest in drag while working as a women's hairdresser. By the mid-1960s he had embraced the city's countercultural scene and befriended Waters, who gave him the name "Divine" and the tagline of "the most beautiful woman in the world, almost." Along with his friend David Lochary, Milstead joined Waters' acting troupe, the Dreamlanders, and adopted female roles for their experimental short films Roman Candles (1966), Eat Your Makeup (1968), and The Diane Linkletter Story (1969). Again in drag, he took a lead role in both of Waters' early full-length movies, Mondo Trasho (1969) and Multiple Maniacs (1970), the latter of which attracted press attention for the group. Milstead next starred in Waters' Pink Flamingos (1972), which was a hit on the U.S. midnight movie circuit, became a cult classic, and established Milstead's fame in the American counterculture.
After starring as the lead role in Waters' next film, Female Trouble (1974), Divine moved on to theater, appearing in several avant-garde performances alongside San Francisco drag collective, The Cockettes. He followed this with a performance in Tom Eyen's play Women Behind Bars and its sequel, The Neon Woman. Continuing his cinematic work, he starred in two more of Waters' films, Polyester (1981) and Hairspray (1988), the latter of which represented his breakthrough into mainstream cinema and for which he was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male. Independent of Waters, he also appeared in a number of other films, such as Lust in the Dust (1985) and Trouble in Mind (1985), seeking to diversify his repertoire by playing male roles. In 1981, Divine embarked on a career in the disco industry by producing a number of Hi-NRG tracks, most of which were written by Bobby Orlando. He achieved international chart success with hits like "You Think You're a Man", "I'm So Beautiful", and "Walk Like a Man", all of which were performed in drag. Divine had a condition called cardiomegaly. Stress on his enlarged heart led to a heart attack that killed him shortly after the release of Hairspray.
Described by People magazine as the "Drag Queen of the Century", Divine has remained a cult figure, particularly within the LGBT community, and has provided the inspiration for fictional characters, artworks, and songs. Various books and documentary films devoted to his life have also been produced, including Divine Trash (1998) and I Am Divine (2013).
Early life
Youth: 1945–1965
Milstead was born on October 19, 1945 at Women's Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. His father, Harris Bernard Milstead (May 1, 1917 – March 4, 1993), after whom he was named, was one of seven children born in Towson, Maryland to a plumber who worked for the Baltimore City Water Department. Divine's mother, Frances Milstead (née Vukovich; April 12, 1920 – March 24, 2009), was one of 15 children born to an impoverished Serb immigrant couple who had grown up near Zagreb (in today's Croatia) before moving to the United States in 1891. When she was 16, she moved to Baltimore where she worked at a diner in Towson where she met Harris, a regular customer. After marrying in 1938, they were both hired at the Black & Decker factory in Towson. Due to muscular dystrophy, Harris was not required to join the U.S. armed forces in the Second World War; instead, he and Frances worked through the war years in what they considered "good jobs". Frances suffered two miscarriages in 1940 and 1943.
By the time of Divine's birth in 1945, the Milsteads were affluent and socially conservative Baptists. Describing his upbringing, Divine recollected: "I was an only child in, I guess, your upper middle-class American family. I was probably your American spoiled brat." His parents lavished almost anything that he wanted on him, including food, and he became overweight, a condition he lived with for the rest of his life. On his request, his parents and friends called him by his middle name, Glenn, to distinguish him from his father.
At age 12, Divine and his parents moved to the Baltimore suburb of Lutherville, where he attended Towson High School, graduating in 1963. Bullied because of his weight and perceived effeminacy, he later reminisced that he "wasn't rough and tough" but instead "loved painting and I always loved flowers and things." At 15 he took a part-time job at a local florist's shop. Several years later, he went on a diet and skinned down from , giving him new confidence. When he was 17, his parents sent him to a psychiatrist, where he first realized his sexual attraction to men as well as women, something then taboo in conventional American society. He helped out at his parents' day care business, including dressing up as Santa Claus to entertain the children at Christmas time. In 1963, he began attending the Marinella Beauty School, where he learned hair styling and, after completing his studies, gained employment at a couple of local salons, specializing in the creation of beehives and other upswept styles. He eventually gave up the job and for a while was financially supported by his parents, who catered to his expensive taste in clothes and cars. They reluctantly paid the many bills he ran up throwing lavish parties where he dressed in drag as his favorite celebrity, actress Elizabeth Taylor.
John Waters and Divine's first films: 1966–1968
Milstead developed a large coterie of friends, among them David Lochary, who became an actor and costar in several of Divine's later films. In the mid-1960s, Milstead befriended John Waters through their mutual friend Carol Wernig; Waters and Milstead were the same age and from the same neighborhood, and both embraced Baltimore's countercultural and underground elements. Along with friends like Waters and Lochary, Milstead began hanging out at a beatnik bar in downtown Baltimore named Martick's, where they associated with hippies and smoked marijuana, bonding into what Waters described as "a family of sorts". Waters gave his friends new nicknames, and it was he who first called Milstead "Divine". Waters later remarked that he had borrowed the name from a character in Jean Genet's novel Our Lady of the Flowers (1943), a controversial book about homosexuals living on the margins of Parisian society, which Waters – himself a homosexual – was reading at the time. Waters also introduced Divine as "the most beautiful woman in the world, almost", a description widely repeated in ensuing years.
Waters was an aspiring filmmaker, intent on making "the trashiest motion pictures in cinema history". Many of his friends, a group which came to be known as "the Dreamlanders" (and who included Divine, Lochary, Mary Vivian Pearce and Mink Stole), appeared in some of his low-budget productions, filmed on Sunday afternoons. Following the production of his first short film, Hag in a Black Leather Jacket (1964), Waters began production of a second work, Roman Candles (1966). This film was influenced by the pop artist Andy Warhol's Chelsea Girls (1966), and consisted of three 8-millimeter movies played simultaneously side by side. Roman Candles was the first film to star Divine, in this instance in drag as a smoking nun. It featured the Dreamlanders modeling shoplifted clothes and performing various unrelated activities. Being both a short film and of an avant-garde nature, Roman Candles never received widespread distribution, instead holding its premiere at the annual Mt. Vernon Flower Mart in Baltimore, which had become popular with "elderly dames, young faggots and hustlers, and of course a whole bunch of hippies". Waters went on to screen it at several local venues alongside Kenneth Anger's short film Eaux d'Artifice (1953).
Waters followed Roman Candles with a third short film, Eat Your Makeup (1968), in which Divine once more wore drag, this time to portray a fictionalized version of Jackie Kennedy, the widow of recently assassinated U.S. President John F. Kennedy. In the film, she turns to kidnapping models and forcing them to eat their own makeup. Divine kept his involvement with Waters and these early underground films a secret from his conservative parents, believing that they would not understand them or the reason for his involvement in such controversial and bad-taste films; they would not find out about them for many years. Divine's parents had bought him his own beauty shop in Towson, hoping that the financial responsibility would help him to settle down in life and stop spending so extravagantly. While agreeing to work there, he refused to be involved in owning and managing the establishment, leaving that to his mother. Not long after, in the summer of 1968, he moved out of his parental home, renting his own apartment.
The Diane Linkletter Story, Mondo Trasho, and Multiple Maniacs: 1969–1970
Divine appeared in Waters's next short film, The Diane Linkletter Story (1969), which was initially designed to be a test for a new sound camera. A black comedy that carried on in Waters's tradition of making "bad taste" films to shock conventional American society, The Diane Linkletter Story was based upon the true story of Diane Linkletter, the daughter of media personality Art Linkletter, who had committed suicide earlier that year. Her death had led to a flurry of media interest and speculation, with various sources erroneously claiming that she had done so under the influence of the psychedelic LSD. Waters's dramatized version starred Divine in the leading role as the teenager who rebels against her conservative parents after they try to break up her relationship with hippie boyfriend Jim, before consuming a large quantity of LSD and committing suicide. Although screened at the first Baltimore Film Festival, the film was not publicly released at the time, largely for legal reasons.
Soon after the production of The Diane Linkletter Story, Waters began filming a full-length motion picture, Mondo Trasho, starring Divine as one of the main characters, an unnamed blonde woman who drives around town and runs over a hitchhiker. In one scene, an actor was required to walk along a street naked, which was a crime in the state of Maryland at the time, leading to the arrest of Waters and most of the actors associated with the film; Divine escaped, having speedily driven away from the police when they arrived to carry out the arrests. In their review of the film, the Los Angeles Free Press exclaimed that "The 300-pound (140 kg) sex-symbol Divine is undoubtedly some sort of discovery."
In 1970, Divine abandoned work as a hairdresser, opening up a vintage clothing store in Provincetown, Massachusetts using his parents' money. Opening in 1970 as "Divine Trash", the store sold items that Divine had purchased in thrift stores, flea markets and garage sales, although it had to move from its original location after he had failed to obtain a license from the local authorities. Realizing that this venture was not financially viable, Divine sold off his stock at very low prices. In the hope of raising some extra money, he sold the furniture of his rented, furnished apartment, leading the landlady to put out a warrant for his arrest. He evaded the local police by traveling to San Francisco, California, a city which had a large gay subculture that attracted Divine, who was then embracing his homosexuality.
In 1970, Divine played the role of Lady Divine, the operator of an exhibit known as The Cavalcade of Perversion who turns to murdering visitors in Waters's film Multiple Maniacs. The film contained several controversial scenes, notably one which involved Lady Divine masturbating using a rosary while sitting inside a church. In another, Lady Divine kills her boyfriend and proceeds to eat his heart; in actuality, Divine bit into a cow's heart which had gone rotten from being left out on the set all day. At the end of the film, Lady Divine is raped by a giant lobster named Lobstora, an act that drives her into madness; she subsequently goes on a killing spree in Fell's Point before being shot down by the National Guard. Due to its controversial nature, Waters feared that the film would be banned and confiscated by the Maryland State Board of Censors, so avoided their jurisdiction by only screening it at non-commercial venues, namely rented church premises. Multiple Maniacs was the first of Waters's films to receive widespread attention, as did Divine; KSFX remarked that "Divine is incredible! Could start a whole new trend in films."
Rise to fame
Pink Flamingos: 1971–1972
Following his San Francisco stay, Divine returned to Baltimore and participated in Waters's next film Pink Flamingos. Designed by Waters to be "an exercise in poor taste," the film featured Divine as Babs Johnson, a woman who claims to be "the filthiest person alive" and who is forced to prove her right to the title from challengers, Connie (Mink Stole) and Raymond Marble (David Lochary). In one scene, the Marbles send Babs a turd in a box as a birthday present, and in order to enact this scene, Divine defecated into the box the night before. Filmed in a hippie commune in Phoenix, Maryland, the cast members spent much of the time smoking cigarettes and marijuana and taking amphetamines. All of the scenes had been heavily rehearsed beforehand. The final scene in the film proved particularly infamous, involving Babs eating fresh dog feces; Divine later told a reporter, "I followed that dog around for three hours just zooming in on its asshole," waiting for it to empty its bowels so that they could film the scene. The scene became one of the most notable moments of Divine's acting career, and he later complained of people thinking that "I run around doing it all the time. I've received boxes of dog shit – plastic dog shit. I have gone to parties where people just sit around and talk about dog shit because they think it's what I want to talk about." In reality, he remarked, he was not a coprophile but only ate excrement that one time because it was in the script.
The film premiered in late 1972 at the third Annual Baltimore Film Festival, held on the campus of the University of Baltimore, where it sold out tickets for three successive screenings; the film aroused particular interest among underground cinema fans following the success of Multiple Maniacs, which had begun to be screened in New York City, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Being picked up by the small independent company New Line Cinema, Pink Flamingos was distributed to Ben Barenholtz, the owner of the Elgin Theater in New York City. At the Elgin Theater, Barenholtz had been promoting the midnight movie scene, primarily by screening Alejandro Jodorowsky's acid western film El Topo (1970). Barenholtz felt that being of an avant-garde nature, Pink Flamingos would fit in well with this crowd, screening it at midnight on Friday and Saturday nights. The film soon gained a cult following at the Elgin Theatre. Barenholtz characterized its early fans as primarily being "downtown gay people, more of the hipper set," but after a while he noted that this group broadened, with the film becoming popular with "working-class kids from New Jersey who would become a little rowdy". Many of these cult cinema fans learned all of the film's lines, reciting them at the screenings, a phenomenon which became associated with another popular midnight movie of the era, The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975).
While keeping his involvement with Waters's underground filmmaking a secret from his parents, Divine continued relying on them financially, charging them for expensive parties that he held and writing bad checks. After he charged them for a major repair to his car in 1972, his parents confiscated it from him and told him that they would not continue to support him in such a manner. In retaliation, he came by their house the following day, collected his two pet dogs and then disappeared, not seeing or speaking with them for the next nine years. Instead, he sent them over fifty postcards from across the world, informing them that he was fine, but on none did he leave a return address. Frances and Harris Milstead retired soon after and moved to Florida at the advice of Harris's doctor, who prescribed the southern state's warmer weather as being beneficial for Harris's muscular dystrophy.
Theater work and Female Trouble: 1973–1978
When the filming of Pink Flamingos finished, Divine returned to San Francisco, where he and Mink Stole starred in a number of small-budget plays at the Palace Theater as part of drag troupe The Cockettes, including Divine and Her Stimulating Studs, Divine Saves the World, Vice Palace, Journey to the Center of Uranus and The Heartbreak of Psoriasis. It was here that he first met androgynous performer Sylvester. Divine purchased a house in Santa Monica, which he furnished to his expensive tastes. On visits to Washington D.C. during the early 1970s, Divine and Waters attended the city's balls that were frequented by LGBT African-Americans. Here, Waters encouraged Divine's drag persona to become more outrageous, exposing her overweight stomach and carrying weapons. He later commented that he wanted Divine to become "the Godzilla of drag queens", a direct confrontation with the majority of Euro-American drag queens who wanted to be Miss America. In his private life, Divine became the godfather of Brook Yeaton, the son of his friends Chuck Yeaton and Pat Moran; Brook and Divine remained very close until Divine's death.
In 1974, Divine returned to Baltimore to film Waters's next motion picture, Female Trouble, in which he played the lead role. Divine's character, teenage delinquent Dawn Davenport, embraces the idea that crime is art and is eventually executed in the electric chair for her violent behavior. Waters claimed that the character of Dawn had been partly based on the mutual friend who had introduced him to Divine, Carol Wernig, while the costumes and make-up were once more designed by Van Smith to create the desired "trashy, slutty look." In the film, Divine did his own stunts, including the trampoline scene, for which he had to undertake a number of trampolining lessons. Divine also played his first on-screen male role in the film, Earl Peterson, and Waters included a scene during which these two characters had sexual intercourse as a joke on the fact that both characters were played by the same actor. Female Trouble proved to be Divine's favorite of his films, because it both allowed him to develop his character and to finally play a male role, something he had always felt important because he feared being typecast as a female impersonator. Divine was also responsible for singing the theme tune for Female Trouble, although it was never released as a single. Divine remained proud of the film, although it received a mixed critical reception.
In 1977, Divine co-starred in the revue Restless Underwear, alongside Canadian rock band Rough Trade, which played at Massey Hall in Toronto. In 1980, the revue appeared at the Beacon Theater on Manhattan's Upper West Side. Bernard Jay, Divine's manager, said that it was a "gigantic disaster", as Divine did not have as large a part in the revue as audience members expected.
Divine was unable to appear in Waters's next feature, Desperate Living (1977), despite the fact that the role of Mole McHenry had been written for him. This was because he had returned to working in the theater, this time taking the role of the scheming prison matron Pauline in Tom Eyen's comedy Women Behind Bars. Performed in New York City's Truck and Warehouse Theater, the play proved popular and was later taken to London's Whitehall Theater next to Trafalgar Square. Containing a new cast, it proved less successful than it had in New York. It was in this city that Divine met a group of people whom he would come to know as his "London family": fashion designer Zandra Rhodes, photographer Robyn Beeche, sculptor Andrew Logan and the latter's partner, Michael Davis. While in London in 1978, Divine attended as the guest of honour at the fourth Alternative Miss World pageant, a "mock" event founded by Logan in 1972 in which "drag queens" – including men, women and children – competed for the prize. The event was filmed by director Richard Gayer, whose subsequent film, entitled Alternative Miss World, premiered at the Odeon in London's Leicester Square as well as featuring at the Cannes Film Festival, both events which were attended by Divine.
Impressed with Divine's performance in Women Behind Bars, playwright Tom Eyen decided to write a new play that would feature him in a starring role. The result was The Neon Woman, a story set in 1962 featuring Divine as Flash Storm, the female owner of a Baltimore strip club. It played at the Hurrah! club in New York City before moving on to the Alcazar Theatre in San Francisco. Divine remained very proud of the work, seeing it as evidence that his acting skills were coming to wider recognition, and his performances were attended by such celebrities as Eartha Kitt, Elton John, and Liza Minnelli. It was during the New York leg of the play's tour that Divine befriended Jay Bennett; they subsequently began renting an apartment together on 58th Street. In the city, Divine assembled a group of friends that came to be known as his "New York family": designer Larry LeGaspi, makeup artist Conrad Santiago, Vincent Nasso, and dresser Frankie Piazza. While there, he frequented the famous club Studio 54, having a love of partying and club culture.
Early disco work and Polyester: 1979–1983
Divine eventually decided to abandon his agent, Robert Hussong, and replace him with his English friend Bernard Jay. Jay suggested that with his love of clubs, Divine could obtain work performing in them; as a result, Divine first appeared in 1979 at a gay club in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where his unscripted act included shouting "fuck you" repeatedly at the audience and then getting into a fight with another drag queen, a gimmick that proved popular with the club's clientele. Subsequently, he saw the commercial potential of including disco songs in with his act and, with Tom Eyen and composer Henry Krieger, created "Born to be Cheap" in 1981. In 1981 Divine appeared in John Waters's next film, Polyester, starring as Francine Fishpaw. Unlike earlier roles, Fishpaw was not a strong female but a meek and victimized woman who falls in love with her dream lover, Todd Tomorrow, played by Tab Hunter. In real life, tabloid publications claimed a romantic connection between them, an assertion both denied. The film was released in "Odorama", accompanied by "scratch 'n' sniff" cards for the audience to smell at key points in the film. Soon after Polyester, Divine auditioned for a male role in Ridley Scott's upcoming science-fiction film Blade Runner. Even though Scott thought Divine unsuitable for the part, he claimed to be enthusiastic about Divine's work and was very interested in including him in another of his films, but ultimately this never came about.
That same year, Divine decided to get back in contact with his estranged parents. His mother had learned of his cinematic and disco career after reading an article about the films of John Waters in Life magazine, and had gone to see Female Trouble at the cinema, but had not felt emotionally able to get back in contact with her son until 1981. She got a friend to hand Divine a note at one of his concerts, leading Divine to telephone her, and the family was subsequently reunited. The relationship was mended, and Divine bought them lavish gifts and informed them of how wealthy he was. In fact, according to his manager Bernard Jay, he was already heavily in debt due to his extravagant spending. In 1982, he then joined forces with young American composer Bobby Orlando, who wrote a number of Hi-NRG singles for Divine, including "Native Love (Step By Step)", "Shoot Your Shot", and "Love Reaction". To help publicize these singles, which proved to be successful in many discos across the world, Divine went on television shows like Good Morning America, as well as on a series of tours in which he combined his musical performances with comedic stunts and routines that often played up to his characters' stereotype of being "trashy" and outrageous. Throughout the rest of the 1980s, Divine took his musical performances on tour across the world, attaining a particularly large following in Europe.
Later life
Later disco work, Lust in the Dust, and Hairspray: 1984–1988
Divine's career as a disco singer continued and his records had sold well, but he and his management felt that they were not receiving their share of the profits. They went to court against Orlando and his company, O-Records, and successfully nullified their contract. After signing with Barry Evangeli's company, InTune Music Limited, Divine released several new disco records, including "You Think You're A Man" and "I'm So Beautiful", which were both co-produced by Pete Waterman of the then-up-and-coming UK production team of Stock Aitken Waterman. In the United Kingdom, Divine sang his hit "You Think You're A Man" – a song which he had dedicated to his parents – on BBC television show Top of the Pops. He gained a devout follower, Briton Mitch Whitehead, a man who declared himself Divine's "number 1 fan", tattooing himself with images of his idol and eventually aiding Bernard Jay in setting up for Divine's show onstage. In London, Divine also befriended drag comedy act Paul O'Grady, with Jay helping O'Grady obtain his first bookings in the U.S.
The next Divine film, Lust in the Dust (1985), reunited him with Tab Hunter and was Divine's first film not directed by John Waters. Set in the Wild West during the nineteenth century, the movie was a sex comedy that starred Divine as Rosie Velez, a promiscuous woman who works as a singer in saloons and competes for the love of Abel Wood (Tab Hunter) against another woman. A parody of the 1946 western Duel in the Sun, the film was a critical success, with Divine receiving praise from a number of reviewers. Divine followed this production with a very different role, that of gay male gangster Hilly Blue in Trouble in Mind (1985). The script was written with Divine in mind. Although not a major character in the film, Divine had been eager to play the part because he wished to perform in more male roles and leave behind the stereotype of simply being a female impersonator. Reviews of the film were mixed, as were the evaluations of Divine's performance.
After finishing his work on Trouble in Mind, Divine again became involved with a John Waters project, the film Hairspray (1988). Set in Baltimore during the 1960s, Hairspray revolved around self-proclaimed "pleasantly plump" teenager Tracy Turnblad as she pursues stardom as a dancer on a local television show and rallies against racial segregation. As he had in Waters's earlier film Female Trouble, Divine took on two roles in the film, one of which was female and the other male. The first of these, Edna Turnblad, was Tracy's loving mother; Divine later noted that with this character he could not be accurately described as a drag queen, proclaiming "What drag queen would allow herself to look like this? I look like half the women from Baltimore." His second character in the film was that of the racist television station owner Arvin Hodgepile. In one interview, Divine admitted that he had hoped to play both the role of mother and daughter in Hairspray, but that the producers had been "a bit leery" and chose Ricki Lake for the latter role instead. Divine went on to state his opinion on Lake, jokingly telling the interviewer that "She is nineteen and delightful. I hate her." In reality they had become good friends while working together on set. Reviews of the film were predominantly positive, with Divine in particular being singled out for praise; several commentators expressed their opinion that the film marked Divine's breakthrough into mainstream cinema. He subsequently took his mother to the film's premiere in the Miami Film Festival before she once more accompanied him to the Baltimore premiere, this time also with several of his other relatives. After the screening, a party was held at the Baltimore Museum of Art, where Frances Milstead granted an impromptu interview to the English film critic Jonathan Ross, a friend and fan of Divine's.
Divine's final film role was in the low-budget comedy horror Out of the Dark, filmed and produced in Los Angeles with the same crew as Lust in the Dust. Appearing in only one scene within the film, he played the character of Detective Langella, a foul-mouthed policeman investigating the murders of a killer clown. Out of the Dark was released the year after Divine's death. Divine had become a well-known celebrity throughout the 1980s, appearing on American television chat shows such as Late Night with David Letterman, Thicke of the Night, and The Merv Griffin Show to promote both his music and his film appearances. Divine-themed merchandise was produced, including greeting cards and The Simply Divine Cut-Out Doll Book. Portraits of Divine were painted by several famous artists, including David Hockney and Andy Warhol, both of whom were known for their works which dealt with popular culture.
Death: 1988
On March 7, 1988, three weeks after Hairspray was released nationwide, Divine was staying at the Regency Plaza Suites Hotel in Los Angeles. He was scheduled to tape a guest appearance the following day as Uncle Otto on the Fox network's television series Married... with Children in the second season wrap-up episode. After spending all day at Sunset Gower Studios for rehearsals, Divine returned to his hotel that evening, where he dined with friends at the hotel restaurant before returning to his room. Shortly before midnight, he died in his sleep, at age 42, of heart failure. His body was discovered by Bernard Jay the following morning, who then sat with the body for the next six hours, alongside three of Divine's other friends. They contacted Thomas Noguchi, the former chief coroner of Los Angeles County, who arranged for removal of the body; Divine's friends were able to prevent the press from taking any photographs of the body as it was being carried out of the hotel.
Divine's body was flown back to Maryland and taken to Ruck's Funeral Home in Towson, where a casket was obtained for him. The funeral took place at Prospect Hill Cemetery, where a crowd of hundreds had assembled to pay their respects. The ceremony was conducted by Leland Higginbotham, who had baptized Divine into the Christian faith many years before. John Waters gave a speech and was one of the pallbearers who then carried the coffin to its final resting place, next to the grave of Divine's grandmother. Many flowers were left at the grave, including a wreath sent by actress Whoopi Goldberg, which bore the remark "See what happens when you get good reviews." Following the funeral, a tribute was held at the Baltimore Governor's Mansion. In the ensuing weeks, the Internal Revenue Service confiscated many of Divine's possessions and auctioned them off, as restitution for unpaid taxes.
Drag persona and performance
After developing a name for himself as a female impersonator known for "trashy" behavior in his early John Waters films, Divine capitalized on this image by appearing at his musical performances in his drag persona. In this role, he was described by his manager Bernard Jay, as displaying "Trash. Filth. Obscenity. In bucket-loads". Divine described his stage performances as "just good, dirty fun, and if you find it offensive, honey, don't join in." As a part of his performance, he constantly swore at the audience, often using his signature line of "fuck you very much", and at times got audience members to come onstage, where he would fondle their buttocks, groins, and breasts. Divine and his stage act proved particularly popular among gay audiences, and he appeared at some of the world's biggest gay clubs, such as Central London's Heaven. According to Divine's manager Bernard Jay, this was not because Divine himself was gay, but because the gay community "openly and proudly identified with the determination of the female character Divine".
Divine became increasingly known for outlandish stunts onstage, each time trying to outdo what he had done before. At one performance in London's Hippodrome coinciding with American Independence Day, Divine rose up from the floor on a hydraulic lift, draped in the American flag, and declared: "I'm here representing Freedom, Liberty, Family Values, and the fucking American Way of Life." When he performed at the London Gay Pride parade, he sang on the roof of a hired pleasure boat that floated down the Thames past Jubilee Gardens. At a performance Divine gave at the Hippodrome in the last year of his life, he appeared onstage riding an infant elephant which had been hired for the occasion. Divine was nevertheless not happy with being known primarily for his drag act, and told an interviewer that "my favorite part of drag is getting out of it. Drag is my work clothes. I only put it on when someone pays me to", a view he echoed to his friends.
Personal life
During his childhood and adolescence, Divine was called "Glenn" by his friends and family; as an adult, he used the stage name "Divine" as his personal name, telling one interviewer that both "Divine" and "Glenn Milstead" were "both just names. Glenn is the name I was brought up with, Divine is the name I've been using for the past 23 years. I guess it's always Glenn and it's always Divine. Do you mean the character Divine or the person Divine? You see, it gets very complicated. There's the Divine you're talking to now and there's the character Divine, which is just something I do to make a living. She doesn't really exist at all." At one point he had the name "Divine" officially recognized, as it appeared on his passport, and in keeping with his personal use of the name, his close friends nicknamed him "Divy".
Divine considered himself to be male, and was not transgender or transsexual. He was gay, and during the 1980s had an extended relationship with a married man named Lee L'Ecuyer, who accompanied him almost everywhere that he went. They later separated, and Divine went on to have a brief affair with gay porn star Leo Ford, which was widely reported upon by the gay press. According to his manager Bernard Jay, Divine regularly engaged in sexual activities with young men that he would meet while on tour, sometimes becoming infatuated with them; in one case, he met a young man in Israel whom he wanted to bring back to the United States, but was prevented from doing so by Jay. This image of promiscuity was disputed by his friend Anne Cersosimo, who claimed that Divine never exhibited such behavior when on tour. Divine initially avoided informing the media about his sexuality, even when questioned by interviewers, and would sometimes hint that he was bisexual, but in the latter part of the 1980s changed this attitude and began being open about his homosexuality. Nonetheless, he avoided discussing gay rights, partially at the advice of his manager, realizing that it would have had a negative effect on his career.
Divine's mother, Frances Milstead, remarked that while Divine "was blessed with many talents and abilities, he could be very moody and demanding." She noted that while he was "incredibly kind and generous", he always wanted to get things done the way that he wanted, and would "tune you out if you displeased him." She noted that in most interviews, he came across as "a very shy and private person". Divine's Dutch friends gave him two bulldogs in the early 1980s, on which he doted, naming them Beatrix and Claus after Queen Beatrix and her husband Prince Claus of the Netherlands. On numerous occasions he would have his photograph taken with them and sometimes use these images for record covers and posters. Divine suffered from problems with obesity from childhood, caused by his love of food, and in later life his hunger was increased by his daily use of marijuana, an addiction that he publicly admitted to. According to Bernard Jay, in Divine's final years, when his disco career was coming to an end and he was struggling to find acting jobs, he felt suicidal and threatened to kill himself on several occasions.
Legacy and influence
The New York Times said of Milstead's 1980s films: "Those who could get past the unremitting weirdness of Divine's performance discovered that the actor/actress had genuine talent, including a natural sense of comic timing and an uncanny gift for slapstick." In a letter to the newspaper, Paul Thornquist described him as "one of the few truly radical and essential artists of the century... [who] was an audacious symbol of man's quest for liberty and freedom." People magazine described him as "the Goddess of Gross, the Punk Elephant, the Big Bad Mama of the Midnight Movies... [and] a Miss Piggy for the blissfully depraved." Following his death, fans of Divine visited Prospect Hill Cemetery to pay their respects. In what has become a tradition, fans have been known to leave makeup, food, and graffiti on his grave in memoriam; Waters claims that some fans have sexual intercourse on his grave, which he believes Divine would love.
Divine has left an influence on a number of musicians. During the mid-1980s, the androgynous performer Sylvester decorated the powder room of his San Francisco home with Divine memorabilia. Anohni of the band Antony and the Johnsons wrote a song about Divine which was included in the group's self-titled debut album, released in 1998. The song, titled "Divine", was an ode to the actor, who was one of Anohni's lifelong heroes. Her admiration is expressed in the lines: "He was my self-determined guru" and "I turn to think of you/Who walked the way with so much pain/Who holds the mirror up to fools." In 2008, Irish electronic singer Róisín Murphy paid homage to Divine in the music video for her song "Movie Star" by reenacting the attack by Lobstora from Multiple Maniacs.
Divine was an inspiration for Ursula the Sea Witch, the villain in the 1989 Disney animated film The Little Mermaid. Due to Divine's portrayal of Edna Turnblad in the original comedy-film version of Hairspray, later musical adaptations of Hairspray have commonly placed male actors in the role of Edna, including Harvey Fierstein and others in the 2002 Broadway musical, and John Travolta in the 2007 musical film. A statue in the likeness of Divine by Andrew Logan can be seen on permanent display at The American Visionary Art Museum in Divine's hometown of Baltimore.
I Am Divine, a feature documentary on the life of Divine, was premiered at the 2013 South by Southwest film festival, and had its Baltimore premiere within Maryland Film Festival. It is produced and directed by Jeffrey Schwarz of the Los Angeles-based production company Automat Pictures. In August 2015, a play based on the final day of Divine's life, Divine/Intervention, was performed at the New York Fringe Festival.
Publications
Divine's manager and friend Bernard Jay wrote a book titled Not Simply Divine!, published in 1992 by Virgin Books. Admitting that he was "immensely proud" of Divine and the cause which he "strived for", Jay noted in the book's introduction that he wrote the work because he felt that Divine deserved a "memorial" that would act as a "record for posterity". He insisted that Not Simply Divine! was "not the bitter revenge of an unappreciated manager, eager now to get his share of his praise", but that equally it was not "a gushing homage" designed to paint Divine as "both saintly and legendary." He expressed his hope that the book shines light on the "shades of grey" between the man and his female persona, portraying a "warts and all" picture. The book was criticized by Divine's mother, Frances Milstead, who accused Jay of writing a "mean-spirited" work that provided an incorrect image of her son. Not Simply Divine! was also criticized by Divine's friend Greg Gorman, who remarked that, "there was so much hostility and so much meanspiritedness in the way Divine was portrayed in the book, that it was just 180 degrees from who he was."
Frances Milstead subsequently cowrote her own book about Divine, entitled My Son Divine, with Kevin Heffernan and Steve Yeager, which was published by Alyson Books in 2001. Postcards From Divine, a book composed of over 50 postcards Divine sent to his parents while traveling the world between 1977 and 1987, was released by the Divine estate on November 5, 2011. Postcards From Divine also includes quotes and stories from his friends and colleagues, including Waters, Mink Stole, Mary Vivian Pearce, Channing Wilroy, Susan Lowe, Jean Hill, Tab Hunter, Lainie Kazan, Alan J. Wendl, Ruth Brown, Deborah Harry, Jerry Stiller, Ricki Lake, Silvio Gigante and others.
Filmography
Source:
Discography
Albums
Compilation albums
CD reissues
Singles
Besides aforementioned singles, Divine also recorded such songs as "Female Trouble", "Kick Your Butt" and "Psychedelic Shack", making a total of 22 different tracks.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
The Divine webpage
Divine on MTV.com
1945 births
1988 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
20th-century LGBT people
American dance musicians
American disco musicians
American drag queens
American Hi-NRG musicians
American male film actors
American male pop singers
American people of Serbian descent
American gay actors
American gay musicians
LGBT people from Maryland
LGBT singers from the United States
Male actors from Baltimore
Musicians from Baltimore
Outsider musicians
People from Lutherville, Maryland
Singers from Maryland
Situation Two artists
Towson High School alumni
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] |
204703
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang%20Wei%20%28Tang%20dynasty%29
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Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)
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Wang Wei (; 699–759) was a Chinese poet, musician, painter, and politician during the Tang dynasty. He was one of the most famous men of arts and letters of his time. Many of his poems are preserved, and twenty-nine were included in the highly influential 18th-century anthology Three Hundred Tang Poems.
Wang Wei is especially known as a poet and painter of nature. Some 400 of his poems survive. These were first collected and originally edited into a corpus by his next-youngest brother, Wang Jin, by imperial command. Of his paintings, no authenticated specimens survive, although there is evidence of his work through influences on later paintings and descriptive accounts of his paintings. His musical talents were regarded very highly, although nothing survives of his music except reports. He furthermore had a successful career as a court official. Eventually, he became a devout Zen Buddhist and a vegetarian. Wang Wei spent ten years studying with Chán master Daoguang.
Names
His family name was Wang, and his given name is Wei. Wang chose the courtesy name Mojie and would sign his works Wang Weimojie because Wei-mo-Jie () was a reference to Vimalakirti, the central figure of the Buddhist sutra by that name. In this holy book of Buddhism, which is partly in the form of a debate with Mañjuśrī (the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), a lay person, Vimalakīrti, expounds the doctrine of Śūnyatā, or emptiness, to an assembly which includes arhats and bodhisattvas, and then culminates with the wordless teaching of silence.
Life
Early years
Born into an aristocratic family, of Han ethnicity, originally from Qixian (present-day Qi County in Shanxi province), Wang Wei's father moved east of the Yellow River to Puzhou, part of the historic Hedong Commandery (today's Yongji, Shanxi). Known for his youthful precocity, Wang Wei, the eldest of five brothers, set off for the imperial capital at the age of nineteen, in order to study and take the jinshi civil service entrance examination. In the period while residing in Chang'an, before taking the test, Wang's proficiency at poetry and his musical proficiency with the pipa helped him to achieve popularity at the royal court. He passed the jinshi examination, in 721, with the first class award (Zhuangyuan), which started his potentially lucrative civil service career. Wang Wei's career as an official had its ups and downs. His first appointment was as a court musician, or "Deputy Master of Music"; however, he was then demoted to a position of being in charge of a granary in the former province of Jizhou (now the name of a different town Jizhou, in Hebei). The reason for this demotion, according to tradition, was Wang's breach of etiquette by performing a lion dance.
In any case, this was only a minor setback to his career, and it had a compensation in that it did allow him to travel. Then, a series of promotions following this demotion was apparently attributable to a relationship with the prominent governmental minister, poet, and literary scholar Zhang Jiuling, at least until Zhang's 727 demotion to a post in Jingzhou. By 728, Wang Wei was back in Chang'an, where he entertained the poet Meng Haoran, who was to become a close friend and poetic colleague. At this point, Wang seems to have achieved the rank of Assistant Censor, and then a subsequent governmental promotion, but then later being demoted back to Assistant Censor, with the loss in imperial favor of Zhang Jiuling and the rising political ascendency of Li Linfu. After his wife's death in 731, he never remarried. It was in his role as a government official that Wang Wei was dispatched to Liangzhou, which was then the northwestern frontier of the Chinese empire, and the scene of constant military conflicts. By invitation of the local commander, Wang served in this location until returning to Chang'an in 738 or early 739.
Middle years
After his return to Chang'an from Liangzhou, and lacking another official posting, Wang Wei took the opportunity to explore the countryside to the south of the capital, in the Lantian area of the Zhongnan Mountains. Wang Wei then made friends with Pei Di. In 740–741 Wang resumed his successful governmental career, including an inspection tour of Xiangyang, Hubei (the home territory of Meng Haoran), and afterwards serving in various positions in Chang'an. Besides the official salary connected with this government work, he had received financial rewards as an artist; thus he was able to acquire a sizable estate in Lantian, formerly owned by the poet Song Zhiwen, known as Wang Chuan. Upon his Lantian estate Wang Wei established a shrine to honor his Buddhist mother, and after his mother died, in 747–748, he spent the traditional three-year mourning period for the death of a parent in this location, apparently so afflicted by grief that he was reduced almost to a skeleton. By 751–752 Wang Wei had resumed official duties. But at this point the historical record becomes problematic because of the effects of the An Shi disorders upon record keeping.
War
Some view that the An-Shi rebellion, which took place between 755 and 763, profoundly affected Chinese social culture in general and Wang Wei in particular. However, Nicolas Tackett has recently argued that it was not as destructive to the Tang aristocracy as had previously been thought. In 756, Wang Wei was residing in the capital of Chang'an, where he was captured by the rebels when they took the city. Although the emperor Xuanzong and his court and most of the governmental officials had already evacuated to Sichuan, Wang Wei had come down with dysentery and at that time was an invalid and thus unable to travel, especially not on this notoriously mountainous and difficult passage. The rebels then took their prize captive to their capital at Luoyang, where the government of the rebellion sought his collaboration. According to some sources, he attempted to avoid actively serving the insurgents during the capital's occupation by pretending to be deaf; other sources state that, in an attempt to destroy his voice, he drank medicine that created cankers on his mouth. In any case, at Luoyang, Wang Wei was unable to avoid becoming officially one of the rebels, with an official title. In 757, with the ascendency of Suzong, and the Tang recapture of Luoyang from the rebel forces, Wang Wei was arrested and imprisoned by the Tang government as a suspected traitor.
The charges of disloyalty were eventually dropped, partly because of the intervention of his brother, Wang Jin, who held high government rank (as Undersecretary of the Board of Punishments) and whose loyal efforts in the defense of Taiyuan were well known. Furthermore, the poems he had written during his captivity were produced, and accepted as evidence in favor of his loyalty. Following his pardon, Wang Wei spent much of his time in his Buddhist practice and activities. Then, with the further suppression of the rebellion, he again received a government position, in 758, at first in a lower position than prior to the rebellion, as a tàizǐ zhōngchōng (), in the court of the crown prince rather than that of the emperor himself. In 759 Wang Wei was not only restored to his former position in the emperor's court, but he was eventually promoted. Over time, he was moved to the secretarial position of jǐshìzhōng () and his last position, which he held until his death in 761, was shàngshū yòuchéng (), or deputy prime minister. As these positions were in the city of Chang'an, they were not too far from his private estate to prevent him from visiting and repairing it. During all this time, he continued his artistic endeavors.
Later years
Wang Wei never lived to see the empire return to peace, as the An-Shi disturbances and their aftermath continued beyond his lifetime. However, at least he could enjoy a relative return to stability compared to the initial years of the rebellion, especially when he had the opportunity to spend time in the relative seclusion of his Lantian estate, which allowed him both a poetic and a Buddhist retreat, as well as a place to spend time with his friends and with nature, painting and writing. But, finally, his writing came to an end, and in the seventh month of 759, or in 761, Wang Wei requested writing implements, wrote several letters to his brother and to his friends, and then died. He was then buried at his Lantian estate.
Works
Wang Wei was famous for both his poetry and his paintings, about which Su Shi coined a phrase: "The quality of Wang Wei’s poems can be summed as, the poems hold a painting within them. In observing his paintings you can see that, within the painting there is poetry." He is especially known for his compositions in the Mountains and Streams (Shanshui) poetry genre, the landscape school of poetry, along with Meng Haoran; their family names were combined in a form of mutual reference and they are commonly referred to as "Wang Meng" due to their excellence in poetic composition, as contemporaries. In his later years, Wang Wei lost interest in being a statesman and became more involved in Buddhism and his poems reflected his focus on Chan practice, therefore he was posthumously referred to as the "Poet Buddha". His works are collected in Secretary General Wang's Anthology, which includes 400 poems. He excelled in painting images of people, bamboo forests and scenery of mountains and rivers. It is recorded that his landscape paintings have two different genres, one of the Father and Son of the Li Family () and the other being of strong brush strokes. His work of Picture of Wang River is of the latter, but unfortunately the original no longer exists. His works of Scenery of Snow and Creek and Jinan’s Fusheng Portrait are both realistic in their representation of the subjects.
Poetry
At present 420 poems are attributed to Wang Wei, of which 370 are thought to be genuine. Wang Wei was a "very great master" of the jueju: many of his quatrains depict quiet scenes of water and mist, with few details and little human presence. The Indiana Companion comments that he affirms the world's beauty, while questioning its ultimate reality. It also draws a comparison between the deceptive simplicity of his works and the Chan path to enlightenment, which is built on careful preparation but is achieved without conscious effort.
One of Wang Wei's famous poems is "One-hearted" (Xiang Si ):
Wang River Collection
Some of Wang Wei's most famous poetry was done as a series of couplets written by him to which his friend Pei Di wrote replying couplets. Together, these form a group titled the Wang River Collection. Note that "Wang" as in the river is a different character that the "Wang" of Wang Wei's name. It literally refers to the outside part of a wheel; and also that these are sometimes referred to as the "Lantian poems", after the real name of Wang's estate's location, in what is now Lantian County. Inspired in part by Wang's Lantian home and features of its neighborhood and by their correspondences with other places and features, the collection includes such pieces as the poem often translated "Deer Park" (literally, "Deer Fence"). However, the poems tend to have a deceptive simplicity to them, while they actually have great depth and complexity upon closer examination.
Painting
Wang Wei has historically been regarded as the founder of the Southern School of Chinese landscape art, a school which was characterised by strong brushstrokes contrasted with light ink washes.
Cultural references
Influence in the East
Wang Wei was of extensive influence in China and its area of cultural influence, particularly in terms of monochrome ink painting and in terms of his deceptively simple and insightful Buddhist-influenced poetry. Wang Shimin and Wang Yuanqi of the Six Masters of the early Qing period painted works in the style of Wang Wei, as well as copying his paintings as "copying former masters was seen as the cornerstone of artistic training." In the Ming Dynasty, Dong Qichang included Wang Wei's style in his paintings after the old masters.
One of Wang Wei's poems, called Weicheng Qu or "Song of the City of Wei" has been adapted to the famous music melody, Yangguan Sandie or "Three Refrains on the Yang Pass". The most famous version of this melody is based on a tune for guqin first published in 1864 but may be traced back to a version from 1530.
Wang Wei's lasting influence is seen in the death poem of the Japanese haiku master Yosa Buson:
Influence in the West
Wang Wei's poetry, in translation, formed the inspiration for the final Der Abschied movement of the Austrian composer Gustav Mahler's penultimate completed work, Das Lied von der Erde. Der Abschied is set to a loose German translation of Wang Wei's Farewell (), a work addressed to fellow poet Meng Haoran on the occasion of his retirement (after a brief civil service career) to become a scholar-recluse (yinshi, ).
Wang Wei's poetry, found in the works of Ernest Fenollosa, also provided inspiration for the American poet Ezra Pound in the creation of Pound's Ideogrammic Method.
His art inspired Innisfree Garden in Millbrook, New York.
The Wang River Sequence has been set for choir by UK composer Peter McGarr in his piece 'Beautiful Days'.
See also
Abe no Nakamaro
Chinese poetry
Classical Chinese poetry
Das Lied von der Erde
Dong Yuan
Double Ninth Festival
Han Gan
Ink and wash painting
Jueju
List of Chinese language poets
List of Chinese painters
List of National Treasures of Japan (writings: Chinese books)
Quantangshi
Shan shui
Shen Kuo
Shi (poetry)
Tang poetry
Timeline of Chinese history
Wangchuan ji
Wang Jin
Wang Yuanqi
Yangguan
References
Citations
Sources
Bynner, Witter (1929), trans. (from the texts of Kiang Kang-hu). The Jade Mountain, a Chinese Anthology: Being Three Hundred Poems of the T'ang Dynasty. New York: Knopf.
Chang, H.C. (1977), Chinese Literature 2: Nature Poetry. New York: Columbia University Press. .
Chang, Yin-nan, and Lewis C. Walmsley (1958), trans. Poems by Wang Wei. Rutland, VT: Tuttle.
Ch'en, Jerome and Michael Bullock (1960), Poems of Solitude. London: Abelard-Schuman. .
Cheng, Francois (1977), L'Ecriture poétique chinoise. Paris: Editions du Seuil. Trans. by Donald A. Riggs and Jerome P. Seaton as Chinese Poetic Writing: With an Anthology of T'ang Poetry Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982.
Davis, A.R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction (1970), The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
Ferguson, John C. (1927), Chinese Painting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fletcher, W.J.B. (1919), trans. Gems of Chinese Verse, Translated into English Verse. Shanghai: Commercial Press.
Giles, Herbert (1884), ed. and trans. Chinese Poetry in English Verse. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh.
Hinton, David (2008), Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. .
Kenner, Hugh (1971), The Pound Era. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Mitchell, Donald (1985), Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death. London: Faber and Faber.
Robinson, G.W. (1974), Wang Wei Poems Penguin Classics,
Stimson, Hugh M. (1976), Fifty-five T'ang Poems. Far Eastern Publications: Yale University, New Haven, CN.
Wagner, Marsha (1982), Wang Wei. Boston: Twayne.
Watson, Burton (1971), Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. New York: Columbia University Press. .
Weinberger, Eliot, and Octavio Paz (1987), Nineteen Ways of Looking at Wang Wei: How a Chinese Poem Is Translated. Wakefield, RI: Moyer Bell.
Wu, John C.H. (1972), The Four Seasons of Tang Poetry. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle. .
Yip, Wai-lim (1972), trans. Hiding the Universe: Poems by Wang Wei. New York: Munshinsha/Grossman.
Yip, Wai-lim (1993), Diffusion of Distances: Dialogues between Chinese and Western Poetics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Yu, Pauline (1980), The Poetry of Wang Wei: New Translations and Commentary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Critical editions
Wang Youcheng Ji Jianzhu 《王右丞集箋注》 (An Annotated Edition of the Collected Works of Wang [Wei] the Right Assistant Secretary of State Affairs). Edited by Zhao Diancheng (趙殿成) (1683–1756). Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1961.
Further reading
Link, Perry, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of Eliot Weinberger, with an afterword by Octavio Paz), 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei (with More Ways), New Directions, 88 pp. and Eliot Weinberger, The Ghosts of Birds, New Directions, 211 pp. The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), pp. 49–50.
Rouzer, Paul (2020). The Poetry and Prose of Wang . De Gruyter Mouton.
External links
Complete translation of Wang Wei's poems, as well as selected prose works, by Paul Rouzer
Wang Wei in English at Poems Found in Translation
Regulated verses of Wang Wei, with English translation, pinyin transliteration, and tonal patterns.
Translations by sixteen poets of "Deer Park"
Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632–1717), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Wang Wei (see index)
Complete works of Wang Wei, in Chinese, at 'The Poetry of Chinese Antiquity' website
Books of the Quan Tangshi that include collected poems of Wang Wei at the Chinese Text Project:
Book 125
Book 126
Book 127
Book 128
699 births
759 deaths
8th-century Chinese poets
8th-century Chinese painters
Chinese portrait painters
Musicians from Shanxi
Painters from Shanxi
Politicians from Yuncheng
Poets from Shanxi
Tang dynasty politicians from Shanxi
Tang dynasty musicians
Tang dynasty painters
Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
Buddhist artists
Tang dynasty poets
8th-century Chinese musicians
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] |
204705
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Divine (disambiguation)
|
Divine is an adjective related to divinity, the characteristics of a deity.
Divine may also refer to:
Businesses
Divine (corporation), a defunct web services company
Divine Chocolate, a British-Ghanaian chocolate brand
Films
Divine (1935 film), a French drama film
Divine (1975 film), a French comedy film
Divine (2020 film), a German-Italian romantic comedy film
Divines (film), a 2016 French film
Literature
The Divine (graphic novel), a 2015 graphic novel by Asaf Hanuka, Tomer Hanuka, and Boaz Lavie
Divine, a character in Jean Genet's novel Our Lady of the Flowers
Music
Performers
Divine (performer) (1945–1988), American actor, singer, and drag queen
Divine (rapper) (born 1990), Indian rapper
Divine (group), an American R&B girl group formed in 1996
Divine Brown (born 1974), Canadian R&B and soul singer
Divine Styler, stage name of American hip hop artist Mikal Safiyullah (born Mark Richardson in 1968)
Albums
Divine (Tuxedomoon album) (1982)
Divine (Blinded Colony album) (2003)
Songs
"Divine" (Korn song) (1994)
"Divine" (t.A.T.u. song) (2005)
"Divine" (Sébastien Tellier song) (2008)
"Divine" (Girls' Generation song) (2014)
People
Divine (surname), a surname
Divine (given name), a list of people with the name
Father Divine (c. 1876–1965), African-American spiritual leader who claimed to be God
Estella Marie Thompson (born 1969, aka Divine Brown, prostitute involved in a scandal involving actor Hugh Grant
Anglican divine, a theologian of the Church of England
See also
Devine (disambiguation)
Divination
Divining rod
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold%20Niebuhr
|
Reinhold Niebuhr
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Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971) was an American Reformed theologian, ethicist, commentator on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years. Niebuhr was one of America's leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. A public theologian, he wrote and spoke frequently about the intersection of religion, politics, and public policy, with his most influential books including Moral Man and Immoral Society and The Nature and Destiny of Man. The latter is ranked number 18 of the top 100 non-fiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library. Andrew Bacevich labelled Niebuhr's book The Irony of American History "the most important book ever written on U.S. foreign policy." The historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. described Niebuhr as "the most influential American theologian of the 20th century" and Time posthumously called Niebuhr "the greatest Protestant theologian in America since Jonathan Edwards."
Starting as a minister with working-class sympathies in the 1920s and sharing with many other ministers a commitment to pacifism and socialism, his thinking evolved during the 1930s to neo-orthodox realist theology as he developed the philosophical perspective known as Christian realism. He attacked utopianism as ineffectual for dealing with reality, writing in The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944), "Man's capacity for justice makes democracy possible; but man's inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary." Niebuhr's realism deepened after 1945 and led him to support American efforts to confront Soviet communism around the world. A powerful speaker, he was one of the most influential thinkers of the 1940s and 1950s in public affairs. Niebuhr battled with religious liberals over what he called their naïve views of the contradictions of human nature and the optimism of the Social Gospel, and battled with religious conservatives over what he viewed as their naïve view of scripture and their narrow definition of "true religion". During this time he was viewed by many as the intellectual rival of John Dewey.
Niebuhr's contributions to political philosophy include utilizing the resources of theology to argue for political realism. His work has also significantly influenced international relations theory, leading many scholars to move away from idealism and embrace realism. A large number of scholars, including political scientists, political historians, and theologians, have noted his influence on their thinking. Aside from academics, activists such as Myles Horton and Martin Luther King Jr. and numerous politicians have also cited his influence on their thought, including Hillary Clinton, Hubert Humphrey, Dean Acheson, James Comey, Madeleine Albright, and John McCain, as well as presidents Barack Obama and Jimmy Carter. Recent years have seen a renewed interest in Niebuhr's work, in part because of Obama's admiration. In 2017, PBS released a documentary on Niebuhr, titled An American Conscience: The Reinhold Niebuhr Story.
Aside from his political commentary, Niebuhr is also known for having composed the Serenity Prayer, a widely recited prayer which was popularized by Alcoholics Anonymous. Niebuhr was also one of the founders of both Americans for Democratic Action and the International Rescue Committee and also spent time at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, while serving as a visiting professor at both Harvard and Princeton. He was also the brother of another prominent theologian, H. Richard Niebuhr.
Early life and education
Niebuhr was born on June 21, 1892, in Wright City, Missouri, the son of German immigrants Gustav Niebuhr and his wife, Lydia (née Hosto). His father was a German Evangelical pastor; his denomination was the American branch of the established Prussian Church Union in Germany. It is now part of the United Church of Christ. The family spoke German at home. His brother H. Richard Niebuhr also became a famous theological ethicist and his sister Hulda Niebuhr became a divinity professor in Chicago. The Niebuhr family moved to Lincoln, Illinois, in 1902 when Gustav Niebuhr became pastor of Lincoln's St. John's German Evangelical Synod church. Reinhold Niebuhr first served as pastor of a church when he served from April to September 1913 as interim minister of St. John's following his father's death.
Niebuhr attended Elmhurst College in Illinois and graduated in 1910. He studied at Eden Theological Seminary in Webster Groves, Missouri, where, as he admitted, he was deeply influenced by Samuel D. Press in "biblical and systematic subjects", and Yale Divinity School, where he earned a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1914 and a Master of Arts degree the following year, with the thesis The Contribution of Christianity to the Doctrine of Immortality. He always regretted not taking a doctorate. He said that Yale gave him intellectual liberation from the localism of his German-American upbringing.
Marriage and family
In 1931 Niebuhr married Ursula Keppel-Compton. She was a member of the Church of England and was educated at the University of Oxford in theology and history. She met Niebuhr while studying for her master's degree at Union Theological Seminary. For many years, she was on faculty at Barnard College (the women's college of Columbia University) where she helped establish and then chaired the religious studies department. The Niebuhrs had two children, Christopher Niebuhr and Elisabeth Niebuhr Sifton. Ursula Niebuhr left evidence in her professional papers at the Library of Congress showing that she co-authored some of her husband's later writings.
Detroit
In 1915, Niebuhr was ordained a pastor. The German Evangelical mission board sent him to serve at Bethel Evangelical Church in Detroit, Michigan. The congregation numbered 66 on his arrival and grew to nearly 700 by the time he left in 1928. The increase reflected his ability to reach people outside the German-American community and among the growing population attracted to jobs in the booming automobile industry. In the early 1900s Detroit became the fourth-largest city in the country, attracting many black and white migrants from the rural South, as well as Jewish and Catholic people from eastern and southern Europe. White supremacists determined to dominate, suppress, and victimize Black, Jewish, and Catholic Americans, as well as other Americans who did not have western European ancestry, joined the Ku Klux Klan and the Black Legion in growing numbers. By 1923, membership in the KKK in Detroit topped 20,000. In 1925, as part of the Ku Klux Klan's strategy to accumulate government power, the membership organization selected and publicly supported several candidates for public office, including for the office of the mayor. Niebuhr spoke out publicly against the Klan to his congregation, describing them as "one of the worst specific social phenomena which the religious pride of a people has ever developed". Though only one of the several candidates publicly backed by the Klan gained a seat on the city council that year, the Klan continued to influence daily life in Detroit. The KKK's failed 1925 mayoral candidate, Charles Bowles, still became a judge on the recorder's court; later, in 1930, he was elected the city's mayor.
First World War
When America entered the First World War in 1917, Niebuhr was the unknown pastor of a small German-speaking congregation in Detroit (it stopped using German in 1919). All adherents of German-American culture in the United States and nearby Canada came under attack for suspicion of having dual loyalties. Niebuhr repeatedly stressed the need to be loyal to America, and won an audience in national magazines for his appeals to the German Americans to be patriotic. Theologically, he went beyond the issue of national loyalty as he endeavored to fashion a realistic ethical perspective of patriotism and pacifism. He endeavored to work out a realistic approach to the moral danger posed by aggressive powers, which many idealists and pacifists failed to recognize. During the war, he also served his denomination as Executive Secretary of the War Welfare Commission, while maintaining his pastorate in Detroit. A pacifist at heart, he saw compromise as a necessity and was willing to support war in order to find peace—compromising for the sake of righteousness.
Origins of Niebuhr's working-class sympathy
Several attempts have been made to explicate the origins of Niebuhr's sympathies from the 1920s to working-class and labor issues as documented by his biographer Richard W. Fox. One supportive example has concerned his interest in the plight of auto workers in Detroit. This one interest among others can be briefly summarized below.
After seminary, Niebuhr preached the Social Gospel, and then initiated the engagement of what he considered the insecurity of Ford workers. Niebuhr had moved to the left and was troubled by the demoralizing effects of industrialism on workers. He became an outspoken critic of Henry Ford and allowed union organizers to use his pulpit to expound their message of workers' rights. Niebuhr attacked poor conditions created by the assembly lines and erratic employment practices.
Because of his opinion about factory work, Niebuhr rejected liberal optimism. He wrote in his diary:
We went through one of the big automobile factories to-day. ... The foundry interested me particularly. The heat was terrific. The men seemed weary. Here manual labour is a drudgery and toil is slavery. The men cannot possibly find any satisfaction in their work. They simply work to make a living. Their sweat and their dull pain are part of the price paid for the fine cars we all run. And most of us run the cars without knowing what price is being paid for them. ... We are all responsible. We all want the things which the factory produces and none of us is sensitive enough to care how much in human values the efficiency of the modern factory costs.
The historian Ronald H. Stone thinks that Niebuhr never talked to the assembly line workers (many of his parishioners were skilled craftsmen) but projected feelings onto them after discussions with Samuel Marquis. Niebuhr's criticism of Ford and capitalism resonated with progressives and helped make him nationally prominent. His serious commitment to Marxism developed after he moved to New York in 1928.
In 1923, Niebuhr visited Europe to meet with intellectuals and theologians. The conditions he saw in Germany under the French occupation of the Rhineland dismayed him. They reinforced the pacifist views that he had adopted throughout the 1920s after the First World War.
Conversion of Jews
Niebuhr preached about the need to persuade Jews to convert to Christianity. He believed there were two reasons Jews did not convert: the "un-Christlike attitude of Christians" and "Jewish bigotry." However, he later rejected the idea of a mission to Jews. According to his biographer, the historian Richard Wightman Fox, Niebuhr understood that "Christians needed the leaven of pure Hebraism to counteract the Hellenism to which they were prone".
1930s: Growing influence in New York
Niebuhr captured his personal experiences in Detroit in his book Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic. He continued to write and publish throughout his career, and also served as editor of the magazine Christianity and Crisis from 1941 through 1966.
In 1928, Niebuhr left Detroit to become Professor of Practical Theology at Union Theological Seminary in New York. He spent the rest of his career there, until retirement in 1960. While teaching theology at Union Theological Seminary, Niebuhr influenced many generations of students and thinkers, including the German minister Dietrich Bonhoeffer of the anti-Nazi Confessing Church.
The Fellowship of Socialist Christians was organized in the early 1930s by Niebuhr and others with similar views.
Later it changed its name to Frontier Fellowship and then to Christian Action.
The main supporters of the fellowship in the early days included Eduard Heimann, Sherwood Eddy, Paul Tillich, and Rose Terlin.
In its early days the group thought capitalist individualism was incompatible with Christian ethics.
Although not Communist, the group acknowledged Karl Marx's social philosophy.
Niebuhr was among the group of 51 prominent Americans who formed the International Relief Association (IRA) that is today known as the International Rescue Committee (IRC). The committee mission was to assist Germans suffering from the policies of the Hitler regime.
Niebuhr and Dewey
In the 1930s Niebuhr was often seen as an intellectual opponent of John Dewey. Both men were professional polemicists and their ideas often clashed, although they contributed to the same realms of liberal intellectual schools of thought. Niebuhr was a strong proponent of the "Jerusalem" religious tradition as a corrective to the secular "Athens" tradition insisted upon by Dewey. In the book Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932), Niebuhr strongly criticized Dewey's philosophy, although his own ideas were still intellectually rudimentary. Two years later, in a review of Dewey's book A Common Faith (1934), Niebuhr was calm and respectful towards Dewey's "religious footnote" on his then large body of educational and pragmatic philosophy.
Neo-orthodox theology
In 1939 Niebuhr explained his theological odyssey:
In the 1930s Niebuhr worked out many of his ideas about sin and grace, love and justice, faith and reason, realism and idealism, and the irony and tragedy of history, which established his leadership of the neo-orthodox movement in theology. Influenced strongly by Karl Barth and other dialectical theologians of Europe, he began to emphasize the Bible as a human record of divine self-revelation; it offered for Niebuhr a critical but redemptive reorientation of the understanding of humanity's nature and destiny.
Niebuhr couched his ideas in Christ-centered principles such as the Great Commandment and the doctrine of original sin. His major contribution was his view of sin as a social event—as pride—with selfish self-centeredness as the root of evil. The sin of pride was apparent not just in criminals, but more dangerously in people who felt good about their deeds—rather like Henry Ford (whom he did not mention by name). The human tendency to corrupt the good was the great insight he saw manifested in governments, business, democracies, utopian societies, and churches. This position is laid out profoundly in one of his most influential books, Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932). He was a debunker of hypocrisy and pretense and made the avoidance of self-righteous illusions the center of his thoughts.
Niebuhr argued that to approach religion as the individualistic attempt to fulfill biblical commandments in a moralistic sense is not only an impossibility but also a demonstration of man's original sin, which Niebuhr interpreted as self-love. Through self-love man becomes focused on his own goodness and leaps to the false conclusion—one he called the "Promethean illusion"—that he can achieve goodness on his own. Thus man mistakes his partial ability to transcend himself for the ability to prove his absolute authority over his own life and world. Constantly frustrated by natural limitations, man develops a lust for power which destroys him and his whole world. History is the record of these crises and judgments which man brings on himself; it is also proof that God does not allow man to overstep his possibilities. In radical contrast to the Promethean illusion, God reveals himself in history, especially personified in Jesus Christ, as sacrificial love which overcomes the human temptation to self-deification and makes possible constructive human history.
Politics
Domestic
During the 1930s, Niebuhr was a prominent leader of the militant faction of the Socialist Party of America, although he disliked die-hard Marxists. He described their beliefs as a religion and a thin one at that. In 1941, he co-founded the Union for Democratic Action, a group with a strongly militarily interventionist, internationalist foreign policy and a pro-union, liberal domestic policy. He was the group's president until it transformed into the Americans for Democratic Action in 1947.
International
Within the framework of Christian realism, Niebuhr became a supporter of American action in the Second World War, anti-communism, and the development of nuclear weapons. However, he opposed the Vietnam War.
At the outbreak of World War II, the pacifist component of his liberalism was challenged. Niebuhr began to distance himself from the pacifism of his more liberal colleagues and became a staunch advocate for the war. Niebuhr soon left the Fellowship of Reconciliation, a peace-oriented group of theologians and ministers, and became one of their harshest critics.
This departure from his peers evolved into a movement known as Christian realism. Niebuhr is widely considered to have been its primary advocate. Niebuhr supported the Allies during the Second World War and argued for the engagement of the United States in the war. As a writer popular in both the secular and the religious arena and a professor at the Union Theological Seminary, he was very influential both in the United States and abroad. While many clergy proclaimed themselves pacifists because of their World War I experiences, Niebuhr declared that a victory by Germany and Japan would threaten Christianity. He renounced his socialist connections and beliefs and resigned from the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation. He based his arguments on the Protestant beliefs that sin is part of the world, that justice must take precedence over love, and that pacifism is a symbolic portrayal of absolute love but cannot prevent sin. Although his opponents did not portray him favorably, Niebuhr's exchanges with them on the issue helped him mature intellectually.
Niebuhr debated Charles Clayton Morrison, editor of The Christian Century magazine, about America's entry into World War II. Morrison and his pacifistic followers maintained that America's role should be strictly neutral and part of a negotiated peace only, while Niebuhr claimed himself to be a realist, who opposed the use of political power to attain moral ends. Morrison and his followers strongly supported the movement to outlaw war that began after World War I and the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928. The pact was severely challenged by the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. With his publication of Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932), Niebuhr broke ranks with The Christian Century and supported interventionism and power politics. He supported the reelection of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 and published his own magazine, Christianity and Crisis. In 1945, however, Niebuhr charged that use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima was "morally indefensible".
Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. explained Niebuhr's influence:
Traditionally, the idea of the frailty of man led to the demand for obedience to ordained authority. But Niebuhr rejected that ancient conservative argument. Ordained authority, he showed, is all the more subject to the temptations of self-interest, self-deception and self-righteousness. Power must be balanced by power. He persuaded me and many of my contemporaries that original sin provides a far stronger foundation for freedom and self-government than illusions about human perfectibility. Niebuhr's analysis was grounded in the Christianity of Augustine and Calvin, but he had, nonetheless, a special affinity with secular circles. His warnings against utopianism, messianism and perfectionism strike a chord today. ... We cannot play the role of God to history, and we must strive as best we can to attain decency, clarity and proximate justice in an ambiguous world.
Niebuhr's defense of Roosevelt made him popular among liberals, as the historian Morton White noted:
The contemporary liberal's fascination with Niebuhr, I suggest, comes less from Niebuhr's dark theory of human nature and more from his actual political pronouncements, from the fact that he is a shrewd, courageous, and right-minded man on many political questions. Those who applaud his politics are too liable to turn then to his theory of human nature and praise it as the philosophical instrument of Niebuhr's political agreement with themselves. But very few of those whom I have called "atheists for Niebuhr" follow this inverted logic to its conclusion: they don't move from praise of Niebuhr's theory of human nature to praise of its theological ground. We may admire them for drawing the line somewhere, but certainly not for their consistency.
After Joseph Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Adolf Hitler in August 1939, Niebuhr severed his past ties with any fellow-traveler organization having any known Communist leanings. In 1947, Niebuhr helped found the liberal Americans for Democratic Action. His ideas influenced George Kennan, Hans Morgenthau, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and other realists during the Cold War on the need to contain Communist expansion.
In his last cover story for Time magazine (March 1948), Whittaker Chambers said of Niebuhr:
Most U.S. liberals think of Niebuhr as a solid socialist who has some obscure connection with Union Theological Seminary that does not interfere with his political work. Unlike most clergymen in politics, Dr. Niebuhr is a pragmatist. Says James Loeb, secretary of Americans for Democratic Action: "Most so-called liberals are idealists. They let their hearts run away with their heads. Niebuhr never does. For example, he has always been the leading liberal opponent of pacifism. In that period before we got into the war when pacifism was popular, he held out against it steadfastly. He is also an opponent of Marxism.
In the 1950s, Niebuhr described Senator Joseph McCarthy as a force of evil, not so much for attacking civil liberties, as for being ineffective in rooting out Communists and their sympathizers. In 1953, he supported the execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, saying, "Traitors are never ordinary criminals and the Rosenbergs are quite obviously fiercely loyal Communists ... Stealing atomic secrets is an unprecedented crime."
Views on race, ethnicity, and other religious affiliations
His views developed during his pastoral tenure in Detroit, which had become a place of immigration, migration, competition and development as a major industrial city. During the 1920s, Niebuhr spoke out against the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in Detroit, which had recruited many members threatened by the rapid social changes. The Klan proposed positions that were anti-black, anti-Jewish and anti-Catholic. Niebuhr's preaching against the Klan, especially in relation to the 1925 mayoral election, gained him national attention.
Niebuhr's thoughts on racial justice developed slowly after he abandoned socialism. Niebuhr attributed the injustices of society to human pride and self-love and believed that this innate propensity for evil could not be controlled by humanity. But, he believed that a representative democracy could improve society's ills. Like Edmund Burke, Niebuhr endorsed natural evolution over imposed change and emphasized experience over theory. Niebuhr's Burkean ideology, however, often conflicted with his liberal principles, particularly regarding his perspective on racial justice. Though vehemently opposed to racial inequality, Niebuhr adopted a conservative position on segregation.
While after World War II most liberals endorsed integration, Niebuhr focused on achieving equal opportunity. He warned against imposing changes that could result in violence. The violence that followed peaceful demonstrations in the 1960s forced Niebuhr to reverse his position against imposed equality; witnessing the problems of the Northern ghettos later caused him to doubt that equality was attainable.
Catholicism
Anti-Catholicism surged in Detroit in the 1920s in reaction to the rise in the number of Catholic immigrants from southern Europe since the early 20th century. It was exacerbated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan, which recruited many members in Detroit. Niebuhr defended pluralism by attacking the Klan. During the Detroit mayoral election of 1925, Niebuhr's sermon, "We fair-minded Protestants cannot deny", was published on the front pages of both the Detroit Times and the Free Press.
This sermon urged people to vote against mayoral candidate Charles Bowles, who was being openly endorsed by the Klan. The Catholic incumbent, John W. Smith, won by a narrow margin of 30,000 votes. Niebuhr preached against the Klan and helped to influence its decline in political power in Detroit. Niebuhr preached that:
Martin Luther King Jr.
In the "Letter from Birmingham Jail" Martin Luther King Jr. wrote, "Individuals may see the moral light and voluntarily give up their unjust posture; but, as Reinhold Niebuhr has reminded us, groups tend to be more immoral than individuals." King drew heavily upon Niebuhr's social and ethical ideals; according to Andrew Young, “King always claimed to have been much more influenced by Niebuhr than by Gandhi; he considered his nonviolent technique to be a Niebuhrian strategy of power” and “Whenever there was a conversation about power, Niebuhr came up. Niebuhr kept us from being naive about the evil structures of society.”
King invited Niebuhr to participate in the third Selma to Montgomery March in 1965, and Niebuhr responded by telegram: "Only a severe stroke prevents me from accepting ... I hope there will be a massive demonstration of all the citizens with conscience in favor of the elemental human rights of voting and freedom of assembly" (Niebuhr, March 19, 1965). Two years later, Niebuhr defended King's decision to speak out against the Vietnam War, calling him "one of the greatest religious leaders of our time". Niebuhr asserted: "Dr. King has the right and a duty, as both a religious and a civil rights leader, to express his concern in these days about such a major human problem as the Vietnam War." Of his country's intervention in Vietnam, Niebuhr admitted: "For the first time I fear I am ashamed of our beloved nation."
Judaism
Throughout his life, Niebuhr cultivated a good reputation and rapport with the Jewish community. He was an early critic of Christian antisemitism, including proselytism, and a persistent critic of Nazism and rising Antisemitism in Germany throughout the 1930s.
When he began as a young pastor in 1923 Detroit, he favored conversion of Jews to Christianity, scolding evangelical Christians who were either antisemitic or ignored them. He spoke out against "the un-Christlike attitude of Christians", and what he called "Jewish bigotry". Within three years, his theological views had evolved, and he spoke out against the practicality and necessity of missionizing Jews. He was the first prominent Christian theologian to argue it was inappropriate for Christians to seek to convert Jews to their faith, saying this negated “every gesture of our common biblical inheritance.” His experience in Detroit led him to the conclusion that the Jewish community was already sincerely committed to Social Justice.
In a 1926-01-10 lecture, Niebuhr said: "If I were a self-respecting Jew, I certainly would not renounce the faith of the fathers to embrace a faith which is as involved as Christianity is with racialism, Nordicism and gentile arrogance. (...) What we need is an entente cordiale between prophetic Judaism and prophetic Christianity in which both religions would offer the best they have to each other"
Niebuhr's 1933 article in The Christian Century was an attempt to sound the alarm within the Christian community over Hitler's "cultural annihilation of the Jews".
As a preacher, writer, leader, and adviser to political figures, Niebuhr supported Zionism and the development of Israel. His solution to antisemitism was a combination of a Jewish homeland, greater tolerance, and assimilation in other countries. Unlike other Christian Zionists, Niebuhr's support of Zionism was practical, not theological, and not rooted in fulfillment of Biblical prophesy nor anticipation of the End-of-Days. Despite being a religious leader, he cautioned against the involvement of religious claims in the conflict. Although Niebuhr qualified his support for Zionism, he has been sharply criticized by Anti-Zionist figures such as Edward Said, who derided his claims to care about the Palestinians as insincere.
Niebuhr noted that “Zionism is the expression of a national will to live that transcends the traditional orthodox religion of the Jews.” Jewish statehood was necessary because “the bigotry of majority groups toward minority groups that affront the majority by diverging from the dominant type is a perennial aspect of man’s collective life. The force of it may be mitigated, but it cannot be wholly eliminated.”
"How is the ancient and hereditary title of the Jews to Palestine to be measured against the right of the Arab’s present possession? … The participants cannot find a common ground of rational morality from which to arbitrate the issues because the moral judgments which each brings to them are formed by the historical forces which are in conflict. … The effort to bring such a conflict under the dominion of a spiritual unity may be partly successful, but it always produces a tragic by-product of the spiritual accentuation of natural conflict. The introduction of religious motives into these conflicts is usually no more than the final and most demonic pretension."
History
In 1952, Niebuhr published The Irony of American History, in which he interpreted the meaning of the United States' past. Niebuhr questioned whether a humane, "ironical" interpretation of American history was credible on its own merits, or only in the context of a Christian view of history. Niebuhr's concept of irony referred to situations in which "the consequences of an act are diametrically opposed to the original intention", and "the fundamental cause of the disparity lies in the actor himself, and his original purpose." His reading of American history based on this notion, though from the Christian perspective, is so rooted in historical events that readers who do not share his religious views can be led to the same conclusion. Niebuhr's great foe was idealism. American idealism, he believed, comes in two forms: the idealism of the antiwar non-interventionists, who are embarrassed by power; and the idealism of pro-war imperialists, who disguise power as virtue. He said the non-interventionists, without mentioning Harry Emerson Fosdick by name, seek to preserve the purity of their souls, either by denouncing military actions or by demanding that every action taken be unequivocally virtuous. They exaggerate the sins committed by their own country, excuse the malevolence of its enemies and, as later polemicists have put it, inevitably blame America first. Niebuhr argued this approach was a pious way to refuse to face real problems.
Serenity Prayer
Niebuhr said he wrote the short Serenity Prayer. Fred R. Shapiro, who had cast doubts on Niebuhr's claim, conceded in 2009 that, "The new evidence does not prove that Reinhold Niebuhr wrote [the prayer], but it does significantly improve the likelihood that he was the originator." The earliest known version of the prayer, from 1937, attributes the prayer to Niebuhr in this version: "Father, give us courage to change what must be altered, serenity to accept what cannot be helped, and the insight to know the one from the other." The most popular version, the authorship of which is unknown, reads:
God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change,
Courage to change the things I can,
And the wisdom to know the difference.
Influence
Many political scientists, such as George F. Kennan, Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz, and Samuel P. Huntington, and political historians, such as Richard Hofstadter, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and Christopher Lasch, have noted his influence on their thinking.
Niebuhr exerted a significant influence upon mainline Protestant clergy in the years immediately following World War II, much of it in concord with the neo-orthodox and the related movements. That influence began to wane and then drop toward the end of his life.
The historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. in the late twentieth century described the legacy of Niebuhr as being contested between American liberals and conservatives, both of whom wanted to claim him. Martin Luther King Jr. gave credit to Niebuhr's influence. Foreign-policy conservatives point to Niebuhr's support of the containment doctrine during the Cold War as an instance of moral realism; progressives cite his later opposition to the Vietnam War.
In more recent years, Niebuhr has enjoyed something of a renaissance in contemporary thought, although usually not in liberal Protestant theological circles. Both major-party candidates in the 2008 presidential election cited Niebuhr as an influence: Senator John McCain, in his book Hard Call, "celebrated Niebuhr as a paragon of clarity about the costs of a good war". President Barack Obama said that Niebuhr was his " philosopher" and "favorite theologian". Slate magazine columnist Fred Kaplan characterized Obama's 2009 Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech as a "faithful reflection" of Niebuhr.
Kenneth Waltz's seminal work on international relations theory, Man, the State, and War, includes many references to Niebuhr's thought. Waltz emphasizes Niebuhr's contributions to political realism, especially "the impossibility of human perfection". Andrew Bacevich's book The Limits of Power: The End of American Exceptionalism refers to Niebuhr 13 times. Bacevich emphasizes Niebuhr's humility and his belief that Americans were in danger of becoming enamored of US power.
Other leaders of American foreign policy in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century have acknowledged Niebuhr's importance to them, including Jimmy Carter, Madeleine Albright, and Hillary Clinton.
Legacy and honors
Niebuhr died on June 1, 1971, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts.
During his lifetime, Niebuhr was awarded several honorary doctorates.
In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson awarded Niebuhr the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
In Niebuhr's honor, New York City named West 120th Street between Broadway and Riverside Drive Reinhold Niebuhr Place. This is the site of Union Theological Seminary in Manhattan, where Niebuhr taught for more than 30 years.
Elmhurst College, his alma mater, established the Niebuhr Medal to honor him and his brother.
Niebuhr's influence was at its peak during the first two decades of the Cold War. By the 1970s, his influence was declining because of the rise of liberation theology, antiwar sentiment, the growth of conservative evangelicalism, and postmodernism. According to historian Gene Zubovich, "It took the tragic events of September 11, 2001, to revive Niebuhr."
In spring of 2017, it was speculated (and later confirmed) that former FBI director James Comey used Niebuhr's name as a screen name for his personal Twitter account. Comey, as a religion major at the College of William & Mary, wrote his undergraduate thesis on Niebuhr and televangelist Jerry Falwell.
Personal style
Niebuhr was often described as a charismatic speaker. The journalist Alden Whitman wrote of his speaking style:
He possessed a deep voice and large blue eyes. He used his arms as though he were an orchestra conductor. Occasionally one hand would strike out, with a pointed finger at the end, to accent a trenchant sentence. He talked rapidly and (because he disliked to wear spectacles for his far-sightedness) without notes; yet he was adroit at building logical climaxes and in communicating a sense of passionate involvement in what he was saying.
Selected works
Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic, Richard R. Smith pub, (1930), Westminster John Knox Press 1991 reissue: , diary of a young minister's trials
Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study of Ethics and Politics, Charles Scribner's Sons (1932), Westminster John Knox Press 2002: ;
Interpretation of Christian Ethics, Harper & Brothers (1935)
Beyond Tragedy: Essays on the Christian Interpretation of History, Charles Scribner's Sons (1937),
Christianity and Power Politics, Charles Scribner's Sons (1940)
The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Interpretation, Charles Scribner's Sons (1943), from his 1939 Gifford Lectures, Volume one: Human Nature, Volume two: Human Destiny. Reprint editions include: Prentice Hall vol. 1: , Westminster John Knox Press 1996 set of 2 vols:
The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, Charles Scribner's Sons (1944), Prentice Hall 1974 edition: , Macmillan 1985 edition: , 2011 reprint from the University of Chicago Press, with a new introduction by Gary Dorrien:
Faith and History (1949)
The Irony of American History, Charles Scribner's Sons (1952), 1985 reprint: , Simon and Schuster: , 2008 reprint from the University of Chicago Press, with a new introduction by Andrew J. Bacevich: , excerpt
Christian Realism and Political Problems (1953)
The Self and the Dramas of History, Charles Scribner's Sons (1955), University Press of America, 1988 edition:
Love and Justice: Selections from the Shorter Writings of Reinhold Niebuhr, ed. D. B. Robertson (1957), Westminster John Knox Press 1992 reprint,
Pious and Secular America (1958)
Reinhold Niebuhr on Politics: His Political Philosophy and Its Application to Our Age as Expressed in His Writings ed. by Harry R. Davis and Robert C. Good. (1960) online edition
A Nation So Conceived: Reflections on the History of America From Its Early Visions to its Present Power with Alan Heimert, Charles Scribner's Sons (1963)
The Structure of Nations and Empires (1959)
Niebuhr, Reinhold. The Essential Reinhold Niebuhr: Selected Essays and Addresses ed. by Robert McAffee Brown (1986). 264 pp. Yale University Press,
Remembering Reinhold Niebuhr. Letters of Reinhold & Ursula M. Niebuhr, ed. by Ursula Niebuhr (1991) Harper, 0060662344
Reinhold Niebuhr: Major Works on Religion and Politics: Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, The Irony of American History, Other Writings [Writings on Current Events 1928-1967, Prayers, Sermons and Lectures on Faith and Belief], ed. by Elisabeth Sifton (2016, Library of America/Literary Classics of the United States, 2016), 978-1-59853-375-0
See also
Christian socialism
The Moot
Situational ethics
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
Altman, Jake (2019). Socialism Before Sanders: The 1930s Movement from Romance to Revisionism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
External links
A detailed bibliography of Niebuhr's publications
Obama's Theologian, E. J. Dionne and David Brooks debate on Speaking of Faith, American Public Media
Niebuhr, Reinhold. "The Public Theology of Reinhold Niebuhr" (radio interviews online)
Reflections by Ursula Niehbuhr on the 100th anniversary of Reinhold Niebuhr's birth Retrieved April 15, 2013
Reinhold Niebuhr books and articles online
The Niebuhr Legacy, Elmhurst College
Reinhold Niebuhr Papers, (Library of Congress)
"The Ironic Element in the American Situation", an excerpt from The Irony of American History
Who Speaks for the Negro Vanderbilt documentary website
Reinhold Niebuhr: April 27, 1958, interview, The Mike Wallace Interview collection, The University of Texas at Austin.
"Reinhold Niebuhr", Time Magazine Cover (Mar. 8 1948)
Brian Urquhart, "What You Can Learn from Reinhold Niebuhr", The New York Review of Books
The Niebuhr Society
Niebuhr on Tolerance
An American Conscience: The Reinhold Niebuhr Story, documentary film by Martin Doblmeier
1892 births
1971 deaths
People from Warren County, Missouri
People from Lincoln, Illinois
20th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
20th-century American writers
American people of German descent
Eden Theological Seminary alumni
Elmhurst College alumni
Yale Divinity School alumni
United Church of Christ ministers
Union Theological Seminary (New York City) faculty
American Evangelical and Reformed Church members
American Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Christian ethicists
Christian existentialists
Pragmatists
Political realists
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Socialist Party of America politicians from New York (state)
Analysands of Erik Erikson
American Christian socialists
Calvinist and Reformed Christian socialists
Christian socialist theologians
20th-century Protestant theologians
Political theologians
Writers from Missouri
American Christian Zionists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel%20of%20Peter
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Gospel of Peter
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The Gospel of Peter (, ), or the Gospel according to Peter, is an ancient text concerning Jesus Christ, only partially known today. It is considered a non-canonical gospel and was rejected as apocryphal by the Church's synods of Carthage and Rome, which established the New Testament canon. It was the first of the non-canonical gospels to be rediscovered, preserved in the dry sands of Egypt.
A major focus of the surviving fragment of the Gospel of Peter is the passion narrative, which ascribes responsibility for the crucifixion of Jesus to Herod Antipas rather than to Pontius Pilate.
Composition
Authorship
The Gospel of Peter explicitly claims to be the work of Saint Peter:
However, scholars generally agree that the Gospel of Peter is pseudepigraphical (bearing the name of an author who did not actually compose the text).
The true author of the gospel remains a mystery. Although there are parallels with the three Synoptic Gospels, Peter does not use any of the material unique to Matthew or unique to Luke. Raymond E. Brown and others find that the author may have been acquainted with the synoptic gospels and even with the Gospel of John; Brown (The Death of the Messiah) even suggests that the author's source in the canonical gospels was transmitted orally, through readings in the churches, i.e. that the text is based on what the author remembers about the other gospels, together with their own embellishments.
Ron Cameron and others have further speculated the Gospel of Peter was written independently of the synoptic gospels using an early proto-gospel. A consequence of this is the potential existence of a source text that formed the basis of the passion narratives in Matthew, Luke, and Mark, as well as in Peter. Origen makes mention of the Gospel of Peter as agreeing with the tradition of the Hebrews. The relationship to the Gospel according to the Hebrews becomes more clear when Theodoret states that the Nazarenes made use of the Gospel of Peter, for it is known by the testimony of the Fathers generally that the Nazarene Gospel was commonly called the Gospel according to the Hebrews. The same Gospel was in use among the Ebionites, and, in fact, as almost all critics are agreed, the Gospel according to the Hebrews - under various names such as the Gospel according to Peter, according to the Apostles, the Nazarenes, Ebionites, Egyptians, etc. - was substantially the same work, circulated very widely throughout the early Church, though with modifications.
Date
The gospel is widely thought to date from after the composition of the four canonical gospels. Scholars are divided as to the exact date of the text, with Bart Ehrman placing it in the first half of the 2nd century and considering it to have been compiled based on oral traditions about Jesus, independent of the canonical gospels. The dating of the text depends to a certain extent on whether the text condemned by Serapion, Bishop of Antioch upon inspection at Rhossus is the same as the text that was discovered in modern times. The Rhossus community had already been using it in their liturgy.
John Dominic Crossan argues that the Gospel of Peter, as it is found in the modern day, was composed in the 2nd century, yet it largely incorporates a source for its passion narrative that predates all other known passion accounts. He calls this primitive passion source the "Cross Gospel." Crossan believes that this Cross Gospel was written before the synoptic gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke, and influenced both them as well as the Gospel of Peter. Crossan's view is not accepted by other Biblical scholars.
Craig A. Evans argues that the Gospel of Peter was written in the 2nd century CE to counter anti-Christian polemics of that time (such as the ones found in Celsus's The True Word).
Later Western references, which condemn the work, such as Jerome and the Decretum Gelasianum, traditionally connected to Pope Gelasius I, are apparently based upon the judgment of Eusebius, not upon a direct knowledge of the text.
Historical references
The Second Epistle of Clement (an anonymous 2nd century homily erroneously attributed to Pope Clement I) refers to a passage thought to be from the Gospel of Peter:2 Clement 5:2
For the Lord saith, Ye shall be as lambs in the midst of wolves.
2 Clement 5:3
But Peter answered and said unto Him, What then, if the wolves
should tear the lambs?
2 Clement 5:4
Jesus said unto Peter, Let not the lambs fear the wolves after they
are dead; and ye also, fear ye not them that kill you and are not
able to do anything to you; but fear Him that after ye are dead
hath power over soul and body, to cast them into the Gehenna of
fire.
Origen mentions "the Gospel according to Peter, as it is called", together with "the Book of James" (believed by scholars to be the apochryphal Gospel of James), in support of the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary. However, it is not clear that he was referring to what is known modernly as the Gospel of Peter because the extant fragments say nothing about this or about the birth of Jesus.
In his Church History, Eusebius writes that Bishop Serapion of Antioch had been informed that a Christian community in Rhosus was using the Gospel of Peter in their liturgy and had sent a letter authorizing them to do so, while also denying that such Gospel was actually written by Saint Peter. Later, however, Serapion was informed that the Gospel of Peter "hid an heresy", which he attributed to Marcian of Rhossos and that he identified with docetism. Serapion reports that he read the Gospel carefully and had the opportunity "to find, along with much of the Savior's true doctrine, some additions". Eusebius also states that several works had been attributed to Peter: the First Epistle of Peter, the Second Epistle of Peter, the Acts of Peter, the Gospel of Peter, the Preaching of Peter and the Apocalypse of Peter. He accepts the First Epistle of Peter as genuine, while he rejects all the others as spurious. Jerome mistakingly says in his De Viris Illustribus that Serapion wrote the Gospel of Peter.
In his Compendium of Heretical Accounts, Theodoret states that the sects of the Nazarene used the Gospel of Peter in their liturgy, but this is considered to be highly unlikely and anachronistic. In his Church History, Philip of Side states that "the ancients absolutely refused the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of Thomas, which they considered the work of heretics."
Discovery
The Gospel of Peter was recovered in 1886 by the French archaeologist Urbain Bouriant in the modern Egyptian city of Akhmim ( north of Nag Hammadi). The 8th- or 9th-century manuscript had been respectfully buried with an Egyptian monk. The fragmentary Gospel of Peter was the first non-canonical gospel to have been rediscovered, preserved in the dry sand of Egypt. Publication, delayed by Bouriant until 1892, occasioned intense interest. From the passion sequence that is preserved, it is clear that the gospel was a narrative gospel, but whether a complete narrative similar to the canonical gospels or simply a Passion cannot be said.
Two other papyrus fragments from Oxyrhynchus (P.Oxy 4009 and P.Oxy. 2949) were uncovered later and published in 1972. They are possibly, but not conclusively, from the Gospel of Peter and would suggest, if they belonged, that the text was more than just a passion narrative. These small fragments both seem to give first person accounts of discussions between Jesus and Peter in situations prior to the Passion week. It has also been speculated that the Fayyum Fragment may be an excerpt from the Gospel of Peter.
To date it is one of four early non-canonical narrative gospels, which exist only in fragmentary form: this Gospel of Peter, the Egerton Gospel, and the two very fragmentary Oxyrhynchus Gospels (P.Oxy. 840 and P.Oxy. 1224). The main point of interest from the first has resided in establishing its relationship to the four canonical gospels.
Contents
J. Rendel Harris (1852–1941) decided to introduce the Gospel of Peter to the public in A Popular Account of the Newly-Recovered Gospel of Peter. He opens with a description of its discovery, offering his opinions regarding its date and original language. Classifying the work as a Docetic gospel, Harris defines the community in which it arose as well as its use during the Patristic age. He translates the fragment and then proceeds to discuss the sources behind it. Harris is convinced that the author borrowed from the canonical accounts, and he lists other literature that may have incorporated the Gospel of Peter, with special emphasis on the Diatessaron.
Edgar J. Goodspeed stated that the main importance of this work is that it is the first of the Christian apologies, although on the next page he admits that only "bits" actually fall into that category.
One of the chief characteristics of the work is that Pontius Pilate is exonerated of all responsibility for the Crucifixion, the onus being laid upon Herod Antipas, the scribes, and other Jews, who pointedly do not "wash their hands" like Pilate. However, the Gospel of Peter was condemned as heretical by for its alleged docetic elements.
The opening leaves of the text are lost, so the Passion begins abruptly with the trial of Jesus before Pilate, after Pilate has washed his hands, and closes with its unusual and detailed version of the watch set over the tomb and the resurrection. The Gospel of Peter is more detailed in its account of the events after the Crucifixion than any of the canonical gospels, and it varies from the canonical accounts in numerous details: Herod gives the order for the execution, not Pilate, who is exonerated; Joseph (of Arimathea, which place is not mentioned) has been acquainted with Pilate; in the darkness that accompanied the crucifixion, "many went about with lamps, supposing that it was night, and fell down".
Jesus' cry from the cross, which the Gospels of Mark and Matthew gives as Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? which Mark and Matthew explains as meaning "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" is reported in Peter as "My power, my power, thou hast forsaken me". Immediately after, Peter states that "when he had said it he was taken up", suggesting that Jesus did not actually die. This, together with the claim that on the cross Jesus "remained silent, as though he felt no pain", has led many early Christians to accuse the text of docetism. F. F. Bruce writes:
F. F. Bruce continues:
The account in Peter tells that the supposed writer and other disciples hid because they were being sought on suspicion of plotting to set fire to the temple, and totally rejects any possibility of their disloyalty. The centurion who kept watch at the tomb is given the name Petronius. Details of the sealing of the tomb, requested of Pilate by the elders of the Jewish community, elaborates upon Matthew 27:66, "So they went, and made the sepulchre sure, sealing the stone, and setting a watch", saying instead:
Most importantly, the Resurrection and Ascension, which are described in detail, are not treated as separate events, but occur on the same day:
The text is unusual at this point in describing the Cross itself as speaking, and even moving out of the tomb. Deane Galbraith shows that the Gospel of Peter has derived its unusual description of the talking and moving cross by interpreting the first six verses of LXX Psalm 18 (Psalm 19 in the Masoretic Text) as a prophecy of Jesus' resurrection. The text then proceeds to follow the Gospel of Mark, ending at the short ending (where the women flee the empty tomb in fear), adding on an extra scene set during the Feast of Unleavened Bread, where the disciples leave Jerusalem, and ends, like the short ending, without Jesus being physically seen.
See also
Apocalypse of Peter
Biblical canon
Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
Gospel of Judas
List of Gospels
Notes
Citations
References
Foster, P, (2007), 'The Gospel of Peter', Exp. Times, Vol. 118, No. 7, p. 318-325.
J. Rendel Harris, A Popular Account of the Newly-Recovered Gospel of Peter
John Dominic Crossan, The Cross That Spoke: The Origins of the Passion Narrative. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988.
External links
Gospel of Peter
Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Peter: several translations and commentaries, and three Patristic references
Gospels.net: Gospel of Peter: additional information
The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge : Peter the Apostle: III.1
Geoff Trowbrige, "The Gospel of Peter"
Barbara Thiering's interpretation of the Gospel of Peter
2nd-century Christian texts
1886 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries in Egypt
Peter
Petrine-related books
Pilate cycle
Pseudepigraphy
Sohag Governorate
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204711
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20New%20Brunswick
|
Coat of arms of New Brunswick
|
The original coat of arms of New Brunswick was granted to New Brunswick by a Royal Warrant of Queen Victoria on May 26, 1868. The provincial flag is a banner of the arms.
History
The original coat of arms, consisting solely of the shield, was based on the design of the Great Seal of New Brunswick, which featured a sailing ship.
The achievement of arms was augmented with crest and motto by an Order in Council of then-Lieutenant Governor John Babbitt McNair in 1966. The supporters and compartment were added by Royal Warrant of Queen Elizabeth II on 24 September 1984, and presented to the province in a public ceremony in Fredericton the following day to mark the province's bicentennial.
Symbolism
Crest
The crest, an Atlantic salmon that is leaping, sits on a golden helmet and a coronet of maple leaves, and is marked with St. Edward's crown, all three symbols of royal authority.
Shield
The shield features a lion passant in chief, commemorating both England (whose arms feature three such lions) and Brunswick (whose arms have two). The principal charge is an ancient galley, symbolizing the maritime province's links to the sea.
Compartment
The compartment is covered by the provincial flower, the purple violet, and the fiddlehead, an edible fern that grows in New Brunswick.
Supporters
The supporters are white-tailed deer collared with Maliseet wampum, and bear badges of the Union colours and of the fleurs-de-lis of royal France, to commemorate the colonization of the area by those powers.
Motto
The motto, Spem reduxit ([It] has restored hope), refers to the province's having acted as a haven for Loyalist refugees who fled there after the American Revolution.
See also
Symbols of New Brunswick
Flag of New Brunswick
Canadian heraldry
National symbols of Canada
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
Heraldry
References
External links
Symbols (Government of New Brunswick).
The Provincial Flag and Coat of Arms (NB Travel Guide – new-brunswick.net).
The Arms of New Brunswick.
Arms and flag of New Brunswick in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges.
Royal Warrant granting Armorial Bearings for the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and a Great Seal for the Dominion of Canada. Canada Gazette, volume 3, number 22, 27 November 1869, page 36.
Royal Warrant augmenting the arms of New Brunswick. Canada Gazette Part I, volume 120, number 14, 5 April 1986, pages 1748–1750.
New Brunswick
Provincial symbols of New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
1868 establishments in Canada
|
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204713
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supporter
|
Supporter
|
In heraldry, supporters, sometimes referred to as attendants, are figures or objects usually placed on either side of the shield and depicted holding it up.
Early forms of supporters are found in medieval seals. However, unlike the coronet or helmet and crest, supporters were not part of early medieval heraldry. As part of the heraldic achievement, they first become fashionable towards the end of the 15th century, but even in the 17th century were not necessarily part of the full heraldic achievement (being absent, for example, in Siebmachers Wappenbuch of 1605).
The figures used as supporters may be based on real or imaginary animals, human figures, and in rare cases plants or other inanimate objects, such as the pillars of Hercules of the coat of arms of Spain. Often, as in other elements of heraldry, these can have local significance, such as the fisherman and the tin miner granted to Cornwall County Council, or a historical link; such as the lion of England and unicorn of Scotland in the two variations of the Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom. The arms of nutritionist John Boyd-Orr use two 'garbs' (wheat sheaves) as supporters; the arms of , missiles; the arms of the state of Rio Grande do Norte in Brazil, trees. Letters of the alphabet are used as supporters in the arms of Valencia, Spain. Human supporters can also be allegorical figures, or, more rarely, specifically named individuals.
There is usually one supporter on each side of the shield, though there are some examples of single supporters placed behind the shield, such as the imperial eagle of the coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire. The coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo provide an extremely unusual example of two supporters issuing from behind the shield. While such single supporters are generally eagles with one or two heads, there are other examples, including the cathedra in the case of some Canadian cathedrals. At the other extreme and even rarer, the Scottish chief Dundas of that Ilk had three supporters: two conventional red lions and the whole supported by a salamander. The coat of arms of Iceland even has four supporters.
The context of the application of supporters may vary, although entitlement may be considered conditioned by grant of a type of augmentation of honour by admission in orders of chivalry or by heraldic authorities, such as in the case of traditional British heraldry.
Attitude
Animal supporters are, by default, as close to rampant as possible, if the nature of the supporter allows it (this does not need to be mentioned in the blazon), though there are some blazoned exceptions. An example of whales 'non-rampant' is the arms of the Dutch municipality of Zaanstad.
Regional development and entitlement
Older writers trace origins of supporters to their usages in tournaments, where the shields of the combatants were exposed for inspection, and guarded by their servants or pages disguised in fanciful attire. However, medieval Scottish seals afford numerous examples in which the 13th and 14th century shields were placed between two creatures resembling lizards or dragons. Also, the seal of John, Duke of Normandy, eldest son of the King of France, before 1316 bears his arms as; France ancient, a bordure gules, between two lions rampant away from the shield, and an eagle with expanded wings standing above it.
Australia
In Australia, Knights or Dames of the Order of Australia may be granted supporters. It is unclear whether supporters may only be used on arms granted by Garter Principal King of Arms, or whether other heraldic authority suffices. Further, as arms may be legitimately adopted upon an armiger's whim, there may be nothing limiting the adoption of supporters by any person, should they so choose.
Canada
In Canada, Companions of the Order of Canada, Commanders of the Order of Military Merit, Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order, people granted the style the Right Honourable, and corporations are granted the use of supporters on their coats of arms. Further, on his retirement from office as Chief Herald, Robert Watt was granted supporters as an honour.
France
In France, writers made a distinctive difference on the subject of supporters, giving the name of Supports to animals, real or imaginary, thus employed; while human figures or angels similarly used are called Tenants (i.e. 'holders'). Trees and other inanimate objects which are sometimes used are called Soutiens.
New Zealand
Knights Grand Companion and Principal Companions of the New Zealand Order of Merit are granted the use of heraldic supporters.
United Kingdom
Originally, in England, supporters were regarded as little more than mere decorative and artistic appendages.
In the United Kingdom, supporters are typically an example of special royal favour, granted at the behest of the sovereign. Hereditary supporters are normally limited to hereditary peers, certain members of the Royal Family, and to some chiefs of Scottish clans. Non-hereditary supporters are granted to life peers, Knights and Ladies of the Order of the Garter and Order of the Thistle, Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Order of St Michael and St George, Royal Victorian Order and Order of the British Empire, and Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of St John. Knights banneret were also granted non-hereditary supporters, but no such knight has been created since the time of Charles I.
Supporters may also be granted to corporations which have a royal charter.
Examples
See also
Confronted animals
References
External devices in achievements
|
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] |
204715
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crest
|
Crest
|
Crest or CREST may refer to:
Buildings
The Crest (Huntington, New York), a historic house in Suffolk County, New York
"The Crest", an alternate name for 63 Wall Street, in Manhattan, New York
Crest Castle (Château Du Crest), Jussy, Switzerland
Crest House, a building, now in ruins, at the summit of Mount Evans in Colorado
Crest Theatre, a historic theatre in downtown Sacramento, California
Crest Theatre, formerly Majestic Crest Theatre, Los Angeles, California
Crest Theatre, in Old School Square, Delray Beach, Florida
Business or commerce
Crest (toothpaste), a brand of toothpaste
Crest Audio, an American manufacturer of power amplifiers and mixing consoles
Crest Animation Productions, an animation studio in Burbank, California
Crest Animation Studios, an animation studio in India
Crest Books, an imprint of now defunct Fawcett Publications
Crest Hotels, a defunct hotel chain in the UK
Crest Manufacturing Company, producer of the Crestmobile automobile in the 1900s
CREST (securities depository), a dematerialised securities depository and settlement service of the UK and Ireland
Center for Research in Economics and Statistics, Paris, France
Education
Crest Boys' Academy, a former secondary school in Neasden in the London Borough of Brent
Crest Girls' Academy, a former secondary school in Neasden
Crest High School (Kansas), Colony, Kansas
Crest High School (North Carolina), Boiling Springs, North Carolina
E-ACT Crest Academy, a secondary school which replaced Crest Boys' and Girls' Academies and Crest Sixth Form in 2014
Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology, Loughborough University, UK
The Consortium for Research Excellence, Support and Training (CREST), an organisation that provides training and research support for UK universities
Music
The Crest (album), a 2010 album by Axel Rudi Pell
The Crest (band), a gothic metal band from Oslo, Norway
The Crests, a late 1950s R&B doo wop band whose big hit was "16 Candles"
Crest Records, an American record label from 1954 to 1963
Places
Crest, California, an unincorporated community, United States
Crest, Drôme, a commune in the Drôme département, France
Crest, Georgia, an unincorporated community, United States
Crest, Missouri, an unincorporated community, United States
Le Crest, a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme département, France
Crest Mountain, British Columbia, Canada
Science and medicine
Crest (anatomy), various anatomical features
Crest (feathers), a prominent feature exhibited by several bird and other dinosaur species on their heads
Cresting (or fasciation), condition of abnormal growth in vascular plants
Crest (hydrology), the highest level above a certain datum or reference point that a river will reach in a certain amount of time
Mountain crest, a geological feature
Crest (physics), the section of a wave that rises above an undisturbed position
Crest factor, a dimensionless number quantifying the shapes of waves
CREST syndrome, a limited form of the disease scleroderma
Ships
, a US Navy minesweeper from 1917 to 1919
Crest (1900 steamboat), which operated in Puget Sound on the west coast of the United States
Symbols
Crest (heraldry), a component of a heraldic display
Crest (sports), a common word for the logo used by a sports club
Other uses
Crest Airpark, a public airport in the state of Washington
Crests (Digimon), powerful artifacts in the Digimon Adventure anime series
Crest (video game), an indirect god game by Eat Create Sleep
Jacques-Barthélemy Micheli du Crest (1690–1766), Genevan military engineer, physicist and cartographer
See also
Crested (duck breed), a breed of domestic duck
Cresting (architecture), ornamentation attached to the ridge of a roof, cornice, coping or parapet
Fasciation or cresting, in botany, abnormal growth of a plant
|
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204717
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantling
|
Mantling
|
In heraldry, mantling or "lambrequin" (its name in French) is drapery tied to the helmet above the shield. In paper heraldry it is a depiction of the protective cloth covering (often of linen) worn by knights from their helmets to stave off the elements, and, secondarily, to decrease the effects of sword-blows against the helmet in battle, from which it is usually shown tattered or cut to shreds; less often it is shown as an intact drape, principally in those cases where clergy use a helmet and mantling (to symbolise that, despite the perhaps contradictory presence of the helmet, they have not been involved in combat), although this is usually the artist's discretion and done for decorative rather than symbolic reasons.
Generally, mantling is blazoned mantled x, doubled [lined] y; the cloth has two sides, one of a colour and the other of a metal. The mantling is usually in the main colours of the shield, or else in the livery colours that symbolize the entity bearing the arms, though there are exceptions, with occasional tinctures differing from these, or occasional examples in which the outside of the mantling is per pale of two colours or both the inside and outside are per pale, and even rarer examples of other divisions, and there is a perhaps unique example in which the lining of the mantling is per pale of the two metals or of the entire mantling being of a single tincture. The mantling of the Black Loyalist Heritage Society is a unique example in which the mantling is of two furs (ermines, lined ermine). There is also the unique example of the mantling of Bruce Douglas Bolton, which is tartan on the outside. The Coat of Arms of Canada is mantled white and red, or argent doubled gules; furthermore, the current standard rendering of the Canadian arms has mantling in the shape of maple leaves. The arms of sovereigns are a common exception. The arms of the United Kingdom are or, lined ermine, such a mantling often being held to be limited to sovereigns.In the early days of the development of the crest, before the torse (wreath), crest coronets and chapeaux were developed, the crest often "continued into the mantling" if this was feasible (the clothes worn by a demi- human figure, or the fur of the animal, for instance, allowing or encouraging this). It still holds true frequently in Germany.
There are rare examples where the mantling is blazoned to complement the armiger's coat of arms, mimicking the ordinaries and charges on the escutcheon. When charges occur, they are usually displayed as a semy.
See also
Mantle and pavilion (heraldry)
References
Heraldry
|
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204719
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartment%20%28heraldry%29
|
Compartment (heraldry)
|
In heraldry, a compartment is a design placed under the shield, usually rocks, a grassy mount (mount vert), or some sort of other landscape upon which the supporters are depicted as standing. Care must be taken to distinguish true compartments from items upon which supporters are merely resting one or more feet, or, sometimes, mere heraldic badges or pure decoration under the shield, and, conversely, care must also be taken in very unusual cases such as the coat of arms of Belize, in which what may be taken to be a crest, the mahogany tree rising above the shield, is really part of the compartment. It is sometimes said to represent the land held by the bearer. As an official part of the blazon it is a comparatively late feature of heraldry, often derived from the need to have different supporters for different families or entities, although sometimes the compartment is treated in the blazon separately from the supporters.
Background
If the compartment is mentioned in the blazon it forms part of the grant and is an integral part of the arms e.g. the current royal arms of the United Kingdom are required to have a compartment with plant badges. If no compartment is specified in the blazon then whether to draw one is at the discretion of the artist. The current arms of the Commonwealth of Australia are usually depicted on a compartment of a wreath of wattle, the national flower. It would be acceptable to omit the wattle or substitute something else as it does not form part of the grant.
The decorative flourish which was often placed by heraldic artists under the feet, hooves or paws of supporters, chiefly in the 19th century, was disparagingly known by some as the "gas bracket," although this term never had any official currency; the only case in which something similar was ever actually mentioned in the blazon was the "arabesque" vert on which the whale supporters of Zaanstad, North Holland, the Netherlands, balance. The compartment of the coat of arms of Michigan is similar.
A unique instance in which the supporters stand on the motto scroll is in the arms of New Jersey. The coat of arms of the Netherlands, likewise, features the two lion supporters standing on the motto scroll.
Usually when arms are augmented by supporters, a compartment will be added too. In rare cases, a compartment might be granted as an augmentation. A compartment without supporters is possible but practically unknown, with the exception of the Coat of Arms of South Australia.
A compartment is usually some kind of landscape (in the case of Scottish chiefs it is generally a "mount vert" - grassy mount covered with the clan's flower) or seascape, and these can be quite elaborate. These elaborate designs particularly feature in more recent Canadian grants, such as the compartment of the University of Northern British Columbia, in which the female Kermode bear and woodland caribou buck stand on a forest, mountain peaks and ears of wheat, all rising out of the conventionalised heraldic representation of water, which is itself charged with an orca.
Compartments can have a specific piece of geography; Kenya's compartment is Mount Kenya and the compartment of Arbeláez, Cundinamarca, Colombia is a globe.
There are some unusual compartments. The compartment of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada is a quadrangle. The arms of the former Cumberland County Council have a wall as a compartment, while the Canadian Academy of Engineering has a bridge spanning water. The chief of Clan Donnachaidh has a man in chains as a compartment, while that of Dundas of that Ilk is "a salamander in flames of fire".
Recent compartments can also feature indigenous non-European features. The arms of Gisborne, New Zealand contain another unique compartment, a Māori waka (canoe).
Examples
References
Bibliography
External devices in achievements
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20hip%20hop
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African hip hop
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Hip hop music has been popular in Africa since the early 1980s due to widespread African American influence. In 1985 hip hop reached Senegal, a French-speaking country in West Africa. Some of the first Senegalese rappers were M.C. Lida, M.C. Solaar, and Positive Black Soul.
There also have been groups in Tanzania and other countries that emceed before 1989, that knows as Kwanza Unit although it is not very well known. During the late 1980s to mid 1990s, Stevano UGO, Lagos, Nigeria hit “Earthquaking African MC” became the first Afrobeat rap Artist playing on radio Ray Power FM released via Kennis Music founder, Kenny Ogungbe “African Diddy, this sparked more awareness of bilingual rappers started to escalate all over Africa. Each region had a new type of style of hip hop. Rap elements are also found in Kwaito, a new genre based on house music which developed in South Africa in the 1990s. Hip Hop the genre itself was created by African Americans during the early 1970s in Bronx New York,
Algeria
Algerian hip hop music, as a genre, includes the hip hop music of both native Algerians and Algerians abroad. Algerians living abroad have contributed much to this genre, especially in France, where they are also considered part of the French hip hop scene. Some of these Algerians have become prominent. Algeria also has a hip hop scene, which, while less well known internationally, is among the most developed in Africa and the Arab world.
Raï is a genre of music which developed in Algeria during the 1920s as rural migrants incorporated their native musical styles into the culture of the growing urban centers of western Algeria.
Angola
Angola has a lively hip hop music scene, including popular and influential crews like Conciencia da Africa, Atitude violenta, Pobres Sem Culpa, Filhos Da Ala Este, Guilhotina Verbal, Flagelo Urbano and Mc Mutu Moxy (Intelektu) Based in Cape Town, South Africa, and have begun to work with some South African hip hop musicians. Angolan hip hop is characterized by the influence of American hip hop beats with a special flavor of Portuguese flow, mixed with African rhythm and some Caribbean influence. SSP, Mutu Moxy (Intelektu) Political Rap, Kool Kleva, Nelboy Dastha Burda are credited for being the pioneers of the hip hop in Angola from the late 1980s to the early 1990s.
Hip-hop in Angola can be very censored. In order for artists to perform in large arenas where they can get a lot of exposure and recognition, their music has to be reviewed by a board. Because of this, oftentimes artists who tend to speak out on politics in their music have trouble blowing up. Instead of getting to perform at certain events such as festivals and actual concerts, they are forced to perform to small groups in underground areas. This has made the underground hip hop music scene in Angola very lively.
MCK is one of the most popular underground rappers in Angola. He is known for constantly getting in trouble with the law about his lyrics, in which he constantly criticizes and calls out the government. Other rappers in Angola known for this include Brigadeiro 10 Pacotes and Dioniso Casimiro.
Luanda is the music capital of Angola. Many new sounds have came from this city, including a popular one called Kuduro. Legends like DJ Amado and Buraka Som Systema helped to spread this sound quick internationally by performing across the globe.
Botswana
Botswana has never had a large popular music industry, with most of its recorded music coming from South Africa or further abroad. However, since about 1999, Botswana hip hop performers have begun to gain mainstream acceptance; the record labels such as Dagee Records,
Phat Boy e.t.c has done a lot to promote Botswana hip hop. The hip hop movement in Botswana has grown over the years as evidenced by the release over the years of albums and songs from artists such as Mr Doe, Zeus, Touch Motswak Tswak, Ignition, S.C.A.R, Awesomore.aka Gaddamit, Cashless Society, Nitro, Konkrete, HT, Flex, Dice, Dj Dagizus, 3rd Mind, Kast, Nomadic, and Draztik to name a few. The release of hip hop albums is slow because of the small market and competition from other genres of mostly dance-oriented music. Since 2000 hip hop has achieved more prominence in Botswana, with rappers like Scar Kast and Third Mind releasing relatively successful albums. In 2006, Scar released his sophomore offering, "Happy Hour". The same year Kast released "Dazzit". S.C.A.R has since won a Channel O Spirit of Africa Award 2007 for best hip hop.
Cameroon
After hip hop reached Cameroon, it took two years to actually become popular. This was because when the genre of music first reached the country, it was associated with angry youth and rebellious behavior.
The hip hop scene of Cameroon includes pioneers like Manhitoo and Negrissim' who broke new ground in the early 1990s. Other hip hop artists from Cameroon are Les Nubians. Stanley Enow and Jovi continue to build the industry.
Krotal, also known as Paul Edouard Etoundi Onambele, is one of the most legendary pioneer rappers to come out of Cameroon. He also founded the popular record label Ndabott Prod in 2007. The label has worked and continues to work with artists such as Abaracadabra, JaHel MineliH, Cyrille Nkono. Krotal himself also works under the label. Evindi and Sundjah formed one of the most influential rap groups out of Cameroon, Evindi and Sundjah in 1995.
Rap in Cameroon has continued to evolve since then. For example, Cameroon was not used to sampling beats. Jovi, who also goes by Ndukong Godlove, was one of the first artist to do this in the country and make it popular. Now many artists in Cameroon follow in his footsteps. Today the most viewed song and video out of Cameroon is Stanley Enow's ‘Hein Pere’, which was released in 2013. Rap in Cameroon is also no longer associated with angry youth.
Côte d'Ivoire
Ivorian hip hop became a mainstream part of the popular music of Côte d'Ivoire beginning in 2009 after the victory of Ivorian hip hop group Kiff No Beat at the hip-hop contest Faya Flow, and has been fused with many of the country's native styles, such as zouglou. There is a kind of gangsta rap-influenced Ivorian hip hop called rap dogba. Ivorian Hip Hop is mostly in the French language, but includes nouchi (Ivorian Slang).
Democratic Republic of Congo
Hip hop in Democratic Republic of Congo is mainly used as a way for people, mainly youth, to express their political views and hold the government accountable. Since the civil war in Congo there has been an increase in random senseless killings, rape, and crime in general. Hip hop has been a very popular way to protest these crimes going on in the country. As citizens' freedom of speech dwindles away. Rap and its lyrics have been used by the youth as a way to protest this and rebel. Fally Ipupa is one of Congos most popular rappers.
The capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kinshasa, has long been a major home for pan-African styles of popular music like rumba, soukous and kwassa kwassa. Long-time performers on the Kinshasa scene include Profetzion (formerly of Holokaust), and the Congo Brazzaville rapper Passi.
Gambia
Gambia's much larger neighbor, Senegal, is home to a thriving hip hop scene, which has exerted a strong influence on Gambian hip hop but Gambian hip hop is now evolving its own unique style. In 1999, the Gambia Radio & Television Services gave out the first Gambian Rap Award. The first crew to win the award for best new act was Da Fugitvz, who rapped in Wolof, the national language of Senegal, and thus became popular in both countries. They also later played at Popkomm in Germany.
Ghana
Hip hop in Ghana is commonly referred to as Gh hiphop. The phrase GH Rap was created by Jayso and Ball J when they released their first Skillions mixtape. According to the two rappers, GH Rap means Hiphop made in Ghana. Hiplife is also a Ghanaian genre similar to hip hop music; it is a combination of hip hop music and highlife. This started in the late 1980s and early 90s with the hiplife father Reggie Rockstone, VIP, Talking Drums and Nananom. But others did a mix of English with Twi or Ga like Heaven n' Hell, this was copied by secondary school and small area rap groups who will rap in pidgin English (a mix of English and other dialects). The Ghanaian music scene has also produced a number of rappers and DJs who are both locally and internationally renowned. Ghanaian rapping is mostly in the English language, but is also sometimes in Twi, Ewe, Ga or Hausa.
Guinea
Although Guinea is not much known internationally for any variety of popular music, there is a local hip hop music scene, which has produced one crew with an international reputation, Kill Point, which has toured across West Africa. Many groups use Guinean folk rhythms and styles in their music. The Guinean Africa Rap Festival is held in Conakry.
Hip Hop in Guinea first appeared in the 1990s. Since then, it has been used in the country to fight political and social battles, and in the fight for civil rights and justice. It is constantly being used to criticize the government. Rap in Guinea often features references to Congos history and historical figures. It has entirely changed the sociocultural identity of Guinea's youth, which are now more concerned with making political changes in the country.
Most rappers in Guinea are also activists. Masta Tito is one of the most popular rappers out of Guinea. He is symbolic of the rapper-activist combo in Guinea. Other rapper-activists in Guinea include Cientista Realistas, As One, F. B. M. J., Bunca MC, Rock Salim, Dame Cotche, Race Preto, Fil Cap, Best Friends, Daw Tchaw, Baloberos, Torres Gemeo.
Kenya
Madagascar
Hip hop has rapidly grown in popularity in Madagascar in the past decade. The local name of hip hop is "Haintso Haintso", meaning "H. H." (for hip hop). Malagasy hip hop, although largely reflective of Western genre standards, has been moving toward incorporation of more Malagasy musical tradition in its style and instrumentation.
Hip hop spread to Madagascar in about 1985 together with breakdancing. The local rap scene (Rap Gasy) remained underground until the late nineties, although artists as early as 1994 were attracting attention with their politically provocative lyrics.
On 21 June 2007, UNICEF chose a 15-year-old Malagasy rap star, Name Six as its first-ever Junior Goodwill Ambassador for Eastern and Southern Africa. The young rapper's work continues the genre's tradition of social critique and political commentary, focusing largely on the challenges faced by children in underprivileged communities in Madagascar and voicing the views and concerns of the young, who are routinely omitted from political decision-making processes.
Malawi
Hip hop culture in Malawi is relatively young. Notable rappers who were early on the scene include Criminal A, Bantu Clan, Real Elements, Dynamike, Dominant 1, Knight of the Round Table, and Wisdom Chitedze. The scene started to gain traction in the late 90s and expanded further in the early 2000s when cheap computers and recording gear became widely available to artists. The launch of Television Malawi in 1999 provided a platform for rappers to have their music videos beamed to a national audience. The music video to Wisdom Chitedze's song Tipewe was on regular rotation on the station in its early days. In the early to mid-2000s artists such as Nospa G, M Krazy, David Kalilani, and Gosple helped push the music further. A lot of Malawi's early hip hop music contained social commentary, religious, and introspective themes.
By the late 2000s the scene had picked up further with artists such as Barry One, Basement, Mandela Mwanza, Hyphen, Fredokiss, and Tay Grin gaining notoriety. Tay Grin's music video for the song Stand Up was featured considerably on Channel O. He was not the first Malawian rapper to get his song on that station; that accolade goes to the Real Elements. However, Tay Grin's got much more airplay. In 2009, Phyzix released his debut studio album The Lone Ranger LP which contained the hit singles Cholapitsa and Gamba. Around the same time, Christian rap started to gain popularity and that movement was spearheaded by Manyanda Nyasulu, DJ Kali, KBG, Double Zee, Liwu, C-Scripture, Asodzi, Erasto, and Sintha.
Some of the producers who helped pioneer the sound of Malawian hip hop include Dominant 1, Maj Beats, The Dare Devils, Kond1, Dynamike, Keith Justus Wako, Qabaniso Malewezi, Tapps, Dizzo, Sonye, Kas Mdoka and Rebel Musiq.
DJs such as Dr Gwynz and Kenny Klips also helped push the music on radio. They hosted a show called The Hip Hop Drill which involved playing rap music and a phone-in rap competition whereby rappers called in and competed to spit the best bars.
Morocco
Namibia
Hip hop music and culture has a big influence on the Namibian youth, with American rappers, Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. being popular. Most of the urban Namibian youth has adopted a hip hop lifestyle, including their dress code. Early Namibian hip hop acts include a group called Dungeon Family.
Niger
"Rap Nigerien", a style of Nigerien hip hop, began to develop in the late 1990s, mostly in Niamey, and has become one of the dominant popular music forms in Niger. It is a mélange of different languages spoken in Niger. Sampled music is often mellow, and is mixed with the traditional music, although more aggressive dance styles have been mixed in, reflecting influences of French, American, and other West African hip hop styles (especially Ivorian hip hop). Young, dissatisfied Nigeriens have used the form to talk about common social problems. Local recordings are mostly sold on cassette tapes and compact discs, as with most forms of contemporary West African popular music.
Hip hop groups began to appear and perform in Niamey in 1998. In August 2004, UNICEF opened its "Scene Ouverte Rap", where 45 new groups entered selections among an informal count of 300 existing groups. Shows took place at Niamey's Jean Rouch Centre Culturel Franco – Nigerien (CCFN) in August 2004.
Nigeria
Nigeria is sometimes called Naija.
Afro Hip hop in Nigeria dates back to the late eighties and early nineties. The first place hip hop gained popularity in Nigeria was in Lagos, Nigeria. During this time (1980s), Nigeria was under a military governorship. This period of military governorship brought about crisis in Nigeria which involved the devaluation of currency, loss of jobs and persistent unemployment especially for new graduates from the University. Hip hop during this time was used as a means of escape by youths from the country's crisis. It was made popular by using Nigerian languages in the lyrics along with traditional hip hop beats, such as those made by the founding fathers of hip hop, DJ Kool Herc, Afrika Bambata and Grandmaster Flash. Since there were very few record labels to sign a new musician at this time, the youths decided to start making music on their own with a very little budget. The music videos were very simple and not grand and expensive. The availability of computers and cheap music editing software in the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century enabled Nigerian musicians to achieve higher quality recordings which quickly won over the Nigerian audience. This was a very cheap way to make music and a new Nigerian hip hop musician would make music and sell it on a CD. This was one way for the youths to be independent from the government by being lucrative and creating jobs for themselves, since the government was not helping them. Hip hop was used during this time for entertainment, but also to criticize the government and demand change. Groups and solo artists during that period include the likes of Junior & Pretty, Daniel 'Danny' Wilson, Plantashun Boiz, Remedies with members Eedris Abdulkareem, Eddy Remedy & Tony Tetuila. The late 90s and the early years of the new millennium saw an outburst of artists and groups, many returning home from the Western Diaspora, like eLDee da Don of Trybesmen, U.G.O, Madarocka and the S.O.U.R.C.E. Intl Clique, Naeto C of W.F.A, and from Europe, JJC and the 419 squad became a part of mainstream Nigerian music after the collapse of pop trends like Yo-pop. These up-rising artists in Nigeria began to localize hip hop and make songs in English and any other Nigerian language as a means of self-expression, thus making Nigerian hip hop multilingual. Just as Nigeria's Nollywood movies have done with Western movies, Nigerian hip hop has begun to displace Western popular music. Musicians such as Eedris Abdulkareem started making multilingual hip hop music and the lyrics were usually in English, Pidgin English and another Nigerian language such as Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa.
Hip-Hop World Magazine, based in Nigeria, is a prominent publication that has helped fashion the orientation of hip hop culture in Nigeria and across the continent. African Beatz, Blast and Bubbles magazines are other similar major Nigerian hip hop publications.
Rwanda
Hip hop spread to Rwanda in the early to mid-1980s. The most prominent figure in the early Rwandan scene was DJ Berry (Nsabimana Abdul Aziz), who was a DJ for Kigali Night and Cosmos and a presenter for Radio Rwanda, in addition to being an early rapper and breakdancer. The Rwandan government of the period did not approve of hip hop, however, and DJ Berry was forced into exile in Goma, Zaire, where he continued performing. He later moved on to Germany and recorded "Hey You", which became a hit on both Rwandan and Ugandan radio. After returning to Africa in 1990, Berry continued to promote hip hop in Rwanda until his death from AIDS in 1996. By the mid-1990s, hip hop was growing increasingly popular in Rwanda, due to the introduction of 101 FM Kigali and TVR in 1995, and American and French rappers like Tupac Shakur and MC Solaar became popular.
The first locally recorded Rwandan hip hop hit was "Peaced Up" by KP Robinson ft Mc Monday Assoumani. This was promoted by DJ Alex of Radio Rwanda from 1997.
Senegal
Senegal has one of the most active hip hop scenes on the continent, and has produced international stars like MC Solaar. US hip hop became popular in Senegal in the early 1980s, and a few MCs began rapping. During this period, many Senegalese rappers were copying American performers quite closely. One often-cited reason for the prominence of Senegalese hip hop is the ancient musical and oral traditions of that country, which include some practices, like griots and tassou, which are similar to rapping.
It was not until later in the decade that a more distinctive Senegalese sound began evolving, along with the use of Wolof lyrics. The 1990s saw a division in the Senegalese scene, with some artists remaining underground, associated with the American alternative hip hop scene, while others, like Black Mboolo ("Alal"), fused hip hop with Senegalese mbalax style, (this is called "mbalax rap" or "rap ragga soul"), which uses the sabar drums.
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone rap music was originated by a Sierra Leone–based rapper; YOK Seven in the late 1990s. Prior to this time pop rapper Jimmy B had already blown up in South Africa. His pop rap was a rave in Sierra Leone during the mid 1990s. Hip hop music in Sierra Leone includes Grammy-nominated artist and author Freddy Will.
Somalia
One of the most internationally renowned Somali rappers is Canada-based K'naan (real name Kanaan Warsame). The award-winning artist is a rapper and a poet with three albums, The Dusty Foot Philosopher (on BMG Music), The Dusty Foot on the Road (on Wrasse Records) and Troubadour (on A&M/OctoScope Music) He has been one of the most popular artists in this country and across the continent this century and is very politically engaged. He had a major influence on rap when he released The Dusty Foot Philosopher. In this song he combined African instruments with American hip-hop to form a new sound. Many artists have followed in his footsteps. Soobax is one of his most popular tracks.
South Africa
Although the history of South African hip hop in Cape Town can be tracked back to the early 1980s, cultural exchange between the United States, the West Indies, and South Africa was widespread since the 19th century. South African artists were influenced by minstrelsy and swing to bebop and beyond, which was partly in response to British imperialism. The political history of Africa plays a predominant role in South African music. In the late 19th century gold was discovered in Johannesburg, and people from different tribes began to migrate to the Johannesburg area. As a result of the rich diversity of various South African tribes, traditional music of South Africa mixed with European music led to the development of a different sound.
The musical and social movement of hip hop in South Africa has grown exponentially in the last two decades, most notoriously in the form of home-grown Kwaito, which is actually a distinct musical genre in itself.
Much of hip hop and Kwaito in South Africa is derived from western beats and tunes mixed with localized rhythms and accents.
Lyrically, South African hip hop is largely reliant on the political landscape from which the country has only recently emerged. If the explicit mention of Apartheid is not offered, lyrics will often revolve around the residue of the political system; such as the prevalence of HIV and AIDS, violence in the major cities, and what it means to be South African.
On the other hand, Kwaito has been seen as more devoted to "positive imagery", taking listeners away from the harsher realities of township life, where it originated. Currently, South African hip hop is beginning to diverge and acquire its own musical style, as individual provinces are developing their own styles of hip hop.
As much as hip hop has grown in South Africa it is still in its infancy in terms of recognition and artists rarely sell well. Differences in styles and approaches to the art have led to the South African market being split into sectors, for example: Cape Town has long been termed South African hip hop's birth ground with its more politically charged and socially conscious artists.
There is also a large number of Women in hip-hop in South Africa. South Africa has a significant number of women active in the mainstream hip-hop scene, more than many other countries in the region.
Tracing its origins in South Africa, the youth embraced hip hop and its culture from the United States including its break dancing and graffiti aspects. These styles of expression were the predecessors to involvement in the music, due to the high cost and difficulty in finding music. Economic and political sanctions made finding American music extremely difficult. U.S. hip hop albums were seldom imported, but rather sent by relatives outside the country. The audience was not totally approving however. Many were not happy with the links US hip hop had to the "structures that were largely responsible for the devastating conditions in the Third World countries." The young people took hip hop and its anger, passion, and style in order to express themselves. They localized the music to express culture, frustration, and hope in order to tell their own stories. The older population used that anger and passion to pass messages against the occurring apartheid, and also to connect with the youth. The music was perfect for the time because it was able to take the language of the underprivileged, parade it, and make it attractive to the point where people took pride in their style of music.
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Uganda's hip hop scene began in the early to mid-1990s, especially among university students at Makerere University and elsewhere. The Bataka Squad, formed in the early 1990s are the originators of the Lugaflow style, using the native Luganda language. Other formative groups on the Ugandan hip hop scene in the early 90s include Young Vibrations, MC Afrik, DJ Berry, Sylvester and Abramz and Kaddo. Club Pulsations in Kampala was a hotspot for Ugandan hip hop in the 90s. In 2002, Klear Kut were nominated for the Kora All Africa Music Awards in the "Most Promising African Group" and "Revelation of the Year" categories.
In 2003 Geoffrey Ekongot, Saba Saba aka Krazy Native, of the Bataka Squad, Francis Agaba, the late Paul Mwandha of Musicuganda.com, and Xenson formed the Uganda Hip Hop Foundation. In 2003, the Foundation hosted the first Ugandan Hip Hop Summit and concert at Club Sabrina's in Kampala. It was so successful that they have hosted it every year for the past four years. In 2005 the Bavubuka All Starz was formed under the leadership of Silas aka Babaluku of the Bataka Squad, with the mission of bringing hip hop music and community together to address social causes. Keko is currently one of the most promising and talented rappers in Uganda. Of late Uganda has produced globally recognized MCs like Bana Mutibwa whose commonly known as Burney MC. In 2013 he represented Uganda at the biggest hip hop festival in Europe (Hip Hop Kemp).
Lumix Da Don, a.k.a Lumumba Patrick was an underground Ugandan rapper, record producer and CEO of Valley Curve Records. He made hip hop the biggest genre in Northern Uganda.
Kiga flow is performed in Rukiga and Runyankole.
Zambia
Hip hop in Zambia has its roots in the late '80s and early '90s; many young people were influenced by American hip hop mostly shown on imported programs by the local broadcaster Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation. Early rappers and crews include Blaaze and Chilu Lemba.
Daddy Zemus was one of the first artists who fused ragga and hip hop and is widely revered as the first artist to proudly use local languages to present his craft in this art form.
The first hip hop album to be released in Zambia was actually a gospel hip hop album called Talk About God by a duo called MT God Bless which was released on cassette tape in 2003. (Mandiva Syananzu & Tommy Banda were the two rappers). It got massive airplay both locally and internationally. MT God Bless were also the first Christian hip hop dual to have their music video played on South Africa's Channel O. Pictures of the cassette tape can be seen on Mandiva's Facebook page with the year 2003 inscribed on it. In 2005 C.R.I$..I$. Mr Swagger released what is considered the biggest debut release by a hip hop artist in Zambia titled "Officer in Charge". Other notable artists to come up over the years are Black Muntu, The Holstar, Conscious, Takondwa, Pitch Black, Diamond Chain, 5ive 4our, Zone Fam, C.Q Krytic, Slap Dee, Macky 2, Mic Diggy and Urban Chaos
In 2007 The Hip Hop Foundation of Zambia was formed, as a registered arts and culture organization. The organization was formed and registered under the Zambia Association of Musicians as a group member. ZAM is registered under the Zambian National Arts Council.
Zambian rappers Slap Dee and Macky 2 are widely considered the most popular vernacular Hip Hop artists in Zambia. Zone Fam formed in 2007 and gained popularity in 2011 when they released their debut album single "Shaka Zulu On Em". In November 2013 they released "Contolola" which gained the number one position on the Afribizcharts.
Zimbabwe
Hip Hop and Civil Rights in Africa
Rap has been used as a form of political protest in Africa since it reached the continent. Fela Kuti is legendary in Africa for being one of the first artists to use rap to critique the government. Since then, a large majority of rappers in Africa have followed in his footsteps. Rappers in Africa are often responsible for political change. For example, Keur Gui, a popular rap group in Africa helped to lead the Y'en a Marre movement in Senegal. They played a large role in getting thousands of Senegalese citizens to vote and make sure President Wade did not serve a third term.
Because hip hop in Africa has such a large impact on politics, many countries have began censorship of rap. However, banned artists often gain popularity as listening to them is seen as a form of protest and rebellion.
Rapper Pilato for example, was arrested for "participating in protest" when he accused future member of the ruling partying Zambia of stealing state resources in 2017, in one of his songs.
Recordings
Bongo Flava. Swahili Rap from Tanzania (2004) compilation by Out Here Records
Lagos Stori plenti – urban sounds from Nigeria (2006) compilation by Out Here Records
African Rebel Music – Roots Reggae & Dancehall (2006) compilation by Out Here Records
Urban Africa Club – hip hop, Kwaito and Dancehall (2007) compilation by Out Here Records
References
External links
Africanhiphop Dot Com – The Foundation of African Hip Hop Culture Online (11 years online)
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204722
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOX%20fuel
|
MOX fuel
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Mixed oxide fuel, commonly referred to as MOX fuel, is nuclear fuel that contains more than one oxide of fissile material, usually consisting of plutonium blended with natural uranium, reprocessed uranium, or depleted uranium. MOX fuel is an alternative to the low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light-water reactors that predominate nuclear power generation.
For example, a mixture of 7% plutonium and 93% natural uranium reacts similarly, although not identically, to LEU fuel (3 to 5% uranium-235). MOX usually consists of two phases, UO2 and PuO2, and/or a single phase solid solution (U,Pu)O2. The content of PuO2 may vary from 1.5 wt.% to 25–30 wt.% depending on the type of nuclear reactor.
One attraction of MOX fuel is that it is a way of utilizing surplus weapons-grade plutonium, an alternative to storage of surplus plutonium, which would need to be secured against the risk of theft for use in nuclear weapons. On the other hand, some studies warned that normalising the global commercial use of MOX fuel and the associated expansion of nuclear reprocessing will increase, rather than reduce, the risk of nuclear proliferation, by encouraging increased separation of plutonium from spent fuel in the civil nuclear fuel cycle.
Overview
In every uranium-based nuclear reactor core there is both fission of uranium isotopes such as uranium-235, and the formation of new, heavier isotopes due to neutron capture, primarily by uranium-238. Most of the fuel mass in a reactor is uranium-238. By neutron capture and two successive beta decays, uranium-238 becomes plutonium-239, which, by successive neutron capture, becomes plutonium-240, plutonium-241, plutonium-242, and (after further beta decays) other transuranic or actinide nuclides. Plutonium-239 and plutonium-241 are fissile, like uranium-235. Small quantities of uranium-236, neptunium-237 and plutonium-238 are formed similarly from uranium-235.
Normally, with LEU fuel being changed every five years or so, most of the plutonium-239 is "burned" in the reactor. It behaves like uranium-235, with a slightly higher cross section for fission, and its fission releases a similar amount of energy. Typically, about one percent of the spent fuel discharged from a reactor is plutonium, and some two-thirds of the plutonium is plutonium-239. Worldwide, almost 100 tonnes of plutonium in spent fuel arises each year.
Reprocessing the plutonium into usable fuel increases the energy derived from the original uranium by some 12%, and if the uranium-235 is also recycled by re-enrichment, this becomes about 20%. Currently plutonium is only reprocessed and used once as MOX fuel; spent MOX fuel, with a high proportion of minor actinides and plutonium isotopes, is stored as waste.
Existing nuclear reactors must be re-licensed before MOX fuel can be introduced because using it changes the operating characteristics of a reactor, and the plant must be designed or adapted slightly to take it; for example, more control rods are needed. Often only a third to half of the fuel load is switched to MOX, but for more than 50% MOX loading, significant changes are necessary and a reactor needs to be designed accordingly. The System 80 reactor design, notably deployed at the U.S. Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station near Phoenix, Arizona, was designed for 100% MOX core compatibility, but so far has always operated on fresh low enriched uranium. In theory, the three Palo Verde reactors could use the MOX arising from seven conventionally fueled reactors each year and would no longer require fresh uranium fuel.
According to Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), CANDU reactors could use 100% MOX cores without physical modification. AECL reported to the United States National Academy of Sciences committee on plutonium disposition that it has extensive experience in testing the use of MOX fuel containing from 0.5 to 3% plutonium.
Spent MOX fuel
The content of un-burnt plutonium in spent MOX fuel from thermal reactors is significant – greater than 50% of the initial plutonium loading. However, during the burning of MOX the ratio of fissile (odd numbered) isotopes to non-fissile (even) drops from around 65% to 20%, depending on burn up. This makes any attempt to recover the fissile isotopes difficult and any bulk Pu recovered would require such a high fraction of Pu in any second generation MOX that it would be impractical. This means that such a spent fuel would be difficult to reprocess for further reuse (burning) of plutonium. Regular reprocessing of biphasic spent MOX is difficult because of the low solubility of PuO2 in nitric acid.
As of 2015, the only demonstration of twice-recycled, high-burnup fuel occurred in the Phénix fast reactor.
Current applications
Reprocessing of commercial nuclear fuel to make MOX is performed in France and to a lesser extent in Russia, India and Japan. In the UK THORP operated from 1994 to 2018. China plans to develop fast breeder reactors and reprocessing. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is not permitted in the United States due to nonproliferation considerations. Germany had plans for a reprocessing plant at Wackersdorf but as this failed to materialize, it instead relied on French nuclear reprocessing capabilities until legally outlawing the transport of German spent fuel for reprocessing in 2005.
The United States was building a MOX fuel plant at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. Although the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Duke Energy expressed interest in using MOX reactor fuel from the conversion of weapons-grade plutonium, TVA (currently the most likely customer) said in April 2011 that it would delay a decision until it could see how MOX fuel performed in the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi. In May 2018, the Department of Energy reported that the plant would require another $48 billion to complete, on top of the $7.6 billion already spent. Construction was cancelled.
Thermal reactors
Most modern thermal reactors using high burn up uranium oxide fuel produce a quite significant proportion of their output towards the end of core life from fission of plutonium produced by neutron capture in uranium 238 earlier in the life of the core, so adding some plutonium oxide to the fuel at manufacture is not in principle a very radical step. About 30 thermal reactors in Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany and France) are using MOX and an additional 20 have been licensed to do so. Most reactors use it as about one third of their core, but some will accept up to 50% MOX assemblies. In France, EDF aims to have all its 900 MWe series of reactors running with at least one-third MOX. Japan aimed to have one third of its reactors using MOX by 2010, and has approved construction of a new reactor with a complete fuel loading of MOX. Of the total nuclear fuel used today, MOX provides 2%.
Licensing and safety issues of using MOX fuel include:
Plutonium oxide is substantially more toxic than uranium oxide, making fuel manufacture more difficult and expensive.
As plutonium isotopes absorb more neutrons than uranium fuels, reactor control systems may need modification.
MOX fuel tends to run hotter because of lower thermal conductivity, which may be an issue in some reactor designs.
Fission gas release in MOX fuel assemblies may limit the maximum burn-up time of MOX fuel.
About 30% of the plutonium originally loaded into MOX fuel is consumed by use in a thermal reactor. In theory, if one third of the core fuel load is MOX and two-thirds uranium fuel, there is zero net change in the mass of plutonium in the spent fuel and the cycle could be repeated; however, there remains multiple difficulties in reprocessing spent MOX fuel. As of 2010, plutonium is only recycled once in thermal reactors, and spent MOX fuel is separated from the rest of the spent fuel to be stored as waste.
All plutonium isotopes are either fissile or fertile, although plutonium-242 needs to absorb 3 neutrons before becoming fissile curium-245; in thermal reactors isotopic degradation limits the plutonium recycle potential. About 1% of spent nuclear fuel from current LWRs is plutonium, with approximate isotopic composition 52% , 24% , 15% , 6% and 2% when the fuel is first removed from the reactor.
Fast reactors
Because the fission-to-capture ratio of high energy or fast neutrons changes to favour fission for almost all of the actinides, including , fast reactors could use all of them for fuel. All actinides can undergo neutron induced fission with unmoderated or fast neutrons. A fast reactor is therefore more efficient than a thermal reactor for using plutonium and higher actinides as fuel.
These fast reactors are better suited for the transmutation of other actinides than thermal reactors. Because thermal reactors use slow or moderated neutrons, the actinides that are not fissionable with thermal neutrons tend to absorb the neutrons instead of fissioning. This leads to buildup of heavier actinides and lowers the number of thermal neutrons available to continue the chain reaction. A subcritical reactor with an external neutron source could either be run in the fast neutron spectrum (without the need for highly enriched fuels as otherwise common in fast reactors) or use thermal neutrons to breed fissile materials, compensating the loss of neutrons by increasing the flux from the neutron source.
Fabrication
Plutonium separation
The first step is separating the plutonium from the remaining uranium (about 96% of the spent fuel) and the fission products with other wastes (together about 3%) using the PUREX process.
Dry mixing
MOX fuel can be made by grinding together uranium oxide (UO2) and plutonium oxide (PuO2) before the mixed oxide is pressed into pellets, but this process has the disadvantage of forming much radioactive dust.
Coprecipitation
A mixture of uranyl nitrate and plutonium nitrate in nitric acid is converted by treatment with a base such as ammonia to form a mixture of ammonium diuranate and plutonium hydroxide. After heating in a mixture of 5% hydrogen and 95% argon will form a mixture of uranium dioxide and plutonium dioxide. Using a base, the resulting powder can be run through a press and converted into pellets. The pellets can then be sintered into mixed uranium and plutonium oxide.
Americium content
Plutonium from reprocessed fuel is usually fabricated into MOX within less than five years of its production to avoid problems resulting from impurities produced by the decay of short-lived isotopes of plutonium. In particular, plutonium-241 decays to americium-241 with a 14-year half-life. Because americium-241 is a gamma ray emitter, its presence is a potential occupational health hazard. It is possible, however, to remove the americium from the plutonium by a chemical separation process. Even under the worst conditions, the americium/plutonium mixture is less radioactive than a spent-fuel dissolution liquor, so it should be relatively straightforward to recover the plutonium by PUREX or another aqueous reprocessing method.
Curium content
It is possible that both americium and curium could be added to a U/Pu MOX fuel before it is loaded into a fast reactor or a subcritical reactor run in "Actinide burner mode". This is one means of transmutation. Work with curium is much harder than americium because curium is a neutron emitter, the MOX production line would need to be shielded with both lead and water to protect the workers.
Also, the neutron irradiation of curium generates the higher actinides, such as californium, which increase the neutron dose associated with the used nuclear fuel; this has the potential to pollute the fuel cycle with strong neutron emitters. As a result, it is likely that curium will be excluded from most MOX fuels. A subcritical reactor such as the Accelerator Driven System could "burn" such fuels if the problems associated with their handling and transportation are solved. However, to avoid power excursions due to unintended criticality, the neutronics must be known precisely at any given point in time, including the effect of build-up or consumption of neutron emitting nuclides as well as neutron poisons.
Thorium MOX
MOX fuel containing thorium and plutonium oxides is also being tested. According to a Norwegian study, "the coolant void reactivity of the thorium-plutonium fuel is negative for plutonium contents up to 21%, whereas the transition lies at 16% for MOX fuel." The authors concluded, "Thorium-plutonium fuel seems to offer some advantages over MOX fuel with regards to control rod and boron worths, CVR and plutonium consumption."
See also
Nuclear fuel cycle
Nuclear breeder reactor
Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask
Nuclear power
Nuclear fission
Nuclear power plant
Hanford Site
Remix Fuel
References
External links
Technical Aspects of the Use of Weapons Plutonium as Reactor Fuel
Synergistic Nuclear Fuel Cycles of the Future
Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 42
Burning Weapons Plutonium in CANDU Reactors
Program to turn plutonium bombs into fuel hits snags
Nuclear fuels
Nuclear reprocessing
Plutonium compounds
Uranium compounds
|
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] |
204727
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FEA
|
FEA
|
FEA or Fea may refer to:
Organizations
Far Eastern Air Transport (ICAO code), a Taiwanese airline
Fellow of the English Association, a post-nominal from the English Association
Education
Florida Education Association, in the United States
Future Educators Association, former name of Educators Rising, US
School of Economics, Business and Accounting of the University of São Paulo (Portuguese: )
Sport
Athletics Federation of Equatorial Guinea (Spanish: )
Ecuadorian Athletics Federation (Spanish: )
Government
Executive Order 8802, also known as the Fair Employment Act, in the US
Federal Energy Administration, of the US government
Federal enterprise architecture, the US reference enterprise architecture of a federal government
Foreign Economic Administration, a US federal agency active during World War II
People
Carlo Fea (1753–1836), Italian archaeologist
Leonardo Fea (1852–1903), Italian naturalist
William Fea (1898–1988), New Zealand rugby union player
Science and technology
FEA (cable system), a telecommunications cable
Field emitter array, a particular form of large-area field electron source
Finite element analysis, a method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical models
Other uses
Featherstone railway station, in England
Fire Emblem Awakening, a video game
French Equatorial Africa, 1910–1958 federation of French colonial possessions
Fea, in Irish mythology; see Nemain § Kinship
FEA, Freestyle Elite Agency, an italian freestyle music group
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20C.%20Perry
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Matthew C. Perry
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Matthew Calbraith Perry (April 10, 1794 – March 4, 1858) was a commodore of the United States Navy who commanded ships in several wars, including the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). He played a leading role in the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.
Perry was interested in the education of naval officers and assisted in the development of an apprentice system that helped establish the curriculum at the United States Naval Academy. With the advent of the steam engine, he became a leading advocate of modernizing the U.S. Navy and came to be considered "The Father of the Steam Navy" in the United States.
Lineage
Matthew Perry was a member of the Perry family, a son of Sarah Wallace (née Alexander) (1768–1830) and Navy Captain Christopher Raymond Perry (1761–1818). He was born April 10, 1794, South Kingstown, Rhode Island. His siblings included Oliver Hazard Perry, Raymond Henry Jones Perry, Sarah Wallace Perry, Anna Marie Perry (mother of George Washington Rodgers), James Alexander Perry, Nathaniel Hazard Perry, and Jane Tweedy Perry (who married William Butler).
His mother was born in County Down, Ireland and was a descendant of an uncle of William Wallace, the Scottish knight and landowner. His paternal grandparents were James Freeman Perry, a surgeon, and Mercy Hazard, a descendant of Governor Thomas Prence, a co-founder of Eastham, Massachusetts, who was a political leader in both the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, and governor of Plymouth; and a descendant of Mayflower passengers, both of whom were signers of the Mayflower Compact, Elder William Brewster, the Pilgrim colonist leader and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, and George Soule, through Susannah Barber Perry.
Naval career
In 1809, Perry received a midshipman's warrant in the Navy and was initially assigned to , under the command of his elder brother. He was then assigned to , where he served as an aide to Commodore John Rodgers. President was in a victorious engagement over a British vessel, , shortly before the War of 1812 was officially declared. Perry continued aboard President during the War of 1812 and was present at the engagement with . Rodgers fired the first shot of the war at Belvidera. A later shot resulted in a cannon bursting, killing several men and wounding Rodgers, Perry and others. Perry transferred to , commanded by Stephen Decatur, and saw little fighting in the war afterwards, since the ship was trapped in port at New London, Connecticut.
Following the signing of the Treaty of Ghent which ended the war, Perry served on various vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. Perry served under Commodore William Bainbridge during the Second Barbary War. He then served in African waters aboard USS Cyane during its patrol off Liberia from 1819 to 1820. After that cruise, Perry was sent to suppress piracy and the slave trade in the West Indies. Later during this period, while in port in Russia, Perry was offered a commission in the Imperial Russian Navy, which he declined.
Opening of Key West
Perry placed in commission and commanded , a schooner with 12 guns, from 1821 to 1825. He deployed to the West Africa Station to support the American and British joint patrols to prevent human trafficking.
In 1815, the Spanish governor in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas of St. Augustine in Spanish Florida. After Florida was transferred to the United States, Salas sold Key West to American businessman John W. Simonton for $2,000 in 1821. Simonton lobbied Washington to establish a naval base on Key West both to take advantage of its strategic location and to bring law and order to the area. On March 25, 1822, Perry sailed Shark to Key West and planted the U.S. flag, physically claiming the Florida Keys as United States territory. Perry renamed Cayo Hueso "Thompson's Island" for the Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson and the harbor "Port Rodgers" for the president of the Board of Navy Commissioners. Neither name stuck however.
From 1826 to 1827, Perry acted as fleet captain for Commodore Rodgers. Perry returned to Charleston, South Carolina, for shore duty in 1828 and in 1830 took command of a sloop-of-war, . He spent 1833 through 1837 as second officer of the New York Navy Yard (later the Brooklyn Navy Yard), gaining promotion to captain at the end of this tour.
Father of the Steam Navy
Perry had an ardent interest in and saw the need for naval education, supporting an apprentice system to train new seamen, and helped establish the curriculum for the United States Naval Academy. He was a vocal proponent of modernizing the Navy. Once promoted to captain, he oversaw construction of the Navy's second steam frigate , which he commanded after its completion. He was called "The Father of the Steam Navy", and he organized America's first corps of naval engineers, and conducted the first U.S. naval gunnery school while commanding Fulton from 1839 to 1841 off Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey.
Promotion to commodore
Perry received the title of commodore in June 1840, when the Secretary of the Navy appointed him commandant of New York Navy Yard. The United States Navy did not have ranks higher than captain until 1857, so the title of commodore carried considerable importance. Officially, an officer would revert to his permanent rank after the squadron command assignment had ended, although in practice officers who received the title of commodore retained the title for life, as did Perry.
During his tenure in Brooklyn, he lived in Quarters A in Vinegar Hill, a building which still stands today. In 1843, Perry took command of the Africa Squadron, whose duty was to interdict the slave trade under the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, and continued in this endeavor through 1844.
Mexican–American War
In 1845, Commodore David Conner's length of service in command of the Home Squadron had come to an end. However, the coming of the Mexican–American War persuaded the authorities not to change commanders in the face of the war. Perry, who would eventually succeed Conner, was made second-in-command and captained . Perry captured the Mexican city of Frontera, demonstrated against Tabasco, being defeated in San Juan Bautista by Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis in the First Battle of Tabasco, and took part in the capture of Tampico on November 14, 1846.
He had to return to Norfolk, Virginia, to make repairs and was still there when the amphibious landings at Veracruz took place. His return to the U.S. gave his superiors the chance to finally give him orders to succeed Commodore Conner in command of the Home Squadron. Perry returned to the fleet, and his ship supported the siege of Veracruz from the sea. After the fall of Veracruz, Winfield Scott moved inland, and Perry moved against the remaining Mexican port cities. Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and captured Tuxpan in April 1847. In July 1847 he attacked Tabasco personally, leading a 1,173-man landing force ashore and attacking the city of San Juan Bautista from land, defeating the Mexican forces and taking the city.
Perry Expedition: opening of Japan, 1852–1854
In 1852, Perry was assigned a mission by American President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. The growing commerce between the United States and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by European powers in Asia were all contributing factors. Shipwrecked foreign sailors were either imprisoned or executed, and the safe return of such persons was one demand. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the benefits of western civilization and the Christian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. The Japanese were forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage but were unwilling to change their 250-year-old policy of national seclusion. There was considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty.
On November 24, 1852, Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia, for Japan, in command of the East India Squadron in pursuit of a Japanese trade treaty. He chose the paddle-wheeled steam frigate as his flagship and made port calls at Madeira (December 11–15), Saint Helena (January 10–11), Cape Town (January 24 – February 3), Mauritius (February 18–28), Ceylon (March 10–15), Singapore (March 25–29) and Macao and Hong Kong (April 7–28), where he met with American-born Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams, who provided Chinese language translations of his official letters, and where he rendezvoused with . He continued to Shanghai (May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat, Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into the Dutch language, and where he rendezvoused with .
Perry then switched his flag to Susquehanna and made call at Naha on Great Lewchew Island (Ryukyu, now Okinawa) from May 17–26. Ignoring the claims of Satsuma Domain to the islands, he demanded an audience with the Ryukyuan King Shō Tai at Shuri Castle and secured promises that the kingdom would be open to trade with the United States. Continuing on to the Ogasawara islands in mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and purchased a plot of land.
First visit (1853)
Perry reached Uraga at the entrance to Edo Bay in Japan on July 8, 1853. His actions at this crucial juncture were informed by a careful study of Japan's previous contacts with Western ships and what he knew about the Japanese hierarchical culture. As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital of Edo and turn their guns towards the town of Uraga. Perry refused Japanese demands to leave or to proceed to Nagasaki, the only Japanese port open to foreigners.
Perry attempted to intimidate the Japanese by presenting them a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose to fight, the Americans would destroy them. He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannon, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, cannon capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell. He also ordered his ship boats to commence survey operations of the coastline and surrounding waters over the objections of local officials.
Meanwhile, shōgun Tokugawa Ieyoshi was ill and incapacitated, which resulted in governmental indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On July 11, Rōjū Abe Masahiro bided his time, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach at Kurihama where he was allowed to land on July 14, 1853. After presenting the letter to attending delegates, Perry departed for Hong Kong, promising to return the following year for the Japanese reply.
Second visit (1854)
On his way back to Japan, Perry anchored off Keelung in Formosa, known today as Taiwan, for ten days. Perry and crewmembers landed on Formosa and investigated the potential of mining the coal deposits in that area. He emphasized in his reports that Formosa provided a convenient, mid-way trade location. Perry's reports noted that the island was very defensible and could serve as a base for exploration in a similar way that Cuba had done for the Spanish in the Americas. Occupying Formosa could help the United States counter European monopolization of the major trade routes. The United States government failed to respond to Perry's proposal to claim sovereignty over Formosa.
To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of Susquehanna, and Joel Abbot (Perry's second in command) was captain of Macedonian. Commander Henry A. Adams was chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer and was stationed on Mississippi.
Perry returned on 13 February 1854, after only half a year rather than the full year promised, and with ten ships and 1,600 men. Both actions were calculated to put even more pressure onto the Japanese. After initial resistance, Perry was permitted to land at Kanagawa, near the site of present-day Yokohama on March 8, and the Convention of Kanagawa was signed on 31 March. Perry signed as American plenipotentiary, and Hayashi Akira, also known by his title of Daigaku-no-kami, signed for the Japanese side. Perry departed, mistakenly believing the agreement had been made with imperial representatives, not understanding the true position of the shōgun, the de facto ruler of Japan. Perry then visited Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido and Shimoda, the two ports which the treaty stipulated would be opened to visits by American ships.
Return to the United States (1855)
When Perry returned to the United States, Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (US $ in ) in appreciation of his work in Japan. He used part of this money to prepare and publish a report on the expedition in three volumes, titled Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan. He was promoted to rear admiral on the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his service in the Far East.
Last years
Living in his adopted home of New York City, Perry's health began to fail as he suffered from cirrhosis of the liver from heavy drinking. Perry was known to have been an alcoholic, which compounded the health complications leading to his death. He also suffered severe arthritis that left him in frequent pain, and on occasion precluded him from his duties. Perry spent his last years preparing for the publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on December 28, 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on March 4, 1858, in New York City, of rheumatic fever that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications of gout and alcoholism.
Initially interred in a vault on the grounds of St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, in New York City, Perry's remains were moved to the Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island on March 21, 1866, along with those of his daughter, Anna, who died in 1839. In 1873, an elaborate monument was placed by Perry's widow over his grave in Newport.
Personal life
Perry was married to Jane Slidell Perry (1797–1864) in New York on December 24, 1814, and they had ten children:
Jane Slidell Perry (c. 1817–1880)
Sarah Perry (1818–1905), who married Col. Robert Smith Rodgers (1809–1891)
Jane Hazard Perry (1819–1881), who married John Hone (1819–1891) and Frederic de Peyster (1796–1882)
Matthew Calbraith Perry (1821–1873), a captain in the United States Navy and veteran of the Mexican War and the Civil War.
Susan Murgatroyde Perry (c. 1825–1896)
Oliver Hazard Perry (c. 1825–1870)
William Frederick Perry (1828–1884), a 2nd Lieutenant, United States Marine Corps, 1847–1848.
Caroline Slidell Perry Belmont (1829–1892), who married financier August Belmont.
Isabella Bolton Perry (1834–1912), who married George T. Tiffany
Anna Rodgers Perry (c. 1838–1839)
In 1819, Perry joined the masonic Holland Lodge No. 8 in New York City, New York.
Legacy
Perry was a key agent in both the making and recording of Japanese history, as well as in the shaping of Japanese history; 90% of school children in Japan can identify him. He was responsible for gaining partnership with Japan and establishing a "firm, lasting, and sincere friendship between the two nations..."
As portrayed by the U.S., both in writing and photographs, Perry was a man of authority and respect. He appeared as a well-mannered, sophisticated man. However, the Japanese portrayed him as a person with little respect. Japanese woodblock prints of Perry show him with droopy, wide eyes and an elongated nose and face. In some, his features are exaggerated to the extent of making him appear demonic and goblin-like. They make him out to be a stereotypical "blue-eyed, hairy barbarian." These blue eyes are something associated with the West, although the blue is used in the whites of the eyes rather than the iris. Blue eyes are something as foreign to Japanese as the West itself. The prints are more than just unique artist interpretations—they speak to the collective view of Perry. He is depicted, both in prints and in writing, as stern, uptight, and unpleasant. These perceptions have carried over into the Japanese perception of Western civilization as a whole. The Japanese perceived Perry as so because of the control he was trying to obtain in Japan. It is probable that Perry represented the parts of Western Civilization that the Japanese did not like, or were afraid of. These images augment feelings of fear, of both the known and the unknown. Japan saw what happened to China and other countries where the "West was superior." Western society, personified by Perry, was viewed with “unreasonable obstinacy."
Pacific Overtures is a musical set in Japan beginning in 1853 and follows the difficult westernization of Japan, told from the point of view of the Japanese.
A replica of Perry's U.S. flag is on display on board the memorial in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, attached to the bulkhead just inboard of the Japanese surrender signing site on the starboard side of the ship. The original flag was brought from the U.S. Naval Academy Museum to Japan for the Japan surrender ceremony and was displayed on that occasion at the request of Douglas MacArthur, who was a blood-relative of Perry. Photographs of the signing ceremony show that this flag was displayed properly as all flags on vessels (known as ensigns) on the starboard side are, with the stars in the upper right corner. The cloth of the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the museum directed that a protective backing be sewn on it. Today, the flag is preserved and on display at the Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis, Maryland.
Memorials
Japan erected a monument to Perry on July 14, 1901, at the spot where the commodore first landed. The monument survived World War II and is now the centerpiece of a small seaside park called Perry Park at Yokosuka, Japan. Within the park there is a small museum dedicated to the events of 1854. Matthew C. Perry Elementary and High School can be found on Marine Corps Air Station, Iwakuni.
At his birthplace in Newport, there is a memorial plaque in Trinity Church, Newport and a statue of Perry in Touro Park. It was designed by John Quincy Adams Ward, erected in 1869, and dedicated by his daughter. He was buried in Newport's Island Cemetery, near his parents and brother. There are also exhibits and research collections concerning his life at the Naval War College Museum and at the Newport Historical Society.
The U.S. Navy's s (purchased in the 1970s and 1980s) were named after Perry's brother, Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. The ninth ship of the of dry-cargo-ammunition vessels is named .
See also
History of Japan
Meiji Restoration
Yokohama Archives of History
Bibliography of early American naval history
Sakoku
List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868
Citations
References
Perry, Matthew Calbraith. (1856). Narrative of the expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1856. New York : D. Appleton and Company. digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries,
Perry, Matthew Calbraith, and Roger Pineau. The Japan expedition, 1852-1854: the personal journal of Commodore Matthew C. Perry (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968).
Further reading
Blumberg, Rhoda. (1985) Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books, 1985)
Cullen, Louis M. (2003). A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (cloth), (paper)
Hawks, Francis. (1856). Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy. Washington: A.O.P. Nicholson by order of Congress, 1856; originally published in Senate Executive Documents, No. 34 of 33rd Congress, 2nd Session. [reprinted by London:Trafalgar Square, 2005. ]
Kitahara, Michio. "Commodore Perry and the Japanese: a Study in the Dramaturgy of Power." Symbolic Interaction 9.1 (1986): 53-65.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1967). "Old Bruin": Commodore Matthew C. Perry, 1794-1858: The American naval officer who helped found Liberia, Hunted Pirates in the West Indies, Practised Diplomacy With the Sultan of Turkey and the King of the Two Sicilies; Commanded the Gulf Squadron in the Mexican War, Promoted the Steam Navy and the Shell Gun, and Conducted the Naval Expedition Which Opened Japan (1967) online free to borrow a standard scholarly biography]
Sewall, John S. (1905). The Logbook of the Captain's Clerk: Adventures in the China Seas. Bangor, Maine: Chas H. Glass & Co. [reprint by Chicago: R.R. Donnelly & Sons, 1995]
Yellin, Victor Fell. (1996) "Mrs. Belmont, Matthew Perry, and the 'Japanese Minstrels'." American Music (1996): 257-275. online
External links
"China Through Western Eyes."
Black Ships & Samurai Commodore Perry and the Opening of Japan (1853-1854), by John W Dower
A short timeline of Perry's life
Perry Visits Japan: A Visual History
Kitahara, Michio. Commodore Perry and the Japanese: A Study in the Dramaturgy of Power, 1986
Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, by M.C. Perry, at archive.org
1794 births
1858 deaths
United States Navy commodores
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
1850s in Japan
History of Key West, Florida
Meiji Restoration
People from Newport, Rhode Island
Military personnel from New York City
People from Briarcliff Manor, New York
People from Rhode Island in the War of 1812
Matthew C
United States Navy admirals
19th-century American naval officers
Burials in Rhode Island
Foreign relations of the Tokugawa shogunate
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Cannon
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Nick Cannon
|
Nicholas Scott Cannon (born October 8, 1980) is an American comedian, actor, rapper, and television presenter. In television, Cannon began as a teenager on All That before going on to host The Nick Cannon Show, Wild 'n Out, America's Got Talent, Lip Sync Battle Shorties, and The Masked Singer. He acted in the films Drumline, Love Don't Cost a Thing, and Roll Bounce.
As a rapper he released his debut self-titled album in 2003 with the single "Gigolo", a collaboration with singer R. Kelly. In 2007 he played the role of the fictional footballer TJ Harper in the film Goal II: Living the Dream. In 2006, Cannon recorded the singles "Dime Piece" and "My Wife" for the planned album Stages, which was never released.
Early life
Cannon was born on October 8, 1980, in San Diego, California. Cannon was largely raised by his paternal grandfather, whom both he and his biological father called "dad". As a child, Cannon grew up in Lincoln Park's Bay Vista Housing Projects, which is a gang-ridden section of Southeast San Diego. While in his teenage years, he was affiliated with the "Lincoln Park Bloods" street gang, but stated that he left behind his affiliations after losing a close friend. In 1998, he graduated from Monte Vista High School in Spring Valley, where he was president of the African Student Coalition and participated in track and field. Cannon received his first break doing stand-up comedy on his father's local cable access program.
Music career
1999–2006: Music beginnings, Nick Cannon and Stages
As a teenager, Cannon was one-third of the rap group "Da G4 Dope Bomb Squad", they opened for the likes of Will Smith, LFO, 98 Degrees, and Montell Jordan.
After signing with Jive Records in 2001, he was featured alongside Romeo Miller and 3LW on the Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius soundtrack with a cover of the 1988 hit song "Parents Just Don't Understand". His debut self titled album was released in 2003 and included the single "Your Pops Don't Like Me (I Really Don't Like This Dude)".
In 2005, Cannon formed his own record label, Can-I-Ball Records, with plans to release his second studio album, entitled Stages, later that year. The album's first single, "Can I Live?", an anti-abortion song, was released in July 2005 followed by the second single "Dime Piece" in March 2006. It was never released because of Nick Cannon's acting career.
2009–2012: N'Credible Entertainment, Slick Nick and Child of the Corn
In 2009, Nick Cannon formed a new label after cancelling his old label Can-I-Ball Records entitled N'Credible Entertainment. In 2010, Cannon created a parody of hip hop pioneer Slick Rick entitled "Slick Nick". He released two songs by the character such as "I'm a Slick Rick", a freestyle of Cali Swag District's "Teach Me How to Dougie" in which he attempted to diss hip hop mega-star Eminem, and "Nick's Story", a freestyle rap version of Slick Rick's "Children's Story". On December 6, 2011, Nick Cannon released his debut mixtape entitled Child of the Corn.
2013–present: White People Party Music and second mixtape
On July 26, 2013, Nick Cannon premiered his new single "Me Sexy" and announced over seven years after the shelving of his album Stages that he was working on a new second studio album entitled White People Party Music featuring collaborations with Afrojack, Pitbull, Future and Polow da Don.
The album's second single "Looking for a Dream" was released on February 11, 2014. The song features Afrojack. The music video was released on VEVO on February 13.
On November 16, 2016, Cannon released his second mixtape The Gospel of Ike Turn Up: My Side of the Story. Prior to the release of the mixtape, a music video for the single "If I Was Your Man" was released on November 7, 2016.
On December 2, 2016, Cannon released a single called "Hold On" on iTunes.
Cannon released "The Invitation", an Eminem diss track, on December 9, 2019, as a response to Eminem's feature on Fat Joe and Dre's "Family Ties" dissing Cannon. The track featured former record producer and convicted felon Suge Knight, as well as rappers Hitman Holla, Charlie Clips and Prince Eazy, whom Cannon referred to as "The Black Squad". After Eminem responded to Cannon with two tweets, Cannon released a second diss track the next day featuring the same rappers as well as Conceited titled "Pray For Him".
Other ventures
Hosting
In 2005, Cannon created, produced, and hosted the MTV improv comedy series Wild 'N Out. That same year he hosted the so-called slime stunt on Nickelodeon's 2005 Kids' Choice Awards in which a human cannonball was shot into slime. In addition, he was the DJ on Ellen DeGeneres's Bigger, Longer, And Wider show. On December 11, 2009, Cannon hosted the Nickelodeon HALO Awards along with Justin Timberlake, Hayden Panettiere, LeBron James, Kelly Rowland and Alicia Keys.
In 2010, Cannon created and co-hosted the short-lived TeenNick original series The Nightlife.
On July 4, 2011, Cannon hosted the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, an annual American competitive eating competition.
On November 12, 2012, MTV2 announced that the revival of Wild 'N Out. The revived show was produced by Cannon's Ncredible Entertainment, the series premiered in 2013 with a few returning faces joined by a roster of fresh talents. When asked about the show coming back, Cannon said, "With our show's original cast, everyone from Kevin Hart to Katt Williams, Affion Crockett and Taran Killam becoming household names, I am looking forward to working with MTV2 as we work to introduce the biggest comedic stars of tomorrow with the return of Wild 'N Out." Rapper Big Boi of Outkast has confirmed in a tweet on Twitter he was shooting an episode on January 29, 2013, in NYC and for people to join in the audience.
Season 5 of the show premiered on July 9, 2013, to the highest ratings in MTV2 history. It was renewed for season 6 and 7, which aired in two blocks.
On November 4, 2013, Cannon was the master of ceremonies as well as an honoree at the annual Ebony Magazine Power 100 Awards. In 2014, he began hosting Caught on Camera with Nick Cannon on NBC.
On August 4, 2016, Wild 'N Out returned for its 8th season after three record-breaking seasons.
On February 3, 2021, it was announced that Cannon tested positive for COVID-19 and that Niecy Nash would temporarily fill in for him during his quarantine during the fifth season of The Masked Singer. He returned to hosting duty after competing as the wild card contestant "Bulldog" in the fifth episode and was eliminated by Nash's choice. In addition, Nick unmasked without the panelists having to make their final guesses.
In 2019, it was announced that Cannon would be debuting his own syndicated daytime talk show in 2020 via Lionsgate's Debmar-Mercury and Cannon's own production company, NCredible Entertainment. After taking a brief hiatus due his controversy, the show, Nick Cannon, premiered on September 27, 2021 through syndication and Fox television channels.
Racism controversy
On July 14, 2020, Nick Cannon was fired by ViacomCBS after making racist and anti-Semitic remarks during an episode of his podcast Cannon's Class with Professor Griff. Cannon endorsed conspiracy theories about Jewish control of finance, claimed that Jews had stolen the identity of "black people as the 'true Hebrews'", and cited Louis Farrakhan, who is labeled as an anti-semite by the Southern Poverty Law Center and Anti-Defamation League. Cannon also made black supremacist statements, calling white people "savages" who were "closer to animals", claiming the "only way that they can act is evil", citing the pseudoscientific melanin theory. A statement from ViacomCBS noted that the company's relationship with Cannon was terminated due to his promotion of "hateful speech and ... anti-Semitic conspiracy theories". Two days later, Cannon released an apology only for his remarks regarding anti-Semitism, saying, "I want to assure my Jewish friends, new and old, that this is only the beginning of my education." He also demanded for complete ownership for Wild 'n Out, and an apology from ViacomCBS for his termination. When Fox was aware of his podcast, the network immediately consulted him and accepted his public apology, allowing him to remain host of The Masked Singer. He donated his first paycheck to the Simon Wiesenthal Center, in light of the incident. On February 5, 2021, ViacomCBS announced that Wild 'N Out would resume production with Cannon as host, saying that Cannon has "taken responsibility for his comments" and "worked to educate himself" through conversations with Jewish leaders.
America's Got Talent and departure
From 2009 to 2016, Cannon served as the host of America's Got Talent. He announced he would not be back for 2017, citing creative differences between him and the executives of NBC. The resignation came in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Don't Shoot. "I love art and entertainment too much to watch it be ruined by controlling corporations and big business," Cannon said in a statement, referring to the cable giant Comcast's ownership of NBC. Cannon, however, was technically under contract to host America's Got Talent and could have been potentially sued by NBC for breach of contract, though this was considered unlikely. NBC executives did not accept his resignation and had been stated to be keeping their fingers crossed that he would instead choose to return. Cannon's resignation was ultimately accepted as final without further incident. He was replaced in his position as host of America's Got Talent by Tyra Banks, known for also having hosted America's Next Top Model.
Business
Following his role as host of the TEENick block, Nick Cannon was the chairman of the TeenNick channel for Nickelodeon in 2009, as well as its development and creative consultant. In 2012, Nick Cannon created a sketch-comedy series, Incredible Crew, starring six teenagers as Cannon wrote and produced the theme song. The show was produced by Cartoon Network Studios, in association with Ncredible Entertainment. The series aired 13 episodes before being canceled.
On November 30, 2012, a picture of Cannon was posted on the Ncredible Entertainment website, which reported that Nick signed a deal with NBCUniversal to produce scripted and unscripted material for the network.
In December 2015, Cannon was named "Chief Creative Officer" of RadioShack in hopes of catering to a younger crowd. According to the company this role involved "creating RadioShack-exclusive products and curating the in-store experience." They launched the NCredible line of consumer audio electronics the following February, starting with the Ncredible1 Wireless Headphones.
Radio hosting
On January 19, 2010, Cannon hosted the morning show (6-10AM) with co-hosts Nikki and Southern Sarah Lee at 92.3 NOW FM (WXRK-FM) in New York.
Cannon has a weekly chart program called Cannon's Countdown that is syndicated by CBS Radio.
On February 17, 2012, Cannon stepped down from 92.3 NOW citing health issues.
Currently Cannon hosts his own show "Nick Cannon Mornings" at Power 106 in Los Angeles. Nick Cannon's show replaced J. Cruz's "The Cruz Show" in the 5am – 10am time slot after J. Cruz went over to urban contemporary hip hop iHeart Radio rival KRRL "Real 92.3" for their afternoon drive show.
Comedy
On July 13, 2010, Cannon announced that he was going on a comedy tour in fall 2010, beginning at the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal.
In early 2011, Cannon recorded his first stand-up comedy special titled Mr. Showbiz at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas. The special premiered on Showtime on May 14, 2011. A digital release of Mr. Showbiz became available on iTunes beginning May 16, 2011, with a physical release of the album on May 31, 2011.
Personal life
Cannon was hospitalized on January 4, 2012, for treatment of "mild kidney failure", and again on February 17, 2012, after a pulmonary embolism. On March 5, 2012, he announced that his kidney problems were due to lupus nephritis.
Cannon enrolled at Howard University in 2016 and graduated in 2020 with a Bachelor of Science in Criminology/Administration of Justice and a minor in Africana Studies.
Cannon endorsed the 2020 presidential campaign of rapper Kanye West after he guest starred on his podcast Cannon's Class.
Relationships and children
Cannon has been married once and has had seven children with four women, and is expecting an eighth child with a fifth woman.
In 2006, Cannon was in a relationship with Kim Kardashian.
Cannon married singer-songwriter Mariah Carey on April 30, 2008, at her private estate on Windermere Island in the Bahamas. On April 30, 2011, Carey gave birth to fraternal twins: daughter Monroe and son Moroccan Scott. After six years of marriage, the pair separated and filed for divorce in 2014, but reunited briefly in 2015. Their divorce was finalized in 2016.
Cannon has two children with model Brittany Bell: a son, Golden, born February 2017, and a daughter, Powerful Queen, born December 2020.
In June 2021, his twin sons, Zion Mixolydian and Zillion Heir, with DJ Abby De La Rosa were born. Later that month, on June 23, his seventh child, a son, Zen, with model Alyssa Scott was born. Zen died of brain cancer at five months old, on December 5, 2021.
In January 2022, Cannon announced he is expecting a boy with model Bre Tiesi.
Activism
In 2011, Cannon filmed a public service announcement for Do Something encouraging teens to find a cause about which they are passionate and take action in their communities. Since 2011, Cannon has served as the celebrity spokesperson for the National Association of Letter Carriers' annual national food drive, which is held throughout the United States on the second Saturday in May.
Discography
Studio albums
Nick Cannon (2003)
White People Party Music (2014)
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
External links
African-American businesspeople
African-American Christians
African-American film producers
African-American male actors
African-American male rappers
African-American radio personalities
African-American record producers
African-American screenwriters
African-American television directors
African-American television hosts
African-American television personalities
American chief executives
American comedy musicians
American film producers
American hip hop record producers
American male film actors
American male rappers
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American music industry executives
American music managers
American music video directors
American philanthropists
American stand-up comedians
American television directors
American television writers
Businesspeople from North Carolina
Businesspeople from San Diego
Howard University alumni
Jive Records artists
Living people
Male actors from Charlotte, North Carolina
Male actors from San Diego
American male television writers
Mariah Carey
Musicians from San Diego
People with lupus
Proponents of melanin theory
Rappers from North Carolina
Rappers from San Diego
Record producers from California
Screenwriters from California
Television personalities from California
Television producers from California
West Coast hip hop musicians
Writers from Charlotte, North Carolina
Writers from San Diego
1980 births
21st-century American comedians
21st-century American rappers
|
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204734
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Raymond
|
Lee Raymond
|
Lee R. Raymond (born August 13, 1938) is an American businessman and the chief executive officer (CEO) and chairman of ExxonMobil from 1999 to 2005. He had previously been the CEO of Exxon since 1993. He joined the company in 1963 and served as president from 1987 and a director beginning in 1984.
While at Exxon, Raymond was one of the most outspoken executives in the United States against regulation to curtail global warming. While casting doubt on climate change in public, internal Exxon research pointed to the role of human activity in climate change and the dangers of climate change.
Early life and education
Lee Raymond was born in Watertown, South Dakota on August 13, 1938. He graduated from Watertown High School in 1956. Raymond received a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1960. Raymond went on to earn his PhD in Chemical Engineering from the University of Minnesota. He was awarded an honorary doctorate from the same university in 2001. Raymond met his wife, Charlene née Hocevar, while studying at the University of Wisconsin–Madison; she was pursuing and later earned a degree in journalism.
Career
Raymond began working for Exxon in 1963. Raymond became a director of Exxon in 1984 and in 1987 he became the President of the company. In 1993, he became CEO succeeding Lawrence G. Rawl and held this post until 2005. He negotiated the merger with Mobil that became effective on January 1, 2000 and gave birth to the new ExxonMobil company. In 2003, when approaching the age of 65, the mandatory retirement age for executives at ExxonMobil, the board of directors requested him to stay in his position two more years, in order to prepare his succession, after the post-merger reorganisation period. On August 14, 2005, Raymond announced that he would retire at the end of 2005 as ExxonMobil's Chairman and CEO, two years later than the usual mandatory retirement age of 65 for the company executives. ExxonMobil president Rex W. Tillerson succeeded Raymond on 1 January 2006. On April 14, 2006, it was reported that Raymond's retirement package was worth about $400 million, the largest in history for a U.S. public company. However, the majority of that sum consisted of retirement-independent salary, bonuses, stock options, and restricted stock awards from his final year and prior years that, while high, are not unprecedented among major American CEOs. Retirement-specific payments in accordance with the standard pension plan provided to all ExxonMobil employees totaled around $100 million, calculated based on his over forty years of service and his salary upon retirement. Raymond was also chair of the National Petroleum Council (NPC), when it was asked to produce a report on the future of oil supply and demand.
Raymond was one of the most outspoken executives in the United States against regulation to curtail global warming. In the 1990s, Raymond said the scientific evidence for climate change was “inconclusive” and that “the case for global warming is far from air tight.”
After retiring from Exxon, Raymond was hired in 2005 as lead independent director for JPMorgan Chase. In 2020, amid pressure to remove Raymond from the board due to its history on climate change, JPMorgan Chase removed Raymond as lead independent director of JPMorgan Chase’s board.
Legacy
Steve Coll describes Raymond as "notoriously skeptical about climate change and disliked government interference at any level".
Lee Raymond was at the helm of Exxon while it remained one of the last large companies to omit gay employees in its anti-discrimination policy. He was also at the helm during the takeover of Mobil, when the new Exxon-Mobil corporation rescinded Mobil's pre-existing anti-discrimination policy. HR policy was eventually updated in 2015 to include a prohibition on discrimination against gay employees, but from 1999-2014 the board annually rejected a resolution brought by shareholders to compel the company to implement a non-discrimination policy.
His son, John T. Raymond, is active in the oil and gas industry. John partnered with the Jim Flores and Paul Allen-backed Vulcan Capital in the buyout of Plains Resources.
Lee Raymond received the Woodrow Wilson Award from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution for Corporate Citizenship during a dinner held in his honor in Dallas, Texas in early 2003.
Awards and honors
1998 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
2003 Woodrow Wilson Award from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
2006 Texas Business Hall of Fame
2006 Exxon Mobil Corporation Endows Scholarship Awards to Honor Lee R. Raymond
2018 Honorary Lifetime Achievement Award for the Advancement of International Energy Policy & Diplomacy
References
External links
Articles by Lee Raymond
Article: World Energy Magazine - The Future of Energy in Emerging Asia
Article: World Energy Magazine - The United Kingdom Leads Europe’s Growing Import Demand
Other
SEC-filed Proxy Statement detailing Raymond's retirement compensation, SEC (US Securities and Exchange Commission)
Enemy of the Planet New York Times piece by Paul Krugman, 17 April 2006
Scientists offered cash to dispute climate study Guardian article by Ian Sample, 2 February 2007
1938 births
Living people
American chief executives
American Enterprise Institute
American chemical engineers
ExxonMobil people
University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Engineering alumni
Directors of JPMorgan Chase
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Minnesota CEMS
Honorary Citizens of Singapore
|
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] |
204735
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%3A%20E%E2%80%93I
|
List of films: E–I
|
Separate lists have been created for each letter:
List of films: E
List of films: F
List of films: G
List of films: H
List of films: I
|
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] |
204736
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%3A%20J%E2%80%93R
|
List of films: J–R
|
Separate lists have been created for each letter or new group of letters:
List of films: J-K
List of films: L
List of films: M
List of films: N-O
List of films: P
List of films: Q-R
|
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] |
204737
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%3A%20S%E2%80%93Z
|
List of films: S–Z
|
Separate lists have been created for each letter or new group of letters:
List of films: S
List of films: T
List of films: U-V-W
List of films: X-Y-Z
|
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204742
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Fumento
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Michael Fumento
|
Michael A. Fumento (born 1960) is an American author, analyst, attorney, and investigative journalist who currently resides in the Philippines.
Life and career
Fumento grew up in Champaign, Illinois. He is the son of Tobey and Rocco Fumento, the latter being a professor emeritus in English, film, and creative writing who has worked at the University of Illinois.
Fumento's father is Italian American and Catholic, and Fumento's mother is Jewish. Fumento himself is Catholic.
A graduate of the University of Illinois College of Law and a member of the Pennsylvania bar, he has a bachelor's degree in political science from Fayetteville State University, at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, which he earned while he served as a paratrooper in the US Army. He embedded three times in Iraq and once in Afghanistan and observed combat operations of the Navy SEALs and the 101st Airborne Division.
His work comprises over 70 subject areas. Google Scholar has almost 1,200 citations of his work. Publishers Weekly stated that he has "knack for debunking popular beliefs and revealing the true state of things," and The New York Times Book Review stated, "His arguments, statistics and perceptions appear almost as irrefutable as they are controversial." Nature, however, stated that in some of Fumento's work, "some important scientific issues are dismissed or glossed over" and that "there is a fine line between persuasion and persecution."
He is best known for science and health issues, especially what he considers faux crises, including the 1987 "heterosexual AIDS explosion," swine flu and the alleged epidemic of runaway Toyotas.
Journalism
Fumento has been a nationally syndicated columnist for the Scripps Howard News Service, a legal writer for The Washington Times, a science correspondent for Reason magazine, an editorial writer for the Rocky Mountain News in Denver, and the first national issues reporter for Investor's Business Daily. When he was embedded four times in Iraq and Afghanistan, his research and reporting from Ramadi was praised by General David Petraeus: "Great stuff with a great unit in a very tough neighborhood!" Some of his combat video footage has aired on the History Channel.
A finalist for the National Magazine Award, he has had articles appear in such magazines as Reader's Digest, The Atlantic Monthly, Forbes, Forbes.com, USA Weekend, The Weekly Standard, National Review, The New Republic, The Washington Monthly, Reason, Policy Review, The American Spectator, Nature Medicine, The Spectator (London), a3Umwelt (Austria), and The Bulletin (Australia). He has appeared in newspapers including the Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune, Christian Science Monitor, Sunday Times of London, Sunday Telegraph of London, and the Jerusalem Post.
His television appearances include Nightline; ABC World News; ABC News 20/20, numerous programs on CBS, NBC, CNN, and Fox; PBS; MacNeil-Lehrer; CNBC; the BBC; the Canadian Broadcasting Network; C-SPAN; the Christian Broadcasting Network; Donahue; This Week with David Brinkley, the History Channel, ESPN, and many others. Fumento has lectured throughout the world.
Fumento has been outspoken in his support of adult stem cell research and critical of embryonic stem cell research and has criticized what he regards as a liberal and corporate bias in favor of the latter.
For Science Under Siege, he received two awards, including the American Council on Science and Health's Distinguished Science Journalist of 1993.
Debunking crises
Fumento argues that many reports of threats to society are based on bad science and misused statistics. In addition to AIDS, Fumento's writing on science has covered such topics as global warming, ADHD, obesity, the health dangers of breast implants, teen drug use, and agrarian utopianism. He has been highly critical of what he considers extreme alarmism over such diseases as SARS and the potential of a human avian flu pandemic.
A common theme is his claim that many liberal environmental groups have a hysterical response to most artificial chemicals. He writes that naturally-occurring food chemicals are often as toxic as artificial compounds and that there is no scientific reason to view natural compounds as inherently safer. Environmental groups, he holds, willingly accept claims that manmade compounds cause cancer but gloss over the fact that the toxicity tests often involve quantities that are millions of times larger than what a human would ever ingest.
Several articles deal with the agricultural chemical Alar, banned as a carcinogen in the United States. Fumento noted that the dosages in one Alar study were the equivalent of almost 30 thousand apples a day for life. In his view, it is impossible to test megadoses of chemicals on mice or rats and to extrapolate the results to conclusions about small doses on humans. The statistical nature of these studies, often analyzed by non-statisticians, leaves them vulnerable to extrapolation error. Researchers remain divided on the utility of such tests and on the safety of Alar, in particular.
He has been a frequent critic of activist Erin Brockovich since her eponymous movie first appeared in 2000.
Fumento describes himself as a political conservative. He has drawn criticism from liberal and veterans' activist groups for his views on Gulf War Syndrome (his Reason article "Gulf Lore Syndrome" was a National Magazine Award finalist in 1998) and for his writings since 1987, which state that the threat of AIDS to the heterosexual population was greatly overstated. He promotes a position of "skepticism" toward claims that manmade chemicals cause cancer in humans.
Heterosexual AIDS
Fumento is perhaps best known for his epidemiology work, especially infectious disease outbreaks. He argues that the perception of such outbreaks becomes exaggerated or otherwise distorted by those who exploit them to serve various agendas. In November 1987, he published a landmark article, "AIDS: Are Heterosexuals at Risk?" in Commentary that in 1990 became the basis of a controversial book, The Myth of Heterosexual AIDS: How a Tragedy Has Been Distorted by the Media and Partisan Politics. He wrote dozens of subsequent pieces on the subject. In Commentary, he challenged the presumption of Life magazine, whose July 1985 cover declared in bold red letters, "Now No One Is Safe from AIDS."
By 1987, the theme had become common. A January U.S. News & World Report cover story declared, "The disease of them is suddenly the disease of us... finding fertile growth among heterosexuals." A New York Times headline that month read: "AIDS May Dwarf the Plague," citing remarks of the Secretary of Health and Human Services, Otis R. Bowen, that AIDS could be worse than the "Black Death," which is estimated to have killed 30 percent to 60 percent of Europe's population. Surgeon General C. Everett Koop made remarks giving rise to the term "heterosexual AIDS explosion." Oprah Winfrey told her audience, "Research studies now project that one in five—listen to me, hard to believe—one in five heterosexuals could be dead from AIDS at the end of the next three years."
Fumento challenged that orthodoxy for which he and even those who wrote about him were condemned and even threatened. He did so by interviewing and citing the work of epidemiologists, including the top Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) AIDS epidemiologist, Dr. Harold Jaffe, who told him, "Those who are suggesting that we are going to see an explosive spread of AIDS in the heterosexual population have to explain why this isn't happening."
Although he would be accused of claiming heterosexuals have no AIDS risk, the back cover of his AIDS book stated, "The 'myth' of heterosexual AIDS consists of a series of myths, one of which is not that heterosexuals get AIDS. They certainly do get it.... " Rather, he argued that while white middle-class heterosexuals were the target of AIDS propaganda, "the profile of the typical victim of heterosexually transmitted AIDS is a lower-class black woman who is the regular sex partner of an IV drug user."
As of 2007, the CDC's "estimated numbers of cases and rates (per 100,000 population) of HIV/AIDS," was 60.6 for black women but only 3.3 for white women.
In a theme discussed in Commentary and in his book, Fumento described various agendas served by promoting "AIDS hysteria:" "On the opposite side of the spectrum Christian fundamentalists deploy it in order to underline their vision of morality," he wrote in Commentary. He also discussed it in a 1988 New Republic cover story.
Monsanto controversy
On January 13, 2006, Scripps Howard announced it would terminate its business relationship with Fumento and cease carrying his column. At issue were opinion columns Fumento had written concerning the biotechnology firm Monsanto Company while he was working at the Hudson Institute. The connection between Fumento and Monsanto was first revealed by investigative reporter Eamon Javers in Business Week, but it never stated that there was a quid pro quo, despite what many articles and blogs would claim. General manager Peter Copeland explained that Fumento
After the story was published, Fumento acknowledged that he benefited from Monsanto's grant to Hudson:
However, Fumento said that Scripps Howard had no such policy and that the syndicate canceled his column upon receiving a phone call from Javers without consulting him. Moreover, such a policy would not make sense, he said, because it presumes someone who once benefited from a grant is considered forever in the donor's debt.
Fumento wrote that he did not begin the Scripps column until four years after he had gotten the grant, had been writing pro-biotech pieces since six years before he received the grant, and that shortly after receiving it he ripped Monsanto for being 'chicken-hearted' and "caving into environmentalist demands." Moreover, he wrote, of the approximately 100 columns he published, only three so much as mentioned Monsanto, one in a single sentence.
Swine Flu
During the 2009 swine flu pandemic, Fumento opined in a February 2010 Forbes article that the World Health Organization (WHO) had faked the pandemic and that "The agency needed to bounce back after the avian flu embarrassment." In an August 2010 The Philadelphia Inquirer article, Fumento said in response to the WHO declaring the swine flu pandemic over that "the WHO had no business labeling it a "pandemic." It did so purely for its own interests, wreaking worldwide havoc."
Break with "extreme right"
In a May 2012 essay, Fumento said that he considered himself part of the "Old Right" but that he rejected the "extreme right," which, he claimed, has been taken over the Republican Party and dominates conservative media. He gave the example of The Heartland Institute billboards, comparing believers in global warming to Ted Kaczynski, which Fumento said was the same kind of "mass hysteria" that he rejected in the claims for a heterosexual AIDS epidemic and a swine flu pandemic: "The last thing hysteria promoters want is calm, reasoned argument backed by facts. And I'm horrified that these people have co-opted the name 'conservative' to scream their messages of hate and anger," Fumento said.
Conservatives such as William F. Buckley and Ronald Reagan demanded civility and a respect for order, Fumento wrote. He contrasted that to Andrew Breitbart "shrieking at peaceful protesters."
US Representative Allen West (R-FL) said that there are "78 to 81" Democrats in Congress who are members of the Communist Party. There was little condemnation from the New Right, wrote Fumento.
COVID-19
In a January 23, 2020, New York Post opinion article, "Don’t buy the media hype over the new China virus," referring to concerns about COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic as "tinfoil-hat paranoia," Fumento wrote that "there appears to be nothing very special about this outbreak of the 2019-nCoV or Wuhan virus... we have been through these hysterias before.... An infected American is reportedly doing well.... Wuhan will be a lot worse in China, simply because health care there is vastly inferior. It appears that, like flu, Wuhan usually kills through often treatable secondary infections. Well, treatable in the West... there is no evidence that Wuhan... is more contagious than influenza or spreads differently.... So if you want, buy a (probably worthless) surgical mask to play “twins” with those “courageous” TV newsmen." In a March 8, 2020 followup opinion article, he decried the "pure hysteria" about the virus," noting that there had been only 19 deaths in the US, and maintained that "the spread of the virus continues to slow."
Affiliations
Fumento has been affiliated with the following organizations:
Independent Journalism Project—director
Washington Times—legal writer, later freelancer
Hudson Institute—senior fellow from 1998 to 2006
National Journalism Center
Investor's Business Daily—national issues staff writer/later freelance
The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition (TASSC) on Advisory Board
Books
Fumento, Michael (1990) The Myth of Heterosexual AIDS: How a Tragedy Has Been Distorted by the Media and Partisan Politics. Basic Books, New York, 1990. A New Republic Book.
References
External links
Interview with Fumento at Right Wing News
A Columnist Backed by Monsanto, in BusinessWeek Online
Fumento's response to being dropped by Scripps Howard
BioHype a review of Fumento's Bioevolution: How Biotechnology Is Changing Our World from American Scientist Online.
Conduct Unbecoming: Fumento and the Atala Stem Cell Paper An article concerning Fumento's criticism of the New York Times for not printing a write-up on research into amniotic stem cell research.
American male journalists
Living people
Illinois lawyers
Pennsylvania lawyers
Journalistic scandals
People from Champaign, Illinois
People from Washington, D.C.
People from Los Angeles
People from Arlington County, Virginia
Fayetteville State University alumni
University of Illinois College of Law alumni
American lawyers and judges of Italian descent
American people of Jewish descent
Journalists from California
Competitive Enterprise Institute
Catholics from Virginia
Catholics from California
Catholics from Illinois
1960 births
|
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] |
204744
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratsadanay
|
Ratsadanay
|
King Ratsadanay (1874-1945) was the last king of Champasak. He was the father of Boun Oum.
Laotian royalty
1874 births
1945 deaths
19th-century Laotian people
20th-century Laotian people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Novak
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Michael Novak
|
Michael John Novak Jr. (1933–2017) was an American Roman Catholic philosopher, journalist, novelist, and diplomat. The author of more than forty books on the philosophy and theology of culture, Novak is most widely known for his book The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism (1982). In 1993 Novak was honored with an honorary doctorate at Universidad Francisco Marroquín due to his commitment to the idea of liberty. In 1994 he was awarded the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion, which included a million-dollar purse awarded at Buckingham Palace. He wrote books and articles focused on capitalism, religion, and the politics of democratization.
Novak served as United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in 1981 and 1982 and led the US delegation to the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1986. Additionally, Novak served on the board of directors of the now-defunct Coalition for a Democratic Majority, a conservative anti-Communist faction of the Democratic Party, which sought to influence the party's policies in the same direction that the Committee on the Present Danger later did. Novak was George Frederick Jewett Scholar in Religion, Philosophy, and Public Policy at the American Enterprise Institute. In 2004, he claimed to be a lifelong Democrat, while noting that he has supported many Republican candidates.
Early life, education, and family
Novak was born on September 9, 1933, in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, to a Slovak-American family, the son of Irene (Sakmar) and Michael J. Novak. He was married to Karen Laub-Novak, a professional artist and illustrator, who died of cancer in August 2009. They have three children (Richard, Tanya, and Jana) and four grandchildren.
Novak earned a Bachelor of Arts degree summa cum laude in philosophy and English from Stonehill College in 1956, a Bachelor of Sacred Theology degree from the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome in 1958, and a Master of Arts degree in history and philosophy of religion from Harvard University in 1966. Novak attended Harvard University to study philosophy and religion, intending to obtain a doctorate in philosophy of religion. Novak stated that he thought the philosophy department was too focused on analytic philosophy, neglecting religion. He left Harvard after receiving his master's degree and began work as a writer.
Early writings
Second Vatican Council
Novak worked as a correspondent for the National Catholic Reporter during the second session of the Second Vatican Council in Rome, where he also got the opportunity to fulfill a book contract for a fellow reporter who was not able to complete the project. The result was Novak's second book, The Open Church, a journalistic account of the events of the second session of the council.
His writings at the time were criticized by the more conservative factions in the church, and apostolic delegate Egidio Vagnozzi advised US churchmen to silence him.
Early books
Early in his career, Novak published two novels: The Tiber Was Silver (1961) and Naked I Leave (1970). At the time, he considered the modest $600 advance to be "a fortune."
Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics
Novak proposed that the white ethnic was a distinct race of whites from WASPs who had attempted to erase their cultural heritage and assimilate them. He supported the notion of separate but equal while rejecting multiculturalism and melting pot theory. He argues that white ethnics will reject assimilation and live separately from other races. He argues that African Americans and white ethnics should unite due to their common class struggle while also denouncing "socialist" integration policies that "unfairly" supported women and African-Americans to the detriment of taxpaying "white ethnics".
Stanford years
Novak's friendship with the Presbyterian theologian Robert McAfee Brown during the Second Vatican Council led to a teaching post at Stanford University, where he became the first Roman Catholic to teach in the humanities program. Novak taught at Stanford University from 1965 to 1968, during the key years of student revolt throughout California. During this period, he wrote A Time to Build (1967), discussing problems of belief and unbelief, ecumenism, sexuality, and war. In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. In A Theology for Radical Politics (1969), Novak makes theological arguments in support of the New Left student movement, which he urged to advance the renewal of the human spirit rather than merely to reform social institutions. His book Politics: Realism and Imagination includes accounts of visiting American Vietnam War deserters in France ("Desertion"), the birth and development of the student movement at Stanford ("Green Shoots of Counter-Culture") and philosophical essays on nihilism and Marxism.
SUNY Old Westbury
Novak left Stanford for a post as dean of a new "experimental" school at the newly founded State University of New York at Old Westbury, Long Island.
Novak's writings during this period included the philosophical essay The Experience of Nothingness (1970, republished in 1998), in which he cautioned the New Left that utopianism could lead to alienation and rootlessness. Novak's novel Naked I Leave (1970) chronicles his experiences in California and in the Second Vatican Council and his journey from seminarian to reporter.
Later career
After serving at Old Westbury/SUNY from 1969 to 1972, Novak launched the humanities program at the Rockefeller Foundation in 1973–1974. In 1976, he accepted a tenured position at Syracuse University as University Professor and Ledden-Watson Distinguished Professor of Religion. In the fall semesters of 1987 and 1988, Novak held the W. Harold and Martha Welch chair as Professor of American Studies at the University of Notre Dame.
In the spring of 1978, Novak joined the American Enterprise Institute for Social Policy Research as a Resident Scholar, a position he held for more than a decade. He would later stay with the American Enterprise Institute as the George Frederick Jewett Chair of Religion, Philosophy, and Public Policy, and as the Institute's Director of Social and Political Studies.
Novak was a frequent contributor to magazines and journals including First Things and National Review. In 1994, he was a signer of the document Evangelicals and Catholics Together. On December 12, 2007, Novak declared his support for the presidential candidacy of Republican Mitt Romney.
In 2012, he authored an article entitled 'The Moral Imperative of a Free Economy' in The 4% Solution: Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs, published by the George W. Bush Presidential Center.
Novak was a founding board member of the Institute on Religion and Democracy. He was also a founding member of the Board of Trustees of Ave Maria University and was a member of the Ave Maria Mutual Funds Catholic Advisory Board. A portrait of Novak by Igor Babailov hangs in the Canizaro Library on campus.
In 2016 he joined the Tim and Steph Busch School of Business and Economics of the Catholic University of America as a distinguished visiting professor.
Novak died of complications from colon cancer February 17, 2017, in Washington, DC, at the age of 83.
Bibliography
Social Justice Isn't What You Think It Is (2015) ,
Writing from Left to Right: My Journey From Liberal to Conservative (2013)
The Myth of Romantic Love and Other Essays (with Elizabeth Shaw) (2012)
Living the Call: An Introduction to the Lay Vocation (with William E. Simon) (2011) ,
All Nature is a Sacramental Fire: Moments of Beauty, Sorrow, and Joy (2011)
No One Sees God: The Dark Night of Atheists and Believers (2008)
Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country (with Jana Novak) (2006) ,
Universal Hunger for Liberty: Why the Clash of Civilizations is Not Inevitable (2004)
On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding (2001)
Business as a Calling (1996)
The Catholic Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1993).
Free Persons and the Common Good (1988)
Tell Me Why (1998)
The Open Church (1964, 2002)
Joy of Sports (1976, 1994)
Catholic Social Thought and Liberal Institutions (1984, 1989)
This Hemisphere of Liberty (1990, 1992)
Will It Liberate? Questions About Liberation Theology (1986)
Toward the Future
Toward a theology of the corporation, Lanham, MD : University Press of America, 1981. ,
Confession of a Catholic, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985, ,
Moral Clarity in a Nuclear Age (1983) ,
Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove
Character and Crime London: Brownson Institute, 1988. ,
On Cultivating Liberty
The Fire of Invention
The Guns of Lattimer
Choosing Presidents
A Free Society Reader
Three in One
The New Consensus on Family and Welfare: A Community of Self-Reliance (Novak et al.) (1987).
The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism (1982). .
Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: The New Political Force of the Seventies (1972).
The Experience of Nothingness (1970; revised and expanded 1998).
Naked I Leave (novel, 1970).
Belief and Unbelief, a Philosophy of Self-Knowledge (1965; 3rd ed. 1994).
The Tiber was Silver (novel, 1962). ,
See also
American philosophy
Democratic capitalism
List of American philosophers
References
External links
Graduation speech at Universidad Francisco Marroquín in 1993.
Booknotes interview with Novak on On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding, March 17, 2002.
1933 births
2017 deaths
American Enterprise Institute
American male non-fiction writers
American people of Slovak descent
American people of Slovenian descent
American political philosophers
American political writers
American tax resisters
California Democrats
Catholic philosophers
Critics of atheism
Harvard University alumni
New York (state) Democrats
Pennsylvania Democrats
People from Johnstown, Pennsylvania
Recipients of the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk
Representatives of the United States to the United Nations Human Rights Council
Roman Catholic writers
State University of New York at Old Westbury faculty
Stonehill College alumni
Templeton Prize laureates
The American Spectator people
Activists from California
Writers from Pennsylvania
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Catholics from Pennsylvania
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
|
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] |
204746
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman%20C-2%20Greyhound
|
Grumman C-2 Greyhound
|
The Grumman C-2 Greyhound is a twin-engine, high-wing cargo aircraft, designed to carry supplies, mail, and passengers to and from aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. Its primary mission is carrier onboard delivery (COD). The aircraft provides critical logistics support to carrier strike groups. The aircraft is mainly used to transport high-priority cargo, mail, and passengers between carriers and shore bases, and can also deliver cargo such as jet engines and special stores.
Prototype C-2s first flew in 1964, and production followed the next year. The initial Greyhound aircraft were overhauled in 1973. In 1984, more C-2As were ordered under designation Reprocured C-2A or C-2A(R). In 2010, all C-2A(R) aircraft received updated propellers (from four to eight blades) and navigational updates (glass cockpit). Starting in 2020, the U.S. Navy will start to replace the remaining 27 C-2As with 38 CMV-22Bs, expecting to fully replace the C-2 fleet by 2024.
Design and development
Origins
The C-2 Greyhound, a derivative of the E-2 Hawkeye, shares wings and power plants with the E-2, but has a widened fuselage with a rear loading ramp. The first of two prototypes flew in 1964. After successful testing, Grumman began production of the aircraft in 1965. The C-2 replaced the piston-engine Grumman C-1 Trader in the carrier onboard delivery (COD) role. The original C-2A aircraft were overhauled to extend their operational life in 1973.
Powered by two Allison T56 turboprop engines, the C-2A can deliver up to 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of cargo or up to 28 passengers, and is normally configured for a cargo/passenger mix. It can also carry litter patients in medical-evacuation missions. A cage system or transport stand restrains cargo during carrier launch and landing accelerations to prevent weight redistribution, which might adversely affect in-flight stability. The large aft cargo ramp and door and a powered winch allow straight-in rear cargo loading and unloading for fast turnaround. The Greyhound's ability to airdrop supplies and personnel, fold its wings, and generate power for engine starting and other uses provide an operational versatility found in no other cargo aircraft. Some parts commonality with the E-2 Hawkeye and the Grumman A-6 Intruder ease logistics support.
The C-2 has four vertical stabilizers, of which three are fitted with rudders. A single vertical stabilizer large enough for adequate directional control would have made the aircraft too tall to fit on an aircraft carrier hangar deck. The four-stabilizer configuration has the advantage of placing the outboard rudder surfaces directly in line with the propeller wash, providing effective yaw control down to low airspeeds, such as during takeoff and landing. The inner-left stabilizer lacks a rudder, and has been called the "executive tail", as it has nothing to do compared to the other three. A single C-2 (2797) was equipped with an air-to-air refueling probe, but this was not installed in other aircraft.
In 1984, the Navy ordered 39 new C-2A aircraft to replace older airframes. Dubbed the Reprocured C-2A or C-2A(R) due to the similarity to the original, the new aircraft has airframe improvements and better avionics. The older C-2As were phased out in 1987, and the last of the new models was delivered in 1990.
Upgrades
The 36 C-2A(R)s underwent a critical service life extension program (SLEP). The C-2A(R)'s lifespan was 10,000 hours, or 15,000 carrier landings; plans require the C-2A to perform its mission supporting battle group operational readiness through 2015. The lower landing limit was approaching for most airframes, and the SLEP will increase their projected life to 15,000 hours or 36,000 landings. Once complete, the SLEP will allow the 36 aircraft to operate until 2027. The SLEP includes structural improvements to the center wing, an eight-bladed NP2000 propeller, navigational upgrades including the addition of GPS and the dual CAINS II navigation system, the addition of crash-survivable flight-incident recorders, and a ground proximity warning system. The first upgraded C-2A(R) left NAVAIR Depot North Island on 12 September 2005, after sitting on the ground for three and a half years while the SLEP was developed and installed. All aircraft were to receive the SLEP by 2015.
In November 2008, the company also obtained a $37M contract for the maintenance, logistics, and aviation administration services over five years for the C-2A fleet assigned to VX-20 test and evaluation squadron at Patuxent River. Northrop Grumman worked on an upgraded C-2 version, and offered to modernize the fleet with components common to the E-2D Hawkeye.
Operational history
Between November 1985 and February 1987, VR-24 (former Navy Transport Squadron) and its seven reprocured C-2As demonstrated the aircraft's exceptional operational readiness. The squadron delivered of cargo, of mail, and 14,000 passengers in the European and Mediterranean theaters. The C-2A(R) also served the carrier battle groups during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm during the Gulf War, as well as Operation Enduring Freedom during the war in Afghanistan.
On 2 June 2011, the US Navy loaned two C-2A(R) Greyhounds from VRC-40 (USN BuNos 162143 and 162165) to the French Navy. The two aircraft were stationed at Toulon-Hyères Airport, Hyères, to assist in improving the flow of logistics and supplies to the operating in the Mediterranean Sea off Libya in support of the NATO intervention in Libya. After 16 days, both aircraft returned to the U.S. via Shannon Airport, Ireland, on 18 June 2011.
Replacement
The Common Support Aircraft was once considered as a replacement for the C-2, but failed to materialize. The U.S. Navy was exploring a replacement for the C-2 in September 2009. Three options were suggested as replacements for the aging C-2s - a new batch of updated C-2s, a transport version of the Lockheed S-3 Viking, and the tilt-rotor Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey.
The C-2 competed with the V-22 Osprey for use as the future COD aircraft. Northrop Grumman proposed modernizing the C-2 by installing the same wings, glass cockpit, and engines as the E-2D Advanced Hawkeye. Installing the Rolls Royce T56-427A engines would cut fuel consumption by 13–15% with the same eight-bladed propeller, enabling take-offs with a payload in degree heat and a range in excess of ; similar performance by the C-2A requires engine temperatures at , trading fuel for payload. Adopting the E-2D's cockpit would deliver a 10% savings on lifetime logistical support. One of the Greyhound's most important features is its internal volume of of cargo space. Northrop Grumman stated that their approach could cost far less than the V-22, including saving $120 million from C-2 and E-2D commonality.
In February 2015, the Navy's FY 2016 budget confirmed the V-22's selection for the COD mission, replacing the C-2A. The Navy is to order 44 of the Osprey, designated CMV-22B, with deliveries to start in 2020. The C-2 was originally planned to be retired in 2027, but this was accelerated to 2024.
Variants
YC-2A
Prototype, two converted from E-2A Hawkeyes with redesigned fuselage
C-2A
Production variant, 17 built
C-2A(R)
"Reprocured" C-2A with improved systems based on the E-2C variant, 39 built
Operators
United States Navy
VAW-110 1987 to 1994
VAW-120
VRC-30
VRC-40
VX-20
VRC-50 1966 to 1994
VR-24
Accidents
On 29 April 1965, YC-2A BuNo 148147 was on a test flight when it was ditched into Long Island Sound, where the four crewmen died of exposure.
On 2 July 1969, Lieutenant Commander Peter Monroe Kennedy was presented the Air Medal with bronze star, the first award for heroic achievement in aerial flights for a carrier onboard delivery aircraft. While returning to Naval Air Station Cubi Point from operating in Southeast Asia, a failure in the engine gearbox and propeller assembly resulted in the loss of the entire port propeller assembly and substantial portions of the gearbox and nacelle. The separated propeller penetrated the fuselage, causing decompression at over 20,000 feet. Kennedy and his copilot secured the engine, descended to a lower altitude, and returned to Cubi Point.
On 2 October 1969, C-2A BuNo 152796 from VRC-50, carrying six crew members and 21 passengers, crashed in the Gulf of Tonkin en route from Naval Air Station Cubi Point to . All aboard are officially listed as missing in action, as their bodies were never recovered.
On 15 December 1970, C-2A BuNo 155120 from VRC-50 crashed shortly after launch from , killing all four crew members and five passengers.
On 12 December 1971, C-2A BuNo 152793 crashed en route from Cubi Point to Tan Son Nhat International Airport, killing all four crew members and six passengers.
On 29 January 1972, C-2A BuNo 155122 crashed while attempting to land on the in the Mediterranean Sea, killing both crewmen.
On 16 November 1973, C-2A BuNo 152787 crashed into the sea after takeoff from Chania International Airport, killing seven of 10 persons on board.
On 22 November 2017, C-2A BuNo 162175 from VRC-30 carrying 11 crew and passengers crashed in the waters southeast of Japan's Okinawa Island in the Philippine Sea while in flight to the aircraft carrier . Eight of the 11 were rescued. The aircraft was located on the ocean floor at a depth of during the last week of December 2017, when a salvage ship used a pinger receiver to locate the aircraft's emergency signal. The Navy announced its intentions to salvage the aircraft and recover the remains of the three sailors expected to be inside, succeeding in doing so in late May 2019.
Specifications (Reprocured C-2A)
See also
References
External links
U.S. Navy C-2 fact file
U.S. Navy Historical Center C-2A Factsheet
Private homepage by Boerries Burkhardt with all information of the Grumman C-2A Greyhound
C-002 Greyhound
1960s United States military transport aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Twin-turboprop tractor aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1964
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] |
204748
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thonburi
|
Thonburi
|
Thonburi () is an area of modern Bangkok. During the era of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, its location on the right (west) bank at the mouth of the Chao Phraya River had made it an important garrison town, which is reflected in its name: thon () a loanword from Pali dhána wealth and buri (), from púra fortress. The full formal name was Thon Buri Si Mahasamut ( 'City of Treasures Gracing the Ocean'). For the informal name, see the history of Bangkok under Ayutthaya.
In 1767, after the sack of Ayutthaya by the Burmese, General Taksin took back Thonburi and, by right of conquest, made it the capital of the Thonburi Kingdom, with himself crown king until 6 April 1782, when he was deposed. Rama I, the newly enthroned king, moved the capital across the river, where stakes driven into the soil of Bangkok for the City Pillar at 06:45 on 21 April 1782, marking the official founding of the new capital. Thonburi remained an independent town and province, until it was merged with Bangkok in 1971. Thonburi stayed less developed than the other side of the river. Many of the traditional small waterways, khlongs, still exist there, while they are nearly gone from the other side of the river.
In 1950, Bangkok had around 1.3 million inhabitants, and the municipality of Thonburi around 400,000. In 1970 Thonburi was Thailand's second largest city proper with around 600,000 residents.
Wongwian Yai is a landmark of Thonburi District.
Administration
At the time of the merger, Thonburi province consisted of nine districts (amphoe).
Thonburi District ()
Bangkok Yai District ()
Khlong San District ()
Taling Chan District ()
Bangkok Noi District ()
Bang Khun Thian District ()
Phasi Charoen District ()
Nong Khaem District ()
Rat Burana District ()
As of 2012, these have been reorganized into 15 districts.
References
Further reading
Smithies, Michael (2002), "Three military accounts of the 1688 'Revolution' in Siam", Itineria Asiatica, Orchid Press, Bangkok, .
Knoles, Gordon D. Bangkok Page 56-57, Temples to visit in Thonburi. Retrieved, September 20, 2011 from http://www.thailand-delights.com/page1106.html - http://www.thailand-delights.com/page1107.html
Thonburi Area | Bangkok Travel Guide & Info, Travel Information and Tourist Guide for Bangkok City. Retrieved, September 20, 2011 from http://www.bangkok-bangkok.org/sights-attractions-in-bangkok-thailand/thonburi-aera/4/
Bangkok Palace - ComeThailand.com. Retrieved, September 20, 2011 from http://www.comethailand.com/bangkok-palace/blog
The King Taksin Monument - a Monument to a Great Warrior. Retrieved, September 20, 2011 from http://www.tour-bangkok-legacies.com/king-taksin-monument.html
Wat Arun - Temple of the Dawn. Retrieved, September 21, 2011 from http://www.bangkoksite.com/WatArun/WatArunPage.html
External links
Geography of Bangkok
History of Bangkok
Thon Buri District
Former provinces of Thailand
th:จังหวัดธนบุรี
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop%20Grumman%20EA-6B%20Prowler
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Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler
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The Northrop Grumman (formerly Grumman) EA-6B Prowler is a twin-engine, four-seat, mid-wing electronic-warfare aircraft derived from the A-6 Intruder airframe. The EA-6A was the initial electronic warfare version of the A-6 used by the United States Marine Corps and United States Navy. Development on the more advanced EA-6B began in 1966. An EA-6B aircrew consisted of one pilot and three Electronic Countermeasures Officers, though it was not uncommon for only two ECMOs to be used on missions. It was capable of carrying and firing anti-radiation missiles (ARMs), such as the AGM-88 HARM.
The Prowler was in service with the U.S. Armed Forces from 1971 until 2019. It has carried out numerous missions for jamming enemy radar systems, and in gathering radio intelligence on those and other enemy air defense systems. From the 1998 retirement of the United States Air Force EF-111 Raven electronic warfare aircraft, the EA-6B was the only dedicated electronic warfare plane available for missions by the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Air Force until the fielding of the Navy's EA-18G Growler in 2009. Following its last deployment in late 2014, the EA-6B was withdrawn from U.S. Navy service in June 2015, followed by the USMC in March 2019.
Development
Origins
The EA-6A "Electric Intruder" was developed for the U.S. Marine Corps during the 1960s to replace its EF-10B Skyknights. The EA-6A was a direct conversion of the standard A-6 Intruder airframe, with two seats, equipped with electronic warfare (EW) equipment. The EA-6A was used by three Marine Corps squadrons during the Vietnam War. A total of 27 EA-6As were produced, 15 of which were newly manufactured. Most of these EA-6As were retired from service in the 1970s with the last few being used by the Navy with two electronic attack "aggressor" squadrons, with all examples finally retired in the 1990s. The EA-6A was essentially an interim warplane until the more-advanced EA-6B could be designed and built.
The substantially redesigned and more advanced EA-6B was developed beginning in 1966 as a replacement for EKA-3B Skywarriors for the U.S. Navy. The forward fuselage was lengthened to create a rear area for a larger four-seat cockpit, and an antenna fairing was added to the tip of its vertical stabilizer. Grumman was awarded a $12.7 million contract to develop an EA-6B prototype on 14 November 1966. The Prowler first flew on 25 May 1968, and it entered service on aircraft carriers in July 1971. Three prototype EA-6Bs were converted from A-6As, and five EA-6Bs were developmental airplanes. A total of 170 EA-6B production aircraft were manufactured from 1966 through 1991.
The EA-6B Prowler was powered by two Pratt & Whitney J52 turbojet engines, and it was capable of high subsonic speeds. Due to its extensive electronic warfare operations, and the aircraft's age (produced until 1991), the EA-6B was a high-maintenance aircraft, and had undergone many frequent equipment upgrades. Although designed as an electronic warfare and command-and-control aircraft for air strike missions, the EA-6B was also capable of attacking some surface targets on its own, in particular enemy radar sites and surface-to-air missile launchers. In addition, the EA-6B was capable of gathering electronic signals intelligence.
The EA-6B Prowler was continually upgraded over the years. The first such upgrade was named "expanded capability" (EXCAP) beginning in 1973. Then came "improved capability" (ICAP) in 1976 and ICAP II in 1980. The ICAP II upgrade provided the EA-6B with the capability of firing Shrike missiles and AGM-88 HARM missiles.
Advanced Capability EA-6B
The Advanced Capability EA-6B Prowler (ADVCAP) was a development program initiated to improve the flying qualities of the EA-6B and to upgrade the avionics and electronic warfare systems. The intention was to modify all EA-6Bs into the ADVCAP configuration, however the program was removed from the Fiscal Year 1995 budget due to financial pressure from competing Department of Defense acquisition programs.
The ADVCAP development program was initiated in the late 1980s and was broken into three distinct phases: Full-Scale Development (FSD), Vehicle Enhancement Program (VEP) and the Avionics Improvement Program (AIP).
FSD served primarily to evaluate the new AN/ALQ-149 Electronic Warfare System. The program utilized a slightly modified EA-6B to house the new system.
The VEP added numerous changes to the aircraft to address deficiencies with the original EA-6B flying qualities, particularly lateral-directional problems that hampered recovery from out-of-control flight. Bureau Number 158542 was used. Changes included:
Leading edge strakes (to improve directional stability)
Fin pod extension (to improve directional stability)
Ailerons (to improve slow speed lateral control)
Re-contoured leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps (to compensate for an increase in gross weight)
Two additional wing stations on the outer wing panel (for jamming pods only)
New J52-P-409 engines (increased thrust by 2,000 lbf (8.9 kN) per engine)
New digital Standard Automatic Flight Control System (SAFCS)
The added modifications increased the aircraft gross weight approximately and shifted the center of gravity 3% MAC aft of the baseline EA-6B. In previous models, when operating at sustained high angles of attack, fuel migration would cause additional shifts in CG with the result that the aircraft had slightly negative longitudinal static stability. Results of flight tests of the new configuration showed greatly improved flying qualities and the rearward shift of the CG had minimal impact.
The AIP prototype (bureau number 158547) represented the final ADVCAP configuration, incorporating all of the FSD and VEP modifications plus a completely new avionics suite which added multi-function displays to all crew positions, a head-up display for the pilot, and dual Global Positioning/Inertial navigation systems. The initial joint test phase between the contractor and the US Navy test pilots completed successfully with few deficiencies.
After the program was canceled, the three experimental Prowlers, BuNo 156482, 158542 and 158547, were mothballed until 1999. Over the next several years, the three aircraft were dismantled and reassembled to create a single aircraft, b/n 158542, which the Navy dubbed "FrankenProwler". It was returned to active service on 23 March 2005.
Improved Capability (ICAP) III
Northrop Grumman received contracts from the U.S. Navy to deliver new electronic countermeasures gear to Prowler squadrons; the heart of each ICAP III set consists of the ALQ-218 receiver and new software that provides more precise selective-reactive radar jamming and deception and threat location. The ICAP III sets also are equipped with the Multifunction Information Distribution System (MIDS), which includes the Link 16 data link system. Northrop delivered two lots and delivered two more beginning in 2010. The EA-6B Prowlers in service toward the end of its life were the ICAP III version, carrying the ALQ-99 Tactical Jamming System.
Design
Designed for carrier-based and advanced base operations, the EA-6B was a fully integrated electronic warfare system combining long-range, all-weather capabilities with advanced electronic countermeasures. A forward equipment bay and pod-shaped fairing on the vertical fin housed the additional avionics equipment. It was the primary electronic warfare aircraft for the U.S Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. The EA-6B's primary mission was to support ground-attack strikes by disrupting enemy electromagnetic activity. As a secondary mission it could also gather tactical electronic intelligence within a combat zone, and another secondary mission was attacking enemy radar sites with anti-radiation missiles.
The Prowler had a crew of four, a pilot and three Electronic Countermeasures Officers (known as ECMOs). Powered by two non-afterburning Pratt & Whitney J52-P-408A turbojet engines, it was capable of speeds of up to with a range of 1,140 miles (1,840 km).
Design particulars included the refueling probe being asymmetrical, appearing bent to the right to improve pilot visibility over that of the A-6 Intruder. It contained an antenna near its root. The canopy had a shading of gold to protect the crew against the radio emissions that the electronic warfare equipment produces.
Operational history
The EA-6B entered service with Fleet Replacement Squadron VAQ-129 in September 1970, and Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 132 (VAQ-132) became the first operational squadron, in July 1971. This squadron began its first combat deployment to Vietnam on 11 months later, soon followed by VAQ-131 on and VAQ-134 on . Two squadrons of EA-6B Prowlers flew 720 sorties during the Vietnam War in support of US Navy attack aircraft and USAF B-52 bombers.
During the 1983 invasion of Grenada, four Prowlers supported the operation from .
Following the Achille Lauro hijacking, on 10 October 1985 Prowlers from provided ESM support during the interception of the EgyptAir 737 carrying four of the hijackers.
Prowlers jammed Libyan radar during Operation El Dorado Canyon in April 1986. Prowlers from VAQ-135 on jammed Iranian Ground Control Intercept radars, surface-to-air missile guidance radars and communication systems during Operation Praying Mantis on 18 April 1988.
A total of 39 EA-6B Prowlers were involved in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, 27 from six aircraft carriers and 12 from USMC bases. During 4,600 flight hours, Prowlers fired over 150 HARM missiles. Navy Prowlers flew 1,132 sorties and USMC flew 516 with no losses.
With the retirement of the EF-111 Raven in 1998, the EA-6B was the only dedicated aerial radar jammer aircraft of the U.S. Armed Forces, until the fielding of the Navy's EA-18G Growler in 2009. The EA-6B was flown in almost all American combat operations from 1972 until its retirement in 2019, and was frequently flown in support of the U.S. Air Force missions.
In 2001, 124 Prowlers remained, divided between twelve Navy, four Marine, and four joint Navy-Air Force "Expeditionary" squadrons. A Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) staff study recommended that the EF-111 Raven be retired to reduce the types of aircraft dedicated to the same mission, which led to an Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) program memorandum to establish 4 land based "expeditionary" Prowler squadrons to meet the needs of the Air Force.
Though once considered being replaced by Common Support Aircraft, that plan failed to materialize. In 2009, the Navy EA-6B Prowler community began transitioning to the EA-18G Growler, a new electronic warfare derivative of the F/A-18F Super Hornet. All but one of the active duty Navy EA-6B squadrons were based at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island. VAQ-136 was stationed at Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Japan, as part of Carrier Air Wing 5, the forward deployed naval forces (FDNF) air wing that embarks aboard the Japan-based . VAQ-209, the Navy Reserve's sole EA-6B squadron, was stationed at Naval Air Facility Washington, Maryland. All Marine Corps EA-6B squadrons were located at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina.
In 2013, the USN planned to fly the EA-6B until 2015, while the USMC expect to phase out the Prowler in 2019. The last Navy deployment was on in November 2014, with VAQ-134. The last Navy operational flight took place on 27 May 2015. Electronic Attack Wing, U.S. Pacific Fleet (CVWP), hosted a retirement commemoration for the EA-6B from 25 to 27 June 2015 at NAS Whidbey Island.
Operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria
In 2007, it was reported that the Prowler had been used in counter improvised explosive device operations in the conflict in Afghanistan for several years by jamming remote detonation devices such as garage door openers or cellular telephones. Two Prowler squadrons were also based in Iraq, working with the same mission. According to Chuck Pfarrer in his book SEAL Target Geronimo, an EA-6B was also used to jam Pakistani radar and assist the 2 MH-60 Black Hawk stealth helicopters and 2 Chinook helicopters raiding Osama Bin Laden's compound in Operation Neptune Spear.
VMAQ-3 began flying Prowler missions against Islamic State militants over Iraq in June 2014. Once Operation Inherent Resolve began in August, VMAQ-4 took over. The Prowlers were the first Marine Corps aircraft in Syria and support strike packages, air drops, and electronic warfare requirements against militants. By January 2015, the five aircraft of VMAQ-4 had flown 800 hours during 110 sorties in support of operations in both countries, including supporting coalition airstrikes and providing EW support for Iraqi Army forces to degrade enemy systems. Marine Prowlers had not dropped munitions themselves and host nations basing them have not been revealed.
In April 2016, a squadron of EA-6B Prowlers from Marine Corps Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 4 (VMAQ-4), based at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina, was deployed to Incirlik Air Base, Turkey for operations over Syria. U.S. European Command confirmed that the deployment was expected to last through September 2016. The Center for Strategic and International Studies suggested that the Prowlers may be used to prevent Russian and Syrian air defense systems from tracking U.S. and coalition aircraft.
Prowlers of VMAQ-2 completed their last operational deployment to Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar in November 2018, and the squadron, the last equipped with the EA-6B, was disbanded on 8 March 2019, with its remaining two Prowlers being disposed of to museums.
Operators
The EA-6B Prowler was operated by the U.S. Armed Forces with squadrons in the U.S. Marine Corps and Navy.
USMC squadrons
VMAQ squadrons operated the EA-6B Prowler. Each of the three squadrons operated five aircraft; the squadrons were land-based, although they were capable of operating aboard U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and did so in the past.
In 2013, VMAQ-1 converted from an active to a training squadron as the USN stopped training on the Prowler and switched over to the Growler. The Marine Training squadron first received students for training in October 2013 and produced its first training flights in April 2014.
In 2008, the USMC investigated an electronic attack role for the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II to replace their Prowlers. The Marines began retiring the EA-6 in 2016 and replaced them with the Marine Air-Ground Task Force Electronic Warfare (MAGTF-EW) concept, which calls for a medium to high-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle to off-load at least some of the electronic warfare mission.
In November 2018, VMAQ-2 returned from performing the final deployed operations of USMC Prowlers. The Marines retired the aircraft on 8 March 2019, with some placed in storage and on static display at the Smithsonian Institution Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia and the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Dallas Love Field.
USN squadrons
While in U.S. Navy service four EA-6B Prowlers were typically assigned to a Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron. These Navy Electronic Attack squadrons carried the letters VAQ (V-fixed wing, A-attack, Q-electronic); most of these squadrons were carrier-based, while others were "expeditionary" and deployed to overseas land bases.
Disestablished Squadrons
VAQ-128: Established as an expeditionary squadron in October 1997, utilizing the insignia and heritage of the former A-6 Intruder Fleet Replacement Squadron at NAS Whidbey Island. Disestablished in September 2004 due to budget reductions.
VAQ-309: Established as a Naval Air Reserve Force squadron at NAS Whidbey Island in 1979 with EA-6A aircraft, transitioning to the EA-6B in 1989 as part of Carrier Air Wing Reserve THIRTY (CVWR-30). Disestablished on 31 Dec 1994 following the decommissioning of CVWR-30 due to budget cuts; aircraft returned to the Regular Navy.
Notable accidents
While no Prowler has ever been lost in combat, nearly fifty of the 170 built were destroyed in various accidents as of 2013. In 1998, a memorial at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island was dedicated to 44 crew members lost in EA-6B aircraft accidents.
On 26 May 1981, a USMC EA-6B crashed onto the flight deck of and caused a fire, killing 14 crewmen and injuring 45 others. The Prowler was running out of fuel after a missed approach ("bolter" in Navy parlance), and its crash and the subsequent fire and explosions destroyed or damaged 19 other aircraft.
On 3 November 1992 a US Navy EA-6B Prowler (161776,P99 First lCAP ll) from VAQ 129 crashed after takeoff outside of Naval Air Facility, El Centro killing all three crew members aboard; Crew included Capt. Peter Limoge (USMC), LT. Charles Gurley (USN), LT. Dave Roberts (USN). Los Angeles Times 11/5/1992
In August 1996, an EA-6B crashed during low level training, killing all four Marines aboard; pilot, Capt. Gregory O. Glaeser, Capt. Brian F. Hussey, Lt. Col. Joseph E. Connell II, and Maj. John S. Bacheller. Connell was the squadron skipper of VMAQ-1.
On 3 February 1998, a USMC EA-6B Prowler, BuNo 163045, from VMAQ-2 struck the cables of a cablecar system in Cavalese, Italy. The crew broke rules to fly low at high speed in mountainous terrain, cut the cables and caused the death of 20 people. The aircraft also suffered severe damage to its vertical stabiliser and wings as a result of striking the cable, but was landed successfully at Aviano Air Base.
On 8 November 1998, a USN EA-6B landed on a Lockheed S-3 Viking during night landing qualifications on ; four crew members were killed.
On 11 March 2013, a USN EA-6B of Electronic Attack Squadron VAQ-129 in Washington State, crashed during a training exercise. LTJG Valerie Cappelaere Delaney (Pilot), LTJG William Brown McIlvaine III (Flight Officer), and LCDR Alan A. Patterson (Instructor and Flight Officer) were killed. A year later, an investigation determined that the Prowler experienced a controlled flight into terrain that was due to pilot error.
Aircraft on display
Japan
160786 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Facility Atsugi in Yamato, Kanagawa.
United States
147865 – EA-6A on static display at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in Havelock, North Carolina.
148618 – EA-6A on static display at Naval Air Station Key West in Big Coppitt Key, Florida.
149475 – EA-6A on static display at the Wisconsin National Guard Memorial Library and Museum at Volk Field Air National Guard Base in Camp Douglas, Wisconsin.
156481 – EA-6B on static display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida.
156478 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island in Oak Harbor, Washington.
156984 – EA-6A on static display at the Warner Museum of Aviation and Transportation in Sioux City, Iowa.
158029 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Lexington Park, Maryland.
158033 – EA-6B on static display at Patuxent River Naval Air Museum in Lexington Park, Maryland.
158034 – EA-6B on static display at Charles B. Hall Airpark at Tinker Air Force Base in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
158036 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island in Oak Harbor, Washington.
158542 FrankenProwler – EA-6B on static display at the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. Three different ADVCAP airframes were assembled to create this one airframe.
158810 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Station Fallon in Fallon, Nevada.
158811 – EA-6B on static display at the Pacific Coast Air Museum in Santa Rosa, California.
160432 - EA-6B on static display at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in Havelock, North Carolina.
160436 – EA-6B on static display at the Castle Air Museum in Atwater, California.
160609 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Air Station Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida.
161882 – EA-6B on static display at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum in San Diego, California.
161884 – EA-6B on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum at Pensacola, Florida.
162228 – EA-6B on static display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Dallas Love Field in Dallas, Texas. This aircraft along with 162230 participated in the decommissioning of VMAQ-2 in March, 2019.
162230 – EA-6B on static display at the Smithsonian Institution's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. This aircraft along with 162228 participated in the decommissioning of VMAQ-2 in March, 2019.
162935 – EA-6B on static display at the USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California.
162938 – EA-6B on static display at the American Airpower Museum in Farmingdale, New York.
163033 – EA-6B on static display at the Hickory Aviation Museum in Hickory, North Carolina. It flew to the museum from Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point.
163395 – EA-6B on static display at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland.
163886 – EA-6B on static display at the Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum in Denver, Colorado.
164401 – EA-6B on static display at Naval Support Activity Crane in Crane, Indiana.
Specifications (EA-6B)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Donald, David ed. "Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler", Warplanes of the Fleet. AIRtime, 2004. .
Miska, Kurt H. "Grumman A-6A/E Intruder; EA-6A; EA6B Prowler (Aircraft in Profile number 252)". Aircraft in Profile, Volume 14. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1974, p. 137–160. .
External links
EA-6B Prowler Fact File and EA-6B history on Navy.mil
EA-6B Prowler on GlobalSecurity.org
EA-6B Gondola Mishap, Cavalese, Italy, 3 February 1998, Aviation Safety Consulting Services,
EA-006B Prowler
1960s United States electronic warfare aircraft
Twinjets
Carrier-based aircraft
EA-006B Prowler
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1968
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grutter%20v.%20Bollinger
|
Grutter v. Bollinger
|
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003), was a landmark case of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning affirmative action in student admissions. The Court held that a student admissions process that favors "underrepresented minority groups" does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause so long as it takes into account other factors evaluated on an individual basis for every applicant.
The case arose after a prospective student to the University of Michigan Law School alleged that she had been denied admission because the school gave certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission. The school admitted that its admission process favored certain minority groups, but argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups. In a majority opinion joined by four other justices, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor held that the Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."
In her majority opinion, O'Connor wrote that "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time," adding that the "Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer concurred in the judgment, but did not subscribe to the belief that the affirmative measures in question would be unnecessary in 25 years. In a dissent joined by three other justices, Chief Justice William Rehnquist argued that the university's admissions system was, in fact, a thinly veiled and unconstitutional quota system.
The decision largely upheld the Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy but held racial quotas to be unconstitutional. In Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) a separate case decided on the same day as Grutter, the Court struck down a points-based admissions system that awarded an automatic bonus to the admissions scores of minority applicants.
Dispute
When the University of Michigan Law School denied admission to Barbara Grutter, a Michigan resident with a 3.8 GPA and 161 LSAT score, she filed this suit, alleging that respondents had discriminated against her on the basis of race in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as 42 U.S.C. § 1981; that she was rejected because the Law School uses race as a "predominant" factor, giving applicants belonging to certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission than students with similar credentials from disfavored racial groups; and that respondents had no compelling interest to justify that use of race. Lee Bollinger (then-President of the University of Michigan), was the named defendant of this case.
The University argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups, particularly African Americans and Hispanics, which is realized within the student body. They argued that this aims to "ensure that these minority students do not feel isolated or like spokespersons for their race; to provide adequate opportunities for the type of interaction upon which the educational benefits of diversity depend; and to challenge all students to think critically and re-examine stereotypes."
Lower courts
In March 2001, U.S. District Court Judge Bernard A. Friedman ruled that the admissions policies were unconstitutional because they "clearly consider" race and are "practically indistinguishable from a quota system." Due to the significance of the case, the Court of Appeals agreed to hear the case en banc. In May 2002, in a closely divided 5–4 ruling, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision, citing the Bakke decision and allowing the use of race to further the "compelling interest" of diversity. The plaintiffs subsequently requested the Supreme Court review. The Court agreed to hear the case, the first time the Court had heard a case on affirmative action in education since the landmark Bakke decision of 25 years prior.
On April 1, 2003 the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments for Grutter. The Court allowed the recordings of the arguments to be released to the public the same day, only the second time the Court had allowed same-day release of oral arguments. The first time was Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000), the case that ultimately ended the 2000 presidential election.
Supreme Court's decision
The Court's majority ruling, authored by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, held that the United States Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body." The Court held that the law school's interest in obtaining a "critical mass" of minority students was indeed a "tailored use". O'Connor noted that sometime in the future, perhaps twenty-five years hence, racial affirmative action would no longer be necessary in order to promote diversity. It implied that affirmative action should not be allowed permanent status and that eventually a "colorblind" policy should be implemented. The opinion read, "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time." "The Court takes the Law School at its word that it would like nothing better than to find a race-neutral admissions formula and will terminate its use of racial preferences as soon as practicable. The Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." The phrase "25 years from now" was echoed by Justice Thomas in his dissent. Justice Thomas, writing that the system was "illegal now", concurred with the majority only on the point that he agreed the system would still be illegal 25 years hence.
The decision largely upheld the position asserted in Justice Powell's concurrence in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy, but held that quotas were illegal.
Public universities and other public institutions of higher education across the nation are now allowed to use race as a plus factor in determining whether a student should be admitted. While race may not be the only factor, the decision allows admissions bodies to take race into consideration along with other individualized factors in reviewing a student's application. O'Connor's opinion answers the question for the time being as to whether "diversity" in higher education is a compelling governmental interest. As long as the program is "narrowly tailored" to achieve that end, it seems likely that the Court will find it constitutional.
In the majority were Justices O'Connor, Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer. Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas dissented. Much of the dissent concerned a disbelief in the validity of the law school's claim that the system was necessary to create a "critical mass" of minority students and provide a diverse educational environment. In the dissent, Chief Justice Rehnquist used admissions data to argue that unconstitutional discrimination occurred, despite the precedent set in McCleskey v. Kemp that dismiss statistical racial disparities as doctrinally irrelevant in equal protection claims.
The case was heard in conjunction with Gratz v. Bollinger, , in which the Court struck down the University of Michigan's more rigid, point-based undergraduate admission policy, which was essentially deemed a quota system. The case generated a record number of amicus curiae briefs from institutional supporters of affirmative action. A lawyer who filed an amicus curiae brief on behalf of members and former members of the Pennsylvania legislature, State Rep. Mark B. Cohen of Philadelphia, said that Sandra Day O'Connor's majority decision in Grutter v. Bollinger was a "ringing affirmation of the goal of an inclusive society." In both Grutter and Gratz, O'Connor was the swing vote.
Dissent
Chief Justice Rehnquist, joined by Justice Scalia, Justice Kennedy, and Justice Thomas, argued the Law School's admissions policy was an attempt to achieve an unconstitutional type of racial balancing. The Chief Justice attacked the Law School's asserted goal of reaching a "critical mass" of minority students, finding the absolute number African-American, Hispanic, and Native American students varied markedly, which is inconsistent with the concept in that one would think the same size critical mass would be needed for all minority groups. He noted that "[f]rom 1995 through 2000, the Law School admitted... between 13 and 19... Native American[s], between 91 and 108... African American[s], and between 47 and 56... Hispanic[s]... One would have to believe that the objectives of 'critical mass' offered by respondents are achieved with only half the number of Hispanics, and one-sixth the number of Native Americans as compared to African Americans." Citing admissions statistics, the Chief Justice noted the tight correlation between the percentage of applicants and admittees of a given race and argued that the numbers were "far too precise to be dismissed as merely the result of the school paying 'some attention to [the] numbers.'"
Justice Thomas, joined by Justice Scalia, issued a strongly worded opinion, concurring in part and dissenting in part, arguing that if Michigan could not remain a prestigious institution and admit students under a race-neutral system, the "Law School should be forced to choose between its classroom aesthetic and its exclusionary admissions system." In Justice Thomas' opinion, there is no compelling state interest in Michigan maintaining an elite law school, because a number of states do not have law schools, let alone elite ones. Moreover, Justice Thomas noted that in United States v. Virginia, , the Court required the Virginia Military Institute to radically reshape its admissions process and the character of that institution.
Another criticism raised by Justice Thomas compared Michigan Law to the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, where California's Proposition 209 had barred Berkeley Law from "granting preferential treatment on the basis of race in the operation of public education." Despite Proposition 209, however, Berkeley Law was still able to achieve a diverse student body. According to Thomas, "the Court is willfully blind to the very real experience in California and elsewhere, which raises the inference that institutions with 'reputations for excellence'...rivaling [Michigan Law's] have satisfied their sense of mission without resorting to prohibited racial discrimination."
A final criticism leveled at Justice O'Connor's opinion was the length of time the racial admissions policy will be lawful. Justice Thomas concurred that racial preferences would be unlawful in 25 years, however, he noted that in fact the Court should have found race-based affirmative action programs in higher education unlawful now:
I therefore can understand the imposition of a 25-year time limit only as a holding that the deference the Court pays to the Law School's educational judgments and refusal to change its admissions policies will itself expire. At that point these policies will clearly have failed to "'eliminate the [perceived] need for any racial or ethnic'" discrimination because the academic credentials gap will still be there. [citation omitted] The Court defines this time limit in terms of narrow tailoring, [internal citation omitted] but I believe this arises from its refusal to define rigorously the broad state interest vindicated today. [internal citation omitted]. With these observations, I join the last sentence of Part III of the opinion of the Court.
For the immediate future, however, the majority has placed its imprimatur on a practice that can only weaken the principle of equality embodied in the Declaration of Independence and the Equal Protection Clause. "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens." Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 527, 559, [...] (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting). It has been nearly 140 years since Frederick Douglass asked the intellectual ancestors of the Law School to "[d]o nothing with us!" and the Nation adopted the Fourteenth Amendment. Now we must wait another 25 years to see this principle of equality vindicated. I therefore respectfully dissent from the remainder of the Court's opinion and the judgment.
Timeline of federal courts' decisions
The District Court found the Law School's use of race as an admissions factor unlawful.
The Sixth Circuit reversed, holding that Justice Powell's opinion in Bakke was binding precedent establishing diversity as a compelling state interest, and that the Law School's use of race was narrowly tailored because race was merely a "potential 'plus' factor" and because the Law School's program was virtually identical to the Harvard admissions program described approvingly by Justice Powell and appended to his Bakke opinion.
The Supreme Court affirmed the Sixth Circuit's reversal of the District Court decision, thereby upholding the University's admissions policy.
Law adopted post case
Following the decision, petitions were circulated to change the Michigan State Constitution. The measure, called the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative, or Proposal 2, passed in November 2006 and prohibited the use of race in the Law School admissions processes. In this respect, Proposal 2 is similar to California's Proposition 209 and Washington's Initiative 200, other initiatives that also banned the use of race in public university admissions decisions.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit overturned MCRI on July 1, 2011. Judges R. Guy Cole Jr. and Martha Craig Daughtrey said that "Proposal 2 reorders the political process in Michigan to place special burdens on minority interests." This decision was upheld by the full Court of Appeals on November 16, 2012. After the ruling, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette announced he would appeal the court ruling to the Supreme Court. On March 25, 2013 the Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari, agreeing to hear the case. The Court ultimately upheld MCRI in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action.
The Supreme Court decided a challenge to the University of Texas at Austin's admission policy, Fisher v. University of Texas, in June 2013. In this case, the Court reaffirmed that universities were entitled to deference on their judgment that diversity is a compelling state interest. Importantly, though, the Court ruled that a university was entitled to "no deference" on its judgment that race-based affirmative action was necessary to achieve diversity and its educational benefits. The Court remanded the case to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for reconsideration, and that court again upheld UT's use of race. The plaintiff again appealed to the Supreme Court in 2016, which held that the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit correctly found that the University of Texas at Austin's undergraduate admissions policy survived strict scrutiny, in accordance with Fisher v. University of Texas (2013).
The same advocacy group and legal team challenging UT Austin also filed lawsuits against Harvard University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in November 2014. These cases are pending in U.S. District Courts and are partially on hold until the Supreme Court provides further guidance in its second UT Austin ruling.
Further challenge
The Supreme Court granted certification to Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College two cases dealing with race-based admissions at Harvard College and The University of North Carolina in January 2022. Both cases seek to overturn Grutter and the use of race in admissions.
See also
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)
Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539
Affirmative action at the University of Michigan
References
Further reading
External links
Briefs, Decisions and audio recordings (mp3 & realmedia)
(Oral Argument recording)
United States equal protection case law
United States affirmative action case law
2003 in United States case law
2003 in education
University of Michigan
University and college admissions
Legal history of Michigan
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States racial discrimination case law
|
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204757
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick%20Jones
|
Mick Jones
|
Mick Jones may refer to:
Music
Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist) (born 1944), English guitarist, songwriter and record producer in the rock band Foreigner and earlier Spooky Tooth
Mick Jones (album), a 1989 album by Foreigner musician Mick Jones
Mick Jones (The Clash guitarist) (born 1955), British guitarist and a vocalist of The Clash
Micky Jones, British guitarist and a vocalist of Welsh prog band Man
Mickey Jones (1941–2018), American musician and actor
Sports
Mick Jones (footballer, born 1942), English footballer
Mick Jones (footballer, born 1945), of the Leeds United football team
Mick Jones (footballer, born 1947), English football player and football manager
Mick Jones (hammer thrower) (born 1963), British hammer thrower
See also
Michael Jones (disambiguation)
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204758
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathet%20Lao
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Pathet Lao
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The Pathet Lao (), officially the Lao People's Liberation Army, was a communist political movement and organization in Laos, formed in the mid-20th century. The group was ultimately successful in assuming political power in 1975, after the Laotian Civil War. The Pathet Lao were always closely associated with Vietnamese communists. During the civil war, it was effectively organized, equipped and even led by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN). They fought against the anti-communist forces in the Vietnam War. Eventually, the term became the generic name for Laotian communists.
The most important source of military aid to the movement (as was also the case for the Vietnamese communists) was China; under orders from Mao Zedong, the People's Liberation Army provided 115,000 guns, 920,000 grenades and 170 million bullets, and trained more than 700 of its military officers.
Organization
The political movement of the Pathet Lao was called first the "Lao People's Party" (1955–1972) and later the "Lao People's Revolutionary Party" (1972–present).
Key Pathet Lao leaders include Prince Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Phoumi Vongvichit, Nouhak Phoumsavanh and Khamtay Siphandone.
The political wing of the Pathet Lao, called the "Lao Patriotic Front" () served in multiple coalition governments, starting in 1956. Through the 1960s and 1970s the Pathet Lao battled the Royal Lao government during the Laotian Civil War, gaining control of the north and east of Laos. The Pathet Lao gained power throughout the country by the spring of 1975. In December, the US-backed Vientiane government fell and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party formed a new government.
History
1940s and 1950s
The organization can trace its roots from the Second World War, similar to the Khmer Issarak in Cambodia and the Viet Minh in Vietnam. Originally the Lao Issara, an anti-French, non-communist nationalist movement formed on 12 October 1945, it was renamed the "Pathet Lao" in 1950, when it was adopted by Lao forces under Souphanouvong, who joined the Viet Minh's revolt against the colonial French authorities in Indochina during the First Indochina War.
Souphanouvong, who had spent seven years in Nha Trang during his sixteen years in Vietnam, met Ho Chi Minh, married a Vietnamese woman while in Vietnam, and solicited Viet Minh aid in founding a guerrilla force.
In August 1950, Souphanouvong joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi, Vietnam, and became the head of the Pathet Lao, along with its political arm dubbed "Neo Lao Issara" (Free Lao Front). The Pathet Lao founded resistance government with members: Souphanouvong (prime minister, minister of the foreign), Kaysone Phomvihane (minister of the defence), Nouhak Phoumsavanh (minister of the economy), Phoumi Vongvichit (deputy prime minister, minister of the interior), Souk Vongsak, Sithon Kommadam, and Faydang Lobliayao. This was an attempt to give a false front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent a united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party, which advocated an overthrow of the monarchy as well as expulsion of the French.
In 1953, Pathet Lao fighters accompanied an invasion of Laos from Vietnam led by Viet Minh forces; they established a government at Viengxay in Houaphan province in northeast Laos. The communists began to make incursions into central Laos with the support of the Viet Minh, and a civil war erupted; the Pathet Lao quickly occupied substantial sections of the country.
The 1954 Geneva Conference agreements required the withdrawal of foreign forces, and allowed the Pathet Lao to establish itself as a regime in Laos's two northern provinces. The Viet Minh and North Vietnamese, in spite of the agreement, never really withdrew from the border areas of Laos and the Pathet Lao continued to operate almost as a branch organization of the Viet Minh. Two months after the conference, the North Vietnamese formed the unit Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Nameo. The unit effectively controlled and directed the Pathet Lao movement.
It was formed into an official party, the Lao Patriotic Front (Neo Lao Hak Sat (NLHS)), in 1956. Its stated goal was to wage the communist struggle against capitalism and Western colonialism and imperialism. Unstated was its subordination to the Communist Party of Vietnam.
A coalition government was established in 1957 between the monarchists and communists. In May 1959 two Pathet Lao battalions which had been selected for integration into the Royal Lao Army (RLA) were surrounded by RLA troops who attempted to disarm them, part of one battalion was captured but the remainder fled to North Vietnam. Then in July 1959 Lao police arrested 16 Neo Lao Hak Sat members, including seven who had been elected to the National Assembly, on charges of treason. These actions brought about a resumption of fighting.
1959 to 1975
In late 1959, North Vietnam had reoccupied areas of eastern Laos. The area was used as a transit route for men and supplies destined for the Viet Cong insurgency in South Vietnam which became known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. In September 1959, North Vietnam formed Group 959 in Laos with the aim of securing the supply route to South Vietnam and building the Pathet Lao into a stronger counterforce against the Lao Royal government. Group 959 openly supplied, trained and militarily supported the Pathet Lao. The typical strategy during this era was for PAVN regulars to attack first but then send in the Pathet Lao at the end of the battle to claim victory.
In the early 1960s, more attempts at neutrality agreements and coalition government were attempted, principally the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos signed in Geneva on 23 July 1962, but as North Vietnam had no intention of withdrawing from Laos, these agreements all failed. The Pathet Lao entered into another coalition government in June 1962 but by April 1963 the Pathet Lao abandoned the coalition and resumed fighting.
By the mid-1960s, the country had fallen into proxy warfare between pro-US and pro-North Vietnamese irregular military groups. The PAVN/Pathet Lao battled the RLA, US irregular forces (including Air America and other contract employees and Hmong commandos) and Thai volunteer forces in Laos winning effective control in the north and east. The government itself was effectively powerless. Until 1968 military operations were conducted by small units, usually of company or at most Battalion size. Typically the RLA would be dominant in the wet season from May through October when the PAVN/Pathet Lao were immobilized by the rains and the PAVN/Pathet Lao would dominate during the dry season from November through April. PAVN forces in Laos were primarily focused on supporting and defending the Ho Chi Minh Trail, with support for the Pathet Lao revolution as a secondary role. In 1968 of the estimated 40,000 PAVN troops in Laos, 25,000 were engaged in supporting the Trail, 700 as advisers to the Pathet Lao and the remainder in mobile units supporting Pathet Lao operations. Publicly the North Vietnamese maintained that they did not have any troops in Laos and were respecting the Geneva Agreement, while the United States and its allies were violating it; the United States asserted the exact opposite.
The Pathet Lao supreme headquarters or center was located in the Viengxay caves near Xam Neua manned by approximately 500 personnel. NLHS membership was estimated as being 11,000 in 1965 and 14,000 in 1978.
In October 1965 the armed forces were renamed the Lao People's Liberation Army (LPLA). LPLA estimated strength was 25,000 in June 1965, 33,000 in April 1967, 48,000+ in 1970 and 35,000 in late 1972. The LPLA was divided into regular, regional/popular and militia/guerilla forces. LPLA forces had PAVN advisers assigned to them but were not mixed with PAVN forces. Recruitment into the LPLA was based on appeals to the patriotism of young Laotians who were told that their country was rich in natural resources but the people were poor because of capitalism and US imperialism. If volunteers were not forthcoming then youth would be drafted, with the draft age of 15, but in many cases conscripts were as young as 12. Training was rudimentary with a greater emphasis placed on political indoctrination than on military skills as the "fighting will" was deemed to be the most important source of military strength. Military units had Political commissars down to company level. The LPLA were entirely dependent on the PAVN for the supply of weapons and munitions and were generally outgunned by the RLA.
In May 1968, the PAVN launched a multi-division invasion of Laos. The Pathet Lao effectively served as an auxiliary force to the PAVN. In June 1969 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign Toan Thang, their first wet season offensive. Unable to match the heavy Soviet and Chinese weapons in addition to the numerical strength of the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces, the RLA took heavy losses. In September 1969 the RLA attacked PAVN/Pathet Lao positions on the Plain of Jars and along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, while initially successful the RLA forces were pushed back by the PAVN/Pathet Lao Campaign 139.
On 2 February 1971 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign 74B temporarily capturing the Plain of Jars and shelling Long Tieng, the base of Vang Pao's RLA aligned army before withdrawing. On 28 October 1972 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign 972 scoring a series of victories over the war-weary RLA forces.
With the signing of the Paris Peace Accords on 27 January 1973 all U.S. prisoners were to be released under Operation Homecoming. The United States Department of Defense (DOD) listed 311 Americans as missing in Laos, however on 1 February 1973 the North Vietnamese handed the Americans a list of prisoners of war in Laos which included only nine Americans: seven servicemen and two civilians. U.S. agencies believe that as many as 41 Americans may have been held prisoner by the Pathet Lao. Charles Shelton who was captured on 29 April 1965 was listed as a prisoner by the DOD until September 1994. As at 26 July 2019 the DOD's Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency listed 286 Americans as missing in Laos of which 263 were classified as further pursuit, 12 deferred and 11 non-recoverable.
Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords ended U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, the Pathet Lao and the government of Laos signed a cease-fire agreement, the Vientiane Treaty, on 21 February 1973.
On 4 April 1974 the Provisional Government of National Union (PGNU) was formed in Laos.
In December 1974, the Pathet Lao were responsible for the killing of Charles Dean and Neil Sharman, backpackers who were captured near Vientiane.
The peace envisaged by the treaty lasted only two years. The Pathet Lao refused to disarm and the PAVN did not leave the country. In late February 1975, the Pathet Lao with PAVN assistance, began attacking government strongholds on the Plain of Jars. With the fall of the Cambodian government to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April and the fall of the South Vietnamese government to the PAVN on 30 April 1975 the non-communist elements of the national government decided that allowing the Pathet Lao to enter power would be better than to have them take it by force. Long Tieng was evacuated in mid-May. On 23 August 1975, Pathet Lao forces quietly entered the capital Vientiane.
On 2 December 1975, the Pathet Lao firmly took over the government, abolishing the monarchy and establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Shortly thereafter, the Pathet Lao signed an agreement with Vietnam that allowed Vietnam to station part of its army in the country and to send political and economic advisors into Laos. Vietnam afterward forced Laos to cut any remaining economic ties to its other neighbours, including Thailand and Cambodia.
After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root". With the demise of the Soviet Union, control of Laos by Vietnam waned at the end of the 1980s. Today, "Pathet Lao" is often invoked as a general term signifying Lao nationalism.
See also
Indochina
Laotian Civil War (the Secret War)
Vietnam War
Lao People's Revolutionary Party
References
Further reading
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20120204034101/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/lima/laos1962.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20120204034105/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/lima/laos1954.htm
http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0859186.html
http://countrystudies.us/laos/
http://countrystudies.us/laos/14.htm
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058717/Pathet-Lao
Communism in Laos
Defunct communist militant groups
Factions of the First Indochina War
Factions of the Vietnam War
History of Laos
Guerrilla organizations
Laotian Civil War
Paramilitary organizations based in Laos
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica%20Lynch
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Jessica Lynch
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Jessica Dawn Lynch is an American teacher, actress, and former United States Army soldier who served in the 2003 invasion of Iraq as a private first class. On March 23, 2003, she was serving as a unit supply specialist with the 507th Maintenance Company when her convoy was ambushed by Iraqi troops during the Battle of Nasiriyah; Lynch was seriously injured during the offensive and captured by Iraqi soldiers shortly afterwards. Her subsequent recovery by U.S. special operations forces on April 1, 2003, received considerable media coverage as it was the first successful rescue of an American prisoner of war since World War II and the first ever of a woman.
Initial official reports on Lynch's capture and rescue in Iraq were incorrect. On April 24, 2007, she testified in front of U.S. Congress that she had never fired her weapon (her M16 rifle reportedly having jammed), and that she had been knocked unconscious when her vehicle crashed during the ambush. Lynch has been outspoken in her criticism of the original stories that were reported regarding her combat experience. When asked about her heroine status, she stated: "That wasn't me. I'm not about to take credit for something I didn't do... I'm just a survivor."
In 2014, Lynch made her acting debut as specialist Summer L. Gabriel in the film 2014 film Virtuous. Her role was loosely based on her own experiences during the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Early life
Lynch was born in Palestine, West Virginia, the second child and first daughter to Deidre Lynch and Gregory Lynch, Sr. Her family could not afford to send her to college; her older brother had to drop out for financial reasons as well. Searching for a way to pay for the children's educations, the Lynch family met with an army recruiter in the summer of 2000 when Lynch was seventeen and still attending high school. "He did not lie to the kids," her mother said, "he said there was always the possibility of war in the future." "But at that time it was before September 11, and there was no terrorism," Lynch recalls, "so we were like, 'that would never happen to On September 19, 2001, Lynch entered basic training at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. She later completed Advanced Individual Training for her Military Occupational Specialty as a unit supply specialist (MOS 92Y) in the Quartermaster Corps at Fort Lee, Virginia.
Military career
Battle of Nasiriyah
On March 23, 2003, a convoy of the United States Army's 507th Maintenance Company and the 3rd Combat Support Battalion elements, led by a Humvee driven by Lori Piestewa, made a wrong turn and were ambushed near Nasiriyah, a major crossing point over the Euphrates northwest of Basra. The convoy was supposed to detour around the town but instead turned directly into it, eventually running into an ambush. The ambush was unlikely to have been set up in advance, because the Iraqis did not know which course the convoy would take. Although some vehicles had GPS receivers, military GPS systems, unlike civilian equivalents, provide only grid references and not turn-by-turn navigation. Maps of the area lack the detail required to properly navigate through tight city streets. Apparently, the convoy took more than one wrong turn. The convoy came under attack by enemy fire. The Humvee in which Lynch was riding was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade and crashed into the rear of a tractor-trailer. Lynch was severely injured.
Lynch, then a supply clerk with the 507th Maintenance Company from Fort Bliss, Texas, was wounded and captured by Iraqi forces. She was initially listed as missing in action. Eleven other soldiers in the company were killed in the ambush. Five other soldiers were captured and subsequently rescued 21 days later. Lynch's best friend, Lori Piestewa, received a serious head wound and died in an Iraqi civilian hospital.
A video of some of the American prisoners of war, including Piestewa, was later shown around the world on Al Jazeera television. Later, footage was discovered of both Lynch and Piestewa at an Iraqi hospital before the latter died.
Prisoner of war
After some time in the custody of the Iraqi army regiment that had captured her, Lynch was taken to a hospital in Nasiriyah. Iraqi hospital staff, including doctors Harith Al-Houssona and Anmar Uday, said they shielded Lynch from Iraqi military and government agents who were using the hospital as a base of military operations. US forces were tipped off as to Lynch's whereabouts by an Iraqi, who told them she had been tortured and injured but was still alive. The Iraqi was described as a 32-year-old lawyer, initially described only as "Mohammed" and later identified as Mohammed Odeh al Rehaief. In light of Mohammed's role in Lynch's rescue, he and his family were granted refugee status by the United States.
Initial reports indicated that al Rehaief's wife was a nurse by the name of Iman in the hospital where Lynch was being held captive, and that while visiting his wife at the hospital, al Rehaief noticed that security was heightened and inquired as to why. However, hospital personnel later confirmed only part of al Rehaief's story, indicating that while al Rehaief had indeed visited the hospital, his wife was not a nurse there, nor was there any nurse by the name of Iman working there. While visiting the hospital from which Lynch was eventually extracted, al Rehaief also claimed that he had observed an Iraqi colonel slapping Lynch. "My heart stopped", said al Rehaief, "I knew then I must help her be saved. I decided I must go to tell the Americans."
Al Rehaief's story has been disputed by doctors working at the hospital, who say that Lynch was shielded and protected from Iraqi military personnel by hospital staff and was treated well throughout her stay at the hospital. Lynch's own story concurs with these accounts, saying that she was treated humanely, with a nurse even singing to her.
Moreover, according to reports, on March 30, Al-Houssona reportedly attempted to have Lynch delivered to the U.S. forces, an attempt which had to be abandoned when the Americans fired on the Iraqi ambulance carrying her.
According to al Rehaief's version of the events leading up to Lynch's rescue, he walked six miles to a US Marine checkpoint to inform American forces that he knew where Lynch was being held. After talking with the Marines, al Rehaief was then sent back to the hospital to gather more information, which was used to plan Lynch's rescue. Allegedly, al Rehaief returned to the checkpoint with five different maps of the hospital and the details of the security layout, reaction plan, and shift changes.
The US military reportedly learned of Lynch's location from several informants, one of whom was al Rehaief. After al Rehaief came forward and confirmed Lynch's location, officials with the Defense Intelligence Agency equipped and trained an unnamed person, possibly al Rehaief, alternatively listed as an Iraqi informant and as a Central Intelligence Agency agent, with a concealed video camera. On the day of the raid, the informant walked around the hospital, secretly videotaping entrances and a route to Lynch's room.
Hospital retrieval
On April 1, 2003, U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion 4th Marines, 2nd Battalion 8th Marines and 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines, as well as members from the Navy SEALs under the command of the U.S. Army, staged a diversionary attack, besieging nearby Iraqi irregulars to draw them away from Saddam Hospital in Nasiriyah. Meanwhile, an element from the Joint Special Operations Task Force 121 composed of U.S. Army Special Forces (Green Berets), Air Force Pararescuemen (PJs), Army Rangers, 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) and Delta Force launched a nighttime raid on the hospital, and successfully retrieved Lynch and the bodies of eight other American soldiers.
According to certain accounts of doctors present during the raid, they were gathered into groups at gunpoint and treated as possible hostiles until they could be identified as being hospital staff. Many military and Special Operations Forces experts have defended the tactics of the operators who led the raid, saying that Special Operations Forces teams are trained to expect the worst and move quickly, initially treating each person they encounter as a possible threat. Additionally, the doctors stated that the Iraqi military had left the hospital the day before, and that no one in the hospital had offered any resistance to the American forces during the raid.
One witness account claimed that the Special Operations Forces had foreknowledge that the Iraqi military had fled a day before they raided the hospital, and that the entire event was staged, even going so far as to use blanks to create the appearance that they were firing. The use of blanks was disputed by weapons experts who pointed out that there was no sign of blank adapters being used on the weapons of those who appeared in the video of the raid.
In the initial press briefing on April 2, 2003, the Pentagon released a five-minute video of the rescue and claimed that Lynch had stab and bullet wounds, and that she had been slapped while on her hospital bed and interrogated.
Iraqi doctors and nurses later interviewed, including Harith Al-Houssona, a doctor in the Nasiriyah hospital, described Lynch's injuries as "a broken arm, a broken thigh, and a dislocated ankle". According to Al-Houssona, there was no sign of gunshot or stab wounds, and Lynch's injuries were consistent with those that would be suffered in a car accident, which Lynch verified when she stated that she got hurt when her Humvee flipped and broke her leg. Al-Houssona's account of events was later confirmed in a U.S. Army report leaked on July 10, 2003.
US army medical reports later indicated that Lynch had been raped during the first three hours of her captivity, while she was unconscious. The authorized biography, I Am A Soldier Too: The Jessica Lynch Story, by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Rick Bragg describes Lynch as being sodomized during captivity, although the Iraqi doctors who rescued and treated her denied that they had found evidence of sexual assault.
Departure from Iraq
From Kuwait, Lynch was transported to Landstuhl Regional Medical Center, Germany, where she was expected to recover fully from her injuries. On the flight to Ramstein Air Base in Germany, the military medics kept her sedated and hydrated. Her family flew to Germany on April 5 to be reunited with her. In a statement, the hospital said, "Lynch had a big smile on her face when her parents arrived."
Lynch underwent back surgery on April 3 to correct a vertebra that was putting pressure on her spinal cord. Since then, she has undergone several more surgeries to stabilize her fractures.
Eleven bodies were recovered at the same time of Lynch's rescue, nine from a shallow gravesite and two from the morgue. Following forensic identification, eight were identified as fellow members of her company, including Private First Class Lori Piestewa. All were subsequently given posthumous Purple Hearts. Details of their deaths are unclear.
Lynch was shown during a controversial display on Al Jazeera television of four other supply-unit POWs. That video also showed a number of dead soldiers from that unit with gunshot wounds to the forehead.
After learning of Mohammed Odeh al-Rehaief's role in Lynch's rescue, Friends of Mohammed, a group based in Malden, West Virginia, was formed to press for al Rehaief to be naturalized as a U.S. citizen and to bring him to West Virginia. On April 29, 2003, Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge announced that Mohammed Odeh al Rehaief, his wife, and their five-year-old daughter had been granted humanitarian asylum on April 28. Al Rehaief and his family were brought to the United States at his request April 10. Al Rehaief published a book, "Because Each Life Is Precious" in October 2003, for a reported US$150,000. He now works in the U.S.
Return home
Upon her return she was greeted by thousands of West Virginia residents and by then-fiancé Army Sergeant Ruben Contreras. Soon after her return, Lynch and Contreras separated.
On April 12, 2003, Lynch was flown to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C., to undergo specialized treatment and rehabilitation. On April 17, she underwent surgery to repair a bone in her right foot.
While recovering in Washington, Lynch was inundated with gifts and flowers from well-wishers, so much so that she asked the public to send cards instead. Her family suggested that the public send money to charity and relief organizations.
Lynch was released from the hospital on July 22, more than three months after her injury.
On August 27, 2003, Lynch was given an honorable discharge.
Awards and decorations
Controversy regarding coverage
Lynch blamed the U.S. government for creating the story as part of the Pentagon's propaganda effort.
Soon after Lynch was rescued, Pentagon officials disputed a report appearing in the Washington Post that Lynch had fought back, and the first official report of Lynch's actions during her capture released by the Pentagon weeks later said that she did not appear to have fought back against her captors, in contradiction of earlier Pentagon press releases. According to one former Pentagon official, the stories of her supposed heroics that day were spread by the news media, and Congressmen from West Virginia were instrumental in pushing the Pentagon to award her honors based on reports of her actions during her capture.
Months after returning, Lynch finally began speaking to the public. Her statements tended to be sharply critical of the original story that was reported by the Washington Post. When asked about her heroine status, "That wasn't me. I'm not about to take credit for something I didn't do ... I'm just a survivor."
Despite the letters of support she received after her testimony before a House oversight committee, Lynch says that she still gets hate mail from Americans who accuse her of making up the heroic acts attributed to her. "I was captured, but then I was OK and I didn't go down fighting. OK, so what?" she says. "It was really hard to convince people that I didn't have to do any of that. That I was injured, that I still needed comfort."
She did not claim that she fought until being wounded, but she did say her weapon jammed immediately and that she could not have done anything anyway. Interviewed by Diane Sawyer, Lynch claimed, concerning the media and the Pentagon: "They used me to symbolize all this stuff. It's wrong. I don't know why they filmed [the rescue mission] or why they say these things." She also stated "I did not shoot, not a round, nothing. I went down praying to my knees. And that's the last I remember."
Critics have also accused the media of bias in the coverage of Lynch versus that of her fellow soldiers, Shoshana Johnson and Lori Piestewa. All three were ambushed in the same attack during the Iraq War on March 23, 2003, with Piestewa being killed and Lynch and Johnson being injured and taken prisoner. Lynch, a young, blonde, white woman, received far more media coverage than Johnson (a black woman and a single mother) and Piestewa (a Hopi from an impoverished background, and also a single mother), with media critics suggesting that the media gave more attention to the woman with whom audiences supposedly more readily identify.
Congressional hearings
On April 24, 2007, Lynch gave congressional testimony before the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform that the Pentagon had erroneously portrayed her as a "Rambo from the hills of West Virginia" when, in fact, she never fired a shot after her truck was ambushed.
She began her testimony by noting for the record that her appearance was not politically motivated. In a prepared statement, she said:
Later life
Lynch attended West Virginia University at Parkersburg on a full scholarship because of her military service. She graduated with her Bachelor of Arts Degree in Elementary Education K-6 on December 16, 2011, after completing her student-teacher training at the same elementary school she had attended, in Wirt County, West Virginia. She had joined the U.S. Army at 18 in order to "earn money for college and become a school teacher".
On May 6, 2006, Allison Barker of the Associated Press reported that Lynch, who had completed her freshman year, avoided talking about her military service at school, despite wearing a brace on her left foot protecting nerve damage from her capture: "I think people recognize who I am; they just don't make it obvious. That's good for me because it gives me the opportunity to blend in and not stick out and really experience the college life, just like they are." Lynch also talked about her career plans and legacy: "I know I want to do something with children. [But] I haven't really found my direction, with everything I've been through ... I want people to remember me as being a soldier who went over there and did my job. Nothing special. I'm just a country girl at heart."
On August 24, 2006, Good Morning America Weekend Edition co-anchor Kate Snow reported that Lynch wrote a letter stating she would have a baby by the end of the year. Fox News reported that Lynch and her then-boyfriend Wes Robinson would have their first child in January. She made the statement: "I was not sure if this could ever happen for me, learning to walk again and coping with the internal injuries that I still deal with pale in comparison to the tremendous joy of carrying this child." She gave birth on January 19, 2007, through a caesarean section, and named her daughter "Dakota Ann" after her fallen friend, Lori Ann Piestewa, the first woman of the U.S.-led Coalition killed in the Iraq War and the first Native American woman killed on foreign soil in an American war.
As of 2015, Lynch worked occasionally as a substitute teacher and made her living as a motivational speaker. She suffered from post-traumatic stress.
In 2018, it was reported that Lynch is a 5th grade teacher in West Virginia.
Filmography
In popular culture
Saving Jessica Lynch is an NBC made-for-TV movie directed by Peter Markle and was released in November 2003. Laura Regan portrays Jessica.
References
Further reading
External links
As delivered transcript, audio, video of Jessica Lynch's Opening Statement to the House Oversight & Govt. Reform Committee
Living people
21st-century American actresses
American film actresses
Actresses from West Virginia
Military personnel from West Virginia
United States Army personnel of the Iraq War
American prisoners of war
Iraq War prisoners of war
Logistics personnel of the United States military
People from Wirt County, West Virginia
Propaganda in the United States
Quartermasters
United States Army soldiers
West Virginia University at Parkersburg alumni
Women in the Iraq War
Female United States Army personnel
Prisoners of war held by Iraq
Military personnel missing in action
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Thai%20language
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Northern Thai language
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Northern Thai (); Kam Mueang ( ), ( ) or Lanna () is the language of the Northern Thai people of Lanna, Thailand. It is a Southwestern Tai language that is closely related to Lao. Kam Mueang has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live in the native Northern Thailand, with a smaller community of Lanna speakers in northwestern Laos.
Speakers of this language generally consider the name "Tai Yuan" to be pejorative. They refer to themselves as (คนเมือง, - literally "Mueang people"), Lanna, or Northern Thai. The language is also sometimes referred to as (พายัพ, ), "Northwestern (speech)".
The term Yuan is still sometimes used for Northern Thai's distinctive Tai Tham alphabet, which is closely related to the old Tai Lue alphabet and the Lao religious alphabets. The use of the , as the traditional alphabet is known, is now largely limited to Buddhist temples, where many old sermon manuscripts are still in active use. There is no active production of literature in the traditional alphabet. The modern spoken form is called . There is a resurgence of interest in writing it in the traditional way, but the modern pronunciation differs from that prescribed in spelling rules.
Classification
Northern Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Thai, Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages. The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family, which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border.
From a purely genealogical standpoint, most linguists consider Northern Thai to be more closely related to Central Thai than to Lao or Isan, but the language has been heavily influenced by both Lao and Central Thai throughout history. All Southwestern Tai languages form a coherent dialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible varieties, with few sharp dividing lines. Nevertheless, Northern Thai has today become closer to the Central Thai language, as Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand.
Names
The Northern Thai language has various names in Northern Thai, Thai, and other Tai languages.
In Northern Thai, it is commonly called (, , literally "city language"; cf. Standard Thai: คำเมือง ), or (, ภาษาล้านนา , literally "the language of Lan Na").
In Central Thai and Southern Thai, Northern Thai is known as phasa thin phayap (ภาษาถิ่นพายัพ , literally "the language of the northwestern region"), or phasa thai thin nuea (ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ , literally "the Thai language of the northern region", or colloquially it is known as phasa nuea (ภาษาเหนือ , literally "the northern language").
In Lao, it is known as or ( or respectively, or respectively, literally "the Tai Yuan language").
In Tai Lü, it is known as kam yon ( , literally "the Tai Yuan language").
In Shan it is known as kwam yon ( , literally "the Tai Yuan language").
History
Tai migration
The ancestors of the Northern Thai people were speakers of Southwestern Tai dialects that migrated from what is now southeastern China, specifically what is now Guangxi and northern Vietnam where the diversity of various Tai languages suggests an Urheimat. The Southwestern Tai languages began to diverge from the Northern and Central branches of the Tai languages, covered mainly by various Zhuang languages, sometime around 112 AD, but likely completed by the sixth century. Due to the influx of Han Chinese soldiers and settlers, the end of the Chinese occupation of Vietnam, the fall of Jiaozhi and turbulence associated with the decline and fall of the Tang Dynasty led some of the Tai peoples speaking Southwestern Tai to flee into Southeast Asia, with the small-scale migration mainly taking place between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The Tais split and followed the major river courses, with the ancestral Northern Thai originating in the Tai migrants that followed the Mekong River.
Indianized kingdoms
Ancestors of the Northern Thai people established Ngoenyang, an early kingdom that existed between the 7th to 13th centuries, as well as smaller kingdoms like Phayao, in what is now modern-day northern Thailand. They settled in areas adjacent to the kingdom of Hariphunchai, coming into contact with Mon-speaking people whose writing system was eventually adapted for the Northern Thai language as the Tai Tham script. In the 13th century, King Mangrai consolidated control of these territories, establishing the kingdom of Lan Na. In the 15th century, King Tilokkarat ushered in a golden age for Northern Thai literature, with a profusion of palm leaf manuscripts written in Tai Tham, using vernacular Northern Thai and interspersed with Pali and Buddhist Indic vocabulary.
Thai subordination
In 1775, Kawila of Lampang revolted with Siamese assistance, and captured the city, ending 200 years of Burmese rule. Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam. In 1899, Siam annexed the Northern Thai principalities, effectively dissolving their status as sovereign tributary states.
The Compulsory Education Act of 1921 banned schools and temples from using languages other than Central Thai (standard Thai), in an effort to bring remote regions under Siamese control. Northern Thai was relegated from the public sphere, with influential religious leaders like Khruba Srivichai jailed for using Northern Thai in sermons. In the 1940s, authorities promulgated Thai cultural mandates that reinforced the importance of learning and using Central Thai as the prestige language.
These economic and educational pressures have increased the use of standard Thai to the detriment of other regional languages like Northern Thai. Today, Northern Thai is typically code-switched with standard Thai, especially in more developed and urbanized areas of Northern Thailand, whereas exclusive use of Northern Thai remains prevalent in more remote areas.
Dialects
Thanajirawat (2018) classifies Tai Yuan into five major dialect groups based on tonal split and merger patterns. (See also Proto-Tai language#Tones)
most Tai Yuan varieties in Thailand, Laos and Myanmar
Bokeo Province, Laos (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (B4=DL4=DS4))
Mae Chaem District, Chiang Mai Province and Laplae District, Uttaradit Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123))
Tha Pla District, Uttaradit Province and Xayaburi Province, Laos (A12-34, BDL1234, and CDS123-4)
Ratchaburi Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123, B4=C4=DL4))
Phonology
Consonants
Initial consonants
Northern Thai consonant inventory is similar to that of Lao; both languages have the sound and lack .
Initial consonant clusters
There are two relatively common consonant clusters:
/kw/
/xw/
There are also several other, less frequent clusters recorded, though apparently in the process of being lost:
/ŋw/
/tɕw/
/sw/
/tw/
/tʰw/
/nw/
/ɲw/
/jw/
/lw/
/ʔw/
Final consonants
All plosive sounds are unreleased. Hence, final , , and sounds are pronounced as , , and respectively.
Vowels
The basic vowels of the Northern Thai language are similar to those of Standard Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in the Thai alphabet, where a dash (–) indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.
The vowels each exist in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming unrelated words in Northern Thai, but usually transliterated the same: เขา (khao) means "they/them", while ขาว (khao) means "white".
The long-short pairs are as follows:
The basic vowels can be combined into diphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:
Additionally, there are three triphthongs, all of which are long:
Allophones
The following section largely concerns the Nan dialect of Northern Thai.
Tones
There are six phonemic tones in the Chiangmai dialect of Northern Thai: low-rising, mid-low, high-falling, mid-high, falling, and high rising-falling.
Contrastive tones in unchecked syllables
The table below presents six phonemic tones in unchecked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in sonorant sounds such as [m], [n], [ŋ], [w], and [j] and open syllables.
Contrastive tones in checked syllables
The table below presents four phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a glottal stop [ʔ] and obstruent sounds such as [p], [t], and [k].
Grammar
The grammar of Northern Thai is similar to those of other Tai languages. The word order is subject–verb–object, although the subject is often omitted. Just as Standard Thai, Northern Thai pronouns are selected according to the gender and relative status of speaker and audience.
Adjectives and adverbs
There is no morphological distinction between adverbs and adjectives. Many words can be used in either function. They succeed the word which they modify, which may be a noun, verb, or another adjective or adverb.
/ แม่ญิงเฒ่า (, ) an old woman
/ แม่ญิงตี้เฒ่าโวย (, ) a woman who became old quickly
Because adjectives can be used as complete predicates, many words used to indicate tense in verbs (see Verbs:Aspect below) may be used to describe adjectives.
/ ข้าหิว (, ) I am hungry.
/ ข้าจะหิว (, ) I will be hungry.
/ ข้ากะลังหิว (, ) I am hungry right now.
/ ข้าหิวแล้ว (, ) I am already hungry.
Verbs
Verbs do not inflect. They do not change with person, tense, voice, mood, or number; nor are there any participles.
/ ข้าตี๋เปิ้น (, ), I hit him.
/ เปิ้นตี๋ข้า (, ), He hit me.
The passive voice is indicated by the insertion of / โดน (, ) before the verb. For example:
/ เปิ้นโดนตี๋ (, ), He is hit or He got hit. This describes an action that is out of the receiver's control and, thus, conveys suffering.
To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive, / ได้ (dai, , can) is used. For example:
/ เปิ้นจะได้ไปแอ่วเมืองลาว (, ), He gets to visit Laos.
/ เปิ้นตี๋ได้ (, ), He is/was allowed to hit or He is/was able to hit
Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bor, or not) before the verb.
/ เปิ้นบ่ตี๋, (, ) He is not hitting. or He not hit.
Aspect is conveyed by aspect markers before or after the verb.
Present can be indicated by / กะลัง (, , currently) or / กะลังหะ (, , currently) before the verb for ongoing action (like English -ing form), by / อยู่ (, ) after the verb, or by both. For example:
/ เปิ้นกะลังหะล่น (, ), or
/ เปิ้นล่นอยู่ (, ), or
/ เปิ้นกะลังหะล่นอยู่ (, ), He is running.
Future can be indicated by / จะ (cha, , will) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the future. For example:
/ เปิ้นจะล่น (, ), He will run or He is going to run.
Past can be indicated by / ได้ (dai, ) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the past. However, / แล้ว (laew, :, already) is often used to indicate the past aspect by being placed behind the verb. Or, both ได้ and แล้ว are put together to form the past aspect expression. For example:
/ เปิ้นได้กิ๋น (, ), He ate.
/ เปิ้นกิ๋นแล้ว (, , He has eaten.
/ เปิ้นได้กิ๋นแล้ว (, ), He's already eaten.
Aspect markers are not required.
/ ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้น (, ), I eat there.
/ ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นตะวา (, ), I ate there yesterday.
/ ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นวันพูก (, ), I'll eat there tomorrow.
Words that indicate obligation include at cha ( / อาจจะ), na cha ( / น่าจะ), khuan cha ( / ควรจะ), and tong ( / ต้อง).
( / อาจจะ, ) Might
/ เปิ้นอาจจะมา (, ) He might come.
( / น่าจะ, ) Likely to
/ เปิ้นน่าจะมา (, ) He is likely to come.
( / ควรจะ, ) Should
/ เปิ้นควรจะมา (, ) He should come.
( / ต้อง, ) Must
/ เปิ้นต้องมา (, ) He must come.
Actions that wherein one is busily engaged can be indicated by มัวก่า (mua ka, ).
/ ก่อมัวก่ากิ๋นหั้นเนาะ (kor mua ka kin han nor, ) (It's that you/he/she) just keeps on eating it like that, you know?
Words that express one's desire to do something can by indicated by khai (ใค่) and kan (กั๊น).
( / ใค่, , to want, to desire)
/ ข้าเจ้าใค่กิ๋น (, ) I want to eat.
( / กั๊น, , to try)
/ ข้าเจ้ากั๊นกิ๋น (, ) I try to eat.
( / ผ่อท่าว่า, ) is used to give the impression or sensation of being something or having a particular quality.
/ ผ่อท่าว่าเปิ้นปิ๊กมาแล้ว (, ) It seems that he has returned.
Final particles
Northern Thai has a number of final particles, which have different functions.
Interrogative particles
Some of the most common interrogative particles are ( / ก่อ, ) and ( / กา, )
( / ก่อ, , denoting yes/no question)
/ ม่วนก่อ (, ) Is it fun?
( / กา (and its variants: ก๋า, กา), , denoting confirmative question)
/ ม่วนกา (, ) It is fun, right?
Imperative particles
Some imperative particles are (แล่), (จิ่ม), and (เตอะ).
( / แล่, )
/ กิ๋นแล่ (, ) Eat! (Authoritative).
( / จิ่ม, )
/ ขอกิ๋นจิ่ม (, ) May I eat please?
( / เหีย, )
/ กิ๋นเหีย (, ) Eat! (because I know it will be beneficial to you).
(ᩡ / เต๊อะ, )
/ กิ๋นเต๊อะ (, ) Eat, please.
Polite particles
Polite particles include (คับ) and (เจ้า).
( / คับ, , used by males)
/ กิ๋นเข้าแล้วคับ (, ) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.
( / เจ้า, , used by females)
/ กิ๋นเข้าแล้วเจ้า (, ) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.
Nouns
Nouns are uninflected and have no gender; there are no articles.
Nouns are neither singular nor plural. Some specific nouns are reduplicated to form collectives: / ละอ่อน (, , child) is often repeated as ละอ่อน ๆ (, ,) to refer to a group of children.
The word / หมู่(, ) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasise the following word. ( / หมู่ผม, , , we (exclusive), masculine; / หมู่เฮา , , emphasised we; / หมู่หมา , , (the) dogs).
Plurals are expressed by adding classifiers, used as measure words (ลักษณนาม), in the form of noun-number-classifier ( / คูห้าคน, "teacher five person" for "five teachers").
Pronouns
Pronouns may be omitted once they have already been established in the first sentence, unless the pronoun in the following sentences is different from the first sentence. The pronoun "you" may also be omitted if the speaker is speaking directly to a second person. Moreover, names may replace pronouns, and they can even replace the first person singular pronoun.
Vocabulary
Northern Thai shares much vocabulary with Standard Thai, especially scientific terms, which draw many prefixes and suffixes from Sanskrit and Pali, and it also has its own distinctive words. Just like Thai and Lao, Northern Thai has borrowed many loanwords from Khmer, Sanskrit, and Pali.
Writing system
Currently, different scripts are used to write Northern Thai. Northern Thai is traditionally written with the Tai Tham script, which in Northern Thai is called ( ตั๋วเมือง ) or ( ตั๋วธัมม์ ). However, native speakers are presently illiterate in the traditional script; therefore, they instead use the Thai script to write the language. In Laos, the Lao script is commonly used to write Northern Thai.
Some problems arise when the Thai script is used to write Northern Thai. In particular, Standard Thai script cannot transcribe all Northern Thai tones. The two falling tones in Northern Thai correspond to a single falling tone in Thai. Specifically, Northern Thai has two types of falling tones: high-falling tone () and falling tone (). However, Thai lacks the distinction between the two falling tones, not having a high-falling tone (). When using Thai script to write Northern Thai tones, the distinction of the two falling tones is lost because Thai script can only indicate a low falling tone (). As an example, the tonal distinction between (ก้า ( กล้า) "to be brave") and (ก้า ( ค่า) "value") is lost when written in Thai since as only (ก้า) is permitted. Consequently, the meaning of ก้า is ambiguous as it can mean both "to be brave" and "value". Similarly, (ป้าย ( ป้าย) "sign") and (ป้าย ( พ่าย) "to lose") have the same problem and only (ป้าย) is permitted. As a result, the spelling ป้าย is ambiguous because it can mean both "sign" or "to lose". Such tonal mergence ambiguity is avoided when the language is written with the Northern Thai script.
Northern Thai and Standard Thai
The tables below present the differences between Northern Thai and Standard Thai.
Different sounds
Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/). Thus, the palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/) and the palatal approximant sound (/j/) in Northern Thai both correspond to the palatal approximant sound in Standard Thai:
Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks a high-falling tone ([˥˧]). The high falling tone ([˥˧]) and falling tone ([˥˩]) in Northern Thai both correspond to the falling tone in Standard Thai ([˥˩]).
Different words
Many words differ from Standard Thai greatly:
Similar words
There is not a straightforward correspondence between the tones of Northern and Standard Thai. It also depends on the initial consonant, as can be seen from the merged Gedney tone boxes for Standard Thai and the accent of Chiang Mai:
Note that the commonalities between columns are features of the Chiang Mai accent. On the other hand, the relationships between rows are typical of Northern Thai, being found for at least for Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Phayao,
Nan and Prae, and extending at least to Tak and the old 6-tone accent of Tai Khuen, except that the checked syllables of Chiang Rai are more complicated.
The primary function of a tone box is etymological. However, it also serves as a summary of the rules for tone indication when the writing system is essentially etymological in that regard, as is the case with the major Tai-language writing systems using the Thai, Lanna, New Tai Lue, Lao and Tai Dam scripts.
Some words differ only as a result of the regular tone correspondences:
Other tone differences are unpredictable, such as:
Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร (/r/) in Standard Thai corresponds to ฮ (/h/) in Northern Thai:
Aspiration of initial consonants
Some aspirated consonants in the low-class consonant group (อักษรต่ำ /ʔàk.sɔ̌ːn.tàm/) in Standard Thai correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai. These sounds include ค, ช, ท, and พ (/kʰ/, /t͡ɕʰ/, /tʰ/, and /pʰ/ respectively), but sounds such as ฅ, คร, ฆ, ฒ, พร, ภ (/kʰ/, /kʰr/, /kʰ/, /tʰ/, /pʰr/, and /pʰ/ respectively) remain aspirated. Such aspirated consonants that are unaspirated in Northern Thai correspond to unaspirated voiced sounds in Proto-Tai which are *ɡ, *ɟ, *d, and *b (ค, ช, ท, and พ respectively).:
But not:
Though a number of aspirated consonants in Standard Thai often correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร (/r/) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated:
Notes
References
Further reading
Bilmes, J. (1996). Problems And Resources In Analyzing Northern Thai Conversation For English Language Readers. Journal of Pragmatics, 26(2), 171-188.
Davis, R. (1970). A Northern Thai reader. Bangkok: Siam Society.
Filbeck, D. (1973). Pronouns in Northern Thai. Anthropological Linguistics, 15(8), 345-361.
Herington, Jennifer, Margaret Potter, Amy Ryan and Jennifer Simmons (2013). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Thai. SIL Electronic Survey Reports.
Howard, K. M. (2009). "When Meeting Khun Teacher, Each Time We Should Pay Respect": Standardizing Respect In A Northern Thai Classroom. Linguistics and Education, 20(3), 254-272.
Khankasikam, K. (2012). Printed Lanna character recognition by using conway's game of life. In ICDIM (pp. 104–109).
Pankhuenkhat, R. (1982). The Phonology of the Lanna Language:(a Northern Thai Dialect). Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University.
Strecker, D. (1979). "A preliminary typology of tone shapes and tonal sound changes in Tai: the La-n N-a A-tones", in Studies in Tai and Mon-Khmer Phonetics and Phonology In Honour of Eugénie J.A. Henderson, ed. T.L. Thongkum et al., pp. 171–240. Chulalongkorn University Press.
Wangsai, Piyawat. (2007). A Comparative Study of Phonological Yong and Northern Thai Language (Kammuang). M.A. thesis. Kasetsart University.
External links
Northern Thai New Testament. The New Testament in hard copy form was written using two scripts Amazon link.
Khamuang (Chiang Mai variety) (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)
Languages of Thailand
Languages of Laos
Tai languages
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] |
204762
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporization
|
Vaporization
|
Vaporization (or vaporisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapour (a state of substance below critical temperature) that occurs at temperatures below the boiling temperature at a given pressure. Evaporation occurs on the surface. Evaporation only occurs when the partial pressure of vapor of a substance is less than the equilibrium vapor pressure. For example, due to constantly decreasing pressures, vapor pumped out of a solution will eventually leave behind a cryogenic liquid.
Boiling is also a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase, but boiling is the formation of vapor as bubbles of vapor below the surface of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the equilibrium vapor pressure of the substance is greater than or equal to the environmental pressure. The temperature at which boiling occurs is the boiling temperature, or boiling point. The boiling point varies with the pressure of the environment.
Sublimation is a direct phase transition from the solid phase to the gas phase, skipping the intermediate liquid phase. Because it does not involve the liquid phase, it is not a form of vaporization.
The term vaporization has also been used in a colloquial or hyperbolic way to refer to the physical destruction of an object that is exposed to intense heat or explosive force, where the object is actually blasted into small pieces rather than literally converted to gaseous form. Examples of this usage include the "vaporization" of the uninhabited Marshall Island of Elugelab in the 1952 Ivy Mike thermonuclear test.
At the moment of a large enough meteor or comet impact, bolide detonation, a nuclear fission, thermonuclear fusion, or theoretical antimatter weapon detonation, a flux of so many gamma ray, x-ray, ultraviolet, visual light and heat photons strikes matter in a such brief amount of time (a great number of high-energy photons, many overlapping in the same physical space) that all molecules lose their atomic bonds and "fly apart". All atoms lose their electron shells and become positively charged ions, in turn emitting photons of a slightly lower energy than they had absorbed. All such matter becomes a gas of nuclei and electrons which rise into the air due to the extremely high temperature or bond to each other as they cool. The matter vaporized this way is immediately a plasma in a state of maximum entropy and this state steadily reduces via the factor of passing time due to natural processes in the biosphere and the effects of physics at normal temperatures and pressures.
A similar process occurs during ultrashort pulse laser ablation, where the high flux of incoming electromagnetic radiation strips the target material's surface of electrons, leaving positively charged atoms which undergo a coulomb explosion.
Table
References
External links
Physical chemistry
Chemical processes
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muang%20Phuan
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Muang Phuan
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Muang Phuan or Xieng Khouang, also known historically to the Vietnamese as Trấn Ninh (Hán Việt: 鎮寧; lit. "securement of peace"), was a historical principality on the Xiangkhoang Plateau, which constitutes the modern territory of Xiangkhouang Province, Laos.
Among the Lao, Phuan, and Thai muang has a dual meaning: 'city' or more broadly 'country of'. Xieng means 'walled'. The two terms were often used together for major city states under the Southeast Asian mandala model, thus Muang Xieng Khouang would be transcribed as the 'Walled city/country of the Phuan' (Khouang is a French corruption of Phuan).
Background
The Xiangkhouang Plateau is semi-arid but has important iron ore resources and has been inhabited since the Bronze Age (the Plain of Jars is an important UNESCO archeological site). The region is an important area for trade as it occupies the major passes along the Annamite Cordillera to access Vietnam and the coast.
History
The Tai Phuan or Phuan people are a Theravada Buddhist Tai-Lao ethnic group that migrated to the area which is now Laos during the 13th century. According to legend the Phuan people were led by Chet Chuong, the second son of Khun Borom who founded the city-state of Muang Phuan. In the mid-14th century Muang Phuan was incorporated into the Lan Xang Kingdom under King Fa Ngum. Under the Mandala model, cities or even kingdoms would enter into tributary relationships with their neighbors depending on regional power; in exchange the tribute would maintain local autonomy. It was not uncommon to pay tribute to more than one power even concurrently. In 1434, Muang Phuan entered into a tributary relationship with the Dai Viet. However, by 1478 the Dai Viet attempted to annex Muang Phuan as a prefecture, which contributed to war between Lan Xang and the Dai Viet. The Dai Viet army ultimately withdrew during that conflict, and Muang Phuan returned as a tributary to Lan Xang. However, the peace was short-lived and by 1531 Muang Phuan rebelled against King Photisarath who put down the rebellion after two years. Throughout the 16th and 17th century Muang Phuan remained part of Lan Xang.
During the 16th century, expressive Buddhist art and architecture flourished. The capital was dotted with temples in a distinct Xieng Khouang style, i.e., simple low roofs with a characteristic ‘waist’ at the foundation. In 1930, Le Boulanger described it as ‘a large and beautiful city protected by wide moats and forts occupying the surrounding hills and the opulence of the sixty-two pagodas and their stupas, of which the flanks concealed treasures, obtained the capital a fame that spread fear wide and far.” In 1707 when Lan Xang was divided between the Kingdoms of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, Muang Phuan entered into tributary relations with the Kingdom of Luang Prabang.
By the 1720s Muang Phuan was supporting the Kingdom of Luang Prabang in wars against the Burmese, and Siamese. Under Chao Kham Sattha again Muang Phuan went to war against the Governor of Thakhek, a tributary to the Kingdom of Vientiane. In 1751 Chao Ong Lo went so far as to directly attack the Kingdom of Vientiane and was totally defeated, retreating to Houa Phan (today Sam Neua) where he began to raise another army. The Kingdom of Vientiane named Chao Ong Lo's brother Ong Bun as regional governor of Muang Phuan. The armies of Muang Phuan split between the brothers in civil war, and ultimately Chao Ong Lo prevailed. However the conflict drained the region so much so that for the next 37 years Muang Phuan remained a tributary to Vientiane.
In 1779 the Kingdom of Vientiane was captured by the Siamese led by General Taksin, Muang Phuan as a tributary of Vientiane became a Siamese vassal state while maintaining tributary relations with Dai Viet. Siam was severely depopulated from the history of warfare with the Burmese in the 18th century, and the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767. To exert greater control of the lands and people of Muang Phuan, the Siamese launched the first of several forced migration campaigns to resettle large parts of the Phuan population to regions under firm Siamese control. Chao Somphou, the son of Chao Ong Lo, set about restoring and rebuilding the temples and defenses of Muang Phuan. According to some accounts his palace grew to rival that of the King of Vientiane. In 1789 or 1790 King Nanthasen of Vientiane believed rebellion was possible and sent an army to capture Muang Phuan. Chao Somphou fled to Hua Phan, King Nanthasen continued north to capture Luang Prabang in 1792. In 1793 Chao Somphou was captured by King Nanthasen and imprisoned in Vientiane. Muang Phuan appealed to the Dai Viet, and a combined force of 6,000 Phuan and Vietnamese crossed into Xiengkhouang and began to march toward Vientiane. King Nanthasen not wanting to create a wider conflict negotiated an arrangement where Muang Phuan would pay equal tribute to the Kingdoms of Vientiane and the Dai Viet in exchange for the release of Chao Somphou. Chao Somphou returned to Muang Phuan where he began another building campaign. By 1800 King Inthavong of Vientiane feared a resurgence of power in Muang Phuan, and sent his brother Chao Anouvong to capture Chao Somphou. Chao Somphou died as a prisoner in Vientiane around 1803.
Chao Somphou's nephew Chao Noy took control of Muang Phuan in 1803. He was an authoritarian ruler who increased taxes to augment his palace and the military. In 1814 he violently suppressed a Khmu rebellion. In 1823 he was accused by a half-brother of seeking independence, and was summoned to Vientiane under the guise of answering for his actions during 1814. King Inthavong imprisoned Chao Noy for three years. On the death of his brother King Anouvong of Vientiane, allowed Chao Noy to return to Muang Phuan where he sought a tributary relationship with the Dai Viet Emperor Minh Mang. Whether Anouvong's actions were part of a wider plot to rebel against the Siamese is controversial, what is clear is that ultimately Anouvong did rebel and sought to draw all the Lao lands together in opposition to Siam. The Lao rebellion of 1826–1828 ultimately failed, and Chao Noy handed over the fleeing King Anouvong to the Siamese. As King Anouvong was also a tributary to the Dai Viet, Emperor Minh Mang summoned Chao Noy in 1831 and had him executed for having acted without consultation.
In 1832 the Dai Viet annexed Muang Phuan and named the region Tran Ninh meaning “To Keep the Peace” and imposed Vietnamese taxes, culture and dress on the population. Under the guise of protecting the Tai peoples in Muang Phuan, a Siamese garrison of 1,000 invaded and killed the Vietnamese officials. The Thais then began a second population transfer, moving several thousand Muang Phuan. Several hundred tried to escape and return to Muang Phuan but were caught by the Vietnamese and committed suicide. Disease and harsh treatment killed a number of the families that stayed with the Siamese, and left only around a thousand to be resettled around Bangkok. In late 1831 Siam and Vietnam had a series of wars (Siamese-Vietnamese War 1831–1834, and Siamese-Vietnamese War 1841–1845) over control of Cambodia, and the Xieng Khouang region came under heavy Vietnamese presence. During the period Chao Po (son of Chao Noy) was allowed to return to Muang Phuan. In the 1850s Siam agitated a rebellion against the Vietnamese, and Muang Phuan came under Siamese suzerainty.
Beginning in the 1840s the Chinese sought to expand their military control and tax system over the hill peoples in southern China. Lao Sung people including the Hmong and Meo began to move into the mountainous uplands of Xieng khouang. The migration of these first peoples was relatively peaceful, as the peoples preferred to maintain their own communities in the upland territories which were not farmed by the Lao Theung or Lao Loum in the area. By the 1860s the failed Taiping Rebellion in China created a flood of new refugees along with marauders organized into gangs identified by the design of their flags including the Red, Yellow, Black and Striped. The gangs looted, burned and warred in the areas of northern Laos and Xieng Khouang. The capital of Muang Phuan was looted and destroyed repeatedly by warring bands of Haw or Ho pirates. Due to the instability the Siamese conducted a series of military campaigns known as the Haw Wars in the region. The Siamese were unsuccessful at restoring order, and used the opportunity for more forced population transfers in 1875–1876. These deportations were observed by a British observer in 1876.
The instability caused by the Haw engulfed the territories of Tonkin and Annam, which were possessed by the French in the 1880s. The French were aware that Siamese control of territory was weak. In 1889, Auguste Pavie produced letters from King Mantha Tourath of Luang Prabang seeking vassalage with Emperor Minh Mang from the period of the 1830s, and presented them to Bangkok as evidence for the French right to extend a protectorate to Xieng Khouang and Luang Prabang. Under the terms of the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1893 Muang Phuan came under French colonial protection. In 1899 the Phuan regions lost autonomy and became part of the French Protectorate of Laos in French Indochina.
Monarchs of Muang Phuan
Kham Sanh (1651–1688, Xieng Khouang Provincial Governor in Lan Xang)
Kam Lan (1688–1700, son of Kham Sanh)
Kham Sattha (1723–1751, grandson of Kam Lan, tributary to Vietnam, Luang Prabang, and Vientiane)
Ong Lo (1751–1779)
Somphou (1779–1803)
Noi (Southaka Souvanna Koumar) (1803–1831, nephew of Somphou, executed by Emperor Minh Mạng of Vietnam)
Xiang Khuoang annexed as Tran Ninh province by Vietnam (1832)
Po (1848–1865, son of Noi, vassal to Siam and Vietnam)
Ung (1866–1876, son of Noi, Haw pirates invade Xiang Khouang in 1874)
Khanti (1876–1880, son of Ung, vassal to Siam)
Kham Ngon (1880–1899, French Protectorate of Laos ends autonomy)
References
History of Laos
Geographic history of Thailand
History of Vietnam
Muang
1707 establishments in Asia
18th century in Siam
19th century in Siam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Cheung
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Leslie Cheung
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Leslie Cheung Kwok-wing (12 September 1956 – 1 April 2003) was a Hong Kong singer and actor. Throughout a 26-year career from 1977 until his death, Cheung released over 40 music albums and acted in 56 films. He was one of the most prominent pioneers that shaped the identity of Cantopop during the 1980s and became known for his flamboyant, often outrageous stage appearance. His venture into acting in the 1990s was recognised for his portrayal of queer characters in a then-conservative film industry. His career was marked with both praise and criticism, with numerous public discussions focusing on his sexual orientation and androgynous persona.
Born Cheung Fat-chung in Kowloon, British Hong Kong, Cheung studied in England from the age of 12 until returning to Hong Kong in 1976 to pursue a career in show business. He achieved wide popularity with his 1984 self-titled album and its single "Monica", whose upbeat dance production introduced a new popular trend to Cantopop in addition to the contemporary pool of sentimental ballads. Cheung's continued success with a string of hit albums in the mid- and late-1980s, most notably 1987 best-seller Summer Romance, won him numerous awards, including Most Popular Male Artist at the 1988 and 1989 Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards. In addition to music, Cheung had breakthrough film roles as a disillusioned teenager in Nomad (1982) and as a police officer torn between justice and brotherhood in A Better Tomorrow (1986). He announced his "retirement" from music and emigrated to Canada in 1989, but remained active in his burgeoning acting career.
Cheung achieved widespread recognition as an actor in the 1990s. He played a womaniser longing for the return of his estranged mother in Days of Being Wild (1990), which won him Best Actor at the 1991 Hong Kong Film Awards. His role as a homosexual Peking opera actor in Farewell My Concubine (1993) catapulted him to prominence in the western world. Cheung's reputation as a queer celebrity consolidated with his role in the 1997 drama Happy Together, a film explicitly depicting a homosexual male relationship. His comeback as a recording artist in the late 1990s, particularly with his 1996 album Red, was noted for sonic experimentation and extravagant, graphic imagery. He was awarded the Golden Needle Award, the highest distinction of the RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards, in 1999. In 2000, he was honoured as "Asia's Biggest Superstar" at the CCTV/MTV Music Honours in mainland China. Cheung committed suicide by jumping off the 24th floor of the hotel Mandarin Oriental on 1 April 2003, having been diagnosed with severe clinical depression.
Early life
Cheung was born Cheung Fat-chung in Kowloon, British Hong Kong, the youngest of 10 children in a middle-class Hakka family. His father, Cheung Wut-hoi, was a well-known tailor specialised in suits whose customers included Western celebrities such as film director Alfred Hitchcock and actors Marlon Brando and Cary Grant. Despite his father's reputation in the fashion industry, Cheung was uninspired by the profession. Cheung told many interviewers that he had an unhappy childhood, feeling emotionally estranged from his father and siblings, and frequently witnessing arguments and fights in the household. He felt "depressed sometimes" and longed for affection from his parents who were absent from home most of the time in his childhood. His father's abusive treatment of his mother had a lasting effect on Cheung's perspectives on marriage. When Cheung's father married another woman, his emotional life further deteriorated. He was brought up by his grandmother, whom he was very close with. Cheung summed up his upbringing as a "silent resentment" with "nothing worth remembering", except for the death of his grandmother when he was in primary school, which was the "one thing that I do remember about my childhood."
Cheung attended Rosaryhill School for secondary education in Hong Kong and, at age 12, enrolled at Norwich School in England. During his time at Rosaryhill, Cheung was academically poor but excelled in the English language. He discovered a newfound interest in Western films and immersed himself in music, studying the original soundtrack of Romeo and Juliet. When in England, he recalled that there were "racial problems", but managed to make friends. During weekends, he worked as a bartender and would sometimes do amateur singing at his relatives' restaurant in Southend-on-Sea. He came across the film Gone with the Wind and chose Leslie as his English name inspired by the actor Leslie Howard, feeling that "The name can be a man's or woman's, it's very unisex." Cheung attended the University of Leeds, where he studied textile management. After one year of study, in 1976, he returned to Hong Kong when his father became paralyzed on one side of the body after a stroke. As the father wanted all of his children to be at home, Cheung abandoned his study and became a salesman for Levi's for a living. Cheung recalled that during this time, "I had no plans; there I was, feeling like I was hanging in the middle of nowhere."
Career
Beginnings
Upon returning to Hong Kong, Cheung went back to high school as a mature student and formed a band, where he was the lead singer, with his classmates. In May 1977, the band members signed up individually for Rediffusion Television (RTV)'s Asian Singing Contest. Only Cheung remained until the final round of the Hong Kong division, where he finished as the first runner-up with a rendition of "American Pie". He proceeded to the pan-Asian division, finishing fifth. Soon after the competition, RTV offered Cheung a three-year contract as a second-rate actor for RTV. He also signed with Polydor Records with hopes of releasing music albums.
Cheung's career in show business did not take off immediately. His first film role was in Erotic Dream of the Red Chamber (, 1978), a softcore porn production that features his bare buttocks. His first two albums were solely recorded in English, and his third album, Lover's Arrow (, 1979) was recorded in Cantonese. The albums failed commercially, and critics lambasted Cheung's voice as "chicken-like". Cheung's first public performance at the 1977 Hong Kong Pop Folk Music Festival was booed off the stage by the audience. He described his early days into show business as "full of uncertainty ... I remember well that my singing career at the early stage was like 'a person running into a rock', full of despair and obstacles." Seeing little potential in Cheung, Polydor allowed him to depart on his own terms.
1982–1989: Cantopop success and film crossover
Cheung signed with Capital Artists, a record label closely associated with the then-dominant television network TVB, in 1982. His first hit single, "The Wind Blows On" (; 1982), is a cover version of Momoe Yamaguchi's Japanese single "The Other Side of Goodbye" . The song was successful on charts, revitalising Cheung's image as a Cantopop singer. The titular album was Cheung's first to be certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) Hong Kong. His second album with Capital, Craziness (, 1983), is a compilation of songs he recorded for TVB dramas. The album was also a success, receiving a gold certification from the IFPI Hong Kong. He continued his movie crossover with roles mostly in teenage films, and earned his first major recognition for starring in Nomad (1982). While Cheung had already been a well-known actor with likeable personae in TVB productions, his role as a disillusioned teenager in Nomad foresaw his future reputation as an icon of rebel. The role garnered Cheung a nomination for Best Actor at the 1983 Hong Kong Film Awards.
The year 1984 was when Cheung achieved mass stardom. He released the hit single "Monica", a cover of the single by Japanese singer Kōji Kikkawa. The song topped charts in Hong Kong and was one of the 10 gold-certified songs honoured at TVB's 1984 Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards and the 1984 RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards. The song's upbeat dance production introduced a new musical trend to Cantopop, in addition to the traditional sentimental ballads that had dominated the scene. Cheung's 1984 self-titled album, which included "Monica", was his first to be certified platinum by the IFPI Hong Kong and sold over 200,000 copies. He starred in the TVB drama Once Upon an Ordinary Girl () and the film Behind the Yellow Line. In the latter, he co-starred with actress Maggie Cheung and singer-actress Anita Mui. Both productions were commercially successful and put Cheung into the limelight as a prominent entertainer. As Cheung's fame expanded, the media began to pit him against fellow singer-actor Alan Tam, as the two were the most successful male Cantopop singers at the moment. The publicised so-called rivalry contributed to Cantopop's booming sales and lasted until the end of the 1980s.
Cheung's next albums with Capital were met with similar success. For Your Heart Only (, 1985) yielded the hit single "Wind Wind" (), which was among the 10 gold-certified songs honoured at both TVB's Jade Solid Gold and RTHK Top 10 awards. The album also included songs Cheung recorded for TVB dramas, propelling his image as a romantic male lead. His 1986 single "Who Feels the Same?" () won the Gold Song Gold Award, the distinction for the most popular song of the year, at TVB's Jade Solid Gold Awards. With this achievement, Cheung became an arguably undisputed royalty of Cantopop. After the release of "Who Feels the Same?", he left Capital and joined Cinepoly Records. A turning point in his burgeoning acting career was in the John Woo-directed 1986 crime-action A Better Tomorrow, in which he co-starred with Ti Lung and Chow Yun-fat. He played a youthful and impulsive police officer torn between justice and his criminal brother.
Cheung's career ascended to a new peak in 1987, when he released his first album under Cinepoly, Summer Romance. The album was the best-selling Cantopop release of the year, earning seven times platinum certification from the IFPI Hong Kong and sold over 350,000 copies. Its lead single, "Sleepless Night" (), won the Gold Song Gold Award at the 1987 Jade Solid Gold Awards. The next two albums, Virgin Snow and Hot Summer, both were released in 1988 and sold well, receiving gold and platinum certifications from the IFPI Hong Kong. He also had starring roles in the films A Chinese Ghost Story and Rouge. The performance of Cheung and his co-star Anita Mui in Rouge consolidated the pair's reputation as the top Hong Kong entertainers. Yiu-wai Chu, author of the book Hong Kong Cantopop: A Concise History (2017), noted that Cheung and Mui formed an "unprecedented" chemistry showcasing "mystic power of charisma", not only in films but also on stage performances together. The two were also close friends in real life.
Cheung embarked on a 23-date tour at the Hong Kong Coliseum in mid-1988, sponsored by Pepsi. The tour was a sold-out and accumulated over 250,000 spectators. He also held several shows catering to the Chinese community in North America, visiting Atlantic City, Calgary, Toronto, and Vancouver. In the wake of the intense political atmosphere in mainland China in the late 1980s, which would culminate in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, successful Cantopop singers announced public withdrawal from the music industry and emigrated to western countries. Cheung followed suit, announcing his "retirement" from Cantopop and emigrating to Vancouver, Canada in 1989. Prior to his retirement, Cheung released three further albums under Cinepoly—Leslie '89, Salute, Final Encounter—all of which received platinum certifications from the IFPI Hong Kong. He won Most Popular Male Artist twice, at the 1988 and 1989 Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards. His "farewell concert tour", in support of the album Final Encounter, ran for 33 consecutive sold-out shows at the Hong Kong Coliseum. Cheung donated profits of his 1989 album Salute to the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, which was named the Leslie Cheung Memorial Scholarship after his death.
1990–1995: Music hiatus and major film roles
In addition to music, Cheung had his breakthrough movie role in the crime-action A Better Tomorrow (1986), which would pave the way for his upcoming career in cinema. Cheung announced his "retirement" and emigrated to Canada in 1989, in the aftermath of the handover of Hong Kong, but subsequently returned to show business in 1990.
He also won Best Actor at the 1994 Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards in the comedy-drama Ashes of Time (1994).
The turning point in Cheung's acting career came in 1986 with his starring role in John Woo's () A Better Tomorrow, which broke Hong Kong's box office record. In the following years Cheung was praised for his performances in films which found popularity with audiences worldwide, including A Chinese Ghost Story (1987), Rouge (1987), Wong Kar-Wai's Days of Being Wild (1991) and Farewell My Concubine (1993).
Although Cheung quit his career as a pop singer from 1989 to 1995, he continued his music career as a songwriter. He composed more than ten songs during that time. In 1993, he won Best Original Movie Song Award from Golden Horse Film Festival for the theme song Red Cheek, White Hair to the film The Bride with White Hair (as a film score composer). In 1995, he wrote all three theme songs for the film The Phantom Lover. As for songwriting, Cheung won four nominations for Best Original Movie Song Award at the Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards and two nominations for Best Original Film Song at the Hong Kong Film Awards. In 1998, he was a member of the jury at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival.
1995–1999: Return to music
In 1995 Cheung signed a contract with Rock Records, returning to music as a singer. At the same year, he released his first post-"retirement" album, Beloved. Beloved achieved large market success with the award of IFPI Best Selling Album.
In 2001 Cheung collaborated with William Chang, the art director of Wong Kar-Wai's Days of Being Wild (1991), to make his music video Bewildered, about the intimacy between two gay men. Japanese ballet dancer Nishijima Kazuhiro played Cheung's lover in the video. The music video was demonized for advocating homosexuality and was banned by TVB, but Cheung refused to edit the scenes and censor himself.
2000–2003: Later years
Cheung's last concert tour was the Passion Tour, which took place in Hong Kong and overseas from 2000 to 2001. Cheung collaborated with fashion designer Jean Paul Gaultier, transforming Cheung "From Angel to Devil" in four costumes: the Angel, the Pretty Boy, the Latin Lover, and the Devil – denoting cross-cultural drag and focusing on Cheung's androgyny and bisexuality. Although Passion Tour was acclaimed in Japan, Korea, and Canada for Cheung's glamour and dignity in using drag performance through Gaultier's costume designs, in Hong Kong it was received with disapproval. His final concert tour, the Passion Tour (2000–01), visited Asia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The tour broke attendance records throughout Asia, including a record for the first foreign artist to hold 16 concerts in Japan.
While Cheung could sell well over 200,000 copies for an album in his 1980s heyday, his later albums struggled to match the same success, only 50,000 copies each.
In 2011, CCTV commented the "Passion Tour" that from performance form, art concept, costume props and audience response, all represent the highest standard of Chinese concerts, no one has ever surpassed.
Personal life
In 1977, during the filming of the RTV television series Love Story, the then 20-year-old Cheung met and fell in love with his 17-year-old co-star, Teresa Mo (毛舜筠), and they got together after they finished the series. In 1979, Cheung proposed to Mo with flowers, but his sudden proposal startled her and she began to distance herself from him. Although Cheung and Teresa Mo eventually broke up after the proposal and briefly lost contact, they remained close friends after they had reunited for the 1992 film All's Well, Ends Well.
Cheung later went into a brief relationship with an actress , the younger sister of Michelle Yim, but they broke up in 1980, due to their incompatibly for each other's lifestyles.
Cheung and Ngai Sze-pui (), a Hong Kong model and actress whom he met on the set of ATV television series Agency 24, were in a relationship for two years from 1981 to 1983.
In 1984, at the house of Albert Yeung, Cheung met Cindy Yeung (楊諾詩), the youngest daughter of Albert Yeung who had recently returned from Boston. Cindy Yeung was also a fan of Cheung and was seven years younger than him. Cheung and Yeung went out on several dates until the latter returned to Boston. They continued their relationship through phone calls and letters, but would part ways in the following year, still remaining good friends. Cheung felt that if he had not been in the showbusiness, he could have already been married with children, like most of his friends.
In an interview in 1992, Cheung stated that "My mind is bisexual. It's easy for me to love a woman. It's also easy for me to love a man, too" and "I believe that a good actor would be androgynous, and ever changing."
He announced his same-sex relationship with his childhood friend Daffy Tong Hok-tak (唐鶴德) during a concert in 1997, earning him prestige in LGBT communities in China, Japan, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. His relationship with Daffy lasted until his death in 2003.
Cheung responded to questions regarding his love life: "In terms of lovers, I think I can be a better friend than a lover. Because I am a workaholic. To share my romance, that person has to compromise something." This statement was out during the interview following the release of the film Okinawa Rendez-vous in 2000.
In a 2001 interview with Time magazine, Cheung said: "It's more appropriate to say I'm bisexual. I've had girlfriends. When I was 22 or so, I asked my girlfriend Teresa Mo to marry me."
Citizenship
Leslie Cheung moved to Vancouver in 1990 and became a Canadian citizen by naturalization.
Philanthropy
Cheung was a supporter of several charities concerning children's welfare. He was a patron of the Children's Cancer Foundation, a charity that cares for young children with cancer and their families. Cheung donated HK$1 million (US$128,000) in 1996 and launched five sets of RED cards to help raise funds for the Children's Cancer Foundation.
He was the first Cantopop star to launch a charity fundraising at a concert. In 1996, although he rarely sang in public at that time, he sang three theme songs from his films to raise money for the elderly.
For his 1997 concert at the HK Coliseum, Cheung set up a collection booth for the RED Card charity. Donations of HK$100 or above could obtain a set of cards. Cheung said, "I will lead the way, so I donated HK$1,000,000 to Hong Kong children's cancer fund in my own name." The concert raised more than HK$800,000, to which Cheung and his friends added more than HK$100,000, and made up a million Hong Kong dollars to donate to the cancer fund.
He was also a patron of the End Child Sexual Abuse Foundation (ECSAF) (護苗基金), founded by veteran actress Josephine Siao ().
In 1999, at a party to raise relief funds in the aftermath of the Taiwan earthquake, Cheung participated in a fried rice tasting event. He donated HK$250,000 for a bowl of rice; this was matched by fan donations, bringing the total to HK$500,000.
In 2000, Sun Entertainment opened the "Star Second-hand Shop", where second-hand goods donated by celebrities were auctioned to raise money for the "Sun Love Fund". Leslie Cheung was known for his very good fashion sense and he was the first to donate three well-loved, carefully selected pieces to the auction. Leslie also donated his beloved badminton racket to IDclub Taiwan, to be auctioned to raise money for the children's cancer fund.
In 1999 and 2000, he appeared in TVB charity shows to help raise funds for ECSAF, in which he was appointed a goodwill ambassador in 2002.
In 2003, Cheung donated HK$100,000 to the Seedling protection fund, who were holding a large-scale charity night on the 12th of March. He told his party guests to give him cash instead of presents, then he donated all of the money that he received to the fund.
Death and legacy
Cheung died by suicide on 1 April 2003 at 6:43 pm (HKT). He leapt from the 24th floor of the Mandarin Oriental hotel, located in the Central district of Hong Kong Island. He left a suicide note saying that he had been suffering from depression. He was 46 years old.
As one of the most popular performers in Asia, Cheung's death broke the hearts of millions of his fans across Asia and shocked the Asian entertainment industry and Chinese community worldwide. The day after Cheung's death, his partner Daffy Tong confirmed that Cheung suffered from clinical depression and had been seeing Professor Felice Lieh Mak, a famous therapist, for treatment for almost a year. He also revealed that Cheung had previously attempted suicide in November 2002. Later at his funeral, Cheung's niece disclosed that her uncle had severe clinical depression and suffered much over the past year. He was buried in Po Fook Hill, Shatin.
Despite the risk of infection from SARS and the WHO's warning on traveling to Hong Kong, tens of thousands attended Cheung's memorial service, which was held for the public, on 7 April 2003, including celebrities and other fans, many from other parts of the world such as mainland China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, the United States, and Canada. Cheung's funeral was held on 8 April 2003. For almost a month, Cheung's death dominated newspaper headlines in Hong Kong and his songs were constantly on the air. His final album, Everything Follows the Wind (), was released three months after his death.
Cheung's suicide note (translation):
In a 2012 interview, Cheung's eldest sister, Ophelia, stated Cheung was diagnosed with clinical depression caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain. She said that reporters were frequently found outside of her brother's home which hampered his ability to get to his doctor's facility. Thus, he would come over to her house to consult with his doctor. He would ask his sister, "Why am I depressed? I have money and so many people love me." He was reluctant to take medication for his depression.
In 2013, Cheung's former music agent Florence Chan organised two memorial concerts entitled Miss You Much Leslie on 31 March and 1 April for the 10th anniversary of Cheung's death. Big names of the Hong Kong entertainment industry performed at the concert at Hong Kong Coliseum. In addition, in 2013, Cheung's fans from around the world made two million orizuru cranes for the Guinness World Record as a tribute to the anniversary.
On 12 September 2016, on what would have been Cheung's 60th birthday, over one thousand fans joined Florence Chan in the morning at Po Fook Hill Ancestral Hall (寶福山) for prayers. At night, Cheung's fans club, Red Mission organised "Leslie Cheung 60th Red Hot Birthday Party" to commemorate Cheung. It was an outdoor birthday party at Central Harbourfront Event Space with a big LED screen projecting Cheung's past video clips, concerts, songs and pictures. Eason Chan () as a member of Red Mission joined the party singing Cheung's song "4 season" (春夏秋冬) as a tribute to Cheung. In the same month, another fans club, United Leslie also celebrated the big day of this renowned star. United Leslie organised an exhibition and movie screening of Cheung's two selected movies in PMQ, Central of Hong Kong.
Struggling with Hong Kong media and social prejudice
Cheung is well known for his prominent roles portraying queer characters in Happy Together and Farewell My Concubine. A pair of red high heels Cheung wore during a performance of his song Red were described as "a top draw" at an exhibit on androgynous fashion in Hong Kong. Many media outlets focused primarily on arguing about his queer identity instead of on his artistic achievement in film and music. Before his death, Cheung mentioned in interviews that he had become depressed because of negative comments about gender-crossing in his Passion Tour concert. He had planned to retire from stage performance because of the strain of being a bisexual artist in Hong Kong, facing stigmatization, surveillance, and marginalization.
Asteroid
In 2018, 55383 Cheungkwokwing was named in memory of Leslie Cheung. The main-belt asteroid was discovered by Bill Yeung at the Desert Eagle Observatory in 2001.
Awards and nominations
RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards (十大中文金曲)
Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards (十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮)
Other music awards
Hong Kong Film Awards
Golden Horse Awards
Other film awards
Ming Pao Power Academy Awards
Discography
Filmography
See also
Cinema of Hong Kong
Music of Hong Kong
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, World Music Volume 2: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, BBC Radio, 2000,
Kei Mori, "夢想之欠片 (Broken pieces of dreams)", Renga Shyobo Shinshya Co Ltd, Tokyo, Japan, 2004,
Chitose Shima, "Leslie Cheung Interview", All About Leslie, p25–40, Sangyo Henshu Center Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, 1999,
Chitose Shima, Time of Leslie Cheung, Sangyo Henshu Center Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, 2004,
City Entertainment Editor Committee, Leslie Cheung's Movie World 2 (1991–1995), City Entertainment, Hong Kong, 2006,
De Hui, Leslie Cheung's Movie Life I, II, Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, Shanghai, 2006, .
Helen Hok-Sze Leung, "In Queer Memory: Leslie Cheung (1956-2003)" In "Undercurrents Queer Culture and Postcolonial Hong Kong", UBC Press, Vancouver, 2008, p. 85 -105,
External links
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1956 births
2003 deaths
2003 suicides
20th-century Hong Kong male actors
20th-century Hong Kong male singers
21st-century Hong Kong male actors
21st-century Hong Kong male singers
Alumni of the University of Leeds
Ballad musicians
Bisexual male actors
Bisexual men
Bisexual musicians
Canadian male actors of Hong Kong descent
Canadian musicians of Hong Kong descent
Cantopop singers
Hong Kong emigrants to Canada
Hong Kong idols
Hong Kong male film actors
Hong Kong male singers
Hong Kong male television actors
Hong Kong Mandopop singers
Hong Kong people of Hakka descent
Hong Kong songwriters
LGBT musicians from Hong Kong
LGBT-related suicides
LGBT singers
Male actors from Vancouver
Musicians from Vancouver
Naturalized citizens of Canada
People educated at Norwich School
People from Kowloon
Suicides by jumping in Hong Kong
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people
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204768
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-owned%20enterprise
|
State-owned enterprise
|
A state-owned enterprise (SOE) or government-owned enterprise (GOE) is a business enterprise where the government or state has significant control through full, majority, or significant minority ownership. Defining characteristics of SOEs are their distinct legal form and operation in commercial affairs and activities. While they may also have public policy objectives (e.g., a state railway company may aim to make transportation more accessible), SOEs should be differentiated from government agencies or state entities established to pursue purely nonfinancial objectives.
Terminology
The terminology around the term state-owned enterprise is murky. All three words in the term are challenged and subject to interpretation. First, it is debatable what the term "state" implies (e.g., it is unclear whether municipally owned corporations and enterprises held by regional public bodies are considered state-owned). Next, it is contestable under what circumstances a SOE qualifies as "owned" by a state (SOEs can be fully owned or partially owned; it is difficult to determine categorically what level of state ownership would qualify an entity to be considered as state-owned since governments can also own regular stock, without implying any special interference). Finally, the term "enterprise" is challenged, as it implies statutes in private law which may not always be present, and so the term "corporations" is frequently used instead.
Thus, SOEs are known under many other terms: state-owned company, state-owned entity, state enterprise, publicly owned corporation, government business enterprise, government-owned company, government-owned corporation, government-sponsored enterprise, commercial government agency, state-privatised industry public sector undertaking, or parastatal, among others. In the Commonwealth realms, particularly in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, country-wide SOEs often use the term "Crown corporation", or "Crown entity", as cabinet ministers (Ministers of the Crown) often control the shares in them.
The term "government-linked company" (GLC) is sometimes used to refer to corporate entities that may be private or public (listed on a stock exchange) where an existing government owns a stake using a holding company. The two main definitions of GLCs are dependent on the proportion of the corporate entity a government owns. One definition purports that a company is classified as a GLC if a government owns an effective controlling interest (more than 50%), while the second definition suggests that any corporate entity that has a government as a shareholder is a GLC.
The act of turning a part of government bureaucracy into a SOE is called corporatization.
Use
Economic reasons
Natural monopolies
SOEs are common with natural monopolies, because they allow capturing economies of scale while they can simultaneously achieve a public objective. For that reason, SOEs primarily operate in the domain of infrastructure (e.g. railway companies), strategic goods and services (e.g. postal services, arms manufacturing and procurement), natural resources and energy (e.g. nuclear facilities, alternative energy delivery), politically sensitive business, broadcasting, banking, demerit goods (e.g. alcoholic beverages), and merit goods (healthcare).
Infant industries
SOEs can also help foster industries that are "considered economically desirable and that would otherwise not be developed through private investments". When nascent or 'infant' industries have difficulty getting investments from the private sector (perhaps because the good that is being produced requires very risky investments, when patenting is difficult, or when spillover effects exist), the government can help these industries get on the market with positive economic effects. However, the government cannot necessarily predict which industries would qualify as such 'infant industries', and so the extent to which this is a viable argument for SOEs is debated.
Political reasons
SOEs are also frequently employed in areas where the government wants to levy user fees, but finds it politically difficult to introduce new taxation. Next, SOEs can be used to improve efficiency of public service delivery or as a step towards (partial) privatization or hybridization. SOEs can also be a means to alleviate fiscal stress, as SOEs may not count towards states' budgets.
Effects
Compared to government bureaucracy
Compared to government bureaucracy, state owned enterprises might be beneficial because they reduce politicians' influence over the service. Conversely, they might be detrimental because they reduce oversight and increase transaction costs (such as monitoring costs, i.e., it is more difficult and costly to govern and regulate an autonomous SOE than it is the public bureaucracy). Evidence suggests that existing SOEs are typically more efficient than government bureaucracy, but that this benefit diminishes as services get more technical and have less overt public objectives.
Compared to regular enterprises
Compared to a regular enterprise, state-owned enterprises are typically expected to be less efficient due to political interference, but unlike profit-driven enterprises they are more likely to focus on public objectives.
Around the world
In Eastern Europe and Western Europe, there was a massive nationalization throughout the 20th century, especially after World War II. In Eastern Bloc, countries adopted very similar policies and model to USSR. Governments in Western Europe, both left and right of centre, saw state intervention as necessary to rebuild economies shattered by war. Government control over so-called natural monopolies like industry was the norm. Typical sectors included telephones, electric power, fossil fuels, railways, airlines, media, postal services, banks, and water. Many large industrial corporations were also nationalized or created as government corporations, including, among many others: British Steel Corporation, Statoil and Irish Sugar.
A state-run enterprise may operate differently from an ordinary limited liability corporation. For example, in Finland, state-run enterprises (liikelaitos) are governed by a separate act. Even though responsible for their own finances, they cannot be declared bankrupt; the state answers for the liabilities. Stocks of the corporation are not sold and loans have to be government-approved, as they are government liabilities.
In most OPEC countries, the governments own the oil companies operating on their soil. A notable example is the Saudi Arabian national oil company, Saudi Aramco, which the Saudi government bought in 1988, changing its name from Arabian American Oil Company to Saudi Arabian Oil Company. The Saudi government also owns and operates Saudi Arabian Airlines, and owns 70% of SABIC as well as many other companies.
In the EU directives were issued, and signed into law in member countries, that railway should be split into branches. So where everything from infrastructure to running the trains had been in one company (often owned by the local state or other authorities), now the various activities were to be separated into
independent companies. A major motivation was to more easily enable free access to run trains in the various countries, and thereby increase competition and offer lower fees.
Economic theory
In economic theory, the question of whether a firm should be owned by the state or by the private sector is studied in the theory of incomplete contracts that was developed by Oliver Hart and his co-authors. In a world in which complete contracts were feasible, ownership would not matter because the same incentive structure that prevails under one ownership structure could be replicated under the other ownership structure. Hart, Shleifer, and Vishny (1997) have developed the leading application of the incomplete contract theory to the issue of state-owned enterprises. These authors compare a situation in which the government is in control of a firm to a situation in which a private manager is in control. The manager can invest to come up with cost-reducing and quality-enhancing innovations. The government and the manager bargain over the implementation of the innovations. If the negotiations fail, the owner can decide about the implementation. It turns out that when cost-reducing innovations do not harm quality significantly, then private firms are to be preferred. Yet, when cost-reductions may strongly reduce quality, state-owned enterprises are superior. Hoppe and Schmitz (2010) have extended this theory in order to allow for a richer set of governance structures, including different forms of public-private partnerships.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
. Alternate location:
.
Further reading
The Public Firm with Managerial Incentives by Elmer G. Wiens.
Types of business entity
|
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204771
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox%20River
|
Fox River
|
Fox River is the name of:
Populated places
Canada
Fox River, Nova Scotia
Panama
Folks River, Panama, a city and river in Colón Province, Panama, formerly called Fox River
United States
Fox River, Alaska
Fox River Township, Davis County, Iowa
Fox River, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Rivers
Canada
Fox River (Manitoba), a tributary of the Hayes River
Ontario
Fox River (Cochrane District)
Fox River (Kenora District)
Fox River (Thunder Bay District)
New Zealand
Fox River (Buller), in the Paparoa National Park, Buller District
Fox River (Westland), a tributary of the Cook River, Westland District
United States
Fox River (Fish River tributary), Seward Peninsula, Alaska
Fox River (Alaska), Kenai Peninsula
Fox River (Illinois River tributary), runs from Wisconsin into Illinois
Fox River (Little Wabash tributary), in Illinois
Fox River (Wabash tributary) in Illinois that is a tributary of the Wabash River near New Harmony, Indiana
Fox River (Michigan), a river in the Upper Peninsula
Fox River (Mississippi River), in Iowa and Missouri
Fox River (Green Bay tributary), flows into Green Bay
In fiction
Fox River State Penitentiary, a fictional prison in Illinois in the TV show Prison Break
See also
Fox Creek (disambiguation)
Fox Crossing (disambiguation)
|
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204772
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique%20Bad%C3%ADa%20Romero
|
Enrique Badía Romero
|
Enrique Badía Romero (who signs his work simply Romero; born 24 April 1930) is a Spanish comics artist, best known to English-speaking audiences for his work on Modesty Blaise. He is also the co-creator of the post-apocalyptic science fiction strip AXA, as well as a substantial body of work in his native Spain.
Biography
Romero's career began at the age of 15 when he was taken on as an apprentice of the artist Emilio Freixas. After contributing to the publication Susy in 1949, he went on to produce artwork for several series under the signature "Badia". He launched the magazine Alex in 1953 and two years later founded the publishing firm Ruiz Romero for which he produced the series Cromos, Hombres de Lucha and Historia de la Guerra.
He often collaborated with his brother Jordi Badía Romero.
Modesty Blaise
Romero began his association with writer Peter O'Donnell's Modesty Blaise strip in 1970 when he was called in to finish the storyline The War-Lords of Phoenix due to artist Jim Holdaway's unexpected death. Initially, Romero intentionally imitated Holdaway's style in order to make the changeover less noticeable, but soon established his own take on the character of Modesty Blaise, portraying her in a more exotic and voluptuous style than Holdaway did. Romero drew the Modesty Blaise strip until 1978, and while doing episodes of André Chéret's Rahan for the Franco-Belgian comics magazine Pif gadget from 1976, and beginning in 1978, Romero collaborated with Donne Avenell to create the science fiction series AXA for the English tabloid newspaper The Sun.
In 1986 Romero returned to Modesty Blaise and remained with the strip until O'Donnell retired in 2001. In 2002, Romero was commissioned to draw a graphic novel adaptation of the Modesty Blaise short story "The Dark Angels"; this work was initially published exclusively in Scandinavia but was later reprinted in a special issue of Comics Revue in the United States. Romero's 1970s work on the Modesty Blaise strip is continually reprinted in an ongoing series of compilation volumes published by the UK company Titan Books since 2005, while Comics Revue has reprinted all of his post-1986 work on the strip.
In the 2000s and on, Romero has worked on Durham Red, and other projects for the magazines 2000 AD and Judge Dredd Megazine, as Enric Romero, and in 2011 he drew for the Italian market some short stories of Djustine, the horror-western character created by Enrico Teodorani.
Bibliography
Comics work includes:
Judge Anderson: "Golem" (as Enric Romero, with Alan Grant, in 2000 AD Annual 1987, 1986)
The Scarlet Apocrypha: "Children of the Night" (as Enric Romero, with Dan Abnett, in Judge Dredd Megazine, vol. 4 #15, 2002)
Notes
References
Romero dossier FFF
Romero publications in Pif gadget, Charlie Mensuel BDoubliées
Enric Romero at 2000 AD online
Enrique Badia Romero on Lambiek Comiclopedia
External links
Spanish comics artists
Peter O'Donnell
Living people
1930 births
People from Barcelona
20th-century Spanish artists
|
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204773
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romero
|
Romero
|
The name Romero is a nickname type of surname for a Roman or an Italian. The name was originally derived from the Latin word Romaeus and the Greek word Romaios, which mean Roman.
A person on a religious journey or pilgrimage from Rome (possibly to Jerusalem)
Other variations of the surname
Roemer, a Middle High German and Swiss name meaning a pilgrim to the Holy Land
Romer, an English and Dutch name meaning a religious pilgrim or religious warrior carrying a sacred object on his way to the Holy Land
Rohmer, an Icelandic name meaning a guardian of a sacred place
Romeo, an Italian name meaning a pilgrim to Rome
Romeu, a Portuguese and Catalan name meaning someone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land
Romeos, a Modern Greek name meaning pilgrim to Jerusalem
Romemu, an Hebraic word meaning one who exalts or glorifies a deity
Robero, a surname derived from the given name Robert
In the genealogical record in the Philippines
Romero is one of the surnames that were given by the Spaniards during the Spanish colonial era in the Philippines and the rest of other colonial nations in order to avoid confusion and technically, as a replacement of the indigenous surnames that were difficult to pronounce among Spaniards, altogether with the Catholic conversions as well. Majority of the ethnic Filipinos did not inherit their Spanish surnames, but obtained them for colonial purposes.
Surname
A list of people with the surname Romero:
Academics
Aldemaro Romero Jr. (born 1951), Venezuelan-American biologist
E. Antonio Romero (1925–2005), Guatemalan philosopher, historian and writer
Francisco Romero (1891–1962), Argentine philosopher
Xavier Romero Frías (born 1954), Spanish anthropologist
Artists and designers
Covadonga Romero Rodríguez (1917–2018), Spanish artist
Brenda Romero (born 1966), American computer game designer and developer
Enrique Badía Romero (born 1930), Spanish comics artist known as Romero
Frank Romero (born 1941), American painter, part of the Chicano art movement.
John Romero (born 1967), American computer game programmer and designer
Politics and activists
Alfredo Romero (born 1969), Venezuelan lawyer and human rights activist
Anthony D. Romero (born 1965), American lawyer, executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union
Carlos Romero Barceló (1932–2021), Puerto Rican politician
Carmen Romero Rubio (1864–1944), former Mexican First Lady
Christy Goldsmith Romero, American lawyer, Special Inspector General of the Troubled Asset Relief Program
Edward L. Romero (born 1934), American entrepreneur and diplomat
Flerida Ruth Pineda-Romero (1929–2017), former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Gloria Romero (born 1955), American politician
Jorge Romero Romero (1964–2021), Mexican politician
Juan Carlos Romero (born 1950), Argentine politician, son of Roberto Romero, senator of the Salta Province
Kate de Romero, former Puerto Rican First Lady
Melinda Romero Donnelly (born 1971), Puerto Rican politician
Miguel Romero (born 1970), Puerto Rican politician
St. Óscar Romero (1917–1980), assassinated Salvadoran Roman Catholic Archbishop
Regina Romero (born 1974), American politician, mayor of Tucson, Arizona
Richard M. Romero (born 1944), American politician
Roberto Romero (1927–1992), Argentine businessman, founder of El Tribuno newspaper, governor of Salta Province
Trinidad Romero (1835–1918), American politician and rancher
Cinema and television
Carlos Romero (1927–2007), American actor
Cesar Romero (1907–1994), American actor
Chanda Romero (born 1954), Filipina actress
Constantino Romero (1947–2013), Spanish actor, voice actor and presenter
Eddie Romero (1924–2013), Filipino film director
George A. Romero (1940–2017), American film director
Gloria Romero (born 1933), Filipina actress
Music
Aldemaro Romero (1928–2007), Venezuelan musician
Chan Romero (born 1941), American rock and roll singer
Danny Romero (born 1995), Spanish singer born Daniel Ramírez Romero
Dyango (born 1940), Spanish musician born José Gómez Romero
Eladio Romero Santos (1937–2001), Dominican musician
Jesús Adrián Romero (born 1965), Mexican Christian worship singer
Nicky Romero (born 1989), Dutch electronic music producer and DJ
Paul Romero (born 1965), United States computer game music composer
The Romeros, Spanish classical guitar quartet featuring:
Celedonio Romero (1913–1996), classical guitarist, poet and composer
Celin Romero (born 1936), classical guitarist (son of Celedonio)
Pepe Romero (born 1944), classical guitarist (son of Celedonio)
Angel Romero (born 1946), classical guitarist and conductor (son of Celedonio)
Sports
Romero (bullfighter family), a dynasty of 18th and 19th century bullfighters from Ronda, Andalusia, Spain, its most famous members being:
Francisco Romero (1700–1763), Spanish bullfighter
Juan Romero, Spanish bullfighter
José Romero, Spanish bullfighter
Pedro Romero (1754–1839), Spanish bullfighter
Alfredo Romero (born 1972), Puerto Rican track and field athlete
Andrés Romero (born 1967), Chilean footballer
Andrés Romero (born 1981), Argentine golfer
Ángel Romero (1932–2007), Mexican cyclist
Ángel Romero (born 1992), Paraguayan footballer
Antonio Romero (born 1968), Mexican sprint canoeist
Arturo Colón Romero (born 1928), Puerto Rican chess master
Camilo Romero (born 1970), Mexican football (soccer) player
Carmen Romero (born 1950), Cuban discus thrower
Cibeles Romero (born 1978), Spanish field hockey player
Cristian Romero (born 1998), Argentine footballer
Curro Romero (born 1933), Spanish bullfighter (not a member the Romero dynasty)
Eduardo Romero (born 1954), Argentine golfer
Enrique Romero (born 1971), Spanish footballer
Gonzalo Romero (born 1975), Guatemalan footballer
J. C. Romero (born 1976), Puerto Rican baseball player
John Romero (born 1976), American football player
Jordan Romero (born 1996), American mountain climber, the youngest person to climb the Seven Summits - the highest peaks on every continent
José Romero (1878–????), Cuban baseball player
Jose Romero (born 1971), Chilean Australian rules footballer
José 'Joselito' Romero Jiménez (born 1985), Spanish footballer
José Romero Santos (born 1936), Cuban rower
José Antonio Romero Morilla (born 1980), Spanish football manager
José Luis Romero (born 1945), Spanish footballer and coach
José Santos Romero (born 1951), Argentine footballer and manager
Julio César Romero (born 1960), Paraguayan footballer
Leo Romero (born 1986), Mexican American professional skateboarder
Leticia Romero (born 1995), Spanish basketball player
Liborio Romero (born 1979), Mexican boxer
Luka Romero (born 2004), Mexican footballer
Mario Antonio Romero (born 1980), Argentine footballer
Mary Romero (born 1985), Spanish professional boxer
Mauricio Martín Romero (born 1983), Argentine footballer
Miguel Ángel Sebastián Romero (born 1979), Argentine footballer who plays for Independiente Rivadavia
Miguel Colón Romero, Puerto Rican chess master
Óscar Romero (born 1992), Paraguayan footballer
Oscar Romero (born 1996), American soccer player
Pablo Romero (born c. 1960), Cuban amateur boxer
Ramón Romero (1959–1988), Dominican baseball player
Randy Romero (1957–2019), American jockey
Raúl Romero (born 1935), Argentine wrestler
Rafael Romero (born 1938), Venezuelan track and field athlete
Rebecca Romero (born 1980), British track cyclist and rower
Ricardo Romero (1899–????), Chilean Olympic fencer
Ricardo Romero (born 1978), American mixed martial arts fighter
Ricky Romero (1931–2006), American professional wrestler
Ricky Romero (born 1984), American baseball pitcher
Rito Romero (1927–2001), Mexican professional wrestler
Rocky Romero (born 1982), ring name of Cuban-born American professional wrestler John Rivera
Rolland Romero (1914–1975), American triple jumper
Sebastián Ariel Romero (born 1978), Argentine footballer
Sergio Romero (born 1987), Argentine football goalkeeper
Vicente Romero (born 1987), Spanish footballer
Yoel Romero (born 1977), Cuban mixed martial artist
Fictional characters
Romero, a fictional character in the anime series Beyblade
Romero Malcolm, a fictional character in the book series "All For The Game".
See also
Christian Initiative Romero, a non-profit organisation in Germany working in support of industrial law and human rights in Central America, named after Óscar Romero
Spanish-language surnames
Surnames of Spanish origin
ca:Romero
cs:Romero
es:Romero (desambiguación)
fr:Romero
it:Romero
lt:Romero
nl:Romero
ja:ロメロ
pt:Romero
ru:Ромеро
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farewell%20My%20Concubine%20%28film%29
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Farewell My Concubine (film)
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Farewell My Concubine is a 1993 Chinese historical drama film directed by Chen Kaige, starring Leslie Cheung, Gong Li, and Zhang Fengyi. Adapted for the screen by Lu Wei based on the novel by Lilian Lee, the film is set in a politically tumultuous 20th-century China, from the early days of the Republic to the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution. It chronicles the troubled relationships between two Peking opera actors and lifelong friends Cheng Dieyi (Cheung) and Duan Xiaolou (Zhang), and Xiaolou's wife Juxian (Gong).
The movie is about confusion of identity and blurred lines between real life and the stage, portrayed by the revered opera actor Dieyi, whose unrequited love for Xiaolou persists through the movie. Scholar Ying notes that in order "[to] attract the international audience, Chinese history and Peking Opera are drawn close while homosexuality, individual perversities and moral dilemmas are transposed distant". Commentators also noted themes of political and societal disturbances in 20th-century China, which is typical of the Chinese Fifth Generation cinema.
Farewell My Concubine premiered on January 1, 1993, in Hong Kong. Upon release, the film received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics and won the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, becoming the first Chinese-language film to achieve the honour. It further won accolades including a Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film and a BAFTA for Best Film Not in the English Language, and received two nominations at the 66th Academy Awards for Best Cinematography and Best Foreign Language Film.
A few weeks after its release in China the government abruptly banned the film. The Chinese government objected to the film’s representation of homosexuality and suicide. The film was allowed to resume public showings in September of 1993, less than a year after its original release. Upon its return to the public, it was revealed that the Chinese censors made numerous cuts, resulting in the film being shortened by 14 minutes.
Chinese officials felt that a re-release of the film as opposed to maintaining a full ban would silence ever-growing international backlash and also help their bid to host the Olympic games in Beijing in 2000.
Farewell My Concubine is considered one of the landmark films of the Fifth Generation movement that brought Chinese film directors to world attention. In 2005, the film was selected as one of the "100 Best Films in Global History" by Time magazine.
Plot
In the winter of 1924, Douzi, a boy endowed with feminine features, is taken by his prostitute mother to an all-boys Peking opera troupe supervised by Master Guan. Douzi has an extra finger causing Master Guan to initially reject him from the joining the troupe. Shortly after, Douzi's mother cuts the extra finger off with a knife and returns him to the troupe with his hand still bleeding, and abandons him. Douzi befriends a fellow student, Shitou.
In 1932, a teenage Douzi is trained to play dan (female roles), while Shitou learns jing (painted face male roles). When practicing the play "Dreaming of the World Outside the Nunnery", Douzi accidentally substitutes the line "I am by nature a girl, not a boy" with "I am by nature a boy, not a girl," and is disciplined severely by the instructors. Douzi, along with another student, Laizi, attempts to run away, but Douzi decides to pursue acting seriously after witnessing an opera performance in a theatre. Upon returning, they find the whole troupe being punished for their desertion, and Douzi is beaten. As a result, Laizi hangs himself.
An agent who provides funding for opera plays comes to the troupe to seek potentials. When Douzi repeats the same mistake in front of the agent, Shitou commands for him to start over. Douzi finally whispers, "I am by nature a girl, not a boy." He delivers the entire monologue successfully, to the joy of the troupe, and secures the agent. The troupe is invited to perform for eunuch Zhang. Shitou and Douzi are brought to Zhang's house where they find a finely crafted sword, which Douzi promises to give to Shitou one day. Zhang asks to meet Douzi in his room and sexually assaults him. Douzi does not mention this to anyone, but Shitou implicitly knows what happened. On their way home, Douzi adopts an abandoned baby, who later comes under Master Guan's training.
In 1937, on the eve of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Douzi and Shitou become Peking opera stars under stage names Cheng Dieyi and Duan Xiaolou, respectively. Their signature performance is the play Farewell My Concubine, where Dieyi plays the concubine Consort Yu and Xiaolou plays the hero Xiang Yu. Their fame attracts the attention of Yuan Shiqing, a reputable person who attends their performances, and who is enamoured by Dieyi. During a meeting, Dieyi discovers Yuan Shiqing now owns Zhang's sword, which he gifts to Dieyi. Yuan Shiqing compliments his performance but Dieyi is hesitant to develop a romantic relationship with him. The adult Dieyi has an unrequited love for Xiaolou, but Xiaolou marries Juxian, a headstrong courtesan at an upscale brothel, and Dieyi and Xiaolou's relationship begins to fall apart. The love triangle between Dieyi, Xiaolou, and Juxian leads to jealousy and betrayal, which is further complicated by the successive political upheavals following the Second Sino-Japanese War. When Master Guan dies, the abandoned baby, now Xiao Si, comes under Dieyi's training to continue learning dan roles.
When the communist forces win the civil war, Xiao Si becomes an avid follower of the new government. Dieyi's addiction to opium negatively affects his performances, but he ultimately rehabilitates with the help of Xiaolou and Juxian. Xiao Si nurtures resentment against Dieyi because of his rigorous teachings and usurps his role in Farewell My Concubine during one performance, without anyone telling Dieyi beforehand. Devastated by the betrayal, Dieyi secludes himself and refuses to reconcile with Xiaolou. As the Cultural Revolution continues, the entire opera troupe is put on a struggle session by the Red Guards where, under pressure, Dieyi and Xiaolou accuse each other of counterrevolutionary acts. Dieyi also tells the guards that Juxian was a prostitute. To protect himself from further prosecution, Xiaolou swears that he does not love her and will "make a clean break" with her. Juxian is heartbroken and commits suicide. Afterward, Xiao Si is caught by the Red Guards when he is singing Consort Yu's lines to the mirror alone in a practice room.
In 1977, Dieyi and Xiaolou reunite, seeming to have mended their relationship. They once again practice Farewell My Concubine; Xiaolou begins with the line "I am by nature a boy," to which Dieyi makes the same mistake of finishing with "I am not a girl." As they finish their performance, Dieyi takes Xiaolou's sword and cuts his own throat, paralleling the concubine's final act in the opera. Xiaolou turns around in shock, and calls out Dieyi's name, and before the screen fades to black, he meekly whispers Dieyi's childhood name: Douzi.
Cast
Production
Chen Kaige was first given a copy of Lilian Lee's novel in 1988, and although Chen found the story of the novel to be "compelling", he found the emotional subtext of the novel "a bit thin". After meeting with Lee, they recruited Chinese writer Lu Wei for the screenplay, and in 1991 the first draft of the screenplay came about. The director chose the heroic suicide of Dieyi over original story's banality in order to present the “Lie nu” image of Dieyi to emphasize the women's liberation which was commonly found in the Fifth Generation films.
Jackie Chan was originally considered for the role of Cheng Dieyi, but he declined the offer. John Lone later lobbied for the role but failed to progress past contractual negotiations with producer Hsu Feng.
Hong Kong actor Leslie Cheung was used in the film to attract audiences because melodramas were not a popular genre. It was believed that it was the first film where Cheung spoke Mandarin Chinese. However, for most of the movie Cheung's voice is dubbed by Beijing actor Yang Lixin. Director Chen left Cheung's original voice in two scenes, where Cheung's voice is distorted by physical and mental distress. Due to Gong Li's international stardom, she was cast as one of the main characters in the film.
Historical background
The historical background of the film is multi-layered and complicated, which contributes to the motif and the form of the film. The 1990s period saw China trying to do damage control to the country's image after the massacre that happened during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. David Shambaugh talks about the government's new agenda that focused on "restoring the appearance of unity in the leadership, ensuring the loyalty of the military, reestablishing social order, reasserting central control over the provinces, recentralizing and retrenching the economy, and redefining China's role in a post-Cold War international environment". In addition to the mentioned changes in the political climate, at the time of the film's release, the atmosphere around the criticism of Cultural Revolution shifted. As Luo Hui notes "criticizing the Cultural Revolution had become permissible, even fashionable", allowing the film to highlight the devastation the world of art, as well as other aspects of Chinese society like medicine and education, suffered at the hands of the Cultural Revolution movement.
Release
Release in China
The film premiered in Shanghai in July 1993 but was removed from theatres after two weeks for further censorial review and subsequently banned in August. Because the film won the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, the ban was met with international outcry. Feeling there was "no choice" and fearing it hurt China's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, officials allowed the film to resume public showings in September. This release featured a censored version; scenes dealing with the Cultural Revolution and homosexuality were cut, and the final scene was revised to "soften the blow of the suicide".
Box office and reception
The film was released to three theaters on 15 October 1993, and grossed $69,408 in the opening weekend. Its final grossing in the US market is $5,216,888.
In 2005, some 25,000 Hong Kong film-enthusiasts voted it their favorite Chinese-language film of the century (the second was Wong Kar-wai's Days of Being Wild).
International audience
The international perspective of the movie was put into question by critics who are concerned that the visual and artistic settings in the movie are too culturally inherent. On the other hand, the contents are internationally applicable. The enriching contexts, symbols, and political icons are turned into colorful Oriental spectacles that arouse Westerner's fantasies. China's image is used as an object of signification, a cultural exhibition on display and a major selling point. Thus, they charge the movie for dancing to the tunes set forth by the Western cultural imaginary about China.
Some critics point to the fact that Chen had engineered the film to fit domestic and international audiences' taste, as Chen understands the international audience's perceptions and attitudes towards Chinese history, and sexuality.
Miramax edited version
At the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, the film was awarded the highest prize, the Palme d'Or. Miramax Films mogul Harvey Weinstein purchased the distribution rights and removed fourteen minutes, resulting in a 157-minute cut. This is the version seen in U.S. and U.K. theaters. According to Peter Biskind's book, Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance and the Rise of Independent Film, Louis Malle, who was president of the Cannes jury that year, said: "The film we admired so much in Cannes is not the film seen in this country [the U.S.], which is twenty minutes shorter – but seems longer because it doesn't make any sense. It was better before those guys made cuts."
The uncut 171-minute version has been released by Miramax on DVD.
Music and soundtrack
Reception
Critical reception
Roger Ebert awarded the film four stars, praising the plot as "almost unbelievably ambitious" and executed with "freedom and energy". The New York Times critic Vincent Canby hailed it for "action, history, exotic color", positively reviewing the acting of Gong Li, Leslie Cheung and Zhang Fengyi. In New York, David Denby criticized the "spectacle" but felt it would be worthy of excelling in international cinema, portraying a triumph of love and culture despite dark moments. Hal Hinson, writing for The Washington Post, highlighted "its swooning infatuation with the theater- with its colors, its vitality and even its cruel rigors". Desson Howe was less positive, writing the first half had impact but gives way to "novel-like meandering", with less point.
The film was included in The New York Times list of The Best 1000 Movies Ever Made in 2004 and Times list of Best Movies of All Time in 2005. It was ranked 97 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010, and No. 1 in Time Out'''s "100 Best Mainland Chinese Films" feature in 2014. The film has an 86% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 37 reviews, with an average rating of 7.50/10. The critics consensus reads, "Chen Kaing's epic is grand in scope and presentation, and, bolstered by solid performances, the result is a film both horrifying and enthralling." The BBC placed the film at number 12 on its 2018 list of the 100 greatest foreign language films. It ranked at number 55 on the Hong Kong Film Awards Association (HKFAA)'s list of the Best 100 Chinese-Language Motion Pictures in 2005. Regarding public reception, Farewell My Concubine topped a 2005 poll of the most beloved films in Hong Kong conducted by Handerson ArtReach.
Year-end lists
6th – Joan Vadeboncoeur, Syracuse Herald American Top 10 (not ranked) – Dennis King, Tulsa WorldAccolades
At Cannes, it tied for the Palme d'Or with Jane Campion's The Piano from New Zealand. Farewell My Concubine remains to date the only Chinese-language film to win the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.
See also
Cinema of China
Cinema of Hong Kong
List of submissions to the 66th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Hong Kong submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Braester, Yomi. Farewell My Concubine: National Myth and City Memories. In Chinese Films in Focus: 25 New Takes, edited by Chris Berry, 89–96. London: British Film Institute, 2003.
Kaplan, Ann. Reading Formations and Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine. In Sheldon Lu, ed., Transnational Chinese Cinema: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
Larson, Wendy. The Concubine and the Figure of History: Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine. In Sheldon Lu, ed., Transnational Chinese Cinema: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997; also published as Bawang bieji: Ji yu lishi xingxiang, Qingxiang (1997); also in Harry Kuoshu, ed., Chinese Film, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
Lau, Jenny Kwok Wah. Farewell My Concubine': History, Melodrama, and Ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema. Film Quarterly 49, 1 (Fall, 1995).
Lim, Song Hwee. The Uses of Femininity: Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine and Zhang Yuan's East Palace, West Palace. In Lim, Celluloid Comrades: Representations of Male Homosexuality in Contemporary Chinese Cinemas. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i, 2006, 69–98.
Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng. "National Cinema, Cultural Critique, Transnational Capital: The Films of Zhang Yimou." In Transnational Chinese Cinema, edited by Sheldon Lu, 105–39. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 199.
McDougall, Bonnie S. "Cross-dressing and the Disappearing Woman in Modern Chinese Fiction, Drama and Film: Reflections on Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine." China Information 8, 4 (Summer 1994): 42–51.
Metzger, Sean. "Farewell My Fantasy." The Journal of Homosexuality 39, 3/4 (2000): 213–32. Rpt. in Andrew Grossman, ed. Queer Asian Cinema: Shadows in the Shade. NY: Harrington Press, 2000, 213–232.
Xu, Ben. "Farewell My Concubine and Its Western and Chinese Viewers." Quarterly Review of Film and Television 16, 2 (1997).
Zhang, Benzi. "Figures of Violence and Tropes of Homophobia: Reading Farewell My Concubine between East and West." Journal of Popular Culture: Comparative Studies in the World's Civilizations'' 33, 2 (1999): 101–109.
External links
A film review with emphasis on the relationship between the play and the film
1993 films
1993 romantic drama films
1993 LGBT-related films
Chinese films
Chinese romantic drama films
Chinese LGBT-related films
1990s Mandarin-language films
Films directed by Chen Kaige
Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners
Films based on Chinese novels
Films featuring Peking opera
Films set in Beijing
Films about the Cultural Revolution
Palme d'Or winners
Second Sino-Japanese War films
Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award winners
|
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204776
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20South%20Carolina
|
List of governors of South Carolina
|
This is a list of South Carolina governors. The current governor of South Carolina is Henry McMaster who has been in office since January 24, 2017. South Carolina governors are counted only once; therefore, Joseph West, for instance, a colonial governor who served three non-consecutive terms, is considered the second Governor of South Carolina, not the second, fourth, and seventh.
The first Governor was William Moultrie.
Colonial period (1670–1775)
Statehood period (1776–present)
Presidents under the Articles of Confederation
The General Assembly chose the president for a term of two years.
Parties
(2)
Governors under the Articles of Confederation
The General Assembly chose the governor for a term of two years.
Parties
(4)
(2)
Governors under the Constitution of 1790
The General Assembly chose the governor for a term of two years.
Parties
(3)
(15)
(3)
(14)
(3)
(1)
Post-Civil War Governors through the present
Governors are elected at-large
2-year term, renewable once: 1868-1927
4-year term, not renewable consecutively: 1927-1982
4-year term, renewable once consecutively: 1982–present
Parties
Timeline of recent party control
The timeline below depicts the party control of the governorship since 1970.
Party affiliation
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, other governorships, and other high offices held by governors after leaving office. All representatives and senators mentioned represented South Carolina except where noted. *denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of South Carolina
, there are five former governors currently living, the oldest being Richard Riley (served 1979–1987, born 1933). The most recent governor to die was Ernest F. Hollings (served 1959–1963, born 1922) on April 6, 2019. The most recently serving governor to die was Carroll A. Campbell Jr. (served 1987–1995, born 1940) on December 7, 2005.
Notes
See also
Governor of South Carolina
South Carolina gubernatorial elections
List of lieutenant governors of South Carolina
List of United States senators from South Carolina
List of United States representatives from South Carolina
References
External links
SCIway List of South Carolina Governors in Chronological Order
National Governors Association List of South Carolina Governors
“South Carolina’s Colonial Governors” Preservation Society Halsey Map
Governors
Governors
South Carolina
|
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204789
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Frederick%20Ansel
|
Martin Frederick Ansel
|
Martin Frederick Ansel (December 12, 1850August 23, 1945) was the 89th Governor of South Carolina from 1907 to 1911.
Born in Charleston, South Carolina, to John Ansel who was an immigrant from Württemberg in Germany and Fredrika Bowers, also a German immigrant, Martin grew up in the German "colony" of Walhalla, South Carolina. He was admitted to the bar in 1870, first practicing law in Franklin, North Carolina, for four years, then in Greenville, South Carolina, where he became involved in politics. He served in the state legislature between 1882 and 1888, then was elected solicitor in the eighth Judicial Circuit, where he stayed until 1901.
He explored a run for governor in 1902, but did not actually run until 1906. He was re-elected in 1908. During his term, statewide prohibition was established.
He was first married to Ophelia Anne Speights, daughter of A.M. Speights, founder of The Greenville News, with whom he had two daughters and a son, but who died in 1894, then to Addie Hollingsworth Harris, who died in 1937. One of his daughters, Frederica, christened the battleship USS South Carolina (BB-26) in 1908.
He served as an elder at First Presbyterian church of Greenville. He was interred in Springwood Cemetery in Greenville.
References
1850 births
1945 deaths
American people of German descent
Governors of South Carolina
University of South Carolina trustees
South Carolina Democrats
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
South Carolina state solicitors
Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina
People from Walhalla, South Carolina
|
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204790
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sniffles%20%28Merrie%20Melodies%29
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Sniffles (Merrie Melodies)
|
Sniffles is an animated cartoon and comic-book mouse character in the Warner Bros. Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes series of cartoons and comics.
Character biography
Director Chuck Jones created Sniffles as a potential new star for the studio in 1939. The character was designed by Disney veteran Charles Thorson, an old hand at designing cute characters for Disney's Silly Symphonies. Thorson's design was highly derivative of a character he had designed for Disney, Abner Countrymouse from the Oscar-winning short The Country Cousin (1936). Both Abner and Sniffles are, in a word, cute. Sniffles' head is almost as large as his body, which allows his infant-like face to dominate his look. He has large, baby-like eyes, a small bewhiskered nose, and a perpetual smile. His ears grow from the sides of his head, placed so as to hearken more to a human infant than to Disney's top star, Mickey Mouse. The character wears a blue sailor cap, a red shirt, blue pants, a yellow scarf, white gloves and tan shoes. His fur is brown with light markings on the face.
Jones debuted the character in the short Naughty but Mice (1939) which has similarities to The Country Cousin though Sniffles has nearly identical traits to the hero kitten in the short The Night Watchman (1938). In Naughty but Mice, Sniffles has a cold and is searching for a remedy. He eventually stumbles upon an alcoholic cold medicine, drinks it, and becomes intoxicated. He then pals around with an electric shaver, which eventually saves him from a hungry cat. Sniffles was played by voice actresses Gay Seabrook, Bernice Hansen, and Sara Berner.
Jones went on to direct 12 cartoons featuring Sniffles, most of which showcase the naïveté of Sniffles by placing him in a dangerous world. For example, in Sniffles Takes a Trip (1940), a simple drive into the country turns into a nightmare as Sniffles is constantly frightened and awed by his surroundings. Some of Sniffles' films pair him with a bookworm character who accompanies the mouse into a sort of fantasyland where books and toys come to life, such as Toy Trouble (1941). Others simply focus on the inescapable sweetness of the character.
In Bedtime for Sniffles (1940), for example, he struggles to stay awake into the wee hours on Christmas Eve in order to glimpse Santa Claus (which of course never happens). This scene is a showcase for Jones' facility of realizing character through facial expression.
By the end of the series, Jones transformed Sniffles into an incessant chatterbox who serves more as a nuisance than a cute protagonist. For example, in The Unbearable Bear (1943), Sniffles foils a robbery attempt by perpetually pestering the perpetrator. Jones was moving out of his Disney-esque stage in the late 1940s, and Sniffles was retired in 1946 as the director took to more hilarious and sadistic characters such as the Three Bears, fellow mice Hubie and Bertie, Marvin the Martian, and Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner. The mouse's final cartoon was Hush My Mouse (his only entry in the Looney Tunes series) in 1946.
Sniffles quickly faded into obscurity in the animation arena. However, he would find new life in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Comics begun in 1940 by Dell Comics (writer Chase Craig used several minor Warner Bros. characters to fill pages). These comics teamed Sniffles with a little girl named Mary Jane who could shrink herself to mouse size, originally by sprinkling magic sand borrowed from the Sandman. Throughout most of the series, she could shrink just by reciting "First I close my eyes real tight / Then I wish with all my might / Magic words of poof poof piffles / Make me just as small as Sniffles." By now Sniffles had lost most of his animated film personality and was just a companion to Mary Jane as she explored something found in a garden or entered a sort of magical toyland. Mary Jane soon surpassed the mouse in popularity, and she got top billing in later issues. Artist Roger Armstrong drew the series until Al Hubbard took over in the 1950s. These adventures proved a favorite with readers, and the series continued until 1961. This series was recently resurrected for a story in issue #140 of the current Looney Tunes comic book published by DC Comics.
With the exception of Naughty but Mice, every cartoon in the Sniffles series was given a Blue Ribbon reissue. All 12 Sniffles cartoons are available uncut and fully restored on Looney Tunes Mouse Chronicles: The Chuck Jones Collection DVD and Blu-ray set.
Legacy
The 1990 television series Tiny Toon Adventures features a younger counterpart to Sniffles named Li'l Sneezer, a baby mouse with a propensity for having hurricane-force sneezes.
Sniffles also has a cameo in the movie Space Jam voiced by Colleen Wainwright. He was seen playing for the Looney Tunes team where he was squashed flat by one of the Monstars after he began to chat very quickly and very annoyingly to one of them.
Sniffles appears in The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries voiced by Kath Soucie. In the episode "The Tail End", he was depicted as a scientifically created Manx mouse with no tail, and unlike his other appearances in this episode he does not wear any clothes (except for a cap.)
Sniffles most recently appeared in the New Looney Tunes segments "DarkBat", "Bonjour, DarkBat" and "Smoothie Operator" voiced again by Kath Soucie. He is shown to have a superhero alter-ego called DarkBat (voiced by Daran Norris) who is a parody of Batman.
Filmography
Naughty but Mice (1939)
Little Brother Rat (1939)
Sniffles and the Bookworm (1939)
Sniffles Takes a Trip (1940)
The Egg Collector (1940)
Bedtime for Sniffles (1940)
Sniffles Bells the Cat (1941)
Toy Trouble (1941)
The Brave Little Bat (1941)
The Unbearable Bear (1943)
Lost and Foundling (1944)
Hush My Mouse (1946)
References
External links
Sniffles at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 15, 2016.
"Mary Jane and Sniffles" at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 15, 2016.
All about Sniffles on Chuck Jones Official Website.
Fictional mice and rats
Looney Tunes characters
Film characters introduced in 1939
Male characters in animation
|
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204803
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Badger%20%281889%29
|
USS Badger (1889)
|
USS Badger was an auxiliary cruiser of the United States Navy, the first U.S. Navy ship named after the burrowing mammal. Badger was sold to the War Department in April 1900 to serve as the U.S. Army Transport Lawton.
She was built in 1889 by Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works, Chester, Pennsylvania, as merchant ship Yumuri, purchased for use in the Spanish–American War on 19 April 1898 and converted to an auxiliary cruiser at New York Navy Yard, then commissioned on 25 April 1898, Commander A. S. Snow in command; and joined the North Patrol Squadron.
Service history
From 1 July to 18 August 1898, Badger served on the blockade of Cuba. On 26 July 1898, off the Dry Tortugas, she seized a Spanish tug with two vessels in tow, each with a quarantine flag hoisted. They were given medical assistance, provisioned, and kept in port until 3 August when a prize crew was put aboard the tug to sail her to New York. The other two vessels with 399 prisoners of war were sent to Havana.
Badger left Guantánamo Bay on 18 August 1898 with a contingent of Army troops, landing them at Montauk Point, New York, 24 August. Badger remained on the east coast until 26 December 1898 when she sailed to the Pacific, arriving at San Francisco 15 April 1899. From there she carried the Joint High Commission to Samoa (26 April – 13 May 1899) and then cruised in Samoan waters. Following her return to Mare Island Navy Yard on 14 August 1899, she cruised along the Pacific coast until 6 October 1899 with the Oregon and California Naval Militia. Decommissioned on 31 October 1899, Badger was transferred to the War Department on 7 April 1900, where she was renamed Lawton and used as an army transport.
USAT Lawton, , was fitted for troop and supply service to Alaska with a capacity for 700 passengers. In June 1900 the ship was engaged in returning destitute citizens from Alaska to the United States. Over the next fiscal year (1 July 1900—30 June 1901) Lawton was also engaged in transport to China and interisland service in the Philippines. The ship transported troops to China in July 1900 in response to the Boxer Rebellion.
References
External links
Log Book of USS Badger by John W. Klinger, 1899
Navy photographs of Badger
Ships of the Ward Line
Transport ships of the United States Army
1889 ships
Ships built by the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works
Auxiliary cruisers of the United States Navy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna%20I%20of%20Naples
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Joanna I of Naples
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Joanna I, also known as Johanna I (; December 1325 – 27 July 1382), was Queen of Naples, and Countess of Provence and Forcalquier from 1343 to 1382; she was also Princess of Achaea from 1373 to 1381.
Joanna was the eldest daughter of Charles, Duke of Calabria and Marie of Valois to survive infancy. Her father was the son of Robert the Wise, King of Naples, but he died before his father in 1328. Three years later, King Robert appointed Joanna as his heir and ordered his vassals to swear fealty to her. To strengthen Joanna's position, he concluded an agreement with his nephew, King Charles I of Hungary, about the marriage of Charles's younger son, Andrew, and Joanna. Charles I also wanted to secure his uncle's inheritance to Andrew, but King Robert named Joanna as his sole heir on his deathbed in 1343. He also appointed a regency council to govern his realms until Joanna's 21st birthday, but the regents could not actually take control of state administration after the King's death.
Joanna's personal life crucially affected the political stability of the Kingdom of Naples (murder of her first husband Andrew in 1345, the invasions of King Louis I of Hungary as justification to avenge the death of his brother, and Joanna's three later marriages, with Louis of Taranto, James IV, titular King of Majorca and Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen) and undermined her position with the Holy See, moreover after, during the Western Schism, she chose to support the Avignon Papacy against Pope Urban VI, who in retaliation declared her a heretic and dethroned her on 11 May 1380.
Having all her children predecease her, Joanna's heirs were the descendants of her only surviving sister Maria, whose first marriage with their cousin Charles, Duke of Durazzo was performed without her permission, becoming both spouses in the heads of the political faction against Joanna. Trying to reconcile with the Durazzo branch and with the purpose to secure her succession, Joanna arranged the marriage of her niece Margaret of Durazzo with her first-cousin (and Joanna's second cousin) Charles of Durazzo, who eventually captured and imprisoned Joanna, and finally ordered her assassination on 27 July 1382.
Early years
Joanna was the eldest surviving child of Charles, Duke of Calabria (only surviving son of Robert the Wise, King of Naples), and Marie of Valois (sister of King Philip VI of France). The Renaissance historian Donato Acciaioli claimed that she had been born in Florence, but she may have actually been born during her parents' travel towards the town, according to scholar Nancy Goldstone. The precise date of Joanna's birth is unknown: according to some researchers, she was most probably born in 1326 or 1327; however, given the fact that her mother gave birth to four or five children during her four years' marriage, Joanna was probably born in either December 1325 or early 1328. The early deaths of two of her siblings —A daughter, variously named Eloisa, Louise or Maria (born in January/February 1325; died 27 December 1325) and Charles Martel (born 13 April 1327; died eight days later)— left Joanna as the second in line to the Neapolitan throne after her own father.
Charles of Calabria died unexpectedly on 9 November 1328. With his death, his father faced the problem of succession, because Charles' posthumous child was also a daughter, Maria, born on 6 May 1329. Although Neapolitan law did not prevent women from inheriting the throne, the concept of a reigning queen was unusual. The agreement between the Holy See and Robert the Wise's grandfather, Charles I of Anjou, had explicitly acknowledged the right of Charles I's female descendants to inherit the throne, but it also stipulated that a female monarch was to marry and to allow her husband to rule. Furthermore, the Neapolitan royal house was a branch of the Capet dynasty of France and the French had recently excluded women from royal succession. Robert's nephew, Charles I of Hungary, had been disinherited in Robert's favor in 1296, but he did not abandon his claim to the Regno (or the Kingdom of Naples). Pope John XXII had ignored Charles's demands for years, but Robert's support for the Spiritual Franciscans (whom the Pope regarded as heretics) and his negligence to pay the yearly tribute to the Holy See gave rise to tensions between Naples and the Papacy. Robert's two younger brothers, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, and John, Duke of Durazzo, could also claim the throne against a female monarch.
Robert was determined to secure the succession to his own descendants and named Joanna and Maria as his heirs at a public ceremony at the Castel Nuovo in Naples on 4 December 1330. John of Durazzo and his wife, Agnes of Périgord, accepted Robert's decision (possibly in the hope that one of their three sons could marry Joanna), but Philip I of Taranto and his wife, Catherine of Valois, decided not to obey. When Joanna was invested with the right to succeed her grandfather on 30 November, John and Agnes were among the Neapolitan vassals who swore fealty to her, but Philip and Catherine did not attend the ceremony. Even the Pope could only persuade Philip to send a deputy to Naples to pay homage to Joanna on his behalf on 3 March 1331.
Charles I of Hungary had meanwhile asked the Pope to persuade Robert to restore the two fiefs that his father, Charles Martel, had held in the Regnothe Principality of Salerno and the Honor of Monte Sant' Angeloto him and his sons. He also put forward a marriage alliance, asking Joanna's hand for one of his sons. The Pope supported the plan and kept urging Robert to accept it. The widowed Catherine of Valois approached her half-brother, Philip VI of France, to intervene and block the marriage. She proposed her sons, Robert, Prince of Taranto and Louis, as suitable husbands for Joanna and Maria. The Pope was resolute and issued a bull on 30 June 1331, ordering that Joanna and her sister were to marry Charles I's sons. Initially, Charles I's eldest son, Louis, was designated for husband to Joanna. His younger brother, Andrew, was only Louis's substitute in case of his premature death. At one point during the negotiations, Charles I changed his decision and appointed Andrew to marry Joanna.
After Marie of Valois died during a pilgrimage to Bari in 1332, Robert's second wife (Joanna's stepgrandmother), Sancia of Majorca, assumed responsibility for her daughters' education. Queen Sancia, a fervent patron of the Spiritual Franciscans, lived like a Clarisse nun, although the Pope had refused to annul her marriage to King Robert. Joanna and Maria's nurse, Philippa of Catania, exercised an even greater influence on their education, and became a sort of second mother for the orphaned princesses. Sancia and Philippa were the most influential personalities in the court of Robert who did not make decisions without their consent, according to Boccaccio.
Raised in the cultured and refined court of her grandfather, Joanna apparently received no formal education or, if she did, was not very accurate, given that the Angevin documents do not mention the names of her tutors. She probably studied the books in the royal library, which contained the writings of Titus Livius, Paolo da Perugia, Saint Gregory and Marco Polo. However, it seems that when she reached adulthood she was able to express herself in Latin (as her remaining letters could proved), French, Italian and Provençal. The chronicler Domenico da Gravina affirms that both Joanna and her sister Maria had been "informed of every art and virtue by the same Lord King Robert and by Queen Sancia".
Charles I of Hungary came personally to Naples to complete the negotiations with his uncle about the marriage of Joanna and Andrew in the summer of 1333. He had not spared money during the journey, because he wanted to demonstrate his wealth and power. The two kings came to terms after further negotiations. According to the agreement, Andrew and Joanna were engaged, but Robert and Charles I also stipulated that Andrew was to marry Maria if he outlived Joanna, and one of Charles I's surviving sonsLouis or Stephenshould marry Joanna if Andrew died before her. The marriage contract was ceremoniously signed on 26 September. Next day, Robert invested Joanna and Andrew with the Duchy of Calabria and the Principality of Salerno. The Pope granted the necessary dispensations for the marriages in November 1333. The marriage remained unconsummated for years, most probably because of Andrew's immaturity, but it gave rise to conflicts between the different branches of the House of Anjou.
Andrew grew up in Naples, but he and his Hungarian retainers were regarded as foreigners. His cousins (the sons of Philip of Taranto and John of Durazzo), and even Joanna often made fun of him. Both contemporaneous and later authors were convinced that King Robert initially wanted to appoint Andrew as his successor. For instance, Giovanni Villani, claimed that the King "wanted his nephew, son of the King of Hungary, to succeed him after his death". However, miniatures of the Anjou Bible depict only Joanna wearing a crown in the late 1330s. Since the King had commissioned it, the pictures suggests that he had decided to ignore Andrew's claim to the throne. Indeed, in his last will, he named Joanna as his sole heir to Naples, Provence, Forcalquier and Piedmont, and also bequeathed his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem to her. He also stipulated that Maria was to inherit Joanna's realms if she died childless. King Robert did not order Andrew's coronation, thus excluding him from the administration of Naples. The dying king also set up a regency council, consisting of his most trusted advisorsthe Vice-Chancellor Philippe de Cabassoles, Bishop of Cavaillon, Fillipo di Sanginetto, Great Seneschal of Provence, and Admiral Giffredo di Marzanoand headed by Sancia. He ordered that Joanna could only start to rule alone after her 21st birthday, ignoring customary law which established 18 as the age of majority.
Reign
Accession
King Robert died on 20 January 1343, at the age of 67, after 34 years as king of Naples. Two days later, Andrew was knighted and his marriage to Joanna was consummated in accordance with the late king's last wishes. Thereafter, they mainly met with each other only at important state and religious ceremonies. Otherwise, they went to separate churches, they visited separate places and Joanna even forbade her husband to enter her bedchamber without her permission. The fifteen-year-old Andrew did not have his own treasury and Joanna's courtiers controlled his daily spendings.
When writing about the political situation in the Regno after Robert's death, Petrarch described Joanna and Andrew as "two lambs entrusted to the care of a multitude of wolves, and I see a kingdom without a king". Most political factors resented the establishment of the regency council. Joanna approached Pope Clement VI and asked him to grant the title of king to her husband, most probably because she wanted to secure the Hungarian Angevins' support to shorten the term of her minority. The Pope regarded the establishment of the regency council as a usurpation of his sovereign rights, but he wanted to control the administration of Naples. He rejected Joanna's proposal, but he rarely addressed letters directly to the council.
Agnes of Périgord wanted to secure the marriage of Joanna's sister Maria to her eldest son, Charles of Durazzo. The Dowager Queen Sancia and Joanna supported her plan, but they knew that Catherine of Valois would oppose the marriage. Agnes's brother, Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord, was the most influential cardinal at the Pope's court in Avignon. He persuaded Clement VI to issue a papal bull on 26 February 1343, authorizing Charles of Durazzo to marry any woman. In possession of the bull, Maria was engaged to Charles of Durazzo in the presence of Joanna, Sancia and other members of the regency council at Castel Nuovo on 26 March. The betrothal outraged Catherine of Valois who appealed to King Philip VI of France and the Pope, demanding them to achieve its annulment. Two days after the betrothal, Charles of Durazzo abducted Maria to his castle where a priest secretly married them and the marriage was soon consummated.
Catherine of Valois's second son, Louis of Taranto, invaded Charles of Durazzo's domains. Charles of Durazzo gathered his troops to secure the defense of his estates. Her sister's secret marriage infuriated Joanna and she sent letters to the Pope demanding the annulment of the marriage. Pope Clement VI refused and commanded Cardinal Talleyrand-Périgord to send an envoy to Naples to mediate a compromise. The cardinal's emissary persuaded the parties to sign an agreement on 14 July 1343. The legitimacy of Charles and Maria's marriage was acknowledged, but Catherine of Valois and her sons received cash settlement from the royal treasury. Joanna lost confidence both in her sister and in the Durazzo branch of her family and started to promote the career of her most trusted retainers, including Philippa of Catania's son, Roberto de' Cabanni, and her illegitimate uncle, Charles d'Artois.
Conflicts
Andrew's Hungarian retainers informed his mother, Elizabeth of Poland, about Andrew's uncertain position. She and her eldest son, Louis I of Hungary, sent envoys to Avignon, urging the Pope to order Andrew's coronation. She also decided to visit the Regno to strengthen Andrew's position. Before departing from Hungary, Queen Elizabeth collected 21,000 marks of gold and 72,000 marks of silver from the Hungarian treasury, because she was ready to spend a large amount of money to buy the support of the Holy See and the Neapolitan aristocrats for her son. She and her retinue landed at Manfredonia in the summer of 1343. She and her son met at Benevento, but Joanna received her only days later at Somma Vesuviana. When meeting with her mother-in-law, Joanna was wearing her crown to emphasize her royal status.
Queen Elizabeth and her retinue entered Naples on 25 July. She first approached Joanna's stepgrandmother, but the ailing Sancia of Majorca did not interfere in favor of Andrew. Joanna did not openly oppose her husband's coronation, but her mother-in-law soon realized that she only applied delaying tactics. Queen Elizabeth left Naples for Rome and sent envoys to Avignon, urging the Pope to sanction Andrew's coronation. Petrarch, who visited Naples in October as Cardinal Giovanni Colonna's envoy, experienced that the kingdom had moved towards anarchy after King Robert's death. He recorded that bands of bullying noblemen terrorized the people during the nights and gladiator games were regularly held in the presence of Joanna and Andrew. He also claimed that a hypocrite Franciscan friar, Fra' Roberto, controlled the regency council, describing him as a "terrible three-footed beast, with its feet naked, with its head bare, arrogant about its poverty, dripping with pleasure."
Petrarch wanted to achieve the liberation of Colonna's relatives, the Pipini brothers, who had been imprisoned for various crimes in 1341. Their property was distributed among various members of the royal family and the Neapolitan aristocracy and Petrarch could persuade the regency council to grant an amnesty to them. Queen Elizabeth, who was still staying in Rome, realized that the conflict between the influential cardinal and the Neapolitan leaders gave opportunity to strengthen her son's position. Andrew took sides with the Pipini and promised to achieve their liberation. Petrarch's reports from Naples convinced the Pope that the regency council could not administer the kingdom effectively. Emphasizing that Joanna was still a minor, the Pope appointed Cardinal Aymery de Châlus as his legate and charged him with the government of the Regno in a bull on 28 November 1343. Joanna's envoys made several efforts to delay the papal legate's departure from Avignon.
The negotiations between her mother-in-law and the Holy See alarmed Joanna and she asked the Pope in a letter on 1 December to stop discussing Neapolitan issues with the Hungarian envoys. The Pope addressed Andrew as the "illustrious king of Sicily" and urged his coronation in a letter on 19 January 1344, but he soon emphasized Joanna's hereditary right to rule. Five days later, Joanna urged the Pope to withdraw his legate and to authorize her to rule alone. The Pope soon responded, declaring that Joanna would alone rule the kingdom "just as if she were a man" even after she and her husband were jointly crowned. Around the same time, Queen Elizabeth returned to Naples and Andrew's courtiers informed her that they had learnt of plots against Andrew's life. She decided to take her son back to Hungary, but Joanna, Agnes of Périgord and Catherine of Valois jointly dissuaded her. Joanna and her grandaunts most probably feared that Andrew would return from Hungary to Naples accompanied by Hungarian troops. Queen Elizabeth departed from Italy on 25 February, leaving her son behind. The Angevins' northern Italian enemies took advantage of the weakened position of the Regno. John II, Marquess of Montferrat and the Visconti of Milan captured Alessandria and Asti in Piedmont and continued their military campaign against other Piedmontese towns that acknowledged Joanna's sovereignty. They forced Tortona, Bra and Alba into submission in 1344.
Joanna started distributing large parcels of the royal domains to her most trusted supporters, among them Roberto de' Cabanni, who was rumored to be her lover. Joanna's donations outraged the Pope who started to hint that he was ready to strengthen Andrew's role in state administration. The Pope also ordered Aymery de Châlus to move to Naples without any delay. Chalus reached Naples on 20 May 1344. Joanna wanted to swear fealty to the Pope alone in a private ceremony, but the papal legate resisted her demands. Joanna had to take the oath of obedience along with her husband in a public ceremony. Joanna fell sick and her illness enabled Andrew to achieve the Pipini brothers' liberation, but his act outraged other Neapolitan aristocrats. On 28 August, the papal legate formally recognized Joanna as the legitimate heir to Naples, but she had to acknowledge the papal legate's right to administer the kingdom. Chalus dissolved the regency council and appointed new officials to govern the provinces. However, the royal officials ignored the legate's orders and Joanna refused to pay the yearly tribute to the Holy See, saying that she had been deprived of the Regno.
Cardinal Talleyrand-Périgord and Joanna's envoy, Louis of Durazzo, urged Pope Clement VI to dismiss his legate who was also willing to abdicate. After King Philip VI intervened against the legate, the Pope decided to recall him, declaring that the 18-year-old Joanna had matured under the legate's auspices in December 1344. In February 1345, the Pope issued a bull, forbidding Joanna's most trusted advisorsPhilippa of Catania and her relativesto intervene in politics, but he also replaced Chalus with Guillaume Lamy, Bishop of Chartres. To placate the Pope, Joanna decided to conciliate Andrew and their conjugal union was restored. Before long, she became pregnant.
Joanna had meanwhile instructed Reforce d'Agoult, Senechal of Provence, to invade Piedmont. The burghers of Chieri and James of Savoy-Achaea joined the Provençal army. They reoccupied Alba in the spring, but John II of Montferrat and the Visconti gathered their troops near Chieri and defeated Agoult's army in the Battle of Gamenario on 23 April. Agoult died fighting in the battlefield and Chieri surrendered to the victors.
The relationship between Joanna and the Pope became tense, because she again started to alienate royal estates and ignored the Pope's proposals. On 10 June, Clement VI urged her to stop obstructing Andrew's coronation, but she was determined to exclude her husband from state administration. She answered that she was in the best position to look after her husband's interests, implying that her "understanding of gender roles within her marriage" was atypical, according to historian Elizabeth Casteen. On 9 July, the Pope announced that he would excommunicate her if she continued to give away royal estates. Queen Sancia died on 28 July. Before long, Joanna abandoned her husband. Rumours about a love affair between Joanna and Louis of Taranto started to spread in Naples, but her unfaithfulness was never proven. Pope Clement VI decided to achieve Andrew's coronation and charged Cardinal Chalus with performing the ceremony.
Hearing of the Pope's reversal, a group of noble conspirators determined to forestall Andrew's coronation. During a hunting trip at Aversa in 1345, Andrew left his room in the middle of the night from 18 to 19 September and was set upon by the conspirators. A treacherous servant barred the door behind him; and with Joanna in her own bedroom, a terrible struggle ensued, Andrew defending himself furiously and shrieking for aid. He was finally overpowered, strangled with a cord, and flung from a window with a rope tied to his genitals. Isolde, Andrew's Hungarian nurse, heard his cries, and with her own screams chased the murderers off. She took the Prince's corpse to the church of the monks, and remained with it until next morning in mourning. When the Hungarian knights arrived she told them everything in their mother tongue so no one else would learn about the truth, and soon they left Naples, telling everything to the Hungarian King. Opinions are divided on the real involvement of the Queen in the assassination. For some, she was the instigator of the murder; for others, like Émile-Guillaume Léonard, Joanna's involvement has not been demonstrated.
Joanna informed the Papacy, as well as other states in Europe of the murder, expressing her disgust in letters, but her inner circle of friends were thought to be most suspect. On 25 December 1345, she gave birth to a son, Charles Martel, Andrew's posthumous child. The infant was proclaimed Duke of Calabria and Prince of Salerno on 11 December 1346 as heir of the Kingdom of Naples.
Murder and wars
When Joanna took the throne, several lords in northern Italy saw this as an opportunity to expand their territory at her expense. In 1344 John II, Marquess of Montferrat led attacks which conquered her cities of Alessandria, Asti, Tortona, Bra, and Alba. She sent her seneschal, Reforce d'Agoult, to deal with it. He engaged the invaders on 23 April 1345 at the Battle of Gamenario, but was soundly defeated and killed.
Montferrat then went on to capture Chieri, within the lands of James of Piedmont, who had supported Joanna. James called for help from his cousin and lord, Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy in 1347. Together, they drove back the attackers through that July. John then added more forces to his alliance, bringing in Thomas II, Marquess of Saluzzo and Humbert II of Viennois. Together, they captured nearly all of Joanna's lands in the region.
When she made public her plans to marry one of her Taranto cousins and not Andrew's younger brother Stephen, the Hungarians openly accused her of the murder.
Louis of Taranto was a seasoned warrior, who understood Neapolitan politics from his lifetime experiences, raised at the court of Catherine of Valois, Joanna's aunt. After Joanna stated her intention to marry him, his brother Robert banded together with his cousin (and erstwhile rival) Charles of Durazzo against them. Some of Joanna's courtiers and servants were tortured and later executed, including her Sicilian governess Philippa of Catania and the latter's family. Louis was successful in driving his brother's forces back, but just as he reached Naples, it became known that the Hungarians planned to invade. Joanna made a pact with the Kingdom of Sicily, preventing them from invading at the same time. She married Louis on 22 August 1347, without seeking the necessary Papal dispensation, because of their being closely related.
In anticipation of his marriage, Louis was made Joint-Protector and Defender of the Kingdom (1 May 1347), jointly with Charles of Durazzo. One month later (20 June), Louis was made Vicar-General of the Kingdom. The marriage caused the Queen's popularity within her own Kingdom to fall.
Louis the Great, Andrew's older brother, took this opportunity to seek the annexation of the Kingdom of Naples. He launched a military expedition and the first troops made their entrance to L'Aquila on 10 May 1347.
On 11 January 1348 the Hungarian troops were at Benevento ready to invade the Kingdom of Naples. Faced with this threat, Joanna, who had retired at Castel Nuovo and trusted to the loyalty of Marseille, prepared her escape from the vengeance of Louis. Without waiting for the return of her husband, she embarked on 15 January 1348 on two galleys—property of the Marseille citizen Jacques de Gaubert to Provence—taking with her the still devoted Enrico Caracciolo. Louis of Taranto arrived in Naples the next day and escaped in another galley.
After easily taking the city of Naples, Louis the Great ordered the execution of Charles of Durazzo, Joanna's cousin and brother-in-law: he was beheaded on 23 January 1348 in the same place where Louis' brother Andrew was murdered. Joanna and Andrew's son, Charles Martel (betrothed to Charles of Durazzo's eldest daughter), who was left behind by his mother, was sent by his uncle to Visegrád in the Kingdom of Hungary, where he died after 10 May 1348, aged 2.
After a stop-over in the Fort de Brégançon, Joanna arrived in Marseille on 20 January 1348, where she received a warm welcome. She swore to observe the privileges of the city and received the oath of allegiance of its inhabitants. She signed the letters patents that united the upper and lower towns, ensuring the administrative unit. She then went to Aix-en-Provence, where her reception was very different; the Provençal barons clearly demonstrated their hostility to her. She had to take an oath to do nothing against Provence and to appoint only locals in the county posts.
Joanna arrived in Avignon on 15 March, to have a personal meeting with the Pope. Louis of Taranto joined her in Aigues-Mortes, and the couple was received by Clement VI. Joanna's visit had a triple purpose: to obtain a dispensation for her marriage to Louis of Taranto, to receive the absolution or exoneration of Andrew's murder and to prepare the reconquest of her Kingdom. The Pope granted the couple the dispensation, appointed a commission to investigate the charges of involvement in the murder of Andrew and bought the city of Avignon for 80,000 florins, which became effectively separate from Provence. Eventually, Joanna was exonerated for the crime by the Pope. During her stay in Avignon, by the end of June, Joanna gave birth to her second child and first-born from her marriage with Louis of Taranto, a daughter called Catherine.
Having learned that Louis the Great abandoned Naples after the outbreak of the Black Death, Joanna, with her husband and newborn daughter, left Avignon on 21 July and stayed in Marseille during 24–28 July, then moved to Sanary-sur-Mer on 30 July, then to the Fort de Brégançon on 31 July and finally arrived in Naples on 17 August 1348. One month after her arrival, she broke her previous promises on 20 September by removing Raymond d'Agoult from his post of Seneschal and appointing in his place the Neapolitan Giovanni Barrili. The public discontent forced Joanna to restore d'Agoult in his post.
Over time, the Hungarians came to be viewed as barbarians by the Neapolitan people, including Giovanni Boccaccio (who described Louis the Great as “’rabid’ and ‘more vicious than a snake’”), so it was easy for the Queen and her husband to gain popularity after their return.
Louis of Taranto
From early 1349 onwards, all documents for the Kingdom were issued in the names of both husband and wife, and Louis was indisputably in control of military fortresses. On coins issued during their joint reign, Louis' name always preceded Joanna's. Although he was not officially recognised by Pope Clement VI as king and co-ruler until 1352, it is likely that Neapolitans considered him their monarch from the moment he started acting as such.
Louis took advantage of the turmoil caused by yet another Hungarian attack to wrest complete royal authority from his wife. He purged the court of her supporters, and struck down her favourite, Enrico Caracciolo, whom he accused of adultery in April 1349 and very likely had executed. Two months later, on 8 June 1349, Catherine, Joanna and Louis' daughter, died aged 1.
After another Hungarian offensive which led to the walls of Naples in 1350, Pope Clement VI sent a Legate, Raymond Saquet, Bishop of Saint-Omer, with a fleet commanded by Hugues des Baux. Following this, Louis of Taranto promised to respect Joanna's independence. Shortly after, Louis the Great, seriously injured, returned to his country.
In October 1351, Joanna gave birth to her second child with Louis, another daughter, Françoise. Five months later, on 23 March 1352, Louis received Pope Clement VI's formal recognition as his wife's co-ruler in all her realms. On 27 May, Louis was crowned with her by the Archbishop of Braga in the Hotel di Taranto in Naples. A few days later, on 2 June, Françoise, by then the couple's only surviving child, died aged 8 months.
In 1356 Louis and Joanna organized the reconquest of Sicily. They formally entered Messina on 24 December 1356 after the victory of Niccolò Acciaioli, only to be forced to leave again after a serious naval defeat by the Catalans (29 June 1357) at Acireale.
At the same time, the troops of mercenary Arnaud de Cervole (called the Archpriest), crossed the Durance on 13 July 1357 and plundered Provence. Philip II of Taranto, Louis' brother (and third husband of Joanna's sister Maria since April 1355), was sent to Provence as Vicar General to fight against the forces that ravaged Provence. He bought the support of the troops of the Count of Armagnac which also showed daunting for local people. Finally Pope Innocent VI obtained the discharge of these bands with payments.
Louis of Taranto, who caught a cold while bathing, fell ill. His condition worsened over the course of a month and he died on 25 May 1362.
Personal rule
The death of Louis of Taranto, a brutal and authoritarian husband, finally gave Joanna the opportunity to take back the power she had been denied. During the next three years, the Queen would take a series of measures that made her popular: she granted a pardon to Raymond des Baux on 20 March 1363, replaced Roger of San Severino by Fouques d'Agoult as Seneschal of Provence, and promulgated various edicts to prevent internal disorders.
On 14 December 1362, Joanna contracted by proxy her third marriage, with James IV, titular King of Majorca and Prince of Achaea, who was ten years her junior. The wedding took place in person five months later, in May 1363 at Castel Nuovo. Unfortunately, this marriage was also turbulent: her new husband had been imprisoned for almost 14 years by his uncle King Peter IV of Aragon in an iron cage, an experience which left him mentally deranged. In addition to his poor mental state, another bone of contention between the couple was James IV's efforts to be involved in the government, although he was excluded from any role in the government of Naples in his marriage contract. Despite her marital troubles, in January 1365 Joanna was found to be pregnant with James IV's child, but unfortunately in June she had a miscarriage, as was noted in a letter of condolence sent to her by Pope Urban V dated 19 July 1365. She never conceived again.
Without hope of being King of Naples, James IV left Naples for Spain by the end of January 1366 and made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Majorca. He was captured by King Henry II of Castile, who transferred him to Bertrand du Guesclin, who held him captive in Montpellier. He was ransomed by Joanna in 1370 and returned to her briefly, only to depart again, this time for good. He failed in an attempt to recapture Roussillon and Cerdanya in 1375, and fled to Castile where he died of illness or poison at Soria in February 1375.
To assert the rights of the Holy Roman Empire over the Kingdom of Arles, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia crossed Avignon, and was crowned on 4 June 1365 as King of Arles at the Church of St. Trophime, but guaranteed the rights of Joanna over Provence.
Louis I, Duke of Anjou, brother of King Charles V of France and Lieutenant of Languedoc, asserted a claim to Provence. With the help of the armies of Bertrand du Guesclin, he launched an attack. Avignon was ransomed, Arles and Tarascon were besieged, but while the first was captured, the latter was saved by Provençal troops after nineteen days of unsuccessful siege. The troops of Seneschal Raymond II d'Agoult were defeated at Céreste. The intervention of both Pope Urban V and King Charles V, as well the excommunication against du Guesclin on 1 September 1368, caused the retreat of the latter and the signing of a peace Treaty on 13 April 1369, which was followed by a truce signed on 2 January 1370.
After these periods of unrest, Joanna experienced a period of relative calm, thanks to her good relations with the Holy See under Popes Urban V and Gregory XI. Elzéar of Sabran was canonized in 1371. Bridget of Sweden visited Naples in 1372. Through the mediation of Gregory XI, the final peace treaty with Louis I of Anjou was signed on 11 April 1371, under which he gave up his claim over Tarascon. In addition, the Queen recovered her domains in Piedmont thanks to the success of the condottiero Otto of Brunswick, with whom she later married.
By the Treaty of Villeneuve (1372), Joanna officially recognised as permanent the loss of Sicily, suffered ninety years earlier in 1282. Joanna then immersed herself fully in the running of her kingdom, and enjoyed every aspect of government. Although she was a fair and judicious ruler, no law or edict, however minor, was ever carried out without her personal approval and seal. Joanna's reign was also marked by her support and protection of local businesses, the creation of new industry, and her refusal to debase the currency. Crime was greatly reduced and she was an ardent promoter of peace within her vast realm.
Despite the Queen's deep spirituality and friendships with Catherine of Siena and Bridget of Sweden, her court was notable for its extravagance, with her collection of exotic animals and servants of various origins including Turkish, Saracen, and African.
The contemporary writer Giovanni Boccaccio has left us with the following description of Queen Joanna in his De mulieribus claris: "Joanna, queen of Sicily and Jerusalem, is more renowned than other woman of her time for lineage, power, and character". Extant images reveal her to have been blonde-haired and fair-skinned.
Western Schism
Without surviving children, Joanna sought a solution to her succession by arranging the marriage in January 1369 between her niece Margaret of Durazzo (youngest daughter of her sister Maria and her first husband Charles, Duke of Durazzo), and her first-cousin Charles of Durazzo (in turn Joanna's second cousin; son of Louis, Count of Gravina). This wedding was opposed by her former brother-in-law and Margaret's stepfather Philip II, Prince of Taranto. During a near fatal illness in November 1373, he bequeathed his claims to his brother-in-law Francis of Baux, Duke of Andria, and his son James. Francis laid claim by force to the rights of Philip II, which Joanna had reverted to the crown. Joanna then confiscated his property by grounds of lèse-majesté on 8 April 1374.
Joanna was now determined to undermine the position of Charles of Durazzo as potential heir. Indeed, with the approval of Pope Gregory XI, on 25 December 1375 she signed her fourth marriage contract, with Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, who valiantly defended her rights in Piedmont. The wedding in person took place three months later, on 25 March 1376 at Castel Nuovo. Although the new husband was reduced to the status of Prince consort, Charles of Durazzo was irritated by this union and approached Louis the Great of Hungary, Joanna's enemy.
During this time, the Western Schism developed, one of the largest fractures of Christianity in the Middle Ages. Two Popes were elected: Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari (who took the name of Urban VI) and Robert, Cardinal of Geneva (who became Clement VII). The first lived in Rome, the second in Avignon. After some hesitation, Joanna decided for Clement VII and supported him with 50,000 florins. Urban VI for his part encouraged the enemies of Joanna: the King of Hungary, the Duke of Andria and Charles of Durazzo. Being in a critical situation, Joanna appealed to Clement VII, who advised her to use Louis I of Anjou in her favor. France and Avignon counted on Naples to give them a foothold in Italy, if it came to resolving the schism by force. However, for Joanna the main factor of her support to Clement VII was Urban VI's attempts to take Naples away from her and to cede part of her Kingdom to his nephew, Francesco Prignano. On 11 May 1380 Urban VI declared her a heretic and her Kingdom, a papal fief, to be forfeit and bestowed it upon Charles of Durazzo.
In exchange for his help, Joanna adopted Louis I of Anjou as her heir on 29 June 1380, replacing Charles of Durazzo. This agreement realized the ambitions that the Duke of Anjou harbored for a long time. Charles of Durazzo then invaded Naples in November 1380 at the head of an army mainly composed by Hungarians.
Louis I of Anjou may not have understood the gravity of the situation in Naples, and didn't intervene immediately because he was forced to remain in France after his brother's death as a regent of his nephew and new King Charles VI.
Joanna entrusted her husband Otto of Brunswick with the few troops she could muster, but he was unable to stop the forces of Charles of Durazzo, who on 28 June 1381 crossed the borders of the Kingdom of Naples. After Otto's defeat at Anagni, and bypassing the Neapolitan defences at Aversa, Charles entered in Naples on 16 July at 7 p.m. and besieged Joanna in Castel Nuovo. Without any help, Joanna was forced to surrender on 25 August and was imprisoned, firstly in Castel dell'Ovo and later, in December, she was transferred to the Castello del Parco at Nocera Inferiore.
Catherine of Siena viewed Joanna as a demonically misguided ruler due to her support for Clement VII over Urban VI. In her letter to Joanna, Catherine told Joanna to consider her temporal position invalid by supporting the Pope in Avignon: “And if I consider your condition akin to those temporal and transitory goods that pass like the wind, you yourself have deprived yourself of them by your actions.” What Catherine was referring to was the legal position of Naples in relation to the Papacy. While Joanna had been established as the legitimate ruler of the Neapolitan Kingdom, she was also under the rule of the Pope in Rome. The Neapolitan throne had been under legal oversight of the Papacy "since the mid-thirteenth century, and the kingdom was a valuable source of revenue, prestige, and soldiers for the Church."
Assassination
Louis I of Anjou finally decided to act and went to Avignon at the head of a powerful army on 31 May 1382 in order to rescue Joanna. He passed through Turin and Milan. Towards the beginning of September, he was in Amatrice, near Rome. But by that time the Queen was already dead. Charles of Durazzo, thinking that he couldn't resist Louis I of Anjou, decided on 28 May 1382 that Joanna should be transferred from the Castello del Parco to the Castle of Muro Lucano held by Palamede Bozzuto, where she was killed on 27 July 1382, aged 56.
In his official statement, Charles claimed Joanna died of natural causes. However, other documentary sources unanimously claim she was murdered. Because of the nature of the remote and clandestine act, the accounts of the manner in which Joanna was slain vary. The two most authentic sources:
Thomas of Niem, secretary to Urban VI, states Joanna was strangled with a silken chord whilst kneeling in prayer in the private chapel at Muro castle by Hungarian soldiers.
Marie of Blois, wife of Louis I of Anjou, states Joanna was killed by four men, presumably Hungarian, with her hands and feet tied and then smothered between two feather mattresses.
Since there is no testimony from witnesses present at the time of her murder, it is impossible to say definitively which of the reports is accurate. Another account states she was smothered with pillows.
Her body was brought to Naples where for several days it was put on display to the public as proof of her death. As Urban VI had excommunicated Joanna, the Queen could not be consecrated in church property and was therefore tossed into a deep well on the grounds of Santa Chiara Church. The Neapolitan Kingdom was left to decades of recurring wars of succession. Louis I of Anjou was able to retain the mainland counties of Provence and Forcalquier. James of Baux, the nephew of Philip II of Taranto, claimed the Principality of Achaea after her deposition in 1381.
In literature
Giovanni Boccaccio wrote a biography of Joanna in his series of biographies known as De mulieribus claris (en: On Famous Women). Boccaccio devoted part of his biography of Joanna to dispelling any idea that Joanna was not the rightful ruler of Naples, which Boccaccio did by proclaiming that Joanna was a descendant of a noble bloodline. Boccaccio claimed that Joanna I's bloodline could be traced all the way back to “Dardanus, the founder of Troy, whose father the ancients said was Jupiter." Boccaccio also definitively and unequivocally proclaimed Joanna to be the lawful ruler of Naples by discussing the manner in which she ascended the Neapolitan throne. Boccaccio mentioned in his biography of Joanna that she rightfully inherited the kingdom from her grandfather because Joanna's father had died in his youth. In addition to demonstrating for his readers that Joanna was the rightful Queen of Naples, Boccaccio revealed his personal support for Joanna amongst the chaos of her reign and the controversy surrounding it. In Boccaccio's view, the question of whether a woman could reign or if there were other nobles who were more fit to rule was irrelevant because of Joanna. Boccaccio also discussed her capabilities and the aspects of her reign that made her a great ruler in his eyes. When Boccaccio summarized all of the areas and provinces that Joanna ruled over, he described Naples as having remarkable towns, fruitful fields, great nobles, and great wealth, but he also emphasized that “Joanna’s spirit [was] equal to ruling it”. Additionally, Boccaccio claimed that the reason why Naples was a prosperous Kingdom was because it was no longer inhabited by the Hungarian Royal Family and their supporters that he disliked. Boccaccio claimed that Joanna “bravely attacked and cleaned out the bands of wicked men” who had occupied Naples.
Alexandre Dumas, père wrote a romance, Joan of Naples, part of his eight-volume series Celebrated Crimes (1839–40).
A fictionalised account of her life can also be found in the novel Queen of Night by Alan Savage.
László Passuth wrote a novel Napolyi Johanna (Joanna of Naples, 1968) about her life.
Marcel Brion, La reine Jeanne (Queen Joanna), Société des Bibliophiles de Provence, 1936 (Artist's book illustrated with etchings by Hungarian born French artist Làszlò Barta); 1944 (published by Robert Laffont).
Titles and styles
Joanna's full style as queen was: Joanna, by the Grace of God, Queen of Jerusalem and of Sicily, Duchess of Apulia, Princess of Capua, and Countess of Provence, Forqualquier, and Piedmont.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
A. Dumas, Joan of Naples: e-text
Coat of arms of the House of Anjou-Sicily on the French Wikipedia
1325 births
1382 deaths
14th-century monarchs of Naples
14th-century murdered monarchs
14th-century Italian women
14th-century women rulers
House of Anjou-Naples
Claimant Kings of Jerusalem
Princesses of Achaea
Queens regnant
Counts of Provence
Deaths from asphyxiation
Provence, Countess of, Joanna I of Naples
Princesses of Taranto
Princes of Salerno
Old House of Brunswick
Dethroned monarchs
Golden Rose
Women in war in Italy
Women in 14th-century warfare
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204805
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosko%20the%20Doughboy
|
Bosko the Doughboy
|
Bosko the Doughboy is a one-reel 1931 short subject animated cartoon, part of the Bosko series. It was directed by Hugh Harman, and first released on October 17, 1931 as part of the Looney Tunes series from Harman-Ising Productions and distributed by Warner Bros.
The film score was composed by Frank Marsales.
Plot
The cartoon opens with images of explosions, gunfire, and heavy artillery; one character even fires into the camera. It is World War I, and the ever-cheerful Bosko is a doughboy eating down in a trench. Enemy fire destroys his meal, and later a picture of his girlfriend, Honey. Bosko shows a rare moment of anger, but is quickly cheered up by a fellow soldier. The two begin to dance, only to be interrupted by more gunfire. Bosko finally decides to fight back and downs an enemy bomber (actually a pelican) by using a fellow soldier as a cannon. A friendly hippopotamus is shot down by heavy artillery, which Bosko destroys with a pair of longjohns-turned-catapult. He then saves the wounded soldier by unzipping his navel and retrieving the shell inside. The projectile explodes anyway, turning the already black-faced Bosko even blacker and prompting him to exclaim "Mammy!" à la Al Jolson.
Notes
Bosko the Doughboy is notable for its departure from the standard cartoon formula of its era. Bosko is usually infallibly happy and chipper; Doughboy forces him to drop this demeanor and fight back. Other Bosko shorts concentrate primarily on Bosko cavorting with other characters in a musical wonderland; in Doughboy, Bosko can't dance more than a few seconds before coming under enemy fire. Bosko's cartoons generally have little to no conflict; Doughboy is nothing but fighting. In short, Bosko the Doughboy is almost a total departure from other shorts in the series (and from those of other studios of the time). It is usually regarded as a high point of the character's cartoon career.
Home media
Bosko the Doughboy is available on disc 2 of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 6 and on Uncensored Bosko: Vol 1.
References
External links
1931 films
1931 animated films
1930s American animated films
1930s animated short films
1930s war films
Looney Tunes shorts
Warner Bros. Cartoons animated short films
American black-and-white films
American films
English-language films
Films directed by Hugh Harman
World War I films
Films featuring Bosko
Films scored by Frank Marsales
1930s Warner Bros. animated short films
|
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204809
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Chinese%20Ghost%20Story
|
A Chinese Ghost Story
|
A Chinese Ghost Story () is a 1987 Hong Kong romantic comedy horror film starring Leslie Cheung, Joey Wong and Wu Ma, directed by Ching Siu-tung and produced by Tsui Hark. The plot is loosely based on a short story about Nie Xiaoqian from Qing dynasty writer Pu Songling's Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio and is also inspired by the 1960 Shaw Brothers Studio film The Enchanting Shadow. The film was popular in Hong Kong and several Asian countries, including South Korea and Japan. Although the film could not gain access to movie theaters in mainland China when it was first released, it became a cult film among young people in the mainland, especially the generation born in the 1980s. Most notably it boosted the stardom of Joey Wong, won Leslie Cheung popularity in Japan, and sparked a trend of folklore ghost films in the Hong Kong film industry, including two sequels, an animated film, a television series and a 2011 remake. The film was ranked number 50 of the Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures presented at the 24th Hong Kong Film Awards, the Special Jury Special Award of the 16th French Science Fiction Film Festival and the Best Film Award of the Portuguese Science Fiction Film Festival.
Plot
Ning Choi-san, a timid debt collector, goes to a rural town to collect debts but fails and runs out of money. He has no choice but to take shelter in a deserted temple in the forest on the outskirts of the town. That night, he meets a beautiful and alluring young maiden, Nip Siu-sin, and falls in love with her. In the morning, however, after he recalls that night's events, he becomes increasingly fearful and superstitious because Yin Chik-ha, a Taoist priest, told him that the people he saw in the temple are ghosts. That night, he returns to the temple and confirms his theory that Nip is actually a ghost.
Nip tells Ning her story of how she became eternally bound to the servitude of a sinister Tree Demoness. She explains that as long as her remains are buried at the foot of the tree, her spirit will be forever enslaved by the Tree Demoness. Ning attempts to free her from her suffering so he seeks help from Yin Chik-ha. Yin fights with the Tree Demoness and attempts to free Nip's soul but fails. As punishment for betraying her master, Nip's soul is banished to the Underworld.
Ning is unwilling to give up on Nip and he insists that Yin help him. Yin reluctantly opens a temporary portal into the Underworld and brings Ning along to search for Nip. As the Underworld is full of spirits, they have a hard time finding her. Ning and Nip are eventually able to see each other briefly near dawn when they manage to leave the Underworld. When sunlight shines on the urn containing Nip's cremated remains, Ning uses a curtain to shield the urn to prevent Nip's soul from being destroyed by exposure to sunlight. Before leaving for good, she tells him that the only way to save her soul is to rebury her remains at a more auspicious burial site. Ning follows her instructions and, acting on Yin's advice, he buries her remains near the crest of a hill. He burns a joss stick for her and prays for her soul while Yin watches solemnly behind him.
Cast
Leslie Cheung as Ning Choi-san
Joey Wong as Nip Siu-sin
Wu Ma as Yin Chik-ha
Lau Siu-ming as the Tree Demoness
Lam Wai as Hsia-hou
Xue Zhilun as Siu-ching
Wong Jing as the magistrate
David Wu as Secretary Chiu
Production
Producer Tsui Hark was interested in creating A Chinese Ghost Story as early as 1978, where he suggested it as a television production at TVB. The producer turned it down, feeling it would not be suitable for television. A Chinese Ghost Story uses elements of several stories from Pu Songling's 17th century collection Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio. Tsui Hark stated that they changed a lot of the stories for their adaptation as they found out the stories were against their initial interpretation. On developing the film, Tsui Hark noted that director Ching Siu-tung wanted to work with him. Ching Siu-tung had previously worked as a director and an action choreographer on various Film Workshop productions such as Peking Opera Blues and A Better Tomorrow II. Hark suggested developing A Chinese Ghost Story, describing it as a love story which Siu-tung was not as interested in developing as either a romance film or a non-horror based ghost story. Hark noted that his higher up approached him to develop the film into being about a female cop, not being aware that it was based on a book or that it was a period film. While working on the film, Hark and Siu-tung did not really know what it was end up being like, as Siu-tung was still apprehensive on creating a romance film and desired to add horror film elements. Rumours persist around the production suggesting that Tsui Hark effectively directed the film. British critic Tony Rayns stated that effectively, most Film Workshop productions were "redirected or hijacked by Tsui Hark" Joey Wong was a professional basketball player and model before starting her film career. Prior to working on the film, she appeared in films such as the Taiwanese production It'll Be Very Cold at the Lakeside This Year. She would show up in a few Shaw Brothers produced Hong Kong films and Tsui Hark's film Working Class.
Actors in the film include Leslie Cheung who was also a cantopop singer. Cheung had previously worked with Tsui Hark productions such as A Better Tomorrow and A Better Tomorrow II. Cheung also sung the films theme song. Wu Ma had previously appeared in several Hong Kong horror film productions such as Spooky Encounters, The Dead and the Deadly and Mr. Vampire. The film used the services of Cinefex Workshop, Hong Kong's first proper special effects studio who had previously worked on Hark's film Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain. The film script which called for the giant slithering tongue and zombies were developed by Cinefex technician Man Xian Liang who taught himself stop motion animation to make the effects happen. James Wong contributed to the score of the film. Wong was primarily known for writing songs for pop stars and television programs and completed his first score for Hark's Shanghai Blues.
Release
A Chinese Ghost Story opened on July 18, 1987. The film received theatrical release throughout Asia and Europe. The film also received international recognition when it won the special Jury Prize at the Avoriaz festival in France and the Best Film Award at the Opporto Festival in Portugal in 1987.
Box office
A Chinese Ghost Story performed well at the Hong Kong box office, earning 18,831,638 () and becoming 1987's fifteenth highest-grossing film in Hong Kong. In Taiwan, it was the 11th highest-grossing film of 1987, selling 187,654 tickets and earning (US$443,515). In South Korea, the film sold 31,639 tickets in Seoul upon release in December 1987, equivalent to an estimated ().
In the United Kingdom, the film sold 1,045 tickets in 1996, equivalent to an estimated (). In China, the film grossed US$328,204 in 2008 and () in 2011, for a total of grossed in China. This adds up to an estimated total of grossed worldwide (equivalent to an estimated adjusted for inflation).
2011 re-release and remake
In memory of the late Leslie Cheung, director Ching Siu-tung and producer Ng See-yuen re-released the film in cinemas across mainland China on 30 April 2011. China Radio International reported that the film was remastered with color timing that took about half a year. In addition, premieres took place in both Beijing and Shanghai. Ching Siu-tung, Ng See-yuen and Lau Siu-ming were present. However, Wu Ma and Joey Wong, who were invited, did not attend the premiere. Ching Siu-tung had difficulty tracking down Joey Wong and had to contact her through her family in Taiwan. He received a telephone call at the last minute from Wong's father, stating that the actress was in poor health and not in good condition to attend the premiere. Wong's father also quoted her daughter saying that acting in the film were her best memories. That same year, a remake of the film was released. It starred Louis Koo and Crystal Liu and was directed by Wilson Yip.
Reception and legacy
From contemporary reviews, Walter Goodman (The New York Times) noted poor subtitling on the print he viewed, opining that "If there are any Eastern profundities emanating from the temple, this Westerner did not recognize them." and that "The kick you get from all this will depend on how exciting you find explosive exhibitions of extraterrestrial exercises." Kim Newman (Monthly Film Bulletin) described the film as "an excellent example of the distinctive type of ghost/horror film that has been coming out of Hong Kong for many years" and that the film "affords an insight into a movie mythos at least as highly developed and ritualized as the Universal horror cycle of the 30s or the Hammer films of the 50s and 60s". The film was reviewed by a critic credited as "Mel." in Variety praised the film, stating that "Cinema City is to be congratulated for searching original Chinese material. The art direction, costumes, cinematography and soundtrack music are all exceptional." The review went on to state that the "storyline portray the beauty and grafility of life on earth" which led to "an entertaining love story with a tantalizing horror background, mixed with fantasy escapism that won't insult adult viewers."
From retrospective reviews, The Guardian described the film as "one of the breakthrough films of modern Hong Kong cinema" and that it was "dubious knockabout comedy [...] spiced with frantic set piece stunts (mid-air fights, thousand-foot tongues); not for those who value comprehensibility over panache." Empire gave the film four stars out of five, noting "gorgeous imagery" and that it was not "quite as completely demented as Mr Vampire, but it is truly strange." Donald C Willis wrote in his book Horror and Science Fiction Film IV that A Chinese Ghost Story was "an entertaining fantasy extravaganza" and that "the movie is very inventive, occasionally even poetic, but not quite moving". John Charles gave the film an eight out of ten rating, noting that some horror elements in the film were in debt to the film The Evil Dead, but noted that the "cinematography and art direction are superb, the action is invigorating, and the love story surprisingly touching, making this one of the most captivating and enjoyable fantasies of the post-New Wave period."
In mainland China, before the film was officially released in 2011, it was already widely circulated through unofficial channels- including smuggled videocassettes, pirated VCDs and DVDs, and later, video-sharing websites- and celebrated as a cult classic. The Chinese generation born in the 1980s, aka. the "post-80s" (balinghou), are among the most devout fans of this film, which they see as an embodiment of idealism, rebellion, nostalgia, and social criticism. Some scholars consider its comic nature, or "half-seriousness," to be the main reason for this cult following.
The modern reception of the film in Hong Kong and Taiwan is positive. At the 24th Hong Kong Film Awards various Asian film critics, film makers and actors voted for the top Chinese films from Hong Kong, Taiwan and China. A Chinese Ghost Story was listed at 50th place on the list. In 2011, the Tapei Golden Horse Film Festival had 122 industry professionals take part in the survey. The voters included film scholars, festival programmers, film directors, actors and producers to vote for the 100 Greatest Chinese-Language Films. A Chinese Ghost Story tied with Jia Zhangke's Xiao Wu (1997) and Zhang Yimou's The Story of Qiu Ju (1992) for 35th place on the list.
Awards and nominations
See also
Qian Nü You Hun
List of ghost films
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
lovehkfilm entry
Film review at The Illuminated Lantern
1987 horror films
1987 films
1980s comedy horror films
1980s fantasy films
1987 romantic comedy films
Hong Kong horror films
Hong Kong fantasy films
Hong Kong romantic comedy films
Hong Kong films
1980s romantic fantasy films
1980s Cantonese-language films
Films directed by Ching Siu-tung
Hong Kong New Wave films
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidi
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Heidi
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Heidi (; ) is a work of children's fiction published in 1881 by Swiss author Johanna Spyri, originally published in two parts as Heidi: Her Years of Wandering and Learning () and Heidi: How She Used What She Learned ().
It is a novel about the events in the life of a 5-year-old girl in her paternal grandfather's care in the Swiss Alps. It was written as a book "for children and those who love children" (as quoted from its subtitle).
Heidi is one of the best-selling books ever written and is among the best-known works of Swiss literature.
Plot
Heidi is an orphaned girl initially raised by her maternal grandmother and aunt Dete in Maienfeld, in the Grisons, after the early deaths of her parents, Tobias and Adelheid (Dete's brother-in-law and sister). Shortly after the grandmother's death, Dete is offered a good job as a maid in the big city, and takes 5-year-old Heidi to her paternal grandfather's house, up the mountain from the Dörfli ('small village' in Swiss German). He has been at odds with the villagers and embittered against God for years and lives in seclusion on the alm, which has earned him the nickname 'The Alm-Uncle'. He briefly resents Heidi's arrival, but the girl's evident intelligence and cheerful yet unaffected demeanour soon earn his genuine, if reserved, love. Heidi enthusiastically befriends her new neighbours, young Peter the goatherd, his mother Brigitte, and his blind maternal grandmother. With each season that passes, the mountaintop inhabitants, especially Peter and the grandmother, grow more attached to Heidi, and she to them. However, the grandfather refuses to allow Heidi to attend school, and quarrels with the local pastor and schoolmaster, who try to encourage him to do so, and Heidi is illiterate as a result.
Three years later, Dete returns to take Heidi to Frankfurt to be a hired lady's companion to a wealthy girl named Klara Sesemann, who is unable to walk and regarded as an invalid. Klara is charmed by Heidi's simple friendliness and her descriptions of life on the Alm, and delights in all the funny mishaps brought about by Heidi's naïvety and lack of experience with city life. However, the Sesemanns' strict housekeeper, Fräulein Rottenmeier, views the household disruptions as wanton misbehaviour, and places the free-spirited Heidi under more and more restraint. Soon, Heidi becomes terribly homesick for the Alm, and grows alarmingly pale and thin. Her one diversion is learning to read and write, motivated by Klara's grandmother, who shows her trust and affection, and encourages her to believe in God and to pray.
Heidi's intractable homesickness leads to episodes of sleepwalking where she goes downstairs and opens the front door, which the household initially takes as the work of ghosts, and the family doctor recommends she be sent home as a matter of urgency before she becomes seriously ill. She returns to the mountains laden with presents for her friends, but finds one of her greatest pleasures is reading hymns to Peter's blind grandmother, who can no longer do so for herself. Her faith in God speaks to something in the Alm-Uncle, and he returns to the Christian faith. He accompanies Heidi to church, and that winter takes accommodation in the village so that she can attend school.
Heidi and Klara continue to keep in touch and exchange letters. A visit by the doctor to Heidi leads him to eagerly recommend that Klara visit Heidi, feeling assured that the mountain environment and the wholesome companionship will do her good. Klara makes the journey the next season and spends a wonderful summer with Heidi, becoming stronger on goat's milk and fresh mountain air. But Peter, who grows jealous of Heidi's and Klara's friendship, pushes her empty wheelchair down the mountain to its destruction, although he is soon wracked with guilt about what he did and ultimately confesses to it. Without her wheelchair, Klara has no choice but to learn to walk; she attempts to do so and is gradually successful. She is not very strong, often relying on Heidi or the grandfather to stay standing and not collapse, but it marks an end to her time as a lonely, shut-in invalid. Her grandmother and father are amazed and overcome with joy to see Klara walking again. The Sesemann family promises to provide permanent care for Heidi, if there ever comes a time when her grandfather is no longer able to do so.
Characters
Heidi: A joyful and free spirited young girl who is orphaned as a toddler. She loves the beauty and fresh air of the mountains.
Grandfather: Heidi's grandfather, a cantankerous loner who lives in a hut high in the mountains.
Klara Sesemann: A lonely, frail girl who cannot walk. Spelled "Clara" in some translations.
Peter: A goat herder who lives with his mother and grandmother.
Herr Sesemann: Klara's father, a successful businessman who travels often.
Adelheid: Heidi's mother who died from a fever soon after her husband Tobias passed away. Spelled "Adelaide" in some translations.
Tobias: Heidi's father who was killed when a beam fell on his head when Heidi was a baby.
Dete: Heidi's selfish and insensitive aunt. Spelled "Deta" in some translations.
Brigitte: Peter's mother who takes care of Peter and her mother. Spelled "Brigitta" in some translations.
Fräulein Rottenmeier: The strict and arrogant housekeeper at Herr Sesemann's home who antagonizes Heidi.
Translations
English: Thirteen English translations were done between 1882 and 1959, by British and American translators: Louise Brooks, Helen B. Dole, H.A. Melcon, Helene S. White, Marian Edwardes, Elisabeth P. Stork, Mabel Abbott, Philip Schuyler Allen, Shirley Watkins, M. Rosenbaum, Eileen Hall, and Joy Law. As of 2010, only the Brooks, Edwardes and Hall translations are still in print.
Adaptations
Film and television
About 25 film or television productions of the original story have been made. The Heidi films were popular far and wide, becoming a huge hit, and the Japanese animated series became iconic in several countries around the world. The only incarnation of the Japanese-produced animated TV series to reach the English language was a dubbed feature-length compilation movie using the most pivotal episodes of the television series, released on video in the United States in 1985. Although the original book describes Heidi as having dark, curly hair, she is usually portrayed as blonde.
Versions of the story include:
Heidi, a 1937 motion picture which starred Shirley Temple in the title role.
Heidi, a 1952 film in Swiss German and German, directed by Luigi Comencini, starring Elsbeth Sigmund (filmed on location in Switzerland), and followed by a sequel, Heidi and Peter, in 1955, directed by Franz Schnyder, also starring Ms. Sigmund.
Heidemarie S'Waisechind vo Engelberg, 1956 film of Austria directed by Hermann Kugelstadt
A Gift for Heidi (1958), by George Templeton.
Do Phool, a 1958 Indian Hindi-language family drama film adaptation by A. R. Kardar - starring Baby Naaz in the role of Poornima (Heidi).
Heidi (1959), music by Clay Warnick, adapted by William Friedberg with Neil Simon.
Heidi a six-part 1959 BBC TV series starring Sara O'Connor in the title role, with Mark Dignam as her grandfather and Lesley Judd as Klara.
Heidi, a 1965 Austrian film, directed by Werner Jacobs.
Heidi, a 1968 television film which starred Jennifer Edwards with Maximilian Schell and Michael Redgrave. This was the version that became infamous for interrupting an American football game that was broadcast the same day (November 17) on NBC. The game between the Oakland Raiders and the New York Jets was cut off a few minutes before the end of the game when it looked like the Jets were going to win. However, after the cut off, the Raiders made a comeback and beat the Jets with TV viewers on the east coast missing the conclusion. TV channels displayed the final score (Oakland winning 43-32) during the movie, further enraging football fans. This incident led to a policy of not ending coverage of football games until after their conclusion. The game has gone down in pro football lore as "The Heidi Game."
Heidi (Disneyland Storyteller Record) a 1968 old time radio–style adaptation of the story by Disneyland Records, with music by Camarata, recorded in London and starring Brenda Dunnich, John Witty and introducing (to American audiences) Ysanne Churchman as Heidi.
Heidi, Girl of the Alps, a 1974 Japanese anime series directed by Isao Takahata for Zuiyo Eizo (later, Nippon Animation), dubbed into various languages. Compiled into an English-dubbed movie entitled The Story of Heidi.
Heidi, a 1974 BBC adaptation starring Emma Blake.
Heidi, a 1978 26-episode Swiss/German television series, starring Katia Polletin as the protagonist, which was dubbed into various languages, including English.
The New Adventures of Heidi (1978), directed by Ralph Senensky.
Heidi: La marveilleuse histoire d'une fille de la montagne(2 record set). Story read by actress Irène Vidy, Heidi theme song sung by Tony Schmitt. Milan Entertainment, a product of Activ-Records, Altendorf, Schwyz Switzerland, 1980. (SLP 77)
Heidi's Song, a 1982 American animated film produced by Hanna-Barbera.
Climb a Tall Mountain, a Christian film from 1987 that uses the story's characters to illustrate a message about the importance of love and forgiveness,
Courage Mountain, a 1990 American adventure drama film and serves as a sequel to Johanna Spyri's novel Heidi, directed by Christopher Leitch.
Heidi, a two-part American television miniseries from 1993, starring Noley Thornton as Heidi. Co-stars included Jane Seymour as Miss Rottenmeier, Jason Robards as Grandfather and Lexi Randall as Klara.
Heidi, a 1995 animated film.
Heidi, a 2005 animated film.
Heidi, a 2005 British live-action film directed by Paul Marcus.
Heidi 4 Paws, a comedic 2008 adaptation featuring talking dogs with the voice of Angela Lansbury.
Heidi, a CGI remake of the 1974 anime series developed in 2015, made by Studio 100 Animation, the same makers of Maya the Bee.
Heidi, a 2015 Swiss live-action film directed by Alain Gsponer.
Heidi, bienvenida a casa, a 2017 telenovela from Argentina.
Theatre
A stage musical adaptation of Heidi with book and lyrics by Francois Toerien, music by Mynie Grové and additional lyrics by Esther von Waltsleben, premiered in South Africa at the Klein Karoo National Arts Festival in 2016. Directed by Toerien with musical direction by Dawid Boverhoff, the production starred Tobie Cronjé (Rottenmeier), Dawid Minnaar (Sesemann), Albert Maritz (Grandfather), Ilse Klink (Aunt Dete), Karli Heine (Heidi), Lynelle Kenned (Klara), Dean Balie (Peter), Jill Middlekop and Marlo Minnaar. Puppets for the production were created by Hansie Visagie.
A stage musical adaptation of Heidi of the Mountain (music and lyrics by Claude Watt, book by Claude and Margaret Watt) was performed in Sidney, BC, Canada by Mountain Dream Productions, premiering in 2007 at the Charlie White Theatre, and has been performed again several times since then. The 2007 production starred Claude Watt (Grandfather), Margaret Watt (Rottenmeier), Rianne Craig (Heidi) and Katrina Brindle (Klara).
Computer games
There have been two Heidi computer games released for mobile devices, with the most recent being Heidi: Mountain Adventures. Both games are based on the Studio 100 TV series of 2015 and are aimed at young children, with educational elements and a series of mini-games.
Heidiland
Heidiland, named after the Heidi books, is an important tourist area in Switzerland, popular especially with Japanese and Korean tourists. Maienfeld is the center of what is called Heidiland; one of the villages, formerly called Oberrofels, is actually renamed "Heididorf". Heidiland is located in an area called Bündner Herrschaft; it is criticized as being a "laughable, infantile cliche" and "a more vivid example of hyperreality."
Sequels
The five sequel books, Heidi and Her Friends, Heidi Grows Up, Heidi's Children, Heidi grand-mère 1941 (Heidi as grandmother) and Au Pays de Heidi 1952 (In Heidi's land), were neither written nor endorsed by Spyri, but were adapted from her other works by her French translator, Charles Tritten in the 1930s, many years after she died.
There are some major differences between the original Heidi and the Tritten sequels. These include;
Heidi, the original story by Spyri, shows the simple life of Heidi imbued with a deep love of children and childhood. Spyri mentioned that the work was "for children and those who love children". The sequels portray Heidi in a different manner, as she grows up and gets married.
Heidi in the first book, Heidi, is described as having "short, black curly hair", when she is around five to eight years of age. In Heidi Grows Up, when she is fourteen, her hair is long, straight and fair.
In some English editions of Heidi the names of the goats are translated into English (Little Swan and Little Bear), while other editions use their original Swiss-German names, Schwanli and Baerli. In Heidi Grows Up only the names Schwanli and Baerli are used.
In 1990, screenwriters Weaver Webb and Fred & Mark Brogger, and director Christopher Leitch, produced Courage Mountain, starring Charlie Sheen and Juliette Caton as Heidi. Billed as a sequel to Spyri's story, the film is anachronistic in that it depicts Heidi as a teenager during World War I, despite the fact that the original novel (where Heidi is only five years old) was published in 1881.
Basis for Heidi
In April 2010, a Swiss professorial candidate, Peter Buettner, uncovered a book written in 1830 by the German author Hermann Adam von Kamp. The 1830 story is titled "Adelaide: The Girl from the Alps" (German: Adelaide, das Mädchen vom Alpengebirge). The two stories share many similarities in plot line and imagery. Spyri biographer Regine Schindler said it was entirely possible that Spyri may have been familiar with the story as she grew up in a literate household with many books.
Reception
The book has been criticised, even in its day, for its religiously conservative positions, and later for black-and-white character portrayals and an idealization of pastoral life.
In Japan, since its first Japanese translation in 1906, the book has been influential upon the general, stereotypical image of Switzerland for the Japanese, especially its tourists, many visiting the Heidi's Village park.
See also
2521 Heidi (an asteroid named after Heidi)
Alpine people and culture
Alpine transhumance (the traditional practice of moving grazing herds in the Alps between winter valleys and summer mountain pastures)
History of the Alps
Swiss folklore
References
External links
(illustrated)
(in German)
Heidi (in English) free downloads in multiple ebook formats
Heidi's Land, The official Web site (in French) for the 1980s television show with Katia Polletin (Heidi) and Stefan Arpagaus (Peter)
Remembering Heidi: Swiss Pride at its best, by Dr. Anton Anderssen
Swiss Heidi may in fact be German
Johanna Spyri's stolen Alps story?(in German)
Heidi books
1881 German-language novels
1880s children's books
Books about women
Maienfeld
Swiss novels adapted into television shows
Swiss novels adapted into films
Swiss novels adapted into plays
Alps in fiction
Frankfurt in fiction
Novels set in Germany
Novels set in Switzerland
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] |
204819
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor%20Svedberg
|
Theodor Svedberg
|
Theodor Svedberg (30 August 1884 – 25 February 1971) was a Swedish chemist and Nobel laureate for his research on colloids and proteins using the ultracentrifuge. Svedberg was active at Uppsala University from the mid 1900s to late 1940s. While at Uppsala, Svedberg started as a docent before becoming the university's physical chemistry head in 1912. After leaving Uppsala in 1949, Svedberg was in charge of the Gustaf Werner Institute until 1967. Apart from his 1926 Nobel Prize, Svedberg was named a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1944 and became part of the National Academy of Sciences in 1945.
Early life and education
Svedberg was born in Valbo, Sweden on 30 August 1884. He was the son of Augusta Alstermark and Elias Svedberg. Growing up, Svedberg enjoyed botany and other branches of science. While in grammar school, Svedberg conducted individual laboratorial research and performed scientific demonstrations. For his post-secondary education, Svedberg entered a chemistry program at Uppsala University in the early mid 1900s. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1905, his master's degree in 1907, and in 1908, he earned his Ph.D.
Career
While at Uppsala, Svedberg started his scientific career in 1905 as an assistant chemist with the university. After becoming a chemistry docent for Uppsala in 1907, he became the university's physical chemistry head in 1912. For his academic tenure, Svedberg remained with Upsala until 1949. During the early 1920s, he also temporarily taught for the University of Wisconsin. After leaving Uppsala, Svedberg led the Gustaf Werner Institute from 1949 to 1967.
Research
Svedberg's work with colloids supported the theories of Brownian motion put forward by Albert Einstein and the Polish geophysicist Marian Smoluchowski. During this work, he developed the technique of analytical ultracentrifugation, and demonstrated its utility in distinguishing pure proteins one from another.
Awards and honours
The unit svedberg (symbol S), a unit of time amounting to 10−13 s or 100 fs, is named after him, as well as The Svedberg Laboratory in Uppsala.
Svedberg's candidacy for the Royal Society reads:
After becoming a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1944, Svedberg was named to the National Academy of Sciences in 1945. From the 1910s to 1920s, Svedberg was awarded the Björkénska priset three times from Uppsala University for his contributions to science in Sweden. From the Franklin Institute, Svedberg was given the Franklin Medal in 1949 for his work with the ultracentrifuge.
Death and personal life
On 25 February 1971, Svedberg died in Kopparberg, Sweden. He was married several times and had a total of twelve children, his widow having died in 2019.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, 19 May 1927 The Ultracentrifuge
1884 births
1971 deaths
People from Gävle Municipality
Swedish chemists
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Swedish Nobel laureates
Uppsala University alumni
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin%20Pavlov
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Valentin Pavlov
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Valentin Sergeyevich Pavlov (; 27 September 1937 – 30 March 2003) was a Soviet official who became a Russian banker following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Born in the city of Moscow, then part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Pavlov began his political career in the Ministry of Finance in 1959. Later, during the Brezhnev Era, he became head of the Financial Department of the State Planning Committee. Pavlov was appointed to the post of Chairman of the State Committee on Prices during the Gorbachev Era, and later became Minister of Finance in Nikolai Ryzhkov's second government. He went on to succeed Ryzhkov as head of government in the newly established post of Prime Minister of the Soviet Union.
As Prime Minister Pavlov initiated the 1991 Soviet monetary reform, commonly referred to as the Pavlov reform, in early 1991. Early on he told the media that the reform was initiated to halt the flow of Soviet roubles transported to the Soviet Union from abroad. Although ridiculed at the time, the statement was later proven to be true. In June the same year, Pavlov called for a transfer of power from the President of the Soviet Union to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers. When that failed, he joined a plot to oust Gorbachev. In August, he participated in the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, which tried to prevent the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Pavlov was arrested for his involvement in the coup and went on to work in the banking sector in post-Soviet Russia. He is seen by some as the last legitimate Soviet head of government since his successor, Ivan Silayev, was appointed by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in breach of what his opponents consider to be Soviet constitutional principles.
Early life and career
Born in Moscow on 27 September 1937, Pavlov graduated from the Moscow Finance Institute in 1958. He started his nomenklatura (bureaucratic) career as a government economist; he started working for as an official of the Ministry of Finance in 1959, and became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1962. Early in his career he also worked for the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Pavlov started working for the State Planning Committee in 1979, and became a member of the State Planning Committee's board in 1981. He held the office as head of the State Planning Committee's Finance Department, the department which oversaw all aspects of the country's planned economy. He served as First Deputy Minister of Finance in Boris Gostev's ministry from January to August 1986.
Pavlov was appointed Chairman of the State Committee on Prices on 15 August 1986, and retained that post until 7 June 1989. Throughout the period, and later as Minister of Finance, Pavlov supported the centralised price reform proposal posited by Nikolai Ryzhkov, Chairman of the Council of Ministers. He succeeded Gostev to become Minister of Finance in Ryzhkov's government in 1989 and his time in the post was considered uncontroversial, even though Lira Rozenova, Deputy Chairman of the State Committee for Prices, was not elected to the post of Chairman of the State Committee for her advocacy of Pavlov-backed plans for centrally administered price reform. He was the only minister in Ryzhkov's Government who was also a member of the Presidium of the Council of Ministers.
Along with Eduard Shevardnadze – Soviet Foreign Minister – Pavlov was the only nominee from Ryzhkov's second government to be overwhelmingly elected by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. As Minister of Finance, Pavlov was supportive of the marketisation of the Soviet economy, having overseen a rapid increase in the Soviet money supply and the increase in inflation it caused. Pavlov also set the exchange rate for the rouble against the American dollar on the Soviet black market. In 1993 he proudly admitted that during his tenure as Minister of Finance, and later Prime Minister, he had deceived several Western banks and creditors by lying about the Soviet Union's gold reserves. In 1989, Pavlov gathered together enough information on the errors and omissions of Ivan Silayev, the future Soviet Premier and Russian SFSR Premier, to weaken his position as Deputy Premier. Silayev never forgave Pavlov and relations between the two grew even more icy when Pavlov became Soviet Premier.
Prime Minister
Following the resignation of Nikolai Ryzhkov following a heart attack in December 1990, Pavlov was elected to the new position of Prime Minister as a compromise candidate, and became chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers. He and his two First Deputy Prime Ministers, Vladimir Velichko and Vitaly Doguzhiev, were approved and elected by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on 14 January, with 279 votes in favour, 75 against, and 66 abstained, while approval for the majority of his ministers followed within a few weeks. Pavlov was considered a conservative upon his election as Prime Minister, and the Soviet press described him as a "bold and complex man" who was against full marketisation but who believed that the Soviet Union was even more oppressive towards workers than even the most advanced capitalist societies. One of his first actions as Prime Minister was to move the headquarters of the Soviet Government – the Cabinet of Ministers – from the Moscow Kremlin to the former headquarters of the State Committee for Construction to strengthen his position.
1991 monetary reform
The Soviet monetary reform of 1991, commonly referred to as the Pavlov reform, was the last monetary reform prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, despite having made a speech 2 weeks before, saying there would be no such reforms. Initiated on 22 January 1991, it was intended to withdraw money from circulation for reallocation to the production of consumer goods, which were in short supply. In a speech, Pavlov stated that the reason for the withdrawal was the government's belief that money was being sent to the Soviet Union from abroad, fuelling inflation. Although ridiculed by the Soviet press at the time, three years later the truth of Pavlov's statement was verified. Mikhail Gorbachev then signed a presidential decree ordering the Soviet financial system to stop accepting and exchanging banknotes issued in 1961. The directive also included 50-rouble and 100-rouble banknotes issued in 1991. On 23 January 1991, the government began restricting monthly bank deposit withdrawals to 500 rubles with the official explanation that this was to freeze the income of corrupt officials, capitalists and criminals.
Under the orders of Pavlov, the Government freed forty percent of prices on 1 January 1991, and introduced sales tax of 5%. Prices of consumer goods, in particular, were now considered free in the sense that negotiation became possible between producers and the distributor. According to Philip Hanson in his book, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945, Pavlov's reform was undermined by the Union Republics who failed to follow Pavlov's orders, along with the widespread existence of local monopolies, which tended to have their own definition of luxury goods and as a result imposed higher prices on such items.
Soviet citizens had only three days from 23 to 25 January to exchange their old 50 rouble and 100 rouble banknotes for the new currency. Exchange could be postponed, but only through specialized government commissions. Due to this short exchange window, long queues formed in front of Soviet savings banks, even though it was also possible to exchange money at workplaces and post offices. This reform also dealt a crippling blow to Soviet citizens who had saved their money and could not move fast enough to get it exchanged; some lost as much as 15,000 - 30,000 rubles overnight.
In the end the reform proved unsuccessful. The government only managed to withdraw 14 billion rubles from circulation of the country's money supply against an intended target of 81.5 billion rubles. As a result, the Pavlov reform did not put an end to inflation. Prices for items including food and transport rose by 100–300 percent, while the Soviet standard of living decreased sharply and the state budget deficit increased by an estimated 20–30 percent of GNP. In the aftermath of the reform, inflation exceeded the 50 percent mark every month.
Coup attempt
In June 1991, Pavlov, who felt that the office of Prime Minister had limited power, discovered that Gorbachev planned to replace him as Prime Minister. In response, he arrived at the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union "visibly nervous", and in his report to the Supreme Soviet, he was forced to tell delegates of the faltering state of the Soviet economy. However, Pavlov blamed this on the ongoing War of Laws between the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which, he argued, could be resolved by introducing a state of emergency across the entire Soviet Union, or at least in certain economic sectors.
According to Pavlov, the union's problems remained insoluble as long as Gorbachev retained so much power and had limited time to address important issues. To break the impasse, Pavlov called for a transfer of power from the President of the Soviet Union to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers, (specifically, he wanted the Cabinet to have the right to issue decrees on economic affairs without the approval of the president), even creating a five-point resolution to that end for the legislature to consider. Pavlov received support for the idea from the Soyuz parliamentary faction leader Viktor Alksnis, who called for an immediate vote on the issue. However, several members of Soyuz also demanded a statement by the KGB and the Ministry of Defence to comment on the proposal. In retrospect, Alksnis notes that this resolution could have become a coup d'état had Pavlov consulted with them earlier. According to historian Jerry F. Hough, Pavlov's program "was not directed as much at Gorbachev as at [Boris] Yeltsin".
By the afternoon, the majority of Soyuz members favoured an immediate vote. The Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, Anatoly Lukyanov, had already departed for Novo Ogarevo to take part in constitutional negotiations and he promised to tell Gorbachev about the vote. In his place stood Ivan Laptev, a pro-Gorbachev reformer, who did not trust Lukyanov and tried to stall the vote by demanding a statement from the KGB, Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Defence. According to Laptev, the mood was such that if a vote had been taken Pavlov would have won. At the time, both the Soviet secret police and the military establishment in general wanted to strengthen the authority of the Soviet Government and so they too supported Pavlov's program. Soyuz, through a vote, was able to increase the powers of the Cabinet of Ministers, and gave the institution the right of legislative initiative.
Shortly afterwards, Jack Matlock, United States ambassador to the Soviet Union, told Gorbachev of the possibility of a coup attempt against him, and the Soviet leader became worried when Anatoly Chernyaev informed him of mysterious troop movements outside Moscow. On 21 June, four days after Pavlov's speech, Gorbachev addressed the Supreme Soviet and told delegates that there were no differences in opinion between him and Pavlov. Even when he had been able to secure his position, Gorbachev's power within the system was already faltering, although he succeeded in getting the enhanced powers previously given to the Cabinet of Ministers reversed. The power struggle between Gorbachev and Pavlov was not over, with Gorbachev, on July 29, 1991, promising Yeltsin and Nursultan Nazarbayev that Pavlov, along with Dmitry Yazov, Minister of Defence, and Vladimir Kryuchkov, the Chairman of the KGB, would be removed from their posts following the signing and ratification of the New Union Treaty, with Nazarbayev to be appointed in Pavlov's place as Prime Minister.
August Coup
The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, commonly referred to as the August Coup, was prompted by the slow disintegration of the Soviet Union that resulted from Gorbachev's reform policy and Yeltsin's drive towards an independent Russia. The New Union Treaty being prepared called for further decentralisation of power to the republics, which weakened the government's already tenuous hold on the economy. Pavlov received a draft of the New Union Treaty on 12 August at a Security Council meeting and managed to get it published in the Moscow News on 14 August.
Opposing the decentralisation stance taken in the treaty, Pavlov was one of the key players in the establishment of the State Committee for the State of Emergency in August 1991. Pavlov's inclusion in the committee has been used to demonstrate its unwillingness to revert to pre-Gorbachev policies. The committee's main goal was to ensure that the Soviet Union continued as a highly centralised union state. The Emergency Committee was led by Gennady Yanayev, Vice President of the Soviet Union, Interior Minister Boris Pugo, Defence Minister Dmitry Yazov and other hardliners who were determined to take action to oust Gorbachev.
Vladimir Kryuchkov, the KGB Chairman, had told Pavlov of the coup on 18 August, one day before it began. He was asked by Kryuchkov to meet his co-plotters at the Moscow Kremlin, where on 19 August, he and his co-conspirators appeared on live television and told the Soviet people that Gorbachev was indisposed. As the day wore on it soon became apparent that Pavlov had been drinking since he issued several contradictory orders and repeated himself. In retrospect he admitted that he had been drinking with his son the day before. On the same day, his fellow plotters decided to depose Pavlov, sending him to his dacha where his wife took care of him. As with all the others, Pavlov was arrested following the collapse of the coup. Shortly after Pavlov was hospitalised with hypertension whilst remaining in custody. He was released on recognizance not to leave in January 1993 and granted amnesty by the Russian State Duma in 1994.
Later life and death
After his release from custody, Pavlov became a director of the commercial bank Chasprombank between 1994 and 1995. He resigned at the request of the bank's board of directors, who informed him that they had decided "to provide him an indefinite leave of absence." In February 1996, shortly after his resignation, the bank's license was revoked for violating the banking laws set up by the Central Bank of Russia. Pavlov then worked as an advisor to Promstroibank between 1996 and 1997, and in 1998 also became a vice president of the American firm Business Management Systems. He worked both as vice president of both the Free Economic Society and the International Academy of Management and later headed a department of the International Union of Economists.
Pavlov died in Moscow on 30 March 2003, and was buried on 2 April at Pyatnitskoye cemetery.
Decorations
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Order of the Badge of Honour
Personal life
In 2000 with support from Viktor Gerashchenko, Valentin Pavlov's son Sergey Pavlov () was a banker at East West United Bank, Luxembourg.
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Obituary in The Washington Post archives (requires log-in)
1937 births
2003 deaths
People from Moscow
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Russian communists
Anti-revisionists
Soviet Ministers of Finance
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
People's commissars and ministers of the Soviet Union
Expelled members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
State Committee on the State of Emergency members
Burials at Pyatnitskoye Cemetery
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation alumni
|
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204835
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolanda%20Sald%C3%ADvar
|
Yolanda Saldívar
|
Yolanda Saldívar (; born September 19, 1960) is an American former nurse and fan club president who was convicted of the murder of Tejano singer Selena Quintanilla-Pérez on March 31, 1995, in Corpus Christi, Texas. Saldívar will be eligible for parole on March 30, 2025.
Early life
She is one of seven children born to Frank and Juanita Saldívar.
Selena fan club
Saldívar, a former nurse, was originally a fan of country music. After attending one of Selena's concerts, she began repeatedly calling Selena's father, Abraham Quintanilla, about starting a fan club in San Antonio. Quintanilla eventually gave in to Saldívar's requests and she immediately became the club's president.
Saldívar was promoted as manager of Selena's clothing boutiques, Selena Etc. By 1993 the fan club had reached 1,500 members in less than four years, and eventually grew to over 5,000. It became one of the largest fan clubs in the San Antonio area.
Murder of Selena
In early 1995, Selena's family discovered that Saldívar was embezzling money from both the fan club and boutiques, which led to her firing in the first week of March. On the morning of March 31, Selena agreed to meet Saldívar at a Days Inn motel in Corpus Christi to retrieve financial records Saldívar had been refusing to turn over. Saldívar delayed the handover again by claiming she had been raped in Mexico. Selena drove Saldívar to a local hospital, where they were told that the gynecological exam was to be done elsewhere, because the assault had allegedly happened in another country.
They returned to the motel, where Selena once more demanded the records. Saldívar then took a .38 Taurus Model 85 revolver from her purse and pointed it at the singer. Selena tried to flee, but Saldívar shot her once in the back, severing an artery. Critically wounded, Selena ran towards the lobby for help with Saldívar in pursuit calling her a "bitch".
Selena collapsed on the floor as the clerk called 911. She later died in a hospital from blood loss at 1:05pm.
Trial and imprisonment
Saldívar's trial for the murder of Selena was followed closely by the Latino community in the United States. The trial was not televised, but cameras were permitted on the courthouse premises. The venue was moved to Houston, Texas, after Saldívar's lawyers successfully argued that she could not receive a fair trial in Selena's home town.
Before the start of the trial, CNN reported that prosecutors were expected to introduce a controversial police confession signed by Saldívar in which she said she shot Selena "during an argument over accusations from the singer's father that Saldívar stole money from Selena's accounts". The defense was expected to introduce testimony from Texas Ranger Robert Garza that "he overheard Saldívar claim the shooting was accidental, and that she objected when police failed to include it in her statement".
The defense attorney argued the shooting was accidental, but the prosecution pointed out that Saldívar, a trained nurse, did not call 911 nor try to help Selena after she was shot.
Jurors deliberated for less than three hours on October23, 1995, before finding Saldívar guilty of first-degree murder. Three days later, on October26, she was sentenced to life in prison with the possibility of parole in thirty years; this was the maximum prison term allowed in Texas at the time. On November 22, 1995, she arrived at the Gatesville Unit (now the Christina Melton Crain Unit) in Gatesville, Texas, to be processed.
Saldívar is serving a life sentence at the Mountain View Unit in Gatesville, operated by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. She will become eligible for parole on March30, 2025.
After the conviction
The revolver used to kill Selena disappeared after the trial. It was later found in a box of office supplies at the home of court reporter Sandra Oballe, who has said she did not realize she had the weapon. Despite objections from some historical groups, it was dismantled and the pieces were thrown into Corpus Christi Bay in 2002.
Saldívar has asked the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals to accept a petition that challenges her conviction. She claims the petition was filed in 2000 with the 214th District Court, but was never sent to the higher court. Her request was received on March31, 2008, the 13th anniversary of Selena's death.
In popular culture
Saldívar was portrayed by Lupe Ontiveros in the movie Selena, by Damayanti Quintanar in Selena's Secret a series based on the book of the same name, and by Natasha Perez in the Netflix original series ''Selena: The Series.
See also
Mark David Chapman, who murdered John Lennon in 1980
John Hinckley Jr., who attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan in 1981
Robert John Bardo, who murdered Rebecca Schaeffer in 1989
Ricardo López, who attempted to murder Björk in 1996
Andrew Cunanan, who murdered Gianni Versace in 1997
Nathan Gale, who murdered Dimebag Darrell in 2004
References
20th-century American criminals
American people of Mexican descent
American female murderers
American murderers
American female criminals
American nurses
American women nurses
American people convicted of murder
Criminals from Texas
Texas A&M International University alumni
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Texas
People convicted of murder by Texas
People from San Antonio
Selena
Living people
1960 births
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost%20Highway%20%28film%29
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Lost Highway (film)
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Lost Highway is a 1997 neo-noir film directed by David Lynch and co-written by Lynch and Barry Gifford. It stars Bill Pullman, Patricia Arquette, Balthazar Getty, and Robert Blake. The film follows a musician (Pullman) who begins receiving mysterious VHS tapes of him and his wife (Arquette) in their home, and who is suddenly convicted of murder, after which he inexplicably disappears and is replaced by a young mechanic (Getty) leading a different life.
Lost Highway was financed by the French production company Ciby 2000 and was largely shot in Los Angeles, where Lynch collaborated with frequent producer Mary Sweeney and cinematographer Peter Deming. Lynch has described the film as a "psychogenic fugue" rather than a conventionally logical story, while the film's surreal narrative structure has been likened to a Möbius strip. The film's soundtrack, which was produced by Trent Reznor, features an original score by Angelo Badalamenti and Barry Adamson, as well as contributions from artists including David Bowie, Marilyn Manson, Rammstein, Nine Inch Nails and The Smashing Pumpkins.
Upon release, Lost Highway received mixed reviews and grossed $3.7 million in North America after a modest three-week run. Most critics initially dismissed the film as incoherent, but it has since attracted a cult following and critical praise, as well as scholarly interest. Lost Highway is the first of three Lynch films set in Los Angeles, followed by Mulholland Drive in 2001 and Inland Empire in 2006. In 2003, the film was adapted as an opera by the Austrian composer Olga Neuwirth.
Plot
Fred Madison, a Los Angeles saxophonist, receives a message on his house intercom: "Dick Laurent is dead." The next morning, his wife Renee finds a VHS tape on their porch containing a video of their house. After having sex, Fred tells her he had a dream about someone resembling her being attacked. He then sees Renee's face as that of a pale old man. As the days pass, more tapes arrive, showing shots of them asleep in their bed. Fred and Renee call the police but the detectives offer no assistance. Fred and Renee attend a party being thrown by her friend Andy. The Mystery Man that Fred dreamed about approaches Fred, claiming to have met him before. The man then says he is at Fred's house at that very moment and answers the house phone when Fred calls him. Fred learns from Andy that the man is a friend of Dick Laurent's. Terrified, Fred leaves the party with Renee. The next morning, another tape arrives and Fred watches it alone. To his horror, it shows him hovering over Renee's dismembered body. He is sentenced to death for her murder.
While on death row, Fred is plagued by headaches and visions of The Mystery Man and a burning cabin in the desert. During a cell check, the prison guard finds that the man in Fred's cell is now Pete Dayton, a young auto mechanic. Although Pete is released into the care of his parents, he is followed by two detectives who are trying to find out more about him. The next day, Pete returns to work at the garage where gangster Mr. Eddy asks him to fix his car. Mr. Eddy takes Pete for a drive, during which Pete witnesses Mr. Eddy beat down a tailgater. The next day, Mr. Eddy returns to the garage with his mistress, Alice Wakefield, and his Cadillac for Pete to repair. Later, Alice returns to the garage alone and invites Pete out for dinner. When Pete and Alice begin an affair, she fears that Mr. Eddy suspects them, and concocts a scheme to rob her friend Andy and leave town. Alice also reveals to Pete that Mr. Eddy is actually an amateur porn producer named Dick Laurent. Pete gets a phone call from Mr. Eddy and The Mystery Man, which frightens Pete so much that he decides to go along with Alice's plan. Pete ambushes Andy and accidentally kills him, before he notices a photograph showing Alice and Renee together. Later, when the police are at the house investigating Andy's death, Alice is inexplicably missing from the photo.
Pete and Alice arrive at an empty cabin in the desert and start having sex outside on the sand, which ends with Alice getting up and disappearing into the cabin. Pete transforms back into Fred. Upon searching the cabin, he meets The Mystery Man, who begins filming and chasing Fred with a video camera. Fred escapes and drives to the Lost Highway Hotel, where he finds Mr. Eddy and Renee having sex. After Renee leaves, Fred kidnaps Mr. Eddy and slits his throat. The Mystery Man shoots Mr. Eddy dead and then whispers something to Fred before he disappears. Fred drives to his old house, buzzes the intercom and says, "Dick Laurent is dead." When the two detectives drive up to the house, Fred runs back to his car and drives off, with the detectives in pursuit. The chase continues into the night, with Fred screaming helplessly as the car speeds down the darkened highway.
Cast
Bill Pullman as Fred Madison
Patricia Arquette as Renee Madison/Alice Wakefield
Balthazar Getty as Pete Dayton
Robert Blake as The Mystery Man
Robert Loggia as Mr. Eddy/Dick Laurent
Natasha Gregson Wagner as Sheila
Richard Pryor as Arnie
Lisa Boyle as Marian
Mink Stole as Forewoman
Michael Massee as Andy
Jack Nance as Phil
Jack Kehler as Guard Johnny Mack
Henry Rollins as Guard Henry
Gene Ross as Warden Clements
Giovanni Ribisi as Steve 'V'
Scott Coffey as Teddy
Gary Busey as Bill Dayton
John Roselius as Al
Lou Eppolito as Ed
Jennifer Syme as Junkie Girl
Marilyn Manson as Porn actor
Twiggy Ramirez as Porn actor
Production
Development
Lost Highway was directed by David Lynch as his first feature film since Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992), a prequel to his television series Twin Peaks (1990-1991). He came across the phrase "lost highway" in the book Night People (1992) by Barry Gifford. Because Lynch knew the writer very well and had previously adapted his novel Wild at Heart (1990) into a film by the same name, he told him that he loved the phrase as a title for a movie. The two agreed to write a screenplay together, having their own different ideas of what Lost Highway should be. They ended up rejecting all of them. Lynch then told Gifford that, during the last night of shooting Fire Walk with Me, he had a thought about videotapes and a couple in crisis. This idea would develop into the first part of the film until Fred Madison is put on death row. Lynch and Gifford then realized that a transformation had to occur and another story, which would have several links to the first one but also differ, developed. It took them one month to finish the script.
Lost Highway was partially inspired by the O. J. Simpson murder case, which involved the arrest of a man who denied murder. The film's opening scene, where Fred Madison hears the words "Dick Laurent is dead" over his intercom, was inspired by an analogous incident that happened to Lynch at his own house. Because his house was next to actor David Lander's house and both men have the same first name, Lynch thought the stranger must have been wrong about the address. The idea of The Mystery Man "came out of a feeling of a man who, whether real or not, gave the impression that he was supernatural", Lynch explained. The film was financed by the French production company Ciby 2000. Lynch's Asymmetrical Productions, whose offices are near his house in the Hollywood Hills, was also involved in the film's production.
Casting
Lynch cast Bill Pullman, a friend and neighbor of his, as the film's central character. Actress Patricia Arquette agreed to be cast as Renee and Alice because she was interested in portraying a sexually desirable and dangerous woman, a role she had never done before. She had also been a fan of Lynch for a long time and felt that it would be an honor to work with him. Actor Balthazar Getty was chosen for the role of Pete Dayton after Lynch saw a picture of him in a magazine and said that he was "the guy for the job." Because the script was so open to interpretation, Getty and Arquette did not know what kind of film Lost Highway was supposed to be. According to Getty, "Part of David's technique is to keep his actors guessing, because it creates a certain atmosphere on set."
Actor Robert Blake was cast as The Mystery Man because Lynch liked his previous work and was always interested in working with him. Although Blake did not understand the script at all, he was responsible for the look and style of his character. When Lynch told him to use his imagination, Blake decided to cut his hair short, part it in the middle, and apply white Kabuki make-up on his face. He then put on a black outfit and approached Lynch, who loved what he had done. Actor Robert Loggia, who had previously expressed interest in playing the role of Frank Booth in Lynch's 1986 mystery film Blue Velvet, was cast as Mr. Eddy and Dick Laurent. Lynch recalled that, upon learning of Dennis Hopper's casting as Booth, Loggia launched a profanity-laden rant at him, which would eventually become Mr. Eddy's road rage scene. Lost Highway also features the final motion picture performance of Richard Pryor.
Filming and editing
Lost Highway was shot in Los Angeles, California, in about 54 days, from November 29, 1995, to February 22, 1996. Some of the film's exterior and driving scenes were shot in Griffith Park, while the scenes of the Lost Highway Hotel were filmed at the Amargosa Opera House and Hotel in Death Valley. Lynch owns the property that was used for Fred and Renee's mansion, which is located on the same street as his own house in the Hollywood Hills. The house was configured in a particular way to meet the requirements of the film. A corridor that leads to the bedroom was added and the façade was remodeled with slot windows to make Fred's point of view very limited. The paintings that are on the wall above the couch were done by Lynch's ex-wife and producer Mary Sweeney.
The scenes that involved nudity and sexual contact proved to be very difficult for Arquette because she considers herself a very modest and shy person. Nevertheless, she felt very protected by Lynch and the film crew, who would always give her robes at any time. The love scene between her and Getty in the desert, which was shot on a dry lake bed 20 miles outside Baker, was a closed set and only key crew were allowed on it. The sequence where Fred transforms into Pete was not computer-generated, but rather accomplished with in-camera techniques: a makeup expert constructed a fake head that was covered with artificial brain matter, which was then intercut with shots of Pullman. The final car chase was shot with two different cameras running at different frame rates. The footage was then sped up to make the scene more aggressive.
Lynch worked with cinematographer Peter Deming to give the film a surreal look. Because the script did not include many descriptions, the film's visual approach evolved as filming progressed. Deming would occasionally pull out the lenses of his camera to defocus a particular scene, while Lynch would often listen to music in his headset and to a scene at the same time to visualize the screenplay. According to him, "Sound and picture working together is what films are [...] So every single sound has to be supporting that scene and enlarging it. A room is, say, nine by twelve, but when you're introducing sound to it, you can create a space that's giant". The notion of a psychogenic fugue was incorporated into the film after the unit publicist read it up on a book about mental illnesses. Lynch felt it was a musical term, stating that "a fugue starts off one way, takes up on another direction, and then comes back to the original, so it [relates] to the form of the film."
Originally, Lynch wanted to shoot Lost Highway in black and white, but the idea was discarded due to the financial risks it could cause. Nevertheless, the film was shot in varying levels of darkness and features few daylight scenes. Some sequences became so dark that it was difficult for viewers to see what was happening. According to Deming, "The thing I wanted to achieve was giving the feeling that anything could come out of the background, and to leave a certain question about what you're looking at. The film is working under the surface while you're watching it." The film's darkness was intentionally not adjusted during post-production. The first cut of the film ran two and a half hours, and a test audience of 50 people was given a preview to give Lynch an idea of what needed to be cut. The film was ultimately cut down to two hours and ten minutes. Most of the deleted scenes were about Pete's life, including a scene where Pete would go out with his friends to a drive-in before going to the bowling alley.
Soundtrack
The film's original score was composed by Angelo Badalamenti with additional music by Barry Adamson. Badalamenti had previously worked with Lynch on Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks. Although most of the score was recorded in Prague, additional compositions were done in London. In New Orleans, Lynch collaborated with musician Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails to provide additional music. Together, they created music that accompanied the scenes in which Fred and Renee watch the mysterious VHS tapes. Two songs by Reznor and Nine Inch Nails, "The Perfect Drug" and "Driver Down", were specifically composed for the film. Reznor then produced a soundtrack album that includes the film's score and songs by artists such as David Bowie, Lou Reed, Marilyn Manson, The Smashing Pumpkins, and Rammstein.
Marilyn Manson's contributions include their cover of Screamin' Jay Hawkins' "I Put a Spell on You", which was previously released on their 1995 EP Smells Like Children, and "Apple of Sodom", which was specifically written for the film. The Smashing Pumpkins' frontman Billy Corgan wrote "Eye" after Lynch rejected an early version of "Tear" from the band's 1998 album Adore. Two songs by Rammstein—"Rammstein" and "Heirate Mich"—were included after Lynch listened to their 1995 debut album Herzeleid while exploring locations for the film. The track "Insensatez", an instrumental version of the bossa nova song "How Insensitive" by Antônio Carlos Jobim, was also included as part of the film's soundtrack. The album, which was released on November 26, 1996, reached No. 7 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified Gold status in the US.
Themes
Although Lost Highway is generally classified as a neo-noir film, the film borrows elements from other genres, including German Expressionism and French New Wave. The terms psychological thriller and horror film have also been used to describe its narrative elements. Writing for the Australian Metro Magazine, Thomas Caldwell described Fred Madison as "a typical film noir hero, inhabiting a doomed and desolate world characterised by an excess of sexuality, darkness and violence." Another film noir feature that is present in the film is the femme fatale (Alice Wakefield), who misleads Pete Dayton into dangerous situations. The film was also noted for its graphic violence and sexual themes. Lynch defended these images, stating that he was simply being honest with his own ideas for the film.
Some of the film's themes and ideas had been explored before: the 1945 film Detour also focuses on a disturbed male nightclub musician. The film's setting and mysterious recorded messages were seen as a reference to the 1955 film Kiss Me Deadly, while its nightmarish atmosphere has been compared to Maya Deren's 1943 short film Meshes of the Afternoon. Like Alfred Hitchcock's 1958 film Vertigo, the film examines male obsessions with women, who merely represent emotions that relate to them. Lynch has described the film as a "psychogenic fugue" and insisted that, while Lost Highway is about "identity", the film is very abstract and can be interpreted in different ways. He does not favor advancing a specific interpretation and said that the film leaves viewers to interpret events as they choose. Gifford, however, thinks that the film offers a rational explanation to its surreal events. According to him, Fred Madison is experiencing a psychogenic fugue, which is manifested when he transforms into Pete. Some viewers think that the film is a homage to Ambrose Bierce's 1890 short story "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge".
The film's circular narrative has been likened to a Möbius strip. Cultural critic Slavoj Žižek felt that this circularity is analogous to a psychoanalytic process. According to him, "there is a symptomatic key phrase (as in all of Lynch's films) that always returns as an insistent, traumatic, and indecipherable message (the Real), and there is a temporal loop, as with analysis, where the protagonist at first fails to encounter the self, but in the end is able to pronounce the symptom consciously as his own." This implies that Fred's madness is so powerful that even the fantasy where he sees himself as Pete ultimately dissolves and ends in a nightmare. He also interprets the film's bipartite structure as exploiting "the opposition of two horrors: the phantasmatic horror of the nightmarish noir universe of perverse sex, betrayal, and murder, and the (perhaps much more unsettling) despair of our drab, alienated daily life of impotence and distrust."
Release
Box office
Lost Highway was released in France on January 15, 1997. In North America, the film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, in January 1997. The film was then given a limited release on February 21, 1997 in 12 theaters, grossing nearly $213,000 at the US box office weekend. The film expanded a week later in 212 theaters and, after a modest three-week run, it went on to make $3.7 million in North America. On May 19, 2017, Lost Highway was released in Russia and grossed $28,347. Overall, the film grossed nearly $3.8 million worldwide.
Critical reception
Upon release, Lost Highway received mixed reviews from critics. Both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film "two thumbs down", a rating Lynch would later tout as "two more great reasons to see" Lost Highway. Ebert argued that, while Lynch effectively puts images on the screen and uses a strong soundtrack to create mood, the film does not make sense, concluding that Lost Highway "is about design, not cinema". Similarly, Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Lost Highway is a "beautifully made but emotionally empty" film that "exists only for the sensation of its provocative moments". Both Stephanie Zacharek of Salon and Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly felt that the film was very superficial, especially when compared to Blue Velvet. Zacharek said that Lynch "traded some of his disturbing originality for noir formula and schticky weirdness", while Gleiberman compared the film's sex scenes to those of "mediocre Hollywood thrillers".
In a more positive review, The New York Times journalist Janet Maslin felt that, while the film's perversity is unoriginal and resembles that of Blue Velvet, Lost Highway still "holds sinister interest of its own" and "invites its audience to ponder". Metro editor Richard von Busack praised Lost Highway as a "true horror" film due to its confusing and unpleasant screenplay. He explained that horror "ought to transcend logic and ordinary reality" and, unlike with popular horror films like Scream (1996), where the difference between screen violence and real violence is obvious, Lynch "present[s] horror as horror, willing to baffle us, willing to wound us". In another positive review, Andy Klein of the Dallas Observer felt that Lost Highway was a return to form for Lynch and considered it his best work since Blue Velvet. Klein compared the film's unanswerable concerns to the "Star Gate" sequence from 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), stating that Lost Highway is "better absorbed and experienced than analyzed".
Writing for the Chicago Reader, critic Jonathan Rosenbaum felt that Lost Highway was "an audacious move away from conventional narrative and back toward the formal beauty of Eraserhead". He credited Lynch's "masterful and often powerful fusions of sound and image", as they give the film a very expressionist style. However, he criticized the noir iconography for its lack of historical context. For example, he explained that, while Arquette's clothes fit in a noir setting, The Mystery Man's video camera is very contemporary and feels out of place. Todd McCarthy of Variety concluded that, although Lost Highway is "uneven and too deliberately obscure in meaning to be entirely satisfying", the result "remains sufficiently intriguing and startling to bring many of Lynch's old fans back on board".
At the 1997 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, Lost Highway was nominated for Worst Picture and Worst Director, but lost to Batman & Robin in both categories. At the 1998 Belgian Film Critics Association, the film was nominated for the Grand Prix award, but lost to Lone Star.
Home media
Lost Highway was released on DVD on March 25, 2008, by Universal Studios Home Entertainment. The DVD is presented in anamorphic widescreen in the 2.35:1 ratio with Dolby Digital 5.1 audio. The film was then released on Blu-ray format in France in 2010, and in Japan and the United Kingdom in 2012. The British edition includes a collection of short, experimental films that Lynch had previously sold on his website. However, it was encoded in 1080i resolution at a 50 Hz frame rate, as opposed to the 1080p resolution at 24 frames per second of the French and Japanese editions. In the United States, Lost Highway was released on Blu-ray on June 25, 2019, by Kino Lorber using the 2010 master. Lynch did not participate in the release, saying that "It was made from old elements and not from a restoration of the original negative. I hope that a version from the restoration of the original negative will happen as soon as possible." Kino Lorber responded saying the release was sourced from the Universal Pictures master, and they had intended to work with Lynch on the release but "sent email after email without one response".
Legacy
Although not as universally praised as other Lynch films, Lost Highway has retrospectively attracted critical praise and scholarly interest. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 62% based on 45 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Marking a further escalation in David Lynch's surrealist style, Lost Highway is a foreboding mystery that arguably leads to a dead end, although it is signposted throughout with some of the director's most haunting images yet." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 52 out of 100 based on 21 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Jeremiah Kipp of Slant Magazine claimed that the film was not an artistic failure, stating that "in many ways, it's Lynch at his most daring, emotional, and personal". Writing for Little White Lies, William Carroll considered the film a prelude to Mulholland Drive due to its "Los Angeles' iconic topography", and felt that it deserves to be regarded as one of the director's best works. Similarly, Daily Vanguard editor Victoria Castellanos remarked that the film "serves as a wonderful companion to Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire, and in many ways is more surreal and emotional than some of Lynch's other films".
As a cult film, Lost Highway was included in The A.V. Clubs "The New Cult Canon" section. Editor Scott Tobias viewed it as "more cohesive than it might appear at first blush", and argued that Lynch "goes digging for truths that people don't know or won't acknowledge about themselves—within dreams, within the subconscious, within those impossibly dark hallways where we fear to tread". Lucia Bozzola of the AllMovie online database claimed that, after Fire Walk With Me, Lost Highway marked an artistic and cinematic comeback for Lynch and that it remains "a sound/image tour de force". Lost Highway received five votes in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics' poll of The Greatest Films of All Time, ranking 323rd. In 2003, the film was adapted as an opera by the Austrian composer Olga Neuwirth, with a libretto by Elfriede Jelinek.
References
External links
1997 films
American films
1997 independent films
American independent films
English-language films
Films directed by David Lynch
Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in California
Films shot in Los Angeles
French films
English-language French films
French independent films
American neo-noir films
American nonlinear narrative films
Films with screenplays by David Lynch
Uxoricide in fiction
Films adapted into operas
American avant-garde and experimental films
1990s avant-garde and experimental films
Surrealist films
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204842
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kishar
|
Kishar
|
In the Akkadian epic Enuma Elish, Kishar () is the daughter of Lahamu and Lahmu, the first children of Tiamat and Abzu. She is the female principle, sister and wife of Anshar, the male principle, and the mother of Anu. Kishar may represent the earth as a counterpart to Anshar, the sky, and can be seen as an earth mother goddess. Her name also means "Whole Earth".
Kishar appears only once in Enuma Elish, in the opening lines of the epic, and then disappears from the remainder of the story. She appears only occasionally in other first millennium BCE texts, where she can be equated with the goddess Antu.
References
External links
Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Anšar and Kišar (god and goddess)
Mesopotamian goddesses
Earth goddesses
Nature goddesses
Characters in the Enūma Eliš
Mother goddesses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%93zekne
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Rēzekne
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Rēzekne (, , ; German: Rositten) is a city in the Rēzekne River valley in Latgale region of eastern Latvia. It is called The Heart of Latgale (Latvian Latgales sirds, Latgalian Latgolys sirds). Built on seven hills, Rēzekne is situated east of Riga, and west of the Latvian-Russian border, at the intersection of the Moscow – Ventspils and Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railways. It has a population of 31,216 (2016) making it the 7th largest city in Latvia.
Other names
The Latgalian name of the city is Rēzne ( ). Historically in German sources the location has been known as Rositten. Under the Russian Empire the city was named Rezhitsa (, , ).
History
A Latgalian hill fort is known to have existed at Rēzekne from the 9th to the 13th centuries, until its destruction at the hands of German crusaders of the Livonian Order. In 1285, the knights built a stone fortress on the site, which is today known as Rēzekne castle ruins, to serve as a border post on their eastern frontier.
The name Rēzekne was first documented in 1285. Throughout its early history, Rēzekne was attacked many times by Russian and Lithuanian forces. The town became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Peace of Jam Zapolski in 1582 during the Livonian War. Rēzekne received Magdeburg rights from Poland in the 17th century, but fell to the Russian Empire during the Partitions of Poland. In 1773, Rēzekne received city rights. Known as "Rezhitsa" during Russian rule, it was an uyezd center first in Pskov Governorate between 1772 and 1776, then Polotsk between 1776 and 1796, Belarus between 1796 and 1802 and finally in Vitebsk Governorate between 1802 and 1917.
During the 19th century, the construction of the Moscow-Ventspils and Saint Petersburg-Warsaw railways transformed Rēzekne from a sleepy country town into an important city with two stations.
In the spring of 1917, the first Latgalian congress was held in Rēzekne, in which Latgale was declared to unite with the other Latvian regions. Following Latvia's declaration of independence in 1918, the Latvian War of Independence and the driving out of both the German and Red armies from Latvia, the city became a cultural centre for all of Latgale.
Rēzekne was heavily damaged by both Nazi and Soviet armies during World War II. It was captured by troops of the German Army Group North on 4 July 1941 and placed under the administration of the newly created Reichskommissariat Ostland on 25 July 1941. Rēzekne was recaptured by troops of the Soviet 2nd Belorussian Front on 27 July 1944. Due to the heavy air-bombing by Soviet forces in 1944, ⅔ of its buildings were destroyed. Out of a pre-war population of 13,300, only 5,000 people remained in the city at the end of the war.
Rēzekne was rebuilt after the war with an emphasis on industrial development. Rēzekne had the 5th highest industrial output in the Latvian SSR, including a dairy processor (Rēzeknes Piena konservu kombināts), a lumber mill, and an electric-instrument factory (Rebir). During this time, many Russians moved to the city, making up a large part of the population (48.5% in 2007).
Demographics
Based on the data provided by Latvijas Statistika, the population of Rēzekne was 10,795 in the year 1897. It decreased to 9,997 in 1920, while increasing again to 12,620 in 1925 and 13,139 in 1935.
As a result of the Pale of Settlement, many Jews settled in Latgalia and were confined to the cities. In the 19th century, the population of Rēzekne was around 60% Jewish, while Russians formed the largest minority (about 24% in 1897). The remainder of the population included Poles, Germans, and a small number of native Latgalians. With the economic development following the arrival of the railroad, the population grew steadily, reaching 23,000 by the eve of World War I.
After Latvia's independence in 1918, the population of ethnic Latvians in the city grew substantially, but Jews still made up slightly over a quarter of the population (25.4% in 1935.) In 1939, the population was 13,000. During World War II, the Jewish population was annihilated due to the Holocaust, and most other residents were either deported to Gulag camps in Siberia, or fled westwards. As a result, the post-war population was only 5,000.
As part of the Soviet Union's policy of Russification, many Russians and Belarusians moved to the city after the Soviet occupation of Latvia at the end of World War II. By 1989, Russians accounted for the majority of the population, at 53%. After Latvia's independence in 1991, many repatriated to Russia.
In 1991, the population of Rēzekne was 43,156. Since then, the population has decreased to 30,800 (2017), due to a low birth rate, an aging population (the average age in Rēzekne is 40.3 years) (see also ageing of Europe), and a high rate of emigration abroad and to larger cities such as Riga.
Religion
Due to Rēzekne's multi-ethnic character throughout the centuries, many religious communities have settled in the city. Ethnic differences were often distinguished on religious lines; the Germans brought Christianity to Latvia in the 13th century, as well as Lutheranism during the Reformation Period. The Polish influence over Latgalia in the 17th and 18th centuries strengthened Catholicism among the native Latgalians. Incoming populations of Russian Old Believers introduced Russian Orthodoxy, and up to the 1940s, Rēzekne had a very large Jewish population, and therefore, many synagogues.
Sacred Heart Cathedral
The Catholic Cathedral "Vissvētā Jēzus Sirds" (Sacred Heart of Jesus), (built 1893–1914) dominates Rēzekne's skyline looking from the castle hill.
The cathedral was consecrated in 1901. It was built on the site of a previous wooden church which had been constructed from the funds allotted by Kraków military leader Belinski. In 1887 the church was destroyed in a thunderstorm-caused fire.
The cathedral has curved wooden altars decorated by the sculptures of Jesus Christ, Virgin Mary, St.Teresa, and others. The cathedral is famous for its depictions in stained glass of the first Livonian bishops, Saint Meinhard and Albert of Riga. Since 1995 it has been the centre of the Rezekne-Aglona diocese with the seat of the bishop.
The church has an active choir whose members have studied music. A majority of the members work as musicians and enjoy their Sunday singing in the church.
Our Lady of Sorrows Roman Catholic Church
The other Catholic church, "Sāpju Dievmāte" (Our Lady of Sorrows) is much newer, built from 1935 to 1939.
Construction began in 1936. The tall building was built in neo-romantic style. The church was consecrated on 6 December 1937, but the construction was finished only in 1939. Next to the church is a sculpture of Our Lady of Fátima.
Like many 1930s buildings in the city such as the Nation Palace of Latvian Society (the House of Culture nowadays), the Secondary School no.3 elementary school, and the Red Cross Hospital (nowadays a students hostel) it was designed by the architect Pavlov.
Orthodox Church of the Birth of Holy Jesus' Mother
Construction of the church dates back to 1840, though it wasn't consecrated until 1846. In 1854 it was closed for reconstruction. After a two-year reconstruction period the church obtained its definitive look.
Tile stoves, tiled floors, three-storey iconostasis and a granite stoop decorated the church. A small stone chapel in memory of Alexander II's rescue from death is situated on the left side of the church entrance. On the right there is a glass burial vault where the founder of the church, the owner of the Adamova manor general Karaulov and his wife Helen were buried.
Evangelical Lutheran Holy Trinity Church
The red brick church from was built in the 1930s. The church was designed by the architect J.Cīrulis in Neo-Gothic style. The church was consecrated in 1938. In the summer of 1949 the Soviet authority deprived the parishioners of their church, removed its crosses and dismantled the belfry. For many years there was a film rental company.
The parish got back its property at the beginning of the 1990s and the building has undergone major repairs. It is possible to climb the bell tower and see Rēzekne from above. Classical music concerts and divine services take place in the church nowadays.
St.Nicholas Old-Believers' Church
The church was built in 1895. In 1906 it was considerably reconstructed, with a belfry with three bells, for which the church is now famous. One of them weighs and is the biggest bell in Latvia. The bell clapper alone is heavy.
A museum is now opened in the premises of Rēzekne Old-Believers Cemetery Commune which shows the daily routine and lifestyle of Latgalian old-believers. In one of the rooms the collected items reflect church life, another has ethnographical items. The museum can be visited on request.
Green Synagogue
Prior to World War II, there were eleven synagogues in Rēzekne. The Green Synagogue is the only one to have survived to this day.
The synagogue was built in 1845 and is considered to be one of the oldest wooden buildings in Rēzekne. The synagogue was open until the 1990s, when it was closed for fire safety reasons.
The State Inspection for Heritage Protection of Latvia added it to the list of the most endangered sites in 2004. The Rezekne City Council with the support of Norwegian Financial Institutions started reconstruction of the building. Within the framework of the project it will be possible to create an exhibition devoted to the history of Rezekne's Jews.
Culture
Latgales Māra
One of the most famous statues in Latvia, known as "Latgales Māra", is found in Rēzekne. It was designed by Leons Tomašickis and first unveiled on 8 September 1939. The bronze statue commemorates the liberation of Latgale from the Red Army in January 1920.
The central figure, the woman, is popularly associated with Māra the ancient Latvian goddess of motherhood, fertility, and earth. The cross in her outstretched arm symbolizes the deep importance of Catholicism to Latgalian culture. The words "Vienoti Latvijai" beneath the statue (meaning "United for Latvia") designates the decision to reunite with the rest of Latvia during the Republic's formation in 1918, even though Latgale had been politically separated from the rest of Latvia for 300 years.
Because the statue symbolized Latvian nationalism, the Soviets toppled it in November 1940 during the first Soviet occupation of Latvia. Under German occupation the local residents restored it on 22 August 1943. The reinstated Soviet government pulled it down again in June 1950. After that, the fate of the original statue is unknown.
After Latvia regained its independence in 1991, the statue was reconstructed using old photographs and blueprints, and unveiled on 13 August 1992. Though Soviet rule greatly changed Latgale, Latgales Māra still symbolizes a Catholic Latgale united with Latvia, free of foreign domination.
Castle Ruins
The Castle Ruins, situated on the hill by the river, are the remainders of the ancient fortified residence of ancient Latgalians which existed there from the 9th to 13th centuries. At the end of the 13th century the Livonian Order built a stone castle (Rozitten castle). It was situated in a strategically important place, so the Russians, Lithuanians and Poles were seeking to conquer it. The castle was completely destroyed during the Polish-Swedish war (1656-1660). A model of Rēzekne castle by Edmunds Smans is located near the castle hill.
Latgale Culture and History Museum
The Latgale Culture and History Museum (Latgales Kultūrvēstures muzejs) was opened in 1959. The museum offers exposition of the town history, art exhibitions, and pedagogical activities for children. The exposition of Latgale ceramics is the only permanent exposition in Latvia to reflect Latgalian ceramics in its history from the beginning of pottery in the Neolithic period until the achievements of present-day Latgalian ceramists and modern developments. Ceramics collection includes 2000 ceramic wares, made by the renowned Latgalian ceramicists, such as Andrejs Paulāns, Polikarps Čerņavskis, Polikarps Vilcāns, Jānis Backāns, Ādams Kāpostiņš and others. At the moment the museum stock collection has about 70 thousand items.
Art House
The building which is now the Art House was built in the last quarter of the 19th century for the merchant Vorobjov. It features rich woodcarvings on its façade, decorated in an eclectic style.
It soon became the property of the city, and was used as a teachers' institute, a school, a tuberculosis centre and a military registration office. This frequent change of users almost totally destroyed the original rich interior.
In the middle of the 1990s it was acquired by the Rezekne Art College. Due to the efforts of the students and teachers, the Art House got back its original outlook. It houses the exposition "Latgalian painting" from the reserves of the Latgale Culture History Museum.
Eastern Latvia's Center of Creative Services "Zeimuļs"
The Eastern Latvia's Center of Creative Services "Zeimuļs" houses classes of interest and non-formal education for children and youth.
The opening of the center was on 1 September 2012. The architects were Rasa Kalniņa and Māris Krumiņš who used Latvian ethnographic motifs in their design. The main construction materials are concrete, glass, metal and wood. It is the largest building with a green roof in the Baltic countries. The towers offer one of the best views in Rezekne, over the Castle Hill and the historical center of the city.
The centre of culture "Gors"
The multifunctional culture centre "Gors" (The Embassy of Latgale) was opened in 2013. In addition to the main 1000-seat concert hall, it includes a 220-seat concert hall, Registration of marriages hall, exhibition space, repetition halls and a restaurant. The centre is used for a variety of purposes, including concerts, conferences, film, ballet and theatre.
Notable residents
Iveta Apkalna (born 1976) world-famous Latvian organist
Fridrikh Ermler (1898–1967) Soviet film director
Edgars Gauračs (born 10 March 1988), footballer
Aiga Grabuste (1988-) Latvian heptathlete
Vladislavs Kozlovs (born 30 November 1987), footballer
Eber Landau (1878–1959) physician and professor
Teuvo Tulio (born Theodor Antonius Tugai, 1912–2000) Finnish film director and actor born in Rēzekne
Yury Tynyanov (1894–1943) Soviet/Russian writer and literary critic of Jewish origin.
Twin towns – sister cities
Rēzekne is twinned with:
Arendal, Norway
Braslaw, Belarus
Częstochowa, Poland
Dmitrov, Russia
Krychaw, Belarus
Ostrov, Russia
Pskov, Russia
Sebezh, Russia
Sianów, Poland
Soroca, Moldova
Utena, Lithuania
Vitebsk, Belarus
References
External links
Rēzekne after World War I
Monument for a liberation of Latgale
Awarded "EDEN - European Destinations of Excellence" non traditional tourist destination 2008
The murder of the Jews of Rēzekne during World War II, at Yad Vashem website.
Cities in Latvia
Republican cities of Latvia
Castles of the Teutonic Knights
Rezhitsky Uyezd
Jewish Latvian history
Holocaust locations in Latvia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Laker
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Freddie Laker
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Sir Frederick Alfred Laker (6 August 1922 – 9 February 2006) was an English airline entrepreneur, best known for founding Laker Airways in 1966, which went bankrupt in 1982. Known as Freddie Laker, he was one of the first airline owners to adopt the "low cost / no-frills" airline business model that has since proven to be very successful worldwide with companies such as Norwegian Air, Ryanair, easyJet, AirAsia and WestJet.
Biography
Laker came from Canterbury in Kent, and attended the Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys, before starting work in aviation with Short Brothers in Rochester. He was a member of the Air Transport Auxiliary during and immediately after the Second World War (1941–46).
He then worked briefly for British European Airways (BEA) and London Aero Motor Services (LAMS). Having borrowed £38,000 from a wealthy friend to top up his own savings of £4,500, he subsequently went into business as a war-surplus aircraft dealer. The Soviet blockade of West Berlin in 1948–49, during which all available aircraft were needed to fly essential supplies into West Berlin, allowed his business to flourish, as this provided more than a year's work for his planes and employees almost immediately. During this period Laker often flew the aircraft himself.
By 1954, Channel Air Bridge, his second airline venture, was flying cars and their owners in Bristol Freighters from Southend Airport (Rochford) to Calais.
In 1958, he sold Air Charter, Aviation Traders and Channel Air Bridge to Airwork. All three companies joined the Airwork group in 1959. Following the Airwork–Hunting-Clan merger in 1960, he became managing director of British United Airways.
He left British United in 1965 and formed his own Laker Airways, in 1966, initially operating charter flights with a pair of turboprop planes acquired second-hand from British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). The livery was a mixture of black and red with a bold LAKER logo on the tailplane. He offered a new, revolutionary concept of economic air travel requiring passengers to purchase their tickets on the day of travel as well as to buy their own food. These flights were operated by Laker Airways and marketed under the Skytrain trademark.
He was knighted in 1977, the year after the successful launch of Skytrain, in recognition of his services to the airline industry.
He received an honorary degree from the University of Strathclyde in 1981.
Laker divided his final years between his waterfront home in Princess Isle, Grand Bahama Island, where he kept his yacht, The Lady Jacqueline, and Florida. Laker died at the age of 83 in a suburban hospital in Hollywood in Florida, following complications from cardiac surgery to implant a pacemaker. He was survived by his fourth wife, Jacqueline Harvey, a former airline hostess he married in 1985, and also by two of his children. His daughter, Elaine, was by his first wife Joan with whom he also had a son, Kevin, who died in 1965 at the age of 17 after crashing a sports car Freddie had given him for his birthday. His son Freddie Allen Laker – also a successful entrepreneur – was born to his third wife, Patricia Gates, with whom he also had another son who died in infancy.
Business ventures
Throughout his working life Laker was involved in a number of aviation-related business ventures. Even when he was working for others, his decisions had far-reaching strategic consequences for the business that employed him.
Early business ventures
Laker's early post-war business ventures (prior to 1960) included:
Aviation Traders
Freddie Laker founded Aviation Traders in October 1947. It was based at Southend Airport, Essex, England and specialised in converting numerous war-surplus bombers and transporters into freighters. This included the conversion of Handley Page Halifax bombers into freighters, six of which were sold to Bond Air Services, an early post-war British independent airline. Bond Air Services based these planes at Wunstorf aerodrome in West Germany to carry essential supplies into West Berlin during the Berlin Blockade of 1948–49. Bond Air Services furthermore contracted Aviation Traders to service these planes. In return, Aviation Traders got half of Bond Air Services' freight charges.
Following the end of the Berlin Airlift in 1949, Laker had most of the Halifaxes he had supplied to various independent airlines during the Airlift scrapped at its Southend facilities. He also made use of these facilities for the subsequent conversion of several DC-4/C-54 Skymaster airframes into Carvairs for various operators around the world.
In addition, Aviation Traders re-engined Argonauts, BOAC's Canadian-built Canadair North Stars, with unused Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engines, which it sourced from the 88 spare Merlins Freddie Laker had acquired earlier along with BOAC's entire fleet of Haltons – former Royal Air Force Halifax bombers that had been converted to carry passengers and cargo – and several Avro Tudors purchased from the Government. It also produced an all-new aircraft design, the ATL-90 Accountant.
In 1951, Aviation Traders (Engineering), a sister company of Aviation Traders, won a contract from Bristol Aircraft to manufacture wing centre sections for Bristol Freighters. Between the beginning of 1952 and the end of 1955, Aviation Traders (Engineering) built 50 wing sections for Bristol Aircraft.
In 1958, Laker announced his decision to sell both Aviation Traders and Air Charter to Airwork for £600,000 cash plus a further £200,000, subject to the valuation of stock. The deal became effective in January 1959, when Aviation Traders and Air Charter joined the Airwork group.
Air Charter
This was his first airline venture, which he took over in 1951. Since its inception in 1947, Air Charter had been based at London's old Croydon Airport. The airline participated in the 1948–49 Berlin Airlift. (Following the end of the Airlift in 1949, Laker sold the Air Charter Yorks that were still airworthy to other independent airlines, two of which were acquired by Dan-Air in 1956).)
On 14 April 1955, Air Charter inaugurated its first vehicle ferry service between Southend and Calais using a Bristol 170 Mark 32 Super Freighter.
In 1958, Laker announced his decision to sell both Air Charter and Aviation Traders to Airwork for £600,000 cash plus a further £200,000, subject to the valuation of stock.
In January 1959, Air Charter became a subsidiary of the Airwork group.
Following a rationalisation of Air Charter's flight crew and ground staff in February 1959, Laker decided to transfer all vehicle ferry services along with the Bristol 170 fleet to the newly formed Channel Air Bridge.
Air Charter was absorbed into British United Airways in June 1960, as a result of Airwork's merger with Hunting-Clan and several other contemporary, British independent operators.
Channel Air Bridge
His second airline venture began flying cars and their owners across the English Channel in 1954, initially using a fleet of Bristol Freighter twin-engined, piston-powered planes. These were later supplemented and eventually superseded by the larger-capacity, four-engined Carvairs. The Carvair design was based on the Douglas DC-4 piston-engined airliner. It involved raising the aircraft's cockpit "above" the fuselage in a 747-style bulge so as to create more space for vehicles and/or passengers on the main deck. It also involved replacing the DC-4's original tail fin with a newly designed, larger DC-7-style fin as well as equipping the aircraft with a Bristol Freighter-type nose-loading cargo door, more powerful brakes and a stronger undercarriage.
At the end of 1958, he sold Channel Air Bridge together with his other two companies – Air Charter and Aviation Traders – to Airwork. All three officially became part of the Airwork group in January 1959. In June 1960 Airwork and Hunting-Clan merged to form British United Airways. Channel Air Bridge continued operating under its own identity for more than two years.
On 1 January 1963, Channel Air Bridge merged with Silver City Airways, which had pioneered commercial cross-Channel vehicle ferry flights in 1948. The merged entity traded as British United Air Ferries.
In the meantime, Laker had been appointed British United's managing director.
During his tenure (1960–65), British United became Britain's biggest wholly privately owned, independent airline. It also became the UK's first independent airline to re-equip its entire fleet with new jet aircraft.
In 1961, British United became the launch customer for the BAC One-Eleven short haul jetliner when it placed an order for ten series 200 aircraft. Laker had personally negotiated this deal with the manufacturer. This was the first time that an independent airline had placed an order for brand-new jets. The first of the new One-Elevens entered service on 9 April 1965, on the airline's scheduled London Gatwick—Genoa route. Laker also placed an order for Vickers VC10 series 1103 long-haul jets on behalf of British United. The first two aircraft were delivered towards the end of 1964. (These aircraft differed from other operators' VC10s by having a large cargo door on the left-hand side of the forward fuselage where the aircraft's first class section was located. They also had extended wingtips that were slightly bent downwards to reduce the aircraft's cruise drag as well as to help it overcome the instability encountered when entering a stall.)
By the end of that decade, British United had an all-jet fleet, which gave it a competitive edge over its contemporary independent rivals.
Laker was furthermore instrumental in securing the transfer of the traffic rights for BOAC's loss-making South American routes to Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay to British United. The airline commenced service on these routes in November 1964 using its brand-new VC10s and managed to make them profitable within five years.
In 1965, Laker decided to leave British United to set up his own airline following an alleged disagreement with British United's chairman Myles Wyatt.
Subsequent business ventures
Laker was involved in the following business ventures during the later postwar years of the 20th century (post-1960):
Laker Airways
Laker Airways was formed in 1966. This was Laker's third and most prominent airline venture. Laker Airways commenced commercial airline operations that July with a fleet of two ex-BOAC Bristol Britannias. These were subsequently supplemented and eventually replaced with a brand-new fleet of BAC One-Eleven jetliners as well as a pair of second-hand Boeing 707 jets.
Initially, Laker Airways was a charter airline and wholesale tour operator. British (as well as other European) airline regulations at the time required that charter-based low-price air travel be sold to the public only as a component of an air-hotel package. Other big British charter airlines were also owned by tour operators, mainly selling low-priced packages to Mediterranean beach destinations. For many years Laker had been the most profitable as well as the best-run charter airline in Britain.
Laker Airways pioneered many new, cost-saving as well as profit-enhancing, commercial concepts and operational techniques.
In 1969, Laker Airways announced its intention to buy the proposed BAC Three-Eleven, an all-British widebodied jet powered by two rear-mounted Rolls-Royce RB211 engines. The airline's letter of intent was for four aircraft to be delivered in 1974. It was anticipated that these 250-seaters would replace the entire narrow-bodied fleet, which was envisaged to comprise two 158-seat Boeing 707s and four 84-seat BAC One-Elevens by that time. Following the project's cancellation in 1971 due to a lack of Government funding, Laker remarked that this would force him to spend the £3 billion he had planned to invest by 1986 in a fleet of British-built widebodied airliners (including options) on competing foreign models.
Laker Airways eventually became the first independent British airline to actually operate widebodied equipment when it introduced its first two McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 series aircraft into commercial airline service in November 1972, the first European operator to do so. These aircraft were the first UK-registered DC-10s.
In 1973, Laker Airways operated the world's first Advance Booking Charter (ABC) flight. By the mid-1970s it had become the undisputed, global ABC flight market leader.
Laker Airways scored another industry first when it introduced its first daily Skytrain low-fare scheduled service between London Gatwick and New York John F. Kennedy Airport on 26 September 1977.
Skytrain
On 15 June 1971, Laker Airways submitted an application to the UK's Air Transport Licensing Board (ATLB), one of the forerunners of today's Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), to launch the world's first daily transatlantic, low-fare scheduled service between London and New York City, charging an incredibly low one-way fare of £32.50 in winter and £37.50 in summer. This was one third of what the major, established "flag carriers" were charging at the time. The proposed service was to be marketed using the Skytrain trademark and was to be initially operated with 158-seat, single-class Boeing 707-138Bs that were acquired second-hand. Skytrain was to be a "walk-on", "walk-off" operation that did not require any advance reservations. Instead, seats were to be sold to the travelling public at each end of the route on a "first come, first served" basis only.
The ATLB rejected Laker's application before the year was out, and Laker appealed against the ruling. The appeal was successful, and the ATLB eventually granted Laker the requested licence in February 1972.
However, on 30 March 1972, the UK government revoked Laker's licence and instructed him to reapply to the CAA, which came into being on 1 April 1972.
Laker duly reapplied to the CAA for permission to operate eleven weekly Skytrain services each way between London Gatwick and New York's John F. Kennedy Airport (JFK) during the summer and seven weekly round-trips during the winter. The summer schedule was to be operated with Laker's brand-new DC-10 widebodied jet aircraft to take advantage of increased demand he anticipated for his new low-fare service during the peak months from June to September as well as of the DC-10's low break-even load factor of only 52%. The winter schedule was to be operated with 707 narrowbodies as specified in Laker's original application to the ATLB.
The newly formed CAA approved Laker's application on 5 October 1972, granting a ten-year licence. However, it specified Stansted rather than Gatwick as the service's UK departure/arrival point and limited the number of seats that could be sold in winter to 189 per trip, the maximum number of passengers a Boeing 707 could accommodate in a high-density, all-economy configuration. The unexpected change of the UK departure/arrival point for Laker's Skytrain service as well as its capacity limit during the lean winter season were intended not to undermine the planned launch of a daily British Caledonian (BCal) Gatwick—JFK full-service scheduled operation, for which the ATLB had already granted that airline a 15-year licence, along with another 15-year licence for a daily Gatwick—Los Angeles International Airport full-service scheduled operation, during the so-called "cannon ball" hearings earlier the same year.
The UK government designated Laker Airways as a scheduled transatlantic UK "flag" carrier on 11 January 1973.
However, under intense pressure from the established airlines, including Laker's archrival and next-door Gatwick neighbour BCal, against a backdrop of huge losses and overcapacity on the North Atlantic in the aftermath of the global energy crisis caused by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries' oil embargo, the UK's Labour government of that era decided to revoke Laker's licence on 29 July 1975.
Freddie Laker took the government to the UK High Court, which overturned the latter's decision to revoke the airline's licence for a Skytrain service between London and New York.
It took another two years until Laker gained final approval, including a reciprocal permit from the relevant US authorities, which was granted for a one-year experimental period on 13 June 1977 by US President Jimmy Carter – to commence Skytrain.
In the meantime, Peter Shore, the then Secretary of State for Trade, had conducted a review of the government's aviation policy and in 1976 announced a new "spheres of influence" policy that ended dual designation for British airlines on all long-haul routes. As a result of this new aviation policy, BA and BCal were no longer permitted to run competing scheduled services on the same long-haul routes and the latter was forced to withdraw from the London—New York and London—Los Angeles routes, resulting in the suspension of BCal's Gatwick—JFK and Gatwick—Los Angeles licences. The same year, Edmund Dell, Peter Shore's successor, renounced the original Bermuda air services agreement of 1946 and initiated bilateral negotiations with his US counterparts on a new air services agreement, which resulted in the Bermuda II treaty of 1977.
Laker's long-running Skytrain application was finally granted in 1977 upon designating the airline as the second UK flag carrier between London and New York under the then just-concluded Bermuda II UK-US air agreement. At the last minute prior to the inaugural Skytrain flight from London to New York, Laker also received government permission to use its Gatwick base as the service's UK departure and arrival point, rather than Stansted as originally specified in its licence. The restriction limiting it to 189 seats per aircraft in winter was lifted as well and the baggage allowance was brought into line with International Air Transport Association (IATA) rules.
Skytrain took to the air for the first time on 26 September 1977 when the inaugural flight departed London Gatwick for New York JFK. This flight carried 272 passengers on one of the airline's 345-seat McDonnell Douglas DC-10 widebodied aircraft. The fares charged at the time were £59 () one-way from London and $135 () one-way from New York.
Skytrain was originally envisaged to achieve a 50% load factor in winter. By summer 1978, the actual load factor was 80%.
After unsuccessfully trying to block Laker through government regulation, the incumbent giant lines, British Airways, Pan Am and TWA, immediately matched Laker's standby fares and rules for at least a portion of their economy-class seats. Pan Am also introduced a new low-fare alternative, "budget," where a traveler could confirm a seat at the time of purchase, but only for travel within a three-day travel "window," with a specific flight and date confirmed by the airline a week before departure.
Laker claimed that Skytrain helped to grow passenger numbers for all airlines in the London—New York market, citing statistics comparing passenger numbers for the July—September peak season in 1977 with those of the corresponding period in 1976 as evidence. These had shown that in the days before Skytrain, total traffic between London and New York for the aforesaid period in 1977 was down 2% on the same period in 1976. He contrasted these figures with those comparing the October—December 1977 off-peak period with the corresponding 1976 off-peak period. The latter set of figures had shown a 30% increase, boosted by "Skytrain", which launched on 26 September 1977.
A closer analysis comparing the figures for October 1977 compared with those of the same month in 1976 had shown an increase of 31.8% (37,902 passengers) for all airlines. A further breakdown of these figures had shown that Laker's "Skytrain" accounted for 15% (17,501 passengers) of the overall increase while competing services of rival airlines accounted for the remaining 16.8% (20,401 passengers). The latter included IATA members British Airways, Pan Am, and TWA, which had initially opposed "Skytrain" but subsequently matched its low fares. (Statistics for November and December 1977, as well as for January—June 1978, had also shown that the overall monthly growth in the London—New York market was maintained at that level for the remainder of this period while Skytrain managed to grow its share of the overall monthly increase to 50% and keep up this performance until the end of the period.)
Skytrain became a financial success in its first year of operation, leading to further expansion over the coming years, in terms of new routes as well as additional frequencies.
As a result of his clever publicity stunts to market the then brand-new London—New York Skytrain service, Freddie Laker himself became popular with the public ("the forgotten man's hero") and was regarded as one of Margaret Thatcher's "golden boys" of industry (along with Sir Clive Sinclair and Sir Alan Sugar). The former Conservative Prime Minister was a self-confessed "Freddie Laker fan".
However, it was James Callaghan's "pro-union" Labour Government that awarded Laker his knighthood for services to the airline industry in 1978, rather than Margaret Thatcher's subsequent "pro-business" Conservative administration (although the latter had recommended him for his service to private enterprise in her capacity as the then leader of the opposition).
As Skytrain expanded to other British and U.S. gateways, the airline placed orders for additional McDonnell Douglas DC-10 widebodies, including the company's first order for five longer-range series-30 aircraft required for its Los Angeles flights. These were delivered from December 1979 onwards to support its growing number of destinations and frequencies.
The airline also became one of the early buyers of the first Airbus airliner, the A300, ordering ten of these widebodies in 1979 and had plans to deploy the aircraft on a new network of intra-European Skytrain routes in a big way.
Skytrain came to an end the day the airline went into receivership at the behest of the Midland Bank on 5 February 1982.
Collapse and the end of Skytrain
In 1982, the company went bankrupt, owing over £250 million (equivalent to £ million in ). The airline made its last flight on 5 February 1982, the day it went into receivership.
There were numerous reasons for what was termed the biggest corporate failure in Britain at the time:
Laker Airways had expanded too quickly in the late 1970s and early 1980s when it took delivery of a large fleet of brand-new DC-10 and A300 widebodies, which had been bought with US funds borrowed at too high a rate of interest. Subsequent devaluations of sterling meant increased costs in servicing the debt.
The company was undercapitalised and did not enjoy the financial backup of any significant assets, which seriously undermined its ability to withstand a concerted and prolonged campaign to put it out of business at the depth of the 1981–82 recession at the hands of its financially stronger competitors.
Laker Airways incurred a revenue loss estimated at £13 million when the worldwide DC-10 fleet was grounded as a result of having its certificate of airworthiness temporarily withdrawn in the aftermath of the American Airlines DC-10 crash at Chicago O'Hare in May 1979.
Some passengers may also have perceived the DC-10 as unsafe as a result of a string of fatal accidents involving the aircraft within a short timespan during the late 1970s (including the aforementioned 1979 American Airlines crash at Chicago O'Hare, and the previous 1974 crash of a Turkish Airlines DC10 at Beauvais, near Paris).
The implications of the strategic decision to build its business on discount travellers only.
The conspiracy of large airlines throughout Europe and North America, which were aggressively price-matching Laker Airways even at the expense of massive losses. This charge, which was brought to court as the largest aviation antitrust case in history, was later settled out of court. Sir Freddie sued IATA member airlines British Airways, BCal, Pan Am, TWA, Lufthansa, Air France, Swissair, KLM, SAS, Sabena, Alitalia and UTA for conspiracy to put his airline out of business by predatory pricing. They settled out of court for US$50 million, with British Airways later agreeing to contribute a further $35 million. British Airways also reached a separate out-of-court agreement with Sir Freddie personally for £8 million.
Aggressive, non-profitable price dropping in Australia by Qantas, which later went on to enjoy a monopoly and pushed east/west airline prices through the roof.
Fallout from the company's demise descended into litigation, which delayed the privatisation of British Airways.
Laker Airways Mark II
Laker was undaunted and almost immediately attempted to relaunch the airline with assistance from one of Britain's titans of industry, 'Tiny' Rowland, the Managing Director of Lonrho, plc – one of the nation's largest conglomerates – and on the back of a strong public following (a relief fund gathered over £1 million, including a benefit concert in San Francisco by the music band The Police, who had used the airline to tour America in their formative years).
However despite Rowland’s offer of funding being described as “adequate” by Laker, the attempt was unsuccessful due to their failure to secure the necessary licensing.
Laker, by now living in the Bahamas, got off the ground again in the early 1990s, moving his refounded business's base to Freeport. Laker Airways flew from there until it shut down in 2005. It was Laker's final airline venture.
Legacy
Laker was the 2002 recipient of the Tony Jannus Award for his distinguished contributions to commercial air transportation. He is remembered for his famous advice to fellow airline entrepreneurs Richard Branson, of Virgin Atlantic, and Stelios Haji-Ioannou, of easyJet, to "sue the bastards", a reference to the bullying tactics of British Airways in trying to force upstarts out of business.
Virgin Atlantic had earlier named one of its Boeing 747s The Spirit of Sir Freddie. In addition, Malaysia's low-cost, long-haul carrier AirAsia X named its first Airbus A330 Semangat Sir Freddie in homage to the pioneer of "no-frills" air travel. The third plane to be named in spirit after Freddie Laker happens to be a Boeing 737 MAX that belongs to Norwegian Air Shuttle, delivered in May 2017.
His name has also recently been applied to a Norwegian Air Sweden Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner, with the registration SE-RXZ.
He was also the subject of a musical, Laker!, as performed at Not in Front of the Audience in 1982, and written by Mel Smith and Peter Brewis in reaction to Laker Airways' bankruptcy.
In 1988, InsideFlyer magazine’s editor and publisher Randy Petersen created the Freddie Awards to honor Freddie Laker's accomplishments in marketing travel. The awards recognize excellence in frequent traveler awards programs. The Freddie Awards were touted as the frequent traveller's answer to the Oscar, Emmy and Grammy Awards by Petersen. The individual categories for the Freddie Awards are Best Award, Best Bonus, Best Affinity Credit Card, Best Newsletter/Member Communications, Best Web Site, Best Customer Service, Best Award Redemption, Best Elite Level and Program of the Year.
When the new passenger terminal at London Southend Airport was opened in 2012, the upstairs bar was named Laker's Bar, and featured a montage of Laker and his airline across the walls. In 2015, the bar was moved into the departure lounge and renamed Laker's Bar & Restaurant, and still displays historic images in various frames on the wall.
In June 2017, Norwegian Air International placed Laker's image on the tail of their first 737-8 MAX (EI-FYA). Laker is one of the company's five "British tail fin heroes", joining Queen frontman Freddie Mercury, children's author Roald Dahl, pioneering pilot Amy Johnson and England's World Cup winning captain Bobby Moore.
Notes and citations
Notes
Citations
References
(Airliner World online)
(Airliner World online)
(Aviation News online)
External links
Reuters News announcing his death
Obituary from BBC News
Obituary from Miami Herald
Obituary from The Daily Telegraph
Obituary from The Independent
Final Interview
Armstrong, P. (2005). The Flight of the Accountant: a Romance of Air and Credit, Flight to insolvency
Stansted Airport Consultative Committee, Stansted — The Early Years (1942–1966), Sir Freddie Laker Arrives
Skytrain: new Laker bid, Flight International, 27 July 1972, p. 116
Skytrain ..., 'Flight International'', 27 July 1972, p. 117
Further reading
1922 births
2006 deaths
People from Canterbury
Businesspeople awarded knighthoods
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys
Air Transport Auxiliary pilots
British airline chief executives
20th-century English businesspeople
British expatriates in the Bahamas
British expatriates in the United States
|
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204848
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnaby
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Burnaby
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Burnaby is a city in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia, Canada. Located in the centre of the Burrard Peninsula, it neighbours the City of Vancouver to the west, the District of North Vancouver across the confluence of the Burrard Inlet with its Indian Arm to the north, Port Moody and Coquitlam to the east, New Westminster and Surrey across the Fraser River to the southeast, and Richmond on the Lulu Island to the southwest.
Burnaby was incorporated in 1892 and achieved its city status in 1992. A member municipality of Metro Vancouver, it is British Columbia's third-largest city by population (after Vancouver and Surrey), and is the seat of Metro Vancouver's regional district government.
The main campuses of Simon Fraser University and the British Columbia Institute of Technology are located in Burnaby. It is home to high-tech companies such as Ballard Power (fuel cell), Clio (legal software), D-Wave (quantum computing), General Fusion (fusion power), EA Vancouver and Capcom Canada. Burnaby's Metropolis at Metrotown is the largest mall in British Columbia and the fifth largest in Canada.
The city is served by SkyTrain's Expo Line and Millennium Line. Metrotown station in downtown Metrotown is the second-busiest station in regional Vancouver's urban transit system as of 2018.
History
Pre-colonial (before 1850)
Burnaby is the original home to Halkomelem- and Squamish-speaking Central Coast Salish Nations. Local landmarks such as Burnaby Mountain, Deer Lake, and Brunette River feature prominently in Indigenous history passed down through oral traditions. The northern shorelines of Burnaby, along the second narrows of Burrard Inlet was site of an ancient battle between the attacking Lekwiltok and the defending Musquem according to Chief Charlie Qiyəplenəxw.
The Coast Salish people living in BC and Washington state numbered more than 100,000 people, a level of population density only supported by agriculture in other geographies. Techniques to preserve and store surplus food sustained a hierarchical society. Burnaby's marshlands along its rivers and lakes were cranberry harvesting areas for numerous villages, some numbering over 1,000 residents. Indigenous people travelled through Burnaby to reach the mouth of Brunette and Fraser River for the bountiful fishing seasons, eulachon in the spring and sockeye salmon in the late summer. Early European explorers and fur traders introduced diseases that decimated the Indigenous population. This false appearance of Burnaby as a vast open space, along with traditional Indigenous farming techniques which did not permanently alter the landscape, meant Indigenous land in Burnaby was mislabelled as Terra Nullius.
Incorporation (1850–1990)
The Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858, the first of many gold rushes in British Columbia, brought over 30,000 fortune seekers, including many American miners. The fear of an impending annexation by the United States led to the creation of the Colony of British Columbia in 1858 and the establishment of New Westminster as its capital.
Settlers in Burnaby acquired land through a process called pre-emption which allowed people to claim a piece of land by clearing forests and building houses. Pre-emption was excluded from Indigenous people. Royal Engineers dispossessed land from Indigenous people with the assistance of military force including the original routes of North Road, Kingsway, Canada Way, and Marine Drive. Logging permits given to settlers destroyed the forests of southern Burnaby which had provided vital sustenance for Indigenous people.
The City of Burnaby is named after Robert Burnaby, who was a Freemason, explorer, and legislator. He was previously private secretary to Colonel Richard Moody, the first land commissioner for the Colony of British of Columbia. In 1859, Burnaby surveyed a freshwater lake in the city's geographic centre. Moody named it Burnaby Lake.
Burnaby was established in 1891 and incorporated a year later in 1892. In the same year, the interurban tram between Vancouver and New Westminster began construction.
Recent
The expanding urban centres of Vancouver and New Westminster influenced the growth of Burnaby. It developed as an agricultural area supplying nearby markets. Later, it evolved into an important transportation corridor between Vancouver, the Fraser Valley and the Interior. The introduction of the Skytrain's Expo Line cemented this trend into the 21st century.
As Vancouver expanded and became a metropolis, Burnaby was one of the first-tier suburbs of Vancouver, along with North Vancouver and Richmond. During the suburbanization of Burnaby, "Mid-Century Vernacular" homes were built by the hundreds to satisfy demand by new residents. The establishment of British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT) in 1960 and Simon Fraser University (SFU) in 1965 helped Burnaby gradually become more urban in character. In 1992, one hundred years after its incorporation, Burnaby officially became a city.
Since the 1970s, Burnaby has seen a decline in resource sectors and a subsequent rise of high value-added services and technology sectors. The presence of BCIT and SFU promoted research & development in the area. For example, manufacturing plants near Still Creek closed in the late 1970s, only to reopen few years later as film production studios. The continued expansion of media production in Burnaby contributed to Hollywood North.
Geography and land use
Burnaby occupies and is located at the geographic centre of the Metro Vancouver area and home to the Metro Vancouver regional government in Metrotown. Situated between the city of Vancouver on the west and Port Moody, Coquitlam, and New Westminster on the east, Burnaby is bounded by Burrard Inlet and the Fraser River on the north and south, respectively. Burnaby, Vancouver and New Westminster collectively occupy the major portion of the Burrard Peninsula. The elevation of Burnaby ranges from sea level to a maximum of atop Burnaby Mountain. Due to its elevation, the city of Burnaby typically has quite a bit more snowfall during the winter months than nearby Vancouver or Richmond. Overall, the physical landscape of Burnaby is one of hills, ridges, valleys and an alluvial plain. The land features and their relative locations have had an influence on the location, type and form of development in the city.
Burnaby is home to many industrial and commercial firms. British Columbia's largest (and Canada's second largest) commercial shopping mall, Metropolis at Metrotown, is located in Burnaby. Still, Burnaby's ratio of park land to residents is one of the highest in North America. It also maintains some agricultural land, particularly along the Fraser foreshore flats in the Big Bend neighbourhood along its southern perimeter.
Parks, rivers, and lakes
Major parklands and waterways in Burnaby include Central Park, Robert Burnaby Park, Kensington Park, Burnaby Mountain, Still Creek, the Brunette River, Burnaby Lake, Deer Lake, and Squint Lake.
Climate
Burnaby's Simon Fraser University weather station is located above sea level on Burnaby Mountain. Therefore, climate records are cooler and wetter, with more snowfall, as compared to the rest of the city.
Burnaby has an oceanic climate (Cfb) with mild, dry summers and cool, rainy winters.
Transportation
The SkyTrain rapid transit system, based in Burnaby, crosses the city from east to west in two places: the Expo Line (completed in 1986) crosses the south along Kingsway and the Millennium Line (completed in 2002) follows Lougheed Highway. The SkyTrain has encouraged closer connections to New Westminster, Vancouver, and Surrey, as well as dense urban development at Lougheed Town Centre on the city's eastern border, at Brentwood Town Centre in the centre-west, Edmonds-Highgate in the southeast, and most notably, at Metrotown in the south. Burnaby is also served by RapidBus line R5, and several other bus routes operated by TransLink.
Major north–south streets crossing the City include Boundary Road, Willingdon Avenue, Royal Oak Avenue, Kensington Avenue, Sperling Avenue, Gaglardi Way, Cariboo Road, and North Road. East–west routes linking Burnaby's neighbouring cities to each other include Hastings Street, Barnet Highway, the Lougheed Highway, Kingsway (which follows the old horse trail between Vancouver and New Westminster), Canada Way and Marine Drive/Marine Way. Douglas Road, which used to cross the city from northwest to southeast, has largely been absorbed by the Trans-Canada Highway and Canada Way. Since the 1990s, Burnaby has developed a network of cycling trails. It is also well served by Metro Vancouver's bus system, run by the Coast Mountain Bus Company, a division of TransLink.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Burnaby recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In 2016, the median age is 40.3 years old, slightly younger than the British Columbia median of 43.0 years old.
Language
The 2016 census found that English was spoken as the mother tongue of 41.33 percent of the population. The next three most common languages were Mandarin (14.53 percent), Cantonese (12.32 percent) and Tagalog (3.35 percent).
People and politics
While Burnaby occupies about 4 percent of the land area of the Greater Vancouver Regional District, it accounted for about 10 percent of the region's population in 2016. It is the third most populated urban centre in British Columbia (after Vancouver and Surrey) with an estimated population of 249,197 (2017).
Similar to Greater Vancouver, Burnaby has always had diverse ethnic and immigrant communities. For example, North Burnaby near Hastings Street has long been home to many Italian restaurants and recreational bocce games. Metrotown's high-rise condominium towers in the south have been fuelled in part by recent arrivals from China (Hong Kong and Macau), Taiwan, and South Korea. According to the 2006 Census, 54% of Burnaby residents have a mother tongue that is neither English nor French.
Politically, Burnaby has maintained a left-wing city council closely affiliated with the provincial NDP and school board for many years, while sometimes electing more conservative legislators provincially (for the Social Credit and BC Liberal parties) and federally (for the Reform, Alliance, and Conservative parties). Its longest-serving politician had been Svend Robinson of the New Democratic Party (NDP), Canada's first openly gay member of Parliament, but after 25 years and seven elections he resigned his post in early 2004 after stealing and then returning an expensive ring. Burnaby voters endorsed his assistant, Bill Siksay, as his replacement in the spring 2004 Canadian federal election. In the May 2013 provincial election, residents of the city sent 3 NDP MLAs and one Liberal MLA to the British Columbia legislature. The NDP MLA for Burnaby-Lougheed, Jane Shin, faced controversy after the election for misrepresenting herself as a physician despite not having completed a medical residency or holding a licence to practise medicine.
According to a 2009 survey by Maclean's magazine, Burnaby is Canada's best run city. The survey looks at a city's efficiency, the cost of producing results, and the effectiveness of its city services. However, Maclean's does note that Burnaby has one of the worst municipal voter turnouts in the country, 26 percent. In 2015, the Canadian Federation of Independent Business (CFIB) included Burnaby as a Vancouver periphery to rank eighth for entrepreneurial communities.
Industry and economy
The city features major commercial town centres, high-density residential areas, two rapid transit lines, high technology research, business parks, film studios such as The Bridge Studios, and TV stations such as Global TV.
Major technology firms such as Ballard Power Systems (fuel cell), D-Wave Systems (quantum computing), Clio (software company) (legal tech), Creo (imaging), and EA Canada (studio) (Electronic Arts) have their headquarters in Burnaby. Telus have relocated their headquarter from Burnaby to Telus Garden in Vancouver.
Metropolis mall located in Metrotown neighbourhood, the Downtown of Burnaby, is the largest mall in British Columbia with West Vancouver's Park Royal in the second place. It is the fifth largest in Canada behind the first place West Edmonton Mall located in Edmonton, Alberta. Despite its size, Metropolis mall was the second most visited mall in Canada in 2017 and third most visited in 2018.
Heavy industry companies including Chevron Corporation and Petro-Canada petroleum refineries oil on the shores of Burrard Inlet.
Best Buy, Ritchie Bros. Auctioneers, Pacific Blue Cross and Nokia have significant facilities in Burnaby.
Other firms with operations based in Burnaby include Canada Wide Media, Doteasy, Telus, Teradici, AFCC, Mercedes-Benz Fuel Cell, HSBC Group Systems Development Centre, and TransLink. eBay ceased local operations in 2009.
Sports
The city's main stadium, Swangard Stadium, is located in Central Park (Burnaby). It was completed in 1969. The stadium was home to the Vancouver 86ers (now the Vancouver Whitecaps) in the Canadian Soccer League from 1986 to 2010, when the team relocated to BC Place to play in the Major League Soccer.
Burnaby Velodrome hosted the National Junior and U17 Track Championship in 2014.
Education
Public education
The city has over 24,000 students across the 41 elementary schools and 8 secondary schools managed by School District 41. It also has a Community and Adult Education Department and an International Students Programme.
Higher education
Simon Fraser University's main campus, with more than 30,000 students and 950 staff, is located atop Burnaby Mountain (elevation ). In Maclean's 2020 rankings, the university placed first in their comprehensive university category, and ninth in their reputation ranking for Canadian universities. Burnaby gondola, operating between the main campus and Production Way–University station has been included in TransLink (British Columbia)'s 10-Year Investment Plan in 2018.
British Columbia Institute of Technology's main campus in Burnaby, home to more than 49,000 full-time and part-time students, was established in 1964. A new $78 million, net-zero emission Health Science Centre, expected to open in late 2021, will accommodate 7,000 students.
Arts and culture
Burnaby is home to multiple museums highlighting the diverse history and culture of the city. Burnaby Village Museum is a open-air museum preserving a 1920s Canadian village. The Nikkei National Museum & Cultural Centre which includes a Japanese garden opened in 2000 to promote awareness and understanding of Japanese Canadian culture. The Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology is located within the Simon Fraser University campus at the top of Burnaby Mountain.
Burnaby Public Library was first established in 1954. It currently has four locations throughout the city, including the central Bobbie Prittie Metrotown branch in downtown Burnaby. The library system holds over three million items in circulation, with more than 5,000 visitors per day.
Many cultural facilities are located in or around Deer Lake Park, including the Burnaby Art Gallery, Shadbolt Centre for the Arts, and the Burnaby Village Museum.
Michael J. Fox Theatre, a community theatre that seats 613, with 11 wheelchair spaces, is situated within Burnaby South Secondary School.
Notable people
Karl Alzner, NHL hockey player
Glenn Anderson, former NHL hockey player
Andrea Bang, actor best known for Kim's Convenience
Michael Bublé, singer
Christy Clark, former Premier of British Columbia
Eleanor Collins, jazz singer, TV host and civic leader
Kris Chucko, NHL hockey player
Ian James Corlett, voice actor, writer, and TV producer
Robin Esrock, South African–born Canadian travel writer, TV host and author
Michael J. Fox, Canadian-American actor
Kaleigh Fratkin (born 1992), professional ice hockey player
Jacob Hoggard, lead singer of Hedley
Joe Keithley, musician and Burnaby politician
Braam Jordaan, South African–born entrepreneur, filmmaker, animator, and activist
Eagle Keys, American-born CFL football player and head coach
Jason LaBarbera, NHL hockey player
Brad Loree, movie stuntman
Kenndal McArdle, former NHL hockey player and investment banker
John H. McArthur, Harvard Business School dean
Darren McCarty, NHL hockey player
Carrie-Anne Moss, movie, television and voice actress
Dave Nonis, former Senior Vice President and Director of Hockey Operations of the Toronto Maple Leafs
Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, NHL hockey player
Mark Olver, NHL and KHL hockey player
Tyler O'Neill, MLB player for the St. Louis Cardinals
Buzz Parsons, NASL soccer player and later CSL coach
Dugald Campbell Patterson, Scottish-born Burnaby pioneer
Colin Percival, computer scientist
Dick Phillips, American-born MLB baseball player and PCL team manager
Roy Radu, Rugby union player
Svend Robinson, former federal MP, arbitrator/advocate and parliamentary relations consultant
Cliff Ronning, former NHL hockey player
Joe Sakic, former NHL hockey player
Mike Santorelli, NHL hockey player
Murray SawChuck, Canadian-born Las Vegas-based magician
Gurv and Harv Sihra, Indian-Canadian professional wrestlers known as Sunil and Samir Singh
Josh Simpson, USL soccer player
Christine Sinclair, NWSL soccer player and captain of the Canadian Women's National Soccer Team.
Don Taylor, Vancouver-area television sportscaster
Patrick Wiercioch, NHL hockey player
Greg Zanon, AHL and NHL hockey player
Sister cities
Burnaby has four sister cities:
Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan (1965)
Mesa, Arizona, United States (1998)
Hwaseong, Gyeonggi, Korea (2010)
Zhongshan, Guangdong, China (2011)
Surrounding municipalities
See also
Burnaby Public Library
References
Adapted from Home
External links
Cities in British Columbia
Populated places in Greater Vancouver
Populated places established in 1892
1892 establishments in British Columbia
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Lizard%20%28publisher%29
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Black Lizard (publisher)
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Black Lizard was an American book publisher. A division of the Creative Arts Book Company of Berkeley, California, Black Lizard specialized in reprinting forgotten crime fiction and noir fiction writers and novels originally released between the 1930s and the 1960s, many of which are now acknowledged as classics of their genres.
History
Founded and edited by writer Barry Gifford in 1984, Black Lizard released over ninety books between 1984 and 1990, including reprints of classic novels by Charles Willeford, David Goodis, Peter Rabe, Harry Whittington, Dan J. Marlowe, Charles Williams, and Lionel White, as well as original novels by Barry Gifford and Jim Nisbet. Lizard is single-handedly responsible for renewing the interest in Jim Thompson in the late 1980s, which resulted in several film adaptations of his novels. The original series were mass-market paperbacks with covers drawn by Jim Kirwan.
Barry Gifford's relationship with Black Lizard is also sometimes credited with having first applied the term noir fiction to a certain subgenre of hardboiled fiction. Thus, in an introduction written by Gifford to the Black Lizard editions of Jim Thompson's novels in 1984, Gifford writes: "The French seem to appreciate best Thompson's brand of terror. Roman noir, literally 'black novel,' is a term reserved especially for novelists such as Thompson, Cornell Woolrich and David Goodis. Only Thompson, however, fulfills the French notion of both noir and maudit, the accursed and self-destructive. It is an unholy picture that Thompson presents. As the British critic Nick Kimberley has written, 'This is a godless world,' populated by persons 'for whom murder is a casual chore.'" Gifford's use of the term noir in this context resulted in a term that is narrower in scope than that used by the French roman noir as applied to fiction. In 2021, Willy Vlautin wrote: "Those Black Lizard books were about psychologically damaged people trying to navigate a cruel, cutthroat world that didn't want them in the first place."
Random House bought the rights to the Black Lizard name in June 1990 and merged it with Vintage Crime: Vintage Crime/Black Lizard was the result. Many of Black Lizards' earlier releases were replaced by mainstream-friendly writers such as Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, James M. Cain, as well as numerous contemporary authors. The mass-market paperbacks were replaced by trade paperbacks with black-and-white photographs on the covers. Most of the series was reprinted in this new format, but practically all of the books published by Lizard before the merge, with the notable exception of books by Jim Thompson, have since been allowed to fall out of print and have remained so since the early 1990s.
Catalog
By the time of its acquisition by Random House, Black Lizard had issued the following novels (cover Illustrations, with three exceptions, by Jim Kirwan):
After Dark, My Sweet, Jim Thompson
Agreement to Kill, Peter Rabe
The Alcoholics, Jim Thompson
The Baby Doll Murders, James O. Causey
Black Friday, David Goodis
Black Mass of Brother Springer, Charles Willeford
Black Lizard Anthology of Crime Fiction, Ed Gorman, ed.
Second Black Lizard Anthology, Ed Gorman, ed.
Blood on the Dining Room Floor, Gertrude Stein
The Box, Peter Rabe
Burnt Orange Heresy, Charles Willeford
Carny Kill, Robert Edmond Alter
Cassidy’s Girl, David Goodis
Coffin & Co., Simon Njami
Cockfighter, Charles Willeford
The Criminal, Jim Thompson
Cropper’s Cabin, Jim Thompson
The Damned Don’t Die, Jim Nisbet
Dead Meet, Roger L. Simon
Death Puppet, Jim Nisbet
Detour, Helen Nielsen
The Devil Wears Wings, Harry Whittington
Dig My Grave Deep, Peter Rabe
Dr. Syntax, Michael Petracca
The Far Cry, Fredric Brown
Fast One, Paul Cain
Fires That Destroy, Harry Whittington
Forgive Me Killer, Harry Whittington
Frenzy, James O. Causey
The Getaway, Jim Thompson
The Golden Gizmo, Jim Thompson
Goodbye L.A., Murray Sinclair
The Grifters, Jim Thompson
A Hell of a Woman, Jim Thompson
His Name was Death, Fredric Brown
I Wake up Screaming, Steve Fisher
Ill Wind, W. L. Heath
It's My Funeral, Peter Rabe
Jealous Woman, James M. Cain
Kill the Boss Goodbye, Peter Rabe
The Killing, Lionel White
Lethal Injection, Jim Nisbet
Low Bite, Sin Soracco
Man on the Run, Charles Williams
Masques, Bill Pronzini
A Moment to Prey, Harry Whittington
The Name of the Game is Death, Dan J. Marlowe
Never Live Twice, Dan J. Marlowe
Nightfall, David Goodis
Night Squad, David Goodis
Nothing in Her Way, Charles Williams
Nothing More than Murder, Jim Thompson
Only in L.A., Murray Sinclair
The Out is Death, Peter Rabe
Perversity, Francis Carco
Pick-up, Charles Willeford
Pop. 1280, Jim Thompson
Port Tropique, Barry Gifford
Recoil, Jim Thompson
The Root of his Evil, James M. Cain
Running of the Beasts, Bill Pronzini and Barry Malzberg
Savage Night, Jim Thompson
Seven Slayers, Paul Cain
Shoot the Piano Player, David Goodis
Silk Stalkings, Susan Thompson and Victoria Nichols
Sinful Woman, James M. Cain
Sing Me a Murder, Helen Nielsen
The Straight Man, Kent Nelson
Street of No Return, David Goodis
Strongarm, Dan J. Marlowe
Swamp Sister, Robert Edmond Alter
A Swell Looking Babe, Jim Thompson
A Ticket to Hell, Harry Whittington
Tough Luck L.A., Murray Sinclair
The Truth of the Matter, John Lutz
Vengeance Man, Dan J. Marlowe
Violent Saturday, W. L. Heath
Web of Murder, Harry Whittington
Wild Town, Jim Thompson
You Play the Black and the Red Comes Up, Eric Knight
References
External links
Vintage Crime/Black Lizard
List of books originally published
Covers by Kirwan
Book publishing companies based in Berkeley, California
Publishing companies established in 1984
1984 establishments in California
Book publishing companies of the United States
Defunct book publishing companies of the United States
|
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204893
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repertorium%20der%20Nederlandse%20Wijsbegeerte
|
Repertorium der Nederlandse Wijsbegeerte
|
Repertorium der Nederlandse Wijsbegeerte is one of the major works of Professor Dr. Johannes Jacobus Poortman. This is a four-volume inventory of all publications in the Netherlands or in the Dutch language or by Dutch philosophers on philosophy. After Poortman died in 1970 the work was continued by Wim Klever. Now it can be consulted on-line as the Kennisbank Filosofie Nederland (KFN).
This database contains 36,000 records about philosophy and philosophers in the Netherlands and Dutch speaking Belgium.
External links
http://www.kb.nl/kfn
http://users.belgacom.net/gc681999/OpenParadigma.htm
Philosophical literature
|
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204897
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Heinrich%20von%20G%C3%B6rtz
|
Georg Heinrich von Görtz
|
Georg Heinrich von Görtz, Baron of Schlitz (1668 – 19 February 1719), diplomat in Swedish service, was born in Holstein and educated at Jena.
Career
He entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII of Sweden's sister, became very influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles XII's stay at Altranstädt (1706–1707), he tried to divert the king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Görtz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tönning to the Swedes. Görtz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the refusal of Charles XII to save the rest of his German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Görtz first suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in Saint Petersburg with that object.
Görtz was also prominently involved in negotiating the terms of Stenbock's surrender in the Siege of Tönning, 1713.
Charles XII
On the arrival of Charles XII from Turkey at Stralsund in 1714, Görtz was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Görtz, himself a man of uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy - Charles's own opinion, in fact.
Swedish plenipotentiary
Görtz’s position, however, was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish subject - finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of instructions. He was just the man for the time and his approach was revolutionary. His chief financial action was to debase the currency by issuing copper tokens, intended to be redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of his that Charles XII flung upon the market too great an amount of this money for Görtz to deal with. By the end of 1718 it seemed as if Görtz’s system could not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for Charles XII's tyranny as well as for his own. Görtz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden’s numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power.
Downfall
It is often said that in pursuit of his "system" Görtz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the Congress of Åland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his stubbornly optimistic master. Simultaneously, Görtz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the Whigs in England; but all his combinations collapsed with the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish nation instantly fell upon Görtz. After a trial before a special commission, in which he was not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials, he was condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Though some historians argue that Görtz deserved his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism," his death is considered by other historians to be a judicial murder, and some historians even regard him as a political martyr.
References
1668 births
1719 deaths
People from the Duchy of Holstein
German diplomats
Swedish diplomats
University of Jena alumni
People executed by Sweden by decapitation
18th-century executions by Sweden
Executed German people
Executed people from Schleswig-Holstein
|
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] |
204899
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorat%20Plateau
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Khorat Plateau
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The Khorat Plateau () is a plateau in the northeastern Thai region of Isan. The plateau forms a natural region, named after the short form of Nakhon Ratchasima, a historical barrier controlling access to and from the area.
Geography
The average elevation is and it covers an area of about . The saucer-shaped plateau is divided by a range of hills called the Phu Phan Mountains into two basins: the northern Sakhon Nakhon Basin, and the southern Khorat Basin. The plateau tilts from its northwestern corner where it is about above sea level to the southeast where the elevation is only about . Except for a few hills in the northeastern corner, the region is primarily gently undulating land, most of it varying in elevation from , tilting from the Phetchabun Mountains in the west down toward the Mekong River. The plateau is drained by the Mun and Chi Rivers, tributaries to the Mekong that forms the northeastern boundary of the area. It is separated from central Thailand by the Phetchabun Mountains and the Dong Phaya Yen Mountains in the west, the Sankamphaeng Range in the southwest and by the Dângrêk Mountains in the south, all of which historically made access to the plateau difficult.
These mountains together with the Truong Son Range in the northeast catch a lot of the rainfall, so the southwest monsoon has much lower intensity than in other regions—the mean annual rainfall in Nakhon Ratchasima is about , compared with in central Thailand. The difference between the dry and wet seasons is much greater, which makes the area less optimal for rice. The portion known as Tung Kula Rong Hai was once exceptionally arid.
Geology
The plateau uplifted from an extensive plain composed of remnants of the Cimmerian microcontinent, and terranes such as the Shan–Thai Terrane, either late in the Pleistocene or early in the Holocene Epoch, approximately Year 1 of the Holocene calendar. Much of the surface of the plateau was once classified as laterite, and layers that can easily be cut into brick-shaped blocks are still so called, but the classification of soils as various types of oxisols is more useful for agriculture. Oxisols of the type called rhodic ferralsols, or Yasothon soils, formed under humid tropical conditions in the early Tertiary. When portions of the plain uplifted as a plateau, these relict soils, characterized by a bright red color, wound up on uplands in a great semicircle around the southern rim. These soils overlie associated gravel horizons cleared of sand by field termites, in a prolonged and still on-going process of bioturbation. Xanthic ferralsols of the Khorat and Ubon Series, characterized by a pale yellow to brown color, developed in midlands in processes still under investigation, as are those forming lowland soils resembling European brown soils.
Archaeology
Many prehistoric Thailand sites are found on the plateau, with some bronze relics of the Dong Son culture having been discovered. The World Heritage Ban Chiang archaeological site, discovered in 1966, yielded evidence of bronze making beginning c. 2000 BCE, but lacking evidence of weaponry so often associated with the Bronze Age in Europe and the rest of the world. The site appears to have once been part of a broader culture, until abandoned c. 200 CE, not to be resettled until the early-19th century. None Nok Tha in the Phu Wiang District of Khon Kaen yielded evidence of an Iron Age settlement dating from about 1420 to 50 BCE.
The region was once under the suzerainty of the Dvaravati Kingdom, and later under the Khmer Empire. It is dotted with the ruins of Khmer rest houses positioned about apart, a comfortable day's walk, along the Khmer highways. These were not just places of repose, but also were hospices and libraries, and typically included a baray (pond).
Archaeologist Charles Higham stated, "...we remain largely unaware of the relationships between sites and the presence or otherwise of states on the Khorat plateau" during the 7th to 11th centuries. Muang Sema and Muang Fa Daet are notable though for their religious structures, including sema stones at Muang Fa Daet.
History
There is a paucity of information from the centuries known as the Post-Angkor Period, but the plateau seems to have been largely depopulated following this period and a long series of droughts during 13th—15th centuries. The Lao settlements were found only along the banks of the Mekong River and in the wetter northern areas such as Nong Bua Lamphu, Loei, Nong Khai, with most of the population inhabiting the wetter left banks. This began to change when the golden age of Lao prosperity and cultural achievements under King Sourignavôngsa ( Suriyawongsa, ) (1637-1694) ended with a successional dispute, with his grandsons, with Siamese intervention, carving out their separate kingdoms in 1707. From its ashes arose the kingdoms of Louang Phrabang, Vientiane and later in 1713, the Champasak. The arid hinterlands, deforested and depopulated after a series of droughts likely led to the collapse of the Khmer Empire, was only occupied by small groups of Austroasiatic peoples and scattered outposts of Lao mueang in the far north. In 1718, the first Lao muang in the Chi valley—and in fact anywhere in the interior of the Khorat Plateau—was founded at Suwannaphum District, in present-day Roi Et Province, by an official in the service of King Nokasad of the Kingdom of Champasak.
See also
Bai sema
History of Isan
References
External links
Khorat Plateau: A selection of articles related to Khorat Plateau from Global Oneness.
Global Species: Northern Khorat Plateau moist deciduous forests
WWF: Southeastern Asia: Northeastern Thailand, extending into Laos
Khorat
Isan
Natural regions
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204900
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Edelfelt
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Albert Edelfelt
|
Albert Gustaf Aristides Edelfelt (21 July 1854 – 18 August 1905) was a Finnish painter noted for his naturalistic style and Realist approach to art. He lived in the Grand Duchy of Finland and made Finnish culture visible abroad, before Finland gained full independence.
Biography
Edelfelt was born 1854 in Porvoo, son of Swedish-speaking Finns Carl Albert Edelfelt (1818–1869), an architect, and Alexandra Edelfelt, née Brandt (1833–1901). His father died when he was still young, and his mother had to raise him and his younger siblings alone compounded by financial difficulties. He was very close with his mother throughout his life.
He began his formal studies of art in 1869 at the Drawing School of the Finnish Art Society and continued as a student of Adolf von Becker (1871–73). He studied history painting at the Antwerp Academy of Art (1873–74) before becoming a pupil of Jean-Léon Gérôme at the École Nationale des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1874–78). He sent his mother hundreds of letters when he was away. In Paris, he shared a studio with the American Julian Alden Weir, who introduced him to John Singer Sargent. Later he studied at Saint Petersburg (1881–82). He had romantic relationships with numerous women, including Antonia Bonjean and Virginie in Paris. He married Baroness Anna Elise "Ellan" de la Chapelle in 1888, and the same year they had one child, Erik. They had known each other since childhood, but their marriage didn't have a lot of warmth. The death of his mother in 1901 affected him greatly. He died abruptly from heart failure in 1905, shocking many, and his funeral was attended by a great number of people. Erik also died not long afterwards in 1910.
Career
Paris, history painting and portraiture
Edelfelt was one of the first Finnish artists to achieve international fame. He enjoyed considerable success in Paris, including a gold medal at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1889. He focused on history painting in the beginning of his career. He also painted portraits of many famous people, including Louis Pasteur, Aino Ackté, and the Russian imperial family.
Realism
In Finland, he was one of the founders of the Realist art movement. He influenced several younger Finnish painters and helped fellow Finnish artists such as Akseli Gallen-Kallela and Gunnar Berndtson to make their breakthrough in Paris. Among his students was Léon Bakst. The painting of Louis Pasteur won him the Legion of Honour in 1886 at the exhibition at the Paris Salon.
Plein air painting
Edelfelt spent time in Antwerp and Paris, where he learned the practice of En Plein Air. He had come to a liking of En Plein Air because it was noticeable that illustrating contemporary reality rather than historical scenes were becoming popular during that time period. He took on a focus towards naturalism and his paintings gave a direct reflection of the Finnish countryside and lifestyle.
Espagnolisme, Runeberg and religious art
In April and May 1881, Edelfelt spent five weeks in Spain where he learned many new aspects of art and studied the phenomenon called espagnolisme, which is the impact that Spanish influences had on France starting from the 1830s. In Spain, Edelfelt also gained a deeper grasp of Gypsy culture and Orientalism which had always interested him. His most important picture from Granada is Gitana Dancing I, a genre portrait of a dancing Gypsy girl.
Edelfelt admired the poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg, who was a friend of the family. The company of Runeberg had a lasting impact on Edelfelt, who from time to time turned to scenes from Finnish history in his paintings. Edelfelt went on to illustrate Runeberg's epic poem The Tales of Ensign Stål.
Edelfelt also later dabbled in religious painting, and in his 1890 Christ and Mary Magdalene he set a biblical scene in the Finnish landscape, influenced by Kanteletar.
Pasteur
Edelfelt's history also includes his involvement and friendship with renowned French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist, Louis Pasteur. One of Edelfelt's most important paintings is his portrait of Pasteur. Edelfelt's letters to his mother, only recently discovered and written in Swedish, reveals evidence of Edelfelt's knowledge and work with Pasteur, stating Pasteur's working habits and traits of personality.
This 1885 portrait of Louis Pasteur is the most reproduced image of the scientist himself. It is the most popular portrait because it is unlike the many other typical portraits of Pasteur, where he is sitting plainly. This specific portrait paints him engaging with his environment and using the modern-day tools of his time. Pasteur actively involved himself, working with Edelfelt, in the creation of this painting. This portrait painted by Edelfelt impacted Pasteur's career as it painted his reputation towards the public positively. Depicting Pasteur in the midst of his works brought out aspects of himself and his work that the public would not see otherwise.
Legacy
Albert Edelfelt is considered one of the most notable artists of the Golden Age of Finnish Art. A museum under his name operates in Porvoo. He was selected as the main motif on a Finnish commemorative coin celebrating the 150th anniversary of his birth, the €100 Albert Edelfelt and painting commemorative coin, minted in 2004. The reverse shows an embossed face of the artist.
See also
Golden Age of Finnish Art
Art in Finland
References
External links
Albert Edelfelt Studio Museum (Artist's Studio Museum Network)
1854 births
1905 deaths
People from Porvoo
People from Uusimaa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Swedish-speaking Finns
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
19th-century Finnish painters
19th-century male artists
Finnish male painters
Burials at Hietaniemi Cemetery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic%20refrigeration
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Magnetic refrigeration
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Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling technology based on the magnetocaloric effect. This technique can be used to attain extremely low temperatures, as well as the ranges used in common refrigerators.
A magnetocaloric material warms up when a magnetic field is applied. The warming is due to changes in the internal state of the material releasing heat. When the magnetic field is removed, the material returns to its original state, reabsorbing the heat, and returning to original temperature. To achieve refrigeration, the material is allowed to radiate away its heat while in the magnetized hot state. Removing the magnetisim, the material then cools to below its original temperature.
The effect was first observed in 1881 by a German physicist Emil Warburg, followed by French physicist P. Weiss and Swiss physicist A. Piccard in 1917. The fundamental principle was suggested by P. Debye (1926) and W. Giauque (1927). The first working magnetic refrigerators were constructed by several groups beginning in 1933. Magnetic refrigeration was the first method developed for cooling below about 0.3 K (a temperature attainable by pumping on vapors).
The magnetocaloric effect
The magnetocaloric effect (MCE, from magnet and calorie) is a magneto-thermodynamic phenomenon in which a temperature change of a suitable material is caused by exposing the material to a changing magnetic field. This is also known by low temperature physicists as adiabatic demagnetization. In that part of the refrigeration process, a decrease in the strength of an externally applied magnetic field allows the magnetic domains of a magnetocaloric material to become disoriented from the magnetic field by the agitating action of the thermal energy (phonons) present in the material. If the material is isolated so that no energy is allowed to (re)migrate into the material during this time, (i.e., an adiabatic process) the temperature drops as the domains absorb the thermal energy to perform their reorientation. The randomization of the domains occurs in a similar fashion to the randomization at the curie temperature of a ferromagnetic material, except that magnetic dipoles overcome a decreasing external magnetic field while energy remains constant, instead of magnetic domains being disrupted from internal ferromagnetism as energy is added.
One of the most notable examples of the magnetocaloric effect is in the chemical element gadolinium and some of its alloys. Gadolinium's temperature increases when it enters certain magnetic fields. When it leaves the magnetic field, the temperature drops. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium alloy (). Praseodymium alloyed with nickel () has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it has allowed scientists to approach to within one millikelvin, one thousandth of a degree of absolute zero.
Equation
The magnetocaloric effect can be quantified with the following equation:
where is the adiabatic change in temperature of the magnetic system around temperature T, H is the applied external magnetic field, C is the heat capacity of the working magnet (refrigerant) and M is the magnetization of the refrigerant.
From the equation we can see that the magnetocaloric effect can be enhanced by:
a large field variation
a magnet material with a small heat capacity
a magnet with large changes in net magnetization vs. temperature, at constant magnetic field
The adiabatic change in temperature, , can be seen to be related to the magnet's change in magnetic entropy () since
This implies that the absolute change in the magnet's entropy determines the possible magnitude of the adiabatic temperature change under a thermodynamic cycle of magnetic field variation. T
Thermodynamic cycle
The cycle is performed as a refrigeration cycle that is analogous to the Carnot refrigeration cycle, but with increases and decreases in magnetic field strength instead of increases and decreases in pressure. It can be described at a starting point whereby the chosen working substance is introduced into a magnetic field, i.e., the magnetic flux density is increased. The working material is the refrigerant, and starts in thermal equilibrium with the refrigerated environment.
Adiabatic magnetization: A magnetocaloric substance is placed in an insulated environment. The increasing external magnetic field (+H) causes the magnetic dipoles of the atoms to align, thereby decreasing the material's magnetic entropy and heat capacity. Since overall energy is not lost (yet) and therefore total entropy is not reduced (according to thermodynamic laws), the net result is that the substance is heated (T + ΔTad).
Isomagnetic enthalpic transfer: This added heat can then be removed (-Q) by a fluid or gas — gaseous or liquid helium, for example. The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the dipoles from reabsorbing the heat. Once sufficiently cooled, the magnetocaloric substance and the coolant are separated (H=0).
Adiabatic demagnetization: The substance is returned to another adiabatic (insulated) condition so the total entropy remains constant. However, this time the magnetic field is decreased, the thermal energy causes the magnetic moments to overcome the field, and thus the sample cools, i.e., an adiabatic temperature change. Energy (and entropy) transfers from thermal entropy to magnetic entropy, measuring the disorder of the magnetic dipoles.
Isomagnetic entropic transfer: The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the material from reheating. The material is placed in thermal contact with the environment to be refrigerated. Because the working material is cooler than the refrigerated environment (by design), heat energy migrates into the working material (+Q).
Once the refrigerant and refrigerated environment are in thermal equilibrium, the cycle can restart.
Applied technique
The basic operating principle of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is the use of a strong magnetic field to control the entropy of a sample of material, often called the "refrigerant". Magnetic field constrains the orientation of magnetic dipoles in the refrigerant. The stronger the magnetic field, the more aligned the dipoles are, corresponding to lower entropy and heat capacity because the material has (effectively) lost some of its internal degrees of freedom. If the refrigerant is kept at a constant temperature through thermal contact with a heat sink (usually liquid helium) while the magnetic field is switched on, the refrigerant must lose some energy because it is equilibrated with the heat sink. When the magnetic field is subsequently switched off, the heat capacity of the refrigerant rises again because the degrees of freedom associated with orientation of the dipoles are once again liberated, pulling their share of equipartitioned energy from the motion of the molecules, thereby lowering the overall temperature of a system with decreased energy. Since the system is now insulated when the magnetic field is switched off, the process is adiabatic, i.e., the system can no longer exchange energy with its surroundings (the heat sink), and its temperature decreases below its initial value, that of the heat sink.
The operation of a standard ADR proceeds roughly as follows. First, a strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. The heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off, increasing the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink. In practice, the magnetic field is decreased slowly in order to provide continuous cooling and keep the sample at an approximately constant low temperature. Once the field falls to zero or to some low limiting value determined by the properties of the refrigerant, the cooling power of the ADR vanishes, and heat leaks will cause the refrigerant to warm up.
Working materials
The magnetocaloric effect (MCE) is an intrinsic property of a magnetic solid. This thermal response of a solid to the application or removal of magnetic fields is maximized when the solid is near its magnetic ordering temperature. Thus, the materials considered for magnetic refrigeration devices should be magnetic materials with a magnetic phase transition temperature near the temperature region of interest. For refrigerators that could be used in the home, this temperature is room temperature. The temperature change can be further increased when the order-parameter of the phase transition changes strongly within the temperature range of interest.
The magnitudes of the magnetic entropy and the adiabatic temperature changes are strongly dependent upon the magnetic ordering process. The magnitude is generally small in antiferromagnets, ferrimagnets and spin glass systems but can be much larger for ferromagnets that undergo a magnetic phase transition. First order phase transitions are characterized by a discontinuity in the magnetization changes with temperature, resulting in a latent heat. Second order phase transitions do not have this latent heat associated with the phase transition.
In the late 1990s Pecharksy and Gschneidner reported a magnetic entropy change in that was about 50% larger than that reported for Gd metal, which had the largest known magnetic entropy change at the time. This giant magnetocaloric effect (GMCE) occurred at 270 K, which is lower than that of Gd (294 K). Since the MCE occurs below room temperature these materials would not be suitable for refrigerators operating at room temperature. Since then other alloys have also demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect. These include , and alloys,. Gadolinium and its alloys undergo second-order phase transitions that have no magnetic or thermal hysteresis. However, the use of rare earth elements makes these materials very expensive.
Current research has been used to describe alloys with a significant magnetocaloric effect in terms of a thermodynamic system. Literature says that Gd5(Si2Ge2) for example may be described as a thermodynamic system provided it satisfies the condition of being “a quantity of matter or region in space chosen for study”. Such systems have become relevant to modern research in thermodynamics because they serve as plausible materials for the creation of high performance thermoelectric materials.
(X = Ga, Co, In, Al, Sb) Heusler alloys are also promising candidates for magnetic cooling applications because they have Curie temperatures near room temperature and, depending on composition, can have martensitic phase transformations near room temperature. These materials exhibit the magnetic shape memory effect and can also be used as actuators, energy harvesting devices, and sensors. When the martensitic transformation temperature and the Curie temperature are the same (based on composition) the magnitude of the magnetic entropy change is the largest. In February 2014, GE announced the development of a functional Ni-Mn-based magnetic refrigerator.
The development of this technology is very material-dependent and will likely not replace vapor-compression refrigeration without significantly improved materials that are cheap, abundant, and exhibit much larger magnetocaloric effects over a larger range of temperatures. Such materials need to show significant temperature changes under a field of two tesla or less, so that permanent magnets can be used for the production of the magnetic field.
Paramagnetic salts
The original proposed refrigerant was a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms.
In a paramagnetic salt ADR, the heat sink is usually provided by a pumped (about 1.2 K) or (about 0.3 K) cryostat. An easily attainable 1 T magnetic field is generally required for initial magnetization. The minimum temperature attainable is determined by the self-magnetization tendencies of the refrigerant salt, but temperatures from 1 to 100 mK are accessible. Dilution refrigerators had for many years supplanted paramagnetic salt ADRs, but interest in space-based and simple to use lab-ADRs has remained, due to the complexity and unreliability of the dilution refrigerator.
Eventually paramagnetic salts become either diamagnetic or ferromagnetic, limiting the lowest temperature that can be reached using this method.
Nuclear demagnetization
One variant of adiabatic demagnetization that continues to find substantial research application is nuclear demagnetization refrigeration (NDR). NDR follows the same principles, but in this case the cooling power arises from the magnetic dipoles of the nuclei of the refrigerant atoms, rather than their electron configurations. Since these dipoles are of much smaller magnitude, they are less prone to self-alignment and have lower intrinsic minimum fields. This allows NDR to cool the nuclear spin system to very low temperatures, often 1 µK or below. Unfortunately, the small magnitudes of nuclear magnetic dipoles also makes them less inclined to align to external fields. Magnetic fields of 3 teslas or greater are often needed for the initial magnetization step of NDR.
In NDR systems, the initial heat sink must sit at very low temperatures (10–100 mK). This precooling is often provided by the mixing chamber of a dilution refrigerator or a paramagnetic salt.
Commercial development
Research and a demonstration proof of concept device in 2001 succeeded in applying commercial-grade materials and permanent magnets at room temperatures to construct a magnetocaloric refrigerator
On August 20, 2007, the Risø National Laboratory (Denmark) at the Technical University of Denmark, claimed to have reached a milestone in their magnetic cooling research when they reported a temperature span of 8.7 K. They hoped to introduce the first commercial applications of the technology by 2010.
As of 2013 this technology had proven commercially viable only for ultra-low temperature cryogenic applications available for decades. Magnetocaloric refrigeration systems are composed of pumps, motors, secondary fluids, heat exchangers of different types, magnets and magnetic materials. These processes are greatly affected by irreversibilities and should be adequately considered.
At year-end, Cooltech Applications announced that its first commercial refrigeration equipment would enter the market in 2014. Cooltech Applications launched their first commercially available magnetic refrigeration system on 20 June 2016.
At the 2015 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, a consortium of Haier, Astronautics Corporation of America and BASF presented the first cooling appliance. BASF claim of their technology a 35% improvement over using compressors
In November 2015, at the Medica 2015 fair, Cooltech Applications presented, in collaboration with Kirsch medical GmbH, the world's first magnetocaloric medical cabinet. One year later, in September 2016, at the 7th International Conference on Magnetic Refrigeration at Room Temperature (Thermag VII) held in Torino, Italy, Cooltech Applications presented the world's first magnetocaloric frozen heat exchanger.
In 2017, at the World's No 1 Retail Trade Fair, Cooltech Applications presented a fully functional 500 liters' magnetocaloric cooled cabinet with a 30 kg load and an air temperature inside the cabinet of +2 °C. That proved that magnetic refrigeration is a mature technology, capable of replacing the classic refrigeration solutions.
One year later, in September 2018, at the 8th International Conference on Magnetic Refrigeration at Room Temperature (Thermag VIII), Cooltech Applications presented a paper on a magnetocaloric prototype designed as a 15 kW proof-of-concept unit. This has been considered by the community as the largest magnetocaloric prototype ever created.
At the same conference, it has been announced that, due to financial issues, Cooltech Applications declared bankruptcy (Dr. Sergiu Lionte's speech at Thermag VIII conference as invited speaker ). Later on, Ubiblue company is formed by some of the ancient Cooltech Application's team members.
In 2019, at the 5th Delft Days Conference on Magnetocalorics, Ubiblue presented their last prototype. Later, the magnetocaloric community acknowledged that Ubiblue had the most developed magnetocalorics prototypes.
Thermal and magnetic hysteresis problems remain to be solved for first-order phase transition materials that exhibit the GMCE.
One potential application is in spacecraft.
Vapor-compression refrigeration units typically achieve performance coefficients of 60% of that of a theoretical ideal Carnot cycle, much higher than current MR technology. Small domestic refrigerators are however much less efficient.
In 2014 giant anisotropic behaviour of the magnetocaloric effect was found in at 10 K. The anisotropy of the
magnetic entropy change gives rise to a large rotating MCE offering the possibility to build simplified, compact, and efficient magnetic cooling systems by rotating it in a constant magnetic field.
In 2015 Aprea et al. presented a new refrigeration concept, GeoThermag, which is a combination of magnetic refrigeration technology with that of low-temperature geothermal energy. To demonstrate the applicability of the GeoThermag technology, they developed a pilot system that consists of a 100-m deep geothermal probe; inside the probe, water flows and is used directly as a regenerating fluid for a magnetic refrigerator operating with gadolinium. The GeoThermag system showed the ability to produce cold water even at 281.8 K in the presence of a heat load of 60 W. In addition, the system has shown the existence of an optimal frequency f AMR, 0.26 Hz, for which it was possible to produce cold water at 287.9 K with a thermal load equal to 190 W with a COP of 2.20. Observing the temperature of the cold water that was obtained in the tests, the GeoThermag system showed a good ability to feed the cooling radiant floors and a reduced capacity for feeding the fan coil systems.
History
The effect was discovered first observed by a German physicist Warburg (1881) Subsequently by French physicist P. Weiss and Swiss physicist A. Piccard in 1917.
Major advances first appeared in the late 1920s when cooling via adiabatic demagnetization was independently proposed by Peter Debye in 1926 and chemistry Nobel Laureate William F. Giauque in 1927.
It was first demonstrated experimentally by Giauque and his colleague D. P. MacDougall in 1933 for cryogenic purposes when they reached 0.25 K. Between 1933 and 1997, advances in MCE cooling occurred.
In 1997, the first near room-temperature proof of concept magnetic refrigerator was demonstrated by Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. by the Iowa State University at Ames Laboratory. This event attracted interest from scientists and companies worldwide who started developing new kinds of room temperature materials and magnetic refrigerator designs.
A major breakthrough came 2002 when a group at the University of Amsterdam demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect in MnFe(P,As) alloys that are based on abundant materials.
Refrigerators based on the magnetocaloric effect have been demonstrated in laboratories, using magnetic fields starting at 0.6 T up to 10 T. Magnetic fields above 2 T are difficult to produce with permanent magnets and are produced by a superconducting magnet (1 T is about 20.000 times the Earth's magnetic field).
Room temperature devices
Recent research has focused on near room temperature. Constructed examples of room temperature magnetic refrigerators include:
In one example, Prof. Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. unveiled a proof of concept magnetic refrigerator near room temperature on February 20, 1997. He also announced the discovery of the GMCE in on June 9, 1997. Since then, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles have been written describing materials exhibiting magnetocaloric effects.
See also
Cryostat
Electrocaloric effect
Thermoacoustic refrigeration
Dilution refrigerator
Curie's law
Coefficient of performance (COP)
References
Further reading
Lounasmaa, Experimental Principles and Methods Below 1 K, Academic Press (1974).
Richardson and Smith, Experimental Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics at Low Temperatures, Addison Wesley (1988).
External links
NASA – How does an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator Work ?
What is magnetocaloric effect and what materials exhibit this effect the most?
Magnetocaloric materials keep fridges cool by C. Wu
Ames Laboratory news release, May 25, 1999, Work begins on prototype magnetic-refrigeration unit.
Magnetic refrigerator successfully tested
Refrigeration Systems Terry Heppenstall's notes, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (November 2000)
XRS Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator
Executive Summary: A Continuous Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (.doc format) (Google cache)
Origin and tuning of the magnetocaloric effect in the magnetic refrigerant Mn1.1Fe0.9(P0.8Ge0.2)
Magnetic technology revolutionizes refrigeration]
Evaluation of thermodynamic quantities in magnetic refrigeration
All About Magnetic Refrigeration - SIRACH
Thermodynamic cycles
Cooling technology
Statistical mechanics
Condensed matter physics
Magnetism
Emerging technologies
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204915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bies
|
Bies
|
Bies or bes ( ) is an evil spirit or demon in Slavic mythology. The word is synonymous with chort.
After the acceptance of Christianity the bies became identified with the devil, corresponding to the being referred to in Ancient Greek, as either daimon (δαίμων), daimónion or pneuma (πνεῦμα). For example, biesy (Russian plural of bies) is used in the standard Russian translation of Mark 5:12, where we have the devils entering the swine in KJV. Compare to Ukrainian bisy or bisytysia (to go mad). In Slovenian (bes), Croatian (bijes) and Serbian (bes) the word means "rage", "fury".
Examples in culture
In Alexander Pushkin's The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda, there is a scene in which Balda has to force the "devils" (черти, Chorti) of the sea to pay an ancient rent, and interacts with an "Old Bies" who is their leader and his grandson. It is also the title of his poem "Demons" (Бесы).
The original Russian title of Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel known in its English translation as The Possessed is Besy (Бесы) (Russian plural of bes), i.e., more literally, The Evil Spirits.
Fyodor Sologub’s most famous novel was Мелкий бес (The Petty Demon, 1907)
The Black Tapes
In the 2015 videogame The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, fiends (called bies in the original version) are massive horned predators who possess hypnotic and self-healing powers.
In Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić's Croatian Tales of Long Ago "bjesovi" appear.
References
≃
Slavic demons
Devils
|
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] |
204917
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Blake
|
Peter Blake
|
Peter Blake may refer to:
Peter Blake (actor) (1948–2018), Scottish-born actor
Peter Blake (artist) (born 1932), British pop artist
Peter Blake (cricketer) (1927–2011), English cricketer
Peter Blake (sailor) (1948–2001), New Zealand yachtsman
Peter Blake (writer), co-executive producer of the television series House
Peter Blake (Days of Our Lives), a character in the American soap opera Days of Our Lives
Peter A. Blake (born 1957), American public administrator
|
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] |
204919
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Dukes
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Alan Dukes
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Alan Dukes (born 20 April 1945) is an Irish former Fine Gael politician who served as Minister for Transport, Energy and Communication from 1996 to 1997, Leader of the Opposition and Leader of Fine Gael from 1987 to 1990, Minister for Justice from 1986 to 1987, Minister for Finance from 1982 to 1986 and Minister for Agriculture from 1981 to 1982. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1981 to 2002.
He held several major government positions, and is one of the few TDs to be appointed a Minister on their first day in the Dáil. He lost his seat in the 2002 general election. He was subsequently appointed Director General of the Institute of International and European Affairs, and chairman of Anglo Irish Bank.
Early life
Dukes was born in Drimnagh, Dublin in 1945. His father, James F. Dukes, was originally from Tralee, County Kerry, and was a senior civil servant, the founding chairman and chief executive of the Higher Education Authority, while his mother was from near Ballina, County Mayo.
The Dukes family originally came from the north of England. His grandfather had served with the Royal Engineers in World War I, and settled in Cork and then Kerry afterwards where he worked with the Post Office creating Ireland's telephone network. He also developed a keen interest in the Irish language.
He was educated by the Christian Brothers at Coláiste Mhuire, Parnell Square, Dublin, and was offered a number of scholarships for third level on graduation, including one for the Irish language. His interest in the Irish language continues to this day, and he regularly appears on Irish language television programmes.
On leaving school he attended University College Dublin, where he captained the fencing team to its first ever Intervarsity title.
Career before politics
He became an economist with the Irish Farmers' Association (IFA) in Dublin in 1969. After Ireland joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, he moved to Brussels where he was part of the IFA delegation. In this role he was influential in framing Ireland's contribution to the Common Agricultural Policy.
He moved on from this IFA position to become chief of staff to Ireland's EEC commissioner Dick Burke, a former Fine Gael politician.
Early political career
In the 1979 European Parliament elections, Dukes stood as a Fine Gael candidate in the Munster constituency. He had strong support among the farming community, but the entry of farming leader T. J. Maher as an independent candidate hurt his chances of election. Maher subsequently topped the poll.
He stood again for Fine Gael at the 1981 general election in the expanded Kildare constituency, where he won a seat in the 22nd Dáil. On his first day in the Dáil, he was appointed Minister for Agriculture by the Taoiseach, Garret FitzGerald, becoming one of only nine TDs (as of 2021) so appointed. He was to represent Kildare for 21 years.
This minority Fine Gael–Labour Party coalition government collapsed in February 1982 over controversial budget reforms, but returned to power with a working majority in December 1982. Dukes was again called into the cabinet becoming Minister for Finance less than two years into his Dáil career.
He faced a difficult task as Finance Minister at this time. Ireland was heavily in debt while unemployment and emigration were high. Many of Fine Gael's ambitious plans had to be deferred while the Fine Gael–Labour Party coalition disagreed on how to solve the economic crisis. The challenge of addressing the national finances was made difficult by electoral arithmetic and a lack of support from the opposition Fianna Fáil party led by Charles Haughey.
Dukes remained in the Department of Finance until a reshuffle in February 1986 when he was appointed the Minister for Justice.
Leadership of Fine Gael
Fine Gael failed to be returned to government at the 1987 general election and lost 19 of its 70 seats, mostly to the new Progressive Democrats party. Outgoing Taoiseach and leader Garret FitzGerald stepped down and Dukes was elected leader of Fine Gael. He also became Leader of the Opposition.
This was a difficult time for the country. Haughey's Fianna Fáil had fought the election on promises to increase spending and government services, and by attacking the cutbacks favoured by Fine Gael. The campaign produced the famous Fianna Fáil slogan that cuts in health spending affect the "old, the sick and the handicapped". However, on taking office, the new Taoiseach and his Finance Minister Ray MacSharry immediately drew up a drastic set of cutbacks including a spate of ward and hospital closures. This presented a political opportunity for the opposition to attack the government.
However, while addressing a meeting of the Tallaght Chamber of Commerce, Dukes announced that:
This bold step became known as the Tallaght Strategy, and represented a major departure in Irish politics whereby Fine Gael would vote with the minority Fianna Fáil Government if it adopted Fine Gael's economic policies for revitalising the economy.
The consequences of this statement were huge. The Haughey government was able to take severe corrective steps to restructure the economy and lay the foundations for the economic boom of the nineties. However, at a snap election in 1989 Dukes did not receive electoral credit for his statesmanlike approach, and the party only made minor gains, reclaiming five of the lost seats. The outcome was the first ever coalition government for Fianna Fáil, whose junior partner was the Progressive Democrats led by former Fianna Fáil TD Desmond O'Malley.
1990 presidential election and loss of the leadership
Dukes received little credit for the Tallaght Strategy, and the party's failure to make significant gains in 1989 left some Fine Gael TDs with a desire for a change at the top of the party. Their opportunity came in the wake of the historic 1990 presidential election. Fine Gael chose Austin Currie TD as their candidate. He had been a leading member of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association movement in the 1960s, and had been a member of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) before moving south.
Initially, Fianna Fáil's Brian Lenihan Snr was favourite to win. However, after several controversies arose, relating to the brief Fianna Fáil administration of 1982, and Lenihan's dismissal as Minister for Defence midway through the campaign, the Labour Party's Mary Robinson emerged victorious. To many in Fine Gael, the humiliation of finishing third was too much to bear and a campaign was launched against Dukes' leadership. He was subsequently replaced as party leader by John Bruton.
Rainbow Coalition
Bruton brought him back to the front bench in September 1992, shortly before the general election in November. In February 1994, Dukes became involved in a failed attempt to oust Bruton as leader, and subsequently resigned from the front bench. Bruton became Taoiseach in December 1994, but Dukes failed to secure a ministerial position despite being one of the most high-profile and experienced members of Fine Gael.
Two years later, in December 1996, Dukes returned as Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications following the resignation of Michael Lowry. At the 1997 general election, Dukes topped the poll in the new Kildare South constituency, but Fine Gael lost power. He became Chairman of the Irish Council of the European Movement; in this position he was very involved in advising many of the Eastern European countries who were then applying to join the European Union.
In 2001, he backed Michael Noonan in his successful bid to become leader of Fine Gael.
Career post-politics
After 21 years, Dukes lost his Dáil seat at the 2002 general election. This contest saw many high-profile casualties for Fine Gael, including Deputy Leader Jim Mitchell, former deputy leader Nora Owen and others. Many local commentators felt that Dukes' loss was down to a lack of attention to local issues, for he was highly involved in European projects and had always enjoyed a national profile.
He retired from frontline politics that year, and was subsequently appointed Director General of the Institute of International and European Affairs. He remained active within Fine Gael, and served a number of terms as the party's vice-president.
From 2001 to 2011, Dukes was President of the Alliance Francaise de Dublin, and in June 2004, the French Government appointed him Officier de la Legion d'Honneur.
In April 2004, Dukes was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland.
In December 2008, he was appointed by Finance Minister Brian Lenihan Jnr as a public interest director on the board of Anglo Irish Bank. The bank was subsequently nationalised, and he served on the board until the IBRC was liquidated in 2013.
In January 2009, Dukes was a judge on the TG4 reality TV show Feirm Factor.
From 2011 to 2013, Dukes served as chairman of the Board of Irish Guide Dogs for the Blind. In 2011, Dukes founded the think tank Asia Matters, which inked an agreement with the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries in May 2019.
Dukes receives annual pension payments of €129,805.
Personal life
Dukes has lived in Kildare town since first being elected to represent the Kildare constituency in 1981. His wife Fionnuala is a former local politician and served as a member of Kildare County Council from 1999 until her retirement in 2009. She served as the county's mayor in 2006–07, becoming only the second woman to hold the position in the body's hundred-year history. They have two daughters.
References
1945 births
Living people
Alumni of University College Dublin
Fine Gael TDs
Institute of European Affairs
Irish people of English descent
Leaders of Fine Gael
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 25th Dáil
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 27th Dáil
Members of the 28th Dáil
Ministers for Agriculture (Ireland)
Ministers for Finance (Ireland)
Ministers for Justice (Ireland)
Ministers for Transport (Ireland)
Politicians from County Dublin
Politicians from County Kildare
Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland)
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204922
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Poll
|
Red Poll
|
The Red Poll is a dual-purpose breed of cattle developed in England in the latter half of the 19th century. The Red Poll is a cross of the Norfolk Red beef cattle and Suffolk Dun dairy cattle breeds.
Description and uses
The cattle are red, preferably deep red with white only on the tail switch and udder. They are naturally polled (without horns). Red Poll cattle are mainly used as beef suckler cows, although a few dairy herds are found in England, as well as in the United States in the state of Texas. They are known for easy calving and successfully rearing a high proportion of their calves. They are sometimes used for conservation grazing.
History
The Red Poll originated as a cross between Norfolk Red beef-type cattle and Suffolk Dun dairy cattle (both of these breeds are now extinct). The parent Suffolk breed was also polled; Norfolk cattle had horns, but the gene for horns was bred out in the Red Poll breed. The original name for the breed, adopted in 1863, was Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled cattle, and the first standard description was agreed upon in 1873, with the first herd book compiled in 1874. The breed became the Red Polled in 1883, and then Red Poll in 1888, when the Red Poll Cattle Society was formed.
They are considered to be part of the "Suffolk Trinity" with Suffolk sheep and Suffolk Punch heavy horses.
Red Poll cattle were imported into Australia in the mid-19th century, where they are now used for beef production. The first identified breeder in Australia was James Graves, around 1870, although there is evidence of earlier herds.
These cattle were introduced to the United States by G. P. Taber of New York State in 1873. The Red Poll dual-purpose bred is the oldest registered breed in the United States and is celebrating its 125th year. The breed is beginning to be reintroduced into some areas of the western US for the small ranch and backyard beef and 4H, as their docile nature makes them easy for the novice to handle. In 2010, Pfizer Animal Health testing of a Red Polled Bull Power Hawk tested a minus -2.58 MVP showing he was in top 1% for feed efficiency indicating Red Poll Cattle have genetics to improve feed efficiency that is important to profitability and grass finishing ability in a moderate frame. Feed testing of steers averaged 2.88 weaning to slaughter for a small Washington feeder in 2012.
The Red Poll breed was first brought to New Zealand in 1898, but a herd was not established until 1917, when 22 animals were transported from Australia.
See also
Senepol, a hybrid with African N'Dama cattle originating in the Virgin Islands
Sussex cattle, a horned red beef breed from the south east of England
North Devon cattle, a horned red beef breed from Devon, Somerset and Cornwall
Lincoln Red, a horned red breed from Lincolnshire
References
External links
Red Poll Cattle Society website (United Kingdom)
List of Red Poll breed associations
Cattle breeds originating in England
Conservation Priority Breeds of the Livestock Conservancy
Norfolk
Suffolk
Cattle breeds
Beef cattle breeds
Red cattle
|
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204924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone-curlew
|
Stone-curlew
|
The stone-curlews, also known as dikkops or thick-knees, consist of 10 species within the family Burhinidae, and are found throughout the tropical and temperate parts of the world, with two or more species occurring in some areas of Africa, Asia, and Australia. Despite the group being classified as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semiarid habitats.
Taxonomy
The family Burhinidae was introduced in 1912 for the stone-curlews by Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews. The family contains two genera: Burhinus and Esacus. The name Burhinus combines the Ancient Greek bous meaning "ox" and rhis, rhinos meaning "nose" (or "bill").
Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the family Burhinidae is sister to a clade containing the sheathbills in the family Chionidae and the Magellanic plover in its own family Scolopacidae. The stone-curlews are not closely related to the curlews, genus Numenius, that belong to the sandpiper family Scolopacidae.
Description
They are medium to large birds with strong black or yellow black bills, large yellow eyes—which give them a reptilian appearance—and cryptic plumage. The names thick-knee and stone-curlew are both in common use. The term stone-curlew owes its origin to the broad similarities with true curlews. Thick-knee refers to the prominent joints in the long yellow or greenish legs and apparently originated with a name coined in 1776 for B. oedicnemus, the Eurasian stone-curlew.
Obviously the heel (ankle) and the knee are confused here.
Behaviour
They are largely nocturnal, particularly when singing their loud, wailing songs, which are reminiscent of true curlews. Their diet consists mainly of insects and other invertebrates. Larger species also take lizards and even small mammals. Most species are sedentary, but the Eurasian stone-curlew is a summer migrant in the temperate European part of its range, wintering in Africa.
Species
A fossil genus Wilaru, described from the Late Oligocene to the Early Miocene of Australia, was originally classified as a stone-curlew, but was subsequently argued to be a member of the extinct anseriform family Presbyornithidae, instead. The living species are:
References
External links
Thick-knees videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Extant Cenozoic first appearances
Taxa named by Gregory Mathews
|
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204933
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels%20Ferguson
|
Niels Ferguson
|
Niels T. Ferguson (born 10 December 1965, Eindhoven) is a Dutch cryptographer and consultant who currently works for Microsoft. He has worked with others, including Bruce Schneier, designing cryptographic algorithms, testing algorithms and protocols, and writing papers and books. Among the designs Ferguson has contributed to is the AES finalist block cipher algorithm Twofish as well as the stream cipher Helix and the Skein hash function.
In 1999, Niels Ferguson, together with Bruce Schneier and John Kelsey, developed the Yarrow algorithm random number generator. Yarrow was later further developed by Niels Ferguson and Bruce Schneier into the Fortuna random number generator.
In 2001, he claimed to have broken the HDCP system that is incorporated into HD DVD and Blu-ray Discs players, similar to the DVDs Content Scramble System, but has not published his research, citing the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, which would make such publication illegal.
In 2006 he published a paper covering some of his work around Bitlocker full disk encryption at Microsoft.
At the CRYPTO 2007 conference rump session, Dan Shumow and Niels Ferguson presented an informal paper describing a potential kleptographic backdoor in the NIST specified Dual_EC_DRBG cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator. The kleptographic backdoor was confirmed to be real in 2013 as part of the Edward Snowden leaks.
References
External links
Short bio at the ORD-GROUP site.
Ferguson chooses not to publish his results because he fears being prosecuted under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
On the Possibility of a Back Door in the NIST SP800-90 Dual Ec Prng
Dutch cryptographers
Modern cryptographers
Microsoft employees
People from Eindhoven
1965 births
Living people
|
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204935
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20New%20York%20%28ACR-2%29
|
USS New York (ACR-2)
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USS New York (ACR-2/CA-2) was the second United States Navy armored cruiser so designated; the first was the ill-fated , which was soon redesignated a second-class battleship. Due to the unusually protracted construction of Maine, New York was actually the first armored cruiser to enter U.S. Navy service. The fourth Navy ship to be named in honor of the state of New York, she was later renamed Saratoga and then Rochester. With six 8-inch guns, she was the most heavily armed cruiser in the US Navy when commissioned.
She was laid down on 19 September 1890 by William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, launched on 2 December 1891, and sponsored by Miss Helen Clifford Page, the daughter of J. Seaver Page, the secretary of the Union League Club of New York. New York was commissioned 1 August 1893, Captain John Philip in command.
Design and construction
Acquisition
In 1888, during the 50th Congress, 3.5 million dollars was authorized for the construction of New York. She was designed by the Navy Department. On 28 August 1890, the contract for her construction was awarded to William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia.
Armament
New York as built had a main armament of six /35 caliber Mark 3 breech-loading rifles in two twin Mark 5 turrets fore and aft and two open single Mark 3 and/or Mark 4 mounts on the sides. Secondary armament was twelve /40 caliber rapid fire (RF) guns in sponsons along the sides, along with eight 6-pounder () Driggs-Schroeder RF guns, four 1-pounder () Driggs-Schroeder RF guns, and three torpedo tubes for Howell torpedoes.
Armor
New York, as an armored cruiser, had good protection. The belt was thick and deep, of which was below the waterline. It was long, protecting only the machinery spaces. The armored deck was thick on its sloped sides and in the flat middle amidships, but only at the ends. The original gun turrets had up to of armor, on barbettes with protecting the ammunition hoists. The open single 8-inch mounts on the sides were much less protected by partial barbettes, while the secondary gun sponsons had . The conning tower was thick. During construction, the builder reconfigured New Yorks boiler arrangement for tighter compartmentation.
Comparison with foreign ships
New York was a fast armored cruiser with a powerful armament, but the belt armor was thin compared to the first generation of older, slow armored cruisers, which tended to have a thick but narrow-coverage (waterline) belt. The thin side armor was comparable to that of the groundbreaking French armored cruiser , but the French ship's armor covered a much greater area of the hull. New York had a greater number of heavy guns than the French cruiser. The hull protection of both ships was superior to their main rival, the British , which were the largest cruisers at the time but had no side armor. The British had switched from building armored cruisers to favor very large, first class protected cruisers, and stuck with this policy until after the .
Engineering
Along with having competitive weapons and armor, New York was intended to be relatively fast at , and achieved on trials. This was achieved with four triple-expansion engines totaling , two clutched in tandem on each of two shafts. The forward engines could be disconnected to conserve fuel at an economical cruising speed. In the US Navy, only shared this feature, which proved something of a liability in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba when both ships were operating with the forward engines disconnected and did not have time to reconnect them, thus limiting their speed. As built, eight coal-fired cylindrical boilers supplied steam to the engines.
Refits
New York underwent an extensive refit in 1905–1909. Her main guns and turrets were replaced with four /45 caliber Mark 6 guns in new Mark 12 turrets. The new turrets and barbettes had improved Krupp cemented armor, with up to on the turrets and - on the barbettes. The side 8-inch guns and torpedo tubes were removed. The secondary armament was replaced as well, with ten /50 caliber Mark 6 guns and eight /50 caliber guns. She also received twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers and the funnels were extended to improve natural draft through the boilers. A further refit during World War I removed two 5-inch and all of the 3-inch single-purpose guns, adding two /50 anti-aircraft guns. In 1927 her boilers were reduced to four with two funnels, leaving only .
Service
In July 1893 New York performed sea trials using the Five Fathom Bank light station and the North East End light station as markers, achieving with at a displacement of 8,480 tons; at the time she was said to be the fastest armored vessel in the world. On 1 August 1893 New York was commissioned at Philadelphia, Captain John Philip in command. After completion, she was accepted by the Navy and left Cramp shipyards on 6 September for the League Island Navy Yard to load stores.
USS New York (ACR-2)
Assigned to the South Atlantic Squadron, New York departed New York Harbor on 27 December 1893 for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Arriving at Taipu Beach in January 1894, she remained there until heading home on 23 March, via Nicaragua and the West Indies. Transferred to the North Atlantic Squadron in August, the cruiser returned to West Indian waters for winter exercises and was commended for her aid during a fire that threatened to destroy Port of Spain, Trinidad.
Returning to New York, New York joined the European Squadron in 1895, and steamed to Kiel, where she represented the United States at the opening of the Kiel Canal. Rejoining the North Atlantic Squadron, she operated off Fort Monroe, Charleston, and New York through 1897.
New York departed Fort Monroe on 17 January 1898 for Key West. After the declaration of the Spanish–American War in April, she steamed to Cuba and bombarded the defenses at Matanzas before joining other American ships at San Juan in May, seeking the Spanish squadron. Not finding them, they bombarded Castillo San Felipe del Morro at San Juan (12 May) before withdrawing. New York then became flagship of Admiral William T. Sampson's squadron, as the American commander planned the campaign against Santiago. However, New York was taking Admiral Sampson to a meeting with Major General William Shafter when the Spanish fleet made its breakout attempt, some of her engines were disconnected which reduced her speed, and she was only able to participate in the closing phases of the battle. The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July resulted in complete destruction of the Spanish fleet.
The cruiser sailed for New York on 14 August to receive a warrior's welcome. The next year, she cruised with various state naval militia units to Cuba, Bermuda, Honduras, and Venezuela, and conducted summer tactical operations off New England. On 17 October 1899, she departed New York for Central and South American trouble areas.
New York was transferred to the Asiatic Fleet in 1901, sailing via Gibraltar, Port Said, and Singapore to Cavite, where she became flagship of the Asiatic Fleet. She steamed to Yokohama in July for the unveiling of the memorial to the Perry Expedition. In October, New York visited Samar and other Philippine islands as part of the campaign against insurgents. On 13 March 1902, she got underway for Hong Kong and other Chinese ports. In September, she visited Vladivostok, Russia, then stopped at Korea before returning to San Francisco in November. In 1903, New York transferred to the Pacific Squadron and cruised with it to Ampala, Honduras in February to protect American interests during turbulence there. Steaming via Magdalena Bay, Mexico, the cruiser returned to San Francisco, for a reception for President Theodore Roosevelt. In 1904, New York joined squadron cruises off Panama and Peru, then reported to Puget Sound in June where she became flagship of the Pacific Squadron. In September, she enforced the President's neutrality order during the Russo-Japanese War. New York was at Valparaíso, Chile from 21 December 1904 – 4 January 1905, then sailed to Boston and decommissioned on 31 March for modernization.
Recommissioning on 15 May 1909, New York departed Boston on 25 June for Algiers and Naples, where she joined the Armored Cruiser Squadron on 10 July and sailed with it for home on the 23rd. Operating out of Atlantic and gulf ports for the next year, she went into fleet reserve on 31 December.
In full commission again on 1 April 1910, New York steamed via Gibraltar, Port Said, and Singapore to join the Asiatic Fleet at Manila on 6 August. While stationed in Asiatic waters, she cruised among the Philippine Islands, and ports in China and Japan.
She was renamed Saratoga on 16 February 1911, to make the name "New York" available for the battleship .
USS Saratoga (ACR-2)
The cruiser spent the next five years in the Far East. Steaming to Bremerton, Washington on 6 February 1916, Saratoga went into reduced commission with the Pacific Reserve Fleet.
As the U.S. drew closer to participation in World War I, Saratoga commissioned in full on 23 April 1917, and joined the Pacific Patrol Force on 7 June. In September, Saratoga steamed to Mexico to counter enemy activity in the troubled country. At Ensenada, Saratoga intercepted and helped to capture a merchantman transporting 32 German agents and several Americans seeking to avoid the draft law.
In November, she transited the Panama Canal, joining the Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet at Hampton Roads. Here, she was renamed Rochester on 1 December 1917, to free the name "Saratoga" for the new battlecruiser (eventually the aircraft carrier CV-3).
USS Rochester (ACR-2/CA-2)
After escorting a convoy to France, Rochester commenced target and defense instruction of armed guard crews, in Chesapeake Bay. In March 1918, she resumed escorting convoys and continued the duty through the end of the war, with Alfred Walton Hinds in command. On her third trip, with convoy HM-58, a U-boat torpedoed the British steamer Atlantian on 9 June. Rochester sped to her aid, but Atlantian sank within five minutes. Other ships closed in, but the submarine was not seen again.
After the Armistice, Rochester served as a transport bringing troops home. In May 1919, she served as flagship of the destroyer squadron guarding the transatlantic flight of the Navy's Curtiss NC seaplanes. On 17 July 1920 she was redesignated with the hull number CA-2 (heavy cruiser) as part of a fleetwide redesignation plan. In the early 1920s, she operated along the east coast.
Early in 1923, Rochester got underway for Guantánamo Bay to begin another period of service off the coasts of Central and South America.
In the summer of 1925, Rochester carried General John J. Pershing and other members of his commission to Arica, Chile to arbitrate the Tacna-Arica dispute and remained there for the rest of the year. In September 1926, she helped bring peace to turbulent Nicaragua and from time to time returned there in the late 1920s.
After a quiet 1927, Rochester relieved the gunboat at Corinto in 1928 as Expeditionary Forces directed efforts against bandits in the area. Disturbances boiled over in Haiti in 1929, and opposition to the government was strong; inasmuch as American lives were endangered, Rochester transported the 1st Marine Brigade to Port-au-Prince and Cap-Haïtien. In 1930, Rochester transported the five-man commission sent to investigate the situation. In March, she returned to the area to embark marines and transported them to the U.S. She aided Continental Oil tanker H. W. Bruce, damaged in a collision on 24 May.
In 1931, an earthquake rocked Nicaragua. Rochester was the first relief ship to arrive on the scene and ferried refugees from the area. Bandits took advantage of the chaotic conditions and Rochester steamed to the area to counter their activities.
Rochester departed Balboa on 25 February 1932 for service in the Pacific Fleet. She arrived Shanghai on 27 April, to join the fleet in the Yangtze River in June and remained there until steaming to Cavite, to decommission on 29 April 1933. She would remain moored at the Olongapo Shipyard at Subic Bay for the next eight years. Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 28 October 1938, and she was scuttled on 24 December 1941 to prevent her capture by the Japanese.
Awards
Sampson Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal
Philippine Campaign Medal
Victory Medal with "ARMED GUARD" and "ESCORT" clasps
Second Nicaraguan Campaign Medal
Yangtze Service Medal
Dive site Rochester
Since being scuttled, Rochester has been transformed into an artificial reef and is popular with divers given its somewhat shallow depth of , ease of access, and proximity to other wrecks. There is minimal damage to the vessel when it was scuttled and the wreck is relatively intact.
From 11 July 1967 to 20 July 1967 Harbor Clearance Team Four and Yard Light Lift Craft Two attached to Harbor Clearance Unit One conducted demolition as the U.S. Navy decided to try to flatten the wreck. Large charges were used on the central hull and these resulted in extensive damage around the midsection. This lowered the wreck; enabling deep draft tankers to approach and moor to the POL buoy planned for Subic Bay (at the same time, Navy divers helped to clear more than 650 wrecks from Manila bay).
References
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Burr, Lawrence. US Cruisers 1883–1904: The Birth of the Steel Navy. Oxford : Osprey, 2008.
Davis, Charles W. "Subic Bay: Travel & Diving Guide." Manila, Philippines, Encyclea Publications, 2007.
Jane's Fighting Ships 1905/6. Arco Publishing Company, Inc. (reprint) 1970.
Munsey's Magazine Volume XXVI. October 1901, to March 1902. Page 880 (article with paragraph on the Driggs-Schroeder six pounder guns used on USS Olympia, USS Brooklyn, and USS New York)
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
External links
USS New York (CA-2) photos at Naval History & Heritage Command
Armored cruisers of the United States Navy
Philippine–American War ships of the United States
Spanish–American War cruisers of the United States
Banana Wars ships of the United States
World War I cruisers of the United States
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1891 ships
United States Navy New York (state)-related ships
Underwater diving sites in the Philippines
Maritime incidents in December 1941
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204939
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyburn
|
Weyburn
|
Weyburn is the eleventh-largest city in Saskatchewan, Canada. The city has a population of 10,870. It is on the Souris River southeast of the provincial capital of Regina and is north from the North Dakota border in the United States. The name is reputedly a corruption of the Scottish "wee burn," referring to a small creek. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Weyburn No. 67.
History
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) reached the future site of Weyburn from Brandon, Manitoba in 1892 and the Soo Line from North Portal on the US border in 1893. A post office opened in 1895 and a land office in 1899 in anticipation of the land rush which soon ensued. In 1899, Knox Presbyterian Church was founded with its building constructed in 1906 in the high-pitched gable roof and arches, standing as a testimony to the faith and optimism in the Weyburn area. Weyburn was legally constituted a village in 1900, a town in 1903 and finally as a city in 1913. From 1910 until 1931 the Weyburn Security Bank was headquartered in the city.
Weyburn had since become an important railroad town in Saskatchewan – the Pasqua branch of the Souris, Arcola, Weyburn, Regina CPR branch; Portal Section of the CPR / Soo Line; Moose Jaw, Weyburn, Shaunavon, Lethbridge CPR section; the Brandon, Marfield, Carlyle, Lampman, Radville, Willow Bunch section of the Canadian National Railway (CNR); and the Regina, Weyburn, Radville, Estevan, Northgate CNR section have all run through Weyburn.
Weyburn was previously home to the Souris Valley Mental Health Hospital, which was closed as a health care facility and sold in 2006, and demolished in 2009. When the mental hospital opened in 1921, it was the largest building in the British Commonwealth and was considered to be on the cutting edge of experimental treatments for people with mental disabilities. The facility had a reputation of leading the way in therapeutic programming. At its peak, the facility was home to approximately 2,500 patients. The history of the facility is explored in the documentary Weyburn: An Archaeology of Madness.
Demographics
The city had a population of 10,484 in 2011, having increased from 9,433 in 2006.
Geography and climate
Weyburn is situated near the upper delta of the long Souris River. The Souris River continues southeast through North Dakota eventually meeting the Assiniboine River in Manitoba. In the 1800s this area was known as an extension of the Greater Yellow Grass Marsh. Extensive flood control programs have created reservoirs, parks and waterfowl centres along the Souris River. Between 1988 and 1995, the Rafferty-Alameda Project was constructed to alleviate spring flooding problems created by the Souris River.
Climate
Weyburn has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) typical of Southern Saskatchewan.
Economy
Weyburn is the largest inland grain gathering point in Canada. Well over half a million tons of grain pass through the Weyburn terminals each year. Oil and gas exploration make up the other major component of the economy.
Culture
The Soo Line Historical Museum (c. 1910) is a Municipal Heritage Property under Saskatchewan's Heritage Property Act.
Weyburn is also home to the world's first curling museum, the Turner Curling Museum.
Education
Elementary and secondary
The public school system, South East Cornerstone School Division No. 209, operates the following schools.
Assiniboia Park Elementary School
Haig School
Queen Elizabeth School
Souris School
Weyburn Comprehensive High School
It also operated Weyburn Junior High School from 1966 to 2016, which was closed in favour of relocating students to Weyburn Comprehensive High School.
Haig School, Queen Elizabeth School, and Souris School are being closed in favour of relocating students to Legacy Park Elementary School in September 2021.
The separate school system, Holy Family Roman Catholic Separate School Division No. 140, operates St. Michael School.
Post-secondary
Southeast College offers technical, trade and non-degree programs, as well as distance learning from the University of Regina and University of Saskatchewan.
Other
The Weyburn Public Library is a branch of the Southeast Regional Library system.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Weyburn is at the junction of highways 13, 35 and 39. The Weyburn Airport is northeast of the city.
Utilities
Electricity is provided by SaskPower and natural gas is provided by SaskEnergy. The city maintains its own water treatment plant and waste management system. Telephone and internet services are provided by both SaskTel and Access Communications.
Health care
The Weyburn General Hospital is operated by the SunCountry Health Region.
Public safety
The Weyburn Police Service and local RCMP detachment provide law enforcement for the city. Fire protection services are provided by the Weyburn Fire Department.
Sports and recreation
Weyburn is the home of the Weyburn Red Wings of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League (SJHL) and the Weyburn Beavers of the Western Canadian Baseball League, a collegiate summer baseball league in Canada's prairie provinces. In addition, Weyburn is home to Saskatchewan's largest amateur wrestling club.
Local media
Golden West Broadcasting operates three radio stations that serve Weyburn and the surrounding area; full service country station CFSL 1190 AM, hot adult contemporary station CKRC-FM 103.5, and mainstream rock station CHWY-FM 106.7. All three stations, and the cluster's news website Discover Weyburn, are based out of studios on 305 Souris Avenue in downtown Weyburn.
Glacier Media Group publishes three newspapers for Weyburn and area: the Weyburn Review, Weyburn and Area Booster, and Weyburn This Week.
Notable people
Tenille Arts - country music singer
Pat Binns - former premier of Prince Edward Island
Neil Cameron - politician, academic, journalist
Graham DeLaet - professional golfer
Shirley Douglas - actress
Tommy Douglas - politician, recipient of The Greatest Canadian award in 2004
Eric Grimson - former Chancellor of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Brett Jones - professional football player
Guy Gavriel Kay - writer
Trenna Keating – actress
Brendon LaBatte - professional football player
W. O. Mitchell - writer
Humphry Osmond - medical researcher
Derrick Pouliot - professional hockey player
John Saywell - Canadian historian
Dave "Tiger" Williams - former professional hockey player
References
External links
1898 establishments in Saskatchewan
Cities in Saskatchewan
Division No. 2, Saskatchewan
Populated places established in 1898
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.%20Brent%20Bozell%20III
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L. Brent Bozell III
|
Leo Brent Bozell III (; born July 14, 1955) is an American conservative writer and activist who founded the Media Research Center, Parents Television Council, and CNSNews.com. Bozell served as president of the Parents Television Council from 1995 to 2006. In addition, Bozell serves on the board for the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights and has served on the board of directors in the American Conservative Union. Bozell's column is also nationally syndicated by Creator's Syndicate where his work appears in publications such as the Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Washington Times, New York Post, Los Angeles Times, and National Review.
Career
Early career
After receiving his Bachelor of Arts in History from the University of Dallas in 1977, Bozell joined the National Conservative Political Action Committee, at which he worked with the group's founder, Terry Dolan, to help elect conservative politicians. Bozell headed NCPAC for a brief period after Dolan's death in 1986. He resigned in 1987 to start the Media Research Center.
Media Research Center
Before founding the MRC in 1987, Bozell ran the National Conservative Foundation project at the Conservative Political Action Conference, in which he moderated debates between Sam Donaldson and Bob Novak over media bias.
In 1998 Bozell founded the Conservative Communications Center. The MRC also established CNSNews.com, the site of the Conservative News Service later becoming known as Cybercast News Service, as well as numerous other MRC-affiliated web sites. On its website, MRC publishes Bozell's syndicated columns, the CyberAlert daily newsletter documenting perceived media bias, and research reports on the news media.
On his MSNBC news program Countdown With Keith Olbermann, Olbermann named Bozell the "Worst Person in the World" several times in 2006 and 2007. In response, Bozell posted a press release on the MRC site claiming that Countdown "Preaches Hate Speech." In October 2006, Bozell founded the Culture and Media Institute, an MRC branch whose mission is to reduce what he claims to be a negative liberal influence on American morality, culture, and religious liberty.
Parents Television Council
Bozell founded the Parents Television Council in 1995, initially as a branch of the Media Research Center focusing on entertainment television, after he felt that decency was declining on prime-time television programming. The PTC's stated mission is "to promote and restore responsibility and decency to the entertainment industry."
In 2001, the PTC also organized a mass advertiser boycott of the professional wrestling television program WWF SmackDown! on UPN over claims that the program caused the deaths of young children whom the PTC felt were influenced by watching the program; in particular, the PTC cited the case of Lionel Tate, a 12-year-old Ft. Lauderdale boy who was arrested after murdering a 6-year-old girl. Tate's attorney claimed that he had accidentally killed her when he botched a professional wrestling move. It was ultimately determined that the girl had been stomped to death and had not been the victim of any professional wrestling move, and that the children were watching cartoons at the time the murder occurred. The World Wrestling Federation (now World Wrestling Entertainment, or WWE) would ultimately sue Bozell and the PTC for libel. PTC's insurance carrier eventually chose to settle the case and pay $3.5 million to the WWE and PTC issued a public apology. The same year, Bozell and the PTC appeared as the subject of criticism in the book Foley Is Good: And The Real World Is Faker Than Wrestling, a memoir published by former WWF wrestler Mick Foley, who questioned the reasoning and research that the PTC used to associate SmackDown with violent acts performed by children watching the program.
During his tenure as PTC president, Bozell led many campaigns derived from the PTC's stated mission to restore its view of decency to the entertainment industry. Among the numerous campaigns Bozell has led with the PTC have included campaigning to bring back the "Family Viewing Hour," filing complaints with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) over what he sees as indecent programs, and boycotting corporations that advertise on television programs that the organization believes to be offensive. Among the PTC's largest campaigns for FCC complaints was over the 2004 Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show in which co-performer Justin Timberlake caused the brief exposure of lead performer Janet Jackson's right breast, leading the CBS network that carried the halftime show to be fined $550,000 by the FCC. PTC filed about 65,000 complaints, and Bozell was concerned that many children were likely to have been watching the halftime show, as he told the Associated Press a few days after the show. Excluding Super Bowl-related complaints, the vast majority of FCC complaints from 2003 to 2006 were found to have come from PTC.
Responding to two columns that Bozell wrote in early 2005, San Francisco Chronicle columnist Neva Chonin claimed that Bozell wanted to forbid offensive television programs not only from his views, but "from all our living rooms, choice and taste be damned." Television Watch, an organization promoting parental responsibility for children's television viewing over increased government regulation of television, used a short clip of Bozell saying that the V-Chip is ineffective at blocking inappropriate television programs in a promotional video released in July 2005 intended to claim that special-interest groups like Bozell's own Parents Television Council are using such propaganda to justify increased government control of the public airwaves.
Board membership
Bozell is currently on the board of advisers of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights, a group against the defamation of Catholics in America. He has also served on the board of directors for the American Conservative Union. After resigning as president of the Parents Television Council, he remains an adviser to that organization.
CNSNews.com
CNSNews.com was founded by Bozell on June 16, 1998, under the name Conservative News Service and the domain conservativenews.org. According to Bozell, the website would "report news ... not touched by traditional television news outlets" and "fill the growing news void left by the establishment media in their chase for the sensational." On its first day of operation, the website had 61,000 hits.
As of 2007, CNSNews.com described its role as serving an audience which puts a "higher premium on balance than spin." CNSNews.com's editor from 1998 to 2005 was Scott Hogenson, who took a leave of absence in November 2003 to serve as the director of radio and online operations for the Republican National Committee in the 2004 election cycle. Hogenson's leave of absence expired on November 15, 2004 when he returned to CNSNews.com in his original capacity. CNSNews.com has staff in Washington, D.C., London, Jerusalem and the Pacific Rim. David Thibault became top editor in April 2005 when Hogenson accepted an appointment as a deputy assistant secretary for the U.S. Department of Public Affairs. Thibault died on July 20, 2007 from leukemia.
Views and controversies
Bozell has been accused of making racially insensitive statements. On December 22, 2011, he appeared on Fox News Channel and asked how the media would react if someone said that President Barack Obama looks like a "skinny ghetto crackhead", after being showed a clip in which a MSNBC journalist said a Republican candidate looks like a "car bomber".
In February 2013, Bozell accused Karl Rove's American Crossroads group of waging "gang warfare" on the Tea Party movement. Rove's organization had launched a new SuperPAC called the Conservative Victory Fund, which aimed to help moderate Republicans survive primary challenges from candidates who Rove believed had narrower appeal in a general election. After Jonathan Collegio of American Crossroads responded to the charge by calling Bozell a "hater," some Tea Party leaders called for Collegio to be fired.
Bozell was an outspoken critic of Donald Trump during the 2016 Republican primaries, describing him as "the greatest charlatan of them all," a "huckster," and a "shameless self-promoter". He said, "God help this country if this man were president." After Trump clinched the Republican nomination, Bozell attacked the media for their "hatred" of Trump. Politico noted, "The paradox here is that Bozell was once more antagonistic toward the president than any journalist." Bozell singled out Jake Tapper of CNN for being "one of the worst offenders" in coverage of Trump, however several senior MRC staff told Politico that they considered Tapper a model of fairness.
In August 2020, Bozell told a meeting of conservatives and donors that leftists planned to "steal this election." On January 6, after a mob of Trump supporters (including Bozell's son, L. Brent Bozell IV) stormed the Capitol, Bozell appeared on Fox Business Network and denounced the riot, stating that "[y]ou can never countenance police being attacked. You cannot countenance our national Capitol being breached like this. I think it is absolutely wrong.” Bozell also said that "Look, they are furious that they believe this election was stolen. I agree with them."
Written works
His articles have appeared in such publications as The Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Washington Times, New York Post, Los Angeles Times, USA Today, and National Review. He is a nationally syndicated columnist with the Creators Syndicate, and he is a regular on television, including the Fox News Channel program Hannity. He writes two weekly columns, one covering the news media published Tuesdays or Wednesdays, and one covering entertainment published Thursdays or Fridays on the sites for the Media Research Center and Cybercast News Service. Other web sites such as Townhall.com, Catholic Exchange, Yahoo! News, and others have published these columns. For some time, the Parents Television Council web site carried Bozell's entertainment column, but as of late January 2008, the PTC no longer hosts the columns, instead linking to the columns hosted on the MRC web site. In his columns, Bozell has written about such topics as media consolidation, indecency, media violence, and anti-Christian sentiment.
Ghostwriting
In February 2014, former employees of the Media Research Center alleged that Bozell does not write his own columns or books and instead has used a ghostwriter, Tim Graham, for years. One newspaper, the Quad-City Times (Iowa) dropped Bozell's column as a result, saying, "Bozell may have been comfortable representing others' work as his own. We're not. The latest disclosure convinces us Bozell has no place on our print or web pages."
Bibliography
To date, Bozell or Graham have written five books published under Bozell's name covering the news media:
And That's the Way it Isn't: A Reference Guide to Media Bias (with Brent Baker) (1990)
Weapons of Mass Distortion: The Coming Meltdown of the Liberal Media (2004)
Whitewash: How The News Media Are Paving Hillary Clinton's Path to the Presidency (with Tim Graham) (2007)
Collusion: How The Media Stole The 2012 Election And How To Stop Them From Doing It In 2016 (with Tim Graham) (2013)
Unmasked: Big Media's War on Trump (with Tim Graham) (2019)
Personal life
Bozell was among ten children of L. Brent Bozell Jr. and Patricia Buckley Bozell. He is a nephew of conservative writer and National Review founder William F. Buckley Jr. and former United States Senator James L. Buckley, through Buckley's sister, Patricia, and is a grandson of William Frank Buckley Sr. He is of Irish, German, and English descent. Bozell's father was William Buckley Jr.'s debating partner at Yale University and a conservative activist; his grandfather Leo B. Bozell was a co-founder of Bozell Worldwide. Bozell III is married with five children and ten grandchildren. Previously a resident of Alexandria, Virginia, he moved to nearby Great Falls in 2012. Bozell has stated that contrary to speculation by some in the media, he is not officially a Republican.
Bozell was named the 1998 Alumnus of the Year at the University of Dallas. That same year, Grove City College named Bozell a Pew Memorial Lecturer.
Bozell's son David is director of ForAmerica, a prominent conservative group active on social media. Another son, Leo Brent Bozell IV, was a participant in the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, for which he was charged with obstructing an official proceeding, entering a restricted building, and disorderly conduct.
References
External links
CNSNews
Media Research Center
Townhall.com profile
L. Brent Bozell III Features at Creators Syndicate
Media Transparency profile
1955 births
Living people
American political activists
American columnists
American political writers
American people of Irish descent
Catholics from Virginia
Buckley family
Grove City College
National Review people
Writers from Alexandria, Virginia
Journalists from Washington, D.C.
University of Dallas alumni
Human Events people
American media critics
21st-century American male writers
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
People from Great Falls, Virginia
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
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204943
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20Research%20Center
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Media Research Center
|
The Media Research Center (MRC), formerly known as Culture and Media Institute (CMI), is an American content analysis group based in Reston, Virginia, founded in 1987 by L. Brent Bozell III. It characterizes itself as a media watchdog.
The CMI promoted its mission through editorials and research reports. Among its viewpoints include opposition to the Fairness Doctrine and same-sex marriage. In March 2007, the CMI published a "National Cultural Values Survey" and concluded from its results that most Americans perceived a decline in moral values. One study released by the organization in June 2007 claimed that television viewing time correlated directly with one's liberal attitude, even possibly degrading to moral attitudes.
The nonprofit MRC has received financial support primarily from Robert Mercer, but with several other conservative-leaning sources, including the Bradley, Scaife, Olin, Castle Rock, Carthage and JM foundations, as well as ExxonMobil. It has been described as "one of the most active and best-funded, and yet least known" arms of the modern conservative movement in the United States. The organization rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, and criticizes media coverage that reflects the scientific consensus.
Foundation and funding
Bozell and a group of other American conservatives founded the MRC on October 1, 1987. Their initial budget was at US$339,000. Prior to founding the MRC, Bozell was the chairman of the National Conservative Political Action Committee; he resigned from that position a month before establishing MRC. A wealthy donor whose name has been kept anonymous helped set up the MRC. The MRC has received financial support from several foundations, including the Bradley, Scaife, Olin, Castle Rock, Carthage and JM foundations. It also receives funding from ExxonMobil. The organization rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, and criticizes media coverage that reflects the scientific consensus. The MRC received over $10 million from Robert Mercer, its largest single donor.
As of its 2015 reporting to the IRS, the organization had revenue approaching $15 million and expenses in excess of $15 million. Bozell's salary during this year was reported as close to $345,000, with nearly $122,000 in additional compensation from the organization and related organizations.
Projects
Reports on the media
From 1996 to 2009, the MRC published a daily online newsletter called CyberAlert written by editor Brent Baker. Each issue profiles what he perceives as biased or inaccurate reports about politics in the American news media. Prior to CyberAlert, MRC published such reports in a monthly newsletter titled MediaWatch, from 1988 to 1999. Media analysis articles are now under the banner BiasAlert. Media analysis director Tim Graham and research director Rich Noyes regularly write Media Reality Check, another MRC publication documenting alleged liberal bias. Notable Quotables is its "collection of the most biased quotes from journalists". In Notable Quotables, editors give honors such as the "Linda Ellerbee Awards for Distinguished Reporting" based on the former CNN commentator, who Bozell considered "a liberal blowhard who has nothing to say". Other features on its website include the weekly syndicated news and entertainment columns written by founder Bozell.
MRC staff members have also written editorials and books about their findings of the media. Bozell has written three books about the news media: And That's the Way it Isn't: A Reference Guide to Media Bias (1990, with Brent Baker); Weapons of Mass Distortion: The Coming Meltdown of the Liberal Media (2004); and Whitewash: How The News Media Are Paving Hillary Clinton's Path to the Presidency (2007, with Tim Graham). Research director Rich Noyes has also co-authored several published books.
MRC Business
In 1992, the MRC created the Free Market Project to promote the culture of free enterprise and combat what it believes is media spin on business and economic news. That division recently changed its name to the Business & Media Institute (www.businessandmedia.org) and later to MRC Business and is now focused on "Advancing the culture of free enterprise in America." BMI's advisory board included such well-known individuals as economists Walter Williams and Bruce Bartlett, as well as former CNN anchor David Goodnow. BMI is led by career journalist Dan Gainor, a former managing editor at CQ.com, the website for Congressional Quarterly. It released a research report in June 2006 covering the portrayal of business on prime-time entertainment television during the May and November "sweeps" periods from 2005. The report concluded that the programs, among them the long-running NBC legal drama Law & Order, were biased against business. Another report of the BMI accused the networks of bias in favor of the Gardasil vaccine, a vaccine intended to prevent cervical cancer.
CNSNews.com
Bozell founded CNSNews.com (formerly Cybercast News Service) in 1998 to cover stories he believes are ignored by mainstream news organizations. CNSNews.com provides news articles for Townhall.com and other websites for a subscription fee. Its leadership consists of president Brent Bozell and editor Terry Jeffrey. Under editor David Thibault, CNSNews.com questioned the validity of the circumstances in which Democratic Rep. John Murtha received his Purple Hearts as a response to Murtha's criticisms of the U.S. War in Iraq. The Washington Post and Nancy Pelosi have commented that this approach is similar to the tactics of the Swift Vets and POWs for Truth, which opposed John Kerry's candidacy in the 2004 election.
NewsBusters
In the summer of 2005, Media Research Center launched NewsBusters, a website "dedicated to exposing & combating liberal media bias," in cooperation with Matthew Sheffield, a now-former conservative blogger (who now works at Salon.com) involved in the CBS Killian documents story. NewsBusters is styled as a rapid-response blog site that contains posts by MRC editors to selected stories in mass media. Although the site is advertised chiefly as a conservative site, it frequently defends Neoconservatives as well. Not only does the site highlight journalists it deems are liberally biased, but also non-journalists (writers, musicians, producers, scientists, etc.) who they perceive have liberal viewpoint.
MRC Culture
In October 2006, the MRC created the Culture and Media Institute, the mission of which is "to advance, preserve, and help restore America's culture, character, traditional values, and morals against the assault of the liberal media." Robert H. Knight was the institute's first director. MRC VP Dan Gainor is now in charge of that department. In 2018, the MRC started a new project in the Culture Department to monitor online censorship of conservatives called MRC TechWatch.
MRCTV
MRC sponsors MRCTV (formerly Eyeblast), a conservative-leaning YouTube-like video-hosting site.
CBS crime drama Cold Case
The CBS crime drama Cold Case has been twice criticized by the CMI for alleged anti-Christian prejudice in two episodes. In May 2008, CMI released another report, one that claimed a moral decline in "Dear Abby" columns.
The CMI website remained online through the end of 2010, before it was folded in the Media Research Center website in 2011. In November 2014, the MRC renamed the institute MRC Culture.
Viewpoints
In its mission to show that there is a "strident liberal bias" in the national news media, the Media Research Center frequently criticizes media reports for discussing the relevance of climate change to current extreme weather events. In September 2018, MRC criticized Katy Tur for reporting on the science connecting Hurricane Florence to climate change. In 2017, MRC sponsored a conference by the Heartland Institute, a climate change denial organization known for its effort to cast doubt about the scientific consensus on climate change, In November 2021, a study by the Center for Countering Digital Hate described Media Research Center as being among "ten fringe publishers" that together were responsible for nearly 70 percent of Facebook user interactions with content that denied climate change. Facebook disputed the study's methodology.
In 2002, MRC said CNN was "[Fidel] Castro's megaphone." In 1999, the MRC said that network news programs on ABC, CBS, and NBC largely ignored Chinese espionage in the United States during the Clinton administration.
In MRC reports released from 1993 to 1995, it was claimed that such programs made more references to religion each later year, most of which became more favorable. In 2003, the MRC urged advertisers to pull sponsorship from The Reagans, a miniseries about President Ronald Reagan to be shown on CBS. The network later moved the program to its co-owned premium cable network Showtime.
The MRC has been a critic of the video game industry, arguing that there is a link between violent videogames and real-world violence; in this capacity, they (along with the Parents Television Council, a subsidiary) were invited to President Donald Trump's 2018 summit on video games and gun violence.
MRC released a report in 2007 claiming that the network morning shows devoted more airtime to covering Democratic presidential candidates than Republican ones for the 2008 election. Producers for such shows criticized the MRC's methodology as flawed. During the 2008 US presidential election, MRC claimed that the vast majority of news stories about Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama had a positive slant. MRC president Bozell praised MSNBC for having David Gregory replace Chris Matthews and Keith Olbermann as political coverage anchor beginning September 8, 2008, but MSNBC president Phil Griffin disputed the statements by Bozell and others who have accused the network of liberal bias.
ThoughtCo has named MRC one of the top 15 conservatives to follow on Twitter.
Bozell was an outspoken critic of Donald Trump during the 2016 Republican primaries, describing him as "the greatest charlatan of them all", "a "huckster" and "shameless self-promoter". He said, "God help this country if this man were president." After Trump clinched the Republican nomination, Bozell attacked the media for their "hatred" of Trump. Politico noted, "The paradox here is that Bozell was once more antagonistic toward the president than any journalist." Bozell singled out Jake Tapper for being "one of the worst offenders" in coverage of Trump. However, several senior MRC staff told Politico that they considered Tapper a model of fairness, although even that viewpoint has since changed.
Criticism
Extra!, the magazine of the progressive media watch group FAIR, criticized the MRC in 1998 for selective use of evidence. MRC had said that there was more coverage of government death squads in right-wing El Salvador than in left-wing Nicaragua in the 1980s, when Amnesty International stated El Salvador was worse than Nicaragua when it came to extrajudicial killings. Extra! also likened a defunct MRC newsletter, TV etc., which tracked the off-screen political comments of actors, to "Red Channels, the McCarthy Era blacklisting journal."
Journalist Brian Montopoli of Columbia Journalism Review in 2005 labeled MRC "just one part of a wider movement by the far right to demonize corporate media", rather than "make the media better."
On December 22, 2011, Media Research Center president Bozell appeared on Fox News and suggested U.S. President Barack Obama looks like a "skinny ghetto crackhead".
The Media Research Center has also faced scrutiny over the group's $350,000 purchase in 2012 of a Pennsylvania house that a top executive had been trying to sell for several years.
In 2013, Media Research Center president Bozell appeared on Fox News to defend a Fox interview in which Fox journalists conducted almost no research into the background of Reza Aslan to prepare for its interview with him, and its putative biases.
Progressive media watchdog group Media Matters for America has repeatedly criticized the MRC, charging they view the media "through a funhouse mirror that renders everything--even the facts themselves--as manifestations of insidious bias".
When the Media Research Center bestowed an award named for William F. Buckley to Sean Hannity, neoconservative columnist for The New York Times, Bret Stephens, wrote an editorial in which he lamented, "And so we reach the Idiot stage of the conservative cycle, in which a Buckley Award for Sean Hannity suggests nothing ironic, much less Orwellian, to those bestowing it, applauding it, or even shrugging it off. The award itself is trivial, but it's a fresh reminder of who now holds the commanding heights of conservative life, and what it is that they think."
See also
Accuracy in Media
Media Matters for America
PR Watch
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
MRC's official blog, NewsBusters
CNSNews.com, MRC's news service
Business & Media Institute
TimesWatch, an MRC project dedicated to "documenting and exposing the liberal political agenda of The New York Times"
Culture and Media Institute
1987 establishments in Virginia
Climate change denial
Conservative organizations in the United States
Media analysis organizations and websites
Non-profit organizations based in Reston, Virginia
Organizations established in 1987
Political organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 2006
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloster%20Gladiator
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Gloster Gladiator
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The Gloster Gladiator is a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) (as the Sea Gladiator variant) and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s.
Developed privately as the Gloster SS.37, it was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft, and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it was being introduced. Though often pitted against more formidable foes during the early days of the Second World War, it acquitted itself reasonably well in combat.
The Gladiator saw action in almost all theatres during the Second World War, with a large number of air forces, some of them on the Axis side. The RAF used it in France, Norway, Greece, the defence of Malta, the Middle East, and the brief Anglo-Iraqi War (during which the Royal Iraqi Air Force was similarly equipped). Other countries deploying the Gladiator included China against Japan, beginning in 1938; Finland (along with Swedish volunteers) against the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War; Sweden as a neutral noncombatant (although Swedish volunteers fought for Finland against USSR as stated above); and Norway, Belgium, and Greece resisting Axis invasion of their respective lands.
South African pilot Marmaduke "Pat" Pattle was the top Gladiator ace with 15 victories with the type.
Design and development
Origins
During the 1920s, Britain's air defences had been based around interceptor aircraft capable of flying only for short ranges and at speeds of , but by 1930, figures within the Air Ministry were keen to supersede these aircraft. In particular, some dissatisfaction had arisen with the level of reliability experienced with the 'one pilot, two machine guns' design formula previously used; the guns were often prone to jams and being unreliable. The Air Ministry's technical planning committee formulated Specification F.7/30, which sought a new aircraft capable of a maximum speed of at least , an armament of no fewer than four machine guns, and such handling that that same fighter could be used by both day and night squadrons. Gloster, being already engaged with development of the Gloster Gauntlet, did not initially respond to the specification, which later proved to be beneficial.
The specification had also encouraged the use of the new Rolls-Royce Goshawk evaporatively cooled inline engine; many of the submissions produced by various aviation companies in response accordingly featured the Goshawk engine. However, the Goshawk engine proved to be unreliable, mainly due to its overcomplex and underdeveloped cooling system, and unsuited to use on fighter aircraft and this outcome stalled development of the aircraft intended to use it. A further stumbling point for many of the submitted designs was the placement of the machine gun breeches within arm's reach of the pilot. At the same time, the development of monoplane fighters such as the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire cast doubt over the future viability of the requirement altogether.
Gloster recognised that instead of developing an all-new design from scratch, the existing Gauntlet fighter could be used as a basis for a contender to meet Specification F.7/30. Development of what would become the Gladiator began as a private venture, internally designated as the SS.37, at Gloster, by a design team headed by H.P. Folland, who soon identified various changes to increase the aircraft's suitability to conform with the demands of the specification. Making use of wing-design techniques developed by Hawker Aircraft, the new fighter adopted single-bay wings in place of the two-bay wings of the Gauntlet, and two pairs of interplane struts were also dispensed with as a drag-reduction measure. The Bristol Mercury M.E.30 radial engine, capable of generating , was selected to power the SS.37, which provided a performance boost over the preceding Gauntlet. Another design choice was the fitting of a cantilever main undercarriage, which incorporated Dowty internally sprung wheel struts.
Prototype
In spring 1934, Gloster embarked on the construction of a single SS.37 prototype. On 12 September 1934, the SS.37 prototype conducted its maiden flight, piloted by Gloster chief test pilot Gerry Sayer. Initially powered by a Mercury IV engine, the prototype was quickly re-equipped with a more powerful Mercury VIS engine. During flight tests, the prototype attained a top speed of while carrying the required four machine guns (two synchronised Vickers guns in the fuselage and two Lewis guns under the lower wing). According to aviation author Francis K. Mason, the Air Ministry were sceptical about the aircraft achieving such performance from a radial engine design,so funded a protracted series of evaluation trials.
On 3 April 1935, the prototype was transferred to the RAF, receiving the designation K5200, and commenced operational evaluations of the type. Around the same time, Gloster proceeded to plan a further improved version, featuring an Mercury IX engine, a two-blade wooden fixed-pitch propeller, improved wheel discs, and a fully enclosed cockpit. K5200 was later used to trial modifications for production aircraft, such as the addition of a sliding hood for the pilot.
In June 1935, production plans for the aircraft were proposed; two weeks later, a production specification, Specification F.14/35, had been rapidly drawn up, partially prompted by events in continental Europe, such as the invasion of Abyssinia by Fascist Italy and the rise of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany, in response to which the British government mandated an urgent expansion of the RAF to counter the emerging threats. This culminated in an initial order for 23 aircraft. On 1 July 1935, the aircraft formally received the name Gladiator.
Production
Manufacturing of the Gladiator was started at Gloster's Hucclecote facility. Production of the initial batch was performed simultaneously, leading to many aircraft being completed around the same time. On 16 February 1937, K6129, the first production Gladiator, was formally accepted by the RAF; on 4 March 1937, K6151, the last aircraft of the initial batch, was delivered. In September 1935, a follow-up order of 180 aircraft was also received from the Air Ministry; this order had the proviso that all aircraft had to be delivered before the end of 1937.
The first version, the Gladiator Mk I, was delivered from July 1936, becoming operational in January 1937. The Mk II soon followed, the main differences being a slightly more powerful Mercury VIIIAS engine with Hobson mixture control boxes and a partly automatic boost-control carburettor, driving a Fairey fixed-pitch three-blade metal propeller, instead of the two-blade wooden one of the Mark I. All MK II Gladiators also carried Browning 0.303-inch machine guns (licence-manufactured by the BSA company in Birmingham) in place of the Vickers-Lewis combination of the MK I. A modified Mk II, the Sea Gladiator, was developed for the Fleet Air Arm, with an arrestor hook, catapult attachment points, a strengthened airframe, and an underbelly fairing for a dinghy lifeboat, all for operations aboard aircraft carriers. Of the 98 aircraft built as, or converted to, Sea Gladiators, 54 were still in service by the outbreak of the Second World War.
The Gladiator was the last British biplane fighter to be manufactured, and the first to feature an enclosed cockpit. It possessed a top speed of about , yet even as the Gladiator was introduced, it was already being eclipsed by new-generation monoplane fighters, such as the RAF Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire, and the Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 109. In total, 747 aircraft were built (483 RAF, 98 RN), with 216 being exported to 13 countries, some of which were from the total allotted to the RAF. Gladiators were sold to Belgium, China, Egypt, Finland, Free France, Greece, Iraq, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, and Sweden.
Operational history
Introduction to service
In February 1937, No. 72 Squadron, based at Tangmere, became the first squadron to be equipped with the Gladiator; No. 72 operated the type until April 1939, longer than any other home-based frontline unit. Between March and April 1937, No. 3 Squadron at Kenley also received Gladiators from the remainder of the first production batch, replacing their obsolete Bristol Bulldogs. Initial service with the type proved the Vickers guns to be problematical; the Gladiator was quickly armed with .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, which were substantially more popular, leading to the other guns often only being resorted to if deemed necessary. On 27 March 1937, No. 54 Squadron at Hornchurch became the first unit to receive Browning-armed Gladiators.
By September 1937, all eight Gladiator squadrons had achieved operational status and had formed the spearhead of London's air defences. Difficulties with introducing the type had been experienced. Although the Gladiator was typically well-liked by pilots, the accident rate during operational training on the type was so high that a small replacement batch of 28 Gladiator Mk IIs was hurriedly produced. Most accidents were caused by pilots being caught out by the fighter's increased wing loading, and many aviators had little experience in landing aircraft with such a wide flap area. The aircraft had a tendency to stall more abruptly, frequently dropping a wing while doing so. The Gladiator very easily entered a flat spin, and great skill was needed to recover.
During 1938, the RAF had begun to receive its first deliveries of the Hurricane and Spitfire monoplanes; an emphasis was soon placed on quickly re-equipping half of the Gladiator squadrons with either of these monoplane types. By the outbreak of the Second World War, the Gladiator had largely been replaced by the Hurricane and Spitfire in front-line RAF service. The introduction of these aircraft had been eased by the presence of the Gladiator, squadrons that had operated Gladiators prior to converting to the monoplane types experienced a noticeably improved accident record than those who converted from older types such as the Gauntlet. Experiences such as operating the Gladiator's landing flaps and familiarisation with its sliding hood have been attributed to having favourably impacted pilot conversion.
Although by 1941, all Gladiators had been withdrawn from front-line duties defending the British Isles, a need to defend Britain's trade routes throughout the overseas territories of the British Empire had been recognised, so the RAF redeployed many of its Gladiators to the Middle East to defend the theatre and the crucial Suez Canal. The Gladiator saw considerable action during early stages of the war, including participating in the action in the French and Norwegian campaigns, in addition to various peripheral campaigns.
China
In October 1937, the Chinese Central Government ordered 36 Gladiator Is, which were delivered in two crated batches to Guangzhou via Hong Kong. The Chinese Gladiators used the American M1919 Browning machine gun to fire American .30-06 Springfield ammunition, the main ammunition of the new Chinese Nationalist Air Force. By February 1938, these aircraft had been assembled into two squadrons and the Chinese pilots familiarised themselves with them. The Gloster Gladiator had its combat début on 24 February 1938. That day, in the Nanking area, Chinese-American Capt John Wong Sun-Shui (nicknamed 'Buffalo') shot down an Mitsubishi A5M "Claude" naval fighter, the first victim of a Gladiator. Wong is believed to have shot down a second A5M as the wrecks of two Japanese fighters were found. During that clash, Chinese Gladiators lost two of their number.
Chinese Gladiators scored several more victories over Japanese aircraft from 1938 to 1940 during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In China, Gladiators were used extensively before the start of 1940 by the 28th, 29th, and 32nd squadrons of the 3rd Group. Chinese aviators considered the Gladiator an excellent fighter in its class, but pilots soon found it increasingly difficult to hold their own against the modern A5M, and because of a lack of spare parts due to an arms embargo, the surviving Gladiators were mostly relegated to training. When newer Japanese aircraft such as the Mitsubishi A6M Zero entered the theatre, the Gladiators' days were numbered. "Buffalo" Wong, the first Gladiator flying ace and first American fighter ace of the war, was eventually shot down in combat with A6M Zeros on 14 March 1941 and died two days later from his injuries. Arthur Chin and he were among a group of 15 Chinese Americans who formed the original group of American volunteer combat aviators in China.
The Finnish Winter War and Continuation War
During the Winter War, the Finnish Air Force (FAF) obtained 30 Mk II fighters from the UK. Ten of the aircraft were donated, while the other 20 were bought by the FAF; all were delivered between 18 January and 16 February 1940, the first entering service on 2 February 1940. The Finnish Gladiators served until 1945, but they were outclassed by modern Soviet fighters during the Continuation War, and the aircraft was mostly used for reconnaissance from 1941. The Finnish Air Force obtained 45 aerial victories by 22 pilots with the aircraft during the Winter War and one victory during the Continuation War. Twelve Gladiators were lost in combat during the Winter War and three during the Continuation War. Two pilots became aces with this aircraft: Oiva Tuominen (6.5 victories with Gladiators) and Paavo Berg (five victories).
Besides the FAF Gladiators, the Swedish Voluntary Air Force, responsible for the air defence of northernmost Finland during the later part of the Winter War, was also equipped with Gladiator fighters, known as J8s (Mk Is) and J8As (Mk IIs). The Flying Regiment F 19 arrived in Finnish Lapland on 10 January 1940 and remained there until the end of hostilities. It fielded 12 Gladiator Mk II fighters, two of which were lost during the fighting and five Hawker Hart dive bombers, plus a Raab-Katzenstein RK-26 liaison aircraft and a Junkers F.13 transport aircraft. The aircraft belonged to and were crewed by the Swedish Air Force but flew with Finnish nationality markings. The Swedish Gladiators scored eight aerial victories and destroyed four aircraft on the ground. One concern was expressed when F 19's executive officer Captain Björn Bjuggren wrote in his memoirs, that the tracer rounds of the Gladiator's machine guns would not ignite the gasoline when penetrating the fuel tanks of Soviet bombers.
The Phoney War
At the beginning of the Second World War, during what was known as the "Phoney War", Britain deployed the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) into France to fight alongside the French army. As part of this force, RAF units operating various aircraft were dispatched to contribute, including two Gladiator squadrons. Initial air operations on either side were limited by the winter weather; however, immediately following Germany's commencement of the Manstein Plan and its invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May 1940, the BEF's Gladiators participated in the Dyle Plan, an unsuccessful counterattack on German forces.
From 10 May 1940 to 17 May, the Gladiators were in continuous demand on the front line, quickly losing numerous aircraft and their crews in the rapid action. On 18 May 1940, a Luftwaffe bombing raid destroyed many of the BEF's Gladiators and Hurricanes on the ground at Vitry-en-Artois, shortly after which the BEF's withdrawal to Dunkirk for evacuation to mainland Britain began.
Gladiators typically flew patrol flights that led to occasional clashes with Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft. On 17 October 1940, British Gladiators scored their first success when No 607 Squadron "B" Flight shot down a Dornier Do 18 flying boat ('8L+DK' of 2.KuFlGr 606), on the North Sea. On 10 April 1941, 804 NAS took off from Hatston, in Orkney, to intercept a group of approaching German aircraft. Lt Cdr J. C. Cockburn was credited with one destroyed and Blue Section with a "damaged".
The Norwegian Campaign
The Norwegian Campaign saw both Norwegian and British Gladiators battling the Luftwaffe, with the Norwegian Jagevingen fighting in the defence of Oslo on the first day of Operation Weserübung, the German invasion. Later, British Gladiators fought to provide fighter cover for the Allied reinforcements sent to the assistance of the Norwegian government.
Norwegian action
The Gladiator pilots of the Norwegian Jagevingen (fighter flight) were based at Fornebu Airport. On 9 April, the first day of the invasion of Norway, the seven serviceable aircraft managed to shoot down five German aircraft: two Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters, two He 111 bombers and one Fallschirmjäger-laden Ju 52 transport. One Gladiator was shot down during the air battle by the future experte Helmut Lent, while two were strafed and destroyed while refueling and rearming at Fornebu airport. The remaining four operational fighters were ordered to land wherever they could away from the base. The Gladiators landed on frozen lakes around Oslo and were abandoned by their pilots, then wrecked by souvenir-hunting civilians.
No Norwegian Army Air Service aircraft were able to evacuate westwards before the 10 June surrender of the mainland Norwegian forces. Only the aircraft of the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service (one M.F.11 and four He 115s) had the range to fly from their last bases in northern Norway to the UK. Two Army Air Service Fokker C.V.Ds and one Tiger Moth also managed to escape eastwards to Finland before the surrender. Further three naval M.F.11s and one He 115 flew to Finland, landing on Lake Salmijärvi in Petsamo. All the former Norwegian aircraft were later flown by the Finns against the Soviet Union.
British action
Gladiators were used also by 263 Squadron during the remaining two months of the Norwegian campaign. Prior to the German invasion of Norway, Britain had prepared this squadron for the conflict via low-temperature environmental training. 263 Squadron arrived on the carrier HMS Glorious on 24 April, and first operated from an improvised landing strip built by Norwegian volunteers on the frozen lake Lesjaskogsvatnet in Oppland in central southern Norway. On 25 April, a pair of Gladiators destroyed a Heinkel He 115 aircraft; Luftwaffe bombers carried out numerous retaliatory attacks upon the runway that day, wounding several pilots on the ground. By the end of the day, 10 Gladiators had been destroyed for the loss of three German aircraft. After less than a week, all the squadron's aircraft were unserviceable and the personnel were evacuated back to Britain.
Having re-equipped in Britain, 263 Squadron resumed its Gladiator operations in Norway when it returned to the north of Norway on 21 May, flying from Bardufoss airfield near Narvik. At the Narvik front, 263 Squadron was reinforced by Hurricanes of 46 Squadron, which flew into an airstrip at Skånland a few days later. Numerous German aircraft were downed by Gladiators during this deployment. Due to unsuitable ground at Skånland, 46 Squadron also moved to Bardufoss and was operating from this base by 27 May. The squadrons had been ordered to defend the fleet anchorage at Skånland and the Norwegian naval base at Harstad on the island of Hinnøya, as well as the Narvik area after it was recaptured. In addition to air defence duties, in the last days of May ground attack missions were also flown by the Gladiators, targeting railway stations, enemy vehicles, and coastal vessels.
On 2 June, one Gladiator pilot, Louis Jacobsen, was credited with the destruction of three Heinkel He 111s, along with the probable destruction of a Junkers Ju 88 and an addition He 111 aircraft, during a single sortie. Overall, British action in the theatre was short but intense before the squadrons, due to the British government's response to the invasion of France, were instructed on 2 June to prepare for evacuation.
By then, 263 Squadron had flown 249 sorties and claimed 26 enemy aircraft destroyed. 263 Squadron's 10 surviving Gladiators landed on HMS Glorious on 7 June. Glorious sailed for home but was intercepted by the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst. Despite the valiant defence put up by her two escorting destroyers, HMS Acasta and HMS Ardent, she was sunk along with the aircraft from four squadrons. 263 Squadron lost its CO, S/Ldr John W. Donaldson, and F/Lt Alvin T. Williams along with eight other pilots.
Belgium
Belgian Gladiators suffered heavy losses to the Germans in 1940, with all 15 operational aircraft lost, while only managing to damage two German aircraft. During the preceding Phoney War, on 24 April 1940 Belgian Gladiators on neutrality patrol shot down a German Heinkel He 111 bomber which subsequently crashed in the Netherlands. The bomber, V4+DA of Kampfgeschwader 1, had been damaged by French fighters at Maubeuge, France, and chased across the Belgian border.
Battle of Britain
The Gloster Gladiator was in operational service with 247 Squadron, stationed at RAF Roborough, Devon during the Battle of Britain. Although no combat sorties took place at the height of the aerial battles, 247 Squadron Gladiators intercepted a Heinkel He 111 in late October 1940, without result. 239 Squadron, using Gladiators for army cooperation and 804 Naval Air Squadron, outfitted with Sea Gladiators, were also operational during the Battle of Britain.
Mediterranean and Middle East theatres
In the Mediterranean Theatre during 1940–41, Gladiators saw combat with four Allied air forces: the RAF, Royal Australian Air Force, South African Air Force and Ellinikí Vasilikí Aeroporía (Royal Greek Air Force) squadrons. These achieved some success against the Italian Regia Aeronautica, which was mainly equipped with Fiat CR.32 and Fiat CR.42 biplanes, and against Luftwaffe bombers. The South African ace Marmaduke "Pat" Pattle (who served with the RAF), claimed 15 kills in Gladiators during the North African and Greek Campaigns, making him the highest-scoring RAF biplane ace of the war.
The 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War was unique in that the RAF and Royal Iraqi Air Force, used the Gladiator as their main fighter. Gladiators also saw action against the Vichy French in Syria.
Malta
A stock of 18 Sea Gladiators from 802 Naval Air Squadron had been delivered by HMS Glorious, in early 1940. Three were later shipped out to take part in the Norwegian Campaign and another three were sent to Egypt. By April, Malta was in need of fighter protection and it was decided to form a flight of Gladiators at RAF Hal Far, to be composed of RAF and FAA personnel. Several Sea Gladiators were assembled and test-flown. In the siege of Malta in 1940, for ten days the fighter force defending Malta was the Hal Far Fighter Flight, giving rise to a myth that three aircraft, named Faith, Hope and Charity, formed the entire fighter cover of the island. The aircraft names came into use after the battle. More than three aircraft were operational, though not always at the same time; others were used for spare parts. No 1435 Flight, which later assumed control of Malta's air defence, took on the names Faith, Hope and Charity for its aircraft upon its reformation as the air defence unit in the Falkland Islands in 1988.
The Italian air force units deployed against Malta should have easily defeated the Gladiators but its manoeuvrability and good tactics won several engagements, often starting with a dive on Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero bombers before the Fiat CR.42 and Macchi MC.200 escort fighters could react. On 11 June 1940, a Gladiator damaged a Macchi and on 23 June, a Gladiator flown by George Burges, managed to shoot down an MC.200. Another successful pilot over Malta was "Timber" Woods who managed to shoot down two S.79s and two CR.42s, also claiming a Macchi hit on 11 June and another S.79 damaged. The Gladiators forced Italian fighters to escort bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Although the Regia Aeronautica had started with a numerical advantage and air superiority, during the summer of 1940 the situation was reversed, with Hurricanes being delivered as fast as possible and gradually taking over the island's air defence.
By June, two of the Gladiators had crashed and two more were assembled. Charity was shot down on 31 July 1940. Its pilot, Flying Officer Peter Hartley, scrambled at 09.45 with fellow pilots F. F. Taylor and Flight Lieutenant "Timber" Woods, to intercept an SM.79, escorted by nine CR.42s from 23° Gruppo. During a dogfight a CR.42 flown by Serg. Manlio Tarantino shot down Hartley's Gladiator (N5519), badly burning him. Woods shot down Antonio Chiodi, commander of the 75a Squadriglia five miles east of Grand Harbour. Chiodi was subsequently awarded a posthumous Medaglia d’Oro al Valor Militare, Italy's highest military award. In May 2009, the remains of Charity and others were the subject of an underwater search by NATO minesweepers. Hope (N5531) was destroyed on the ground by enemy bombing in May 1941. The fuselage of Faith is on display at the National War Museum, Fort St Elmo, Valletta today. The fate of at least five more Gladiators that saw action over Malta is not as well documented.
North Africa
In North Africa, Gladiators had to face Italian Fiat CR.42 Falcos biplanes, the performance of which was slightly superior to that of the Gladiator at higher altitudes.
The first aerial combat between the biplanes took place on 14 June over Amseat. Tenente Franco Lucchini, of 90a Squadriglia, 10° Gruppo, 4° Stormo, flying a CR.42 from Tobruk, shot down a Gladiator; it was the first claim made against the RAF in the desert war. On the afternoon of 24 July, CR.42s and Gladiators clashed over Bardia. A formation of 11 CR.42s from 10° Gruppo, backed by six more from the 13° Gruppo attacked a British formation of nine Blenheims that was attacking Bardia, and was in turn reportedly attacked by 15 Gladiators. The five Gladiators of 33 Squadron claimed four CR.42s destroyed.
On 4 August 1940, Fiat biplanes from 160a Squadriglia of Capitano Duilio Fanali intercepted four Gladiators commanded by Marmaduke "Pat" Pattle (eventually to become one of the top-scoring Allied aces with approximately 50 claims) that were attacking Breda Ba.65s while they were strafing British armoured vehicles. The battle became confused. Initially it was thought that only the old CR.32s were involved, but there were also many CR.42s; it is likely that the then inexperienced Pattle was shot down by another future ace, Franco Lucchini. On this occasion, the Fiats managed to surprise the Gladiators, shooting down three of them. Wykeham Barnes, who was shot down but survived, claimed a Breda 65, while Pattle claimed a Ba 65 and a CR.42.
On 8 August 1940, during another dogfight, 14 Gladiators of 80 Squadron took 16 Fiat CR.42s from 9° and 10° Gruppi of 4° Stormo (a Regia Aeronautica elite unit) by surprise over Gabr Saleh, well inside Italian territory. British pilots claimed 13 to 16 confirmed victories and one to seven probables, while losing two Gladiators.
Actually the Italians lost four aircraft, and four more force-landed (it seems that all were later recovered).
That battle highlighted the strong points of the Gladiator over the CR.42, especially the radio equipment, which had permitted a coordinated attack, being also crucial for obtaining the initial surprise, and the Gladiator's superior low-altitude overall performance, including speed and a markedly superior horizontal manoeuvrability over its Italian opponent.
Overall, the few Gladiators and CR.42s clashed with a substantial parity: considering all theaters, the kill ratio was 1.2-to-1 in favour of the former, a ratio similar to that of the Bf 109 and the Spitfire in the Battle of Britain, a duel considered evenly balanced by most historians. However, the Gladiator, optimised for dogfighting, met with only little success against the relatively fast Italian bombers, shooting down only a handful of them and suffering almost as many losses in the process, which could be one of the reasons for its quick retirement from first-line duty; the CR.42 on the other hand was successful against early British bombers, shooting down a hundred of them with minimal losses.
Eastern Africa
In Eastern Africa, it was determined that Italian forces based on Ethiopia posed a threat to the British Aden Protectorate, thus it was decided that an offensive would be necessary, in which the Gladiator would face off against the Italian biplane fighters: Fiat CR.32s and CR.42s. On 6 November 1940, in the first hour of the British offensive against Ethiopia, the Fiat CR.42 fighters of the 412a Squadriglia led by Capt. Antonio Raffi shot down five Gloster Gladiators of 1 SAAF Sqn; among the Italian pilots was the ace Mario Visintini, who later became the top scoring pilot of all belligerent air forces in Eastern Africa (Africa Orientale) and the top biplane fighter ace of World War II. Tactically, the SAAF aircraft erred by engaging the CR.42's in a piecemeal fashion and not en masse, and they were heavily outnumbered.
Early on in the offensive, Gladiators of No. 94 Squadron performed various attacks on the Italian forces; typical targets included airfields, supply depots, and aircraft. They were also assigned the mission of defending Aden airspace at day and night, and to protect Allied shipping operating in the vicinity. It was in the latter role that a single 94 Squadron Gladiator, piloted by Gordon Haywood, was responsible for the surrender and capture of the Italian Archimede-class submarine Galilei Galileo.
On 6 June 1941, the Regia Aeronautica had only two serviceable aircraft remaining: a CR.32 and a CR.42, therefore air superiority was finally achieved by Gladiators and the Hurricanes. The Gladiator's last air combat with an Italian fighter was on 24 October 1941, with the CR.42 of Tenente Malavolti (or, according to historian Håkan Gustavsson, sottotenente Malavolta). The Italian pilot took off to strafe British airfields at Dabat and Adi Arcai. According to the Italian historian Nico Sgarlato, the CR.42 was intercepted by three Gladiators and managed to shoot down two of them, but was then itself shot down and the pilot killed. Other authors state that Malavolti managed only to fire on the two Gladiators before being shot down.
According to Gustavsson, SAAF pilot (no. 47484V) Lieutenant Lancelot Charles Henry "Paddy" Hope, at Dabat airfield, scrambled to intercept the CR.42 (MM7117). Diving on it, he opened fire at 300 yards. Although the CR.42 pilot took violent evasive action, Hope pursued, closing to 20 yards and firing as it tried to dive away. There was a brief flicker of flame and the last Italian aircraft to be shot down over East Africa spun into the ground and burst into flames near Ambazzo. The next day the wreckage was found, the dead pilot still in the cockpit. Hope dropped a message on Italian positions at Ambazzo: "Tribute to the pilot of the Fiat. He was a brave man. South African Air Force." But operational record books of the Commonwealth units in the area state that they did not suffer any losses on this date. The dedication of the posthumous Medaglia d’oro al valor militare states that Malavolti shot down a Gladiator and forced another to crash land, but was himself shot down by a third Gladiator. This was the last air-to-air victory in the East African campaign.
Towards the end of the war Gladiators were flown by Meteorological Flight 1566 out of Hiswa, Aden.
Greece
Tension had been building between Greece and Italy since 7 April 1939, when Italian troops occupied Albania. On 28 October 1940, Italy issued an ultimatum to Greece, which was promptly rejected; a few hours later, Italian troops launched an invasion of Greece, initiating the Greco-Italian War.
Britain dispatched help to the embattled Greeks in the form of 80 Squadron, elements of which arrived at Trikkala by 19 November. That same day, the Gladiator debut came in the form of a surprise, intercepting a section of five Italian CR.42s on Coritza, only one of which returned to base. On 27 November, seven Gladiators attacked three Falcos, shooting down the lead aircraft, piloted by Com. Masfaldi, commanding the 364a Squadriglia. On 28 November, the commander of 365a Squadriglia, Com. Graffer, was shot down during a combat where seven aircraft were downed, four of them British. On 3 December, the Gladiators were reinforced with elements from 112 Squadron. The following day, a clash between 20 Gladiators and ten CR.42s resulted in a loss of five, two of them Italians. After a break of two weeks, 80 Sqn returned to operations on 19 December 1940. On 21 December, 20 Gladiators intercepted a force of 15 CR.42 Falcos, shooting down two with two losses. Over the next few days, several groups of Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 bombers were also intercepted and victories claimed.
One of the more notable Gladiator engagements of the whole war occurred on the Albanian border with Greece on 28 February 1941. A mixed force of 28 Gladiators and Hurricanes encountered roughly 50 Italian aircraft, and claimed to have shot down or severely damaged at least 27 of them. A single Gladiator, piloted by ace pilot Marmaduke "Pat" Pattle, claimed five aircraft during that single skirmish. Actually the British heavily overclaimed as it seems that Regia Aeronautica that day lost only two CR.42s.
The complete 112 Squadron moved to Eleusis by the end of January 1941, and by the end of the following month, had received 80 Sqn's Gladiators, after the latter unit had converted to Hawker Hurricanes. On 5 April, German forces invaded Greece and quickly established air superiority. As the Allied troops retreated, Gladiators covered them, before flying to Crete during the last week of April. There No 112 Sqn recorded a few claims over twin-engined aircraft before being evacuated to Egypt during the Battle of Crete.
Anglo-Iraqi War
The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RoIAF) had been trained and equipped by the British prior to independence in 1932. One result of this was the dominance of British-built aircraft in the RoIAF inventory. In 1941, the sole RoIAF single-purpose fighter squadron, 4th Squadron consisted of seven operational Gloster Gladiators at Rashid Air Base.
On 2 May 1941, in response to a blockade established by increasing numbers of Iraqi forces on RAF Habbaniya and demands from the revolutionary Iraqi government, a preemptive RAF attack was launched to break the encirclement. During this action, Iraqi Gladiators took part in attacks on the British air base, repeatedly strafing it ineffectively. Although much of the RoIAF was destroyed in the air or on the ground in the following days, the Iraqi Gladiators kept flying until the end of the war, carrying out strafing attacks on A Company of 1 Battalion, The Essex Regiment on the outskirts of Baghdad on 30 May.
Before the outbreak of hostilities in Iraq, the 4th Service Training School at RAF Habbaniya operated three old Gladiators as officers' runabouts. With the increased tension, the base was reinforced with another six Gladiators on 19 April, flying in from Egypt. During the early part of the war, these nine Gladiators flew numerous sorties against air and ground targets, taking off from the base's polo field. The RAF's Gladiator force in Iraq was further reinforced when, on 11 May, another five aircraft arrived, this time from 94 Squadron in Ismaïlia on the Suez Canal. A last resupply of Gladiators came on 17 May in the form of four more 94 Squadron aircraft.
During the fighting, the sole Gladiator-on-Gladiator kill occurred on 5 May, when Plt. Off. Watson of the fighter flight shot down an Iraqi Gladiator over Baqubah during a bomber escort mission. The Iraqi Gladiators' only claim during the war was a Vickers Wellington bomber shared with ground fire on 4 May. RAF Gladiators proved effective against the Iraqi aircraft, which had been reinforced by Axis aircraft. Immediately after launching his coup against King Faisal II in early April 1941, Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Gaylani approached Germany and Italy for help in repelling any British countermeasures. In response, the Germans assembled a Luftwaffe task force under Iraqi colours called Fliegerführer Irak ("Flyer Command Iraq") which from 14 May operated out of Mosul. Before this force collapsed due to lack of supplies, replacements, and quality fuel in addition to aggressive RAF attacks, two Gladiators fought a pair of Bf. 110s over Rashid Airfield at Baghdad on 17 May. Both German machines were swiftly shot down.
TheRegia Aeronautica had also dispatched a force of 12 Fiat CR.42s that arrived in Iraq on 23 May. Six days later, the Fiat CR.42s intercepted an RAF Hawker Audax and clashed with escorting Gladiators in what was to prove the final air-to-air combat of the brief campaign. Italian pilots claimed two No. 94 Sqn Gladiators; one Fiat was shot down by a Gladiator flown by Wg Cdr Wightman, close to Khan Nuqta. Following the end of hostilities in Iraq, No 94 Squadron handed its Gladiators over to SAAF and RAAF units. The Iraqis continued to operate their remaining Gladiators, some remaining in use as late as 1949; these were reportedly used to conduct ground-attack missions against the Kurds.
Syria
After the end of the Iraq fighting the British invaded Vichy French-controlled Syria to prevent the area from falling under direct German control. The French in Syria had supported the Iraqi rebellion materially and allowed Luftwaffe aircraft to use their airfields for operations over Iraq. The month-long Syria-Lebanon Campaign in June–July 1941 saw heavy fighting both in the air and on land, until the Vichy French authorities in Syria surrendered on 12 July 1941. In one encounter between the Royal Air Force and the Vichy French Air Force on 15 June 1941, six Gloster Gladiators were jumped by an equal number of Dewoitine D.520 monoplane fighter aircraft. In a confused battle, both sides lost one aircraft shot down and one severely damaged. French fighter ace Pierre Le Gloan shot down the Gladiator for his 15th confirmed kill. Le Gloan himself had to crash-land his damaged D.520 at his own air base.
As late as mid-1941, the RAF Chief-of-Air Staff offered 21 Gloster Gladiators gathered from various meteorological and communications flights in the Middle East, as well as five from a Free French unit, to AOC Singapore in order to strengthen the colony's defences against the emerging Japanese threat. The offer was turned down and later reinforcements consisted of Hawker Hurricanes.
Operations elsewhere
The Irish Air Corps was supplied with four Gladiators on 9 March 1939. On 29 December 1940, two Irish Gladiators were scrambled from Baldonnel to intercept a German Ju 88 flying over Dublin on a photographic reconnaissance mission, but were unable to make contact. Although unable to intercept any intruding aircraft, the Irish Gladiators shot down several British barrage balloons that had broken from their moorings. For a short time in 1940, an order was given to Irish fighter pilots to use their aircraft to block the runways of airfields. They were then to use rifles and shoot at any invaders. Irish Gladiators also overflew the site of the sinking of the liner SS Athenia in 1939 and offered the help of the Irish military. The flight was fired upon by Royal Navy ships in attendance, consequently, the Irish Gladiators withdrew.
The Luftwaffe used captured Latvian Gladiators as glider tugs with Ergänzungsgruppe (S) 1 from Langendiebach near Hanau during 1942–3.
After becoming obsolete, RAF Gladiators carried out non-combat tasks such as meteorological work, being operated as such across various parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Europe as late as 1944. By the end of the war, few intact aircraft remained and many of these were quickly scrapped. Two survivors were privately purchased by V.H. Bellamy, who completed a flightworthy Gladiator out of parts from L8032 and N5903, which became the sole example of the type in such a condition.
Final engagements
The Finnish Air Force was the last to use the Gloster biplane in combat. It was under Finnish insignia that the Gladiator achieved its last air victory. During the Continuation War, against the Soviets, Glosters supported the advance of the Karelian Army around Lake Ladoga. On 15 February 1943, 1st Lt Håkan Strömberg of LLv 16, during a reconnaissance mission along the Murmansk railway, between the White Sea and the Lake Onega, spotted, on Karkijarvi, a Soviet Polikarpov R-5 taking off. Stromberg dived on it and shot it down into the forest near its airfield with two bursts. This was the last confirmed victory in the Gladiator.
Quotations
Gladiator aces
The top scoring Gladiator aces flew it in North Africa and Greece, scoring most of their successes against Regia Aeronautica aircraft. The top ace was Flight Lieutenant Pat Pattle, from No. 80 Squadron, who won 15.5 confirmed air victories while flying the Gladiator (out of his 50+ kills), plus four probably destroyed and six damaged. Second was Pilot Officer William "Cherry" Vale, from No. 33 and 80 Squadrons, with ten individual kills, 1 shared kill, and 1.5 damaged. Flight Lieutenant Joe P. Fraser, from No. 112 Squadron, and Flight Sergeant Don S. Gregory, from Nos. 33 and 80 Squadrons, scored all of their kills (respectively, 9.5 and 8) flying the Gladiator. Sergeant C. E. "Cas" Casbolt, from No. 80 Squadron, shot down 7.5 enemy aircraft (plus one probably destroyed and 1.5 damaged). Rhodesian pilot Caesar Hull scored five of his eight victories in a Gladiator during the Norwegian Campaign in 1940, including four in the same afternoon. He was the leading Allied pilot of the campaign.
Top Finnish Air Force Gladiator ace was Captain Paavo Berg, who claimed 6 of his 11 victories with Gladiators. Warrant Officer Oiva Tuominen claimed 5 of his 44 victories with Gladiators. Several other FiAF aces also claimed victories with Gladiators.
Variants
SS.37
Prototype.
Gladiator I
Version powered by a single Bristol Mercury IX air-cooled radial piston engine. The aircraft was designated J 8 in Swedish Air Force service. Delivered 1937–38, 378 built.
Gladiator II
Version powered by a single Bristol Mercury VIIIA air-cooled radial piston engine. The aircraft was designated J 8A in Swedish Air Force service. Delivered 1938–39, 270 built.
Sea Gladiator Interim
Single-seat fighter biplane for the Royal Navy, 38 modified Gladiator II aircraft. Fitted with arrestor hooks. Serial numbers: N2265 – N2302.
Sea Gladiator
Single-seat fighter biplane for the Royal Navy, 60 built. Fitted with arrestor hooks and provision for dinghy stowage. Serial numbers: N5500 – N5549 and N5565 – N5574.
Operators
(small numbers, including some of former Latvian and Lithuanian Gladiators)
– 26 units
– 14 units
– took over former Latvian and Lithuanian Gladiators following the occupation of the Baltic States
Surviving aircraft
Malta
N5520 – Sea Gladiator fuselage on static display at the National War Museum in Valletta. It is the only surviving Gladiator from the Fighter Flight. Research on the airframe has indicated that it incorporates parts of at least one other Gladiator.
Norway
N5641 – Gladiator II on static display at the Norwegian Aviation Museum in Bodø, Nordland. It was operated by No. 263 squadron and abandoned at Lake Lesjaskog during the squadron's retreat. The aircraft had been purchased by a local farmer who preserved it into the 1960s when it was brought to the museum for restoration.
Sweden
278 – J 8 on static display at the Swedish Air Force Museum near Linköping, Östergötland.
United Kingdom
K8042 – Gladiator I on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford in Cosford, Shropshire.
L8032 – Gladiator I airworthy at the Shuttleworth Collection in Old Warden, Bedfordshire.
N5628 – Gladiator II forward fuselage on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum London in London. It is displayed unrestored.
N5903 – Gladiator II airworthy at The Fighter Collection in Duxford, Cambridgeshire.
N5914 – Gladiator II under restoration at the Jet Age Museum in Gloucester, Gloucestershire.
Specifications (Gloster Gladiator Mk I)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Ministry of Information. The Air Battle of Malta, The Official Account of the RAF in Malta, June 1940 to November 1942. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1944.
Barber, Mark. The British Fleet Air Arm in World War II. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2008. .
Belcarz, Bartłomiej and Robert Pęczkowski. Gloster Gladiator, Monografie Lotnicze 24 (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 1996. .
Bierman, John and Colin Smith. The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II. New York: Viking, 2002. .
Crawford, Alex. Gloster Gladiator. Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2002. .
Cull, Brian and Paul Sortehaug. Hurricanes over Singapore – RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action against the Japanese over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942. London: Grub Street, 2004. .
Emiliani, Angelo, Giuseppe F. Ghergo and Achille Vigna. Regia Aeronautica: I Fronti Africani(in Italian). Parma: Ermanno Albertelli editore, 1979.
Fodor, Denis J. The Neutrals (Time-Life World War II Series). Des Moines, Iowa: Time-Life Books, 1982. .
Goulding, James and Robert Jones. "Gladiator, Gauntlet, Fury, Demon".Camouflage & Markings: RAF Fighter Command Northern Europe, 1936 to 1945. London: Ducimus Books, 1971.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: RAF Fighters, Part 1. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1978. .
Gustavsson, Håkan and Ludovico Slongo. Desert Prelude: Early Clashes, June–November 1940. Hampshire UK: MMP/Stratus White Star No. 9107, 2010. .
Gustavsson, Håkan and Ludovico Slongo. Gladiator vs. CR.42 Falco 1940-41. Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford /New York, Osprey Publishing, 2012. .
Harrison, W.A. Gloster Gladiator in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron Signal, 2003. .
Jackson, Robert. The Forgotten Aces: The Story of the Unsung Heroes of World War II. London: Sphere Books, 1989. .
James, Derek N. Gloster Aircraft since 1917. London: Putnam, 1971. .
Kennedy, Michael. Guarding Neutral Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2008. .
Keskinen, Kalevi and Kari Stenman. Hurricane & Gladiator (Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 25) (bilingual Finnish/English). Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman, 2005. .
Ketley, Barry, and Mark Rolfe. Luftwaffe Fledglings 1935–1945: Luftwaffe Training Units and their Aircraft. Aldershot, UK: Hikoki Publications, 1996. .
Ketley, Barry. French Aces of World War 2. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. .
Lumsden, Alec. "On Silver Wings – Part 19". Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 20, No, 4, Issue 228, April 1992, pp. 8–14..
Lyman, Robert. Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbniya, Fallujah and Baghdad. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2006. .
Mason, Francis K. British Fighters of World War Two, Volume One. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Hilton Lacy Publishers Ltd., 1969. .
Mason, Francis K. The Gloster Gladiator. London: Macdonald, 1964.
Mason, Francis K. The Gloster Gladiator. Leatherhead, UK: Profile Publications, 1966.
Matricardi, Paolo . Aerei Militari: Caccia e Ricognitori (in Italian). Milan: Mondadori Electa, 2006.
Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2000. .
Patri, Salvatore.L' ultimo Sparviero dell'impero Italiano: A.O.I. 1940–1941 (in Italian). Rome: IBN editore 2006
Pacco, John. "Gloster Gladiator Mk I" Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge: Het Militair Vliegwezen/l'Aeronautique Militare 1930–1940 (bilingual French/Dutch). Aartselaar, Belgium: J.P. Publications, 2003, pp. 56–59. .
Poolman, Kenneth. Faith, Hope and Charity: Three Biplanes Against an Air Force. London: William Kimber and Co. Ltd., 1954. (First pocket edition in 1958.)
Rawlings, John D.R. Fighter Squadrons of the RAF and Their Aircraft. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1969. (Second edition 1976.) .
Rimell, Ray. Battle of Britain Aircraft. Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UK: Argus Books, 1990. .
Sgarlato, Nico. Fiat CR.42 (in Italian). Parma: Delta Editrice, 2005.
Shores, Christopher and Brian Cull with Nicola Malizia. Malta: The Hurricane Years. London: Grub Street, 1987.
Spencer, Tom. Gloster Gladiator (Warpaint Series No.37). Luton, UK: Warpaint Books, 2003. .
Stenman, Kari and de Jong, Peter. Fokker D.XXI Aces of World War 2. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2013. .
Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London:Putnam, 1957.
Thetford, Owen. "On Silver Wings – Part 20". Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 20 No. 5. Issue 229, May 1992, pp. 8–15..
Thomas, Andrew. Gloster Gladiator Aces. Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2002. .
Thomas, Andrew. "Oriental Gladiators: The combat debut for the Gloster biplane." Air Enthusiast #121, January/February 2006, pp. 73–75.
Weal, John. He 111 Kampfgeschwader in the west. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2012. .
Williams, Anthony G. and Dr. Emmanuel Gustin. Flying Guns: World War II. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2003. .
Zbiegniewski, Andre R. 112 Sqn "Shark Squadron", 1939–1941 (bi-lingual Polish/English text). Lublin, Poland: Oficyna Wydawnicza Kagero, 2003. .
External links
RAF Museum
BoB net
Warbirds Resource Group
Fleet Air Arm Archive
aeroflight
Malta Aviation Museum
Faith, Hope & Charity
Gladiator Camouflage and Markings
Håkans aviation page Biplane fighter aces
Håkans aviation page Biplane Fighter Aces
Håkans aviation page Biplane Fighter Aces
1930s British fighter aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Gladiator
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Biplanes
Aircraft first flown in 1934
World War II aircraft of Finland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geta%20%28emperor%29
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Geta (emperor)
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Publius Septimius Geta ( ; 7 March 189 – 19/26 December 211) was Roman emperor with his father Septimius Severus and older brother Caracalla from 209, when he was named Augustus like his brother, who had held the title from 198. Severus died in 211, and although he intended for his sons to rule together, they proved incapable of sharing power, culminating with the murder of Geta in December of that year.
Early life
Geta was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. Geta was born on 7 March in either Rome or Mediolanum, at a time when his father was only a provincial governor at the service of Emperor Commodus. In 198, Geta was raised to Caesar. Septimius Severus gave Geta the title of Augustus (Emperor) in 209.
During the campaign against the Britons in the early 3rd century AD, imperial propaganda promoted the image of a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Geta's brother Caracalla acted as Severus' second-in-command, and administrative and bureaucratic duties were Geta's responsibility. In reality, however, the rivalry and antipathy between the brothers did not abate. With the death of Emperor Septimius Severus in 211, control of the empire passed to Geta and Caracalla jointly.
Joint Emperor
When Septimius Severus died in Eboracum in 4 February 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to Rome. Their mother, Julia Domna, who had served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband, was able to maintain her political influence over two co-emperors. It is said that on the journey from Britain to Rome the two brothers kept well away from each other, not once lodging in the same house or sharing a common meal.
Their joint rule was a failure. The Imperial Palace in Rome was divided into two separate sections, and neither allowed the servants of the other into his own. They only met in the presence of their mother, and with a strong military guard, being in constant fear of assassination. The current stability of their joint government was only through the mediation and leadership of their mother, Julia Domna, accompanied by other senior courtiers and generals in the military. The historian Herodian asserted that the brothers decided to split the empire in two halves, but with the strong opposition of their mother, the idea was rejected, when, by the end of 211, the situation had become unbearable. Caracalla tried unsuccessfully to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia (17 December). Finally, the next week, Caracalla had his mother arrange a peace meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, thus depriving Geta of his bodyguards, and then had him murdered in her arms by centurions.
Caracalla ordered the damnatio memoriae, which was thoroughly carried out, as is clear from the archaeological record. Reportedly, Caracalla was thereafter tormented by guilt over his deed, but sought to expiate it by adding to this crime the proscription of all his brother's former followers. Cassius Dio stated that around 20,000 men and women were killed or proscribed on this charge during this time.
Portrait
Very few marble portraits attributable to Geta survive to date, presumably due to the very thorough damnatio memoriae which resulted in the erasing of his images. However Roman coins with his image are plentiful, and can reflect how his father Septimius Severus and mother Julia Domna and later Geta himself wanted him to be seen by the Roman people (and especially the Roman military).
Images of Geta and his older brother Caracalla cannot be well distinguished until the death of the father. Both sons were supposed to be presented as equally suitable heirs to the throne, showing thus more "depth" to the dynasty.
On his coins, Caracalla, who became augustus in 198, was shown with a wreath of laurels, while Geta remained bareheaded until he himself became augustus in 209. Between 209 and their father's death in February 211, both brothers were shown as equally mature young men with a short full beard, ready to take over the empire. Between the death of Septimus Severus and the assassination of Geta, Caracalla's portraits did not change, while Geta was depicted with a long beard with hanging hairs, much like his father, a strong indication of Geta's efforts to be seen as the "true" successor of his father.
The Severan Tondo panel painting depicts Septimius Severus and his family with an obliterated face assumed to be Geta.
Gallery
Severan dynasty family tree
See also
Septimia gens
Severan dynasty family tree
References
Bibliography
Dio Cassius lxxvii; Herodian iv. I.
External links
Life of Geta (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
189 births
211 deaths
2nd-century Punic people
3rd-century Punic people
3rd-century Roman emperors
3rd-century murdered monarchs
British traditional history
Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo
Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth
Deified Roman emperors
Emesene dynasty
Imperial Roman consuls
Murdered Roman emperors
People from Homs
Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae
Septimii
Severan dynasty
Sons of Roman emperors
Roman pharaohs
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204957
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herennius%20Modestinus
|
Herennius Modestinus
|
Herennius Modestinus, or simply Modestinus, was a celebrated Roman jurist, a student of Ulpian who flourished about 250 AD.
He appears to have been a native of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dalmatia. In Valentinian's Law of Citations he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gaius and Ulpian, as one of the five jurists whose recorded views were considered decisive. He is considered to be the last great jurist of the classic age of Roman law.
He is mentioned in a rescript of Gordian III in the year 240 in connection with a responsum which he gave to the party to whom the rescript was addressed. No fewer than 345 passages in the Digest of the Corpus Juris Civilis are taken from his writings. He is the author of a collection of Responsa and Digesta written in 12 books.
References
Alan Watson, Roman Law and Comparative Law (London: University of Georgia Press, 1991).
Modestinus, Herennius
3rd-century Romans
Modestinus
|
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] |
204962
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lapsley
|
John Lapsley
|
Air Marshal Sir John Hugh Lapsley, (24 September 1916 – 21 November 1995) was a British fighter pilot of the Second World War and, later, a senior Royal Air Force commander.
RAF career
Lapsely joined the Royal Air Force as an Aircraft Apprentice in 1935 later being awarded a cadetship at the RAF College Cranwell. In 1937 he was appointed to a permanent commission and a posting to No. 32 Squadron. By February 1941 he was in command of No. 274 Squadron in Malta, originally with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters which were soon replaced by the Hawker Hurricane. He was shot down near Tobruk on 19 April 1941 and was repatriated back to England to recover. At first he was only fit for instructional duties but by 1943 he was in command of No. 125 Wing with the Hawker Typhoon fighter bomber.
After the war he attended the RAF Staff College, Bracknell and then became Officer Commanding No. 74 Squadron before taking command of the Air Fighting Development Squadron in 1949 and then taking over responsibility for Flying at the Central Flying Establishment in 1951. He went on to be Station Commander at RAF Wahn in 1954, Deputy Chief of Staff at Headquarters Second Tactical Air Force in 1961 and Director of the Defence Operations Staff on formation of the Ministry of Defence in 1964. He became Air Officer Commanding No. 19 (Reconnaissance) Group in 1967 and Air Officer Commander-in-Chief, Coastal Command in 1968. Whilst serving as Commander-in Chief won Coastal Commands Scratch Golf Championship in 1969. In that capacity he accepted the first Nimrod aircraft into service in October 1969. His last appointment was as Head of the British Defence Staff in Washington, D.C. in 1970 before retiring in 1973. Whilst serving as Commander-in Chief he won Coastal Command's Scratch Golf Championship in 1969.
In retirement he became Director General of the Save the Children Fund.
He is buried in the churchyard of St Mary's at Benhall in Suffolk.
References
|-
1916 births
1995 deaths
Royal Air Force air marshals
Graduates of the Royal Air Force College Cranwell
Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
British World War II pilots
Trenchard Brats
British air attachés
Military personnel of British India
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regolith
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Regolith
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Regolith () is a blanket of unconsolidated, loose, heterogeneous superficial deposits covering solid rock. It includes dust, broken rocks, and other related materials and is present on Earth, the Moon, Mars, some asteroids, and other terrestrial planets and moons.
Etymology
The term regolith combines two Greek words: (), 'blanket', and (), 'rock'. The American geologist George P. Merrill first defined the term in 1897, writing:
Earth
Earth's regolith includes the following subdivisions and components:
soil or pedolith
alluvium and other transported cover, including that transported by aeolian, glacial, marine, and gravity flow processes.
"saprolith'", generally divided into the
upper saprolite: completely oxidised bedrock
lower saprolite: chemically reduced partially weathered rocks
saprock: fractured bedrock with weathering restricted to fracture margins
volcanic ash and lava flows that are interbedded with unconsolidated material
duricrust, formed by cementation of soils, saprolith and transported material by clays, silicates, iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, carbonates and sulfates, as well as less common agents, into indurated layers resistant to weathering and erosion.
groundwater- and water-deposited salts.
biota and organic components derived from it.
Regolith can vary from being essentially absent to hundreds of metres in thickness. Its age can vary from instantaneous (for an ash fall or alluvium just deposited) to hundreds of millions of years old (regolith of Precambrian age occurs in parts of Australia).
Regolith on Earth originates from weathering and biological processes. The uppermost part of the regolith, which typically contains significant organic matter, is more conventionally referred to as soil. The presence of regolith is one of the important factors for most life, since few plants can grow on or within solid rock and animals would be unable to burrow or build shelter without loose material.
Regolith is also important to engineers constructing buildings, roads and other civil works. The mechanical properties of regolith vary considerably and need to be documented if the construction is to withstand the rigors of use.
Regolith may host many mineral deposits, for example mineral sands, calcrete uranium, and lateritic nickel deposits, among others. Elsewhere, understanding regolith properties, especially geochemical composition, is critical to geochemical and geophysical exploration for mineral deposits beneath it. The regolith is also an important source of construction material, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, lime, and gypsum.
The regolith is the zone through which aquifers are recharged and through which aquifer discharge occurs. Many aquifers, such as alluvial aquifers, occur entirely within regolith. The composition of the regolith can also strongly influence water composition through the presence of salts and acid-generating materials.
Moon
Regolith covers almost the entire lunar surface, bedrock protruding only on very steep-sided crater walls and the occasional lava channel. This regolith has formed over the last 4.6 billion years from the impact of large and small meteoroids, from the steady bombardment of micrometeoroids and from solar and galactic charged particles breaking down surface rocks. Regolith production by rock erosion can lead to fillet buildup around lunar rocks.
The impact of micrometeoroids, sometimes travelling faster than , generates enough heat to melt or partially vaporize dust particles. This melting and refreezing welds particles together into glassy, jagged-edged agglutinates, reminiscent of tektites found on Earth.
The regolith is generally from 4 to 5 m thick in mare areas and from 10 to 15 m in the older highland regions. Below this true regolith is a region of blocky and fractured bedrock created by larger impacts, which is often referred to as the "megaregolith".
The density of regolith at the Apollo 15 landing site () averages approximately 1.35 g/cm3 for the top 30 cm, and it is approximately 1.85g/cm3 at a depth of 60 cm.
The term lunar soil is often used interchangeably with "lunar regolith" but typically refers to the finer fraction of regolith, that which is composed of grains one centimetre in diameter or less. Some have argued that the term "soil" is not correct in reference to the Moon because soil is defined as having organic content, whereas the Moon has none. However, standard usage among lunar scientists is to ignore that distinction. "Lunar dust" generally connotes even finer materials than lunar soil, the fraction which is less than 30 micrometers in diameter. The average chemical composition of regolith might be estimated from the relative concentration of elements in lunar soil.
The physical and optical properties of lunar regolith are altered through a process known as space weathering, which darkens the regolith over time, causing crater rays to fade and disappear.
During the early phases of the Apollo Moon landing program, Thomas Gold of Cornell University and part of President's Science Advisory Committee raised a concern that the thick dust layer at the top of the regolith would not support the weight of the lunar module and that the module might sink beneath the surface. However, Joseph Veverka (also of Cornell) pointed out that Gold had miscalculated the depth of the overlying dust, which was only a couple of centimeters thick. Indeed, the regolith was found to be quite firm by the robotic Surveyor spacecraft that preceded Apollo, and during the Apollo landings the astronauts often found it necessary to use a hammer to drive a core sampling tool into it.
Mars
Mars is covered with vast expanses of sand and dust, and its surface is littered with rocks and boulders. The dust is occasionally picked up in vast planet-wide dust storms. Mars dust is very fine and enough remains suspended in the atmosphere to give the sky a reddish hue.
The sand is believed to move only slowly in the Martian winds due to the very low density of the atmosphere in the present epoch. In the past, liquid water flowing in gullies and river valleys may have shaped the Martian regolith. Mars researchers are studying whether groundwater sapping is shaping the Martian regolith in the present epoch and whether carbon dioxide hydrates exist on Mars and play a role. It is believed that large quantities of water and carbon dioxide ices remain frozen within the regolith in the equatorial parts of Mars and on its surface at higher latitudes.
Asteroids
Asteroids have regoliths developed by meteoroid impact. The final images taken by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft of the surface of Eros are the best images of the regolith of an asteroid. The recent Japanese Hayabusa mission also returned clear images of regolith on an asteroid so small it was thought that gravity was too low to develop and maintain a regolith. The asteroid 21 Lutetia has a layer of regolith near its north pole, which flows in landslides associated with variations in albedo.
Titan
Saturn's largest moon Titan is known to have extensive fields of dunes, though the origin of the material forming the dunes is not known - it could be small fragments of water ice eroded by flowing methane, or possibly particulate organic matter that formed in Titan's atmosphere and rained down on the surface. Scientists are beginning to call this loose icy material regolith because of the mechanical similarity with regolith on other bodies, although traditionally (and etymologically) the term had been applied only when the loose layer was composed of mineral grains like quartz or plagioclase or rock fragments that were in turn composed of such minerals. Loose blankets of ice grains were not considered to be regolith because when they appear on Earth in the form of snow they behave differently from regolith, the grains melting and fusing with only small changes in pressure or temperature. However, Titan is so cold that ice behaves like rock. Thus there is an ice-regolith complete with erosion and aeolian and/or sedimentary processes.
The Huygens probe used a penetrometer on landing to characterize the mechanical properties of the local regolith. The surface itself was reported to be a clay-like "material which might have a thin crust followed by a region of relative uniform consistency." Subsequent analysis of the data suggests that surface consistency readings were likely caused by Huygens displacing a large pebble as it landed, and that the surface is better described as a 'sand' made of ice grains. The images taken after the probe's landing show a flat plain covered in pebbles. The pebbles, which may be made of water ice, are somewhat rounded, which may indicate the action of fluids on them.
See also
References
External links
Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape, Environments, and Mineral Exploration
The Regolith Glossary: Surficial Geology, Soils and Landscapes, Richard A Eggleton, Editor
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] |
204971
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic%20counties%20of%20England
|
Historic counties of England
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The historic counties of England are areas that were established for administration by the Normans, in many cases based on earlier kingdoms and shires created by the Anglo-Saxons, Jutes, Celts and others. They are alternatively known as ancient counties, traditional counties, former counties or simply as counties. In the centuries that followed their establishment, as well as their administrative function, the counties also helped define local culture and identity. This role continued even after the counties ceased to be used for administration after the creation of administrative counties in 1889, which were themselves amended by further local government reforms in the years following.
Unlike the partly self-governing boroughs that covered urban areas, the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power, enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally sheriffs and later the lord-lieutenants – and their subordinate justices of the peace. Counties were used initially for the administration of justice, collection of taxes and organisation of the military, and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation. They continue to form the basis of modern local government areas in many parts of the country away from the main urban areas, although the newly created areas sometimes have considerably altered boundaries from the historic counties on which they are based.
Nomenclature
The name of a county often gives a clue to how it was formed, either as a division that took its name from a centre of administration, an ancient kingdom, or an area occupied by an ethnic group. The majority of English counties are in the first category, with the name formed by combining the central town with the suffix "-shire", for example Yorkshire. Former kingdoms which became earldoms in the united England did not feature this formulation; so for Kent, Surrey and the Isle of Wight, the former kingdoms of the Jutes, "...shire" was not used. Counties ending in the suffix "-sex", the former Saxon kingdoms, are also in this category. Some of these names include compass directions. The third category includes counties such as Cornwall and Devon where the name corresponds to the tribes who inhabited the area. County Durham is anomalous in terms of naming and origin, not falling into any of the three categories. Instead, it was a diocese that was turned into the County Palatine of Durham, ruled by the Bishop of Durham. The expected form would otherwise be "Durhamshire", but it was rarely used.
There are customary abbreviations for many of the counties. In most cases, these consist of simple truncation, usually with an "s" at the end signifying "shire", such as "Berks" for Berkshire or "Bucks" for Buckinghamshire. Some abbreviations are not obvious, such as "Salop" for Shropshire, from the Norman-derived word for its county town Shrewsbury; "Oxon" for Oxfordshire, from Latin Oxonium (referring to both the county and the city of Oxford); "Hants" for Hampshire; and "Northants" for Northamptonshire. Counties can be prefixed with "County of" in official contexts with any "-shire" suffix dropped, such as "County of Kent" or "County of York". There is similar usage in the two cases where a county with a "-shire" suffix was not named after a town, where the correct formation is the "County of Berks" and "County of Wilts". The "-shire" suffix was also appended for some counties, such as "Devonshire", "Dorsetshire" and "Somersetshire", despite their origin. For instance, there has been an Earl of Devonshire since 1603, and Duke of Devonshire since 1694.
History
Origins
Great Britain was first divided into administrative areas by the Romans, most likely following major geographical features such as rivers. Before their arrival there were distinct tribal areas, but they were in a constant state of flux as territory was gained and lost. After the demise of Roman Britain around 410 these first divisions of land were generally abandoned, although traditional divisions taking the form of petty kingdoms such as Powys, Dumnonia and Elmet remained in those areas which remained British, such as south west England. The areas that would later form the English counties started to take shape soon afterwards, with the Kingdom of Kent founded by settlers around 445. In southern England more widely, shires emerged from earlier sub-kingdoms as part of the administrative structure of Wessex, which then imposed its system of shires, boroughs (or burhs) and ealdormen on Mercia after it came under West Saxon control during the 10th century. Once the Kingdom of England was united as a whole in 927 it became necessary to subdivide it for administrative convenience and to this end, earldoms were created out of the earlier kingdoms. The whole kingdom was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest. Robert of Gloucester accounts for thirty-five shires and William of Malmesbury thirty-two, Henry of Huntingdon, thirty-seven. In most cases the counties or shires in medieval times were administered by a sheriff (derived from "shire-reeve") on behalf of the monarch. After the Norman conquest the sheriff was replaced and the shires became counties, or "areas under the control of a count", in the French manner.
Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest, some counties were formed later, such as Lancashire in the 12th century. Perhaps because of their differing origins the counties varied considerably in size. The county boundaries were fairly static until the Local Government Act 1888. Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, through assize courts.
Southern England
In southern England the counties were mostly subdivisions of the Kingdom of Wessex, and in many areas represented annexed, previously independent, kingdoms or other tribal territories. Kent derives from the Kingdom of Kent, Surrey possibly deriving from the Old Jutish word for 'gift of land', and Essex, Sussex and Middlesex come from the East Saxons, South Saxons and Middle Saxons. Norfolk and Suffolk were subdivisions representing the "North Folk" and "South Folk" of the Kingdom of East Anglia. Only one county on the south coast of England now usually takes the suffix "-shire": Hampshire, named after the former town of "Hamwic" (sic), the site of which is now a part of the city of Southampton. A "lost" Saxon county was Winchcombeshire which lasted from 1007 to 1017 before being incorporated into Gloucestershire. Dorset and Somerset derive their names from the saete or inhabitants of the areas around the towns of Dorchester and Somerton respectively; the names were first used by the Saxons in the 9th century. Devon and Cornwall were based on the pre-Saxon Celtic tribes known in Latin as the Dumnonii and Cornovii, in the latter case with the suffix wealas, meaning foreigners, added by the Saxons.
Midlands
When Wessex annexed Mercia in the 10th century, it subdivided the area into various shires of roughly equal size and tax-raising potential or hidage. These generally took the name of the main town (the county town) of the county, along with "-shire". Examples are Northamptonshire and Warwickshire. In some cases the original names have been worn down: for example, Cheshire was originally "Chestershire".
In the east Midlands, it is thought that county boundaries may represent a 9th-century division of the Danelaw between units of the Danish army. Rutland was an anomalous territory or soke, associated with Nottinghamshire, but it eventually became considered the smallest county. Lincolnshire was the successor to the Kingdom of Lindsey, and took on the territories of Kesteven and Holland when Stamford became the only Danelaw borough to fail to become a county town.
Northern England
Much of Northumbria was also shired, the best known of these counties being Hallamshire and Cravenshire. The Normans did not use these divisions, and so they are not generally regarded as ancient counties. The huge county of Yorkshire was a successor to the Viking Kingdom of York, and at the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 it was considered to include what was to become northern Lancashire, as well as parts of Cumberland, and Westmorland. Most of the later Cumberland and Westmorland were under Scottish rule until 1092. After the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the harrying of the North, much of the North of England was left depopulated and was included in the returns for Cheshire and Yorkshire in the Domesday Book. However, there is some disagreement about the status of some of this land. The area in between the River Ribble and the River Mersey, referred to as in the Domesday Book, was included in the returns for Cheshire. Whether this meant that this land was actually part of Cheshire is however not clear. The Northeast land that later became County Durham and Northumberland, was left unrecorded.
Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, County Durham and Northumberland were established as counties in the 12th century. Lancashire can be firmly dated to 1182. Part of the domain of the Bishops of Durham, Hexhamshire was split off and was considered an independent county until 1572, when it became part of Northumberland.
Welsh border
At the time of the Domesday Book, some parts of what later became Wales were included in English counties: Monmouth, for example, was included in Herefordshire. Additionally, the Domesday Book included, as part of Cheshire, areas that later became part of Wales, including the two hundreds of Atiscross and Exestan, and the southern part of Duddestan Hundred (as it was known as the time), which later became known as Maelor Saesneg (English Maelor), and (later still) "Flintshire Detached". Parts of the March of Wales, which after the Norman conquest had been administered by Marcher Lords largely independently of the English monarch, were incorporated into the English counties of Shropshire, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire in 1535.
There was historic ambiguity as to the status of the county of Monmouthshire. As with other Marcher areas added to existing counties, it was created out of "the said Country or Dominion of Wales" by the Laws in Wales Act 1535. It was then added to the Oxford circuit of the English Assizes. For legal purposes it was regarded as part of England, but Laws since the late 19th century were often applied to "Wales and Monmouthshire". It was listed among the English counties for parliamentary purposes until 1950 and for local government until 1974, but the Local Government Act 1972 unambiguously included the area as part of Wales.
Counties corporate
A charter of Henry I in about 1130 gave the City of London its own Sheriff. The Sheriff of London also had jurisdiction over the county of Middlesex, so that "London and Middlesex were from that time regarded as one from an administrative point of view", although they retained their separate identities. This relationship continued until the Local Government Act 1888 created a new office of High Sheriff of Middlesex appointed in the same manner as other English and Welsh counties, created the County of London with its own high sheriff, and restricted the jurisdiction of the sheriffs of London to the City.
During the Middle Ages a number of other large cities and towns were granted the status of self-governing counties separate from adjacent counties. Such a county became known as a county corporate or "county of itself". For most practical purposes this separate status was replaced in the late 19th century when county boroughs were introduced.
Bristol developed as a major port in the medieval period, straddling both sides of the River Avon which formed the ancient boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373 Edward III decreed
Similar arrangements were later applied to Norwich (1404), Southampton (1447), Canterbury (1471), Gloucester (1483), Exeter (1537), and Poole (1571).
Charters were granted constituting the boroughs or cities of Lincoln (1409), Nottingham (1448), Lichfield (1556) and Worcester (1622) as counties. The County of the City of Coventry was separated from Warwickshire in 1451, and included an extensive area of countryside surrounding the city.
Charters granting separate county status to the cities and boroughs of Chester (1238/9), York (1396), Newcastle upon Tyne (1400) and Kingston-upon-Hull (with the surrounding area of Hullshire) (1440). In 1551 Berwick upon Tweed, on the border with Scotland, was created a county corporate.
Exclaves
The ancient counties have many anomalies, and many small exclaves, where a parcel of land was politically part of one county despite not being physically connected to the rest of the county. The Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 was passed, the effect of which was to treat many of these exclaves as part of the county which surrounded them. This had already been done for Parliamentary purposes under the Great Reform Act 1832.
Large exclaves affected by the 1844 Act included the County Durham exclaves of Islandshire, Bedlingtonshire and Norhamshire, which were subsequently treated as hundreds of Northumberland; and those parts of Halesowen forming part of Shropshire, which was subsequently treated as part of Worcestershire, as the remainder already was.
Exclaves that the 1844 Act did not touch included the part of Derbyshire around Donisthorpe, locally in Leicestershire; a part of Huntingdonshire near Woodbury Park, separated by Cambridgeshire; and most of the larger exclaves of Worcestershire, including the town of Dudley, which remained surrounded by Staffordshire. Additionally, the Furness portion of Lancashire remained separated from the rest of Lancashire by a narrow strip of Westmorland — though it was accessible by way of the Morecambe Bay tidal flats.
1889
When the first county councils were set up in 1889, they covered newly created entities known as administrative counties. Several historic subdivisions with separate county administrations were also created administrative counties, particularly the separate ridings of Yorkshire, the separate parts of Lincolnshire, and the East and West divisions of Sussex. The Local Government Act 1888 also contained wording to create both a new "administrative county" and a "county" of London, and to ensure that the county boroughs which were created at the same time continued for non-administrative purposes to be part of the county which they geographically lay. These counties were to be used "for all purposes, whether sheriff, lieutenant, custos rotulorum, justices, militia, coroner, or other". The effect was that new county boroughs which were counties corporate retained their status as separate counties. In retrospect, these "statutory" counties can be identified as the predecessors of the ceremonial counties of England. The censuses of 1891, 1901 and 1911 provided figures for the "ancient counties".
Several towns are historically divided between counties, including Banbury, Burton upon Trent, Newmarket, Peterborough, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Royston, Stamford, Tamworth, Todmorden, Warrington and Wisbech. In Newmarket and Tamworth the historic county boundary runs right up the middle of the high street; in Royal Tunbridge Wells the historic county boundary had a theatre (now the Corn Exchange) built right on it, with the actors playing in Sussex to an audience in Kent; and in Todmorden, the historically fractious border between Lancashire and Yorkshire (the river known as Walsden Water) had Todmorden Town Hall built right on top of it on a culvert tunnel, dividing the hall down the middle between the two counties – a division reflected in its architecture. The 1888 Act ensured that every urban sanitary district would be considered to be part of a single county. This principle was maintained in the 20th century: when county boroughs such as Birmingham, Manchester, Reading and Sheffield expanded into neighbouring counties, the area added became associated with the county borough's geographic county. However, this principle was not applied to Stockport or Cardiff, which remained divided, the latter even divided between England and Wales.
1965 and 1974
On 1 April 1965 a number of changes came into effect. The new administrative area of Greater London was created, resulting in the abolition of the administrative counties of London and Middlesex, at the same time taking in areas from surrounding counties. On the same date the new counties of Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely and of Huntingdon and Peterborough were formed by the merger of pairs of administrative counties. The new areas were also adopted for lieutenancy and shrievalty purposes.
In 1974 a major local government reform took place under the Local Government Act 1972. The Act abolished administrative counties and county boroughs, and divided England (except Greater London and the Isles of Scilly) into counties. These were of two types: "metropolitan" and "non-metropolitan" counties. Apart from local government, the new counties were "substituted for counties of any other description" for judicial, shrievalty, lieutenancy and other purposes. Several counties, such as Cumberland, Herefordshire, Rutland, Westmorland and Worcestershire, vanished from the administrative map, while new entities such as Avon, Cleveland, Cumbria and Humberside appeared, in addition to the six new metropolitan counties.
The built-up areas of conurbations tend to cross historic county boundaries freely. Examples are Bournemouth–Poole–Christchurch (Dorset and Hampshire) Greater Manchester (Cheshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire), Merseyside (Cheshire and Lancashire), Teesside (Yorkshire and County Durham), South Yorkshire (Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire), Tyneside (County Durham and Northumberland) and West Midlands (Staffordshire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire). Greater London itself straddles five ancient counties — Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey — and the London urban area sprawls into Buckinghamshire and Berkshire. The Local Government Act 1972 sought generally to unite conurbations within a single county, while retaining the historic county boundaries as far as was practicable.
Postal counties
In a period of financial crisis, the Post Office was able to alter many of its postal counties in accordance with the 1965 and 1974 reforms, but not all. The two major exceptions were Greater London and Greater Manchester. Greater London was not adopted in 1965, since, according to the Post Office at the time, it would have been too expensive to do so, while it gave as its reason for not adopting Greater Manchester the ambiguity of the name with the Manchester post town. Perhaps as a result of this, the ancient counties appear not to have fallen completely out of use for locating places in Greater Manchester, along with areas of Greater London that are not part of the London post town. It is common for people to speak of "Uxbridge, Middlesex", "Dagenham, Essex" or "Bromley, Kent" (which are outside the London postal district), but much less so to speak of "Brixton, Surrey", "Greenwich, Kent", or "West Ham, Essex" (which are inside it).
In 1996, following further local government reform and the modernisation of its sorting equipment, the Royal Mail ceased to use counties at all in the direction of mail. Instead it now uses the outward code (first half) of the postcode. The former postal counties were removed in 2000 from its Postcode Address File database and included in an "alias file", which is used to cross-reference details that may be added by users but are no longer required, such as former street names or historic, administrative and former postal counties.
During a public consultation in 2009 Postcomm found that many respondents objected to the use of counties in the alias file. In May 2010 Postcomm announced that it was encouraging Royal Mail to discontinue the use of counties in its alias file at the earliest opportunity. However because some existing software included the use of counties, Royal Mail was advised not to implement the change before 2013.
County cricket
The historic counties of England continue to be used as the basis for county cricket teams and the governance of cricket in England through the ECB County Boards. There are exceptions in that Rutland is integrated with Leicestershire; the Isle of Wight has its own board outside the Hampshire one; there is a board for the ceremonial county of Cumbria which is representative of both Cumberland and Westmorland. In addition, the ECB County Boards include one for the country of Wales.
Recognition of historic county boundaries
A review of the structure of local government in England by the Local Government Commission for England led to the restoration of the East Riding of Yorkshire, Herefordshire, Rutland and Worcestershire as administrative areas in the 1990s; the abolition of Avon, Cleveland and Humberside within 25 years of their creation; and the restoration of the traditional borders between Somerset and Gloucestershire (except at Bristol), County Durham and Yorkshire (towards the mouth of the River Tees; not in Teesdale), and Yorkshire and Lincolnshire for ceremonial purposes in these areas. The case of Huntingdonshire was considered twice, but the Commission found that "there was no exceptional county allegiance to Huntingdonshire, as had been perceived in Rutland and Herefordshire".
The Association of British Counties (ABC), with its regional affiliates, such as the Friends of Real Lancashire and the Yorkshire Ridings Society, promotes the historic counties. It states that the "...ABC contends that Britain needs a fixed popular geography, one divorced from the ever changing names and areas of local government...The ABC, therefore, seeks to fully re-establish the use of the historic counties as the standard popular geographical reference frame of Britain and to further encourage their use as a basis for social, sporting and cultural activities.
The Campaign for Historic Counties is dedicated to campaigning, both in the public arena and among parliamentarians, for the restoration of historic counties. Their objectives are:
Maps, roads and addresses to included historic counties as standard
Removal of the word ‘county’ from all local council names
Historic Counties to be used for ceremonial purposes
In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the continued existence of England's 39 historic counties. On 23 April 2014 a new initiative was announced to support the ‘tapestry’ of traditional English counties, including the removal of a restriction preventing the names of traditional counties being displayed on street and road signs. In August 2014, the first road sign was erected to mark the boundary of the historic county of Yorkshire. The Government is also publishing a new online interactive map of England’s county boundaries. The Government has previously changed rules to allow local and county flags to be flown without planning permission, and supported the Flag Institute in encouraging a new wave of county and community flags to be designed and flown by local communities. The flags of England's historic counties have been flown from Government offices in support of these identities. Of the 39 historic counties in England, 38 now have registered flags, many of them recently adopted. In July 2019 the UK Government published official guidance on Celebrating the Historic Counties of England, stating that
"the tapestry of England's historic counties is one of the bonds which draws our nation together".
Sussex and Yorkshire, both historic counties and long abandoned as units for administrative purposes, have continued to be widely recognised as cultural regions, significant in sport and used by many organisations as regional units. These counties, and several others, have a county day in which the culture and history of the historic county is celebrated; many of these county days were created in the 21st century.
A direct action group, CountyWatch, was formed in 2004 to remove what its members consider to be wrongly placed county boundary signs that do not mark the historic or traditional county boundaries of England and Wales. They have removed, resorted or erected a number of what they claim to be "wrongly sited" county boundary signs in various parts of England. For instance, in Lancashire 30 signs were removed. CountyWatch has been criticised for such actions by the councils that erected the signs: Lancashire County Council pointed out that the taxpayers would have to pay for the signs to be re-erected.
The only political party with a manifesto commitment to restore the boundaries and political functions of all ancient counties, including Middlesex and Monmouthshire, is the English Democrats Party.
Functions
By the late Middle Ages the county was being used as the basis of a number of functions.
Administration of justice and law enforcement
The Assize Courts used counties, or their major divisions, as a basis for their organisation. Justices of the peace originating in Norman times as Knights of the Peace, were appointed in each county. At the head of the legal hierarchy were the High Sheriff and the Custos rotulorum (keeper of the rolls) for each county.
The justices had responsibility for maintaining county gaols and houses of correction. During the 19th century penal reformers campaigned against the often primitive conditions in gaols, and under the Prison Act 1877 they came under Home Office control.
Until the 19th century law enforcement was mostly carried out at the parish level. With an increasingly mobile population, however, the system became outdated. Following the successful establishment of the Metropolitan Police in London, the County Police Act 1839 empowered justices of the peace to form county constabularies outside boroughs. The formation of county police forces was made compulsory by the County and Borough Police Act 1856.
Defence
In the 1540s the office of Lord Lieutenant was instituted. The lieutenants had a military role, previously exercised by the sheriffs, and were made responsible for raising and organising the militia in each county. The lieutenancies were subsequently given responsibility for the Volunteer Force. In 1871 the lieutenants lost their positions as heads of the militia, and their office became largely ceremonial. The Cardwell and Childers Reforms of the British Army linked the recruiting areas of infantry regiments to the counties.
Parliamentary representation
Each English county sent two Knights of the Shire to the House of Commons (in addition to the burgesses sent by boroughs). Yorkshire gained two members in 1821 when Grampound was disenfranchised. The Great Reform Act of 1832 reapportioned members throughout the counties, many of which were also split into parliamentary divisions. Constituencies based on the ancient county boundaries remained in use until 1918.
Local government
From the 16th century onwards the county was increasingly used as a unit of local government as the justices of the peace took on various administrative functions known as "county business". This was transacted at the quarter sessions, summoned four times a year by the lord lieutenant. By the 19th century the county magistrates were exercising powers over the licensing of alehouses, the construction of bridges, prisons and asylums, the superintendence of main roads, public buildings and charitable institutions, and the regulation of weights and measures. The justices were empowered to levy local taxes to support these activities, and in 1739 these were unified as a single "county rate", under the control of a county treasurer. In order to build and maintain roads and bridges, a salaried county surveyor was to be appointed.
By the 1880s it was being suggested that it would be more efficient if a wider variety of functions were provided on a county-wide basis.
Subdivisions
Some of the counties have major subdivisions. Of these, the most significant are the divisions of Yorkshire: the East Riding, West Riding, North Riding and the ainsty of York. Since Yorkshire is so big, its ridings became established as geographical terms quite apart from their original role as administrative divisions. The second largest county, Lincolnshire, was divided into three historic "parts": Parts of Lindsey, Holland and Kesteven, and the Parts of Lindsey was itself divided into three ridings (North Riding, South Riding and West Riding). Other divisions include the special status of Tower Hamlets within Middlesex, those of Sussex into East Sussex and West Sussex and Suffolk into East Suffolk and West Suffolk, and, more informally and hence more vaguely, of Kent into East Kent and West Kent.
Several counties had liberties or sokes within them that were administered separately. Cambridgeshire had the Isle of Ely, and Northamptonshire had the Soke of Peterborough. Such divisions were used by such entities as the Quarter Sessions courts and were inherited by the later administrative county areas under the control of county councils.
Most English counties were subdivided into smaller subdivisions called hundreds. Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire were divided into wapentakes (a unit of Danish origin), while Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were divided into wards, areas originally organised for military purposes, each centred on a castle. Kent and Sussex had an intermediate level between the county and hundreds, known as lathes in Kent and rapes in Sussex. Hundreds or their equivalents were divided into tithings and parishes (the only class of these divisions still used administratively), which in turn were divided into townships and manors. In the 17th century the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex was further divided into four divisions, which replaced the functions of the hundred. The borough and parish were the principal providers of local services throughout England until the creation of ad-hoc boards and, later, local government districts.
List of counties
The ancient counties are as follows:
The historic counties of England are included in the Index of Place Names (IPN) published by the Office for National Statistics. Each "place" included in the IPN is related to the historic county it lies within, as well as to a set of administrative areas.
Administrative and ceremonial uses
At the time of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England, the ancient counties continue to form, with considerably altered boundaries, many of the ceremonial and non-metropolitan counties in England. Some ancient counties have their names preserved in multiple contemporary units, such as Yorkshire in North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire or now correspond to another type of subdivision, such as the Huntingdonshire district. In some areas ancient counties have been abandoned for local government use and then later revived.
Other uses
The vice counties, used for biological recording since 1852, are largely based on historic county boundaries. They ignore all exclaves and are modified by subdividing large counties and merging smaller areas into neighbouring counties; such as Rutland with Leicestershire and Furness with Westmorland. The static boundaries make longitudinal study of biodiversity easier. They also cover the rest of Great Britain and Ireland.
See also
Counties of Northern Ireland
Historic counties of Scotland
Historic counties of Wales
English county histories
Footnotes
Note : 1889 areas recorded in 1891 census. Accurate measurements were not available until the 19th century, as a by-product of the Ordnance Survey's boundary survey. The officially recorded areas were adjusted to match the new data at the time of the 1861 Census, replacing the less reliable figures previously used by the Registrar General.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
The Historic Counties Trust
Campaign for Historic Counties
Interactive map of the historic counties
Interactive map comparing historic counties to current counties
Celebrating the Historic Counties of England
Counties of England
Counties England
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1.460229754447937,
0.024918563663959503,
0.4766271412372589,
0.10590563714504242,
-0.13829852640628815,
-0.10400469601154327,
-0.27741867303848267,
0.41821131110191345,
-0.14052146673202515,
-0.26183053851127625,
0.04372113570570946
] |
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